THE WORLD'S PROGRESS Dictionary of Dates CHRONOLOGICAL AND ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF ALL ESSENTIAL FACTS IN THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, FROM THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE PRESENT TIME WITH A CHART Edited by GEO. P. PUTNAM, A.M. REVISED AND CONTINUED TO AUGUST, 1877 BY F. B. PERKINS TWENTY-FIRST EDITION '- NEW YORK G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 182 Fifth Avenue 1877 t^ Copyright bt G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1877. -v i i NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION OF 1877. In this edition the Synchronistical Tables and the alphabetical avrangeme. t of Historical and Statistical Facts have been brought down to Ju y, 1877 ; and the short chapter of " Statistics from the XL S. Treasury Department " has been enlarged by the addition of similar statistics from authoritative so'urces, covering, so far as was practicable, the time since those tables were compiled. i New York, August 20, 1877. i CONTENTS. PAGE I. SUPPLEMENT TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS (1867 to 1877), .... 1 II. BUREAU OP STATISTICS 65 III. SUPPLEMENT, 1851 to 1867 69 IV. DICTIONARY OP DATES 201 V. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY, 665 VI. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c 704 VII. TABULAR VIEWS OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 713 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. Period I. — The Antediluvian (1656 years) . . . . . .715 Period II. — Dispersion of Mankind (427 years). — The Deluge to Abraham . 716 Period III. — The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years). — Abraham to Moses . 718 Period IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years). — Moses to Saul . . 720 Period V. — The Monarchical (488 years).— Saul to Cyrus .... 726 Period VI. — The Persian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander . . . 733 Period VII. —The Grecian (184 years).— Alexander to the Fall of Greece . . 738 Period VIII. — The Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 750 II. MODERN HISTORY. Period I. — (306 years.) — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine . 760 Period II. — (170 years.) — Constantine to Odoacer ..... 770 Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet ..... 774 Period IV. — (178 years.) — Mahomet to Charlemagne .... 780 Period V. — (266 years.) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . . 784 Period VI. — (233 years.) — William the Conqueror to Othman I. . . . 798 Period VII.— (154 years.) — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . . 814 Period VIII. —(145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes . 824 Period IX.— (120 years. )— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII. of Sweden. 834 Period X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon . . 846 Period XL— (52 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1867 ..... £58 Period XII.— (10 years.)— 1S67 to 1877 906 VIII.— BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OR INDEX . . . .919 XL— SCHOOLS OF PAINTING 1019 EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY, Representing, in a Chronological Series, the Rtie, Revolutions, and Fall cf Uu principal Empires oj the World. OS THE PLAN OV BR. J. PBIESTLEY. It is necessary to notice, that the space allotted .o each country is rather according to its restive political importance, than to its geographical extent. The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen- »ury or 100 years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are expressed at the end of the chart. By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming is Greece ; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy- rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modem states of Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking along the chart Horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. — The Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300; under Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac cabees, 150 ■, conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. d. 622; afterwards by the cru- saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- tury; relinquished by them, a. d. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280; with Scotland, 1600.— Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300—200 B. o. to 480 a. d., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about IdOO. and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c. ;h« Pope, and the King of Naples. " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part ot &air species ! "—Priestley. PREFACE. While revising a chronological manual, in compiling wliicn I Lad) at the age of fifteen.* employed many midnight hours, I have found material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations to the present year. The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; and showing also what was going on at the same time in different countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and * Chrr/iiclogv — An Index to Universal History. &c. 12mo. Leavitt, Ncw- l'ork ; IG33. The volume has been. long out of print. others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason that they contain too much for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. The alphabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible compass. There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not numerous or important. The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- sons lived during the life-time of that individual. It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in Politics and Government. G. P. P. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. BEING AN ALPHABETICAL BECOBD OF IMPOETANT PACTS AND OCCUBBENCES DUEING THOSE TEAKS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FOKMEB EDITIONS. ABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and slaughter-house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must be landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than £194,000. ABYSSES"! A. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned several English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded the country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king's strong- hold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, £8,300,000. Napier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of £2,000 a year/ King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has, since his death, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose troops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much slaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1876, however, John was totally defeated, and treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the later results of the war have been indecisive. AC CAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to two pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, . are supposed to have used two differing dialects, found in the cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about tbem, but the former were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Surner were in the northeast. ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquakes, Explosions, Fires, Floods, Railroad Accidents, Shipwrecks, Storms. ) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, about 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large proportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice broke under the skaters on the lake in the Regent's Park, London, letting several hundred persons into the water. Forty were drowned. July 31, 1868, a false alarm of fire was raised in Lang's Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- ter, England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twenty and thirty were killed. July 27, 1869, Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his foothold, and fell from near the- summit of the Schreskhorn, in Switzer- land, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a firework dealer's shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out of thirteen persons then asleep in the house. August 2, 1S70, on Mont Blanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, and were killed. August 11, 1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of gun-cotton stored there killed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, 1 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Yuille's Traction Engine, used to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five persons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered round it out of curiosity. ADMINISTRATIONS. England. (See pp. 3, 152. 153. ) Disraeli resigns, and Gladstone becomes premier, December 2, 18(58 ; Robert Lowe, John Bright. G. J. Goschen, W. E. Forster, and others becoming members of the Government. This ministry carried the disestablishment of the Irish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1872. Mr. Gladstone, having lost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, and Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Earl of Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. ADMINISTRATIONS. United States. (See pp. 2, 149.) Gbant's First Administration. Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois, March 4, 1869 President. Schuyler Colfax, Indiana, March 4, 1869 Vice-President. Hamilton Fish, New York, March, 1869 Secretary of State. Geo. S. Bontwell, Massachusetts, March, 1869 Secretary of the Treasury. A. E. Borie, Geo. M. Robeson, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, March. June 25, 1869) 1869 ( Secretaries of Navy. Gen. Schofield, March, 1869 ) Gen. J. A. Rawlins, Illinois, March, 1869 V Secretaries of War. Gen. W. W. Belknap, Iowa, Sept., 1869 ) James Harlan, Iowa, March, 1869 ) Secretaries of Inte- Gen. J. D. Cox, Ohio, 1870 y 1870 \ Columbus Delano, Ohio, June, rior. J. A. J. Creswe.ll, Maryland, March, 1869 Postmaster General. E. R. Hoar, Massachusetts, 1869 ) A. T. Akerman, Georgia, 1871V ■ Attorneys-General. G. H. Williams, Oregon, 1871 J i Grant's Second Administeation. Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois, March 4, ,1873 President. Henry Wilson, Massachusetts, March 4. , 1873 Vice-President. Thos. W. Ferry, Michigan, President of Senate pro tern. Hamilton Fish, New York, March 4 , 1869 Secretary of State. Wm. A. Richardson, Massachusetts, (Secretaries of Treas Benj. J. Bristow, Kentucky, tj ury. Lot M. Morrill, Vermont, Wm. W. Belknap, Iowa, > Secretaries of War. J. D. Cameron, Pennsylvania, Geo. M. Robeson, New Jersey, Secretary of Navy. Columbus Delano, Ohio, (Secretaries of lute- s' rior. Zach. Chandler. Michigan, Geo. H. Williams, Oregon, ) Edwards Pierrepoint, New York, > Attorneys-General. Alphonso Taft, Ohio, J John A. J. Creswell, Maryland, Marshall Jewell, Connecticut, > Postmasters-General. James N. Tyner, Indiana, ) Hates' Administbation. Rutherford B . Hayes, Ohio, Maroh 4, 1877 President. Wm. A. Wheeler, New York, March 4. 1877 Vice-President. Wm. M. Evarts, New York, Secretary of State. John Sherman, Ohio, Secretary of Treas- ury. Secretary of War. Geo. W. McCrary, Iowa, Richard W. Thompson, , Indiana, Secretary of Navy. Carl Schurz, Missouri, Secretary of Interior. Charles Devens, Massachusetts, Attorney-General. David M. Key, Tennessee, Postmaster-General. supplement, 1867-77.- 3 AFGHANISTAN. (See p. 157.) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King of Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818 ; Dost Mohammed became ruler of it, 1829 ; took Herat May 26, 1863 ; succeeded by his son, Shere Ali, June 9, 1863 ; who has had much trouble and warfare with divers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been maintained by English aid. AFRICA. (See pp. 4, 157.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 and 1858-64 ; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by Bennett of the New York Herald, reported having met Livingstone at Ujiji. November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, 1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873 ; his remains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, April 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. " Cameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- ments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley's second expedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. AGRICULTURE. (See pp. 5, 15S.) Farm products of the United States, exclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000. A _" Union" of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and social amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of Joseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, March 29, 1872, and has attained some influence. ALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmes commander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, England, for the Rebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, 1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. She was destroyed and sunk .in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. S. steamer-of-war Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow, June 19, 1884, after having done immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United States and English governments discussed the question of English respon- sibility for this damage ; a convention was agreed upon on the subject November 10, 1868, which came to nothing ; another, signed by Lord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by the United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and other matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing a mode of settlement by arbitration ; Arbitration Commission met formally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British cases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole attitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; indirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, approved by Senate May '25, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count Frederic Sclopis, for Italy, President ; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- land ; Viscount d'ltajuba, for Brazil ; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for England; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and opened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- ment, the final meeting was held September 14, 1872, and damages awarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, by four arbitrators for those by the Florida, and by three for those by the Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. The total of the United States claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times as much. The English arbitrator, Sir A. E. Cockburn, refused to sign the judgment, mainly on the ground that the Florid.a and Shenandoah 4 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. claims were improperly allowed. A large proportion of this sum remained after all the awards of the Court of Claims established by the United States to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, 1877), remains in the U. S. Treasury. ALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of March 13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal settlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued in 1877. >ALSACE. Alsace (German, Blsass), was anciently part of Austrasia ; joined to the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by France, 1648 ; the rest, 1697 ; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1 ; ceded by France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871 ; the law completing the annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their nationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property before September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) including Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. ANILINE. Discovered by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo; ob- tained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; "mauve" applied in dyeing by W. A. Perkin, 1856 ; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green colors. ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 8.) The establishment of societies for preventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the organization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in New York City, incorporated April 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- porated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. ARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention ; but very ancient arches have been found in bridges in China, and in temples and other structures in Egypt and Assyria. The arching in the Cloaca Maxima at Rome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B.C.; and those found in the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the world. ARCHAEOLOGY. (See Curium; Mycelial ; Olympia ; Pre-Tiistorie Man ; Troy.) ARCH^30PTERYX. ("Primeval bird.") Fossil remains found at Sol- enhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Haberlein. It had some reptilian traits in its structure — teeth in its jaws, and a tail with feathers radiating from it. It was described by Owen in 1863. ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 10, 173.) Captain C. F, Hall's first voyage of discovery was 1880-62 ; he ascertained that Frobisher's so- called strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. His second voyage, in the MonticeMo, began June 30, 1864 ; results not remarkable. His third, in the Polaris, began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82 3 16' north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctio regions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost point so far, 81° 38' ; set out to return under Budington, August 12, 1872; in a panic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, and were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. The ship re- mained with the other fourteen persons a second winter ; they left in boats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a whaler. The " first German expedition," under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of eleven men only, in the Germania, to the east coast of Greenland and SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77.. 5 Spitzbergen, set out September 30, 1868. The "second German expedi- tion," in the Germcmia and Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- haven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping - ; coal discovered in east Greenland ; Germania wintered at Sabine Island ; sledge parties reached 77° 1' N. L. Expedition reached home September 11, 1870.. The "Austrian expedition" in the T'egetthoff, under Wey- precht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- vaia Zemlia (Nova Zembla), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1872 ; dis- covered Franz Josef Land, in 79° 43' N., August 30, 1873 ; reached 79° 58' N. ; left the Tegettliojf in the ice, May 20, 1874, and escaped in boats, reaching Europe early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) Nares's expedition, in the Alert and Discovery, left Portsmouth, May 29, 1875. September 1st, she reached 82° 24', and wintered in 82° 27' north, the furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the severest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73-7 below zero ; a mean for seven days of 58'17 ; for thirteen days of 58'9 ; and for five days of 66 "29 degrees below zero. Ascertained that there is no " open Polar sea." but instead, a " palseocrystic sea," or " sea of ancient ice," which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties explored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the northernmost point yet attained by man, being 83° 20' 26", within 400 miles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, 1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the expedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which had been suffered by most of the party. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (Seep. 11.) Don Domingo P. Sarmiento was elected President for six years, October 12, 1868 ; Dr. Avellaneda was in- augurated for six years, October 12, 1874 ; an insurrection under Mitre at Buenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 2, 1874 ; the Na- tional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments, May 16, 1876. ARMY, English. (See p. 176.) In 1869, it was stated in the English Parliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, £33 ; in Prance, £37; in England, £100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By Order in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative of governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an agent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of War. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions in the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 20, 1871. Appointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were substituted. The English military force in 1876 was thus constituted : Army in United Kingdom f>6,275 " in India 62,850 Militia 274,175 Yeoman cavalry 15,078 Volunteers 16S,750 Enrolled pensioners and army reserve 31,000 Total men 648,128 The sum voted for-military purposes for the year 1876-7, was £15,282,- 000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian war), £32,006,603 ; and that for 1815 (last year of war with Napoleon), £39,150,000. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. ARMY, European. Estimated total of European armies in 1863. lion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies were nearly as follows : Wab FOOTING. 838. TOO lOOlOOO 48,936 1,750,000 2,800.000 748,128 Peace footing. Austro-Hungary. . . . 278,470 Belgium 40,000 Denmark 35,057 France 430,703 Germany 419,738 Great Britain ...... 288,781 Gieece (nominal).. . 14,001 Italy 199,557 Netherlands 97, 859 Portugal IS, 195 750.000 208,359 68,450 Peace footing. Russia 705,872 Spain 151,668 Sweden 132,775 (Norway) 12,750 Switzerland Turkey 170,376 Roumania 34,647 Servia 4.000 Totals 3,094,609 six mil- in 1876, Wab footing. 3,300,000 201,257 459,360 74,000 11,377,190 Peace footings not carried forward 345,891 Total war armies of Europe more than 11,723,081 ARMY, U. S. (See p. 11.) Expenses of the War Department for 1872 §35.372,157.20 1873 46,323,138.31 1874 42,313,927.22 1875 41,120,645.9S 1876 38,070,S8S.64 1867 $95,224,415.63 1868 1 23.246,648.(32 1869 78,501,990.61 1870 57,655,675.40 1871 35,799,991.82 Regular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this toti-1 in process of re- duction. ARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) ASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, January 21, 1824, and carried off his skull as a trophy. Col. Purdon totally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them again by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. Expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September 12, 1873 ; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874 ; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- fusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th ; a treaty, prohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold indemnity to the English, signed February 13th. The expedition cost about £900,000. ASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1867, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two shots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- ported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prince of Servia, was assassinated at Belgrade, June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- spiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. in New South Wales, at a public picnic, one O'Farrell shot the Duke of Edinburgh in the back, intending to kill him. O'Farrell, who avowed himself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas DArcy M'Gee was shot dead from behind at his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in consequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, Marshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin escaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. Justice Norman, acting Chief Justice, was murdered, being stabbed by a native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governor-General of India, assassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Mohammedan convict named Shere Ali. ASSYRIA. (See pp. 178-179.) The results of Mr. Layard's investigations SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 7 at Nineveh were published in his " Nineveh and its Remains," 184S, and in his "Discoveries," 1853. Botta's explorations at Khorsabacl began 1843; his "Monuments de Ninive " appeared 1849-50. Mr. George Smith's "Assyrian Discoveries" appeared 1875, and his "Chaldean Account of G-enesis" in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, 1876, while pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of the language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- lished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in 1868 ; and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Texts, by Birch, in 1874-77. ASTRONOMY. (See pp. 13, 179.) The planet Neptune was discovered September 23, 1846 ; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851 ; spec- trum analysis first used in astronomy in 1861 ; Warren De la Rue's first large photograph of the moon was made in 1883. The transit of Venus of December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively observed at the expense of several governments, with good results. From April, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the asteroids. ATCHINESE "WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The Dutch hostilities against it took place from April, 1873 to 1876, ending in victory by the Dutch. ATHANASIAN CREED. (Seep. 180.) It is' asserted in Lumby's "His- tory of the Creeds " (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- sius, but consists of two distinct parts ; was put into its present form between A.D. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasius by any respect- able authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much opposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- pulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. ATOMIC THEORY. Dalton's system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen as 1 ; that of Berzelius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the continent of Europe. ATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been recently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000,000,- 000,090,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. AUSTRIA. (See pp. 14, 184.) Francis Joseph, October 20, 1860, issued a "diploma," which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the provin- cial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrath or Council of the Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. By decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the official name of "The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The population of Austria, Decem- ber 31, 1869, was: Gis-Leithan provinces 20,394,980 Trans-Leithan provinces 15,509,455 35,904,435 The Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned on the hither side of the river Leithe), are : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two Austrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria> Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan are : Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the city of Fiume. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- bly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. THE WORLD S PROCRESS. B. BABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843, at Shiraz, by Mirza Ali Mahommed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- edge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- tion of the Holy Spirit. The " Babis" were tolerated by Shah Mahom- med, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in 1848-9, the Bab himself being exeouted, July 15, 1849. The sect is said to be now (1877) quite numerous again. BABY FARMING. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was convicted of the wilful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been in the baby farming business four years, and confessed to having received some forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October 11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had died. BALLOONS. (See pp. 15, 187. ) Used with a good deal of success during the siege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying mail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. Up to April, 1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles Green, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent from near Paris, April 15, 1875J by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, and Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), Croce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. But the latter two men died there of suffocation, and Tissandier only got down alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1S62, had ascended about 7 miles, but at 5f miles Glaisher became insensible, and Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening the valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. BALLOT. (Seep. 15.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), 1856 ; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- vember 29, 1870 ; recommended for general use in the Queen's speech, February 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the Lords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- ber 31, 1880, became a law July 13, 187'2 ; Mr. H. E. Childers was chosen member of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no difficulty ; the method has worked well enough since. BAMPTON LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological subjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- ton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. BANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 16,189.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent to sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly so providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada there were failures and liabilities as follows : FAILURES. • LIABILITIES. Year ending June 30, 1S7H. 8,7TB $233,082,516 Year ending June 30, 1877. fl,241 182,S0S,435 BATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and improved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W„ Siemens. It operates by registering the lessening of the earth's attraction of gravitation on the surface of the ocean from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less density of water. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. BATHYBIUS HAECKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- sea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed the lowest form of animal life. Since believed te have been proved a mineral. BATTLES. (See pp. 16, 192.) FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 2, 1870 4, 1870 6, 1870 6, 1870 14, 1870 Saarbruck, French victorious.Au Wissembourg, Germans '* An, Woerth, " " Aui Saarbruck or Forbach, Germans, An Courcelles or Pange, " An; Strasburg, Germans victorious,Aug. 16, 1870 Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, Ger's, Aug. 10, 1S70 Gravelotte, Germans victorious, Aug. 18, 1870 Beaumont, " " Aug. 30, 1870 Carigh'an, " " Aug. 31, 1S70 Oroqnieta. Spain, Carlists defeated, May 4, 1872 Elmina, British defeat Ashantees, June 13, 1873 Elqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, Aug. 5-6, 1873 Maileru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 Abrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 Metz, Germans victorious, Aug. 31, SEDAN, " Aug. 31-Sep. 1, Before Paris, " victorious, Sept. 30, Thoury, French " Oct. 5, St. Remy, Germans " Oct. 5, Chateaudun, " " Oct 18, Coulmiers.near Orleans, French.Nov.9-10. Before Orleans, Ger's victorious, Dec. 4, St. Quentin, " " Jan. 19, Paris (Trochu's sortie), Germans, Jan. 19. OTHER BATTLES. Abyssinians defeat Egyptians in Nov., Iran, Spain, Lasema defeats Carlists, Nov. 10, Sorota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents deEeated Dec. 3, Toiosa, Spain, Carlists repulse Loma, Dec. 7-8, Khokand, Russians defeat Khan of Khiva Sep. 4-21, Assake, Russians defeat Khokand force Jan. 30, Servian-Turkish war begins July 1, Saitschar, Servians retreat . . . illy 2-3, Urbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, July 28, Jan. 29. 1874 Jan. 31- 1874 Feb. 1, 1874 Feb. 2, 1874 Feb. 4, 1874 Concha 1870 1870 1870 1870 1870 1870 1870 18(0 1871 1871 1874 1874 1S74 1S74 1875 1876 1876 1876 1876 Borborassie, Amoaful, " " Bocquah, " " Fommanah, " " Ordahsa, " '■ Bilbao, Spain, several days; enters May 2, 1874 Estella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- cha lulled June 25-27, 1874 BAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Biihnenfestspiel. The perform- ance of Wagner's " Ring des Nibelungen," took place here on August 13, 14, 16. and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are: 1. Das Rheingold ; 2. Die Walkure; 3. Siegfried; 4. Gotterdammerung. Great difference of opinion as to the music by itself ; but the whole rep- resentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the King of Bavaria. BEHISTUN. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- lated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made towards interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. BELFORT. A strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans November 3, 1870 ; capitulated February 16, 1871 ; reserved to France at the cession of Alsace to Germany ; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. BESSEMER STEEL. (See Steel.) BIBLE. (See pp. 18, 201.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising the English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible Dictionaries should be mentioned McClintock and Strong's " Biblical and Theological Encyclopaedia." " The Codex Sinaiticus," a Greek MS. of the Bible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- chendorf at St. Catherine's monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1S59, and procured by him for the Czar of Russia, who caused it to be printed in 1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have been made in the first or second century; the Old Latin, early in the second, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome's own version, the Vulgate, 1* 10 THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. completed 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about 1455 or 1456, without date ; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- land, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one printed book. BOKHARA. Ancient Sogdiana. Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart and Conolly, by the Khan, 1843. A war with Russia began 1866, the Khan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1887. There was more fighting in 1868 ; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th ; and in November, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara and Russia was published December, 1873. BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews Peters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn. , in a " History of Connecticut," published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the basis of the actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The text-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbull, Hartford, Conn., 1876. BOOKS, Book Trade. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- lished as follows : NEW BOOKS. NEW EDITIONS. 1871 3,547 1,288 1S72 3,419 1,100 1874 3,351 961 1S75 3,573 1,331 The number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in 786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there are 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 are in mistria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number of books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. BOSTON. (See pp. 20, 212.) Annexations to the city of Boston were : Roxbury, September 9, 1867 ; Dorchester, June 22, 1869 ; Charlestown, Brighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with over 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International peace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 instruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eighty acres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, 10, 11, 1872 ; 959 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 persons killed. Boston Public Library has, in 1877, about 320,000 vol- umes ; has six branches, and two " delivery agencies," besides the central collection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,300,000 Volumes a year ; staff, about 130 persons ; salaries, about $60,000 a year ; annual cost, about $130,000, of which all but about $6,000 is paid by the city of Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds of about $105,000. BOSNIA. Incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, was put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- ans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles ; population, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. BRAZIL. (See pp. 21, 216.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the defeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, March 1, 1870; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June 20, 1870. Dom Pedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and March, 1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, September 27-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 11 opening of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards travelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 (partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage natives. Number of slaves in May, 1874,. 1,016,262. BRIGANDS. (See also Molly Maguvr.es.) April 21, 1870, some English ladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, who demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- ernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the tourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- tar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay £5,200 ransom, part of which was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the Spanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder, and brigandage got into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily about 1860, and has since remained so. BRIDGES. (See pp. 21, 218.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn suspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 feet, at 185 feet above high-water mark. The Victoria railway bridge over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular bridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost £1,700,000. BURIAL. (See Cremation.) The " earth to earth " system of burial, ad- vocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 afc London. C. CANADA. (See pp. 23, 232.) The act creating "the Dominion of Can- ada " was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or Upper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, and provision is made for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor-General, opened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital, Ottawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871 : Ontario, 1,620,- 851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285,- 594; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia, 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island, 94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. CANALS. (See Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- tion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is only one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company was empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done in six years. CANDIA, the Ancient Crete. (See pp. 232, 283.) Insurrections against Turkish oppression, 1841«; again, and quieted by conciliation, 1858. Christians persecuted, 1859 ; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- ty and declares union with Greece, September 2, 1866 ; after obstinate contests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re- established March 8, 1869. CANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- dria. The " Decree of Canopus" was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy Euergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and to establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor. A copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis, 1866. 12 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, Punishment of, pp. 40, 288.) Abol- ished in Saxony, April 1, 1868 ; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- ary 18, 1867 ; in English House of Commons, by 127 to 23, April 21, 1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869 ; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872 ; refused by French Senate, June 21, 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; Ehode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853; Iowa, 1872; Maine, February 18, 1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such disuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years next after the repeal of the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30 convictions for mur- der, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent, greater, only 26. But in New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were hanged, while there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there were no hang- ings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when in 1873, two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- ner from 53 to 39. CATHOLICS. (See Concordat; Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Romanism; Vatican Council.'} CENSUS. (See pp. 26, 243.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, showed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see United States. CENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place in the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June 19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. The Centennial International Ex- hibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, and closed November 10. Of the growth of the United States in the first century, the following figures show a few illustrations : 1776. 1S76. Population 2,750,000 44,675,000 Area square miles 800.000 3,603,844 Annual manufactures $20,000,000 $4,200,000,000 Banks " 6,066 Colleges 9 374 CHARITIES. (See pp. 27, 246.) George Peabody's public charities were as follows : $2,500,000 for the poor of London. $2,000,000 for education in the South- ern States. $.300,000 for museums at Yale and Har- vard Colleges. $50,000 for a free museum at Salem, Mass. $20,000 to Kenyon College. $250,000 to the State of Mars-land. $500,000 for a free library and educa- tional institute at Danvers (afterwards named Peabody), Mass. $1,000,000 for the Peabody Institute, at Baltimore, Md. December 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed by a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital for the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful to men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- nessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the " Church of the Stran- gers," in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, endowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but afterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. Stewart left at his death, unfinished, a great hotel for working- women in New York, which was completed by his widow. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 13 CHICAGO. (See p. 27.) Gheat Fire, October 8-11, 1871. About 250 persons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and the loss was estimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. Large contributions were made in American and English cities towards relieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. CHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- ture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. CHINA. (See pp. 27, 249.) Chinese embassy, with Anson Burlingame (of Massachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; at Paris, January 24, 1869; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- 1 ruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by al mob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870; the leaders were executed October 28, 1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew of Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, eleven miles long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, 1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850 ; and there are now (1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Francisco, and from 125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- gration, and the Chinese, after coining, are chiefly controlled by the " Six Companies," which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam Yup, Yung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. CHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 254.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone's bill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. CHURCH-RATES. (Seep. 29.) Compulsory church-rates in England were abolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed July 31, 1868. CIVIL SERVICE, English. August 31, 1870, went into operation an English Order in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service except the Foreign Office and posts requiring professional knowledge, should be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service (treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about 17,000; cost of same yearly, estimated for 1877 at £13,309,100. CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, United States. Measure to secure, in- troduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, January 20, 1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service examinations, passed March 3, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules appointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, June 28, 1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than was expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all national office-holders should resign any situations they might hold as party political managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being "to take the office-holder out of politics." This order was promptly obeyed. CLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 29, 258, 590.) Imported into Great Britain in 1 870, 258,628 clocks, 372,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- pany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by Mr. Dennison in 1854 ; it failed 1858, and was bought by Mr. Bobbins, who changed the name to American Watch Company, often called the Waltham Watch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at Waltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day; the next largest, at Elgin, 111., about 300 movements. The effect of ' the American watch business on the importation of Swiss watches is shown 14 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. as follows : Swiss watches imported into the United States in 1872, 366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. CLUBS. (See p. 29.) Recent London clubs were formed at following dates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866 ; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers), Devonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 ; Byron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. COAL. (See pp. 30, 259.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- vania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,082,294 tons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : 1820-29. . tons £59,190 11850-59 tons 58,333,469 1830-39 " 5,210,085 1800-69 " 106,883,48s 1840-49 " 18,954,678 | 1870-75 " 105.627,240 The anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Pennsyl- vania, viz : Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, Dauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first three of these. Estimates of the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from 77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the United States in 1870 and 1874 : GBEAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. 1870 113,000,000 32,000,000 1874.' .'.'.'...' 125,000,000 v 50,000,000 Area of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square miles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the United States in 1870 and 1875 : 1870. 1S75. Anthracite, tons 13,985.960 20,654,509 Bituminous," 15,231,668 26,031,726 COINAGE. (See pp. 31, 263.) Total coinage of United States to and including 1 876 : In 1876. Gold $945,477,022.30 $38,178,962.50 Silver. . . 180,322,356.40 19,126,502.50 Cents, etc 12.822,538.55 260.350.00 Total $1,138,621,917.25 $57,565,815.00 COLLEGES in United States in 1875, 355; schools of science (and collegiate departments), 75 ; theological schools (and departments), 123; law schools (and departments), 43 ; medical, dental, etc., schools (and departments), 106. COLOMBIA. (See p. 263.) General Salgar, President, 1871 ; M. M. Toro, April 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874. Population in 1864, 2,794,473 ; in 1870, 2,910,329. COLONIES. (See pp. 31, 264.) Great Britain has sixty-nine colonies and foreign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952,- 243, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue in 1865 was about £51.497,000, and expenditures, £59,353,000. All slaves in all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the English home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- plying and indulgent. The earliest acquired of the present colonies was Newfoundland, about A.D. 1500 ; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, 1874. COLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. • 15 COMETS. (See pp. 32, 265.) 17,500,000 comets estimated to be in the solar system. More than 600 recorded as having been seen. Schiapareili of Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1862-6. The great comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 miles diameter, a long, bushy tail, and moved about ten million miles a day. On June 30, 1861, it was suggested that the earth was in this tail, as there was seen a " phosphorescent auroral glare." COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also Cotton, Failures, etc.) Exports. Imports. 1869 $394,644,335 $414,256,243 1870 392.771,17s 452,875,665 1871 460,331,614 572.509,314 1872 444,177,568 626,595,077 1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 1S74 633,339,368 567,406,342 1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 Of the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great Britain, viz. : Exports to G. B. Imports from (,'. B. 1874 $341.021,049 $180,042,S'3 1875 366,799,869 157,047,827 Chambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- tendom. Twenty-seven of the English ones met for consultation, Febru- ary 21, 1865 ; the meeting became annual ; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 met. COMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871 ; ended at the cap- ture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. CONCORDANCE. (See pp. 32,268.) The first concordance to the Bible on which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- thony of Padua. Cruden's (the best), first published in London, 1737. Mrs. Furness's Concordance to Shakespeare's poems, 1874. Todd's Verbal Index to Milton, 1809, and Cleaveland's Concordance to Milton, 1867. Brightwell's Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott's to Pope, 1875. CONCORDAT. (See p. 268.) The Concordat between Rome and Austria, August 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian Church, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the Austrian and Hungarian legislatures practically abolished it, and it was formally declared suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- mation of papal infallibility. CONFESSION, Auricular. (See p. 269.) Introduced in England by the Puseyites, Tractarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- ticing it, June, 1858 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much excitement, September, 1858; 483 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- cation for its establishment, May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly opposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison's letter against all who oppose it, August 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with shameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- covered June, 1877, and great indignation aroused. CONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 271.) Now reckoned as 29 northern, 45 southern, 12 zodiacal. 16 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 34, 272.) The dates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows : 1. Pro- posed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, Right to bear arms. 3. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, Searches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- tial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789, Criminal prosecutions to be speedy; privileges of accused. 7. 1789, Jury trial for anything over $20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- ments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair others. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United States as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 13. Ratified December 18, 1885, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil rights, representative basis, rebel disfranchisement, public and rebel debt. 15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- tions of women's persons at military and naval stations, passed in English Parliament June, 1866. Great opposition has been made to it ; a royal commission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been proposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, 1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. CONVENTS (for nuns; " monasteries " are for monks). (See p. 272.) In 1832 there were 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas- teries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, October 3, 1875. CONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of bishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed power over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute of Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal meetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1 854, and attempts made in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, convocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, and this was done in March following. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members). Rochdale Equitable Pioneers' Society began 1844. In 1862 there were 332 in England; on December 31, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have been held, the seventh at London, March 29, 1875. Similar organizations in the United States have not been very successful. There were in Massachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- ship of 1,650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000, and selling $500,000 of goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1868), Worcester (1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866), Holyoke (1873), Gardner (1874), Natick (1869 ?). On the continent of Europe such organizations are numerous and efficient. COPYRIGHT. (See pp. 34, 35, 274.) An international copyright bill brought into Congress, February 21, 1868, but could not pass. English House of Lords decided in Routiedge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright of a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England' was founded by leading London booksellers,' March 19, 1872. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868. CORONERS. (See p. 276.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from the ignorance and incompetence of coroners, they were suppressed in SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 17 Massachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and "medical exami- ners" substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to be "able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine." COTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES : Looms. In South. Spindles. In South. Mills 1870. . ..; 153,5-34 .... 5,852 .... 7,114,000 .... 2(5-2,221 .... 956 1874 180,975 .... 10,945 .... 9,415,383 .... 487,629 .... 847 Cotton mill first in India, built 1863 ; and the number had increased in 1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per week. Estimated consumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for 1860 and 1876, in bales of 400 pounds : 1860. 1876. Increase. Great Britain 2,817,000 3,187,000 370.000, Continent of Europe 1,794,000 2,362,000 568.000 United States 1,088,000 1,441,000 353,000 Bombay and rest of India 164,000 164,000 This increase is about 13 per cent, for Great Britain, and 37i per cent. for the other manufacturing countries. COUNCILS, CHURCH. (See p. 279 ; also Vatican Council.) CREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to real estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set in operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1763. Companies for the purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782). Prussia (1787), Belgium. (1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. CREDIT MOBILIER. (See p. 36.) The original Credit Mobilier at Paris failed, and the capital was said to have "disappeared," October, 1867. The Pereires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. " Credit Mobilier of America," incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- sumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward from the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution of its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was charged, and an investigation by a committee of the Hoiise of Representa- tives took place in 1872-73. CREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and others in England, 1873. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, and Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke's wife, burned at Dresden October 10, 1874; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about six pounds. Baron de Palm's remains burnt in like manner in America in 1876, and Dr. Winslow's in 1877. CRETE. Now Candia, which see. CRIME. (See pp. 32, 287 ; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congress for Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In England a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the popu- lation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. CRISPINS. (See St. Crispin.) CROWN. (See p. 284.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, 1 large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants (dia- monds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, 273 pearls. CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) 18 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. CRYOLITE. A fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in Greenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium. CUBA. (See pp. 38, 284.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- lution, September, 1868 ; checked, June, 1870 ; not suppressed, January, 1872 ; still in full activity, August, 1877. CUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Act of 1807, cumulative voting, to allow " minority representation," was allowed in London, Glas- gow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, and in such counties as returned three members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the result was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the government of Harvard and Yale Colleges. CUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.) CURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this very ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a temple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 ornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, ivory, glass, etc., etc., which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art Museum in New York. CURRENCY, United States. National bank notes outstanding, De- cember 31, 1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- 911,000. CYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics. In a cyclone at Calcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- ished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed over 600 houses and other buildings, dismasted many ships, and killed from 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a cyclone devastated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and cyclone in the Backergunge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- ges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. CYPRUS. (See Curium.) CZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there is a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. D. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Boumania.) DARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) DARWINISM. A " development " theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759 ; and one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the " Vestiges of Creation," 1844. Origin of mammals from an esrg, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, proved by von Baer, 1827. Mr. Darwin's doctrines are contained in his " Origin of Species," 1859, and " Descent of Man," 1871. His follower, Haeckel, published a " History of Creation," 1873, appeared in English, 1875. Mr. A. R. Wallace's " Natural Selection" appeared 1870. DEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and sixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth ; recently revived in Germany. Pastor Fliedner's Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- erswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 19 1853, and some appointed. Diocesan Deaconess Institution at London, established 1861. In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected with it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. DEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names : Agassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15. 1873. Alford, Rev. H.,' critic, poet, and divine, Jan. 12, 1871. Alison, Sir A., historian, May 23, 1867. Amberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, Nov. 6, 1876. Applegath A., inventor of printing machinery, counterfeit-proof bank notes, etc., Feb. 14, 1871. Aspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1876. Auber, D. P. E., composer, May 13, 1871. Aubigne, Merle d', clergyman and historian, Oct. 19, 1872. Austin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. 8, 1867. Babbage, C, mathematician, Oct. 18, 1871. Baird, James, Scotch iron master, June 21, 1876. Bailey, Theodorus, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, 1877. Bedford, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. Beutley, R., publisher, Sept. 10, 1871. Berryer, P. A., French advocate and orator, Nov; 29, 1868. Blair. F. P., senior, editor and politician, Oct. 18, 1876. Blitz, Antonio, "magician," Jan. 28, 1877. Brag;?, B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. Brewster, SirD., physicist, Feb. 10, 1868. Brongniart, A. T., scientist and author, Feb. 20, 1876. Brooke, Sir J., Rajah of Sarawak, June 11, 1868. Brougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer,phil- anthropist. May 7. 186S. Broughton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author and official, June 3, 1869. Brownlovv, W. &., editor and politician, April 29, 1877. Brownson, O. A., writer and jsurnalist, April 17, 1876. Buchanan, J., ex-President, June 1, 1868. Burgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. Burns, Jabez, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, 1876. Bushnell, Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. 17, 1876. Capponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1S76. Cardigan Lord, of Balaklava notoriety. March 28, 1868. Chambers, Robert and William, publishers and authors, March 17 and 20, 1871. Clarendon, Earl of, diplomatist and statesman, June 27, 1870. Cousin, Victor, historian and philosopher, Jan. 14, 1867. Cushman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. Custer, Gen., July 2, 1876. Davies, C. mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. Davis, C. H., admiral U.S. Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. Deak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, 1876. De Morgan, A., mathematician, March 18, 1871. Derby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23, 1869. Dickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870. Didot, A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. Dumas, Alexandre, novelist and dramatist, Dec. 5, 1870. Durbin, J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, 1876. Ellenborough, Earl of, statesman and admin- istrator, Dec, 1871. Ellet, Mrs. Elizabeth F., authoress, 1877. Emerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and official, March 6, 1869. Evans, Sir De Lacy, soldier. Jan. 9, 1870. Exeter, Bisttop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. S, 1869. Faraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. Forrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12, 1872. Forster, John, author, Jan. 31. 1876. Freiligrath, F., poet, March 19, 1S76. Galliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman, Nov. 24, 1876. Gough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1S69. Greenfield, Elizabeth T., the " black swan,*' colored singer, March 31, 1876. Grisi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. Grote G., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871. Guizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 12, 1873. Hall, W. W., medical writer and editor. May 10, 1876. Harper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- Ushers, May 29, 1877. Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, June 16, 1876. Herschel, Sir J. F. W., astronomer, May 11, 1871. Howe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- pist, Jan. 9, 1876. Hudson. George, the " Railway King," Dec. 14, 1871. Johnson, Andrew, ex-President, January 10, 1876. Johnson, Reverdy, lawyer and statesman, Feb. 10, 1876. Johnston, Keith, geographer, July 9. 1871. Jones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. Juarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, 1573. Kean, Charles, Jr.. actor, Jan. 22, 1S6S. Kerr, Michael C, politician, Aug. 19, 1376. Kock, Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. Lahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming to be 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. Lamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states- man, Feb. 28, 1869. Landseer, SirE., painter. Oct. 1, T873. Lane. E. W., Arabic scholar, Aug. 10, 1876. Lee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. Lick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1S76. Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 Lytton, Lord, novelist, Jan. IS, 1873. Lemaitre, F., actor, Jan. 27, 1876. Lemon, Mark, editor, May 23, 1S70. Maclise, Daniel, painter, April 25, 1870. 20 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Mansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, July 81, 1871. Marochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. Martineau, Harriet, writer, June 27, 1876. Mayo, Lord. gov. gen. of India, assassinated, Feb. 8, 1872. Mayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical writer, Jan. 13, 1871. Maximilian I., Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 1867. Maxwell, Lady (Mrs. Caroline Norton), June 14, 1877. Mazzini, G-., Italian, republican agitator and conspirator, March 10. 1872. Melvill, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1871. Michael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated June 10, 1868. Milman, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. 27, 1S68. Montalembert, Count de, author and states- man, March 13, 1870. Mnrchison, Sir R. I., geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. Napoleon III., ex-Emperor, Jan. 9. 1873. Narvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, 1868. Neal, John, writer, June 20, J 876. Omar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. Patteson, J. C, missionary, Bishop of Melan- esia, Sept. 20, 1871. Peabody, George, banker and public benefac- tor, Nov. 4, 1869. Perier, Casimir, French statesman, July 6, 1876. Poggendorff, J. C, physicist, 1877. Pollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23. 1870. Prevost-Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. Prim, J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- sassinated Dec. 28, 1870. Pugh, George E., lawyer and politician, July 19, 1876. Putnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1872. Randall, H. S., agricultural and educational writer, Aug. 19, 1876. Rhett, R. B., politician, Sept. 14, 1876. , DEVELOPMENT. (See Darwinism.) DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting from nearly 800 carats to 279 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 102^ carats. The " Star of the South," brought from Brazil 1855, weighed 204^- carats, of which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, South Africa, in March. 1867, and one, the " Star of South Africa," found in 1869, weighed 46£ carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at £25,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Eivers, September, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers, November, 1870. The value of 141 diamonds found in Africa, 1869, was £7,405; of 5,661 in 1870, £124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann in France, 1854 ; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the rim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel and at Hellgate mine. DISESTABLISHMENT. (See also Church of Ireland.) A conference was held at Birmingham, October 1, 1872, to promote immediate action for the disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. DRAMA. January 28, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an offi- Robertson, T. W., dramatist, Feb., 1871. Robinson, W. S., journalist, March 11, 1876. Rosas, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayres, March 14, 1877. Rosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. Rossini, G. A., composer, Nov. 13, 1868. Rothschild, Sir Anthony, capitalist, Jan. 4, 1S76. Ryves, Mrs., daughter of the self-styled " Prin- cess Olive, of Cumberland," Deo. 7, 1871. Sainte-Beuve, 0. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. ' Saldanha, field marshal, Portuguese, soldier and statesman, Nov. 21, 1876. Salt, Sir Titus, manufacturer, Dec. 29, 1876. Sand, George (Mme. Dudevant), June 8, 1876. Santa Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and ruler, June 20, 1876. Schamyl, Circassian chief, April, 1871. Smart, Sir George, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. Smith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867. Smith, F. O. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, 1S76. Smith, Geo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. Smith, Henry B., presbyterian clergyman, pro- fessor, editor, and author, Feb. 7, 1877. Smith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in engravings, Sept. 13, 1S76. Smirke, SirR., architect, April 18, 1867. Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter, May 18, 1867. Stewart, A. T., merchant, April 10, 1876. Strangford, Viscount, diplomatist, Jan. 9, 1S69. Strauss, F., theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. Sumner, C, statesman, March 11, 1873. Thompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1S76. Tischendorf, O, biblical scholar, Dec. 7, 1873. Vanderbilt, O, railroad owner and capitalist, Jan. 4, 1877. Whittingham, C, printer, Aoril 21, 1S76. Wilkes, Charles, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 8, 1877. Wilson, Henry, vice-president, Jan. 20, 1876. Winship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12, 1876. Wise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 21 cial warning to all the London managers against " the impropriety of cos- tume of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.," usual on the stage. Dramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- bury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed as beneficiaries, September 29, 1862. A somewhat similar institution was directed to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his house at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the benefit of the asylum. DUALIISr. (See Explosives.) DUELS. March 12, 1870, the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- que de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, and at the third shot killed him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, and sentenced to one month's banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, to be paid to Don Enrique's family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in France, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and unsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G-. Bennett, the owner of the New York Herald, and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, and Bennett went off to Europe, where he remained a number of months. DZOUNGARIA, or SOONGARIA. A country north of China, inhabited by about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were tributary to China, rebelled 1864, making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- quence of their depredations Russia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan surrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. E. EARTH. The estimated average density, 5^ that of water ; weight, 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. EARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 44, 302.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- quakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and many other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; estimated loss of property, £60,000,000, including many ships along the coast and at the Chincha Islands. It was believed that more than 300,000 persons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind frontier of India, December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May 16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have killed 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a population of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in all 110,000. About 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- ish Islands. EAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, 1858. Finally abolished June 1, 1874. ECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- ble in many parts of the East, and very important for study, because its obscuration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east coast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun's great dis- tance and the moon's small distance from the earth, the obscuration was also very complete. Very important observations were made, especially spectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun. August 7, 22 the world's progress. 1869. solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort of series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 10+ days. Except on August 12, 1889, no total eclipse of the sun will be visi- ble in England for 230 years from July, 1871. ECUADOR. Presidents: Gen. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. Moreno, January, 18G1 ; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 ; resigns December, 1867 ; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 13, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of 1872 ; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; X. Leon, Vice-President, September, 1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. EDUCATION IN U. S. (See pp. 45, 306.) A Department of Education created by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1867 ; afterwards made a Bureau in the Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry Barnard; succeeded in 1870 by Gen. John Eaton. In 1870, in the United States, were persons over 10 years old unable to read, 4,528,084 ; unable to write, 5,658,144; school children, 7,209,938 ; schools, 141,629; teachers (127,713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of which public money, $61,746,039. The census of 1870 showed that the wealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and that poverty and illiteracy go together. Compulsory free schools, and disfranchisement of all who cannot read and write English, by Federal authority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, 1876. EDUCATION in ENGLAND. (See p. 306.) National Education Leagues (for compulsory education) first met October 12 and 13, 1869 ; Metropolitan School Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, Miss Garrett, M.D., being chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Education Bill of Mr. W. E.Forster became law August 9, 1870; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; Compulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 156. July 1, 1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Great Britain in 1855, 4,8C0 ; in 1860, 7,272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; annual parlia- mentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. EGYPT. (See pp. 45, 306.) See also Suez Canal. June 6, 1867, the Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London ; his visit lasted until the 18th. He made a second visit in 1869, landing June 22, and remaining eight days. A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, 1869 ; a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1873 ; but he must not coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The succession of the Khedives is : Mehemet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, 1848 ; dies August 2, 1849 ; Ibrahim, his adopted son, September, 1848 ; dies November 9 or 10, 1848 ; Abbas, his son, succeeds ; dies July 14, 1854; Said, Abbas's brother, dies January 18, 1863; Ismail, Said's nephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave's report to English Government (April, 1876), calls Ismail "intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal." The principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are : 1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictorial (and of these some are special and some general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was believed by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of Egypt ; and there is more evidence for his existence than for that of King Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 or 400 years after Menes. 4. Manetho's dynasties were mostly consecu- tive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- quered Lower Egypt and ruled in the Delta for centuries ; they were SUPPLEMENT. 1S67-77. 23 expelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began with this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its kings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as great. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later period of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history. — (Bev. J. P. Thompson. ) ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Lonisana, and South Carolina in the Presidential election of November, 1876, were disputed, and were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by Act approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices Clifford. Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme Court; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- man, Bayard ; United States Representatives Payne. Hunton, Abbott, Garfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February 7, 1877; acted on the three votes above named, the critical questions being mostly determined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the known political opinions of the members of the commission, and the deciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the Commission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and Wheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President of the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz. , by 185 votes to 184. ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. The elementary substances now known are sixty-five in number, as follows; those after sulphur being in the order of their discovery from antimony, 1490 down to 1877. Gold, Platinum, Tungsten, Lithium, Silver, Nickel, Tellurium, Selenium, Mercury, Sodium, Uranium, Cadmium, Copper, Potassium, Zirconium, Bromine, Iron, Lime (calcium), Titanium, Thormum, Tin, Silex, Strontium, Vanadium, Lead, Alumina, Yttrium, Lanthanum, Carbon, Magnesia, Chromium, Didyminm, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Glucinnm, Erbium, Antimony, Fluorine, Tantalum, Ruthenium, Bismuth, Nitrogen, Cerium, Niobium, Zinc, Chlorine, Palladium, Caesium, Phosphorus, Oxygen, Rhodium, Rubidium, Borax, * Manganese, Iridium, Thallium, Arsenic, Barium, Osmium, Indium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Iodine, Jargon ium, Gallium, ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The electric telegraphs of the world are (in 1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, 28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28,148; Germany, only 19,152. EMIGRATION and IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States since 1861 (by Government fiscal years) : 1S61 89,720 1862 89,005 1803 174.523 1864 193,191 1867 293,601 1868 2S9,145 1869 385,287 1870 356,303 1S71 346,938 1872 437,750 1873 422,545 1874 260,814 1875 191,231 1876 237,991 1865 248,394 1866 314,840 Total in sixteen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United States to end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1820, 9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see China. 24 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Years. To North Ameri- can Colonies. To United States. To Australia. Total. 1806 13,255 161.000 24,097 204,882 1867 15,503 159,275 14,466 195,953 1868 21,062 155,532 12,809 196,325 1869 33,891 203,001 14,901 258.027 , 1870 35,295 196,075 17,065 256.940 1871 S2.671 198,843 12 227 252 485 1S72 32.205 233.747 15,876 295,213 1S73 37,208 233,073 26,428 310,612 1874 25.450 148,161 53,958 241,014 1875 17,378 105,046 35,525 173,809 ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered real estate in Ireland, passed July, 1849 ; proceedings under it October, 1849, to July, 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought £22,000,000. The Irish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to tenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and damages for being wrongfully evicted. EOZOON CANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- real, in the Laurentian limestone in 1858; asserted to be the earliest known form of animal life. EPHESUS. Mr. Wood's search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began 1863 ; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the British Museum in 1872. EUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), 265,374,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700,- 000. EVOLUTION theory ; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory of the descent of man and natural selection. EXECUTION. (See also Capital Punisliment.) The execution of Michael Barrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, December 13, 1867, at Newgate. London, May 26, 1888, was the last public execution in England. On September 8th following, the first private execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of one Mackay, for murder. EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened May 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April 1, closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, 1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The Philadelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September 28, 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows : Place. Year. Days open. Admissions . Receipts. 1851 1862 1855 1867 1873 1876 141 172 • 200 217 186 159 6.039,191 6,211,103 5,162,330 8,805,969 6.740.500 9,789,392 $2,530,500 2.042,650 '640.495 2.103,675 l',032,385 3,813,749.75 Exhibitors at Philadelphia, 30,864, from 50 countries ; whole outlay about $8,830,000. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. • 25 EXPLOSIONS. (See HeUgate.) Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- derer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- sen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and a native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the steamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight days and then explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would then be well out at sea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock December 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. Thomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been merely to obtain a small insurance. EXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- burg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, Italy, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- selves, by land or sea, any explosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 grammes weight, viz. , about 13 cz. avoirdupois. EXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown sugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, mixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made known by Carl Ditmar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro-cellulose ; and the dualin invented by Nobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric acid. Nitro-glycerine, an amber-colored flaid, discovered by Sobrero, 1847 ; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric and two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force of gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, invented by Schonbein, and made known 1848 ; it is made by steeping cotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is a modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- oxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- cotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- pressed gun-cotton. EXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- ated 1842 ; abrogated May 2, 1876, in consequence of England's refusing, April 18, 1876, to surrender the forger Winslow, and of a disagreement about trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- lish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences other than that for which he was delivered ; while the United States claimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, defining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An extradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed Feb. 21, 1877. EXPORTS and IMPORTS. (See pp. 49, 317.) See Commerce. F. FAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P. , p. 32,) in the United States, for the ten years 1867-76, were as follows : 9 Average wnoie Amount. Indebtedness. $86,21S,000 $36,134 63,774,000 24.452 75,054,000 26.S14 88,24-2.000 24,849 85,252,000 29,245 121,056,000 29,750 228,499,000 44,085 155,239,000 26.627 201,060,353 25,978 191,117,786 21,020 26 the world's progress. Number. 1867 2,386 1868 2.608 1869 2,799 1870 3,551 1871 2,915 1872 4,069 1873 5,183 1874 5,830 1875 7,740 1876 9,092 FAMINE. (See p. 319.) In Orissa, 750,000 persons perished of famine, 1865-6 ; -very severe in Persia, 1871-2 ; in Bengal, from drought, 1874 ; in Asia Minor, 1874-5 ; in several parts of India, 1876-7. FENIANS. October 10, 1869, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried in London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession of various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament amnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- ment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 2,000 strong, under O'Neill, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but remained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven back by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed the line at Malone, N. Y. , on the 27th, and were driven back in a similar manner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both sides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who had been vigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was assassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- posed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the Fenians. FIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1873 ; Sir A. H. Gordon first Governor, 1875. FILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of Toledo, 589 ; rejected by the Eastern churches since 662. It implies that the Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father " and from the Son." The old Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did not omit it. FIRES. (See pp. 52, 321.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty's Theatre, Lon- don, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its class for hearing music in. June 5, 1870, a great fire in Pera, one of the suburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of property of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buildings, and (by estimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at Richmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- parties, was totally burnt ; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. May 24, 1870, at Quebec, a fire in the suburb of St. Roch destroyed 400 houses, left 8,000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of property. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of the Duke of Devonshire, destroyed, among many other valuable and curious articles, seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best masters, ancient and modem. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense boiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Works in Sheffield, was found to continue to fill the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On examination it was found that the boiler, which had been noticed to be sinking for some time, was kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 27 shale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire must have been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under the street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time and a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871, a fire at War- wick Castle consumed the whole of the east wing and the centre, the west wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and historic pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 1871, a fire at Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co. 's granaries, among the largest in England, destroyed to the value of £150,000. November 24, 1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- sons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, Brooklyn Theatre burned; 315 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, see Boston, Chicago. FLOGGING-. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the annual mutiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that "no court-martial shall have power to senter ce any soldier or marine on shore to corporal punishment in time of peace." FLOODS. (See Inundations, pp. 64, 370.) Great floods in France in Sep- tember, 1866 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, December 28 and 29, 1870 ; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, in France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- ties of England, July, October and NoveuJjer, 1875 ; in India, September 22-24, 1875 ; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill River, Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May 16, 1874. A flood in the rivers of Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, drowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass., reservoir burst March 30, 1876, but having been expected, no lives were lost, though great damage was done. FLORENCE, or FIRENZE. (See p. 322.) People vote for annexation to Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- ence : it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- cember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 13, 1865. 600th anniversary of Dante's birth celebrated May 14, 1865; first Italian parliament November 18, 1865 ; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. 400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. FLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place in uranium -glass, and in solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, when the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are sent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. FRANCE. (See, for events, etc. , in the Chronological Tables, following the " Dictionary of Dates.") G. GAMLNG. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses suppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wie-s- baden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monaco the only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-selling forbidden by law in New York, 1876. GATLING GUN. Invented in America; patents 1861-1865 ; exhibited at Paris 1867 ; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel ; 28 the world's progress. a similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used by the French in the war of 1870-1871. GENEVA. (See p. 332.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August 18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over £7(54,000) to the city. GENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, etc. , in war, of delegates from fourteen governments, met October 20, 1863; their code adopted by all civilized powers except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- national or "Red Cross" Society, established in consequence, did much in relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, some 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. GERMANY. (See pp. 56, 335.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding Napoleon's " Confederation of the Rhine," was formed June 8, 1815 ; its first diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816 ; announced dissolved by Prussia, June 14, 1866, but continued ; was, however, given up by Austria at the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting of the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German Confederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- gust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Berlin, February 24, 1867 ; the confederation ceased on the re-establishment of the German Empire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, 42,726,844. GOLD. (See pp. 57, 339.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England from 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from circulation; and it was computed that in 1869 31^ per cent, of the sov- ereigns and 40 per cent, of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light weight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about $2,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about $5,000,000,000. GOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinent*. The first Eng- lish lodge formed ac Birmingham, May, 1868 ; in 1874 said to be 3,743 lodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. GOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- burg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists of a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- ful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, who must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. GRANGERS. (See Patrons of Husbandry.) GREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Chronological Tables, following the Dictionary of Dates. ) GREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope's invita- tion to an oecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- pool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1S70. GRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before witnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- aways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however, destroyed the business, by providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland twenty-one days. GUATEMALA. (See p. 58.) Recent Presidents : Vincent Cema, succeeded Carrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869 ; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872 ; R. Bar- rios, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180,000. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 29 GYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- shire, November 18, 1860. H. HAYTI, OE St. Domingo. (See pp. 59, 350.) Hayti and St. Domingo are used as names for the whole island. Hayti is the western or French part, and- San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- frard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection against him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865 ; Geffrard beaten and banished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867 ; after one or two risings are put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, August, 1868, but is defeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870. General Nissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870; lives out his term. M. Domingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, and Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. HEAT. Count Rumford, about the beginning of this century, asserted that heat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall's book on the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the received doctrine. HELLGATE. The reef at Hallett's Point, which was the principal obstruc- tion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven years under the management of General Newton, of United States Engineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of 4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two and three-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported by 173 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system radiating fanwise outward from the entrance-shaft at the shore. All these pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,680 charges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were connected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous discharge. This took place on September 24, 1876, with complete suc- cess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by the finger of General Newton's baby daughter pressing a battery-key. A smaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden Gate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 pounds of gunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. HEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about A.D. 450-850, viz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall) ; East Saxons (Essex, Middlesex, part of Herts) ; Northumbria (Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland) ; East Angles (Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.) ; and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, part of Herts). HERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persian frontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1856, contrary to the treaty of 1853 ; were forced to restore it by the English, July 27, 1857. 30 the world's progress. HERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, 1861 ; subdued September, 1862. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and the country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1877), sympathizing with its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. HIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 353; see also Egypt.) The researches of Champollion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta Stone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a reasonably well understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. HOLLAND. (See p. 354.) William III. succeeded his father, William II., March 17, 1849. A. Roman Catholic hierarchy re-introduced, 1853. Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), August 6, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam with the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of which over 1,200,000 is in cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. The town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in any other European country. HOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- lished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members ; Mr. Isaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick. September 20, 1871 ; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much result ; parliamentary " filibustering," with much inconvenience to busi- ness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. HORSE. (See p. 357.) Rarey's mode of training horses shown by him in England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in Paris, 1866, and since. Goodenough's American machiue-made horse- shoes (patented I860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General Omnibus Co., 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizootic, coming from Canada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. HUNGARY. (See pp. 61, 358. ) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were crowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The " Act of Grace " issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped all proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- lowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, 1868. HURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane struck St. Thomas (W. I. ) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 vessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of houses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, 1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- roofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, cane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. I. ICE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either : 1, by rapid evapora- tion, as in Carre's, Harrison's, Twining's, etc., patents; or 2, by lique- faction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way of making ice-cream with ice and salt ; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- quence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have been commercially successful. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 31 ICELAND. (See p. 361.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- tion at King Christian's visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary of the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby's Icelandic-Eng- lish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, devastated much pasture-land. IMPEACHMENT. The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- peach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- ors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. After trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted on one ar- ticle (the 11th), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the two-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted on the remaining articles. INCOME TAX, United States. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. Receipts from it, 1867, $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869, $27,353,000; 1870, $26,150,000. INDIA. (See pp. 63, 366.) Order of the Star of India established June 25, 1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American civil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen religion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, March 1, 1865. About 1,500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August to November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much like the Unitarian, appear in 1869, and open a house of worship August 24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, and preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to India, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, spring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief operations £6,500,000. Prince of Wales's visit; he sails from England October 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8 ; grand reception of Indian rulers, December 24 ; sails from Bombay to return, March 13, 1876. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876 ; at Delhi, January 1, 1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) contains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) about 240,000,000. INDIANS. (See pp. 63, 366; also Modocs.) Gen. Custer ambushed, de- feated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file utterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn River, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under Sitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In the summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence hostilities in that State. INFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican Council, July 18, 1870. Dr. von Dollinger excommunicated for opposing it. April 18, 1871 ; and chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29, 1871. The Bava- rian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871 ; an "Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, in September, 1871. INSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy.) INSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- delphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in Massachusetts, 1854 ; next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance 32 the world's progress. business in United States in 1860, $32,358,000; in 1866, $44,410,000; in 1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1872, over $15,- 000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875 : 1S65. 1875. Property insured $3,428,000,000 $6,273,000,000 Premium receipts 29,529,00u 6< 900, 000 Losses paid over. 17,205.000 31,960,000 Whole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which In- sured, $39,000,000. INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See Copyright.) INTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist nature, first established by some G-erman socialists in London, 1847 ; definitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first president. Professes to operate for the emancipation of labor from the tyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- orderly, at Geneva, September, 1866 ; Lausanne, September, 1867 ; Brus- sels, September, 1868; Basle, September, 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; Hague, Se23tember, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and the political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New York. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva meeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has claimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be affiliated with the Fenians and other secret societies. INTEREST. (See pp. 64, 370.) In England was 8 per cent, by law of 1623; 6 per cent., 1651; 5 per cent., 1713; and law totally repealed 1854, leaving interest a matter of agreement. INUNDATIONS. (See Floods.) IONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 65, 371.) Declare for annexation to Greece, in March, 1861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes place accordingly, May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. Population about 200,000. IRELAND. (Seep. 372; see also Church of Ireland; Encumbered Es- tates Act ; Fenians; Home Mule.) Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- gust, 1849 ; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school system, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and i860 ; emigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales visit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. IRON. (See pp. 65, 372.) The iron and steel production of the United States for three years, 1874-5-6, was as follows : 1874. 1875. 1876. Pig iron, tons (of 2,000 lbs.) 2.689,413 2,206,581 8,093,236 All rolled iron, tons 1,839,560 1,890,379 1,921,730 Rails, all kinds, tons 729,413 792,512 879,029 Rails, Bessemer steel, tons 144,944 290,803 412,461 Cut nails and spikes (included in " rolled iron ") kegs 4,912,180 4,726,881 4,157,814 Iron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. IRON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the United States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of a total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron v.essels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. In 1876 were built 25 vessels as follows : supplement, 1867-77. ■ 33 Place. Number. Total Tonnage about. Buffalo 2 140 Burlington, N. J 1 13 Delaware (State) 9 8,298 New Orleans 2 915 Philadelphia 11 11,981 Besides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones building-. ITALY. (See pp. 65, 874.) September 23, 1867, Garibaldi, persisting in his march upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinalunga, near Sienna, as he \yas about entering the Papal territory. He was im- prisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and watched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enterprise, and was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the point of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- chia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome, to prevent the pro- posed revolution. November 3, Garibaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana by the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, 1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under Gen. Cadorna, and on the 20th, after four hours' carmonade, entered and occupied the city. October 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the question of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the capital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and, 1,507 negative. Decem- ber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the capital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into Rome, December 31, 1870. JAMAICA. (See p. 375.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with much bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- vember, 1865. Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, April 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been used. Eyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages ; but the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him the suit. In 1878 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, 1871, 506,154. JAPAN. (See pp. 66, 376.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places opened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867 ; Osaka and Hiogo the same, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes, 1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- stantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had first to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- plished December, 1809. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached Washington March 4, and London, August 17, 1872. First railway in Japan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of government somewhat like the imperial French Government, April 14, 1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor. Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, born 1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 (estimated), 32,794,897. JERUSALEM. (Seep. 377.) Population estimated (in 1877) as follows: Jews, 10,600; Christians, 5,300 ; Mohammedans, 5,000; total, 20,900. A Protestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and 2* 34 the world's progress. Prussia, 1846 ; Wilson and Warren's excavations, ascertaining many points of interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. JESUITS. (See pp. 66, 377.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia 1820; Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834 Sardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily, 1860 Empire of Germany, 1872 ; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number of Jesuits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. JEWS. (See pp. 66, 378.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled January, 1860 ; Hungary emancipates, 1867 ; Disraeli, a Jew, English premier, 1868; Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, English solicitor -general, 1871 ; master of the rolls, 1873. Jews in Great Britain (estimated) in 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews in the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. JTJTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz., chonch, or cor- chorus olitorius, and isbund, or C. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- cloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- dom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 cwt. ,■ K. KARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew Scriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They are found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. KEET, Rev. Mr. (See Reverend.) KHEDIVE. (See Egypt.) The title is supposed to mean something more than vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. KHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished in the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- feating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has since been pretty much made a Russian province. KHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate annexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. KINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science of motion. Professor Reuleaux's Kinematics of- machinery, an important work on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- tion appeared in London, 1876. KU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose the ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly against such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their operations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of legal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same kind of activity being adopted. LABOR. (See Internationalists ; Strikes; Workingmen.) LAMBESSA. An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prisoD for some of the victims of Napoleon III., of December 2, 1851, and for other po- litical exiles. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 35 LATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. LEONINE CITY. That part of Borne assigned to the Pope at the entrance of the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of SanAngelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. Peter's. LIBERIA. (See pp. 68, 395.) Presidents : D. B. Warner, 1864 ; J. S. Payne, 1868; E. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the first President), 1872 and 1874; he died 1876. Population about 720,000, of which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, it was reported that 30,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go to Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in that State. LIBRARIES. (See pp. 68, 395.) The great Report of the Education Bureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of 3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not including coinmon or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). In these were reported in all : Volumes 12,276,964 In common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than 1.365,407 Total volumes 13,642,371 Add pamphlets, only part reported, up to about 1,500,000 Of these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- port 8,879,869 volumes, annual use ; 1,722 report $0,105,501 permanent funds; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly income ; 769 report $562,407, annually spent for books, and 643 report $682,166 annually spent for salaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on the American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about 333,000 volumes, besides about 150,000 pamphlets. LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS, Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin, 1785 ; H. Greathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for best life-boat ; also £1,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January 30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- son's tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English National Life-boat Institution, founded 1824 ; in 1876 had 2,541 life- boats in operation, and lives saved, 1824-1875, inclusive, 23,789. An American ' ' life-raft " of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, navigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. Manby's apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- tress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808 ; in 20 years it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton's life -preserving dress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe, 1874- 1877 ; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23^ hours, May 28 and 29, 1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in li districts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, shot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- boat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keeper and six surfrnen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, there were on these coasts 273 wrecks ; property saved by the Life-sav- ing Service, $5,254,300 ; lives saved, 3.189 ; lost, 41. Ottinger's shot- line gun will carry 631 yards. 36 the world's progress. LIGHT. Velocity nearly 200, 000 miles per second. Comes from the sun to the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prog- ress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- cluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism or chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, etc. LOANS. (See pp. 69, 400.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000,- 000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855 ; on the 30th, nearly five times the required amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole amount in foreign subscriptions. French loan of $100,000,000, for the Italian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000,- 000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $600,000,- 000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the required amount was promptly subscribed within France. The success of these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- firmed habit of the people to hoard specie. LONDON. (See pp. 69, 402.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or eleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 8,885,641 ; in 1877, probably considerably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William the Conqueror, is still preserved in the city archives. It is on a slip of parch- ment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in English as follows : "William the King greeteth William the bishop and Godfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in King Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you." LONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) LORRAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia ; German, Lothringen. United to France, 1766 ; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- nexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, February 26, 1871. LUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers, May, 1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, November, 1867 ; fortifica- tions dismantled. August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. The grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867 ; its popula- tion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. M. MAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) MAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the British under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April 13, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The place was burned, April 17th. MAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808 ; produced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4. It burns easily, with a singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was done in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. MAN, Antiquity of. (See Prs-Mstoric Man.) SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. • 37 MANITOBA. Rupert's Land made a province, and named Manitoba, 1870. One Riel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of Canada, in January, 1870 ; proclaimed the "Red River Republic," and murdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- tary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, and ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G-. Archibald, the first Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- tended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, October, 1871 . The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of North America. MELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, Patteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murdered by the natives at Santa Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in revenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. MENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. MERCURY. (See p. 421.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced from July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From one to two pounds are lost for every ton of the ore that is worked with it. MERV. A miserable town in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, of no importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India which might be followed by the Russians. METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, chartered 18(56. A department for this science, of the English Board of Trade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 1855 ; it has done much to- wards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. The United States Signal Service department sent and received in the year 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents ; issued of all its publica- tions 4,494,320 copies, of which 3,491,046 were " farmers' bulletins." It had in that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the beginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- ganized it. METEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are : January 2d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- ber 11th. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around the sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the earth's passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of their motion through the earth's atmosphere inflames them. METRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter of the earth's circumference in latitude (3.2808 English feet). Unit of surface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. Unit of solidity is the stere, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a cubic decimetre. Unit of weight, the gramme, a cubic centimetre of dis- tilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to either of these (except franc) deca- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times ; kilo-, 1,000 times; myria-, 10,000 times. Also, deci- for one -tenth ; centi-, one-lOOth; milli- for one-1, 000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- sides being the only legal system in France) by convention, May 20, 1875, in the following countries : Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United States of America, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Peru. 38 the world's progress. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OP AET, New York, chartered April, 1870; a site in the Central Park and $500,000 for a building granted by the State, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary gallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected by General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus, 1873-5. METZ. Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by Bazaine, with 3 marshals, 66 generals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 eagles. MEXICO. (See pp. 74, 423.) French evacuated Mexico, March, 1867. Juarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872; Lerdo de Tejada, president ; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, November 16, 1876. MILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since which time a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in cities and put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. MINES, MINING. (See pp, 75, 425.) Value of minerals and metals mined in the United Kingdom in 1874, £67,834,313; in 1875, £67,487,688. Coal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being over two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths' of the other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $152,' 598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. MINORITY REPRESENTATION. {See Cumulative Vote.) MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp. 76, 428.) Improvements to make the South Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. Eads's plan of jetties carried out from the natural mouth of the pass so as to keep the main river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, were begun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- tained by the river itself, where there was before only eight feet of water, and the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys' and Abbott's elaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of thje river, published 1861. MITRAILLEUSE. (See Galling Gun.) MOABITE STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a Phoe- nician or ancient Hebrew inscription, said to be by order of Mesha, King of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii. , and to narrate his victories over Israel. Dr. Ginsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, 1871. MODOCS defeated the United States troops, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. Canby and about forty more by treachery, April 11 ; after long and des- perate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic ''lava-beds," the remaining Modocs were captured, and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- ecuted October 3, 1873. MOLLY MAGUIRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the Ancient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society among the miners of Eastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- tion first came into notice about 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- sued a career of violence and murder in Carbon, Schuylkill, and the other neighboring mining counties. In December, 1862, they attacked Mr. Goyne's mine in Cass township, stopped the works and beat those who opposed them; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. S. Langdon, near SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 39 Audenreid, and in November, 1883, George K. Smith, in the same vicinity ; attacked Mr. Northall's house, February 11, 1887, in order to kill him, he, however, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of Tamaqua ; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, at Raven Run ; September 8, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford ; and there were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature of revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order chose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, however, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. MONEY. (See p. 428. See also Coinage; Currency ; Cold; Silver.) MONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See Tunnels.) MONTENEGRO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- pendent ever since, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite of repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would have overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention of the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles ; population in 1871, about 195,600. MOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) MOORSOM' S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping was adopted in the English Merchant Shipjjing Act of 1854, and is the method used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at the Suez Canal. MORMONS. (See pp. 77, 429.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and condemned to death in 1877, for having participated in the Mountain Meadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 136 emigrants, by order of the - Mormon leaders. MOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the highest mountain known in the world. MURDERS in England and Wales for ten years : 1865 226 1S66 272 1867 255 1868 261 MUSIC. (See pp. 78, 431.) Musical pitch fixed in France, 1880, the mid- dle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have since been adopted, and " concert pitch " is now (1877) not a settled thing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about 1847 by Curwen. For Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. MYCENAE. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- polis of ancient Mycenas, discovering five tombs, which he believes those of Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was a great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and use, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and arohasologically impor- tant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. N. NATIONAL DEBT of United States. (See pp. 79, 434.) Deducting cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of the debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, 1S69 265 1870 222 1871 226 1872 257 1873 223 1S74 223 40 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1876, $10,103,245.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and territorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350,000,000. NATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 79, 434.) An estimate in the Westminster Review, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at $5.00 to the pound sterling) : G-reat Britain. Europe America Asia §3,^75,000,000 13,805.000,000 3,870,000,000 055,000,000 Australasia . Africa 200,000,000 375,000,000 :,S40,000,000 European national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound sterling; : Austro-Hungary (1876) $1, Belgium (January 1, 1876). . . . Denmark (March 31, 1875) Prance (January 1, 1875) 4, German Empire, none, or a tri- fling one. But Prussia (January 1, 1876). . Bavaria (January 1, 1874). Wurtemberg (May 10, 1S74) Saxony (end of 1876) etc., etc. Great Britain (March. 31, 1S76). 709,634,5:*) 33,656,000 51,620,005 687,921,400 229,852,375 150,688,045 73,496,020 85,222,010 8S4,852,720 Greece (partly estimated, Jan., 1, 1876) 106,800,515 Italy (end of 1875, estimate) . . . 2,000,000,000 Netherlands (beginning of 1875) 386,383,305 Portugal (June 30, 1876) 395,308,900 Russia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876).. 1.254,S10.000 Spain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000,000 Sweden (January 1. 1876). . . . 38,929,680 And Norway (end of 1875) 13 418,775 Switzerland (beginning of 1876) 5,520,000 Turkey ( June,1876 ; much more since) 927,000,000 NATURAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) NATURALIZATION. (See pp. 79, 434.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 Americans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the latter were empowered to renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- tion of Februarys, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made dependent on choice, and not on birth. NAVIES. (See pp. 80, 439.) The English navy contains in all about 240 vessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) building, about as follows in the world : Nation. England . . Prance . . . Russia. . . . Italy Turkey. . . Germany . Holland . . Ships. 59 53 29 16 24 13 17 Total tonnage. 317,000 184.000 89,000 89,000 65,000 61,000 23,000 Also, Austria, 14 ; Spain, 7 ; Denmark, 6 ; United States, 27 ; Sweden and Norway, 8; Portugal, 1; Greece, 2; Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; Chili, 2; Argentine Confederation, 2 ; Japan, 2. Whole number of iron-clad ships of war, 305 ; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of them, 24 inches ; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by any German ship is 10 inches ; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches ; Italy, 22 inches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most powerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- clad ships, has 70 other steamers and 25 sail-vessels. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811. In October, 1860, the " dumb-bell nebula" was reported by Lassell to show no signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain nebula3 shown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 41 NEPTUNE (Planet). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 23, 1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having- calculated that the irregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J. C. Adams, of Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) NEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853, and since used by them as a penal colony. NEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 81, 444.) Newsuapers in Great Britain, 1876, 1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7.870 periodicals, of which 5,957 weeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, 8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- cerns within the last few years, are: Stanley's expedition into Central Africa, for the New York Herald ; Mr. George Smith's explorations in Assyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very powerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York '"Ring," in consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O'Brien. Works on the English periodical press : Andrews' British Journalism, 1855, and Hunt's Fourth Estate, 1850 ; on that of America, Hudson's Journalism in the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- mation in Buckingham's and Thomas's works. NEW YORK CITY. (See pp. 82, 443.) Bamum's old museum burnt, July 13, 1S65 ; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold-buying operations of Fisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869 ; revelations of the " Tweed Ring " corruptions in the city government, August and September, 1871 ; Fisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872 ; the Erie railway administra- tion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872 ; trouble from epizootic, or horse disease, October, 1872 ; great panic in business throughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sej>- tember, 1873 ; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to twelve years' imprisonment, November 19, 1873 ; escapes, December, 1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civd suit, March 8, 1876 ; arrested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to jail. NEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; recognized as belonging to Great Britain, 1814 ; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829 ; colony and bishopric established 1841 ; towns founded. : Auckland, 1840, Nelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1850; native insur- rection from land troubles, March, 1860 : suppressed, after much fighting and trouble, March, 1861 ; another native war, May, 1863, continued more or less until July, 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,000 miles long and 200 wide ; area of land, about 102,000 square miles ; white population, 1851, 26,707; December 31, 1876. about 375,856, besides about 45,470 natives or Maoris. NICSICS. A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land which joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- portant military position. NILE. (See p. 446.) From the time of Bruce's explorations in 1768 -70, no discovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made until Speke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Baker discovers the Albert Nyanza, March 14, 1864. Livingston's letter from 42 the world's progress. Ujiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are about 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. NITROGLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30, 1869. Two cart-loads of nitro-glycerine exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry there. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to pieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the beard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for two miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in the road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. NORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 447.) After the English penal colony was removed, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) were in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn's Island and established here. In December, 1875, the new colony was prosperiug. NORWAY. (See Sweden.) O. OCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been made by Sars, off the coast of Norway ; by Carpenter and Thompson, near the Faroe Islands, 1868-9 ; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. The voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 21, 1872, to May 25, 1876; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- tions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, 8,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, March 24, 1878. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three miles. OLD AGE. (See Longevity, pp. 69, 402.) Sir G. C. Lewis, Prof. Owen, and W. J. Thorns (his "Human Longevity" published 1873,) have dis- proved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be believed in. A few recent ones are as follows : Anthony Beresford died in England, aged 101, March 3, 1874 — considered authentic ; Count Wal- deck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875 ; Captain Frederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, 1877, at New York. OLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual synod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000 members and adherents were reported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. The movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- bility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. OLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned by Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Bottiger, October, 1875. The Ger- man Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- inals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting discoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of Jupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. ORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 24, 234.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- bore, 20-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round shot, cast at Pittsburg, 1864 ; a stream of cold water was kept running through the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the inside of the gun. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guns at Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 43 ironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) of wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with ll-£ inches of iron. Palliser's patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron moulds), dated May 27, 1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, where a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American guns, and .a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted by a model fort defended by 15-inch iron plates. The "Woolwich In- fant," 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pound shot, with 120-pound charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- pound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot penetrated 50 feet of sand. A charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of "steel bronze," used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- cessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at Spezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled guns first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol, 1854-5. The Armstrong breech- loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, 1860. The Ger- man army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. ORIGIN op SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published November, 1869. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and 5 halls, in 1871, £483,842, 16s. 6d. OXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third ■ of the earth, nine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. OZONE. (See p. 85.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling's suggestion was correct, viz. : that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the space it would naturally occupy. PACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Francisco, opened for traffic May 12, 1868. PALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under it began in 1 866 ; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, 1871 ; a similar fund established at New York, same year. PAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty water-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- tle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief Asiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. PAN-ANGLICAN Conference of seventy-five bishops, English, Colonial, and American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1867, and issued an address and resolutions of a pretty general and safe character. Another is pro- posed for July, 1878. PANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- ruary 13 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other costly articles were destroyed. PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallibility.) PARAGUAY. (See p. 87.) Francis S. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- tator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Paraguay, December, 1864, in consequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on November 11, 1864; de- feated Lopez in several battles, and he was killed at Aquidaban. March 1, 44 the world's progress. 1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. S. Jovellanos chosen president for three years, December 12, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November 25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,337,439, and another return in 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 221,079 souls, of which men over 15 only 28,746, and women 106,254, the other 86,079 being children. PASSION PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented from time time at Oberammergau, in Bavaria ; said to have been so rep- resented there ever since 1633. PASSPORT SYSTEM. Introduced in the United States August 19, 1861, on account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809 ; Sweden, 1860; Italy, 1862 ; Portugal, 1863 ; in France, abolished as to British subjects, December 16, 1860 ; revived in the war, August 1, 1870 ; abolished again April 10, 1872. PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret society in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- cultural interests. Said to have been first organized by one Saunders, who established the national "grange" (or lodge) in December, 1867. Subordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868; 39 in 1869; 38 in 1870 ; 125 in 1871 ; 1,105 in 1872 ; 8,400 in 1873 ; and for a year or two after this time the order had much x^olitical influence, and did some- thing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- lation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the " Grangers," to fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad failure. PAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 479.) Paupers and their cost in England and Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : Paupers. Poor-rate. 1866 916,152 £6,439,517 1867 931.546 6.959,840 1868 1,034,723 7,498,059 1869 1.039,549 7,673.100 1870 1,079,391 7,644.307 1871 1,071,926 7;886,724 1872 977,664 8 007,403 1873 890.372 7,692,169 1874 829,281 7,664,957 1875 815,5S7 PAUPERS in United States, 1870, 116,102. PEABODYFUND. {See Charities.) PEABODY MEMORIAL. A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly inaugurated in London, July 23, 186*). PEACE JUBILEE. (See Boston. ) PEERAGE. In 37 years, 1832-69, an average of 24 commoners a year were created peers in England. PERU. (See pp. 89, 467.) Presidents : Canseco succeeds Pezet, Novem- ber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, 1S67, made president; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and Gen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868 ; Col. Balta next August 1, 1868 ; Gutierrez dictator, July 22, 1872, but killed 26th ; Pardo elected, August 2, and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- vian railways, in establishing which the American, Henry Meiggs, has been SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 45 prominent, at end of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were 22 lines, 2,030 miles in length. PESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by Arthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some acceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. (Seep. 477; also Norfolk Island.) PLANCHETTE. (See Spiritualism.) PLANETS. (See Astronomy.) POLAND. (Seep. 476.) The separate government of Poland abolished, and administrative union with Russia perfected February 29, 1868. Polish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868 ; in courts of law and public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- tary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, which had continued most of the time since 1830. POOR. (See Paupers.) POPULATION. (See pp. 93, 481.) Total population of the world esti- mated at 1.377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at Washington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. POSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Auguste Comte (born about 1795, died 1852), which rejects metaphysics and claims to deal wholly with facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of human belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the former two being erroneous, and the last the only valid one, at which Europe is just now arriving. POST-OFFICE; Postal Affairs. Book-post established in England, 1855. Money-order office established 1792 ; little used until 1840, but very largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government and run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued October 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to depositors) established 1861 ; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, £23,157,469 18s. lOd. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, Switzerland, January 27, 1874, and signed a convention, October 9, for a universal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 2^ pence, or 5 cents for each half-ounce letter rate ; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for each newspaper rate, etc. In the United States Post-office Department : Postage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth $19,718,708.75; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, worth $4,359,907.04 ; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723.- 50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, 17,682,665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- pers, 15,690,155, worth $429,110.93. Total numberof these issues, 1,049,- 797,507, worth $26,953,421.72. PRAYER-GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry Thompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should be chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, as compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to heal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on this suggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. PREHISTORIC MAN. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned 20,000 years old; human bones found in Florida 30, 000 years old. Recent 46 the world's progress. discoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Perthes, near Abbeville, 1836, and similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, have led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd on the earth for many ages. The prehistoric period has been divided into the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock's ■' Prehistoric Times" (1865), Dawkins's " Cave-Hunting," Evans's "Ancient Stone Im- plements " (1872), etc. An International Congress of Prehistoric Archse- ology meets annually and publishes transactions. PRE-RAPHAELITES. A. school of painters that arose in England about 1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their peculiarity was a purpose to pursue real art by representing nature as they saw it, instead of following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art has on the whole been good. PRINTING-PRESS. (See p. 96.) The Walter press, an English inven- tion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 copies per hour of a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50.000 such copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several machines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some of them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. A Caxton celebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth centennial of establishment of his press in England, at London, July, 1877. PRUSSIA. (See pp. 97, 493.) North German Confederation (see Ger- many), formed August 1, 1866. King refuses to receive the French minister Benedetti in consequence of improper demands, July 13, 1870; French declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19 ; first hostilities at Niederbronn, July 26 ; first battle at SaarbriAck, July 30 (for events of the war see Ghronologioal Tables) ; capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- hon's army at Sedan, September 2, 1870 ; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, October 27 ; Paris capitulates, January 28, 1871 ; treaty of peace signed, February 26 ; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany at Ver- sailles, January 18 ; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. Prussian nationality and administration remain substantially intact, while it is a member of the new empire of Germany. PURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy Council was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the ritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law " by wearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; by using wine mixed with water, and wafer- bread in the administration of the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between the communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer. " He was held to pay costs. PUSEYISM. (See Ritualism ; also Tractarianism, p. 123.) Q. QUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A. E. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent islands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. Population of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area about 678,600 square miles, or one-fifth as much as all Europe. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 47 R. RADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, hung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- vented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, and this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical action of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the motion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the approximate vacuum. RAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 99.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged Schools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted from rates, 1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- cing these. RAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over the whole length of the Mount Cenis Railway, 48 miles. This road crosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. Railways in the world, end of 1876 : Europe miles, 88,745 North America " 79,519 South. America " 3,701 Africa miles, 1,451 Asia " 7,643 Australia " 1,752 Central Am. and W. Indies . "- 559 Total 183,370 Another authority makes this total 194,836. Of the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another authority says 77,470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 877. About one- fourth the railroads built in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. Steam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in the spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- ment ; bill passed, 344 to 85, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway built as a tram-way for horse-power, at Festiniog, in Wales, 1832 ; loco- motives used on it, 1863. RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish clay mail express train ran into a freight train with petroleum near Aberg-ele, in Wales, and the oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned alive in the cars, having (apparently) been smothered in the smoke, as not a scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21, 1870, by the collision of two trains on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- land, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or 50 more or less injured. December 29, 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on the Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persons burned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on railroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. RATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man's tools because he opposes trades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much of it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, June and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) RECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 1865, the Southern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political affairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the Union over President Johnson's veto, on condition that the State should 48 the world's progress. never deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in like manner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite in consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President Johnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except those actually under indictment for treason-felony. During President Grant's administration, the Republican State governments, in Louisiana and South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- dent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States at once passed under democratic administrations. RED RIVER. (See Manitoba.) RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD. Estimating the population of the world at 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of numbers : 1. Pagans ; 2. Christians ; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists not counted ; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes are estimated as follows : Pagans, viz. : Buddhists ■ 455,000,000 Others 425,000,000 880,600.000 Christians, viz. : Roman Catholics 201.200.000 Protestants 106,300^000 Eastern Churches 81,900,000 389,400,000 Mohammedans (some say 165 millions) 100,000,000 Jews 7,000,000 1,377,000,000 REPUBLICAN PARTY. The following table of the popular and electoral votes for President will sbow the numerical history of the Republican party, 1856-1876 : Popular Electoral Vote. Vote. 1856. Buchanan 1,838.169 174 Fremont 1,341,264 114 Fillmore 874,534 8 1860. Lincoln 1,866,352 180 Douglas 1.375,157 12 Breckenridge 845, 763 72 Bell 589,581 39 1864. Lincoln 2,216.067 212 McClellan 1, 808,725 21 1865. Grant 3,015,071 214 Seymour 2,709,613 71 Popular Electoral Vote. Vote. 1872. Grant 3,597,070 186 Greeley (died be- fore the electoral vote) 2,834,079 3 Hendricks 42 Brown 18 Jenkins 2 Davis 1 1876. Haves 4,033,295 185 Tilden 4,284,265 184 Cooper 81,737 Smith 9,522 By this table the successive proportions between the Republican party and its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as follows : 1856, 13 to 18 ; 1860, 18 to 13 ; 1864, 22 to 18 ; 1868, 30 to 27 ; 1872, 35 to 28 ; 1876, 40 to 42 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- ular vote). REPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, recommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that "■ it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent, interest now paid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- pal in semi-annual instalments." In reply, the House of Representatives voted by 154 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 49 odious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed would be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- ana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee, do not pay the interest on their debts. Some of them, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less of the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and Illi- nois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about $39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and the authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the debt, at three and sis per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- clined, but offered to accept half ; but nothing was done. The whole debt of South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this year a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating half of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, even at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on account of public debt until times shall be better, July 9, 1876. Penn- sylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only pretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards made in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French spoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by France for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the claims. BESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the Government of the United States is to resume specie payment January 1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to notwithstanding vio- lent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which efforts are in more or less close connection with the attempt to keep up or enlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- deemable. BEVENUB. Bevenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years 1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue are not specified, though included in " total.") Citstoms. Intern. Rev. Total. Expenditures. 1867 §176,417,810.88 $266,027,537.43. . . 1868 164,464.599.56 191,087,589.41... 1869 1S0,04S,426.63 158,356,460.86... 1870 194,538,374.44 1S4.899, 756.49. . . 1S71 206,270.408.05 143,098,153.63... 1872 216,370,2S6.77 130.642.177.72... 1873 188,0S9,522.70 113,729,314.14... 1S74 163,103,833.69 102,409,784.90... 1S75 157,167.722,35 110,007,493.58... 1876 148,071,984.61 116,700,732.03 283,758,493.36 25S, 459, 797.10 BEVENUE and EXPENDITUBE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), years 1868 to 1876, ending March 31 : Revenue. Expenditure. Revenue. ExpendiUire. 1868 £69,600,21S £71,236.242 I 1873 £76.608,770 £70,714,44S 1869 72,591,991 74,971.816 1874 77.335,657 76,466.510 1870 75,434.252 6S.864, 752 1875 74,921,873 74,328.040 1871 69,945,220 69,54S,539 1876 77.131,693 76,621,773 1872 74,70S,314 71,490,020 | BEVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Bev. Mr. Keet, a Wesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title " Beverend " on the grave- stone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial in the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. 3 52,846,679.92 $340,729,324.78 376.434,453.82 370,339,133.82 357.18S,255.64 321,190,597.75 395,959.833.87 293,657,C05.70 374,431.10 1.94. 283.160,393.51 364,694,229.91 270,559.695,91 322,177,673.78 285.239,325.34 299,941,090.84 285,738,800.21 284,020,771.41 272,093,573,84 50 the world's progress. Keet ; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July 31, 1875, sustained the refusal ; but on appeal again, the Privy Council. January 2 1 , 1876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- tory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church of England. REVIVALS. Moody and Sankey's revival meetings in England, 1874-5. In March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farewell meet- ing, July 12, 1875. In New York city, February 7 to April 19, 1876 ; in Boston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been obtained. ' RIOTS. (See pp. 102, 509.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- ists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871 ; at White Haven, April 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at Greenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867 ; in November following, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions ; Oct. 30, 1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious riotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some colliers convicted of assault ; mob only dispersed by being fired on, from which 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, 1871, much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix Park to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots break out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes. Furioiis rioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- bord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at law, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1875. RITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism in the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874, to go into opera- tion July 1, 1875. The Pddsdale case was the first under the act, in which judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. Ridsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and Rev. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. Arthur Tooth, vicar of St. James's at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully commanded to desist from processions, tolling the bell, singing certain music, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was on Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise officiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. For a similar case before the act, see Purchas Case. ROMANISM. (See pp. 103, 510; see also Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Vatican Council.) The "emancipation" of the Romanists has steadily advanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- lains to gaols, by act July, 1863 ; Justice Shee, of the Queen's Bench, (Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- mation. O'Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec, 1868), was the first Romanist in that office since 1688 ; the first Romanist master of arts since the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 1871 ; Ecclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, 1871. Meanwhile Romanist bishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- tion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the State, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October, 1871. In Germany, the " Falk laws," to subject ecclesiastical affairs to a royal tribunal, passed May 11, 1873, and an obstinate though not noisy struggle between the German Empire and the Romanist hierarchy sets in, SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 51 which is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, and banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various offi- cials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists to obtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not thus far succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Riots. ROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867. They march out, August 21, 1870. Italian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870 ; united to kingdom of Italy along with Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870, and the Pope's authority restricted to the Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as fol- lows : Out of 167,548 votes : for union, 183,681 ; against, 1,507 ; the rest did not vote. The Pope has hitherto (1877) wholly refused the restricted ■ sovereignty and guaranties offered him. ROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this name in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. The Rosicrucians of the seveuteenth century, however, were a hoax, im- agined by one Andreas or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended account of them, 1615. ROUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- edged by Turkey, December, 1861 ; Alexander Couza, hospodar ; he abdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by Prince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- maringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar by the Sultan, October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and title of king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer of 1877. RUSSIA. (See pp. 104, 514.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July 2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three million) in two years, March 3, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation of Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. Circassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, 1866. Samarcand taken, May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- koff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, 1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- mercial panic from failure of Strousberg, November, 1875. Prosecution of the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- ruary 20, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- ber 15, 1876 ; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter Roumania ; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877 ; Gen. Gourkha, with a strong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- lel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only an advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat by Mukhtar Pasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. S. SADOWA, or Koniggratz, in' Bohemia. Decisive battle of the " Seven Weeks' War," or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July 3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged ; the Austrians lost 174 guns, 40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided the war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the North German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative independence of Hungary. 52 the world's progress. ST. CRISPIN, Knights of. This trade union of boot and shoe making operatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread into other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- bers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general object of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. SAN DOMINGO. (See p. 107.) Present name of the Spanish part of the island of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. Dominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of President Boyer. Baez was President, 1849-1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; Baez again, 1856-8 ; Valverde, March, 1858-May, 1861 ; reunion with Spain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection against Spain, August, 1861 ; insurgents generally defeated, buj; Spain renounces the colony, May 5, 1865 ; Cabral President, September, 1865 ; Baez, Novem- ber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867 ; San Domingo City nearly destroyed by a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; G-anier d'Aton, October, 1873 ; Gonzalez ; Baez, December 10, 1876. Population estimated at about 250,000. SAN JUAN Arbitration between Great Britain and the United States, for ownership of the island, which commands the strait between British Columbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of Germany, October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British troops left accordingly, November 22 following. SAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent since its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. Government, nominally republican ; but there is most frequently some revolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000 to 600,000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. SARAWAK. A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 railed along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 population. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Englishman, 1841-1868. SAVINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 108, 519.) Deposits in savings-banks of Great Britain and Ireland, 1872, £40,088,348. For English postal savings, see Post- Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New Jersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5, deposits amounting to $810,096,745, of which the bankers of New York held over $303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. SCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation of the river made free. SEAMEN. On Mr. S. Plimsoll's motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- gate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, 1873 ; reported July 2, 1874 ; a merchant shipping survey bill rejected, June 24, 1874 ; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; an act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy ships, August 13, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15, 1876. SECULARISM. A non-Christian, free-thinking system, " seeking morality in nature, and happiness in duty," and claiming to be " not against Chris- tianity, but independent of it. ' ' Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- yoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number of secularists are to be found in the United States. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 53 SEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old times, on the Mense, in the north-east of Prance, and the seat of a little principal- ity held by the Dukes of Bouillon, who were Princes of Sedan. Ceded to the French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- vocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Here was taken, destroyed, or surrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French Army of the North, 150,000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in com- mand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- pieces, and 150 fortress guns. SERVIA. (Seep. 110.) Alexander Karageorgevitch {i. e., son of Black George), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and Milosch Obrenovitch (re- elected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858 ; succeeded by his son, Michael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860 ; movement begins about this time for independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha bombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862 ; on a conference of the powers, at Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions to Servia, October, 1862. On further demands by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn ; Prince Mi- chael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- ceeds; war against Turkey breaks out, July, 1876 ; complete subjection of Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November 1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by census December 31, 1874, 1,352,522. SHEFFIELD, England. An abominable practice of persecution by " rat- tening," or stealing tools, and other outrages, and even, in several in- stances, by murder and attempts to murder, at Sheffield and Manchester, all reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- nents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary commission, June and July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- tary to the Saw-Grinders' Union, who planned these proceedings and paid for them. SHIPPING. (See also Navies.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britain and Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875 : Men Vessels. Tonnage. employed. Sail 17,221 4,044,504 126,240 Steam 2,970 1,847,188 73,427 20,191 5,S91,692 199,667 On June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as follows : Vessels. Tonnage. Sail 17.226 2,257,154,23 Steam 3,958 1,116,425,42 ■Unrigged (barges, etc) 7,S03 890,858,07 Canal-boats, etc 2,936 331.445,74 31,923 4,595,S83,46 June, 1876, the total tonnage was 4,853,752. SHIPWRECKS. (See Wrecks.) SIAMESE TWINS. (See p. 113.) . They were exhibited a second time in London, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two hours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there was an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems through the band that connected them. 54 the world's progress. SILKWORM. (See p. 529.) In 1856 the French silk crop, which should have been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value by the destruction of the silk-worms, which were killed off by a sort of epizootic called pebrine, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- vestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by Pasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. SILVER. (See pp. 113, 529. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in the United States, 184S-1873, $150,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- duced $40,478,869 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. In 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which time the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, with a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more a merchandise than a currency, except for small change. SINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1872. SINAITIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bible.) SKOPTZI, or White Doves. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prac- tice emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. SLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from July, 1863; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty with England, June 5, 1873 ; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several chiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Gov. Strahan, December 17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. SLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- cludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, and Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, as follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 5,940,- 539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830; Czechs (l e., Bohemians), 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162; total, 90,365,633. A so-called "Pan-Slavist " movement has of late years been set on foot, with rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at Moscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. SOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study within fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the English Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at Birmingham, October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions has been published. The American Social Science Association, whose headquarters are at Boston, Mass. , has issued, besides a tract on emigra- tion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning with June, 1869. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and debate is had. SOONGARIA. (See Dzoungaria.) SOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elsinore on all ships" passing the Sound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no longer, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation. SPAIN. (See pp. 116, 535.) The Government, since 1S67, has changed as follows: Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868; Provisional Republican government established ; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869 ; Queen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870 ; crown declined by Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, July 4 ; Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen king November 16, 1870 ; abdicating, a republican government restored. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 55 1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874; Alfonso XII., son of Queen Isa- bella, king, 1875 ; the present constitution proclaimed June 30, 1876. An attempt by Don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII. , to obtain the throne ; he enters Spain, May, 1872, and maintains hostilities with more or less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1876, when, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to the Governor of Bayonne, February 27, 1876. Don Carlos (born 1848), is son of Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI. , who was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. renounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos therefore claims under Carlos V. SPECIE PAYMENT. (See Resumption.) SPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 1861 ; since variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examination of light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- coveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the sub- stances composing the sun, some nebula?, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and also in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, caesium and rubidium. SPELLING REFORM. The Spelling Reform Association was organized in Philadelphia, August 17, 1876, for ''the simplification of English ortho- graphy." President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. ; Cor- responding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Fern wood, Pa. Efforts in the same direction have for some years been made in England. SPIRITUALISM, or SPIRITISM. The so-called " spiritual manifesta- tions " began at Rochester, New York, about 1848 ; about 1851 much attention was given in England to the raps, "table-turning," etc. Some time afterwards a little machine called "Planchefcte" was a leading topic of interest. Various sorts of "test-mediums" and "manifesta- tions " have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent spiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. The " Spiritual Magazine," London, began January, 1860; the " Spirit- ualist," November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some of the "manifestations," but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been demonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. STADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing Stade. Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished, 1861, for a sum of £3,000,000. STANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by weight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper ; standard silver, 37 of silver to 3 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold was 15^- of silver equal to one of gold by weight. STEEL. Bessemer's process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in Germany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad rails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. STORM SIGNALS. (See Meteorology.) STORMS. (See Cyclones; Hurricanes.) STRASBURG. Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870 ; surrendered by Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The 56 THE WOELT V j PROGRESS. ancient and very valuable library was destroyed during the siege, and the cathedral much injured. STREET RAILWAYS, Steam on. (See Railways.) STRIKES. (See page 118 ; see also St. Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by workmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the history of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history of strikes, which have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great Britain and the United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of Buckinghamshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of success. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton Railway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a compromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) Northeastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- work to some of them — in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April 28, the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returned to work on the employers' terms after a number of months. In a trial arising from this strike the practice of ' ' picketing " or watching for, fol- lowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. September, 1868, the London cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so-called "privileged" cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. The strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- der's great iron and steel works, at Oreuzot, in France, struck in conse- quence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome workman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, 16,000 -work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could restore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already taken place at Marseilles, Perpignan, and other places in the south of France. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Belfast, and some other post-offices struck by arrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certain clerks for joining a " protective association." The strikers were mostly reinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. October 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other workmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, ended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- maining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers for nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- tained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent others from taking their places. At one time during this year were on strike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the colliers of Northumber- land, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-workers of North Staf- fordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- makers of the potteries. The New York strike, in 1872, for the eight-hour working day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1873, 60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent, reduction in wages. Many strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, as wages began to be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. April 12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the mill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but ultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. February 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railroad, be- longing to a general " Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers," presided over by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 57 not taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report of the Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- ing penal statutes against such action in future, was published February 21, 1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar cases, pretty much broke the power of the "Brotherhood." Extensive series of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- ning at Martinsburg, in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws and criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various kinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and the trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast amounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and communication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were blocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the United States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- ment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act of Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, but its usefulness was only temporary. SUEZ CANAL. (See p- 118.) Work commenced 1858. First ship goes through, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. £4,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England of the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- nounced, November 26, 1875. SUICIDES. (See p. 546.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in ten years : 18fi5 1,397 1866 1,360 1867 1,356 1868 1,546 1869 ...1,562 1870 1,517 1871 1,464 1S72 1,455 1873 1,481 1874 1,549 SUN. (See p. 547.) Cycle of changes in number of sun's spots fixed at 11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun during an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18, 1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to line 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the spectroscope to exist in the sun : Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc — all fused into a liquid or even vaporous state. SUNDAY ; Sunday Laws. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural religion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, and others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry (case of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an infraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Public Library Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- position, February, 1873. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. (See pp. 121, 548.) Religious toleration to some extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- vailed), 1860. New constitution, December, 1864. Charles XV. dies Sept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, Dec. 31, 1875, 4,383,291, and Norway 1,817,237. SWIMMING DRESS, Boyton's. (See Life-Saving.) 3* 58 the world's progress. SWITZERLAND. (See pp. 121, 550.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, January 16, 1873. Eevised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874. Swiss National Catholic Church ("Old Catholic") established June, 1874 Civil marriage law adopted, May 23, 1875. Population, 1870, 2,669,147. SYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let- ter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modern philosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, 1870. TALMUD. (See p. 553.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, and parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de Sola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- don, 1847. TAXES. (See pp. 121,554; also Revenue : National Debt ; etc.) National, State, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- 000,000 a year, or about $19.00 for each soul. TEA. (See pp. 121, 554.) Importation into the United States, and value, 1869-1876 : Lbs. Value. 1869 . 39,141,755 $13,687,750 1870 40,812,188 13.871,546 1871 46,972,787 17,254,617 1872 56,974,100 22,943,575 1873 57,870,700 24,466,170 1874 49,831,800 21,112,234 1875 64,856,899 22,673,703 1876 62,S87,153 19,524,166 Imported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 lbs. ; worth £13,766,961. TELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English telegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years' profits for the property. The companies claimed £7,035,977; on a valuation this sum was reduced to £5,715,047, of which the profit item was £5,220,109. £700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and some other items carried the whole government expenditure to about £6,750,000, or $33,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, annual revenue expected, £673,838; expenses, £359,484; net profit, £314,354 ; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent, interest on the government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- plus of £77,000 or £44,000, as the case might be. The result, however, has been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at 9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- rachee, in India, at 12.43 in the morning of the next day. TELEPHONE. Bell's, Gray's, and Edison's telephones were brought before the public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- man, about 1862. Bell's operates by means of talking and listening into a "funnel" or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which vibrates over an electro -magnet in an electric circuit. Gray's acts by the vibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound along an electric circuit. TELESCOPE. (See p. 555.) Lord Rosse's great telescope, fifty-two feet long, seven feet diameter, erected 1828-45, cost over £20,000. Newall's telescope, with object-glass 25 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- land, 1870. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 59 TENURE of OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit the power of President Johnson. It required the consent oi' the Senate to re- move as well as to appoint officials. THOMASSEN. (See Explosions.) TICHBORNE CASE. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of the Tichbome estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichborne, was asserted by the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. After occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, spoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and forgery ; trial began April 23, 1872 ; verdict of perjury, February 28, 1874. Longest trial known in England; sentence fourteen years at hard labor. TICKET OF LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to behave well. 2,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 the system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many crimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude Act, 1864. TORPEDO. For submarine warfare, invented by David Bushnell, of Say- brook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfully, except that it greatly frightened them, 1777 ; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedo departments have, since the introduction of iron- clad war-ships, been in- troduced into all navy organizations. TRADES-UNIONS. (See Battening; Strikes.) National Federation of Employers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions. Parliamen- tary report on persecutions by the Saw-Grinders' Union of Sheffield, and similar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in New York City in 1869 had 24,425 members ; in 1876 many of them had been discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole number in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which eleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. The fifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at Leeds, January 13, 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- ties, one of which contained 140,000 members. TREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act oi 1848, to certain treasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or transportation. The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. TRIALS. (See pp. 123, 567; also Ticlibome Case ; Bitualism, and Purchas Case.) Saurin v. Starr, '' the convent case," by an ex-inmate of a Roman Catholic convent at Hull, England, against the Superior and others, for conspiracy, etc., occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1889. The plaintiff recovered £500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen, Wales, the " Welsh Fasting Girl Case." The girl's parents, Evan and Hannah Jacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived for months without food ; and when some competent persons were sent from Gray's Hospital to watch the child, the parents let her die. They were convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and the mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, a " ritualist," incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended for three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- obeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and prostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, 60 the world's progress. the case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, re- sulted in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt's insanity. The Prince of Wales had been reported concerned, in the scandal, but denied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curious libel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth is flat and not round, had bet £500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, and the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding the bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sending about libellous postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial he made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment was given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey case, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining and teaching various alleged infidel doctrines. The tribunal found that he contradicted and impugned the thirty-nine articles in respect to original sin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, and other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. By final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years' litigation, obtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. TRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other animals ; transferred iuto those who eat the infected meat, and causes a disease, sometimes fatal, called trichiniasis. First found in human mus- cle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the subject, 18(55-6. TROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-3, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- mains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- cient treasure, part of which he called the "treasure of Priam." He be- lieved the site to be that of ancient Troy ; his book translated and pub- lished in English, 1875. TUNNEL. Mont Cenis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long ; began August 31, 1857 ; boring completed, December 25, 1870 ; cost about $18,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- lais, proposed, August, 1869, by Bateman and Revy ; plans by Thome de Gamond shown in Paris, 1867 ; a convention in favor of it signed for France by M. Chevalier, January, 1875, and a thirty years' monopoly granted ; French and English companies formed ; experimental borings in the chalk at the sides of the channel indicate that the rock is such as to make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- tain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856 ; completed, 1873 ; four and three-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode and other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000 ; to be 21,- 178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 43,088 feet. TURKEY.. (See pp. 124, 570.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, extending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. The " An- drassy note," suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan's Government by the Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian, and Russian am- bassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises religious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- ing them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- govina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, 1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, risings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- rages. Consuls of France and Germany assassinated at Salonica, by Mo- SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 61 hammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the " Berlin memo- randum," agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- ing prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the Andrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was dropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas (students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- throned by his miuisters, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have committed suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made Sultan, May 30th ; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by his younger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12, 1876, Prince Milan of Servia proclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under arms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish army, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of War and of Foreign Affairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- fore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of Servia aud Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, July 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the public debt " until the internal affairs of the empire have become more settled," July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at Alexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- tors. Mr. Gladstone's powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, published September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia granted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. Conferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun December 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- tatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 2.4, 1876, in order to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. U. UNITED STATES. (See pp. 125, 575; also Centennial, etc.; Chronological Tables, p. 138, etc.) In 1870 there were in the United States, 3,603,844 square miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lands, and less than • one-tenth of it cultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38,558,371 ; estimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000; expected at census of 1880 to be fifty millions. Value of all real and personal property (1870), $30,068- 518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,562; in prison, June 1, 1870, 32,901 ; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- fices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. UNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc. , in German ones, June, 1876 : Professors Professors and Teachers. Students. aud Teachers. Students. 197 2,143 Konigsberg S3 611 100 707 156 2,925 107 1,116 65 401 54 429 116 1,203 Freiburg . . . i-59 274 29 431 54 315 39 153 G-ottingen . 115 Strassburg . 90 677 57 444 870 84 823 67 984 Heidelberg 73 440 21 l,SO0 .... 16,622 Kiel 61 202 62 the world's progress. Add to these 2,377 unmatriculated, "permitted to attend lectures" (of which 1,962 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 studerits ; 14 universi- ties are Protestant ; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- burg, Munich, Minister, and Wurzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen. VATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first GScumenical or General Council, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868 ; met at Rome, December 8, 1869 ; present, 803 members ; there were four public sessions, and from 90 to 100 " congregations." New canons issued April 24, 1870; the infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 2, and the doctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. VBDAS. Hindoo sacred books, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. There are three portions of them — the Rig-Veda, Yajur- Veda, and Atharva- Veda — the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years B.C. Max Miiller's edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849 ; Wilson's translation, 1850. VELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the aeronaut, about 1779 ; one by Niepce, 1818 ; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) more or less employed. VENDOME COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists, May 16, 1871 ; restored August 31, 1874 ; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, 1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for his participation in overturning it. VENEZUELA. (See p. 578.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18, 1865; Mo- nagas, June to November, 1865 ; Pulgar, December, 1865 ; Blanco, July, 1870, and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on civil marriage ; papal authority renounced by the government, September, 1876. Area about 403,261 square miles; population (1873), 1,784,194. VENUS, Transit of. (See Astronomy.) VESUVIUS. (See pp. 126, 580.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- mer, 1860 ; December, 1861 ; February, 1865 ; November 12, 1867 to April, 1868 ; October 8 to November 20, 1869; April 23 to May 3, 1872. VICTORIA, ra Australia. (See p. 126.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- tion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 829,824. VISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which each letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. Invented by A. M. Bell; explained by him, and a book on it published, London, 1866 ; introduced in America by him and his son, J. G. Bell, the inventor of a telephone, about 1872. VIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859 ; gener- ally opposed by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate it in Great Britain, August 15. 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. W. WAGES. JSee pp, 128, 585 ; also Strikes, Trades-Unions.) In New York, from 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty eight trades fell from 10 to 20 per cent. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 63 In England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly- total of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866. estimated at from £250,- 000,000 to £418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between 20 and 60 years of age. WAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; arose in Arabia about 1750 ; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina ; were defeated by Egyptian forces 1818 ; are at present prosperous in Arabia, and there are some of them in India. Palgrave's Journey in Arabia, 1865, is a good account of them. WAR. (See pp. 128, 587 ; also Army ; Battles ; Navy ; National Debt ; etc. ) An estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses in one quarter-century of Christian war. Crimean war. $1,700,000,000 Italian war (1859) 300.000,000 TJ. S. rebellion (North) 4,700,000,000 TJ. S. rebellion (South.) 2.300,000,000 Schleswig-Holstein war ' 35,000,000 And deaths (not complete). Crimean war 475,000 Italian war 1859 ... 45,000 Schleswig-Holstein war 3,000 TJ. S. rebellion 800,000 Austro-Prnssian war (1866) 330.000,000 Franco- Prussian 2,500.000,000 Other wars, etc 200.000.000 Total cost $12,085,000,000 Austro-Prussian war of 1866.... 45.000 Franco-Prussian war 215,000 Total deaths 1,183,000 These deaths are nearly all of the strongest young men, from 25 to 35 years old. WATCHES. (See p. 590 ; also Clocks and Watches.) WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190° E. longitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is not more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31, 1870, in- cluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called the Swan River Settlement. WOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under the Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, August 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German line and broken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. WRECKS. (See pp. 130, 602; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- ties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total wrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in 1871, on British coast, 4,336. YACHT. (See p. 131.) July 4, 1870, an "international" yacht race was begun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria and the American one Dauntless. The Cambria won, arriving at 4 p.m. of July 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours later. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- national yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts of the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York, won four out of the first five races, deciding the match. 64 THE WOKLD's PROGRES3. Z. ZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son. of the Seyyid (lord) of Muscat. At Majid's death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, his brother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, 1873. ZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be only three out of the original twenty-one nosks-or books. It consists of hymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three parts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yacnas. The five Gathas or hymns in the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- ful, though in part unquestionably great. Anquetil Duperron's French version, 1771 ; Burnouf's, 1829-43 ; Spiegel's, in German, a later one. is the best ; and an English version of this by Bleeck was published at Hertford, England, 1804. BUREAU OF STATISTICS, U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. [Few the following statistics we are indebted to the courtesy of Hon. Alexander DELSfya, Director of the Bureau.] CUSTOMS Duties Received in 1866. * During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83 * " " June 30, " 46,175,132.33 * " " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 f '« " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.54 $181,467,531.94 Official. t Commercial a.nd Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867- HIPP! NG Statistics: Tonnage of the United States. Registered. Enrolled and Licensed. Total. Tear. Sail. Steam. Sail. Steam. Tonnage. 1860, 2,448,941 97,296 2,030,990 770,641 5,353,868 1861, 2,540,020 102,608 2,122,589 774,596 5,539,813 1862, 2,177,253 113,998 2,224,449 596,465 5,112,165 1863, 1,892,899 133,215 2,660,212 439,755 5,126,081 1364, 1,475,376 106,519 2,550,690 853,816 4,986.401 1S65, $ old, 1,031,465 60,539 1,794,372 630,411 3,516,787 1865, i new, 482,110 28,469 730,695 338,720 1,579,994 1S66, S old, 341,619 42,776 443,635 114,269 942,299 1S66, I new, 953,018 155,513 1,489,194 770,754 3,36S,479 EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending June 30, 1867 Domestic. Foreign. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. Gold Bullion,... 298,854 8,425,227 Gold Coin, 1,500,041 15,800,152 Silver Bullion,. 706,081 8,186,837 Silver Coin,.... 248,978 1,581,753 none. 1,418,853 18,939 1,521,062 8,724,081 19,902,626 8,911,857 3,658,974 Total, 2,753,954 33,993,969 1,490,761 2,958,854 41,197,538 COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consut ption of coffee in the United States during the years ending December 31, .861, 1862, 1863, 1861, 1865, and 1866 : Year. 1861, 1862, Pounds. 187,046,00ft 88,990,000 79,720,000 Tear. 1864, 1S65, 1866, Pounds. 109,087,000 128,146,000 169,915.840 60 UNITED STATES TEEASURY STATISTICS, See page 63, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. The quantity for 1866 is taken from the Supplement to H. E. Moriug's Monthly Coffee Circular, 1867. CON Statistics. Production. Exported. A verage Price Tear. Bales. Pounds Bales. per pound. 1860-61, 3,656,086 3,126,622 1 7.42 cents. 1861-62, est. 4,800,000 5,064,564 = say 12,000 42.15 " 1862-63, est. 1.500,000 11,384,986 = say 26,000 71.08 " 1S63-64, est. '500,000 10,830,534 = say 25,000 $111.14 " 1864-65, est. 300,000 6,607.186 = say 15,000 75.75 " 1865-66, 2,214,476 1,554,744 44. " 1866-67, est. 1,900,000 est. 1,500,000 32.5 " The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from Neil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 1867, as 1,S09,500 bales. The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the exports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. TEA Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 : Tear. Qreen, Japan. Black. Total. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00) 11162, 13,871,600 13,597.000 27,468,600 1863, 14,490,680 12,415,685 26,900,365 1864, 13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 1865, 18,874,199 10,979,234 29.853,433 1866, 29,643,187 See Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir- cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 pounds. The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one pound per capita. TOBACCO Statistics. Year. Production. Pounds. 1861, est. 200,000,000 1862, 136,736,596 1863, 276,850,870 1864, 197,460.229 1S65, 185,316,953 JRfifi n«t 330.501,500 Exported. Average prie* Leaf, pounds. Manufd, lbs. Total. per lb., Leaf est. 160,000,000 14,783,363 174,783,363 9. centK. est. 107,000,000 4,071,963 111,071.983 11.9 " est. 112.000.000 7,025,248 119,025,248 149 " est. 110,000,01(1 8.586,494 118,586,494 14.85 " est. 149,000.0' iel Webster, Tfutnas Oorwin, Chwles M. Conrud, "Vv liiaro A. Graham, A. il. H. Stuart, Nathan K. H-tll, .John J. Crittenden, William li. King, Howell Cobb, Linn Boyd, Massachusetts, Ohio, Louisiana, North Carolina, Virginia, New York, Kentucky, Secretary of State. Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of War. Secretary of Navy. Secretary of Interior. Postma6ter-General Attorney-Generar_ Alabama, was elected President of the Senate, and became Acting Vice-Pres't of U. S. Speakers of H. Eeps. Georgia, (continued in office), | """1. J Kentucky, December, 1851. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, inaugura.ed March 4, 185^, President. Vice-President — vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. R. King, April 18, 1S53 — William L. Marcy, James Guthrie, Robert M'Clelland, James C. Dobbin, Jefferson Davis, James Campbell, Caleb Cushing, James L. Orr, THE CABINET. New York, Kentucky, Michigan, North Carolina. Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, South Carolina, Secretary of State. Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of Interior. Secretary of Navy. Secretary of War. Post Master-General. Attorney-General. Speaker oi H. Eeps. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, inaugurated March 4, 1857, President. John C. Breckinaidge, of Kentucky, Vice-President. Lewis Cass, J. S. Black, Isaac Toncey, John B. Floyd, Joseph Holt, Howell Cobb, Philip Thomas, /ohn A. Dix, Jacob Thompson, Mississippi, Joseph Holt, Kentucky, Horatio King, J . S. Black, E. M. Stanton, Nathl. P. Banks, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Appointed Dec. I860. Connecticut, Virginia, Kentucky, Georgia, Maryland, New York, Maine Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Appointed Jan. 1S61. Appointed Dec. 1860. Appointed Jan. 1861. Jan. 1861. Dec. 1860. 1856. 1859. • Secretary of State. Secretary of Navy. - Secretary of War. > Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of Interior. ■ Postmaster-General. • Attorney-General. • Speaker of H. Eeps. Wm. Pennington, New Jersey, Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4. 1S61, President. Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President. Wm. H. Seward, New York, Secretary of State. *0misssions on page 152 " World's Progress." S. Carolina, May 9, died June 20, 1843, S. Carolina, March 6, 1841, to March, 1, 1845, , Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of Treas. Pennsylvania, Feb. 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of War. Feb. 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1844, i „ Pvr v„.-v,ij -.on x- »f... »'««' > Sees, of Navy. lugk 8. Legare, John C. Calhoun, George M. Bibb, William Wilkins, Thomas "W. Gilmer John Y. Mason, -Sees, of Stat- Virginia, March 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1S45. (, ' SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 71 Salmon P. Chase, Wm. P. Fessenden, Hugh MeCulloch, Simon Cameron, Edwin M. Stanton, Gideon Welles, Caleb B. Smith, John P. Usher, Montgomery Blair, Wm. Dennison, Edward Bates, James Speed, Galusha A. Grow, Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, Maine, Indiana,, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Appointed Jan. 1862 Connecticut, Indiana, Indiana, Maryland. Ohio, Missouri, Kentucky, Pennsylvania Ohio, Appointed July, 1864. Appointed March, 1865, Appointed Jan. 1863. Appointed Sept. 1864. Appointed Sept. lSt4. 1861-2. Appointed Dec. 1S64. i Secretary of Treasuiy. i Secretary of "War. Secretary of Navy. ( Secretary of Interior. i Postmaster-General ( Attorney-General. Speaker H. Reps. Chief-Justice. Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, Vice-Presiaenr. [President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1865.] Andrew Johnson became President, April 15, 1S65. Lafayette S. Poster, of Connecticut, elected President of the Senate. [Succeeded by Ben. P. Wade, of Ohio, 1867.] New York, (continued in office), Secretary of State. Indiana, do Secretary of Treasury. Pennsylvania, do Secretary of War. Connecticut, do Secretary of Navy. Indiana, do ) Iowa, Appointed March, 1865. "Wm. H. Seward, Hugh McCulloch, Eciwin M. Stanton, Gideon Weiles, John P. Usher, James Harlai Orville H. Browning, Illinois, Appointed June, 1866. Secretary of Interior. W. Dennison, Ohio, (continued in office), Ales. W. Randall, Wisconsin, Appointed June, 1S66. James Speed, Kentucky, (continued in office), Henry Stanbery, Ohio, Appointed June, 1866. Schuyler Colfax, Indiana, 1863-'65-'67.' Speaker H. of Reps. The salary of each member of the Cabinet was raised in 1S53 from $6,000 to $8,000. Postmaster-General. • Attorney-General. ADMINISTRATIONS of England after Lord John Russell's Administra- tion, July 6th, 1846. [He and his colleagues resign Feb. 1851, but resume office March 1S51.] Earl of Derby, Disraeli, Spencer H. Walpole, Duke of Northumberland, &c. Feb. 1S52. Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Palmer- ston, Lord Russell, &c Dec. 1852. [Russell retires, and Lord Aberdeen and Ministry resign Jan. 1855. Pal- in erst on reconstructs cabinet with Lord Cranworth, &c, Feb, 1855, but Gladstone, Herbert and Graham, se- cede from it and Palmerston forms a new ministry with Russell and Earl of Clarendon, &c. Feb. 24th, 1855.] On vote of censure they resign. Feb. 7th, 1S58. 1846. Earl of Derby's Administration — Disraeli, Walpole, Stanley, &c. Feb. 26th, 1858. [They resign on vote of Parliament expressing want of contidence in them. June 1859] Lords Palmerston and Russell, &c. June 18th, 1S59. [Palmerston dies, Oct. 1865.] Earl Russell's Ministry — With Gladstone Chancellor of the Ex- chequer; Lord Cranworth, Lord Chancellor ; Earl Granville, &c. Dec. 1865. Derby Administration — Earl of Derby, First Lord, &c; D 1 Israeli, Chancellor of Exchequer; Lord Stanley. Sec. for Foreign Affairs, &c. ' June 19, 1866. ADULTEEY in England, (p. 155.) By 20 Victoria, c. 85, (1857,) the " action for criminal conversation" was abolished, and the "Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes " was established which has power to grant divorces for adultery and ill usage. See Divorce. ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, Eng. (p. 145.) The duty on them was all together abolished in the United Kingdom, August 4, 1S53. For a copious article on this subject see Appletorfs Cyclopcedia. ADVERTISEMENTS in U. S. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 8 to 20 cents a line ; of weekly papers, up to $2.00. A few monthly and quar 72 the world's progress. terly periodicals charge $2.50 per line. The price of one page for advertise- ments in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the advertising receipts of the N. Y. Tribune were about $359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertisements in American papers are taxed 3 per cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than 2,000 copies circulation are exempt. The duty on advertising in England was abolished in 1853. ADVERTISING VANS, in 1853 a great nuisance, were prohibited in England. They have recently appeared in New York and other places in the U. S. jEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : beginning about 1124 b. c. The JEolians built several large cities both on the mainland and the neighbouring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital. ^EOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known before. jEQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands annexed after a conflict, 471-302 B.C. AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been patented by Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 1847; Tylor in 1840, and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. .ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful (especially in art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work "JEsthetica" was published in 1750. AFRICA, (p. 15.) Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and 1849, (by direction of the government,) he left England to explore Central Africa, accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851, and Overweg September 27, 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforce- ments to Dr. Barth Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. Barth returned to England, and re ceived the Royal Geographical Society's medal May 16, 1856. His travels were published in five volumes in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned to England in December, 1856, after an absence of sixteen years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of South Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally of country hitherto unexplored. His book was published in November, 1857. In February, 1858, he was appointed British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left shortly after. Accounts of the assassination of Dr. Vogel were received in 1857. Lieut. Bur- ton's Explorations of the Eastern Coast, 185- ; his journey from Zanzibar to the interior, 1858 ; and his account of it published in London and N. Y., I860. The publication of M. du Chaiilu's travels in Central Africa created much controversy and excitement in 1861. Second expediton of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of the source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, Feb. 23, 1S63. [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while alone near Bath, Sept. 15, 1S64] Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully ex- plore the "White Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 — IS64. Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition 6 Aug. 1S63. Dr. Livingstone returns July 23. 1864. Death of Dr. W. B. Barkie, at Sierra Leone, Nov. 30, 1864. [He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He opened commercial rela- tions with Central Africa.] Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, sup posed to be another source of the Nile, which he named Lake Nyanza Albert, March, 1864. Dr. Livingstone appointed Bvitish consul for Inner Africa, March 24, 1S65. Repoited to be killed by natives, Apr. 1S67. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. In England, Sir Humphry Davy delivered SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. I'd lectures on this subject (afterwards published) at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; but it excited but little attention till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's "Economie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction has taken place, and much controversy ensued. Liebig's "Letters on Agriculture'' appeared in 1859. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. By act of July 2, 1862, Congress made pro- vision for " donating public lands to the several States and Territories which may provide Colleges lor the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts." Up to Sept. 1863, 15 States had taken advantage of the act, and many colleges in- troduced Agricu Hire among the branches of their scientific course. Agricultu- ral college at Amherst, Mass., in process of construction (1867). AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS of 1851 : Great Britain. France. United States. Russia. Acres of Land in Cultivation 22,000,000 72,000,000 1JS,000,000 243.000,000 Bushels of "Wheat, av. per annum, 336,000,000 576,000,000 100,000,000 1,400,000,000 Number of Horned Cattle, 18,000,000 9,000,000 19,S00,000 25,000,000 Number of Horses, 1,600,000 2,81S,000 5,000,000 18,000,000 Number of Sheep and Goats, 50,000,000 32,000,000 22,000,000 50,000,000 Numbeiof Swine, 19,000 000 5,000,000 30,000,000 12,000,000 Population of each country, 27,000,000 36,000,000 23,000,000 68,000,000 In 1866, the wheat crop in the U. S., was 180,000,000 bushels, (increase of 80 per cent, in 15 years.) Cattle, 26,935,000, (increase about 40 per cent.) ; sheep, 41,253,652, increase nearly 100 per cent. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the United States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged in agricultural pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In 1860 the number of acres in cultivation was 163,000,000, valued at 6,600 mil- lion dollars. In the same year the value of agricultural implements was $247,- 000,000. 1860. 1862. 1865. Bushels of Wheat 132.000,000 1S1,000.000 148,000,000 Bushels of Oats 172,000,000 171,000,000 235,000,000 Bushels of Eye 20,000,000 21,000,000 • 19,000,000 Tons of Hav 19.000,000 20,000,000 23,000,000 Pounds of "Wool 60,000,000 114,0"0.000 Bales of Cotton 4,000,000 .„ 1,000,000 B ushels of Corn 800,000,000 500,000,000 600,000,000 In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the states in rebellion are not included. In 1862 the shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted to 29,100,000 bushels. Total exports of grain 1863 were 17,300,000 bushels. The cereals of the northern states in 1865 amounted to 1,228 million bush- els, valued at $1,047,000,000. The southern cotton crop for 1866-7 is esti- mated at 2,000,000 bales. "Department of Agriculture " established May 15, 1862, at Washington, D. C. Its object, to diffuse information on subjects con- nected with agriculture among the people of the U. S. AIR or ATMOSPHERE. In 1858, Dr. Angus Smith made known a chemical method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The re- searches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, led to the discovery of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. — See Ozone. ALABAMA. One of the United States; Population in 1850; whites, 426,515; free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765 ;- slaves, 342,894. In 1855: white, 464,456; free colored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, in I860: w.hite, 4 74 the world's progress. 520,444; slaves, 485,473. The slaves have increased more rapidly than the whites. Ordinance passed " seceding" from the United States January 7, 1861. During the war the state was untouched by the national army until March, !S65, when Gen. Wilson with 17,000 cavalry, penetrated its most productive region. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor. The state sent 120,000 men to the war, and lost 35,000. Estimated loss in wealth, $500,000,000. Present debt (1865) is $3,400,000. ALBANY, N Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,367; in 1865, 62,613. It became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of commerce is lumber; in 1863, $7,000,000 worth was received there. Its Law Library, the best in the country, contains 70,000 volumes. ALPINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Husaeus. ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, July 13, 1866, a tax of $1.00 i3 levied on every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold. ALEPPO (anciently Bercea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Seleucus Ni- cator about 299 B. C. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five govern- ments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, a. d. 638, who restored its ancient name Haleb orChaleb; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent; 60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt everything in their way ; three churches were destroyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling; no interference was attempted by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the foundation of Alexandria, 332 b. c. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 b. c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about a. d. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus the geometer (350). ALGIERS, (p. 162). An insurrection of the Kabyles was subdued by the French in Oct., 1857. In 1858, the government was entrusted (for a short time) to Prince Napoleon, ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Granada in Spain, founded by Mohammed I. of Granada, about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians, Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones, and Jules Gowry, published 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a court of this name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, near London. ALIENS, (p. 162.) The rigor of the Alien laws in England was much mitigated by 7 & 8 Vict, c. 66, 1844. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In 1863, 233,408 arrived. Of these 106,000 came from Germany ; 68,000 from Ire- land ; 36,000 from England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress, July, 1666.) See Emigration. ALIWAL, Battle of, India, between the Sikh army (24,000), and the British under Sir H. Smith (12,000). Sikhs defeated with loss of 6,000, Jan. 28, 1846 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 75 ALLIANCE, Treaties of, (p. 162) between the high European powers: Alliance of Sweden with the western Alliance of England, France, and Turkey (signed at Constantino pie) March 12, 1854 Alliance of England and France, ratified April 3, 1854 Alliance of Sardinia with the west- ern powers (signed at Turin), Jan. 26, 1855 powers Dec. 19, 185i Alliance of Prussia and Austria against Denmark 1864 Alliance of Prussia and Italy against Austria 1S6S ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2). A festival of the Roman Catholic church to com- memorate the souls that are in purgatory, instituted it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. ALMA. A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 1854. See Russo-TurMsh War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turk- ish army (about 57,000) and the Russians under Menschikoff (46,000). Latter defeated, with loss of 5,000. Allied loss 3,000, killed, wounded, and missing. ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King street, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12, 1765. ALMANACS, American. A comprehensive and valuable "National Almanac," was issued by G. W. Childs of Phila., in 1863-4, but was not continued. Sixty eight diiTerent almanacs are registered among the list of American publications 1861-6. French. First French Almanac published in Paris (1442), in a Bibliotheque. "Almanac Royal" of Paris (16*79), noticed fairs, markets, genealogy of kings, &c. " Almanac of Napoleon," and " Almanac of Litera- ture and Fine Arts," are widely circulated. The "Connaissance de Terns" is astronomical. There are many inferior ones devoted to burlesque and wit. German. Almanacs appeared in Germany in 1475. The first one was pub- lished in a series in a periodical, and contained only the eclipses and position of the planets. The author was the German Regiomontanus. His series sold for ten crowns. "Almanac de Gotha" is 104 years old, and of very high reputation. Also the " Astronomisches Jahrbuche " conducted by Bode and then by Encke. Franklin's " Poor Eichard's Almanac," (Phil. 1732), was the first of any note in the U. S. "The American Nautical Almanac" was established in 1S49, and superin- tended by Capt. Davis, U. S. N. It has few equals in scientific accuracy. The "American Almanac" of Boston, was discontinued in 1857 (?), after being published 29 years. The " National Almanac" (valuable and comprehensive), published by Childs of Phila., appeared only 1863 aud 1SC4. At the present time (1S67), no general alma- nac of any special value is published in the U.S. The " Family Christian Almanac" of the Tract Society has a wide circulation. ALPACA (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c, (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York- shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. AMBASSADORS. The U. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass- ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary {Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil. China, Prance, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To the smaller states, " Ministers resident " are sent, 22 in all. Number of con- suls from U. S to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known 76 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. Num ber of foreign consuls in U. S. in 1863, 356. AMERICA, Central, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 184*7. There has been among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador, (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were de- feated at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the dictator of Guate- mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &o. AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used by the American army exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with white. On the 14th June, 1777, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing 'a new con- stellation.' " AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R. Bartlett ; first published in Boston, in 1848. ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of Herodotus, about 1687 b.c. It is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Ma- homet (a.d. 622), or Charlemagne (768). ANAESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed the 3,000 cases he had up to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.) ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in England. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. Laws on the subject were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1S49, and 1854. Dogs were for- bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char- tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. Henry Bergh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws prohibiting cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time) was commenced in London by R. & J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 1850. An American Annual Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton'g Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comprehensive. ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, published annually, con- taining poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en- gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations ol SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 77 similar books in Germany. The duration of the chief of these publications ia here given — Forget-me not (Aclrerman's).... 1823-48 Amulet 1S27-34 Friendship's OlTermg 1824-i4 Keepsake 1828-58 Literary Souvenir (first as The * Hood's Comic Annual 1830-38 Graces) 1824-84 The earliest American "Annuals" were the Talisman, published by E. Bliss, in New York, about 1830, 3 vols. (Bryant, Sands, and others contributors); the Token, S. G. Goodrich (Peter Parley), in Boston, 1837 (?) to (?), about 8 vols. ; and the Gift, Carey & Hart, Philadelphia, 1840 (?), about 5 vols. ANONYMOUS LETTERS. In England, the sending of threatening or libellous anonymous letters was made felony by several acts, 1*722, 182*7, 1847. Punishment — transportation, imprisonment, and whipping. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Winston, the number of people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Elood, reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482. ANTIGUA. A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; settled by the English in 1632. ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U, S. Here was fought a terrible battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Union army under Gen. Mc- Clellan and the rebels under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded Maryland, was immediately followed by McClellan. On the 16th Lee was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the con- flict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The battle was indecisive ; but eventually the Rebels retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 and 19. The Union loss was estimated at 12,469 ; the rebels lost 14,000. APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all courts can hear appeals from those next inferior. The highest courts of the states are courts of appeal only. The Supreme Court of the U. S. sits on appeal from Circuit and Territorial Courts, and also from the highest state courts, whenever the question turns upon the validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. (Statute of 1789.) APPENZELL. A Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confederation in 1513. APPIAN WAY. An ancient Roman road,made by Appius Claudius Caecus, while censor, 312 b.c. APPLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apples, according to Pliny. Ray reckons 78 kinds in his day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties exist. Apple-trees of finest quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200 years. Throughout the U. S. the following appear to be the favorites : For summer apples, the Early Harvest, Sweet Bough and lied Astrachan ; for au- tumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Gravenstein ; for winter, the Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening. The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of the supply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In 1860, the yield of orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of which was derived from the apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the State of New York yielded 16,275,505 bushels of apples. APPRENTICES. In the U. S. apprenticeship is not so common as in En- gland. The American apprentice rarely pays a fee to the master. In some eastern states farmers take them to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, whet 78 the world's progress. they leave present tliem with a sum of money. Whole number in the IT. S. in 1860 was about 55,000. There is a Library in Mechanics Hall, N. Y. City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful apprentices. For laws respect- ing them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. Y. State in 1865, 1,861. % AQUARIUM, or Aquavivaeium. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea-weeds, in artificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. R. Warington dem- onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up under the direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1850 Mr. Gosse published, " The Aquarium. " Mr. 0. E. Hammett, jr., of Newport, R. I., published in 1859 his observations and experiments with Aquaria, which were very remarkable. Aquaria have been introduced into several public museums in the U. S., and they are also largely cultivated in private houses. AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any times is the Croton aqueduct, which supplies the City of New York with water from Croton lake, 40 miles distant. It was commenced 1837 ; its completion was publicly cele- brated in 1842; its cost was $10,375,000. It is carried across the Harlein river on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer John B. Jervis ; contractor for the bridge, Geo. Law. The aqueduct which supplies Boston from lake Cochituate, 23£ miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct. 25, 1848 ; cost $5,370,818. That which supplies the city of Brooklyn, L. I., was finished 1858 ; engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cost $640,828. Jersey City, N. J., is supplied by an aqueduct 8 miles long from the Passaic river at Belleville ; W. S. Whitwell, chief engineer. It was completed in 1856 and cost $640,000. Washington, D. C. is furnished with water from the Potomac by an aqueduct 15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. The water was first admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the cost amounted to $2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct dis- charges 67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Cro- ton aqueduct. ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French by Galland, and published in 1704; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1889, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. ARCHITECTURE, (p. 173.) Dates of notable buildings : Egyptian Pyramids, b.c. 1500 Solomon's Temple begun ....b. c.1000 Temple of Jupiter, Rome, ...b. c. 616 Babylon built b. c. 600 Parthenon finished b. c. 43S Pantheon at Rome a. d. IS Coliseum a. d. 70 Basilicas at Rome a. d. 330-900 St. Sophia's, Constantinople begun. a. d. 532 Oai iterbury Cathedral a. n . 602 Mosque of Omar a. d. 637 York Minster begun a. d. 741 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See North- West Passage, and Franklin's Expedi. iions. Lt. Hartstein with the Arctic and release leaves Brooklyn, May 31, 1S55, and finds Dr. Kane at Lieve- ley, Greenland, Sept. 13, 1S55 ; aud returns to N". Y. with him Oct.ll, 1855 Steamer Fox, Capt. McClintock, sails from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Frank lin) in search of remains of Franklin's expedition July 1ft 185 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 79 Capt. McClintock returns, bringing relics and remains of Franklin's expedition, and ascertaining his fate 1859 Mr. C. F. Hall sailed from .New London, Conn., in ship George Henry May 29, 1860 Returned Sept. 13, 1862 He went again with strong hopes of finding some of Franklin's men. Discovered the fate of four who died from cold and starva- tion, June 1S64 Dr. Hayes sailed from Bos ,on in schooner United States, and returned in fifteen months. Valuable surveys and experiments made by him July 10, I860 Capt. Parker Snow sailed from Eng- land in schooner Intrepid, in search of Franklin's companions, June, 1861 Expedition from Sweden blockaded by ice and unable to accomplish its ob- jects, May 9, 1S61 ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFEDERATION. Originally fourteen, now thirteen, provinces — Buenos Ay res having seceded in 1853. This country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1517 ; settled by them in 1553, and form- ed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 1118, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 1816. It. was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent at Montevideo. It. was at war with France from 1838-40. Urquiza was chosen President for six years in 1854. See Buenos Ayres. ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a territory of 30,000 square miles, purchased from Mexico by the TL S. for $10,000,000, in 1855. It had in 1856 about 5,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Feb. 24, 1863, the territory was organized and part of New Mexico added to it, the whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital is Prescott. The first Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 1866, white, about 8,000. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of -the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 9*7,574, including 19,935 slaves. Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 111,115 were slaves. The state "se- ceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided during the war by the Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. At the close of the rebellion I. Murphy was appointed provisional governor (1865.) Many of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and land can be bought at $1 to $5,000 per acre (1866). ARMY OF THE U. S. Includinc Volunteers. Date. Regulars. July, 1861 14,108 . Jan. 1,1862 19.871 . Jan. 1, 1S63 19,169 . Jan. 1,1864 17.237 . Jan. 1, 1865 14,661 • May 1, 1S65 Volunteers. 169,480 507,333 679,633 594,013 606.263 The following list is official : Present for Duty. Aggregate. 183,588 286,751 527,204 175,917 698,802 918,191 621.250 860,737 620,924 959,460 .... 797,807 ....1,034,064 From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army comprises 45 regiments of infantry, 10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantry are col- ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 54,300. The higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10 Brigadier-Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,' 239,000 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the war was 280,751, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or died of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 182,329 men died of disease. See Enist 80 the world's progress. ment. The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished th« army during 1861-65 : Cannon— number 7,892 Artillery carriages — number 11,787 Artillery projectiles (shot and shell)— number 6,335.595 Grape and canister shot — pounds 6,589,999 Field artillery ammunition — round;- 2 SG2,177 Small arms, muskets, rifles, carbines, and p slots 3,477,655 Swords, sabres, and lances 544,4-75 Infantry accoutrements — complete sets 2,146,175 Cavalry accoutrements — complete sets 216,371 Horse equipments — sets 539.544 Two-horse artillery harness — set:- 2S,164 Horse blankets — number 732,526 Cartridges for small arms— number 1,022,176.474 Percussion caps for small arms — numbei 1,2-0,555,435 Cannon-primers 10,281,305 Fuses for s i , ell 4.226,377 Gunpowder — pound? 26,440,054 Nitre— pou tids 6,395,152 Lead in pigs and bullets— pounds 90,416,295 This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by the navy. ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar Square in London are supplied by two of these wells. The great well at Paris was completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about £12,000. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various ■ parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are said to have existed in China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to California. ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con- tributed to it by members, which sold for $7,500. The object of this society is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859. ARTS, Fine. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the IT. S. "-since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build- ing, the first in the United States wholly designed for such a purpose, was completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the U. S. for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. Dj 1864, 30 collec- tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures and sculptures. A handsome building for the Yale School of Fine Arts was completed at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com- mittee ; See Paintings ; Tuckermari 's Book of the Artists. ART UNION. For distributing works of art bv lot. The first was in Germany fouuded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berlin (1828), Dresden, Leipzic, Bremen, Dnsseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. " Roman Catholic Art- Unions " were started in 1851. London Art Union founded 1837; its receipts increased in nineteen years from $5,000, to $90,000 per annum. The first in the U. S., the Ameiican Art Union (originally the Apollo Association) was founded at N. Y., in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distrib- SUPPLEMENT, 1S51-C7. 81 uting works to the amount of $453,853. It was closed in 1851 as being forbidden by the state laws against lotteries. ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after hia resurrection from the dead, May 14, a. d. 33 ; first commemorated, a. d. 6S. Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was visible in his time. ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854 assayed more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1866. The follow- ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department shows the collections on bullion and the amount of bullion assayed in each state and territory of the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1866 : States and Territories. Colleetions on Bullion. Bullion Assayed, California $294,121 $49,020,250 Colorado 1,219 219 860 Idaho 3,210 535,105 Missouri 4 815 Nevada 91.635 15,272,246 New Jersey S2 13,688 New York 43,774 7,295, S03 Oregon 28.711 4,7S5,221 Pennsylvania 24,265 4,044,218 Rhode Island 13 .. 2,211 Utah 361 60,278 Washington 837 139,533 Total $4SS,377 '.".".".".'.".".'.".'.' $81,389,541 The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States Mint at San Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000. ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior to 1843. At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public interest in the science was awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis, U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of Yale, Prof. O. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell, of Nantucket, have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seer; from Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The •■ La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awarded by the French Acad- emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. B. Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S. has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, O. M. Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie. ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph. ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1855. See Pneu- matic Railway. AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustine, who died a. d. 430. These monks really first appeared in the 12th century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. Its rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were the rivals of the Dominicans. AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin amis], oi 4 * 82 TEE WORLD'S PEOGEES8. the priest must have been an enrly practice, since it is said to have been for- bidden in the fourth century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople. It was first enjoined by the Council of Lateran in 1215. It was one of Six Articles of Faith enacted by Henry VIII. in 1539, and by the Council of Trent ; but was abolished in England at the Reformation. Its revival in England was attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians, but with- out success. AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights. The most remarkable exhibitions of this phenomenon on record are those of 1560 in London, in the form of burning spears ; 1574 (described by Stow), and the close of the ISth cen- tury ; again in 1835, 1836, and 183*7. "In Northern Europe, this phenomenon, now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60, the Aurora was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United States, and the telegraph wires were sensibly affected by the electricity. AUSTRALIA The smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one- sixth the size of North and South America, and ten times larger than Borneo, its area being about 3,000,000 square miles. Its colonization by convicts was first proposed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now divided into four provinces : New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, (or Port Philip), and Western Australia (or Swan River). Capt Cook landed at Botany Bay. 1770 I First Ch.- of Eng. Bishop (Broughton)..1836 Sydney founded 1788 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 Gov. Bligh for his tyranny de- | Transportation suspended 1839 posed by an insurrection 1808 | Transportation ceased 1853" AUSTRIA See p. 184. Trial by jury abolished 1852 Marriage of the emperor to Eliza- beth, daughter of Maximilian, duke of Bavaria Apr. 24, 1S54 Alliance with England and France on the Eastern Ques- tion Dec. 2, 1854 Degrading Concordat with Borne Aug. IS, 1855 Diplomatic relations with Sar- dinia broken oft' on ace. of .it- tacks of Sardinian press March, 1857 Excitement on the address of Napoleon III. to Austrian minister, Hubner Jan. 1, 1859 Preparations for war. Banks of the Ticino fortified Feb. and March, 1859 Austria demands that Sardinia disarm. Refused Apr. 26, 1859 Austrians cross the Ticino Apr, 2(1, 1859 French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 1S59 French emperor declares war May 3, 1859 Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20, 1859 do do Palestro, May 30-1. 1859 do do Magenta, June 4, 1859 do do Marignano, June 8, 1859 Death of Prince Metternich, set. 86, June 11, 1859 Austrians def. at Solferino, June 24, 1859 Armistice agreed upon ..July 6, 1S59 Emperors of France and Austria meet July 11, 1859 Preliminaries of peace at Villa Fran- ca, Lomhardy to belong to Sardinia July 12, 1859 Fruitless conference of envoys at Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859 For war against Denmark, and against Prussia and Italy', see Prussia. B BAALBEC, or HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood (in 1*757) and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Antoninus Pius is stated to have built a magnificent Temple of Jupiter here. The city was sacked by the Moslems, a. d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. BADEN, (p. 186.) 1852, Frederic (born September 9, 1826), regent to Sept. 5, 1856, when he was declared grand duke, and still remains so (1867). Heir, his son, Frederic William, born July 9, 1857. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 83 BALAKLAVA (small sea-port in the Crimea), Battle of. Russians aboutl2,000, commanded by Geu. Liprandi, British by Lord Eaglan. In this battle Lord Cardigan's cavalry made the famous " charge of the light brigade ;" only 19S out of 607 returning from the charge, Oct. 26, 1854. Another engagement here, Russians defeated, losing 2,000, Allies losing 600, March 22, 1855. Eiec« trie telegraph between this place and London completed April, 1855. BALLOON, (p. 187.) An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Den- mark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subsequently found on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to pieces. On June 28, 1859, Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St .Louis in a balloon. After travelling 1,150 miles they descended in Jefferson county, New York, very narrowly escaping with their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the professed intention of an air-voyage to Europe, was inflated and exhibited at New York. May 1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated the project. Equestrian ascents were made by Green in London in 1850, and stopped by law, 1852. In France ascents on horses in balloons have been fre- quently made since 1850. Balloons were used for reconnoitering, during the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Army of the Potomac 1861-5. Ascents for scientific observations made in England by Jas. Glai- sher, one ascent reaching 7 miles, 1862-5 BALLOT. Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled " The Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marvel!, was published in England in the "State Tracts," 1693. The ballot-box was used in a political club which met in 1659 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster. The ballot has been an open question in British Whig governments since 1835. On June 30, 1857, the House of Commons rejected the ballot, 257 being against, and 189 for it. It became part of the electoral law of Victoria, Aus- tralia, in 1856. Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in France from 1840 to 1845, and was employed also after the coup dj'itat in 1851. In the United States the ballot is used in all public elections. BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side. On October 21, 1861, by direction of Gen. C. P. Stone the heroic Col. E. I). Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the rebel camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss, the force of the rebels having been misrepresented. Treachery was evident somewhere, and Gen. Stone himself was arrested, but released without trial. BALTIMORE, (p. 187.) Population in 1860, 214,037, including 2,213 slaves, On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S, troops passing through the city to the de- fence of Washington were fired upon and two men killed. Military occupa- tion of the place by Gen. Butler, May, 1861. President Lincoln, who passe i through Baltimore (1861) in disguise, to his first inauguration, was nomina- ted with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there assem- bled (1864). BANKING SYSTEM, U. S. Before the outbreak of the rebellion, paper currenc; issued from incorporated independent banks. In 1860, there were in the U. S. 1,562 banks, having an aggregate capital of $421,880,000, and a circulation of $207,104,400. In 1861, the banks generally were compelled to suspend specie payments. The government established by act of Congress Feb. 25, 1863, a uniform national banking system. An additional act w^as passed June 3, 18*4. In Jan. 1866, theie were 1,579 National Banks. Capital, $403,350, 000. Circulation, $213,000,000. These banks deposit bonds with the U. 3. Treasury to the extent of one-third of their capital. There ara 14 citif* cc-« 84 the world's progress. taining 218 banks, which are selected as points of redemption. Jan. 1867, the national bank-note circulation was $291,093,294 ; total currency of the United States (circulation and deposits), $1,496,672,065. BANKRUPTS in England, (p. 189.) The number in 1850, was 1,298 ; in 1857, it was 1,488 ; in 1858, there were 1,346 ; in 1859, there were 959 ; and in 1860, no less than 8,470. In Scotland, there were 453 in 1857, and 445 in 1860. In Ireland, 73 in 1857, and 113 in 1860. ■ BANKRUPT LAWS in the U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con- gress, April 4, 1800, and repealed 1803. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841, and repealed 1343. An act " establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy in the U. S.," passed Congress, March, 1867, and is now in operation (July, 1867), the "Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union having been appointed by Chief- Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law. In England, a Court of bankruptcy was first established 1831. An important act relating to the sub- ject was passed 1849, amended 1854, and further discussed for amendment 1859. See Commercial Failures. BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was estab- lished in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 vol- umes were issued. BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners — Num. ii. (1491 b. c.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscrip- tion, in hoc signo vinces — " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure of the cross. See Cross. The magical banner of the Danes, (said to be a black raven on a red ground), was taken by Alfred when ho defeated Hubba, 878. fc.t. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, or oriflam- me, were the standards of France about 1100. See Auriflamma, Standards, &c. BAPTISTS, U. S. A. (p. 190). In 1858, they had 12,000 churches with about 1,000,000 members. In 1762, they had 56 churches only; 1792, 1,000; 1812, 2,432; in 1832,5,322; 1852, 9,500: 1866 (Baptist Almanac), they had 592 associations, 12,702 churches, 7,867 ordained ministers, and 1,040,300 members. BATTLES, (p. 192.) In the British and French (allies) war with Russia : Tcheruaya Aug. 16, 1855 Malakoff taken by the French. Sept. 8, 1855 Ingour, (Russ. and Turks) Nov. 6, 1S55 Baidar, (Buss, and French) Dec. 8, 1855 Silistria June 13-15, 1S54 Alma Sept. 20, 1S54 Balaldava Oct. 25,1854 Inkerhian.... Nov. 5, 1854 Eupatoi-ia, (Turks and R.) Feb. 17, 1855 Sebastopol March 22-4, 1855 In British war against mutineers in India : Conflicts before Delhi, May 30 I Cawnpore, victory of Campbell, to July 23, 1S57 | Doc. 6, 1S5T Havelock's victories before Cawn- | Lucknow taken March 14-19, 1858 pore, &c July 12 to Aug. 16, 1S57 | Gwailor (Rose victorious) June 1 , 1S5S Assault and capture of Delhi, I Begum of Oude defeated Feb. 10, 1859 September 16-20, 1857 | Allied (French and Sardinians) against Austrians in Italy : Austrians cross the Ticino. I Magenta, (Allies vict.) June 4, 1S59 April 27. 1859 | MaPgnano, do .-...June 8. 1S">9 Montebello (Allies vict.) May 20, 1S59 I Solferino, do June 24, 1SJ9 P&lestro do May 30, 1859 | See Sardinia, Naples, &c. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 85 Naval conflict in China : Mouth of the Peiho June 25, 1859 French and English attack on Pekin Oct. 6,1860 BATTLES, Austrians against Prussians and Italians, war of 1866 Battle of Custozza, between Ital- ians and Austrians, [Italians defeated].. June 24, 1866 Battle of Skalitz in Bohemia, between Austrians and Prus- sians, [Austrians retreat]. July 27, 1866 Great "battle of Sadowa, between Austrians and Prussians. [Nearly 500,000 men engaged. Prussians completely victo- rious] July 3, 1S66 Austrians defeated at Olmutz, July 15, 1S66 Naval fight off Lissa, between Italians and Austrians. [Ital- ians lose two war ships]. July 20, 1866 BATTLES, IT. S. In the War for the Union, Fort Sumter, Charleston, S. C, bombarded by the Rebels. April 12. 1861 Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Na- tionals retreat and Gen. Lyon killed.) Aug. 10, 1861 Carthage, Mo. (Nat. victory) July 10, 1S61 Rich Mountain, Va., (Nat. vic- tory) July 11, 1S61 Bull Run, Va., (Nat. defeated) July 21, 1861 Lexington, Mo. (Nat. surren- der) Sept. 20, 1861 Balls Bluff, Va., (Nat. defeated. Gen. Baker killed) Oct. 21, 1861 Mill Spring, Ky. (Nat. victo- rious) Jan. 19, 1862 Roanoke Island, N. C. (Nat. capture 46 guns, 2,500 prison- ers) Feb. 7-8, 1862 Fort Don elson, Tenn., (Nat. cap- ture 13,300 prisoners, 55 guns.) Feb. 16, 1862 Pea Ridge, Ark., (Nat. victo- rious) March 6, 7, 8, 1862 Shiloh, Tenn., (Rebels retreat after desperate fighting). April 6-7, 1862 Island No. 10, Miss. River, sur- renders to U. S. forces, with 125 guns, 6,000 prisoners. April 7, 1862 Williamsburg, Va.,(Rebs. retreat) May 5, 1862 Winchester, Va., (Nat. retreat) May 25, 1862 Fair Oaks, Va., (Nat. defeated) May 31, 1862 Seven Pines, Va., (Nat. victo- rious) June 1, 1862 Seven Days' Battles near Rich- mond (Nat. repulsed). June 26-July 1, 1862 Bull Run, Va., (IS at. defeated). Aug. 30, 1862 Anttetani, Md. (Rebs. defeated; . Sept. 17, 1862 Fredericksburg, Va., (Nat. de- feated) Dec. 13, 1862 Murfreesboro', Tenn., " Stone River " (indecisive ; Rebs. re- treat.. Nat. loss very heavy). Dec. 31, 1862 to Jan. 3, 1863 1861-5. Grierson's raid through Missis- sippi April 17 to May 2, 1863 Chancellorsville, Va. (Nat. re- pulsed) May 2^,1863 Champion Hills, Mississippi, (Nat. victorious. Siege of Vicksburg begins) May 16, 1863 Gettysburg, Penn., (Rebs. de- feated) July 1-4, 1863 Chickamauga, Ga., (Rebs. de- feated) Sept. 19-20, 1863 Vicksburg, Miss. (30,000 prison- ers and 220 guns surrendered to U. S. forces under Gen. Grant) July 4, 1863 Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison- ers surrender to U. S. forces). July 8, 1863 Chattanooga, Ga., (Nat. victo- rious) Nov. 23-26, 1863 National " Red River Expedi- tion" under Gen. Banks, (de- feated) April 8, 1864 Wilderness, Va. (indeeisive>; loss heavy on both sides). May 5-6, 1864 Spottsylvania, Va., (Heavy fight- ing, but Rebels retire). May 10-12, 1864 Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs. retreat) May 15, 1864 Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. re- pulsed) June 1-3, 1864 Battles about Petersburg, Va., (indecisive) June 15-19, 1864 Sherman fails in an attack on Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. June 27, 1864 Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de- feated) July 30, 1864 Terrible fighting about Atlanta, Ga., (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1861 Atlanta, Ga., taken by Sherman. Sept. 2, 1864 Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan defeats Early, Rebel).. Sept. 19, 1864 Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again defeated) Sept. 22, 1864 Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally defeated after gaining some success) Oct. 19, 1864 Sherman starts on his march across Georgia Nov. 11, 1864 80 THE WOELD's PEOGBESS. Franklin, Tenn., CBehs. de- feated) Nov. 30, 1864 Nashville, Tenn., (Kebs. com- pletely routed, losin«60 guns). Dee, 15-19, 1864 Sherman enters Savannah, Ga. Dec. 21, 1864 Fort Fisher, N. C, taken l»y as- sult of U. S. forces Jan. 15, 1865 Kingston, N. C, (Eelis. re- pulsed) March 10, 1865 Grant defeats Lee at Five Forks, and continues fighting until the latter surrendered at Appomatox Court House, Va. April 1-9, 1864 Gen. Johnston (Rebel) surren- ders to Sherman near Eaieieh, N. C April" 26, 1865 The last rebel army under Kir- by Smith surrenders west of the Mississippi May 28, 1865 For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, 1865. See Naval Battles, Atlanta, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Nashville, Corinth. BAVARIA. Louis II. (b. 1845), became king on death of his father Maximilian, March 10, 1864. Population of Bavaria 1861, 4,689,837. BEDOUINS. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a form of Mahommedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect- ing him, b. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and Egypt. BENEVOLENCE, British. During 1859, there were contributed to about thirty of the principal religious societies of Great Britain, $4,262,435, an average of $82,000 a week, over $11,000 a day, and nearly $500 an hour. And yet this is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be- nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was $'7*74,530 ; of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, $645,380; of the Church Mis- sionary Society, $610,440; of the Religious Tract Society, $489,490; of the London Missionary Society $366,440. BENEVOLENT Societies, (p. 199). The receipts of some of the principal be- nevolent societies of New York for the year ending April 30 were : 1857 JS58 1859 1860 1866 Amer. Tract Society $348,049 «< Bible 441.805 390,759 415,011 429,799 642,625 " B. C. Foreign Missions, 388,932 334.000 S50,S15 435,956 " Home Missionary Soc 178,060 175,970 188,139 185,216 " Sunday School ¥nion (sales), 202,426 234,436 Charities, Missions, etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re- ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total receipts of 28 leading societies in 1866, $4,766,698,81. These are national organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 15 per cent. BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's " Dictionary of the Bible," 1722-8; Kitto : s "Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," (3 vols.) 1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) 1860. See Concordances. BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus- trating Scripture history, with texts, carved in wood, a " block book," printed early in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. A facsimile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859. BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some_ Ro- man Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. Chambers s Ed. CI. The British and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jan, SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 87 3, 1851, more than twenty-three millions of copies in one hundred and ?orti different languages. The American Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1S66. expended $10,434,953. BIBLIOGRAPHY, the science of books. The following works on this subject are highly esteemed: Peignot, Manuel, 18'23 ; Home, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, 1814; Scriptural — Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824; Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, 1854-8; Classical — the works of Fabii- \ cius, Clarke, and Dibdin; English — Watts' Bibliotheca Britannica, 1824; Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); French — Querard, i 1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunet's Manuel du Librairc, 1842, is exceedingly valuable. The most important work on English and American bibliography is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R, 8vo., 1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Bartlett published the bibliography of the American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and pamphlets relating to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. BIRDS, Divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735); by Blumenbach into eight (1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The most remarkable works ever published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John Gould in England ; the latter will consist of thirty-one folio volumes of color- ed plates, &c. Each set, bound, will cost about £500. Audubon's great work on Birds of America was engraved and published by him in Edinburgh, in four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro- duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60, at New York. BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two. Lieut.-Gen. Polk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal Bishop, was killed near Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops numbered forty-five. BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi- fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Natural History being- then printed in the new characters. BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low- landers to the Highlanders, for the protection of their cattle ; existed till within a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural improvement almost impossible. BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowledge ih which blind persons have not obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, bcrn in 1S29, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U. S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females: about one blind in 975. Asylums for the blind. The number in the U. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was the "Per- kins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, by Dr. Howe and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil. 88 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. adelphia Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigh, F, C, 1848. Number of blind persons in the U. S. in 1860, 11,125. Estimated at about the same number in 1866. BOLIVIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru ; was declared indepen- dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, Aug. 11, 1825. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, took place in 1780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre govern- ed ably from 1826-8 ; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834 ; after which many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cor- dova president, 1855-7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen. Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Aeha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126. BOLOGNA, (p. 208.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw off the temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts should be headed " under the reign of Victor Emmanuel." BOOK-TRADE, United States, (p. 211.) The number of new books recorded as published during one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261. No accurate statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new works and new editions recorded as then first published in the U. S. was about 2,400. There were in the U. S. (1860) about 3,000 booksellers and 400 pub- lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate publications; in 1865, 1,802, of which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The increased cost of paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since the rebellion began. BOOK-TRADE of Great Britain, (p. 210.) Number of new publications in 1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 5,5o7 different works entered for copyright, and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of 700 per cent, on the returns of 1828: about 400 percent, on those of 1S36, and about 50 per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864 the number of publications was 3,553. BOOK-TRADE, France, (p. 210.) The value of books imported in 1855, was 1,829,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,S55 francs; increased of exports since 1851, 30 per cent. BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except At s- tralia, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 1604, established factories in 1776, and still remain on the island. The Brit- ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1843, and in 1846 they took possession of a part of the island, Sir James Brooke being appointed "Raj.ih cf Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 1857 ; subdued by Brooke, and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawak, Nov. 1858, but declined. BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 212.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1855, 160,518 in 1860, 1*77,902. Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 1858. Population in 1867, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor. During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers. $3,668,000 ; for school- houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, $1,357,000— a total of $6, 629,358, which ia claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the sev- eral high schools is $4,000. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS between the U. S. and England. The " Nor th-Eusi SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 89 Boundary " between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty at Washington, 1842. The Oregon Boundary, adjusted by treaty at London, June 18, 1856. BRAZIL, (p. 216 ) First steamship line to Europe, 1850 ; Slave trade sup- pressed, JS52 ; Railways commenced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro lighted with gas, 1854. War with Uruguay. Brazilians march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865. Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez, pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New York to Brazil, established through the agency of Rev. J. C. Fletcher, 186-. Kidder and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes- sive editions 1859-1867. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil, 1866. Preliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 1867. The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. BREWERIES, IT. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, was 969. In that year 3,285,345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured. Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num- ber of breweries than any other city. BRIBERY in the U. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare in this country. BRIBERY at elections in England, (p. 217.) Borough of St. Albans disfran- chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void by bribery in 1853, and at other places 1857-9. BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Milwaukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in I860, 13,700. The time for burning bricks is 3 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. Sawyer, of Baltimore. A brick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago, 1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac- tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value of products, $10,253,734. BRIBGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is 100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama, 120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co., remarkable for their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high, and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia, has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the IT. S. was built by Mr. Finley about 1800. The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. Roebling ; completed in 1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. Height of pier, 80 feet ; width, 45 feet ; size of cable, 12 inches ; cost $1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace is 3,278 feet long; completed in 1865, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men. It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river. Cost, $1,500,000. BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, Earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1S29, leaving by will, £8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. Tha 90 the world's progress. essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckla.'icL William Prout, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Whewell and Williim Kirby) were published in 1834-37. BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science, It holds annua.' meetings, the first of which was held at York in 1831. One of its main ob jects is to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science. A volume containing reports of the proceedings is published annually. BRITISH AMERICA. United by act of Parliament under the name of Domin- ion of Canada, 1867. BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 220). In 1848 the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy- rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. Layard between 1847-50. Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately been made by the munificence of Parliament, independently of a large annual grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was opened to the public, May 11, 1857. The room contains about 80,000 vols., and will accommodate 300 readers. The library contains about 562,000 vols., exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alphabetical catalogue was completed from A to H in May, 1S58 in above 1,000 folio vols. BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in 1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants; in 1830 it had 15,292; in 1855 (then con- solidated with Williamsburg) it had 205,250. In 1860, it had 273,425 ; in 1865, 296,378. See Additions. BUDDHISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia beyond the Ganges and Japan, from which Brahminism is derived. Buddha, or the Wise, flourished about 1,000 or 1,100 b. c. The Buddhists believe that the soul is an emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous, it will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India about a. d. 596. BUENOS- AYRES, S. America, (p. 222.) The independence of the province , was declared July 19,1816, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form- ing part of the Argentine Confederation ; but for some years the country was a prey to civil war under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, and Rosas. The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10, 1852, invested the city,. Dec. 28. He defeated his opponent's squadron, April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July 13, and the civil war ended. In 1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor for three years, May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,000. BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who would -build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in New York jn 1848—49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained. BURMESE or Birman Empire. For the events of war with England, and of the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end, June 20, 1853. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 91 c CABINET, U. S., See Administrations. CABRIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets {vidgo, cabs) were introduced in Londos as public conveyances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 18SG they had increased to 165. In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and other Amer, cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not being a desirable shape they were not papular, and soon disappeared. An improved pattern — the coupe, was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some extent. CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The Nones of March, May, July, and October, fell on the 7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ad Grcecas Calendas, " on the Greek Calends," meant never. CALIFORNIA, (p. 230.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 23,000. By the census of 1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it was 264,435, of whom only 22,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula- tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans; 10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans; 2,000 English; and 15,000 various (white) nationalities ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive, 75,301 Chinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the same time. Population "in 1860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 500,000. In 1865 there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals. From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000 has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000. Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. CALORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 1833, and then considered a success, but not made practically available till 1852. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it propelled from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough weather, February, 1853. This achievement created great excitement in the scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient. Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro- pean States. It is inexplosive, entirely free from danger, consumes but little fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one (other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and commerce is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. It establishes an epoch in the history of motive power. CANADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and lower provinces united and designated Canada East and Canada West. Sir Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Railway 850 miles long, from Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856, Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremony by the Prince of "Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 952,004; 93 the world's progress. Lower Canada, 890,261. In 1857 it was estimated thus: Upper Canada, 1,305,923 ; Lower, 1,220,514. The value of exports in 1857 was £6,751,656. Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,506,755. Products of the U. S. imported into Canada under the " Reciprocity Treaty," in 1862, $14,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,217. Exports, $33,317,873. Total militia force, (1S63) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 1864, a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by some confederates, created great excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, IJ. S. A., ordered that U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender- ed. The government revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can- ada," consisting of the United "Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, &c, established by the Queen's consent, 1867. CANALS, (p. 223.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000 ; completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 31 miles, cost $235,934 per mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 1858, 388 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,- 436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro- duce from the west were brought to tide-water. CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York (1866-7). CANNON, (p. 234.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was a 24-pounder ; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs. A. vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S. Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Pairott in- vented, at West Point, a rifled gun of great efficiency. The 10-pounder has a range of 5,000 yards. The 300-pounder can throw a shot -of 250 lbs. 54; miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts- burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, 1,000 lbs.; charge, 100 lbs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch bores are unequalled for powerful ef- fect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe, carrying shot of 525 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart- ment (U. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for the army and. navy. Steel cannon were first manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June, 1861. In England, since 1850, great improvements in cannon have been made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the U. S. navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860. CANTON, (p. 235.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts guarding the city were captured, and Canton was bombarded, Oct. 29, 1856, by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was afterwards censured by a vote of the House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and French, Dec. 29, 1857, and Yeh, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner. CAPITOL of the United States. The corner-stone of the original edifice was laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the British 1814; re- stored 1818. Corner-stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July, 1851. The present structure is 751 feet long, and covers 3-^ acres. The co« lossal statue of Freedom, by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec. BUPPLEMEOT, 1851-67. 93 2. 1863. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar- ble and the setting of the same was $2,402,000. ~ CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (H. B.), (John Doyle Jd=HB), R. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known "Punch" was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con- tributed to this amusing periodical. " Vanity Pair," commenced in New York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but was short-lived. See Satire. CARNIVAL. (Carrii vale, Italian, i e., Flesh, farewell!) A well-known festival time in the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and indulgence, and numbers visit Italy during its continuance. CAROLINA.— See N. and S. Carolina. CARPET MANUFACTURE.— The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in 1855 was $1,362,000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 185*7, valued at $2- 181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but of these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting required, in the best houses. CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed, are Said to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 185*7. The Duke of Pa.*ma had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon fol- lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States. CASUALTIES for 1865. During the year 1865, there were 354 fires in the United States where the amount of loss was $20,000 or upwards, at which property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were $214,588,000. During the year there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons were killed and 1,427 wounded ; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265 wounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, by which 2,204 were killed, and 8,356 wounded; and 324 steamboat accidents, by which 5,372 were killed, and 1,579 wounded. CAUCASUS, (p. 241.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of Schamyl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by the czar. CAVfNPORE. A town in India ; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have- lock, July 17, 1857. CAYENNE, (p. 242.) Many political prisoners have been sent here by the French emperor since 1852. CEMETERIES, National. For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,- 528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves. The "Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,000 graves, half of them marked " unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1887 for substantial headstones and improvements. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev- eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn, Calvary, The Evergreens, &c. 94 TH3E "WORLD'S PROGRESS. CENSUS or the United States, has been taken at eight different periods, viz; 1790. 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860. See Population. The Census is taken by the general government every ten years; that of New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially at intermediate periods, thus gmng returns every five years. Other states have different periods for a census. In 1865, it was taken in the states of Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa. The number of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of I860 was 4,481 ; expense to the Government, $1,045,206. CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1*700, the entire population of the Anglo-Ameri- can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In 1790, the population of the United States alone was 3,929,827 ; and in 1860, 31,443,321. Anticipated population in 1900, 107,000,000. The unimproved lands of the United Sta f es, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres ; improved lands, 163,110,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at .$6,645,045,007. Estimated product of our manufactures in 1860, $4,000,0*00,000. Com- mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing $1,432,649, 0C0. Chy railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property estimated at $19,089,156,289. Educational institutions reported, 113,006 ; teachers, 148,742; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445; students, 54,969. Churches, 54,000. Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,00u,000 copies, Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. In 1812, regulars, 32,360 ; volunteers, 6,000 ; militia, 30,000 ; navy, 8 frigates, and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865, we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre ; and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,000. If the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of 4,000,000 of men at arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country or age of the world. — Christian Almanac. CHALDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion of it. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. See Dan. 2, &c. CHANCELLORS, LORD, England, (p. 245) Sir Thomas "Wilde, created Lord Trnro 1850 Sir Edw. Suaden, created Lord St. Leonards 1852 Robert Mousey Rolfe, created Lord Cranworth 1S52 Sir Ered. Thesiger, created Lord Chelmsford 1858 John, Lord Campbell 1859 Richard Bethel, Lord Wcstburv, June 26, 18G1 Thomas, Lord Cranwortb, again July 6,1865 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker, and the rebels under General Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army ciossed the Rappahannock ; on May 2, General " Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis- take. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, Hooker was compelled to retreat across the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered, and this system was adopted by the state of N. Y. in her Constitution of 1846, SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 05 CHARITIES OF THE WAR in the U. S. A careful statement made of the amount contributed by the people of the loyal states for philanthropic pur- poses connected with the war, not including the donations for religious or educational objects, gives the following noble record : The total contributions from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608.62; the contributions of associations and individuals for the care and conifort of soldiers were $24,044,865.96 ; for sufferers abroad, $380 - 040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freednien and white refugees, $639,633.13: making a grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the a^vern- ment, of $212,274,248.45, See Sanitary Commission, &c. CHARLESTON, S. C. Population in 1860, 40,578. A severe fire des^-oyec. the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks ware sunk by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, 1861. The c>v surren- dered to National troops, February 18, 1865. CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self *, relatives; and British laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of he' chastity ; and a husband or father in taking the life of him who attempts t.- violate his wife or daughter. In 1,000 years from the time of Numa, "?.0 b. C, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a. n. 394, only eighteen Roman vestals had been condemned for incontinence. CHATTANOOGA, Battle of, U. S. Fought on Nov 23, 1863, between the Union armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. Tht> Confederates were driven from every position. Or. tne right, Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carried the rifle-pits ; Sherman forced the left after hard fighting. On the 25th the whole of Missionary Ridge was in the hands of the Union army, and the enemy completely routed. This has been regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. Union loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoner? and 42 guns were captured. CHICAGO, Illinois. Population in 1860, 109,260: in 1865, estimated at i80,- 000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 1,000,000 ho^s are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 1866, $2,457,673. CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a severe battle between the Union and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. Thomas withstood the fierce assaults of the enemy, and saved the army from, a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reinforced by Longsrreet from Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acted entirely on the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. CHILI, S.' America, (p. 248.) The present president (1859), Don Manuel Moutt, was elected Oct. 18, 1856. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,558,468. Exports in 1857 amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pres. 1861. Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. in 1857, l v 558,319. CHINA, (p. 249.) Death of Taon Kwang. . .Feb. 25, 1850 Rebels take Nankin, March 19, Rebellion breaks out in Quana-si, Amoy, May 19, Bhangiiae, Aug. 1S50 Sept. 7, 1853 Rebel emperor or pretender .Rebels besiege Canton unsuc- Tienteh appears... March, 1851 cessfully ..jSTov. 1854 96 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. janton forts taken by the Brit- ish (see Canton) Oct. 8, 1S56 Americans capture 3 forts, Nov. 21, 1S56 Chinese bum European fac- tories, and murder English sailors Due. 1S56 Lord Elgin sent .out as British envoy March, 1857 British destroy the Chinese fleet, June 1, 1S57 British blockade Canton. ....Aug. 1S57 Canton taken by English and French Dec. 28-9, 1857 TTeh, gov. of Canton, who is said to "have beheaded 100,000 rebels, sent to Calcutta Jan. 1858 Forts at moiuh of Peiho captured by the English aud French. May 20, 1S58 Treaty of peace signed by Key- ing, Lord Elgin, and Bar. Gros. June 28, 1858 {Principal articles : Ambassa- dors to be at both courts ; free- dom of trade ; Christianity to be tolerated ; expenses of war paid by China ; tariff to be revised ; Chinese epithet of " barbarian" no longer to bo applied to foreigners.] Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop- ped at the mouth of the Peiho. Admiral Hope attempting to force the passage defeated, losing 81 killed, 300 wounded. June 25, Pekin taken by the French and English forces, and tiie em- peror's palace sacked Pekin given up by allies. . .Nov. 5, English and French embassies established there Mr. Burlingame appointed U. S. Minister to China Emperor Hien-fung dies, and is succeeded by Ki-tsiang. Aug. 24, Canton restored to Chinese. Oct. 21, English and French aid the gov- ernment against the rebels English Capt. Gordon defeats rebels and takes Nankin, and rebel emperor Tienwang kills himself .....July 18, 1860 I860 1861 1861 1861 1861 1862 CIIINA TRADE. A large trace is developed with China through the city of San Francisco. "Flour, wheat, himber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value of exports from the U. S. to China in 1862, was $4,323,500. Iu 1866, 2,530,- 000 lbs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one shipment reached New York, vi?, California and Panama, in 60 days. In 186*7, a regular line of steamers was established between China, Japan, and Califor- nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Burlin- game appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861. CHLOROFORM. See Ancesthetics. CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most severe at the west, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. From Julv to Sept., 1866, there were 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 583 in N. Y. city. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, London, founded by Edward VI., 1552. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in colors. CHRONOLOGY, (p. 253.) The following works are much esteemed : Play- fair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by Sir H. Ellis in 1844, and by Mr. Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful. " CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 253.) The number of churches in England for Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Publication of " Essays and Re- views." and numerous Replies, 186.1-2. The Church divided into High, Low, (or Evangelical) and Broad church — the latter including those who hold the opinions of Dr. Arnold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Publication of a woi& on the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation, 1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 1864. This pro- ceeding declared by the Privy Council to be null and void, Oct. 21, 18§5, " Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen, and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 97 CITURCH RATES in England in 1854 amounted to £318,200. Bill to abolish them passed by the House of Commons but defeated by the H. of 7 inclusive. Gold. Total. 1793 to 1850, 57* years 117,569,825 196,054,037 1851 to 1860, 9i years .470,S3S,1S0 520,1?5,556 1861 to 1866, 6"years. 257,128,586 271,194,433 Total, ,,..... 1846,536,590 $987,424,026 COLONIES. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the world was estimated, in 1852, at 182,983,672, of .vhich 176,028,672 belong to the East Indies. COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U. S. organized March, 1861. Area, 104,000 square miles. Capital, Denver City. In 1862, $12,000,000 in gold was produced from its mines. Population in 1860, 34,280, and about 6,000 Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a state passed Congress, but was vetoed, May, 1866. COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was receded to Virgina. Population in 100 the woeld's peogeess 1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43', 71 2, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. In 1850, 5l',687, including 3,687 slaves; in 1860,61,403; in 1864, 75,000, including 31,500 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools were in operation in the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867, IIS, 800, of whom there were several thousand more women than men. Im- partial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admitting colored voters in the dis- trict, 1867 ; put in force at the municipal election of 1867, when colored votes were cast for city officers. COMBAT, SINGLE, in England. It commenced with the Lombards, a. d. 659. Introduce* iuto England, and allowed in accusations of treason, when no other evidence was produced, 1096. The last combat proposed was prevented by the k'ng in 1631. COMETS. (P.264.) Donati's comet, so called from its having been first ob- served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, being then calculated to be 228 millions of miles from our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the end of September and October following, when the tail was said to be 40 motions of miles long. On the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ; on the 18th it was near coming into collision with Venus. Two new comets were discovered in 1862 ; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, another at Cam- bridge, Mass., July 18th. Besides these, the regular return of Encke's comet took place in the beginning of the year. In 1863, five new comets were found, none of them in the U. S. ; only one was visible to the naked eye with any certainty. COMMANDERS-in-Chief, U. S. army. Jacob Brown 1821 Geo. B. McOlellan 1861 Alexander Macomb .....18S5 Henry W. Halleck 1S62 Winfleid Scott... 1841 Ulysses £. Grant 1864 British Army. Duke of Monmouth 1674 Hon. George Conway 1782 Duke of Marlborough 1690 Duke of York 1795 Duke of Schomberg 1691 Sir David Dundas 1809 Duke of Ormond 1711 Duke of York again 1811 Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Wellington 1827 Eieldmnrshal Wade .1745 Lord Hill 1828 Lord Ligonier 1757 Duke of Wellington again 1842 Marquess of Granby 1 766 Lord Hardinge 1852 Lord Amherst 1T78 Duke of Cambridge 1856 COMMERCE. See Exports and Imports, Navigation and Shipping, &c. COMMERCIAL FAILURES The circular of Dun, Boyd, & Co., of N. York gives the following statistics of failures in the U. Stages: 1857 1858 1859 1860 Failures 4,937 4,225 3,913 3,676 Amount $291,750,000 $95,750,000 $64,294,000 $79,807,000 Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $17,625,000. CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Virgin. On the 8th of September, 1854, the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488. CONCORDANCE. (P. 268.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, 8 remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, wai completed in 1844, after ten years' labor. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 101 •CONFEDERATE STATES of AMEEICA." The efforts of the Southern States for the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great seces- sion of 1860-1. See United States, also Chronological tables. On Nov. 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Atbanasian, and Nicem creeds. Augsburgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1833. CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862, under the census of 1860, increased the number of Representatives to 242. There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, who deliberate but have no vote. The Senators in 1862 were 62 in number. Each Senator and Repre- sentative is allowed $10,000 compensation for each Congress (two years) de- ducting for absence (1866). In the 39th Congress there were 52 Senators and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In the 40th Congress, (1867), the same number, with the addition of Senators and Representatives from Tennessee. CONGRESS, " Confederate." Delegates from seven Southern states met at Montgomery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, chairman. On the 8th, a constitution was adopted similar to that of the U. S. On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the " Confederacy ;" Jeff. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May 7, 1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the approach of the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled again. CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850, 3*70, 792 ; 1860, 460,670. This state sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5. CONSCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a military conscription was or- dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age: from these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department, — for all the country, 80,000 men — which may be increased. The duration of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. A con- scription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian campaign, and in Dec. of same year another for 300,000, after the battle of Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union, 1861-5, " drafts" were ordered and enforced at two different times. The first draft was the (nominal) cause of riots in New York, July, 1863. CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American politics, to denote the opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the " Conservative party," in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavery party of the south. 102 the world's progress. CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term "Consols,") was formed of the other funds in 1*786. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain, and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. CONSTITUTION of the U. S. The great amendment to the constitution, abolishing slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths ol the states, 27 in number, ratified it and it became the law of the land, Dec. 18, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives shall be apportioned according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no person who shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold auy office under the IT. S. government ; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques- tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (186*7) been ratified by three-fourths of the states. CONSULS. See Ambassadors. CONTRABAND of war. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their owners on the ground that they were " contraband of war." Since then the term has been used for " blacks or slaves." CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in the British Parliament, 1*782. CONTRIBUTIONS, in aid of the Government of the U. S., (1861-65.) See Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid and relief of Union soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608. The contributions of associations and individuals for the care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865 ; for sufferers abroad, $380,040 ; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu- tions of the people of the loyal states, $212,274,248, The famous Sanitary and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered their services for the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during the war. See Sanitary, &c. CONVENTION, in the U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished men from the states met at Washington, D. C, as a Peace Conference, to pro- pose compromise measures between the north and south. Their propositions were referred to Congress, which rejected them. " Phila. Convention " of delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy of Pres. Johnson in regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention, Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.) COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo- cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on any terms. COPYRIGHT of DESIGNS, for manufactures in England, first granted 1787, for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14 years, 1814. Copyright on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or- namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 3 years, by act of 1842, and still further in 1850. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 102 COPYRIGHT in the U. S. The law modified so that the copy of the book ia to be sent to the library of Congress, instead of Smithsonian Inst. 1865. (?) The law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 years, and- a right of renewal to himself, his wife and children for 14 years more, mak- ing 42 years in all. No foreigner can secure a copyright unless residing ia the U. S. So far (1867), the American government has refused or failed to re- spond to the British offer of reciprocity in literary copyright. A treaty for this purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon. COPYRIGHT of BOOKS, Produce oe. The most profitable copyrights in the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have yielded Lirge sums to the authors. Of literary and historical works the most profita- ble have been the works of Prescott, Bancroft, Irving, Longfellow, Kane, Mrs. Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (1865-7). COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived from the Eutychians, a sect of the fifth century. CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi ; important during the war aa a military position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Gen. Beauregard, (Confed.) entrenched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces under Gen. Hafleck. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place was evacuated by the rebels, May 29, 1862. CORN, Indian, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total result is 880,000,0(10 bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn in 1866 amounted to $12,299,879. COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been mu:h disturbed by filibusters from the U. S. See Nicaragua and Central America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made president. COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume, known as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with very limited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline, ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birth of the heir to the French throne (about 1854). The latter was the prevailing fashion until 1866-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very small expansion. COTTON, U. S. (p. 278.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced ! v stated in millions of pounds weight) : 1S21 124 mills., average price 16 cts. 1859 1386 mills., average price 11 cts. 1330 298 1840 743 1849 1026 1850 635 1855 1098 1856 1351 1857 1048 1858 1118 1859 1386 i I860 1767 1861 307 1862 5 1863 11 1864 lOf 1865 6§ 1866 650 11 11* 23i Total value of cotton exported in 39 years, 2,383 millions of dollars. Value in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 5 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 78-£ per cent. ; India, 10-^ ; Brazil, 7 : Egypt, 3£ ; West Indies, tfcc, \ per cent. In England a cotton supply association to obtain from Africa, India, &c, was formed at Manchester about 104 the world's progress. !'857. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, states Chat cotton grows there in great profusion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth is manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product, of 1,750,000 bales of 4(0 pounds each in 1866. The estimates are made up as follows : North Carolina, 91,000 bales ; South Carolina, 152, Out) , Georgia, 205, OuO ; Florida, 36,000 ; Alabama, '220,000 ; Mississippi, 2*70,000 ; Loui- siana, 100.000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,0u0 ; Tennessee, 148,000 ; other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077 bales. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866, $18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,300. COTT2N GIN.' This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and prepares 300 lbs. per day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could be cleansed. COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain. Official Value, i Official Value. 1697 . . . ". £5,915 I860 .... £52,012,430 1701 23,253 I 1S61 ..... 42,5i'0i«)00 1764 . . . . 3,870,392 1790 .... 31.500,000 1800 .... 56,000,000 1810 .... 132,500,000 1820 . . . . 151,500,000 1560 .... 1,390,938,752 1561 .... 1,256,984,736 1862 . . . . 523,973,296 1863 . . . . 669,583,264 1S64 .... 893,304,720 COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operalion; Great Britain, 17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000; Russia, 700,000, Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain, 300,000; Italy, 300,000 : Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in 1860, the number of spindles employed in the five New England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states, 236,480. Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices of cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent., or 81 per cent, in gold be- tween 1860 and 1866. COURT, SUPREME, or the U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy in this Court is to be filled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice, and six Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices. The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts. COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers comand- ing distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene courts-martial. There are several limitations to the act. The number forming a court is from five to 13. Great numbers of these courts were in session during the late war. In 1866, 8,188 records of courts martial and military commissions were received and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D. C. CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-&.tock company with this name was established at SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 105 Paris, Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It takes up or originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to .them the principle of commandite, or limited liabilities, and is authorized to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2§ millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac- count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless considered by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1*716, and likely to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed; and in May, 1858, no dividend was paid. CRIME, New York City. WJio Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent publication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 German, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners; 15,948 were Irish, 1,240 Germans, a>nd 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inmates of the lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86*431 professed to be members of the church of Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. 11,222 were convicted in the court of Special Sessions. During the war, there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See Prisons. In England. The number of convictions by trial in England and Wales was, in Persons. Capital Offences. 1S49.„ 21,001 66 1855 19.971 ..50 1S58 lo,'2-16 53 1864.......... 14,726 32 Since 1848 there had been no commitments for political offences, such as treason or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. In 1856 there were 2,666 persons liberated .on " tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi- nal prosecutions in 1856 were £194,912. CRIMEA, or Crim Tartar?. War having been declared by England and France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c, sailed for Varna, where they disembarked May 29. The expedition against the Crimea having been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas- topol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong (under Prince Menschikoff), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp coutest the Russians were totally routed. See Alma and Russo-Tarkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea in July following. ERINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of the " far din gale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of whalebone, &c, revived in France, England and the United States, since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life, by coming in com tact with lire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published Jan. 5, 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. See Costume 5* 106 the world's pkogeess. CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, with two others, by St. Helena, May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by a 3ick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," es- tablished in 642. It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, twc miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him to adopt it on his standards, with the inscription "In hoc signo vinces" "in this sign thou shalt conquer." With these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 2*7,312. Lenglet. Signing with the cross was first practised by Christians to dis- tinguish .themselves from the Pagans, about 110 ; and in the time of Tertulian, 260, it was teemed efficacious against Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced about 431 ; and set up on steples about Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from churches, and crosses in the streets demol- poison, witchcraft, &c. | ished by order of parliament. 1641 CRYSTAL PALACE in rfEW York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the public (Pres. Pierce being present), August, 1852. The building destroyed by fire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sep. 1859. CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the Exhibition of the World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad- ditional projection. Entire area, 7*72, 784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and opened May 1, 1851. Closed to the public Oct. 11, same year. It cost £176,030. CRYSTAL PALACE at Sydenham, near London, built chiefly of the materials used in the foregoing, was commenced August 5, 1852. Capital of the com- pany £1,0 00,000, in shares of £5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen, June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859. In 1857 the receipts were £115,627 ; expenditures, £87,872. CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, in connection with Col. Crittenden, of Kentucky, Aug. 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana, Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con- ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell, in TJ. S. Senate, 1859. See Submarine Telegraph. CUSTOM DUTIES in the U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000- 000; 1855, $53,000,000; 1863, $69,000,000; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to 1861, $1,575,152,579.92. Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863, $3,238,936 00. CYMRI, or Kimri (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British who belonged to the great Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied the greater part of Europe, about 1500 e. c. About A. d. 640,Dyvnwal Moel- mud reigned "King of the Cymri." See Wales. CYNICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 b. c, Diog.. Laert., Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 107 except morality ; were very free iu reprehending vice ; lived in public, and practised great obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died 323 b. c) DACIA. A Eoman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it waa subdued by Trajan, a. d. 1(j6, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was slain in battle. DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in this business in the TJ. S. In 1867, the number must be nearer 30,000. The art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former use of metal plates. See Photography. DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con- quered by the Romans, 34 b. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, and retired there a. d. 305. Dalmatia was held in turn by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its session to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, it was given to Austria. In 1805, it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, and ga^e the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In 1814, it reverted to Austria. DAMASCUS, (p. 287). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, which was con- quered by Trajan about a. d. 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians and Greek emperors; and afterwards of the Hungarians. The provinces having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, they were placed under the protection of Russia. The Russians quitted these provinces in Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a convention between the Sultan and Austria), and remained there till March, 1857, The govern- ment of the principalities settled at the Paris conference, Aug. 19, 1S58. DARDANELLES, Passage of the. (p. 287.) The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan's request, Oct. 1853. DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from it, the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. Henault. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, waa not called the dauphin. DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 1840, there were 6,616 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population ; 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. In the United States in 1860, there were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the " in- struction of deaf-mutes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in the world" {National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec, 1863, 16, of whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1,300. In 1862, there were 22 institu- tions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2,000 pupils. Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated 108 the world's progress. by the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, Dr. But- ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston. DEATH, Punishment of, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment abolished in the state of Wis- consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consolidation acts of 1861, the death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in 18tf4. Capital punishment was restricted in Italy in April, 1865. DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c, was established in France in 1790, and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal cur- rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal Association formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use of the Metric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of Congress, July 27, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In- dependence (North Carolina), was passed in May, 1775, two months before that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia. DEDICATION. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Maece- nas, 17 b. c, and the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to solicit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel- lor of Augustus Caesar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and learning, that it has been cnstomary to style any one imitating his example, the Maecenas of his age or country. The Scriptures speak of the dedication of the Tabernacle, b. c. 1490, and of the Temple, b. c. 1004. The Christians under Constantine built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem- nity, in a. d. 331 et seq. DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of pontifical origin. Bouvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master of Arts, A. M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conferred on students on their graduation from medical schoojs. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished persons. DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. S. except Rhode Island. First settled in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. Penn in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous vote ia Convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population— 1790, 59,094 ;' 1840, 78,085, includ- ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves ; in 1860, 110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a mile long cost the Government $2,000,000. DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors, originally made for SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 109 the use of the Dauphin (in usum DelpMni), son of Louis XIV., edited cj Huet, bishop of Avranches, Madame Dacier, and others. Each author L* illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in the work. The number of volumes published was sixty, printed between 164*i( and 1691, except Ansonius, in 1*750. A new edition with additional notes, published by Mr. Valpy of London early in the present century. DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves (demon, peo- ple, and kratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C (who termed their opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery parry in N. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists were called Republicans. Into these two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential election in 1856. In 1860, the Republicans formed " Wide-awake " clubs for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Linccln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See United States, 1860, DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared (1850): Votes No. to Country. Pop. Votes. Pop. England ....17,000,000 630,721 * 1 in 26 Wales 850,000 37.924 1 in 23 Scotland 8,t-00.000 72,720 1 in 38 Ireland S.000,000 98,006 1 in 81 Votes Fo. to Country Pop. Votes. Pop. G and Seland \ 2S ' 650 > 000 8S9 > 3 71 1 \? 42 Prance 34,000,000 250.000 1 in 137 United States.. 20,000,000 2,750,000 1 in 7 DENMARK. Frederick VIL, son of Christian VIII., succeeded to the throne 1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedrichstadt bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9. 1850. Treaty of European powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown, May 8, 1852. New constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct. 1, 1855. Sound dues abolished for a compensation, March 14, 185*7. Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 1863. Danes retire from Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863, German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21, 1864. Prussians tabe Schleswig, Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle off Heligoland, May 9, 1864. DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationalists or inde pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1*727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. — Haydn, DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God"). Formerly in England, anything i (such as a horse, carriage, &c), which had caused the death of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished (1846), D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun- tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in. London, was affirmed to be a female, at atrial at the King's Bench in 1*771, in an action to recover wages as to his sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death it was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. DEPUTIES, Chamber of. The title given to the French legislative assembly, from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took the name of Corps Legislatif. DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, of N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, $150,- * The Reform Bill of 1S67, largely increased this number. 110 the world's peogbess. 000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to July See Arts, Paintings. DETROIT, Michigan, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 1670. Came into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1783 surrendered to the United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same year. In 1805, the town was completely destroyed by fire. It was the capital of the State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 60,000. DIAMONDS. The Eohinoor, or " Mountain of Light, " found at Golconda in 1550, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England and presented to the Queen, 1850. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small lien's egg; value abouttwo millions sterling. DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 b. C. The game of Tali and Tersera among the Romans was played with dice. DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriam), in 1844-5. A new and enlarged edition appeared in 1864 ; it contains 114,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations. Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, the latter at Cambridge, Mass. DILETTANTI, Society op. Established in 1734 by several noblemen, desirous of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and other works. DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphihera, a membrane). A disease developing a false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bro- tonneau of Tours, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of the U. S., particularly among children, 1859—60. The number of deaths by this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June 1'865, was 2,942. D T? LOMACY of the United States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britair. and France. (See p. ) FRANCE. 1853 James T. Mason, Va. min. plen. 1857 Charles J. Faulkner, Va. do. 1S61 Wm. L. Davton, N. J. do. 1S65 John Bisjelow, N. Y. do. 1866 John A.~Dix, do. do. By Act of Congress 1856, the salary of ministers plenipotentiary was raised as follows: Min. Plen. to England, $17,500; to France, $17,500; to Russia, Spain, Prussia, Mexico, Brazil, Chili and Peru, each $12,000. The " outfits" were abolished at the same time. Ministers resident to 19 other countries are paid $7,500. DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1786: a small volume of eighty two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city, United States Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address, the editor states it was the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The New York Historical Society possesses a complete set from it? first publica- tion, The Directory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,367 GREAT BRITAIN. 1852 James Buchanan, Pa. min. plen. 1853 James R. Inaersoll do. do. 1856 George M. Dallas, do. do. 18G1 Chs. Francis Adams, Mass. do. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill . 22-23 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical His- tory of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in 1843,' publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- dent. It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School- craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief in the original unity of the human race has been opposed in the works of Nott and Gliddon (Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. George Peabody, in 1S66, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a museum and Professorship of Archeology and Ethnology, also a like amount for the same purpose to Harvard College. ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1734, 477, 425, b. c. Eruptions also A. d. 40, 264, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of Italv whence the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colonv of Lydiaus. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted SUPPLEMENT, 185 1-6 V. 117 to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. b. c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained. See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- ed mi. EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith and others in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1857 at Berlin; in 1858 at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1*796. About £20,000, 000 of these are often in circulation. EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000. EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. EXHIBITION of 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits £150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. The exhibition was opened by the duke of Cambridge and a distinguished company on May 1, The Exhibition was closed on Nov. 1. when the total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- ants) had been 6,217,450. The success of the Exhibition was much impared by the de- cease of the prince consort, Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking out of the civil war in the United States of America. The foreign exhibitors in 1851, were 6566; in 1862, 16,456. EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports ' ~- f the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 116 the world's peogeess. 'ZG 000 are in Quito, the capital. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; defeated in battle by General Mores, Aug. 1869. President (elected in 1861), G. G. Moreno. EQUITY COURTS of TJ. S. In New England, New York, and several other States,the same JuJge may try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between ac- tions at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice ?.s still preserved (186*7). XRASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized Erastus), a German physician (1 523-84) who taught that the Church had no right to exclude any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex- communication. ERASURES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in 1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the Court of Chancery. The errors must be corrected with the pen. ESQUIRE, title or, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of almost every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to it by law, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier. ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North- ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilized part of ancient Ethiopia. Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Aza b. c. 941 A dynasty of Ethiopian Kmgs reigned over Egypt from b. c. 765-715 Terhakah, King of Ethiopia, marches against Sennacherib b. c. 710 Ethiopia invaded by the Cam- byses without success between b. c. 322-326 Can dace, Queen of Meroe, ad- vancing against the Roman settlements at Elephantine, de- feated and subdued by Petro- nius a. r>. 22-23 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical His- tory of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in 1843, publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- dent. It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School- craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief in the original unity of the human race has been opposed in the works of Nott and Gliddon (Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a museum and Professorship of Archaeology and Ethnology, also a like amount for the same purpose to Harvard College. ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1734, 4*77, 425, b. c. Eruptions also a. d. 40, 254, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of Italy, whence the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colonv of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 117 to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. b. ft The vases and other works of the Etrus- cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained. See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- ed 1771. EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith and others in 1815, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1S57 at Berlin; in 1858 at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. About £20,000, 000 of these are often in circulation. EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000. EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. EXHIBITION or 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits £150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. The exhibition was opened by the duke of Cambridge and a distinguished company on May 1, The Exhibition was closed on Nov. 1. when the total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- ants) had been 6,117,450. '862 The success of the Exhibition was much impared by the de- cease of the prince consort, Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking out of the civil war in the United States of America. The foreign exhibitors in 1851, were 6566; in 1862, 16,456. EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Yincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U". S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Ya., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Yincennes (flagship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports ■** the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 118 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the U. S. (Stated in round millions.) Exports of Produce. 1849 $131 millions. .. 134 " 816 " 204 " 182 " 249 " 217 " 254 " 460 " of Manufactures. Total. Imports. ,...16 millions 147 millions 147 millions. .149 .364 .247 .2 15 .299 .318 .530 .178 .362 .286 .275 .252 .3-9 .234 .437 1850 1800 J861 1862 1S6:S 1S04 1865 1866 EXPORTS of Great Brita.n. (p. 318.) Total exports in 1850, £175, 126,706. In 1851, £190,397, S10. Exports of British and Irish produce, in 1856 £115,826,. 948. In 1857, £122,155,257 ; 1861, £125,115,133 ; 1863, £146,489,768 ; 1865, £218,865 EXTENSION OF TERRITORY of U. S. Since the formation of the government in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired : Square Miles. ("California, by tieaty with Mexico J Mesillia Valley (Ari- Sqaare Miles. 599,599, Louisiana, &c, by purchase of France, for $150,- 000,000 1803 66,900, Florida, by treaty with Spain cost $6,4S9,000 1820 318,000, Texas, by annexa- tion, tendered by its people 1845 308,052, Oregon, settled by the treaty with Great Britain. ...1846 .1848 550,445, < 20na ^ by p [ iroh . lge of Mexico for $10,- l. 000,000 158 Russian America by purchase from Rus- sia, negotiated by Mr. Seward, Sec. of State 1867 7AIR0AKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli- sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862. FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain. Seen by Americus Vespucius ; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken possession of by France, 1763 ; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771 Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ayres set- tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided there. FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles II., 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. FASTS, (p. 319.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in times of war and pestilence. The British gov. appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan appointed a public fast on account of threatened secession of slave states, which was observed Jan. 4, 1861. Natioual Fasts appointed by Pres. Lincoln at dif- ferent times during the war. Fast on account of his assassination, May 1865. FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are the principal : Atbanasius, d. . 373 . 1R6 Ephrem Syrus, d. about . . 37S , . 200 Basil d. . . : J .7i) Cyril of Jerusalem, d. . , . 386 Gregory Nazianzen, d. 389 Gregory Nyssen, d. about . . . o94 , . 217 Epiplianiua d. . . 402 253 CljriSostom d. . . , . 407 Cyril of Alexandria, d. . . 44.4 220 Latin. , . 230 Amobius . Jl. . . . . 3i '3 , . 258 Laolantius . d. about . 330 Ambrose . d. . . . 397 Greek Jerome . d. . . , . 420 • . '340 Augustine . d. 430 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 119 becond century. Greek. Justin Martyr, d. about Irei.asus • . d. about Athenagoras. third century. Greek. Clements . . d. about Origerx . . d. about Latin. Tertullian . d. about Minutius Felix,./? about Cyprian . . d. about FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. Eusebius . . d. about IAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renewed in cheap-books, flourished about the end of the loth century. Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,00 inhabitants. FENIANS (See p. 297). A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, pledged to work for the liberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First at- tracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year Nov., a Fenian Congress met in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the order numbered 80,000. " Head Centre " Stephens figured conspicuously as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. In the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. In 1867, the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and was not an Amer- ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. 297. FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of America in the 17th century. See Buccaneers. It was applied to Walker and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba. FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle of the 12th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con- quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. FIRE ANNIHILATORS. An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-» but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated. FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this country. During the war, great improvements were made in this branch of ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in 1860, carries seven cart- ridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading ; patented 1861 120 shots have been fired from it in 54; minutes, including the time for reloading The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenaj (1866-7). 120 the world's progress. Steamers. Men Baltimore, 7 114 Bo.ston, 11 2S1 Buffalo, 7 189 Cleveland, 5 56 Steamers. Men. Cost. Chicago, 13 110 $245,500 Cincinnati, 12 140 141,000 New York, 34 564 869,957 FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, the following cities had introduced the new system as follows: — Cost $73,000 162,098 46,470 39,000 FIRE-ESCAPES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1S59-60. Two or three different fire- escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1S60. FIRES in the TJ. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were $214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of $20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,419,000. The largest fire of late years was at Portland, Maine, July 4, 1866. 1,600 build- ings were burned ; loss, $9,000,000 ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash- ville, Teun., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,000,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, burned, Feb. 8, 1864 ; Loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1S66. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned Jan. 24, 1S65 ; the Meteorological department suffered heavily. FLAG. See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs. The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in a. n. 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Henault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688. FLORIDA, (p. 322.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the TJ. S., Jan. 11, 1861, and seized the TJ. S. Navy Yard at Pcnsacola. Population, 1850, 87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 1866, 77,747 white ; 62.677 colored ; total 140,424. Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor, July 13, 1865. FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec. 23, 1854. The endeavor to enlist for the legion, in 1854, in the United States, gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis- missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative. FRANCE, (p. 326.) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological Tables, page 65 ct seq. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Government. 121 New Republic proclaimed ; provi sional government ebtablished, Lamartine at the head 1S4S Louis Napoleon Bonaparte declar- ed Pres. by the Nat. Assembly, Dec. 19, 1848 Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the French. Votes for the empire, 7,S39,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; null, 63,609 M ov. 2 1 , 1 852 The Emperor proclaimed.. Dec. 2, 1852 Empress : Marie Ekgenie (a Spa- niard), born May 5, 1826, married Jan. 29, 1853 Heir : Napoleon-Eugenie-Louis- Jean Joseph, bom... .March 16, 185S Heir presumptive, in default of Louis Napoleon's issue : Prince Jerome Napoleon, and his heirs male FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. (p. 327.) The restricted diet of the Germanic Confederation was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 1850. The plenipoten- tiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg, assembled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic Diet, Sept. 1, 1850. Prussia refused to recognize it. Frankfort annexed to Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866. FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 10, 1866. FRANKLIN, Sir John. His last Arctic expedition in command of H.M. Ships Erebus and Terror sailed from Greenhithe, May 24, 1845. His last despatches home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the British gov. in 1850 offered £20,000 reward to any who might discover or assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them from' England and the U. S., viz. : 1. H. M. Ship Plover, Capt. Moore, Jan. 1, 1848 2. Land Expedition under Sir J. Richardson and Dr. Rae, Men. 25, 1S48 3. Sir Jas. Ross, in the Enterprise and Investigator June 12, 1848 4. Capt. Collinson and Com. Mc- Clufe sailed in same vessels June 20, 1850 5. Capt. Austin, in the Resolute, er cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury and double, or treble the usury in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. C, Ga., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, (p. 371.) Disastrous one in the centre and south-west oi France, on the Loire, &c, damage over £4,000,000 sterling, Oct., 1846. In SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 133 south of France with immense damage, May and June, 1856. At Ham- burg, the city half flooded, Jan. 1, 1855. IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). The Republic of the Seven Islands, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, St. Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo, which were colonized by the Iones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek people; were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 14th to Venice, which ceded them to France, in 1*797, by the treaty of Campo-Formio. They were seized by the Russians and Turks in 1800 ; and formed into a Republic. They were restored to the French in 1807, but retaken by the English in 1809. A new and very liberal constitution was granted in 1845. They are now among the free states of Europe ; Corfu is the seat of government. Population in 1856, 49,663. IOWA. One of the U. S. (territory 1838), admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881 ; in 1856, 519,- 148, and 271 colored ; in 1860, 682,000. In 1863 she had 800 miles of rail- road completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in 1862, $8,200,- 000. Population in 1865, 754,732, of whom 3,607 were black. The State furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,- 216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the insane and blind in the State. IRON. The value of the annual product of the P. S. in 1860, was about $7,000,000, or about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in the U. S. in 1866, was 939,956 tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000 tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 years. ITALY (p. 374). ' Napoleon III. et Tltalie," published Feb., 1859 The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Sardinia April 26, 1859 The Austiians cross the Ticino, April 27 ; and the French enter Genoa, May 3, 1859 Peaceful revolutions at Florence, April 27 ; Parma, May 3 ; Modena, June 15, 1859 The Austrians defeated at Montebel- lo, May 20; Palestro, May 30 31; Maaenta, June 4 ; Mariguano, June 8; Solferino June 24, 1859 Provisional governments established at Florence, April 27 ; Parma, May ; and Modena. (The sovereigns re- tire.) June 15, 1859 Insurrections in the Papal States : Bo- logna, Ferrara, &c June 13-15, 1S59 Massacre of the insurgents at Peru- gia by the Swiss troops June 20, 1859 Armistice between Austria and France July 6, 1859 Preliminaries of peace signed at Vil- lafranea ; Lombardy surrendered to Sardinia July 12, 1859 Italy dismayed at first at the peace; great agitation at Milan, Florence, Modena, Parma, &c July, 1859 Grand Duke of Tuscany abdicates about July 28, 1859 The Pope appeals to Europe aaainst the King of Sardinia July 12, 1859 Garibaldi becomes commander of the Italian army, and exhorts the Ital- ians to arm July 19, 1859 Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, Aug. 11, and at Modena, Aug. 16, 1859 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna declare for annexation to Piedmont Sept. 3-7, 1859 Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the Italians.. Oct., 1859 Garibaldi, with a force of abou^ 1 ,200 men, in two small steamers, em- barks from near Genoa for Sicily, Way 6,1860 Garibaldi lands at Marsala, May 10 ; and after several victories takes possession of Palermo, May 27 ; and establishes a provisional govern- ment for Sicily, which is entirely evacuated by Neapolitan troops, June 8, 1860 Garibaldi victorious at Meiazzo, July 20-1, 1860 Garibaldi lands in Calabria, Aug. 8; enters Salerno, Aug. ; enters Na- ples Aug., 1860 Francis II., King of Naples, retires to Gaeta, Aug.; siege of Gaeta commenced by Victor Emanuel, Oct.. 1860 Gaeta capitulates Feb. 14, 186] 134 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IRVINGITES, or the followers of the Rev. Edward Irving, in England, who now call themselves the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1853), and have church officers named apos- tles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852, lights on the magnificent altar and burning of incense during prayers were prescribed. Their Gothic church or cathedral in Gordon square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It is said that all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and exten- sion. They had 30 chapels in England in 1861. JAPAN. TJ. S. exped. under Com. Perry (7 ships of war), entered the Bay of Yeddo, Feb., 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships wrecked on the coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce, which w r as agreed upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki, Sept., 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed ; and the Dutch made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in Yeddo in 1858, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening sev- eral ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August, 1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, 70 persons), reaches San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9; New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; embarked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. 10, 1860. A troup of Japanese jugglers arrived in the IT. S. in 1866. In the spring of 1867, their performances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commission- ers from Japan agaiD visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of large quantities of school books for public schools in Yeddo, and also bought from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,000. Ministers of the U. S., England, France, &c, notified May, 1867, that Yeddo and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868. JEDDO, or Yeddo (p. 376). Severe earthquakes, Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 1855; during the latter 57 temples, 100,000 houses, and 30,000 persons were said to have been destroyed. JESUITS (p. 377). In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechismo Filoso- fieo" or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to their people. JEWS (p. 378). Alderman Salomons, first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, 1855 Seizure of Mortara, a Jewish child, by the Cath. Archbp. of Bologna, June 24 1858. Baron Rothschild takes his seat as M. P. for London (first Hebrew in Brit. Parliament), July 24, 1858. JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. City in the summer of 1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course have been laid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr Jerome. The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentuc- ky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25. JUGGERNAUT (p. 380). The state allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June, 1851. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 135 KAFFRARIA, An extensive country in South Africa extending from the north of Cape Colony to the south of Guinea. The Kaffirs or Caffres first invaded the British colony at the Cape in 1831, and continued a warfare up to Dec. 20, 1852, when they were defeated and sued for peace. KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory, May, 1854, and by the same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared " inoperative and void " in both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companiea from Mass. began to arrive in July and founded the town of Lawrence. An association formed in Missouri, July 29, to "remove all emigrants" coming " under the auspices of northern emigrant aid societies ; " another formed Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., app. governor, arrived Oct. 6. Election for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29; the polls mobbed by armed bands from Missouri; another election March 20, 1855, similarly controlled; Reeder superseded July 26 by Wilson Shannon of Ohio ; Topeka (" free State ") Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11; collisions, with bloodshed, between the "free state" and "pro-slavery" people commenced at this time, and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by the people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15, 1856. Armed men from Ga., Alabama, &c, arrived in the territory April, 1856. Report of H. Repres. of U. S. on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and violence of pro-slavery invaders. Robinson arrested for treason, May 5, and imprisoned four mouths for taking office under Topeka Constitution. Raid of pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Fight at Potawatamie May 26, and several other collisions for several months. Free State legislature at Topeka dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. Shannon re- moved, and John W. Geary of Pa. appointed in his stead Aug. A party led by Ex-Senator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an attack on Osawatomie Aug. 29. Free state men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth, Sept. 1. Robinson and others released on bail Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to free state men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 1857 ; the Speaker and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-Slavery legislature at Lecompton provides for a convention. Geary resigned in consequence of ille- gal acts of Lecompte, TJ. S. judge, 1857. Robert J. Walker appointed gov- ernor, and F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. Parrott elected del- egate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution promulgated, and caused great ex- citement Dec, 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because the Const, is approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Cal. app. governor Dec, 1857. Lecompton Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by 10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery, July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 majority), Oct. 4. Under it Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. Kansas admitted into the Union under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 69,950; in 1860, 143,645. Act establishing an "Agricultural College" passed Jan., 1863. The state furnished 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the internal condition of the state are being made by the legislature every year. Asylums for the deaf, blind, and insane, have been organized. KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, defended 5 mos. by the Brit, under Gen. Wil- liams against a Russian siege, June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. KENTUCKY. Population in 1850, 771,424 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707, and 225,902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. oi 136 the world's progress. slaves 7 per cent. There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by the war, in 1865. The state sent 63,995 white and 20,400 colored soldiers (Union) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,155,668. KINDER-GARTEN" (children's garden). A system of education devised by Fro© bel, but practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The system, founded mainly on self- tuition, and en- livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in Ronge's " Kinder-Garten," published in 1S58. KNOW-NOTHINGS, or the " American party." A political organization in the U. S., 1853, to insist that the Americans shall rule America. LACE. (p. 3S8.) This manufacture has been so advanced by improvements, that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost £17, may now be had for 7s. lire. LANGUAGE. Hon. George P. Marsh, in a recent lecture, stated that there were nearly 100,000 English words found in use by good writers, but that no single writer employed more than a very small proportion of the whole. Few scholars used as many as 10,000 English words, and ordinary people not more than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, and in all Milton but 8,000. TSere were but 800 of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. LAW. (p. 391.) The numbe." of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, was 21,979, or about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants. Monthly Law Magazine. Estimating their average receipts a $1,000 per annum, their ag- gregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty two millions of dollars. In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066: and in Georgia, 908. Livingston's Law Register. LEGACY DUTY, Internal Revenue, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62- 63, Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5. is imposed on " every hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such prop- erty." In 1863, the revenue from legacies to parent, child, &c, was $25,869, to nephew, niece, &c, $11,333, to uncle, &c, $921, to corporations, strangers &c, $18,470. Total Revenue from legacies and successions in 1864, $310, 836; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979. LIBEL, Law of, U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a newspaper edited by another, though the publication was made without the knowledge of such proprietor. LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860, was about 10,000; na- tives under jurisdiction of the republic about 250,000. In 1 856 the sugar cane was introduced, and in May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm oil reported in 1859, $500,000. A college, several schools, 2 newspapers, and several churches have been established (1859). Population in 1863, 422,000, of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued from slave-ships. The government is republican. Capital Monrovia. Revenue of the Republic in 1861, $149,550 LIBRARIES. The Astor Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who left, by will, $400,000 "for the establishment of a public library in New York," " which should be open at all reasonable hours, free of expense, to persons re- sorting thereto." The original building opened to the public Jan. 9, 1854. Another building of similar style and extent was added by W. B. Astor, 1860. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 137 The whole contained in 1860 about 120,000 volumes, including the most val- uable, rare, and costly works purchasable. The free Public Library in Boston, opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind found- ed at a similar expense by several munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the public, and about 30,000 volumes are provided, which may be taken from the library by any resident of Boston. It is a remarkable fact that these 30,000 volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or damage to the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S. of over 100,000 volumes, distributed among 23 of the states and containing 2 V - 404,000 books, or about £ the total number in all the public libraries of the country. The Church and Sunday-School libraries were estimated to contain from 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work entitled " Private Libraries of New York " (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections of 4,000 and 12 with 10,000 volumes (1864). In 1S59 the following statistics were com- piled : Number of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, es- timated, 1,593; libraries of common schools, 18,000; Sunday-Schools, 30,000; total, 50,890 libraries, number of volumes, 12,720,686. LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Total receipts from this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1864, $7, 145,389 ; in 1865, $12,613,- 478 ; in 1866, $18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was received from wholesale dealers, $5,428,345. Betail dealers in liquors paid $2,S07,225. Re- ceipts from bowling alleys were the smallest, $19,749. LIGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the TJ. S., including the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to govt, being $932,- 000. The No. of buoys and beacons was about 5,000. A large number of the lighthouses from Cape Henry to the Rio Grande, were destroyed by the Con- federates in the late war. LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in support of the war against the Rebellion. Name of Loan. Length of Loan. Amount Issued^ Loan of Feb 8, 18C1 20 years $18,415,000 7.30notes 3 " 139,939,750 Five-Twenties 5 or 20 years ■ 514,780,000 Ten-Forties 10or40 " 172,770,100 Five-Twenties 5 or 20 " 91,7S9.000 Treasury Notes 3 years 17S,750.000 7.30 Notes " " 234,400,000 "" " " " 437,210,400 See Appletonh Annual Cyclopozdia, 1865. Finances- LONDON, (p. 402.) The population of London in 1861 was 2,803,034. LONGEVITY, in the U. S. In 1860 there were 2,960 persons over 100 years of age. In the State of N. Y. (1865) there were 108. LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be " public nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pro- nounced illegal, as a lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez for building a Presbyterian church. At other times colleges, roads, ferries, hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They were still tolerated in Maryland, Georgia, and perhaps other States (1861). The " Crosby Opera House" Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the " opera house "at Chicago, was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent to their amount immediately on payment. The proprietors made large profits, as subscriptions came in from all parts of the country. LOUISIANA, (p. 404.) Population in 1850, 517, 762. In 1855, by state census, 138 the world's progress. 581,114:, including 244,000 slaves. In 1860, 066,413, including 312,186 slaves. Ordinance of secession lVom the U. S. passed by Convention, Jan. 26, 1861 Motion to submit the question to the people was defeated by a large ma« jority. The principal portion of the state came under the authority of the Government before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the Union army, mostly blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, $13,358,000. LOUYRE. (p. 404.) The magnificent buildings of the New Louvre begun by Napoleon I., and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the latter in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the legal authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who ex- ercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the " dismal swamp," North Carolina, when they committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not promptly redress. This mode of ad- ministering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and has prevailed more or less in recent years in the western border of southern states. Lynch Law, "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob, inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of some offence. In England this is called Lidford Law." — Bouuier. M MACADAMIZING. The inventor of this system of repairing roads (Mr. John Macadam), received a grant from Parliament in 1825 as a reward. MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, b. c. 167, when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son Judas Maccabeus defeated the Syrians in three battles, b. c. 166, 165 ; but fell in an ambush, b. c. 161. His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, and after an able administration, was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, b. c. 143. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, b. c. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobulus, took the title of king, b. c. 107. The history of the Macca- bees is contained in five books of that name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, but not by Protestant communions. MADAGASCAR, (p. 411.) The French were defeated in an attack on this island, Oct. 19, 1855. The native Christians have suffered much persecution, although the prince, the son of the reigning queen, embraced Christianity in 1846. The Rev. W. Ellis in 1858 published an interesting account of his three visits to the island, on behalf of the London Missionary Society in 1854-5-6. MADEIRA, (p. 408.) Since 1852, the vintages here have been totally ruined by the vine-disease. MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French and Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Aus- trians were engaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7,000 prisoners ; these numbers are still doubtful. The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. The emperor and king entered Milan on June 8 following. MacMahon and SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 139 Regnaidt d'Angely were created marshals of France for gallantry in the action. MAGNETISM. In 1831 electricity was produced from a magnet by Professot Faraday, who has since published his researches on the action of the magnet on light, on the magnetic properties of flame, air, and gases (1845), on dia- magnetism (1845), on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnet- ism (1850), and on the magnetic force (1851-52). In the present century our knowledge of the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly increased by the labors of Arago, Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggeudorff, Sabine, Lamont, Tyndall, Du Moncel, &c. MAINE, (p. 410.) Population in 1850, 583,169; increase in 10 years. 16 per cent. Population in 1860, 619,958 ; increase in 10 years 6-J per cent. No. men furnished to the army and navy 1S61-5, 71,558. MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which the Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French and English attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48 hours were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French 3,33S killed and wounded. On Sept. 8, the French again attacked the Malakhoff; at 8 o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt In the Malakhoff aud Redan were found 3,000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, an important military position, where the Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. It was held by the rebels under Beauregard in 1861, when they were attacked by General McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage on the 18th at Centrevilie. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. McDowell had the advantage till about three o'clock, p. M., when the rebel Gen. Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first were taken for Union troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in dis- graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. in March, 1862, when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir- ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall" Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun- tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th General R. E. Lee (who had defeated McClellan before Richmond, June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con- flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com- pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centrevilie, where they were once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States. MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the authority of the pope. They live near Mt. Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damas- 140 the world's peogeess. ens. and other places. They suffered severely in the massacre by the Diuses in 1860, and some accounts make the Marouites the original aggressors. MAROONS. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu- lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1*730. In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and transported to Nova Scotia, Bran.de. They were also sent to Sierra Leone ; and many of them are among the Dutch of Surinam. MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They were visited by Cook in 17*74, and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842. MARRIAGE, (p. 414.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in 1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96,883 1850 was 152,744 1800 " 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207 Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrars' returns, that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the marriage register with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceased wife's sister, without success. A bill for this purpose passed the Commons, July 2, 1858, but was rejected by the Lords, July 23 following. MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its name from the circumstance of some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when it was little known there, in 1792. Brande. MARYLAND, (p. 415.) Population in 1850, 583,034, including 74,723 free colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years, 11 per cent,; decrease of slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at- tempts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the " Con- federacy" and to betray the National cause — but they were defeated by the predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis- fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops furnished for the war . Disbursements for Union troops, $4,212,479. MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in population, In 1860 the population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 1,267,329. MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about $1,000,000. * In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which are very minute and curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : — Bachelors and maids, 6,456; "bachelors ffl^.d widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; "widowers aod widows, 222. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 141 MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S. There were 54 medical school*! and colleges ia the 17. S. in 1862. The oldest is the University of Penn. at Phila., 1765. MEDTCI FAMILY. Illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italy ; were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was re- called, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo. Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany. MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypt, (" of which the very ruins are stupendous ;") is said to have been built by Menes, 3890 b. c. ; or by Misraim, 2188 b. c. It was erected by Alexander, 332 b. c. ; and restored by Septimus Severus, a. d. 202. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 b. c, began, and the founding of Alex- andria, 332, completed the ruin of Memphis. MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe and embraced many communities ; but at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched off. MENU, Institutes of. The very ancient code of India. Sir W. Jones, who trans- lated them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about 962 b. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 b. c). Haughton's translation appeared in 1825. MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, 418-752. MESMERISM. So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of Mersburg. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766; con- tending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused through the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- mated beings. Quitting Vienna 1'or Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous pro- selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government at length appointed a committee of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility of animal magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesmer. Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau and others announced their belief in it.* METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi- nese as early as 644 b. c. ; by Greeks aud Romans (a few only) ; by Kepler (1623), Halley, Humboldt, Cavallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 1719, 1783, 1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delaware, &c, July 20, I860. Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov. 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till 1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These were described by Prof. Olmstead of New Haven. METHODISTS, (p. 422.) The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at Baltimore, 17S4, Wesley sanctioning it as the " Meth. Episcopal Church of America." Introduced in S. Carolina and Georgia, 1785. Secession of Anti- * In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, Archbishop "Whately being president, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes among the vice presidents. 142 the world's progress. Episcopal branch, 1880. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the "Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1S44. The northern branch had in 1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences," 24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. The "M. E. Church South" in 1845, had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124, 811 colored members, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership wag 721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 2S colleges and 27 high schools for females ; and a publishing house at Nashville which issued 600 million pages in 5 years. The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,000 ministers. No. of Methodists in U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000 ; number of churches, 11,638 ; ministers, 10,911. MEXICO, (p. 423.) Herrera, president, 1848; succeeded by Gen. Arista, Jan. 15, 1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna was recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez, Jan. 1S54 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27 days. Alvarez made president by a Junta, but after a few weeks resigned in favor of Comonfort, who confiscated Church property, March, 1856. New constitution promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zuloaga to the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to Vera Cruz, May 4, 1860, assuming there to be the "Constitutional president." Zu- loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church party leads a war against Juarez, which ends in the triumph of Juarez, Jan. 1861. In July, 1863, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke of Austria, who accepted it; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864; defeated the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by whose assistance Maximilian had established himself in Mexico, were with- drawn. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximilian in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place, against the protest of all foreign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of anarchy has existed in Mexico for years, and Maixmilian's object was to reduce the counti-y to order under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and cruelty. City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman Catholic Church, under the title of " St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord- ing to Butler, was A. D„ 487. MICHIGAN, (p. 423.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 1840-50, 87 per cent. ; 1850-60, 89 per cent. ; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864, 600,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to the army in 1861-5, 90,119. MILITIA, (p. 424.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri. mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. U. S. The mili- tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained from official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non- commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates ; a total of 2,090,109 men. Since the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 143 a more efficient system than formerly. Volunteers ir the war are exempt from duty for a certain period ; in Conn, for 3 years. MINCIO. A river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800 ; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8J 1814. The provinces of Verona and Mantua are watered by the Mincio. MINES, (p. 425.) The deepest coal pit in England was opened about 1860, after nearly 12 years' labor. The shaft is 680^ yards deep, and its sinking cost some $500,000. The seam of coal is 4 ft. 8$ in. thick, and is calculated to yield 500 tons a day for 30 years. The shaft is 12-J- feet in diameter, and near the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. TJ. S. The famous Hay ward gold mine, in Amadon county, California, extends 1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In thirteen years, $7,000,000 have been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different companies. The length of mining shafts in the West varies from 500 to 1,000 feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly $150,000,000. MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d' escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac- curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and •with various modifications by the British army in 1852. MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1857. Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860, 176,535 ; 1865, 248,848. A terrible Indian massacre occurred m this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur- dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destroyed. Their depre- dations extended over an area of 20,000 square- miles in the western part of the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners ■were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000 fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. MINT. (p. 426.) In England, first regulated by Athelstan, about a. d. 928. See Coinage. MIRRORS, (p. 427.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercury. MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as follows: North America, 125 ; South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218; Northern Africa, 6 ; West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon, 419 ; Burmah and Siam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,737 native helpers (1860). Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a written language. 20 dialects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 500,000 persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. Roman Catholic. The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, for 1857, from ail parts of the globe, amounted to $838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia, $284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas, $73,000. The whole amount contributed on this continent was about $32,- 000. It is stated that Protestants in the U. S. alone, give more for foreign missions than the one hundred and fifty millions of Catholics in all parts of me world. 144 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. MISSISSIPPI, (p. 426.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?) Population 1850, 606,326 ; 1860, 836,658 ; increase from 1840 to 1850, 61 per cent. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River ; the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it "Atissoissippy /" Hennepin " Meschasipi." Sape is river, running water ; the prefix means " great," " big." "Ordinance of Secession " from the U. S. passed Jan. 9, 1861. VVm. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for the pardon of Jelferson Davis, Aug., 1865. MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 81,422 slaves. In 1856 911,001, including 101,605 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830 to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. I860, 1,201,214, including 115,619 slaves. Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession, but they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicts and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United States and Battles. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865, $678,660. MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis- covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since — except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub- ject to the English. MONACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex- amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantino (a. d. 306-322) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ; of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the Stylilse (or pillar saints), died a. d. 456. He is said to have lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism, published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, about a. d. 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c, are so many varieties of Bene- dictines. MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. Upon this doctrine the U. S. protested against the establishment of French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. They were finally withdrawn in 1867. MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians June 9, 1S00, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May 20, 1859), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French lost about 700, including general Beuret. MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was con- quered by Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and establish SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 145 ed an hereditary hierarchical government in the family ofPetrovitsch Njegosch, endured, but not recognized by the Porte. MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete were not established in France till 1777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Pawnbroker, p. 464. MONUMENT of LONDON, begun in a. d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The pedestal is forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com- menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost about £14,500. MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Hungary was completely de- feated by the Swiss, June 20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column in its place. MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 5,760 members. MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The U.S. chief justice being repu- diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned, Col. Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap- pointed governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred Cummings appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S. troops, Oct. 5. His trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath- ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses ; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormons has been estimated as high as 100,000 ; and some are reported in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them- selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints." Their church organ- ization is composed of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres- idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and Daniel H. Wells; next the Twelve Apostles ; then the quorums of Seven- ties, of which t'tiere are said to be 62 organized in the territories, each having seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders, Priests, Teachers, and Deacons. A somewhat anomalous office is that of pa- triarch, which has been conferred on John Smith (son of Hyrum and nephew of their first prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. {National Almanac.) Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867. MORTALITY IN "WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a com 146 the world's progress. plete list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg- iment from all the Northern States duiiug the war. This record shows that 280,751 officers and men lost their lives in the service; of whom 5,221 com- missioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed in action or died of wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,329 men died of disease. MOSQUITO COAST (in Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States has long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove- nanted not to " occupy or fortify, or colonize, oi* assume, or exercise any do- 1 minion over any part of Central America." MOUNT VERNON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased for the nation for the sum of $200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi- nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the war of secession this place was carefully protected by the government. MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Germany, was founded, it is said, a. d. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the French, under Moreau, July 2, 1800. Munich abounds in schools, institu- tions and manufactories. The University was founded bv king Louis in 1826. MURFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between the U. S. troops under Rosencrans and the Rebels under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated. MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washington's ad- ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe appeared in New York, under Signor Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran, his daughter, met with great success as an opera singer. Other Italian troupes followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer- ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in all large towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged. The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent players are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15,000,000 worth of Pianos are man- ufactured yearly. See Pianos. NAPLES (p. 434). Italian refugees, under Count Pisac- eane, landing in Calabria, are defeat- ed, and their leader killed, June 27- July 2, 1857 Death of Ferdinand II., af;er dreadful sufferings May 22, 1859 Accession of Francis II The city of Naples surremleis to Gari- baldi without, a struggle, and the king ret : res to Gaeta.T Sept., 1860 Gaeta surrenders to the Sardinians, and the king takesrefnge in a French vessel ". Feb. 13, 1861 See Italy and Sicily. NASHVILLE, U. S. The capital of Tenn., occupied by the Union forces, Feb. 23, 1862. Great battle fought here Dec. 15, 1864, between the forces of Amartial anarchy prevails Dec, 1849 The chiefs of the Liberal Party arrest- ed in 1849 Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a mock trial, are con- demned, and consigned to horrible dungeons for life June, 1850 .After remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical government (May), the English and French ambassa- dors are withdrawn Oct 28, 1856 Attempted assassination of the king by Milans Dec, 1856 The Cagliari seized..., June, 1857 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 147 Gen. Thomas (Union) and Hood (Confederate). The former had been be* sieged for several days when he marched out and attacked Hood, taking 16 guns. On the 16th he completely routed him, taking 20 guns. This was the last campaign of the Southern army of the West. NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the Emperor Frederic I., about 1180, for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom are descended the royal house of Orange now reigning in Holland and the present Duke of Nassau. Population of the duchy in 1857, 434,064. Wies- baden was made the capital in 1839. In 1866, after the war, this duchy was annexed to Prussia. NATIONAL ACADEMY of Design (at New York), founded 1826. The first President was Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Durand in 1845, and he by D. Huntington in 1862. Corner stone of new Academy building laid Oct. 21, 1863. Building opened and inaugurated April 17, 1865. See Design, Paintings. NATIONAL DEBT of England. The annual interest in 1850 was £23,862,257; and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to £27,699,740. On Jan. 1, 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was £769,272,562 ; the charge on which for interest and management was £27,620,449. On Jan. 1, 1852, it was £765,126,582; the charge, £27,501,783. Mr. Gladstone's Estimate : England $3,995,000,000, or $125 per head. United States 3,000,000,000, or 100 " France 2,400,000,000, or 53 " Austria 1,5S0, 000,000, or 45 " Russia 1,395,000,000, or 43 '« Italy 760,000,000, or 34 " Spain $725,000,000, or $46perhead. Holland 425,000,00(1, or 12 L " Turkey 255,000,000, or 115 a Prussia 215,000,000, or 12 u Portugal 175,000,000, or 40 M Great Britain's revenue has never exceeded £70,000,000 per year; but the United States Government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. United States. At different times: See Loans. In 1830 the debt was $48,565,406 In 1635 " " 37,733 lnlS45 " " 16,801,647 In 1848 " " 65,804,450 Aug. 31, lS65itwas 2,757.689,571 (It reached its highest figure at this date.) Jan. 1, 1860 it was 2,716,581,536 Nov. 1,1866 " 2,551,310,005 May 1,1867 " 2,520,786,096 Sept. 1867 " 2.500.000,000 In 1791 the debt was $75,463,476 In 1800 " " 82,976,294 In 1810 " " 53,173,217 In 1816 " " 127,334,934 In 1820 " " 91,015,566 Jan. 1, 1865. it was 66,243,721 Dec. 1, 1S61 " 267,654,153 Jan. 1, 1863 " 764,535,854 Dec. 1, 1863 " 1,293,243,544 Feb. 13, 1865 " 2,279,582,484 NATURALIZATION Laws, U. S. By the Constitution, Congress has power to establish " one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re- sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the city of New York between 1850 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu- ralized. NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, feathers, &c, into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave themselves; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and in the same year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to the impressions. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressions of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process in England was in " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley. 148 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded during the Presidency of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy. During the war it was removed to- Newport, R. I. It has since been re-established at Annapolis. NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. in the war of The Confederate forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C, bombarded by fleet of Com. Stringham, and taken by land forces of Gen. Buller.Aug. 28, 29, 1861 Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Com. Foote Feb. 6, 1862 Great naval action in Hampton Roads, Va., March 8, 9, 1862. The Confed. ram Merrimao from Nor- folk, attacks the U. S. frigates "Cumberland" and " Congress," and sinks them. On the follow- ing day the U. S. " Monitor " (battery of 2 guns), arrived in time to save the frigate Minneso- ta, and finally forced the Merri- mac to withdraw in a disabled condition. Com. Farragut, with a fleet of 50 vessels and 286 guns, passes forts Jackson and Philips, destroys the enemy's rams, and takes New Or- leans April 18,28,1862 Grand military and naval expedi- tion, under Dupont, captures forts at Hilton Head, 8. C Nov. 7, 1861 Fierce action at Port Hudson, Miss. Admiral Farragut, in attempting to pass the batteries, loses his flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863 Combined attack of ironclads upon NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 440). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 sailing ves- sels, carrying 9,594 guns; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns; also 155 gunboats, and 111 vessels on harbor service. NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 440) has been greatly increased by the present empe- ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449. NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p.' 439). In 1860 consisted of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeships, 6 re- ceiving ships — total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In 1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268 guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing $18,366,681. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to June 30, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029 guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866, 13,600. NEBRASKA, U. S. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area Secession : Fort Sumter, S. C, five disabled, the fort receiving no great injury. April 7, 1863 The Confed. ram Albemarle at- tacks U. 8. gunboats at Plymouth, N. C, sinks one, and disperses the rest April 19, 1864 Brilliant engagement off Cher- bourg, France, between U. S. gunboat " Kearsarge," and Con- fed. privateer "Alabama." The latter sunk in two hours June 19, 1864 Admiral Farragut, with 32 vessels and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay, silencing the forts, and capturing two heavy ironclads. One TJ. 8. Monitor sunk by a torpedo.... Aug. 5, 1864 Gunboat fight near Memphis, Tenn. . The Union fleet com- pletely routed the enemy's, cap- turing 3 and disabling 4 of their vessels June 6, 1864 Formidable fleet of ironclads and frigates with 300 guns, under Admiral Porter, attack Fort Fisher, N. C. Under cover of the terrible fire, land forces storm and capture the fort. . . .Jan. 15, 1865 For list of minor engagements, see Greeley's " Amer. Conflict," Vol. II. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 149 about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indians. Admitted into the Union, March 1st, 186*7. NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Oarsou City. Area, about 80,000 square miles. Population, I860, 50,568, of whom 16,260 were Indians on reservations, and 7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted as a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1536 conquer- ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic of Colombia in 1819. After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic of New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, Antioguia, Panama, and other small States. NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 441). Population in 1850, 317,976; increase in ten years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,072; increase, 3 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427. NEW JERSEY (p. 442). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored persons. In 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 years, 35 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population, 1865, 773,700. NEWSPAPERS (p. 445). Some of the chief dailies : N. Y. Herald founded 1835 | Times 1850 | Evening Post 1801 Tribune 1841 | Sun 1833 | Commercial Advertiser.1797 Washington Intelligencer... .1801 In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219 in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in Germany, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. Great Britain (p. 445). In 1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes. In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-office. ESTABLISHMENT OP THE PRESENT PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. Daily. Public Ledger 1759 I Times 1788 I Standard 1827 Morning Chronicle 1770 Sun 1792 Daily News 1846 Morning Post 1772 | Morning Advertiser.. 1S03 | Daily Telegraph 1855 Morning Herald.. 17S1 | Globe 1803 | Morning Star 1S56 Weekly. Observer 1792 Bell's Messenger...... 1796 Weekly Dispatch 1S01 Examiner 1808 Literary Gazette 1817 John Bull 1820 Bell's Eif" in London. 1820 Sunday Times. . . . 1822 Atlas 1826 Athenaeum 1828 Spectator 1828 Illustr'd London Newsl812 Lloyd's Weeklv Paper .1812 News of the World 1843 Economist 1843 Leader 1850 Press 1853 Saturday Review 185- NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 1848. Organized as a territory, 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. Population in 1860, 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal Indians. NEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 444.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the " Crescent City " on account of the circular bend of the river on which it stands. Founded by the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1S03. Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom 13,. 300 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered to the 150 the world's peogeess. TJ. S. forces, — the naval commanded by Admiral Farragut, and the land force3 commanded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations aa to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by Haydn (p. 513), and believed in England, have been long since exploded. Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canby appointed to the post, 1864. Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the " Radical Conven- tion," July, 1866. NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. la 1865 it was re-established at Annapolis. NEW YORK, State of. Population in 1860, 3,851,563 ; increase in ten years, 24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,- 533. Volumes in school libraries, 1,360,50*7 (1860). Population in 1865, 3,831,777 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom 583,611 were natives. The number of widows in the State — principally a re- sult of the war — was 13*7,980. It sent 4*73,443 troops to the war. Number of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,8*73. City of. Population in 1850, 514,54*7 ; in 1860, 805,651 ; in 2865, 726,386. The density of the popula- tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $51,000,000. Value of real and personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625. NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili- buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united efforts of the con- federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to marry any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main- tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ. NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng- land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they rendered invaluable services to the army in the Crimean war: a fund was raised in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the training of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to £44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see Assyria), founded by Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 b. c. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 b. c. Abbe Lenglet. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b. a), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b. c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries has not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 151 before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the sculptures brought to England and now with Br. Museum is the bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation of the Assy- rian god Nisroch (from Nm% an eagle or hawk), whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b. c. 2 Kings xix. 3*7. In 1848 Mr. Layard published his " Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1853 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. A collection of bas- reliefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr. Jas. Lenox, of New York, and presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?) NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirable ele- mentary gas. Before 177*7 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro- gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites, 679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of "secession" passed May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, $250,000,000. Gen. Sherman marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces- sion " null and void " Oct. 7, 1865. NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 448.) The honor of actually effecting the north- west passage was achieved by Capt. McClure, in the British ship Investigator, which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. Collinsou, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty chart showing the discovery published 1853. NOVARA (Sardinia), Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. The contest began at 10 a. m. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austriana lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; the Sardinians lost between 3,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia soon after abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king (1867). NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 b. c, and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b. c, when Numidia became a Roman province. NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introductiou to the science. Other foreign works are numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with later editions. Works by Bushnell, Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snowden at Philad. O OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834 at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab- lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof. E. Loomis. In 1840, 152 the woeld's pbogkess. one at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at West Point, for the U. S. Military Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory pas« sed Congress, Aug., 18-12. In 3 844, under the superintendence of Lieut. Gilliss. U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished ■with European instruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. Capt. Gilliss appointed iu 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro- nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845. Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private individuals; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Miss Mitchel. OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered Ohio. Population in 1860, 2, 377, 917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5, 317,133. In 1866 there were erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,8S9,900, 4,850 houses, 1,158 barns, 78 mills, 311 factories. OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titusville, Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley of Oil Creek, Pa. ; 30oO barrels were obtained from a single well in one day. Wells were discovered later iu Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia. From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000. In 1862, $60,(/ 00,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717 barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number- less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan. 1862, the price of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10 ; in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1S66-7 the petroleum fever had greatly diminished. OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 452). In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece. OMNIBUSES (p. 452). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni- buses with 204 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 down the city. OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs. of opium were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and physicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending every year. The duty on opium is $2.90 per lb. ; on opium prepared for smok- ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5). OREGON (p. 455). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in 1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000. ORGANS (p. 455). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru- mental performers. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall at SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 153 Boston, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beechcr's church a* Brooklyn, 1866. OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (West- ern Goths) about a. d. 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c, their great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553. 0TJDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the Great Mogul. On the dismemberment of his empire about 1*760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal family. YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez, hear ye ! The term used by a public crier in law courts, &c, to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the date not known. OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The ovster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 was valued at $20,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 worth was distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conn., is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters. OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis- charge. It is considered to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur- ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Schonbein has since discovered another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone. PAINTING, in the U. S. (p. 458.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New York, historical painters. More recently, Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in land- scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elliot in portrait. In landscape paint- ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made ; and the works of Church, Bierstadt, Gilford, and others have won fame and honor beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index, also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Biog. Hist, of Fine Arts, etc. PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of Geol- ogy. Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century, may be reckoned as the fathers of this science. The Palseontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British organic remains, was founded in 184*7. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the author of an elaborate work on the Palaeontology of New York. A Professor- ship of Palaeontology established at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by Geo. Peabody, Esq. PALESTINE. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the wars of the Crusades, and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. in 1516. PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. A new State, named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres- ident (I860) is Jose de Osbaldin. The Panama Railroad opened 1855. PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers in the United States 7* 154 the world's progress. lias been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, especially in Conn., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the best in England. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima- ted at $20,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated, but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great Britain. Mass. manufactures more paper than anv other State. Number of mills in 1865, 77 ; value of stock $5,381,671 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for makiug paper in the U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn-out bagging, cable-rope, straw, hay. hemlock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canea and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U. S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro- ducing 280,000,000 lbs., which at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,000,000. The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000 lbs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in- terested in the manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United States, for the year 1865-'66 gives the following results: Total income of ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora- tion reported an income of $178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of $314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro- duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188,385,000; France, $121,070,000; United States, $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the U. S. was $238,677,218. PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as great in 18?>6 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated : (from I79u to 1850 the whole No. was 16,296): Years. 1843... Applied for. 819 Granted. 531 Years. 1857 Applied for. 4771 Granted. 2710 1850... 2193 995 1859 6225 3710 1856... The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 1859. Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign applicants. No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,378. Expenditure $189,803. PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug- gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings- land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as- sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city, Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 59th to 106th St. : in 1S59 it was extended to 110th St., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2^ miles long, ■J mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 was assessed on adjoining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice the size of Hyde Park in London ; but of its area 142 acres is occupied by the two Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (1856) were follow ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1858, and the ap- pointment of Mr. F. L. Olmstead as Superintendent and " Architect-in-chief. " Work on this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3500 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 155 persons have been employed to this time (1867) under the general direction of commissioners appointed by the Legislature. A park of about equal extent to the " Central Park," is projected but not yet (1867) completed for the City of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1860. The " Common " at Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en- closures in the world. PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of paper pulp combined with gum and sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuif-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1*740. In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier mache is now largely employed in ornament- ing the interior of buildings, &c. PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ; in 12 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of £10, and his widow £8 more as full payment for the copyright. PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; and conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who established an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. Francia was elected dictator, succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The present (1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great Britain in 1853, by the U. States in 185- PARSEES, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, where they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, has been several years professor of Gujerati at University college, London. PARIS, (p. 461.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napoleon, 1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855, the first visit of an English sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 1422. The great Ex- position of 1867, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of the world — and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of Prussia, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c. PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono- rius, archbishop of Canterbury, a. d. 636. The parishes of England and Wales now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced a. d. 1538 PARLIAMENT, (p. 462.) The Peers took possession of their house, that portion of the palace being ready April 15, 1847 The members of the Commons' House of Parliament assem- bled in their new house Nov. 4, 1852 Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted July 26, 1858 PARMA, (p. 462.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose, and established a provisional government, May 3 ; the duchess-regent retired to Switzerland. On Sept. 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted. PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another without the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was some- what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 156 the world's progress. 6s. to <5d. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1S59; in Sweden in 1860; and (with regard to British subjects) in Fiance, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Italy, June 26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863; and are falling into disuse in other countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United States dnring part of the war of 1861-4. PASSAU, Treaty of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es- tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12,1552. By this pacification the Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault. In 1662 the cathedral and greatest pa,rt of the town were consumed by fire. PAWNBROKERS, (p. 464.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres- ent street of bankers in London. They have been humorously described as meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would never be redeemed. PEABODY FUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gave £150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A large pile of buildings, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as homes for working classes. In U. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S. donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus- tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr. Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the amount of his gift, March 4, 1867. PEACE SOCIETY, American. The first peace society in the world was found- ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A similar society was founded at Paris in 1821. Peace Society in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni- versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years, Bright, Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part. PELASGI. The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 b. c. and in Italy about 1600 b. c. They have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pelasgi come the Dorians, iEolians, and Ionians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279; and by Yong-lo, 1471 ; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793; surrendered to the allied English and French armies, Oct. 12, 1860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 following, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000. PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the roll3 in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their payment, $1,183,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in- 1860, In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, $300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro- duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866, was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, $13,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1S66). SUPPEMENT, 1851-( 157 PENNSYLVANIA. Population in 1860, 2,906,113. Number of common schools in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 362,284 soldiers for the war. It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having been made by the legislature to support such. PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con- version of 2f tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the first, gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for £7 4s ; now the commonest pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are now made to a large extent in the U. S. PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. PERSEPOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 b. c. The fire is said to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist. PERU. Marshal San Eamon president, Oct. 24, 1862 General J. A.' Pezet president, April 3, 1863 The Spanish admiral Pizon took possession of the Chincha isles (valuable for guano), belonging to Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the claim of his government on that of Peru was satisfied April 24. 1864 Congress at Lima : plenipoten- ' tiaries from Ohili and other states meet to concert measures for de- fence against European powers.. Nov. 1864 Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands re- stored Feb. 3, 1865 Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 2S ; several provinces soon lost.. May 1865 The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes president Nov. 1865 PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera- tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 b. c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe- rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in- surrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal soldiers was afterwards indemnified. PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitions be- gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable numbers. In 183*7, there were presented to parliament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons ; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 persons. This right defended by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented a petition for dissolution of the Union. PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-spring3 were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now termed " Petrolia," and others have been since discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells have been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this country, and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at Ifjw temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum " was passed in July, 1862. PETROPAULO VSKI. A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtschat 158 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repulsed, Aug. SO, 18B4. It was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destroyed. PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation: about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reading-pew with a date, is one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of drugs and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon- don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in New York founded in 184-. PHILADELPHIA, City of. Population in 1860, 585,529. During the war fot the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Clubs. PHILOSOPHY, (p. 470). MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. Ancient Schools. — Pythago- reati, about b. o. 500 ; Platonic, (the Academy), by Plato, 374; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic, by Diog- enes, 330: Epicurean, by Epi- curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno, 290 ; Middle Academy, by Ar- cesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Oarneades, 160. Modern Systems, — Rational, Ba- con, ab't a. d. 1624 ; Cartesian, Descartes, about 1 650 ; Reflec- tive or Perceptive, Locke, ] 690 ; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elec- tive, Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common Sense, Reid, 1750-70; Tran- scendental, Kant, 1770-1860 ; Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; Ab- solute Identity, Schelling, 1800- 20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30; Utilitarian, Bentham, 1790-1830 ; Positive, Comto, 1830. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Greek and Latin. — Thales, about b. c. 600 ; Pythagoras, 590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Eu- clid, 300; Archimedes, 287; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, ahout 100 ; Julius Cffisar, 50 ; Ptolemy, A. D. 150. Middle Ages. — Arabians ; Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen ; &c, 1100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, 1266. INDUCTIVE philosophy. Copernicus's system published 1543 Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 Galileo's Dialogues 1632 Royal Society begimiwhich see) 1645 Otto Guericke — Ai r-pump 1654 Huyghens on Pendulums 165S Newton — Fluxions, 1655 ; Analysis of Light, 1699; Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia published 1687 ; Death 1727 Bradley discovers aberration 1727 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets 1748 Black on He:it 1 76i Laplace on Tides 1775 Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique 178S Galvani's and Volta's researches 1791 Laplace, Mechanique Celeste 1799 (See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, &c. PHOENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent navigators and traders of antiquity ; their cities being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and Ptolemais of Acre. From the nineteenth to the thir- teenth centuries before Christ, they established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus; and are said to have visited the British isles. Phoenicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537 b. c. ; by Alexander, 334 ; by the Romans, 47 ; and was added to the Otto- man empire, a. d. 1392. PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek, phone, sound). The English Phonetic So- ciety, whose object is to reform our mode of writing and printing by rendering it more consonant to sound, was established March 1, 1843 ; Isaac Pitman, pecretary, he being the inventor of the system which was known in 1837 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 159 Among other works published by the promoters of this system was the ' Pho- netic News." PHOSPHORUS, (p. 470.) The consumption of phosphorus has immensely in- creased since the manufacture of lucifer matches. In 1805, Schrotter of Vienna, made the important discovery of what is termed allotropic or amor- phous phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phos- phorus. PHOTO-GALVANOGRAPHY. The art of producing engravings by the action of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce, and presented by him, in 182*7, to the great botanist, Robert Brown, in Eng. Great advances have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, Paul Pretsch patented in England a process which he called " Photo-galvanography," and a company was formed to apply it to the benefit of the public. PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVING (a process by which the light actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and has been printed from), was invented by Mr. Fox Talbot, in Eng. in 1859. PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early as the sixteenth century. The phenomena were studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790), Ritter and Wollaston (1801). From the results of these in- vestigations, experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first photographer. His paper was entitled "An Account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver." Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and Sir J. Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824; and in 1826 joined Niepce, and worked with him till the death of the latter in 1833. The production of the Daguerreotype plates was announced in Jan., 1839; and the French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce (the son). In 1839, also, Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode of multiplying photographic impressions, by producing a negative pho- tograph (i. e. with the lights and shades reversed), from which any number of positive copies may be obtained. His patent for producing the Taibotype or Calotype (on paper), is dated Feb. 1841. From this time improvements have been made with great rapidity. In 1851, Collodion was applied to photography by Mr. F. Archer. Photographic Society of London, established Jan. 1853. It publishes a journal. Celestial Photography began with Professor Bond, the astronomer of Cambridge, IT. S., who exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. In the U. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photog- raphy in the U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in the course of a lecture at the Broadway Tabernacle, early in that year. Pro- fessors Morse, Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, before the end of the year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 applied it to portraiture. Ambrotypes were introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851, although very little was done in the business way until 1854. Early in 1855, Mr. C. D. Fredricks made the first successful life-sized photographs, with an apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. Snelling. Professor Bond, of Cambridge, Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. Photographs of rapidly-moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a second. Ingenious counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography. PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs, 1G0 the world's progress. McKaye & Co. ; among the earliest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farra gut, Greeley, and others. PIANO-FORTES. Those made by Stein way of New York, and Chickering of Boston, received the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of 1867, July 1. This manufacture has advanced very largely in the last 15 years, and is one of the most important branches of American industry. There are in New York city alone 113 piano-makers (1867). PIEDMONT {Pedemontium, Latin, foot of the mountains). A region in North Italy, seat of government of the modern kingdom of Sardinia, which see. PINS. (p. 472.) Pins were first manufactured by machinery in England, in 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wight, of the TJ. S. — Haydn. PISTOLS, (p. 472.) Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylin- drical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succession into a line with the barrel for firing. The earliest model for this kind of arm is to be found in the United Service Museum, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. The manufac- ture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into England from the United States, in 1853, by Col. Colt, the inventor of the celebrated Colt pis- tol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to Eng- land. The perfection and economy of this system of manufacture induced the British Government to establish the Enfield Armory in the year 1855. — Haydn. In 1835 Colt patented his revolving chambered breech ; and in 1852, founded his manufactory at Hartford, Conn., where the Colt Arms Co. make revolving pistols of several sizes, costing from $10 to $25 each, at the rate of 300 and sometimes even 500 each day. This revolver has 14 parts, besides screws, and these pass through (in all) 460 separate processes before the pistol is completed. Various other revolving pistols have been invented, but none so successful. The Derringer pistol is single-barrelled, throwing a small ball. PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862 a great battle was fought between the U. S. troops under Grant and Prentiss, and the rebels under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter began the attack and were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. Grant was reinforced the next day and renewed the attack ; the rebels main- tained their ground ; but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. PLANETS. See Astronomy. Asteroids have been discovered as follows : Eygeia, by A. de Gasparis. April 12, 1849 Parlhenope, by the same.... May 11, 1S50 Victoria, by J. R. Hind Sept. 13, 1850 Egeria, by A. de Gasparis...lSrov. 2, 1850 Irene, by 'J. R. Hind May 19, 1851 Eunomia, by A. de Gasparis.July 29, 1851 Psyche, by the same March 17, 1852 Thetis, by R. Luther April 17, 1852 Melpomene, by J. E. Hind. . .June 24, 1852 Fortuna, by the same Aug. 22, 1852 Massilia, by A. de Gasparis Sept. 19, 1852 Lutetia, by H. Goldsmith. Nov. 15, 1852 Calliope, by J. R. Hind Nov. 16, do Thalia, by the same Deo. 15, do. 4 in 1853 ; 6 in 1854 , 4 in 1855 ; 5 in 1856 ; 9 in 1857 ; 5 in 1858; 1 in 1859; 5 in 1860 ; 9 in 1861 ; 5 in 1S62 ; 2 in 1863 ; 3 in 1864 ; and 3 in 1865. PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY (England) conveys letters and parcels through tubes by means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- pany's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid down inThreadneedle street on Sept. 12, 1860 ; and on Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiments were performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the Euston rail- way station to the N. W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863, the conveyance of the mail bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston railway and Holborn ; and on Nov. 7, several persona travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 161 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN". A body of Christians calling themselves " the Brethren," which first appeared at Plymouth, England, about 1830. In 1851 they had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. They object tc national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters as too sectarian. They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant churches, but they recognize no order of ministers. POET-LAUREATE— England. Alfred Tennyson, appointed 1850. POLICE. The "Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and sub- urbs, passed 1857, resisted by the mayor (Wood), and a serious collision re- sults between the old and new police force, June 16, 1857. The new law pronounced to be constitutional by the Court of Appeals, July 2, and the old force is disbanded next day. The present police force of New York (1861), is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever been organized on this continent. In 1866, the police force consisted of 26 cap- tains, 105 sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 door- men. There are 26 Police districts. Expense to the city for supporting this force in 1866, $1,836,120. POLITICAL ECONOMY, (p. 418.) In the U. States, the most elaborate works on this subject, are those of Mr. Henry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as a protectionist), several volumes which are highly esteemed also in Europe. Works favoring free trade, have also been issued here by Opdyke, and others. POLYNESIA. A name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. PONTIFFS (Latin, Pontijices). The highest Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The college first consisted of 4 Patricians ; to these 4 plebeians were afterwards added. Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 majcres, 7 minores). The chief was called the Pontifex Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a plebeian, obtained this office, 254 b. c. POPULATION of the Globe, (p. 481.) Professor C. F. W. Dietrich, of the University of Berlin, has furnished the Academy of Sciences in that city with the most recent and reliable tables on this subject, giving the following results, with his grounds for them. Population of Europe 272,000,000 " "Asia... 755,000,000 " " America 200,000,000 " " Africa 59,000,000 Population of Australia, etc 2,000,000 Total 1,288,000,000 or more than twelve hundred millions. Reckoning the average death as about one in every forty inhabitants, 32,000,000 die in a year ; 81,611 in a day ; 3,653 in an hour ; and 61 in a minute. Thus one human being dies on an average every second, and more than one is born. Of the U. S. In 1850, 23,191,000 ; in "i860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the following cities had over 100,- 000 -.—New York, 805,651 ; Philadelphia, 585,529 ; Brooklyn, 266,661 ; Baltimore, 212,418 ; Boston, 111,812 ; New Orleans, 168,615 ; Cincinnati, 161,044 ; St. Louis, 160,113 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofficial hut reliable estimate taken by an officer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total popula- tion of the U. S. was found to be 34,505,882. PORTLAND, Maine. Population in 1860, 26,342. See Fires. PORT ROYALISTS. The came popularly given to the learned members of the celebrated convent of the Port Royal des Champs (founded about 1204 ; ana refounded in 1626), who occupied their time therein religious exercises, and in instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were expelled by 162 the world's progress. Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguished names con- nected with the Port Royal are those of Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de Sacy and Tillemont. The school books which were published for the use of that institution were greatly esteemed. PORTUGAL, (p. 485.) An American squadron arrives in the Tagus to enforce claims against the Portuguese govern- ment June 22, 1850 Death of the queen Maria II. Nov. 15, 1853 King-consort recognized as re- gent Dec. 19, 1853 The young king visits England June, 1854 And France May, 1855 All the slaves on the Royal do- mains declared free.... Dec. 30, 1854 Inauguration of the king. Sept. 16, 1855 Resignation of the Saidanha ministry June 5, 1856 First Portuguese railway (from Lis- bon to Santarem) opened Oct. 26, 1S58 The French emigrant ship for negroes Charles-et-Georgcs, seized Nov. 29, 1851 Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships of war to the Tagus ; the vessel re- stored Oct. 2?, 1853 1853. Peter V. (Don Pedro), born Sept. 16, 1837 ] the present (lc59) king of Portugal. Married to the princess Stephania, of Hohenzollern Sigmar- ingen, May 18, 185S ; who died July 17, 1859 [Heir, Prince Louis-Phil ; p, the king's brother, born Oct 31, 1S38.] do .... " 21 do do " 3 do do » 3i do do «' 4| do do POST OFFICE. U. S. (p. 484.) For the year ending June 30, 1859 : number of post-offices, 28,539 ; increase, during the year, 562 ; mail routes, 8,273 ; aggregate length, 260,052 miles ; annual transportation, 82,308,402 miles, of which by railroads, 26.010 miles, total, 27,268,384 miles, at 11.9 cents per mile ; by steamboats, 19,209 miles, total, 4,569,962, at 25.3 cents per mile ; by coaches, 63,041 miles, total, 23,448,498 miles, at 13.3 cents per mile ; by inferior modes, 151,792 miles ; total, 27,021,658, at 7.1 cents per mile. Ex- penditures of the department for 1859, $14,964,493; revenue, $7,968,484 ; deficiency, $6,996,009. See Tab'e in Appendix. Nearly 2,000,000 "dead letters " annually fail to reach the persons addressed. The Post Office re- ceipts were in 1854 7 millions . 1855 7i 1856 7 A 1857 8 1858 8 1859 Si I860.: 8* Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, $11,163,000 ; expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of postage stamps were sold ; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes ; $23,315 worth of stamped wrappers. 467,500,000 letters were conveyed in the mails, of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4,368,000. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,12 2. The revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the states previous to the rebellion by $6,038,090. The most money that can be sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867, 180,900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30, 1865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre- vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was 4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,860,- 122. The average annual increase of the revenue for the last four years over the preceding four years was $3,533,845. The Postmaster-General thinks SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 163 that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted by Great Britain. POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 300 new money-order offices were added, making TOO such post offices. The largest amount that can be sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed — the charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to $20 ; and 25 cents od any order over $20. POST OFFICE, British. The net revenue was in 1853, £1,104,000 ; in 1857, £1,293,971. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 1837, and adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of the old system was, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 millions ; in 1858, it was 523 millions. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post, at the rate of Id. for 4 oz. The number of letters annually passing through the Post offices of Great Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system, is four times as great as in the United States, as by the following table : No. of Letters per Postal Postal Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues. United States 25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792 Great Britain 30,000,000 410,817,489 13,693 14,884,800 9,245,000 Prance 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900 Spam 14,000,000 30,775,686 2,209 1,095,398 1,281,761 Belgium 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648 Holland 3.200.000 13.349,553 4,357 156,785 288,162 Switzerland 2,300,000 19,773,671 8,299 341,028 447,752 PRAETORIAN" GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (b.c. 13), and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in a.d 193 when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. PRESBYTERIAN'S, (p. 488.) The Presbyterian church in the United States was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850, the aggregate No. of churches was 4,5S4, accommodating 2,040,000 persons. The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization, Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu- tions "that to support the President and the Government of the U. S. is relig- iously the duty of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old School" Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers, 2,301; churches, 2,629. "New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers, 1,694; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 1862, 200,000. Contributions of " Old School " in 1865, $2,400,000 ; " New School," $2,200,000. PRESS, freedom of the, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1861 for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. " Journal of Commerce," "News," "Day Book," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara- tions ; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails, Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the " Chicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers passed resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten- dency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did not express trea- son or give information to the enemy. PRINTING, (p. 490.) In the United States this important art has made great ad- 164 the world's progress. varices during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam* brige, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens, nearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence haa been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy and cheapness have been more studied in England. PRINTING TYPES first electrofaced with copper, about 1850. PRINTING IN COLORS was first commenced by the employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of Faust, a.d 145*7, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed (" Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 1519. in Germany ; others, by Ugo da Carpi in Italy, 1518). In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage published in England " Hints on Color Printing," illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which expired in 1855. Since then great improvements have been made in the art. It has been applied to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851, he commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ; and also electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as well as durability. — Haydn. This art is also practised considerably in the U. S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print- ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Phila., about 1848, has been carried to great perfection. PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 488.) The largest presses more recently constructed by Hoe & Co., of New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These are the "ten-cylinder type-revolving printing machines." Two of these have been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four daily newspapers in New York. The cost of each press is about $30,000. Of the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now manufactured by Hoe & Co. PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States in 1865, 25. if No two are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners n them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in pratice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850. PRISONERS. During the "Rebellion," U. S., at the close of the war, 174,223 were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1863, there was a general ex- change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for 110,800 Union soldiers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. From 1861 to 1864, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Rich- mond. 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed- erate) tried at Washington, D. C, for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at the latter place, and executed Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoneis) placed under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C, in retaliation for bombarding the city, 1864. PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing with a license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war betweei; supplement, 1851-67. 165 Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856; but the U. S. govern- ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250 privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from New York, 40 from Salem, and 31 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers. About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See CoggeshalVs Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863) passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabling the President to cover every sea with Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently effective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many millions. The fleetest of these Privateers were of French and British build, and some of them manned by seamen from those nations. PjJIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 Rebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis- tribution among seamen $20,501,927. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece. PROPERTY in the U. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the U. S was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11, 317,611, 6*72 (more than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,- 726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiar prop- erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions. PRUSSIA, (p. 494.) Prince of Prussia made permanent regent Oct. 7, 1 858 Prussia declares its neutrality, but arms to protect G-erm'y. May & June, 1859 Death of the king and the accession of the Prince of Prussia, as William I. Jan. 2, 1S61 War was declared by Prussia and Italy against Austria ; Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover sided with 'Austria; The Prussian army occupied Hano- ver and Saxony. (See Battles, Austrian and Prussian) June 17, and 18, 1866 Negotiations for an armistice com- menced July 12, 1S66. Prussian ad- vance in sight of Vienna, July 22. Treaty of Peace signed Aug. 30; Prussia acquired Hanover, Schles- •wig-Holstein, Pxesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa- tions her population became 23,583,- 000 ; the strength of Austria remain- ed united, but she paid Prussia $28,- 000,000 ; Venetian Province ceded to Italy : a vote on the question of annexation of Venetia to Italy was held in that province, resulting in 641,758 affirmative, 68 negative. Oct. 19, 1868 The King of Italy entered Venice, amid great demonstrations of joy Nov. 7, 1888 The king takes the oath required by the new constitution. Feb. 6, 1850 Treaty of peace between Prus- sia and Denmark July 2, 1S50 Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 223,000 infan- try, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artillery,with 1,0S0 field-pieces. Nov. 7, 1850 The Prussian troops commence their retreatfrom Hesse-Cassel Dec. 5, 1850 The king celebrates by a grand banquet the 150th anniversary of tb e Prussian monarchy, Jan. 18, 1851 The king revives the council of state as it existed before the revolution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852 A Prussian Industrial exhibition opened at Berlin May 28, 1852 Prussia repudiates a customs union witli Austria June 17, 1852 But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 19,1853 Continues neutral in the war. . . . Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 1854 ^Excluded from the conferences at Vienna Pub. 1855 Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia appointed regent for three months Oct. 23, 1857 Prince Frederick William of Prussia, married to the prin- cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1858 166 T^ZE WO.RI.T.'s PEOSESeS. PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a. d 140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved around once in twenty-four hours. This system (still the official doctrine of the Church of Rome), was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 b. c.) was revived by Copernicus (a. d, 1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (1687). PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public lands reached 122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,487,495 acres : the quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. PUBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek, in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span than any stone arch in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di- mensions, nor surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of oar points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced about 1485; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1750. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation ('?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis (). Q QUADRANGLE, on Quadrilateral. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian fortresses in North Italy : — (1) Peschiera, on an islaud in the Mincio, near the lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and Russians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It was taken by the Sardinians in 1848 ; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The Sardinians were about to invest it in 1859, when peace was made: (2) Mantua, on the Mincio ; (3) Verona : and (4) Legnano ; both on the Adige. QUAKERS, (p. 497.) In 1682, Wm. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized Philadelphia, where on Jan. ]», 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In England, on Jan. 23, 1833, Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parlia- ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in 1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an " orderly mob " of citizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858. QUININE or Quinia. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona barks, especially of the yellow bark. R RACES, (p. 501.) The most eminent races in England are those at Newmarket, established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by Mr. Park' SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 167 hurst (they have been annual since 1730) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Doncaster, in 1*776, and at Goodwood, begun by the Duke of Richmond (who died in 1806). The English Jockey Club began in the time of George II. The New York Jockey Club and the race course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flying Ghilders, bred in 1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred in the w r orld ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 85-^ miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 26 years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $30,000 for Dexter, a fast trotter, Aug. 1867. RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, when the "Ragged School Union" was formed. In 1856, there were 150 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges, where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 500 boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. In New York and other large cities of the U. S., "Ragged Schools" have been established by benevolent in- dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute children, who would otherwise have received no instruction. " Mission Schools " also have gathered in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The " fourth Ward " and "five Points " Missions are of this character. RAILROADS of the World. , Area 6q. mile. s , Population , Miles of To mile To mile railroad. of RR. of RR. H". America 39,414.1 7,600,000 192.8 52,000,000 1,309.3 Vest Indies 410.3 100,000 243.7 ■ 3,500,000 8.529.8 S.America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,814.4 22,500,000 21,595.1 Tot. Amer 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6 Europe 50,117.5 3,600,000 71.8 285,000,000 5,6SG.O Asia 3,660.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3 Africa 375.4 11,700,000 31.166.7 200,000,000 532,765.1 Australasia 607.7 3,200,000 5,265.7 1,600,000 2,632.8 Total of world....... 95,727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,903.3 See table in detail, in Com. & Financial Chronicle, N. Y. RAILWAYS, (p. 502.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is was 69 millions ; the railway mania and panic year was 1846, when 270 railway acts passed. Up to 1858, the sum of £308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S. In June, 1859, the length of railways in operation in the United States was stated to be 27,857 miles; cost $961,047,364. Increase since 1847, 24,057 miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,935 miles ; cost $1,432,649,000; cost per mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles ; Ohio, 3,393; Illinois, 3,206; New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in which 335 persons were killed. In Cities. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The. earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expense $2,821,625. 1G8 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. RAILWAY TRAVELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this mode of travelling is much safer than the old modes. Thus in the French post sys* tern there were nearly seven times as many deaths as in an equal number of miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial ly in the United States. The summary of several years shows Passengers. In England killed or wounded 1 in 311,340 In United States, " " le8,459 Passengers. In Prussia, killed or wounded 1 in 1,291,075 In Belgium, " " " 1,611,237 Id France, " " " 375,092 The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia, probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro- portion. Disasters. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R., 42 killed, Oct. 27, 1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k. and w., Nov. 1, 1854; Camden and Amboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855 ; Pacific R. R., near St. Louis, 25 k., 50 w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R. R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6, 1856 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 78 w., July 17, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can- ada, 70 k., March 12, 1857 ; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ; Michigan Southern, near South Bend, 38 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci- dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per- sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 7 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed, 3,611 injured. RAPE, Punishment of, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du- ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted of rape. REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1816, and received a gold medal from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867. REBELLION'S in U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, 1786. The "Whiskey Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West, having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, Jan. 9th, 1861. See Secession, Treason. In British History. The most im- portant were : Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compro- mised by the grant of Magna Oharta, June 15 following. See Magna Oharta. Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul- garly called Wat Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col- lector to his daughter. Having killed the collector in his rage, be raised aparty to oppose the tax itself, which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of York, against Henry VI., 1450. Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which ended in the execution of Warbeck. Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; it ended in his death. Of the Scots in favor of the Old Pre- tender 1715; quelled in 1716. Of the Scots, under the Yonng Pre- tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1716, when lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock were beheaded. Of the Americans, on account of tax- ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss of the chief North American colonies, and to the independence of tie United States, 1782. Canadian Insurrection, December, 1837 to Nov. 1 838. Of Cliartists, Nov. 3, 1839. Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion; termi- nated in his defeat, Tipperary, July 29, 1848. Fenian outbreak in Canada, 1866. Id Ireland 1867. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 169 RECIPROCITY Treaty with Canada, ratified at Washington, June 5, 1854. It allowed certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 17, 1866. It was argued against the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be against the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have the same rights as the English, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the British Provinces. REPUBLICAN PARTY, C. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1851. The whig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas Nebraska bill, and the repudiation of 'the Missouri Compromise. All who op posed the bill were called "anti-Nebraska," and afterwards "Republicans.'* In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. (Greeley's History.) Their first presidential convention was held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Pre mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Republican." REVIEWS and MAGAZINES, (p. 508.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853; sold to new pub- lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. 1857, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston), commenced 1857 (Dec). Russell's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858, ceased 1860. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey Magazine 1867. British, (p. 507.) Tait's Mag., founded 1833 Dublin University. ... 1 833 North British Rev 1844 New Quarterly Rev. . .1852 Household Words (Dic- kens) 1852 Don. Quarterly 1853 National Rev 1855 All the Year Round (Dickens) 1P5S Once a Week 1859 MacMillan's 1859 Cornhill Mag. (Thacke- ray) 1860 Temple Bar Ma?. (Sala) 1860 St. James Mag 1860 Good Words 1861 Popular Science Rev 1S61 London Society 1862 Victoria 1803 Union Rev 1863 Fortnightly Kev 1865 A rgoi^y 1S65 " Belgravia " Mag 1S66 Broadway 1S67 Tinsley's 1S67 REVIVALS of Religion. Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub- jects in the United States in 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to Scotland and Ireland. REVENUE of the United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus- toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 1850. $43,000,000 1855 65,000.000 1859 53,000,000 1860 §56,054,599 1861 41,476,299 1862 51,935,720 Revenue of the U. S, for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans): Year. Internal. Customs. Total. Expenditures. 1863 $37,640,787 £69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,796,630 1864 109,741,134 102,316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,656 1885 209,464,215 84,928,260 333,714,605 1,897,674,224 1866 , 309,226,813 179.046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,666 Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, wag $1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861- 2-3, Congress passed laws for increased revenue to maintain the war. The Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles. The revenue from this source in 1862 to 1866 is stated in above table. REVIEW Military, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at thu 170 the woeld's peogeess. close of the war, at Washington, D. C, May, 1865, The army of the \»est under Sherman, and of the east under Meade, reviewed by the President, Cab- inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched by the White Hous«, occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country were present to witness the sight. REFORM in Parliament (England), (p. 504.) A new Reform bill, introduced by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected March 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords July 15 1867. REGENT'S PARK, London. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most beautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres, laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev- eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of ' architecture. RENTS in England, were first made payable in moDey, instead of in kind, a. d. 1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England, the duke of Sutherland received lis rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland in the value of wool and sheep.. The rental of England, including, land, houses, and mines, was six millions about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen mil- lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Reve- nues. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c. RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860, 174,621 ; in 1865, 184,695, of whom 112,107 were born in the state. It sent 25,455 sol- diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000. RIOTS in the U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three days. The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000. They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Bread riots in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 18, and at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven- tion broken up by ex-rebels and policemen ; 30 negroes and a few whites killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866. RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 1779. Population in 1800, 5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the secession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital of the "Southern Con- federacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at by the " Union army of the Potomac," The place was fortified with great skill. It fell April 2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The notorious " Libby Prison" was situated in Richmond. ROADS AND PAVEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eng- SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 171 land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London ; at Whitehall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. In New York and some other American cities the best pavements have been those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu- larly that known as the Russ pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in- troduced which has proved satisfactory. ROBBERS. First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which directed that the oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in England, a. d. 1189, and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an his- torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. 1670. In later times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1*790. ROCHELLE (W. France) A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng- lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France ; and was vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re- markable siege of thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve the besieged ; but they, from distrust, declined to admit him. ROMAN CATHOLICS in the United States, in 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859: 1S39 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859 Provinces 1 3 7 1 Priests 478 1000 2108 Dioceses 16 30 4S Churches 418 966 2334 Bishops 18 26 45 | The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the U. S., in 1863, was 3,177,000. ROME. (p. 511.) The pope issues the bull estab- lishing a, Roman Catholic hier- archy in England (see Papal Aggression)., Sept. 24, 1S50 Important concordat with Aus- tria ., Aug., 1655 The pope visits different parts of his dominions June, 1857 Insurrection in the Bom.igna, at Bo- logna and FeiTiira Tune, 1850 Tbey declare for adhesion to Pied- mont Sept. 1859 Accept Buoncotnpagni as Grovevnor- General Nov. 1859 RONCESVALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised and defeated by the Gascons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando, slain, a. d. 778. ROSETTA STONE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in- scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 24, feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 194 b. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T. Young and Champollion. ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the Red Shield (in German, Roth Schild). Having had deal- ings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have been £250,000), in 1806, when the French held his country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and re- stored the £250,000 to the landgrave in 18 15. At his death his sons con- 172 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. tinued the business as partners. His son, Nathan began at Manchester in 1*798, removed to London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, July 28, 1886. EOTTERDAM. The second city in Hollaud. Its importance dates from the thir- teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. ROUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the. capital of Normandy in the tenth century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was re- taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of France in 1449. RUSSIA, (p. 513.) Russia demands an expulsion of the Hungarian and Polish refu- gees from Turkey (see Turkey) Nov. 5, 1849 They are sent to Koniah, in Asia Minor Tan. 1850 Harbor of Scbastopol completed, Feb. 1850 The czar concentrates his forces on the frontiers of Turkey Feb. 1853 Orign of the Russo-Turidsh war, (.which see).: March, 1853 The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will only com- bat for' the faith and Christian- ity, April 23, 1854 Death of the Czar Nicholns ; no change of policy March 2, 1855 Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at Nicolaieff). .Nov. 3, 1855 He visits his army at Sobastopol, Nov. 10, 1855 Amnesty granted to the Poles, May 27 ; political offenders, &c. Sept. 7, 1855 Alexander II. crowned at Moscow, Sept. 2, 1S56 The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgardt, Sept. 25 ; and the Em- peror of Austria at Weimar. . .Oct 1, 1857 Emancipation of the serfs decreed, July 2, 1856 A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, on the Mediterranean, creates some political excitement Aug 1858 New Commercial treaty with Great Britain Jan. 12, 1859 Russia reproves the warlike move- ments of the German confederation during the Italian war May 27, 1859 Alexander II. , son of Nicholas, born April 29, 1818 ; succeeded at his father's death, March 2, 1855 ; mar- ried April 28, 1841, Mary, Princess of Hesse ; the present emperor of Russia I860 Heir : his son Nicholas, born Sept. 20, 1843 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR with France and England. The Russian and French governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy Places in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation of a mixed commission, which decided in favor of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, March 9, 1853 ; to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. The Russians now made further claims. Henschikoff s ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted Constantinople, May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hattischeriff confirm- ing all the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his allies. On June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besika bay. On June 26, the czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Prnth and entered Moldavia, July 2. The sultan, with the advice and consent of a grand national council, after demanding the evacuation of the principalities, Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The Russian declaration follow- ed, Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against Russia, March 27 and 28, 1854. Hostilities ceased, Feb. 29, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in April following. The Sultan declares war against Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope, Russia Oct. 5, 1853 Nov. 30^ 1853 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bay- At the request of the Porte (Dec. andur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, 5.) the allied fleets enter the Nov. 14, 18, 26, 1853 BlackSea Jan. 4, 1854 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 173 Miss Nightingale and nursps arrive at Scutari...". Nov, 6, IS54 Sardinia joins England and France, Jail. 26, 1855 Death of Emperor Nicholas and acces- sion of Alexander II. (no change of war policy) March 2, 1855 Sortie from the Malakhotf tower (15,000 men) repulsed March 22, 1S55 .Resignation of Gen. Canrobert, suc- ceeded by Gen. Pelissier May 10, 1855 Death of Lord Raglan ; succeeded by Gen. Simpson June 28, 1855 Russians invest Ears in Armenia, de- fended by Gen.Williauis luly 15, 1855 The French take the Malakboff (ivhich see) by assault ; the English assault the Redan without success ; the Rus- sians retire from Sebastopol to the North Forts, and the allies enter the city ; the Russians destroy or sink the remainder of their fleet. . .Sept. V, &c. 1853 Explosion of 100,U(J0 lbs of powder in the French siege-train at Inkerman, with great loss of life Nov. 15, 1S55 Capitulation of Ears to Gen. Moura- vieff, after a gallant defence bv Gen. Williams Nov. 26, 1855 Council of war at Paris Jan. 11, 1858 Destruction of Sebastopol docks com- pleted Feb. 1, 1856 Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till March 31, agreed on Feb. 25, 1856 Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, April 2; in London r .. April 29, 1856 The Crimea evacuated July 9, 1856 RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercial relations: In 1861, exports from Russia to U. S. were $1,290,000 ; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons of shipping from Russia entered U. S. ports; 9,300 tons cleared for Russia. Diplomatic relations between the two countries have been most cordial. July, 1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to the American Government his sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Resolutions passed Congress May, 186*7, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi- nation. ROYAL ACADEMY, England, (p. 512.) Presidents. Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C. Napier March 11, 1854 Treaty between England, France, and Turkey March 1 2, 1854 France and England declare war against Russia March 27, 28, 1854 Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English March 31, 1854 Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai May 30, 1854 Bombardment of Ode-sa by allied fleet April 22, 1854 Bombardment and surrender of Bomarsund Aug. Id, 1854 The Russians defeated by Scha- myl in Georgia. .about Aug. 28, 1S54 They begin to evacuate the prin- cipalities Aug. and Sept. 1854 Battle of the Aima...\ ..Sept. SiO, 1854 Russians sink part of their fleetat Sebastopol Sept. 23, 1854 Death of Marshal St. Arnaud, Sept. 29, 1854 General Canrobert appointed his successor Nov, 24, 1854 Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack (without success) Oct. 17, 1854 Battle of Balaklava — gallant charge of the light cavalry un- der Lord Cardigan, with severe loss Oct, 25, 1854 Battle of Inkerman ; defeat of the Russians Nov. 5. 1854 1830. Sir Mart'n A. Shee. 1S50. Sir Charles Eastlake. 1866. Sir Francis Grant. 1768, Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1792. Benjamin West. 18^0. Sir Thomas Lawrence. ROYAL SOCIETY, (p. 512.) Presidents. 1660-3. Sir Robert Moray. 1663-77. Lord Brouncker\the first under the the charter). 1680-2. Sir C. Wren. 1684-6. Samuel Pepys. 1698 -1703. John Lord Somers. 1703-27. Sir I. Newton. 1727-41. Sir Hans Sloane. 1778-1820. Sir Joseph Banks. SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig Hacker between the years 1740 and 1747 at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa., among the German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used as an hospital after the battle of Brandywirie, fought in 1777. This event occa- eioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sunday 1820. Dr. W. II. Wollastoo. 1820. Sir H. Davy. 1827. Davies Gilbert. 1830. Duke of Sussex. 1838. Marquis of Northampton. 1848. Earl of Rosse. 1854. Lord Wrottesley. 1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodia. 174 the world's progress. .school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about IV 82. SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 517.) Karaehameha IV. (or Tamehanieha) when 20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. SANITARY COMMISSION, IT. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre tary of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., PresJ., Fred. Law Olmstead, Secretary. [The Women's Central Relief Association had been previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May 1, 1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed §229,328, and California, $1,233, 977. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184,487 ; that at Phila- delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission, 8vo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis- bursed for teachers at the South, in 1865, $318,670; for supplies, $490,755. Total, $809,425. SANITARY REFORM, U. S. (p. 517.) The ventilation of buildings has been greatly improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses, 1833, and Barnard's School Architecture, 1838. This reform was specially needed in printing offices, bookbinderies, and manufactories generally. SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public health, about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Health " having excited much atten- tion. Since 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws. Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sanitary Commission. SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol- omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera- ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and translations of many works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Ox- ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, ap- pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams (elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851, Professor Max M tiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti- mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla- vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. SARDINIA, (p. 518.) See Italy. Bill for suppression of convents passed March 2, 1S55 Convention with England and France signed, a contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied against Russia April 10, 1855 10,000 troop* under General La Marmora arrive in the Crimea, May 8, 1855 Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the Tchernayo, Auk. 10, 1S55 The kn:g visits London, &c. Nov. B0, &c. 1855 Important note on Italy from Connt Cavour to England April 16, 1856 Count Cavour declares in favor of free- trade June, 1S57 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca; Count Cavour resigns, July, 1859 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich. Nov. 1S59 Sardinian troops besiege the King of Naples at Gaeta Sept. 1860 Gaeta capitulates to Victor Emanuel, Feb. 13, 1S6L SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 175 ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Republic of St. Domingo was established in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly by Faustin I., dethroned in 1858. ST. GEORGE. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio- cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ; but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, be was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantic Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 16*73, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815 ; and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1350. Taken by the British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada, Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was restored to France at the peace of 1 802 ; but was again seized by England the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1592. The old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086). ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 16*75. The whole edifice was completed in 1*710. The total cost (including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was £1,511,202. The length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet ; the breadth, from the north to the south portico, 282 feet ; the exterior diameter of the dome, 145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet. Architect, Sir Christopher Wren. ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city in May 2*7, 1*703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house ol brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda- tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the imperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. The winter palace w^as burned to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The rail- way to Moscow was finished in 1851. ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, a. d. 306. About the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by Bramante ; the first stone was laid by Pope Julius II. in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed the work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 1626, the building having occupied i76 years. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet; aud the entire 17G the world's progress. height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman Catholic church in the world. SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here General Burgoyne, commander of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war of Independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 1*7, 1777, SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications are the Bighw Papers and Fable for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel of Peace, castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemus Ward, " Petroleum V. Nasby, and others ; and the very clever pictorial satires of Thos. Nast. SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of deposits, $*70,000,0n0. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state, the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,785,400. There are comparatively few savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 574, besides above twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,5S1, while the societies embraced a vast but un- known number of persons : the amount of deposits was £32,893,511. SAVOY, (p. 520.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April 22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop- ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, May 3, 1842 ; no issue). Heir (presumptive) ; Prince Alfred of England, born Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 19, 1863). SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe-Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112. SAXONY, (p. 520.) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 12, 1801), the present (1861) king. Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828. SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den- mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor- mandy (about a. d. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also called Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century. SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti- mated at 180,000 : namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 25,000 Swedes, and 5,000 Danes (1860). SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in England. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connec- tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland. They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education were: for Great Britain, £150,000, for Ireland, £134,560. United States. Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established bv the SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 177 first settlers of New England on their arrival ; were soon made obligatory by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commencod about 1800. Its important dates are : Connecticut school fund, established 1*795 ; first state school sup't.. New York, 1812 ; first state school system, Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com menced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report or Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edu cation in Mass., 1837; Stowe's report on European schools, 1837 ; first nor- mal school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac- tice. The following totals for the United States are approximate for 1858 : children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 97,621 ; school funds, $49,- 324,384; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. See Education, Colleges, &c. SCIENCE in the U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci- ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Reports, to be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Bounda- ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in about 20 quartos, the great work of Agnssiz on Natural History, pub. by sub- scription, etc, etc. See Astronomy, Observatories <&c, SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes of a wind-mill, set on axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi- ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the Archimedes and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely propelled by the screw. SEVASTOPOL, or Sevastopol. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W. point of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine II., memorable for its eleven months' Siege, by the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle, with great loss of life. " SECESSION," U. States. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican " candidate for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several southern states for another Union; the resignation of Federal officers in those states, and of members of the cabinet at Washington, and of several officers of 8* 178 TEE WORLD'S PROGRESS. the army and navy; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, and arsenals, The chief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the following: Resignation of S. C. senators of the U. States Nov. 9-11, 1860 U. S. H. of Rep. appoints a com. of 33 on the state of the Union, Dec. 6, 1860 Resignation of Howell Cobb, Sec. of Treas.,- U. S Dec. 10, 1860 U. S. stocks (5 per cent) sold for 89, Dec. 10, 1860 Resignation of Mr. Cass, Sec. of State Dec. 14, 1860 South Carolina Ordii.ance of Se- cession passed Dec. 20, 1860 Maj. Anderson transfers the U. Stales garrison at Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor Dec. 26, 1860 S. Carolina authorities seize Fort Moultrie and olher U. States property Dec. 28, 1860 J. B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War re- signs Dec. 29, 1860 Forts Pulaski and Jackson, in harbor of Savannah, seized by Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 1861 8. C. commissioners' demands refused by the President Jan. 3, 1861 Fast-day observed in the U. S. Jan. 4, 1861 Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by the state Jan. 4, 1861 Steamer Star of the West with U. S. troops for Fort Sumter, fired into by the rebels.. Jan. 9, 1861 Mississippi secession passed, Jan. 9 : and TJ. S. forts and Alabama secession passed Jan. 11, 1S61 Florida secession passed, and U. S. forts at Pensacola seized Jan. 12, 1861 Georgia secession passed Jan. 19, 1861 Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida senators of the TJ. States resigned Jan. 21, 1801 Louisiana secession passed Jan. 28, 1S61 Texas secession passed Feb. 1, 1861i "Peace Conference" at Washington, Feb. 4, 1861 Louisiana delegation excepting Mr. Bouligny withdraws from Congress Feb. 5, 1861 Congress of seceding states at Mont- gomery, Ala., Feb. 6 ; elects Jeffer- son Davis of Miss. Pres., and Alex- H. Stephens of Ga. Vice-pres..Feb. 9, 1861 Tennessee votes against secession, Feb. 9, 1861 Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer- ence with slavery in any state passed unanimously in H. of Reps.. Feb. 11, 1861 Jefferson Davis inaugurated Pres. of Southern Confederacy Feb. 18, 1861 The " Peace Con erence " at Washing- ton agrees on proposition for " com- promise," and adjourns March 1, 1861 Gen. Twiggs, having surrendered the U. States forces and property in Texas is dismissed from the TJ. S. army as a traitor March 1, 1J61 Missouri votes against secession, in convention March 1, 1861 Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of United States March 4, 1861 See Battles, U. S., War, &j. Also Tables, p. 190, manufacture of this article has been successfully introduced since 1850, and brought to considerable degree of perfection. Gold pens are also made here extensively, and fully equal to any imported. STEREOCHROMY. A mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solu- tion of flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the color and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and skopein, to see). An optical instrument, for representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c, by uniting into one image two plane representations of these objects as seen by each eye sepa- rately. The first was constructed and exhibited by Prof. Charles Wheatstone in 1838. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved, and are now exceedingly cheap. In the U. S. the production both of stereoscopic pictures and instruments has increased enormously (1859-6*7), and these articles form an important and popular article of trade. STETHOSCOPE. In 1S16 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other tc his own ear, perceived the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner than by the immediate application of the ear. This led to his inventing the stethoscope, or " breast-explorer ;" the principle of which, now termed " auscultation," was known by Hippocrates. STORMS. In Gulf of Mexico, 1*73 persons lost on Last Island (a summer re- sort), Aug. 10, 1856. STREET RAILWAYS, in England, previously established by G. F. Train in New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, 1860, and at Bayswater, London, March 23, 1861. A street railway bill was rejected by the House of Commons in April, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a time in various parts of the metropolis in 1S61, but were all taken up in 1862. STRIKES. The tailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 1834. The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1853. A general strike among the shoe-makers of New England, continued for several months, 1859-60. STRYCHNIA. A poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in the seeds of the strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also in the upas poison. It is so virulently poisonous that half a grain blown into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four minutes ; its operation »s accom- panied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, during the trial of Palmer for the murder of Cook. SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the Bay of Pelusium was brought forward by M. De Lesseps in 1857. The Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments are in favor of the scheme, which is at present opposed bv the British. The cost is esti- mated at £8,000,000. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. Originated with Prof. Morse, who first tested it SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 187 in New York harbor, 1842. The first suggestion of Atlantic telegraph ia said to hare been made by him in 1843. Professor Charles Wheatstone in 1840 drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and Calais. In 1847 Mr. J. W. Brett submitted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without success; but in 1850 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to make a trial. This took place on Aug. 28, 1850, but failed. New arrange- ments were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and the tele- graph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On that day, the opening and closing prices of the funds in Paris were known on the London Stock Exchange with- in business hours. Guns were fired at Dover by means of electric sparks communicated from Calais. In 1860 there were in operation 1,954 miles of submarine telegraph, exclusive of the Atlantic. Atlantic. A plan to unite Europe and America by the electric telegraph was attempted to be carried out »y a company in 1857 and 1858, chiefly promoted by Cyrus W. Eield, of New York ; with the concurrence of the British and American governments. 2,500 miles of wire were manufactured and tested in March, 1857. The lay- ing it down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels em- ployed were the Niagara and Susquehanna (American vessels), and the Leop- ard and Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on Aug. 11, after 300 miles of wire had been paid out it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Plymouth. In 1858 a second attempt to lay the cable failed, through a violent storm on June 20-21 ; but the third voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the junction between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,050 miles of wire from Valentia in Ireland to Newfoundland. The first two messages, on Aug. 5, were from the Queen of England to the President of the United States, and his reply. The event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; but unfortunately the insulation of the wire became gradually more faulty, and on Sept, 4 the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased. The grand celebration in New York of the (supposed) completion of this enter- prise, Sept. 1, 1858. In 1865, another attempt to lay a cable was made. A new one was manufactured 2,300 nautical miles long, and 24- times stronger than the old one. Diameter, a little more than an inch. It was coiled in the mammoth ship Great Eastern. The expedition started July 23, 1865 from Valentia Bay. 1,200 miles were successfully laid when suddenly the cable parted, in water 24 miles deep. 4 attempts to grapple it were made, but the cable could not be raised to the surface without much stronger wire ropes. The ships returned to England, but the enterprise was not given up. A new company was formed at once, called the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com- pany" : capital, £600,000. A more perfect cable was constructed, and the Great Eastern started again with it, July 13, 1866, On the 27th sh.e reached Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with the cable in perfect order. The news was received with great enthusiasm in both countries, and ovations tendered to Cyrus W. Field, the American, to whose energy the success was in great part due. The Great Eastern returned to the spot where the cable of 1865 parted, and after many attempts it was discovered Sept. 2, 1866, and con- tinued to the American side : making two cables across the Atlantic ; one of the cables was injured near the Newfoundland shore in May, 1867, but was soon repaired, and both cables have now been in constant use for 13 months. (Aug. 1867.) The cable from Key West to Cuba successfully laid August, 1867, by a New York Company. More than sixty submarine cables have been completed to this date. The most important are these ; 188 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. Time length of Geographical Position. in Laying. Miles. 1S5I .. ..Dover to Calais 27 1853. ...Dover to Ostend 80£ 1S54.... Sweden to Denmark 12 ...Italy to Corsica 110 1855.... Italy to Sicily 5 1856.... Newfoundland to Oapc Breton 85 1857.... Across Norway Fjords 49 .Ceylon to Hindostan SO 185S... .England to Holland 140 . . England to Hanover 280 ..South Australia to King's Island 140 ..Ceylon to Hindostan 30 1859.... England to Denmark 368 ..Folkstone to Boulogne 24 ..Malta to Sicily 60 ..Liverpool to Holyhead 25 ..Across Bass's Strait 240 1860 Dacca to Pegu 116? .Barcelona to Port Mahon 180 . Cape San Antonio to Iviza 76 1861 Toulon to Corsica 195 .Holyhead to Howth (near Dublin) 64 ....Malta toAlexandria 1,535 .New Haven (England) to Dieppe 80 1862 Fortress Monroe to Cape Charles 23 .England to Holland 180 1863 Sardi nia to Sicily 211 ..Persian Gulf to Kurrachee (Hindostan). 1,450 1S65.... Sweden to Prussia 55 1866 Corsica to Leghorn 66 ..Across Puget Sound 32 ..Valentia to Newfoundland 1,864 ..Valentia to Newfoundland (completed from 1S65, ahout) 1,864 . .Newfoundland to Cape Breton 85 . . . .Key West to Havana 191 Ncof Con- ductors. 4 6 3 6 3 1 1 1 4 2 1 1 3 6 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 l 1 4 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 7 'Time in Opera Hon, to Jidy, 186 1 about. 16 years. 14 " 14 " 13 " 12 " 11 " 10 " 10 " 5 " 5 " 4 « 6 «• 2 « 18 months. 14 " 1867. SUGAR. The following is the official statement of the amount of sugar im ported into this country from 1851 to 1860: Value of Sugar. Duty paid. 1851 §13,478,700 §4,043,600 1S52 13,977,300 4,1S3,200 1853 14,168,300 4,250,500 1854 11,6-04,600 3,481,300 1S55 13,284,600 3.989,400 1856 21,255,100 6,388,500 Value of Sugar. 1857 $41,596,200 1858 18.9.6,600 1859 28,345800 1860 28,931,100 Dutv paid- $12,478,800 4,557,200 6,S02,800 6,943,400 Total Ten years.. $205, 557,800 §57,118.700 The sugar crop of Louisiana last year was valued at $24,988,000. The average for five years has been $17,000,000 (1861). In New York state in 1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar were produced. Pennsylvania pro- duces 2,500,000 pounds a year. The sorghum-sugar plant has lately been in- troduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities. Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 10,000 pounds were manufactured in Livingston county, Illinois, in 1867. SUNDAY LAWS. (p. 547.) In the state of New York, the laws against selling liquors, and against certain theatrical performances on Sundays, have caused much discussion, and some resistance, chiefly on the part of the German and Irish population, but are still enforced (1867). SUNDAY SCHOOLS. See Education and Sabbath Schools. SURNAMES. See Sirnames. (p. 548.) SUSPENSION BRIDGES, (p. 548.) See Bridges. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 159 SWEDES', (p. 549.) Death' of Bernadotte, whose son Oscar, ascends the throne, March 8, 1844 Treaty of alliance with England and France Nov. 21, 1855 Banishment decreed against Catholic converts from Luther- anisra Oct. 1857 SWITZERLAND. Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war. March 14, 1850 Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary troops at Demonstration in favor of Italian Independence.. Dec. 17 *i6C Charles XV. (born May 3, 1826), the present (1861) king of Sweden and Norway... July 8, 1?£9 Heiress : Princess Louisa, horn Oct. 21 1851 Naples ; the confederation for- bid foreign enlistment. July and Aug. 1851 TARIFF. A schedule of duties charged by government on goods imported. The British tariff in 1840 comprised 1,042 articles ; the number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 18-17. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the number was greatly reduced in 1860. See Customs Duties. TAXATION. U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general Govern- ment was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequently, to support the war, direct taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865, amounted to $211,129,529. See Revenue, Debt, &c. TEA, in England, (p. 554.) Imported in 1850 50,112,384 lbs. I Imported in 1857 69,116,000 lbs. " "1856 86,200,414" | " "1858 74,222,000" The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850, amounted to £5,471,641, and the amount in 1852 was £5,902,433. The duty upon tea had been grad- ually reduced from 2s. 2\d. to one shilling only per pound, in 1858. In United States. Value imported in the years ending June 30, 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. $6,930,986 $6,S93 891 $5,757,860 $6,777,295 $7,306,915 Amount consumed in U. S., 1861. 1862. 1863. 1S64. 1865. 1806. 25,520,000 lbs. 27,46S,600 lbs. 26,906,365 lbs. 23,137,546 lbs. 29,953,433 lbs. 29,643,187 lbs. TELEGRAPH. See Electric Tel. and Submarine Tel. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, (p. 555.) Legislation against intemperance in the U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law " passed chiefly through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connec- ticut (1856), New York (1856) and Massachusetts (1856). It was strongly enforced in the latter State, although vigorously opposed by many, 1866-7. It was repealed in Maine, 1856. TENNESSEE, (p. 556.) Population in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves; in 1860,859,528, and 287,112 slaves. Ordinance of "Separation " passed May 6, 1861. The eastern part of the State was noted for its loyalty to the Union during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. At the State election , Aug. 1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the " Union " or Radical ticket, was re-elected by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in this State for the first time. TEXAS, (p. 557.) Population in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. Ordinance of Secession from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt in 1865, $8,192- 000. After the war, Gen. A. J. Hamilton was appointed Provisional 190 the world's progress. Governor, by Pres. Lincoln : but at the first election after the restoration (1866) a Secessionist, (Throckmorton), was elected. Texas included in 5th Military District under Sheridan, March, 1867. THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God). The science which treats of the nature and attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in which they may be discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. 1. Inspired (including the Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c); 2. Natural ; which latter Lord Bacon calls the first part of philosophy. Butler's Analogy of Keligion (1736), and Paley's Natural Theology (1802), are eminent books on the latter subject. The "Summa Totius Theologias" by Thomas Aquinas (born about 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with com- mentaries, &c, in 1596. THESSALONICA. A city in Macedonia (now Salonica). Here Paul preached a. i). 53 ; and to the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the emperor Theodosius Thessalonica partook of the changes of the Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the emperor Andronicus in 1425; taken by the Turks in 1430; burnt July 11, 1856. TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys are of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; and on the death of a pope, his arms are presented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a high round cap. Pope Damascus II. first caused himself to be crowned with a tiara, a. d. 1053. John XIX. was the first who encompassed the tiara with a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295; and Benedict XII. formed the tiara about 1334. TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by M. T. Blan- chard, of Boston (U. S.), for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhi- bition of 1855. A company was formed for its application in England in 1856. TIMES NEWSPAPER, London. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published the first number of the Daily Universal Register, price 2-kZ. In 1788, the name of the paper was changed to the Times. Dr. Stodart editor in 1812. Dr. Barnes was the next editor. On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed by steam power. The powerful articles contributed by Edward Sterling gained the paper the name of the Thunderer. In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and exposing a scheme organized by a company, to defraud by forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action for libel. The jury found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of one farthing damages, but the judge refused costs. Subscriptions were set on foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse the proprietors for their immense out- lay in defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and the money was expended in establishing Times Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at Christ's Hospital, and other schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in other places. These were the greatest honors ever conceded to a newspaper. In Oct., 1845, the Times ex- press was for the first time conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut. Waghorn. Of the number of the Times for Nov. 19, 1852, containing the life of the Duke of Wellington, 69,000 were sold — the ordinary number being then 36,000 ; the present circulation is stated to vary from 47,000 to 56,000. In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their special correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea, and in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the United States. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-6*7. 191 TITHES (p. 560). Abolished in England, 1860. TOBACCO. In a recent lecture in England, the Dean of Carlisle stated that in 1865, 33,000,000 pounds of tobacco were consumed in that country, at an ex- pense of $40,000,000, over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the govern, ment In 1821 the average annual consumption was llf ounces to each person ; in 1853 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France much more is consumed in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing $20,00Q,0C0 annually by the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consumption averages 70 ounces to each person, in Belgium, 73 ounces, and in America, the average is vastly higher. It is calculated that 2,000,000 tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds of tobacco are annually used in the world, at a cost sufficient to pay for all the bread corn used in Great Britain. It is boasted that 100,000,000 of the human race are smokers. In New York city it was stated that there were in 1860, about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars daily, making, at an average of four cents each, the sum of $16,000 daily, or $5,840,000 a year, wasted in smoking in this city alone. The cost in 186V would be at least double. There were, in 1860, about 900,000,000 cigars manufactured in N. Y., amounting, at the same price, to $36,000,000. The total exports of tobacco from the United States in 39 years (1821-59), amounted to $339,274,520. The production of tobacco in the northern states has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 1850, N. Y. State produced 83,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 5,765,000 lbs. ; Conn, produced in 1850, 1,267,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 6,000,000 lbs. The exports of tobacco from the U. S. in 1862, amounted to $12,325,356, being almost entirely from the north. See Treasury Statistics in appendix. TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub- lished, in England, 1833-41. The principal writers were the Revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams. TRANSYLVANIA. An Austrian province ; was part of the ancient Dacia. In 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699, when the Emperor Leopold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus- trian dominions. TRAVELLING in England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the journey was accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Rail- way express (63 miles) it is done in ]■£ hour. TREATIES, (p. 565.) Constantinople, treaty of May 8, 1854 Washington, Reciprocity treaty be- tween Great Britain and the U. S., respecting Newfoundland fishery, commerce, &c July 2, 1854 Of the U. S. (p. 566.) Treatv with China signed at Tien Tsin June I3,185S Treaty with Japan, negotiated by Com. Perry, signed March 31, 1854 Another treat y with Japan, by Town- send Harris, signed June 17, 1857 Paris, treaty of (and Russian war) April, 1856 Paris (settlement of Neufcbltel affair) May 26, 1857 Zurich (Austria, France, and Sardi- nia) Nov. 10, 1859 Treaty with Mexico, negotiated by Mr. McLane, but rejected by the TJ. 8. Senate.. I860 Treaty with Russia for purchase of Sitka, ratified June 1867 TRIALS, U. S. Noted trial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against the U. S. in preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May, 192 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 180V. Burr acquitted. Trial of John Brown for treason against Virginia, (See Harper's Ferry). The assassins of Lincoln tried at Washington, 1865. Trial of Capt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union Prisoners at Andersonville, 1865 : he was convicted and executed shortly after. Jeff Davis, President of the Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sum of $100,000, by U. S. Dis trict Judge Underwood, Richmond Va., May, 1867, to appear before him on the charge of treason at the succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John II. Surratt, for complicity in the murder of Pres. Lincoln, lasting about thirty days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury. TRIESTE. An Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It was held by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of the overland mail to India, it has risen to great commercial importance TROWSERS. Distinguished by looseness from " pantaloons," which were orig- inally cut to sit tight to the leg from thigh to ankle. Pantaloons began to supersede small clothes during the French revolution ; the loose trowser began to be worn after 1815 ; and have become as decidedly a normal form of gar- ment, as were the " breeches " of the last century. TRUCE OF GOD (Treuga Dei). A term given to a cessation of the private feud3 and conflicts so general, during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussilon, a. d. 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday even- ing (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regula- tions were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of the Church, especially the Lateran Council, in 1179. TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge in Wales. The Con- way Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and there- fore requires no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Ste- phenson and Mr. Fairbairn. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world is that over the St Lawrence, Canada (see .Bridges). TUNIS. In July 1856, the Bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. The Bey died Sept. 22, 1859 ; and no disturbance ensued on the accession of his successor. TURKEY, (p. 571.) Christians admitted to office in Tur- key June, 1S49 The Turkish government refuses to surrender the Hungarian and Po- lish refugees on the joint demand of Russia and Austria Sept. 16,1849 Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte Nov. 12, 1849 Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places {which see) Feb. 13, 1852 Russian manifesto against Turkey June 26,1853 War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) Oct. 5, 1853 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English ambassador at Con- stantinople, returned to England, J.an.: he is succeeded by Sir. H. Lytrbn Bulwer ; accredited July 12, 1858 Massacre of Christians at Jedda July 25, 1S58 Turkish financial reforms begun, Aug. 1S58 The first Turkish railway opened (from Aden to Smyrna)... Sept. 19, 1858 Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage begun at Birming- ham, and is suppressed Oct. 1858 Great agitation for financial reform Oct. 18M SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 193 TUSCANY, (p. 572.) The Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sardinians : the grand- duke refuses, and departs to Bo- logna ; the King of Sardinia is pro- claimed dictator, and a provi- sional government formed, April 27 ; the king . assumes the cum- mand of the army, but declines the dictatorship April 30, 1859 Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the Tuscans, and erects his standard May 23, 1859 The Tuscan constituent assembly meets Aug. 11, 1S59 It declares against recalling the house of Lorraine, and votes for annexation to Sardinia Sept. 1859 Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, elected governor-general of Cen- tral Italy ; he declines, but recom- mends Buoncompagni, Nov., who is accepted by the Tuscans, Dec. 8, 1S59 The Grand-Duke Leopold II. abdi- cates in favor of his son Ferdinand July 21, 1S59 TYROL. The eastern part of ancient Rhetia, nowa province, of the Austrian empire (to the north of Bavaria). It was ceded to the house of Hapsburg ha 1359, by Margaret, the heiress of the last Count Tyrol. The province became an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, which branch came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II. in 1618. The French conquered the Tyrol in 1808 and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by the courageous Andrew Hofer, an inn-keeper. He drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, but laid down his arms at the treaty of Vienna. He was subsequently accused of treason and shot by the French at Mantua, Jan. 28, 1810. His family was ennobled by Austria, and a statue to him was erected at Innspruck in 1834. U UNITARIAN'S, U. S. Number of churches in the U. S. in 1863, 339 ; minis- ters, 263 ; members estimated at 30,000, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, (p. 575.) See America ; and the separate states, Maine, &c. See also Chronological Tables, p. 156, &c. POPULATION. 1776 2,616,300 I 1810.. 7,239,903 I 1851 23,347,884 1800 ,5,300,000 | 1831..... 12,856,171 [i860 31,649,869 UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. One of the six points of the charter in England (see Chartists), was adopted by the French in the election of their president in 1851, and of their emperor in 1852. UNIVERSITIES in the U. S. See Colleges. Those of Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass. ; Yale, at New Haven ; Brown, at Providence, and Michigan, at Ann Arbor, Mich., and Virginia, at Charlottesville, are the chief institutions called Universities, but they differ little from the other colleges. URUGUAY. A republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 1825, recognized, Oct. 4, 1828. The President, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 1856, was succeeded in 1860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in conse- quence of the invasion of the ex-President, General Flores, June 26, 1863. In Feb. 1865, Flores became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 350,000. V VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the coast of Ore- gon, Settlements were made here by the English in 1781 ; which were seized by the Spaniards in 1789 ; but restored. By a treaty between the British government and that of the United States in 1846 this island was secured to the former. Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857. VEHMIC TRIBUNAL (Vehmgerichte). Secret tribunals established in West- 9 194 the world's peogbess. r>ha!ia to maintain religion and the public peace. Their proceedings were enveloped in a profound mystery. They had their origin in the time of Charlemagne ; and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. These courts became very troublesome, persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. The emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16tb century. SirW. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein." VENEKEAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea, Morbus Gallicus. This disease is said to have broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494, whence the French term it mat de Naples. In the Netherlands and in Eng- land it obtained the appellation of mal de France ; though in the latter coun- try it was known so early as the twelfth century. About the same period, too, at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Most writers suppose, that the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with them from the new to the old world, 1493 ; others maintain that it prevailed among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of America. VERMONT, (p. 579.) Population in 1860, 315,827. War expenses, $8,811,600. The state sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1861-5. VESUVIUS, Mt. (p. 580.) Eruptions in May 1855, May and June 1858, and June 1859, caused great destruction. VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous during the war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river and its batteries were impregnable from the water side. After various attempts, Gen. Grant moved to the south of it, crossed the river from the west side and marched towards the rear of the town, May 1, 1863. He defeats the enemy at "Port Gibson, " " Champion Hills," and " Big Black River Bridge," and on the 18th reaches the fortifications. He at once invested the place. After many assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4, 1863. Number of prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 220 ; small arms, 70,000. Union loss during the siege, 545 killed. 3,682 wounded, and 303 missing. VICTORIA, formerly Port Philipp (Australia), situated between New South Wales and South Australia, the most successful British colony in that region. First colony 1804. In 1839, the colony was named Victoria, and its prosperity brought great numbers to it, and induced much speculation and consequent embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2. In 1851, the province was declared independent of New South Wales. In the same year a reward of £200 was offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found near Melbourne. VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Law- rence, Montreal, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and opened Nov. 24, 1859. It is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and forms part of the Grand Trunk Railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of North America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and about 7-J times longer than Waterloo bridge ; the height sixty feet between the summer level of the river, and the under surface of the central tube. The cost £1,400,000. On Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was carried away by floating ice, but the stonework remained firm. VILLA FRANCA (in Lombardy). Here the emperors of France and Austria met on July 11, 1859 (after the great battle of Solferino); on the next day they signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {which see). SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 195 VINE DISEASE. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850, many lost all their produce. In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zant'e and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of the disease, but without much effect. It has much abated in France, but not in Portugal. VIOLIN, (p. 583.) The violin is the most expressive instrument, though sur- passed by many in sweetness, richness, and volume. The best were made at Cremona about a. d. 1600, by Amiti and Straduarius ; those of the former excel in sweetness, of the latter in power. They now command enormous prices. VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c, of Virginia, 1850, was $530,000,000, viz:— Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves, $147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read nor write ! The new constitution of this state, adopted in 1851, in the 111th arti- cle has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of the United States. 1 '' Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. Id. 1860, 1,593,199, including 495,826 slaves. State " seceded," May, 1861. Soon after the western counties formed a new and loyal State. See West Vir- ginia. Virginia was the theatre of the most active military operations of the war of secession, and the state suffered the most from that fearful struggle. Franchise extended to the colored people 1867, and the state included in the 1st military district under Gen. Schofield. Debt of the old state in 1865, $41,- 061,300. VISGOTHS. Separated from the Ostrogoths about a. d. 330. The Emperor Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condi- tion of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies; and Theodosius the Great permitted them to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers; In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They began their kingdom of Toulouse, 414; and conquered the Alains, and extended their rule into Spain, 414, and expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally were themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muca, in 1711, when their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an obstinate engagement. Their rule in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, iu 507. VIVARIUM. See Aquarium. VOLTAIC PILE, ok Battery. An apparatus which was constructed in conse- quence of the discoveries of Galvani (see Galvanism). The principle was discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years pro- fessor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, and announced by him to the Royal Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon' Bonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honored. While your>g he invented the electrophoms, elec- tric pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly improved by the researches of modern philosophers. The nitric acid battery of Mr. W. R. Grove was devised in 1839 ; the carbon battery of Mr. Robert Bunsen in 1842. The former is very 196 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. much used in England; that of Bunsen in other parts of Europe. See Elto tricity. VOLUNTEERS, MILITARY, in England. This species of force was formed in England, in consequence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In May 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear of a French invasion, the formation of Volunteer Corps of riflemen commenced under the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thou- sands were enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. Volunteers, U. S. See Army. VULGATE (from Vulgatus, published). A term applied to the Latin version of the Scriptures, which is authorized by the Council of Trent, and which is attri- buted to St. Jerome, about a. d. 1834, The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in the beginning of the second century. Critical editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and of Pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was suppressed as imper- fect). The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460. W. WAGER of BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereof the defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby whether he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against him. Repealed by statute 5U George III., 1819. WAGES in England (p. 585). Harvest men, 1857. 5s. In United States. In 1866, laws were enacted in some of the states making eight hours a legal day'a labor, unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what a laborer would have received for ten hour's work, he can claim for eight hour's labor. WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory). A temple near Ratisbon, erected in 1842, by Louis, King of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men of Germany. The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of Scandi- navian heroes after death. WALKING, &€., Feats in. In England, Capt. Barclay for a wager (on which many thousands of pounds depended), walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 succes- sive hours ; in forty-two days and nights (less eight hours). His task was accomplished on July 10, 1809. In May, 1758, a young lady at Newmarket won a wager, having undertaken to ride 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours, which feat she performed in little more than two-thirds of the time. Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of Capt. Barclay) to walk 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours; the place chosen was the Barrack tavern cricket- ground in Sheffield; he commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and com- pleted the 1,000 miles July 29, following, winning a considerable sum. WALTZ. The popular German national dance was introduced into England by Baron Neuman and others in 1813. Raikes. WAR — Cost of that in the Crimea. The cost to England, for two years, was $200,000,000. The whole cost is estimated at 1,000 millions of dollars. Wars of Great Britain (p. 588). War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of Paris, March 31, 1856. For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see those countries respectively. War in the United States. The war of the rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of South Carolina forces on Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conflict. Until the SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 197 summer of 1863 the Confederates maintained their ground successfully. But after the fall of Vicksburg, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army was almost uniformly victorious until the final surrender of the rebels. See Army, Battles, Volunteers, &c. WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc- tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York for $2,300, Feb. 12, 1850. WATER COLOR PAINTING in England has been raised from the hard dry style of the last century to its present brilliancy by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley, Fielding, Vailey, and the great Turner; by Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, &c, within the present century. The exhibition was founded in 1805. WATERWORKS. The Roman aqueducts were only artificial streams led at a regular slope from an elevated source, and were enormously expensive. Louis XIV. erected enormous machines merely to supply ornamental fountains at Versailles. London is said to have had water-pipes laid in it as early as a. d. 1236, and is now supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day, by seven companies, one bringing water from a distance of forty miles. Phila- delphia was first supplied by works commenced in 1*799, and succeeded by those at Fairmount in 1819 ; New York by the Croton Aqueduct, finished in 1844; Boston, first from Jamaica Pond by a company organized in 1795, and afterwards from Cochituate Pond by works begun in 1846, and opened for use in 1848. See Public Works, Aqueduct. W r AVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley ; or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1S14, and closed with ''Tales of my Land- lord," four vols., in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 25, 182*7. "WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted to separate themselves from the old state and form a new state called West Virginia; admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863; capital, Wheeling ; area, 23,000 square miles. Population by census of I860, 393,200. The new state sent 31,880 men to the Union army. WHALE FISHERY. In recent years, by the introduction of petroleum and other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced to much smaller dimensions. Vessels employed in 1858, 500 ships and barks, 19 brigs, 45 schooners, total 195,115 tons; 8,033 tons less than last year, owing to the increasing scarcity of whales, Imports, 81,941 barrels sperm oil, 182,223 barrels whale oil, 1,540,600 lbs. bone. Exports, 33,336 barrels sperm, 19,503 barrels whale, 1,049,466 lbs. bone. WHIGS. See Tory. In England numerous authors trace the origin of these designations to various occasions and various epochs. Referring to what is stated under the head Tory, it may be here added, that we are told the name Whig was a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists for resembling the principles of the whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scot- land ; and the other was given by the country party to that of the court, comparing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This distinction of parties arose out of the discovery of the Meal-Tub plot in 167S. Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot before parliament, two parties were formed : the one being those who called the truth of the whole plot in ques- tion, and this party styled those who believed in the plot Whigs. The other party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, 'Tories. WINE, U. S, In 1866, California produced 1,252,700 gallons of wine ; Ken tucky, 180,000; Indiana, 88,000; New York, 61,000 ; N. Carolina, 54,00f) : Illinois. 47,000; Connecticut, 46,000; Virginia, 40,000; Pennsylvania, 38,000' 198 the world's peogeess. During the year ending June 30, 1866, 9,476,814 gallons were imported into the U. S. WISCONSIN, (p. 597.) Population in 1850, 305,391 ; increase in 10 years 90C per cent. 1860, 768,485, increase in 10 years, 152 per cent. WITCHCRAFT. Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country districts of England. On Sept. 4, 1863, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died in con- sequence of having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex. WIVES. See Marriage. In England, by the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the condition of married women has been much bene- fited. When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation ; and even while in the latter state any property they may acquire is secured to them personally, as if unmarried. By another act, passed in the same year, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or estates. WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Seven. 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 3. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called the Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. WOOLSACK. The seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of lords is so called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England in the reign of Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. WORKINGMEN'S COLLEGES, in England. The first was established in Sheffield, by workingmen. The second in London, by the Rev. Professor Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854; a third in Cambridge, and in 1855, a fourth in Oxford; all wholly for the working classes, and undertaking to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is in want of. The colleges engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class ; and also to have lectures given. They are highly successful, WRECKS, (p. 602.) Arctic, IT. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the Vexta, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27, 1854. City of Philadelphia, Liverpool to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S. sloop of war Albany, from Aspinwall, Sept. 28, 1854, never heard from. City of Glasgow, steamer, with 480 persons on board, disappeared in 1854 Pacific, Collins steamer, from Liverpool to New York, Jan. 23, 1856, dis- appeared and never heard of. John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost, Feb. 20, 1856. Lyon- nais, French steamer, New York to Havre, collision with bark Adriatic, 134 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Austria, steamship, Hamburg to New York, burnt in the middle of the Atlantic ; of 538 persons on board, only sixty-seven were saved, Sept. 13, 185-. Royal Charter, screw steamer, on the Anglesea coast; 459 lives lost; the vessel contained gold amounting in value to £700,- 000, Oct. 26, 1859. Steamer Niagara, burned on lake Michigan ; 60 lives lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer, Lieut. Herndon, Aspinwall to New York, founders, 427 lives lost, and $2,000,000 in gold, Sept. 8, 1857 Russian line of battle ship in the Baltic, founders, all on board, (825) lost, Sept. 1857. The total number of American sea-going vessels reported during 1859, as lost or missing was 402, valued at $5,599,000, being an increase over the previous year of 114 vessels, and $1,128,000 in value. Of the whole num- ber, 8 were steamers, 84 ships, 48 barks, 64 brigs, and 19S schooners. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-87. 199 Y. YACHT. The ancient thalamegus or navis lusorice was a vessel for pleasure, like the modern yacht. The English are very found of yachting. Their yachts are commoniy cutter-rigged, and with one mast. Yachting has come into vogue in the United States only since about 1830. The American yachta are sloops or schooners. The yacht America modelled and built by the re- markable genius George Steers, of New York (d. 1856, aged 35), beat all the English yachts in a regatta at Cowes, Aug. 22, 1851. She was a schooner, with her greatest breadth abaft the beam, and with "hollow lines" forward. A yacht race from New York to Cowes, Isle of Wight, Dec, 1865, between three New York yachts, Henrietta, Vesta, and Fleetwing ; Henrietta winner by seven (?) hours. YANKEE. The derivation of the word is generally accredited to the Indian pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. In New York it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all Northerners ; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans. In a curious book on the Round Towers of Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term Yankee Doodle, was said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki douniah, or " Inhabi- tants of the New World." Layard in his " Nineveh," also mentions Yankhi- dunia as the Persian name of America. YORKTOWN. This place was fortified by the rebels, and withstood the siege of Gen. McClellau, from April 4 to May 5, 1862, when it was evacuated ; 71 spiked guns were found in the works. YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. U. S. First one under this name founded in Boston, Jan. 10, 1852 ; in N. Y. city, June 30, 1852. They are now (1867) established in many of the principal cities. At a general con- vention of Young Men's Christian Associations, at Montreal, in June, 1867, 215 associations in the United States and Canada were represented. Z. ZOLLVEREIN. (Customs' Union.) The name given to the German commercial union, of which Prussia is the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually joined by nearly all the German states, except Austria. On Feb. 19, 1853, an important treaty of commerce and navigation, between Austria and Prussia to last from Jan. 1854 till Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the other states of the Zollverein gave in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. ZOUAVES and Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at Algiers, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and selected Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful courage. In time numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic French- men, joined the regiments, adopting the costume, &c, and eventually the Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no more were added, they having been frequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves formed an important part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5. ZURICH, (p. 608.) Conference of the representatives of Austria, France and Sardinia, held at Zurich (after the truce of Villa Franca), August 8, 1859, and continued several months. ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here in 1568, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, the amiable Sir Philip Sidney, author of the " Arcadia." was kil.ed. He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Lei- cester. DICTIONARY OF DATES. CHIEFLY FBOM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS ABBEYS and MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaini, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 805. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elphin, Down. The first in Scotland was in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see Bangor. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. The revenues of 193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,653.000, These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry ' VIH. 1539. See Monasteries. ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808 Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to take the crown of Spam, . June 1, 1808 Of the same (by flying before the British from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810 Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 Of Pedro of Portusal, . . May 2, 1326 Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834 Of William I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1840 Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840 Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, Dec. 2, 1848 Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, Aug. 1849 Of Henry IV. of Germany, . . 1080 Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumamed Thunder, 1114 Of Albert of Saxony, .... 1142 OfLestusV. of Poland, . . . . 1200 OfUladislaus III. of Poland, . . 1206 Of Baliol of Scotland, .... 1306 Of Otho of Hungary, . . . . 1309 Of Eric IX. of Denmark . . 1439 Of Eric XIII. of Sweden, . . .1441 Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . 1556 Of Christina of Sweden, . . . 1654 Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 1669 Of James II. of England, . . . 16&8 Of Frederick Ausustus II. of Poland, . 1704 Of Philip V. of Spain, .... 1724 Of Victor of Sardinia, . . . . 1730 Of Charles of Naples, .... 1759 Of Stanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795 Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his son, .... March 19, 1808 ABEL ARD and HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118. when Helolse (a canon's daugh- ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helolse begged his bodv, and had 9* 202 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ AOA it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposin? in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800; and the museum having been subsequently broken up. they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the natiou conducted by Saturn into Latium. founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- tory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being absque origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. Thi word signifies vrithout origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally applied to any original inhabitants. ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- gust 1, 1798. See Nile. ABRAHAM, Era of. Used by Eusebius; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Styiite, to 112 ; and Kenti- gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days by smelling honey and hot bread, 828 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor- mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Albano. Gilbert Jackson, of C arse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on the sixteenth, 1789.— Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland's Practical Journal. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived two years without meat or drink ; Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See instances in Halter's Elementce Physiologies; Cornaro ; Pricher's Surgical Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — Bossuet. ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation ; which they place in the 5498d year before our era, on the 29th August, old style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 b. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- andria about 314 b. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also 4Cfi J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 203 named as founders, Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua mentions 550. of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne. in 1135. Academies were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal ecademies : — American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. ' American Philosophical Society, 1769. Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1(324. Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 1799. Bologna, Ecclesiastical, ;G37 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. Brescia, of the Errant i, 1626. Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682, Brussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773. Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. Dublin, Arts, 1749; Science and Literature, 17S6; Painting. Sculpture, &c, 1823. Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. Faenza, the P/iilopcni, 1612. Florence, Belles-Leltrcs, 1272 ; Delia Crus- ca, 1582; Antiquities, 1807. Geneva. Medical, 1715. Genoa, Painting, &c, 1751 ; Sciences, 17S3. Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Historv, 1652; Military, 1752. Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. London : its various Academies arc de- scribed through the volume. Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma- thematics added, 1758. Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, 1730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. Mantua, the Vigilanii, Sciences, 1704. A.CCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein. ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, a.d. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by other grammarians in the various languages. ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achaeus, the son of Xuthus, 1080 e. c. The kingdom was united with Sicj'on or subject to the iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achasi were descendants of Achasus, and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- clidse drove them thence, they retired among the Ionians, expelled the na- tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, iEgira, iEgeum, Bura, Tri- taea, Leontium, Rhypaj. Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dymse, and Phara?. Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 1726. Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. Naples, Rossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1E£0; Sciences, 1695; Herculaneum, \75o. New York, Literature and Philosophy,1814. ' Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. Padua, for Poetry, 1610 ; Sciences, 1792. Palermo. Medical, 1645. Paris, Sorbunne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu- sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. Parma, the Innominati, 1550. Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filirgiti, 1574. Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; the School of Arts, 1764. Portsmouth, Naval, 1722; enlarged, 1S06._ Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici, 1625; Ivfecundi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690: English. 1752. Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles-Lettrea 1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. Toulon, Military, 1682. Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. Turkey, Military School. 1775. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. Venice, Medical, &c, 1701. Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. Woolwich, Military, 1741. The Achasan league, . .B.C. 281 Fortress of Athenasum built, . . 228 Defeat of the Aehasans by the Spartans, and Lysiades killed. . . 226 Battle of Sallacia, '. . .222 The Social war begun, . . 220 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEto- lians, .... 219 Aratus poisoned at ^Egiuin. . . 215 Battle of Mantinea ; Philopoemen defeats the Spartan tyrant Mecnanidas, . 208 Alliance with the Romans, . b. c. 2( i Philopoemen defeated by Nabis, in a na- val battle, . 194 Sparta joined to the league, . 1S1 The Achasans overrun Messenia with fire and sword, . . , 182 The Romans enter Achaia, 165 Metellus enters Greece, . . 147 The Achsean league dissolved, . 146 Greece subjected to Rome, and namcl the province of Achaia, . . K£ " Now extinct. 204: THE WORLDS PliOGKESS. [ ADA The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that of the Achaean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance to it in their confederacy. ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about a. d. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. ACRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192" after a siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops. 12 bishops, 40 earls. 500 barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 Chris- tians perished. 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the murder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts dm - ing the memorable siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relin- quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2 000 in killed and wounded, and 3.000 prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840. See Syria and Turkey. ACROPOLIS of ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Pans, in Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2 000 years, was destroyed in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high towers, each sn, :he distance of fifty feet. — Euripides. ACTIUM, Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the. other, and which decided the fate of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cassar; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. o. This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate upon Caesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con- queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. A CTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- atre at court. — Theat. Biog. ACTS of PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John. 1215. See Par- liament. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. Peel (afterwards Sir Robert): of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at large and 225 to Ireland solely. ADA? IITES. a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. ABM DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chiei was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Christ. — Euscbius. This sect, with an addition of many blasphemies, and teaching from the test " increase and multiply,'-' was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon, ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sinst the formation of the government : — First Administration ; — 1789 to G.-orge Washington, Virginia,, Massachusetts, John Adams, Thomas .Jefferson. Edmund Randolph, Timoihy Pickering, Alexander Hamilton, Oliver Wolcott, Henry Knox, Timothy Pickering, James M'Henry, Samuel Osgood, Timothy Pickering, Joseph Habersham, Edmund Randolph, William Bradford, Charles Lee, Virsinia, do. Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 1797 ;— S years. April 30, 1789 do. 1789 Appointed. Sept. Jan. Dec. Sept. Feb. Sept. 26,1789; 2. 1794 10; 1795 * 11, 1789 3, 1795 12, 1789 Jan. 2, 1795 Jan. 27, 1796 ( Sept. 26, 1789 ' Nov. 7, 1791 ! 25, 1795 26, 1789 ' 27, 1794 10, 1795 ' Feb Sept, Jan. Dec. President. Vice President. Secretaries of S'ats Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War. Post Masters Gen. Attorneys General Speakers of the House of Representatives. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. .Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Timothy Pickering, John Marshall, Oliver Wolcott, Samuel Dexter, James M'Henry, Samuel Dexter, Roger Griswold, George Cabot." Benjamin Stocldart, Joseph Habersham, Charles Lee, J onathan Dayton, Theodore Sedgwick, Second Administration; — 1797 to 1801 ; — 4 years. Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. Virginia, 1797 Vice President Appointed. Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) ? c prr p far ip^ of e f ,„ Virginia, May 13, 1800 \ » ecretarlf * 0I » tats Connecticut, (continued in office.) ? Secretaries of the Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury. Maryland, (continued in office.) \ Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of Wat- Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 S Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 ( Secretaries of the Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen. Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General, Speakers of the House of Representatives. New Jersey, 5th Congress, '. 797. Massachusetts, 6th do. 1799. Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 "President. Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 > v - p r . _ ir!( , ,,,,«, George Clinton, New York, do. 1805 \ Vlce wesmeBMU Appointed. James Madison, Virginia, March 5,1801 Secretary of S:ata, Samuel Dexter, Mass. (continued in office.) I Secretaries of thl Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania. Jan. 26, 1S02 \ Treasury. * Mr. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established ir. 1798. 20G THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ADM Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5,5801 Secretary of War. Benjamin Steddart, Md. (continued ,n office.) I Secretaries oi' the Robert Smith, - Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 j Navy. Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (continued in office.) ( Post Masters Ge- Gideon Granger, ' Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 \ neral. Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 ) John Breckenridge. Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 V Attorneys Gene rati Cffisar A. Rodney,' Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S Speakers of the House of Representatives. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 8th do. 1S03. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 10th do. 16t?< , Fourth Administration ; — 1809 to 1817-; — 8 ye»ra. James Madison, George Clinton, Elbridge Gerry, Robert Smith, James Monroe, James Monroe,t Albert Gallatin, George W. Campbell, Alexander J. Dallas, William Eustis, John Armstrong, James Monroe, William H. Crawford, Paul Hamilton, William Jones, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Gideon Granger, Return J. Meigs, Csesar A. Rodney, William Pinkney, Richavd Rush, Virginia, March 4, 1809 President. New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) ; v - Pv -.„.,„.. Mass. 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) \ vlce rie=n-t,~A Appointed. Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) Virginia, Nov. 25, 1 81 1 } Secretaries cf Stata Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 ) Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) i g ecretaries of lhe Oct.' l\ml\ Treasur ^ March 7, 1809 ' • Secretaries of War. Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, 19 ) Jan. 13, 1813 (, Sept. 27, 1814 ( " March 2, 1815 ) March 7,1809) Secr Ge- Jan. 12, 1813 Dec. 19, 1814 ; Connecticut, (continued in office.) ', Ohio, March 17, 1814 { Delaware, (continued in office.) ') Maryland, • Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General. Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 \ etaries <>• Navy. Post Masters neral. the 12th do. 1811. 13th do. ) 1812. t 1814. 14th do. 1815. Speakers of the House of Representatives. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. Henry Clay, Kentucky, Henry Clay, Kentucky, ) Langdon Cheves, South Carolina, \ Henry Clay, Kentucky, Fifth Administration ; — 1817 to 1825; —8 years. James Monroe, Virginia, March 4, 1817 President. Danic D. Tompkins, New York, do. 1817 Vice President. Appointed. Massachusetts, March 5,1817 Secretary of Sta e. Georgia, March 5, 1817 Secretary of TreaB Kentucky, March 5, 1817 ) _, „ . . „ - „- . South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 { Secretaries of Wal. Massachusetts, (continued in office.) 1 „ . .■ f th New York, Nov. 30, 1818 Ckecietdiies ol the New Jersey, Dec. 9,1823) - >av '- Ohio, (continued in office.) ( Pos/ Masters Ge- do. Dec. 9, 1823 \ neral. Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) I Att omevs Genera- Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 \ Attorneys brener*. John G_. Adams, William H. Crawford, Isaac Shelby,+ John C. Calhoun, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Smith Thompson, Samuel L. Southard, Return J. Meigs, John McLean, Richard Rush, William Wirt, ' Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Croicninshield, of Massachusetts. Secistary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointments; and Mr. S?nith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's a/'jm> aiwtration. t James Monroe was recommissioned. having for some time acted as Secretary cf War. T Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. ADM DICTIONARY OF DATES. 207 ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. Speakers of the House of Representatives. Henry Clay, Kentucky, loth Congress, HeniT Clay, g e mucky, \ 16th do. John W. Taylor, Philip P. Barbour, Henry Clay, 17th 18th do. do. John Q,. Adams, John C Calhoun, Henry Clay, Richard Rush, James Barbour, Peter B. Porter, Samuel L. Southard, John McLean, William Wirt, John W. Taylor, Andrew Stephenson, Sixth Administration ; — 1825 to 1829 ; — 4 years. Massachusetts, March 4, 1S25 President. South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. Appointed. Kentucky, March 8, 1825 Secretary of Sta!« Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'yofiheTieas * Virginia, do. 1825 { a pr . r „ t ., v ; pt . f W s New York, May 26, 1828 \ SecrUanes ol \\ s . New Jersey, {continued in office.) Sec'y of the Navy. Ohio, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney General. Speakers of the House of Representatives. New York, 19th Congress, 1827. Virginia, 20th do. 1828. Seventh Administration ;- Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Martin Van Buren, New York, Martin Van Buren, Edward Livingston, Louis McLane, John Forsyth, Samuel T>'. Ingham, Louis McLane, William J. Duane, Roser B. Taney, Levi Woodbury, John H. Eaton, Lewis Cass, John Branch, Levi Woodbury, Mahlon Dickerson, William T. Barry, Amos Kendall, John McP. Berrien, Roger B. Taney, Benjamin F. Butler, New York, Louisiana. Delaware, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Ohio, North Carolina, New Hampshire. New Jersey, Kentucky, Kentucky, Georgia, Maryland, New York, ■1829 to 1837 ;— 8 years. March 4, 1829 do. 1829 I 1&33* Appointed. March 6, 1829 1831 1833 1835 March 6, 1829 1831 1S33 1833 1834 March 9, 1829 1831 ( March 9, 1829 ) 1831 } 1834 > March 9, 1829 ( 1835 \ March 9, 1829 1 1831 > 1834 S President. Vice Presidents. Secretaries of Stata Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War- Secretaries of the Navy. Post Masters Ge- neral. Attorneys General Speakers of the House of Representatives. Virginia, 21st Congress, 1S29. Virginia, 22d do. 1831. Pennsylvania, 1835 Andrew Stevenson, Andrew Stevenson, John Bell, Eighth Administration ; — 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. Martin Van Buren, New York, 1837 President. Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. John Forsyth, Levi Woodbury, Joel R. 1 oinsett, Mahlon Dickerson, James K. Paulding, Amos Kendall, John M. Niles, Benjamin F Bu'Ier, Felix Grun.Iy , Henry D. Gilpin, Georgia, {continued in office.) Secretary of State. New Hampshire, {continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasury, South Carolina, 1837 i New Jersey, {continued in office.) > Secretaries of Wss New York, 1838 S Kentucky, {continued in office.) ) Post Masters Ge- Connecticut, 1840 (, iieral. New York, {continued in office.) j Pennsylvania, > Attorneys Genera}. Pennsylvania, 1839 ) James K. Polk, Robert M. T. Hunter, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Tennessee, Virginia, 1837. 208 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [ ADJ* ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. Ninth Administration ,-—1841 to 1845 ; -4 years. William II. Harrison, Ohio, 1841 Preside it Died one month afto." inauguration, and John Tyler, Samuel L. Southard, Willie P. Mangum, Daniel Webster, Abel P. Upshur, Thomas Ewing, Walter Forward, John C. Spencer, John Bell, John C. Spencer, George E. Badger, Abel P. Upshur, David Henshaw, Francis Grander, Charles A. Wickliffe, John J. Crittenden, Hugh S. Legare, John Nelson, Speakers John White, John W. Jones, Virginia, New Jersey, North Carolina, Massachusetts, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Tennessee, New York, North Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Kentucky, Kentucky, South Carolina Maryland, of the House of Reepr Kentucky, Virginia, 1841 1841 1841 Appointed. 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 esentatives. Vice Presi "tent, became ac.ing Fres. Acting V. Pres. and Pies. Senate. Secretaries of State. Secretaries of the Tieasuiy. Secretaries of War. Secretaries of the Navy. Post Masters Gea< eral. Attorneys Genera!. 1841 1843 Tenth Administration ; — 1845 to 1849 ;— 4 years. James K. Polk, George M. Dallas, James Buchanan, Robert J. Walker, William L. Marcy, George Bancroft, John Y. Mason, Cave Johnson, John Y. Mason, Isaac Toucey, John W. Davis Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, New York, Massachusetts, Virginia, Tennessee, Virginia, Connecticut, Speakers of the House of Representatives, Indiana, 1845 President. 1845 Vice President. Appointed. 1845 Secretary of Slate. 1S45 Secretary of Treas. 1845 Secretary of War. 1845 I Secretaries of the 1847 \ Navy. 1845 Post Master Gen. 1847 ( Attorne y s General. Robert C. Winthrop, . Massachusetts, Eleventh Administration; — 1849 to 1853; — 4 years. 1845. 1847. Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, John M. Clayton, William E. Meredith, William B Preston, George W. Crawford, Thomas Ewing, Jacob Collamer, Reverdy Johnson, Howell Cobb, Louisiana, 1849 President. New York, 1849 Vice President. Appointed. Delaware, 1849 Secretary of State. Pennsylvania, 1849 Sec'y of Treasury. Virginia, 1849 Sec'y of the Navy. Georgia, 1849 Secretary of War. Ohio, . 1849 Sec'y of "Interior." Vermont, 1849 Post' Master Gen. Maryland, 1849 Attorney General. Speaker of the House of Representatives. Georgia, 1S49. ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and op GREAT BRITAIN, from tie accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — king henry viii. I Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . }529 Bishoo Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop Cardial Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 | Cranmer . . . . ;. 532 * A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. Alote. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate »f the United States." Am. Almanac, &c. k'Ml DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 Am 1 nrd Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 1534 Dute of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 Lord Wi-iothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 KING EDWARD VI. The earl of Hertford, continued John, duke of Northumberland . 1552 O.UEEN MARY. Bishop Gardiner 1553 Q.TJEEN ELIZABETH. Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord Burleigh ; chief minister during al- most the whole of this long reign Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1564 Earl of Essex .... 1538 Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 KING JAMES. I. Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North- ampton. Sir It. Carr, created viscount Roches ter, a f 'erwards earl of Somerset Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar- ouess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615 KING CHARLES I. Duke of Buckingham continued Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 Archbishop Laud, earl oi Strafford, lord Cottington . . . 1640 Earl of Essex .... 1640 Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 [The civil war commenced, and all went into confusion.] KING CHARLES II. Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660 Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667 Lord Ashley, Lord Arlington, Sir T. Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 1667 Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas Osborne .... 1673 Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674 Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl qftericards marquess of Halifax, sir William Temple . . . 1677 Duke of York, and his friends . 1682 KING JAMES II. Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, sir George afterwards lord Jeffries 1685 Lord Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- dleton, visct. Preston . . 1687 KING WILLIAM III. AND Q.UEEN MARY II. Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- wards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 1688 The eavl of Sunderland, &c. . . 1695 Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of Halifax, 3ar! of Pembroke, viscount Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 atJEEN ANNE. lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord Pembroke, duke of Buckingham Duke of Marlborough, &c. . 17K' Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dnkes of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170? R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171' ; Earl of Rochester, ord Dartmouth, and Henry St. John, esq. afteruards visct. Bolingbroke ; lord Harcourt . 17U Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 171' KING GEORGE I. Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- ford, duke of Marloorouen. visct. Townshend, &c. . . .714 Robert Walpole, esq. . . . 171t James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 1715 Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . j\i Robert Walpole, esq. afterwards sir Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?] KING GEORGE II. Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtca, lord Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1742 Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 1743 Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke of Bedford, &c. . . . 1746 Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- inson, Henry Fox, &c, lord Anson 1754 Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 [Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in June, same year.] William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, duke of Newcastle, y obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, therely to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, frustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed Lupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 b.c, and the next year founded Rome. — Varro. ALBAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Caesar was the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was erected here to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. ALBAN'S, ST.. Battles op. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VL, of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered: in this battle 2500 of the defeated army perished ; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2. 1461. ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 1623, and by them named Beaverwyck ; capitulated to the English in 1664, and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : in 1830, 24 ; 238; in 1840, 33,721. ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- guedoc, and at Toulouse ; they opposed the disciples of the Church of Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 men, Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by Julius Csesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ■ explored by Vancouver in 1792. A.LBUERA, Battle of, bi tween the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 216 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. |_ ALfc and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men previously to their retreat. ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years afiei Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, about a. d. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rymer's Feed. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. — See Kora?i, Mahomelism, Mecca, &c. ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes ,vere settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi- cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. Al,E and WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke'i Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as- cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws were passed for their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles H., 1660. See Beer. Wine. iLG J DICTIONARY OF BATES. 217 ALEMANNI, or All Men, (i. e. men of all nations, , a body of Suevi, defeated by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of tbis warlike people art. said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at tha head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon. ALEXANDER, Era op, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- ber 12, 328 b. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- quence, the year 1 a. d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to the year 284 a. d., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a. d.), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be- came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, vihich see. The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492. ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by Alexander the Great, 832 b. c. ; taken by Caesar, 47 b. c, and the library of the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered by the Saracens, whui the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. ALEXANDRIA, Battle op, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 15 000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him, Alexandrines, about a. d. 1164. — Nouv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Crilicis?n, has the following well- luiown couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified :— " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Tha' like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long." ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 44 b. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur- key. — Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775 10 218 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L ALM 1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by tbe British fleet, '.under lord Exmoutn, Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and Duperre", after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. General Damremont attacked Constantina (which see), Oct. 13, 1837;" since when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec . 22, 1847. See Morocco. AILI, Sect of. Founded by a famous Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- homet, (having married his daughter Fatiina,) about a. d. 632. Ali was called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God. always yictorious ;" and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cut- ting sword « of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- tor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. Ali was assassinated in 660. ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483. ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest instances, of which Blair gives Psalm lxxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen- ser's Faerie Quee?ie is an allegory throughout ; Addison, in his Spectator, abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich :'n allegory. ALLIANCES, Treaties of, between the high European Powers . See Coalition, Treaties, &c. Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631 Alliance of Vierina . May 27, 1657 Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 Alliance, the Hague Jan. 4. 1717 Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 Germanic Alliance . July 23, 1785 Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 1793 Alliance of Petersburg . April 8, 1805 Austrian Alliance . . March 14, 1812 Alliance of Sweden . March 24 1812 Alliance of Toplitz . . Sept. 9, 1813 Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 1815 ALMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- dars were anciently in use. Al-nion-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were . Poor Robin's Almanac . 1G52 Lady's Diary . , . . 1705 Moore's Almanac . 1713 Season on the Seasons . . 1735 Gentleman's Diary . 1741 Nautical Almanac . . . 1767 Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's, ALU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 219 ALMANACS, continued. John Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- ford 1380 Ono in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460 FirrJt printed one, published at Buda . 1472 First print&l in England, by Richard Pynson .... 1497 Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . 1 644 1 Philadelphia) . .' " . '1733 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was abolished in England, 1834. ALMEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him; but the route of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was alepk, called by the Greeks aipha, and abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- lowing : — A, B, T, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, II, P, 2, T, T. These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, ©, X, , H, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simonides added Z, ¥, H, XI, about 489 b. c. — Armidelian Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters till 399 b. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets of the different nations contain the following; number of letters : — English . . 26 French . . 23 Italian . . 20 Spanish . . 27 German . . 26 Sclavonic . . 27 Russian . .41 Latin . . . 22 Greek . . 24 Hebrew . . 22 Arabic . . 28 Persian . . 32 Turkish . . 33 Sanscrit , . 50 and Chinese . . 214 ALPHONSINE TABLE S • Celebrated astr onomical tables, c amposed by com- mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135 ; and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- ported their use. ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 ; was broug ht to perfection in England, in 220 THE WORL1 S PROGRESS. [ AMB 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 17&0. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of suli hu- ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but it is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumtus Curtius,. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred females were in her train. — Herodotus. AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780. — Phillips. AMBER, Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in favor of each opinion. AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- plies, so be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used foi making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. ammJ dictionary of dates. 221 AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d. 1492. on the lllh of Octo« ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. This grea x navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. Newfoundland, the first British colony in this quarter of the world, discover- ed by Cabot, and by him called Prima Vista. .... 1497 Virginia, the first English settlement on the main land . . . 1607 New England, the second, by the Ply- mouth company . . . 1624 New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16W [For other occurrences, see Tabular Views — United Slates. See also separate states, Maine, , an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, a. d 1534. 224 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ANT ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Sonr» will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave'* Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, in COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was valued at 65. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Wood. ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book printed on angline-, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 1653. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced Dy father Hehl, at Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- lage near Sleswick, called Angl-en, whose population joined the first Saxon freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See Britain. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. Burnet. ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and abbreviated a. n. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See Era. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French and American Exploring Expeditions, under DTJrville and Wilkes, respec- tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the year 1830. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549.755 millions, in the year of the world 1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the ANT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- ries that preceded the Flood : — I. 10 V. 2,560 IX. . . 655,360 xm. . . 167,142.160 n. . 40 VI. . . 10.240 X. . 2,621,440 XIV. 671.0SS.640 in. . . 160 vn. . 40;960 XI. . 10,485,760 XV. . 2,684,354.460 IV. 640 VIII. 163,840 XII. . 41,943,040 XVI. . 10,737,418,2« This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen,' by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. ANTHEMS, or HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century.— Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. — Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea Islands, &c. ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi- cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good works are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b.c. In one day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 5492 years b. c. A NTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate ol pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes Island. — Brookes. ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 years b. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 10* 22G THE WORLD'S PK.OGh.ESS. [ APO credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its discoveries, &c, under the title of Archceologia, in 1770. The Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. A'iNTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them from prison, Jan. 27, 184.7. ANTI- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it was adopted by Laslius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Arians, Socini- ans, and Unitarians. ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-81. In the late revolu- tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse" surrendered the citadel to the French after a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about a. d. 95. — Irenmus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in a. d. 139. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. — Ashe. APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c, Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. APOLLO, Temples op. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b. c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnse, 4RA] dictionary of dates. 227 built 434 b. c.j during a period in which pestilence raged, was bum*, iu 4. d. 362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet. APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d. 300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, Dy which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus- tus, in favor of Julius Cassar, b. c. 13. — Tillemont. APPEAL of MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from orf the statute book, 59 George III., 1819. APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 1282. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water. AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was therefore called the Appwn-way ; about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. AQUTTAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara* 228 the world's progress. [arc cens, they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. ARBELA, Battle op. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b. c. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- ling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in theil manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, aa being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery they honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory, although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by (Eno- trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards called Magna Gratia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- terbury, a. d. 596. ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to a. d. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity : an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which was written " Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. ARCHERY in England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha- rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows' of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range o£ the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded th« houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- ard II. 1397. — Stoive. The citizens of London were formed into companiei of arcbers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporat* 4RG] dictionary of dates. 229 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henrv VIII. 1538. — Northouk's History of London. ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantine were magnificent. ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b.c. Their King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. c. The art passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c, and the ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this dignity, 1070 b. c. ARCOLA, Battle op, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., see North- West Passage. AREOPAGITiE. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areas pagos, the Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 378, — Dufresnoy. A.RGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. A^GOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years be« 230 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARK fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder •were called InachidcE. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclida? took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. — Euripides. Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- crificed theirs. (See Flambeaux)*.®. 1425 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose life Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . 180? Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 The city of Argos built by Argus, son ofNiobe 17H Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his father, and reigns .... 1641 Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the kingdom, and calls it af- ter his wife, Messenia . . 1552 Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 Sthenelus reigns .... 1485 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of had been preserved by his wife, de- thrones Danaus .... 1425 Reign of Abas . . . 1384 Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- sius . . • 1361 Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 136i Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My- cenae (which see.) .... 1313 Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king. January 25, 1833. See Greece. ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny t'^e divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I'Heresie. ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used a. d. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — ■ introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng- land, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic {de Arte Swpputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur- ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdologia, in 1617. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's family. It was not made iike a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves. ktili ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 231 ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis« persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. A.RMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. A RMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 b.c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor- shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whose priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage. — Martin's Memoires sur L'Armenie. City of Artaxarta built . . B.C. 186 Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93 He is called to the throne of Syria, as- sumes the fastidious title of " King of Kings," and is served by tributary princes . . . . .83 Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 He is restored to his throne, and dies. — Blair . . . . .1 Reign of Venones . . a. d. 16 Zenon reigns . . . .18 Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36 Tigranes defeated by Lucullus . 69 j He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 Again defeated, and lays his crown at hie feet of Pompey . . 66 His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- lius C»sar . . . .48 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Marc Antony ... 36 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver chains to Egypt, to grace his triumph . . . .34 The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power paramount in Armenia . 62 Armenia reduced to a Persian province under Sapor . . . 365 Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 Irruption of the Turks . . 755 Again made a Persian province, under UfFan Cassanes . . . 1472 Subdued by Selim n. . . 1022 Overrun by the Russians . . 1828 Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1829 Artaxias . . . 33 i (See Syria.") ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a, d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- spondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 232 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARM natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame It it said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c. ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines of the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of tho twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other lefence 'han the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron annor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid about 1350.' The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick. ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See the various weapons through the volume. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles n. 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies : Spain 150,000 men ; Great Britain, 310.000 ; Prussia, 350,000 ; Tur- key, 450.000 ; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560.000 ; and France, 680,000. ARMY, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official records : 17C0, Time of war; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men .. sum voted jE7,847,008 lKiO, War ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973.000 i810, War; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26.748,000 1815, Last year of the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39J50.000 1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253|000 1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men: and the surn voted was £4,487,753. See Militia and Volunteers. ASS J DICTIONARY CF DATES. 233 ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1380. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Vottaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1543. — Ryma's F&dera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 1728. See Iron. A FITS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19,1824. — See British Museum; British Institution; National Gallery,, fyc. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES; containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 b. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the Isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are Greek, of which there are two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Poison's Treatise, 1789. ASCALON, Battle op ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40.000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer. ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled; here the law of God was first "promulgated; here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. ASPERNE. Battle op, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809, and two following days. In this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- bury and others to assassinate king William III., near Richmond, Surrey, at 234 the world's progress. I ASS he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was 1o have been con- summated February 15, 1696-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. — Hist. England. ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan of Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the title of u Ancient of the Motbntains." ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- dencies. — Alison. ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted in 813. ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Cassar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu- rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 1601. — Molineaux 1 s Lex Mercatoria. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- rians of Babylon. Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Le?iglet. The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. | Babylon and makes it the seat of her 6 ; xi. 1. — Blair - - B.C. 2247 dominion. — Lenglet -_ b. c. 2017 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Astronomical observations begun by the Chaldeans - - - 2234 Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher - 2124 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names his capital after himself - 20G9 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- lishes what is properly the Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of empire. — Blair - - 2059 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India. — Lenglet - - - 1975 The Arabs seize Nineveh • - - 1937 Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus.— Blair .... 1446 He makes his daughter, Artossa, sur- named Semiramis II., his associate on the throne - - - 1433 Belatores reigns .... 1421 The prophet Jonah appears in the streets of Nineveh — Blair - . 840 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes I Nineveh taken by Arbacea - . 830 AST] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 235 ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b.c, and the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Sarcianapalus II., being besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put bis wife and children to death, and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by the Turks in 1637 a. d. — Priestley. Phul raised to the throne, about the year. — Blair - - B. C. 777 He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a sword. — Blair : 2 Kings xv. 19, -20 ... 770 Tislath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and makes great con- quests .... 740 Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports the people, whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. —Blair 721 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years. — Blair - - 713 Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- lem, when the angel of the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his army. — Isaiah xxxvii. - b.c. 719 [Commentators suppose that this mes- senger of death was the fatal blast known in eastern countries by the name of Samiel.] Esar-haddon invades Judea, am? takes Babylon.— Blair - - - 690 He invades Judea — Blair - - - 677 Holofernes is slain by Judith • - 677 Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher - - 667 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of Babylon, about 2231 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- vanced in Chaldasa under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 b. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- ered, by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. The Alphonsine tables (which see) were composed - - - a. n. 1284 Clocks first used in astronomy, about • 1500 True doctrine of the motions of the pla- netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 The science greatly advanced by Tycho Brahe, about - - - 1582 True laws of the planetary motions, by Kepler 1619 Telescopes and other instruments used in astronomy, about - - - 1627 The discoveries of Galileo were made about 1631 The transit of Venus over the sun's disk first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a.d. 1639 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante. — See Bologna - - - 1855 The aberration of the light of the fixed stars discovered by Horrebow - 1659 Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 Map of the moon constructed by Heve- lius 1670 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by Halley - - - 1676 Discoveries of Huygens - - - 168i Newton's Principia published, and th« 236 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ATfl ASTRONOMY continued. system as now taught incontrovertibly established - - - a. d. 1687 Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- stead 1688 Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by Cassini 1701 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange 1780 Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel, March 13. — See Georgium Sidus .... 1781 Micanique Celeste, published by La Place" - •'.."- - " - 1796 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 • 1801 Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, March 28 • 1802 Juno, by Harding, Sept. 1 • ■ - 1804 Vesta, by Olbers ■ • - 1807 Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - IS46 United States astronomical expedition to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and. was exiled for them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- tury. — Du Pin. ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciares, because they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. " Si 4TT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 Dteu rfemstait pas il faudrait Vinventer :" If a God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. ATHEN^EA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor oi Minerva. One of them was called Panathensea, and the other Chalcea ; they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. ATHENiEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athensea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — Tillemont's Life of Adrian. ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent ruins yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or Noah's flood"! that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 years, but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more pecxiliar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204, and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- vince of European Turkey ; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from b. c. 1556 to b. c. 21. ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 b.c. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. ATTAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III. 1694-5. — Blackstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wl 3 was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. ATTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his con- quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Re- 238 the world's progress. [ Aue man empire with an army of 500.000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces. He died on the night of his nuptials with a heautiful virgin named Ildico, about a. d. 453. — Goldsmith. ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by lettera patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bilh against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William da Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Beatson. ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward ni.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 " practis- ing lawyers" in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory, 1850. ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; . a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. VUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Munsler and Ni- meguen. AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com- munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is named, was the inventor of augury by birds. — Vossius. The augurs of Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of Augustus Caesar, from whom it was named in the year & b. c, because in this month he was born, whs created consul, or chief magistrate, thrico i&h ) DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 tduciphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made at end of tha civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March. AUSTERLITZ, Battle or, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britian, New Zealand, &c, mostly discovered within two centuries. Of a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d. 1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in the German language implies. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, seizes Austria from Bohemia, and makes himself archduke - - -1273 Revolt of Switzerland from the house of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. • 1307 Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to three crowns — the imperial, and those of Hungary and Bohemia; his family still possess the empire, - 1438 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of that province . - 1477 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- gon and Castile - - - 1496 Charles V. ± reigning over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and their dependen- cies, abdicates, and retires from the world, leaving his German dominions to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II. — See Spain • - - 1557 The Protestant princes of Germany, being oppressed by the house of Aus- tria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweden, and this leads to the treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 Leopold I reigns. — See Germany - 1658 Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, who marries the celebrated queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745 Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 Religious toleration granted - - 1776 The emperor controls the pope - 1782 Raign of Leopold II. - - - 1790 Reign of Francis II. ... 1792 Austria becomes a distinct empire, and Francis II. of Germany takes the title of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 The emperor issues his declaration against France - - Aug. 5, 1805 Napoleon, after many victories, enters Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805 Vienna evacuated by the French, Jan. 12, 1806 They again capture it - May 13, 1809 But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, the daughter of the emperor - - April 1, 1810 Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835 New treaty of commerce with England July 3, 1833 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ; freedom of the press and national guard granted by the emperor March 13. U*i9 The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- lition of the censorship and conven- tion of the states ; the people demand more, and are refused March 18, * Milan revolts, and contends successfully with the soldiery - March 23, " Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia March 23, ' Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion March s The emperor retires to Innsbruck May 18, " Austrian army under Radetsky holds in check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in Lombardy - - May — " Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, " 240 the world's progress. [azo AUSTRIA, continued. Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his orolher, summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 18*8 Wished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1841 detsky - - - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " I slaughter, and sacks it March 30, " The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, ' • minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aua- the diet demands the retraction of the i trian army in Hungary June — , u measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment new ministry; the emperor flies June 11, " Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. mander-in-chief, Oct. 16; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. sieges Vienna, 17th ; bombards the city and masters it Nov. 2, '• I Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head of that body. AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. AUTO da FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to have been invented by Dasdalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. AZORES, or WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with beech- trees, and he called it therefore Fayed ; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it F lores; and all full of hawks, and he therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called Sabrina gradually disappeared Dec. 1812. BAC ] DIC riONARY OF DATES. 241 B. BABEL, the Toweb of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. The temple of Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, oDe cf them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb uf the founder. Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified after death; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there honored with the company of the god. — Blair. BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bat- ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen,- and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband. 1586. BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c. — Lenglet. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy- rian empire, by uniting the two soveieignties, 2059 b.c. According to Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by Ninus, b. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assijria. and names his capital after himself, Nineveh.— Lenglet - - b. c. 2069 Babylon taken by'Ninus • • - 2059 The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet - - 587 He is driven from among men - - 569 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Nineveh - - - 2245 The astronomical observations are be- gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans — Blair ; Lenglet ■ ■ ■ 2234 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- pire over the neighboring states, de- feats the Babylonians, and makes them tributary.— Usher ■ - 2124 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, I Taken by Darius. — Usher ■ - 511 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world ; and in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucida?. Its greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is scarcely known to travellers. — Rollin's Ancient Hist. BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called Dionysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under the name of Bacchanalia. BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried t men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 121. 10s. for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695. Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants. in 1785, BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly vne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 b. c. It is 11 242 the world's progress. [ BR1 stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the Conquest. — Henry. BADAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- ringen, who died a. d. 1074, From Christopher, who united the branches! of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. BADEN, Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau waa ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confedei-ation, in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted hia people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West Passage. BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the Turks. — Blair. BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, a. d. 51. BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- rendered to Captain Rogers. BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and Mary and in later reigns. BAILIFFS or SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiff's, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff, 1548. There are still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. The term Bum-bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for hia good be- havior. --Blackstoae. BAL j DICTIONARY OF DATJbS. 243 BALANCE of POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control ambition; the principle is said to he a discovery of the Italian poli- ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France — Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. SALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.— Turner. Andbelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Malmshury. Canute com- posed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV, ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesman nas said, " Give me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between Hen. VIII. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Gnicciardini. In the next century,* they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. Romain perished in an attempted voyage from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire. June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by a parachute, Sept. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 23 000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city in 1797. Population in 1790. 13 503; in 1810, 35,583; in 1830, 80,625; in 1840, 102.313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. BALTIMORE, Battle op, between the British army under general Ross and the Americans; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuo 244 the world's PROGRESS. [ BA» cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss ; the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, ol whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valu- able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — Bank of Venice formed - - • 1157 i Bank of Hamburgh • -1619 Bank of Geneva - - - 1345 Bank of Rotterdam • - 1635 Bank of Barcelona - ■ - 1401 Bank of Stockholm - - - 1688 Bank of Genoa - • - 1407 Bank of England - • - • "694 Bank of Amsterdam - • 1607 I Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816 BANK of ENGLAND, (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- sideration of 1.200.000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 1797, when notes of one and two pounds were put into circulation. Silver tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- culation is as follows: — In 1815 .... £26,803,520 1820 27,174,000 1830 - - - - 20,620,000 1835 .... 18,210,220 1840 - - - - 17,231,000 In 1718 (earliest account) - JE1 ,829,930 1778 .... 7,030,680 1790 - - - - 10,217,000 1800 .... 15,450.000 1810 .... 23,904,000 The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, "that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- ter, Hull. Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c, all formed since 1828. See Funds. BANK of the UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. — A- new one with cap. of $35,000,000. 1816. The act of Congress rechar- tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J. Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sept. 23, 1833. Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon* sability assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c, introduced by Mr BAP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245 Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834. Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9. 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for establishing a •" Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of slV the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- land and New-York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one year by legisla- ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c, also suspended same, month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VIII. 1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before the commissioners, May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large. NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 - - 38 | 1800 - - - 1339 I 1830 - - 1467 1725 . - - - 416 I 1810 - - - 2000 1835 - - . 954 1750 - - - - 432 1820 - - . 1358 1840 - - 1303 1775 520 | 1825 - - - - 2683 j 1844 - - - 1064 According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826, there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. BANNOCKBURN, Battle op, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II. of England; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galli- can church, about a. d. 1210 ; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the church of England to this day. BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised by all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was 246 THE WORLD'S PRC GK.ESS. [ BAB by dipping- tlie person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they use sprinkling; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. BAPTISTS, or Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. B A.RBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and wa3, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroy&d, by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In England, bai bers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the former sign BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIII BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in the fifth The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See Ballads. BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- ward IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695; marine in 1700. BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned to parliament ; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the firsl bat] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th Henry EEL, 1265. The first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beaucharup created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1887. Barons first sum moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and com- pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete armor in the reign of Henry III. — Bcatson. BARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- ditary : instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- geants, &c. BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre op St. This dreadful massacre in France com- menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even as regarded the female and the infant. BASTILE of PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France between the years 1587 and 1594 ; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had their hands cut off. they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. "The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. BaTAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. BATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. Ths thermas of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla. — Strabo. BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was take n of William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis- tributed, 1066. 248 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [BAS BATTLE, Wager of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws when; the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of murder, Ashjord v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large. BATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 e. c. These ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our battering cannon. — Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- building the new edifice in 1675. B ATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in general history, and are those also that are most commonly referred to : Actium (the empire of Rome is con- finned to Augustus) - • i Arbela (fall of Persia) Aboukir ( Turks) Acre (Siege commenced) - (£>ir Sydney Smith) (Storming of ) Adrianople (Constantine) Albuera Alford ( Covenanters) ■ Alexandria (Abercrombie) ■ (Abercrombie) Algiers (E.vmouth) - — (French) Alderton Moor Agincourt Aliwal (India) Almanza,, in Spain Amoy ( Oily taken) - Almeida Anjou, or Breagne - Antoign • Areola Ascalon (Ricliard I.) - Assaye ( Wellesley) ■ Auerstadt Augsburg Austerlitz Badajos Balkan, passage of the - Baltimore Bafinockburn Barnot (Edward IV.) Barrosa - Bautzen Bayonne • Belgrade 31 - - 331 A. D. July 26, 1799 Mar. 18, 1799 May 27, ibid Nov. 3, 1S40 - 323 May 16, 1811 July 2, 1645 Mar. 21, 1801 May 17, 1799 Aug. 27, 1816 July 4, 1830 - - 1643 Oct. 25, 1415 Jan. 20, 1846 April 4, 1707 Aug. 27, 1841 Aug. 5, 1811 - - 1421 Aug. 13, 1792 Nov. 19, 1796 Sept. 3, 1191 Sept. 23, 1803 Oct. 14, 1806 Aug. 24, 1796 Dec. 2, 1805 Mar. 11, 1811 July 26, 1829 Sept. 12, 1814 June 25, 1314 April 14, 1471 Mar. 6, 1S11 May 20, 1813 Mar. 19, 1794 - - 1456 - 1717 Aug. 1777 Aprfl 13, 1759 Berwick 1378 Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 24, 1836 Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 Blackrock (Amer. $ Brit.) - Dec. 3. 1813 Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24^ 1814 Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704 Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485 Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679 Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 Buvines (French and Germans) - - 1214 Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 Brandywine - • - Sept. 11, 1777 Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452 Brenau (Azistrians and Bavarians) - 1743 Breslau - - . Nov. 22, 1757 Briar's Creek - - - - 1779 Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 Bridgewater (Americans and British) July 25, 1814 Buena Vista (Amer. and Mexicans) Feb. 22, 1847 Buenos Ayres (Popham) - June 21, 1806 (Whitelock) July 6, 1807 Bunker's Hill - - June 17, 1775 Busaco - - . Sept. 27, 1810 Brownsto wn (Canada) - Aug. 8, 1812 B.C. Cannae (Victory of Hannibal) - 216 Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio) • 146 Chosronea ( Tolmidas) ... 447 (Philip) ■ . - . 338 (SyUa) Bennington (Amer <5' Brit.) Bergen - Sept. 19 and 'Oct. 2, 1799 3ergen-op-Zoom (taken) - - 1747 - Mar. 6, 1814 Berjsina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 Cnidos (Lysander killed) - Cranon, in Thessaly Cyzicum ... Calais taken Calcutta (India) Camden (Amer. fy Brit.) (Amer. Sf Brit.) - Campo Santo Canton (Bogueforts taken) Castel Nuovo Castella - - 394 - 322 • • 406 A. D. -Jan. 7, 155'S June 1756 Aug. 16, 178ft April 25, 1781 - 1743 Feb. 26, 1841 Sept. 29, 1806 Apnl 13. 18J 3 1&£ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 249 BATTLES, continued. A. D. - 1705 Aug. 28, 1798 July 2, 1796 - - 1453 - 1690 June 17, 1794 Cassano (Prince Eugene) Castlebar (French) - Castiglione Castiilon, in Guienne Charleroi Chartered Fleurus - Charleston (taken by the British) May 12, 1780 ChepultepecOiwi.#ilfe:r.)Sept. 12-14, 1848 Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 - . - Oct. 1814 Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 (stormed) - Jan. 19, 1812 Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039 Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837 Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) - 1848 C'orunna, (Moore) ■ - Jan. 16, 1809 Cowpens (Amer. 8? Brit.) - - 1781 Craney island (Americans and Brit.) June 21, 1813 Cressy (Ich Dien) - Culloden (Pretender) Cunnersdorf- Detroit (surrendered) Dettingen ( George II.) Dresden - Dreux. in France Drogheda (taken by storm) Aug. 25, 1346 April 16, 1746 Aug. 12, 1759 Aug. 16, 1812 - - 1743 Aug. 26, 1813 - - 1562 - 1649 Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) ■ Nov. 12, 1715 Dunbar - - Sept. 3, 1650 — (King of Scots taken) ■ • 1296 •, Siege of, 1337 DunganHill- - - July 10, 1647 Dunkirk - - - Sept. 7, 1793 Dunsinane - - - 1054 Durham, Nevil's Cross - - 1346 Eastport (Americans and British) July 1814 Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642 Erie, Fort - - - Aug. 15, 1814 Erzeroum (Turks and Prussia?is) - 1745 Eutaw Springs Evesham Eylau Fairfield (Amer. $• Brit.) Falkirk, ( Wallace) 1781 Aug. 4, 1265 Feb. 8, 1807 - 1779 July 22, 1298 Flatbush, L. I. (Am. $ Brit.) Aug. 27, 1776 Flodden Fontainebleau - Fontenoy Fort du Quesne - French Town, Canada Friedburg Friedland Granicus - Sept. 9, 1513 Feb. 17, 1814 April 30, 1745 July 9, 1755 Jan. 22, 1813 June 4, 1745 June 14, 1807 B. C. - 334 A. D. Germantown - - - Oct. 4, 1777 Gisors (Dieu et mon droit) - ■ 1193 Guilford - - - Mar. 16, 1781 Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 Halle (Bernadotte) - - Oct. 17, 1806 Hanau ( Wrede) - Oct. 29, 1813 Hastings (Conquest) - Oct. 14, 1066 Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, J464 Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, .758 Hohenlinden • - Nov. 3, 1800 B. 0. Ipsus (Anligonus slain) - - - 301 Issus (.110,000 Persians slain) - 333 11* Jarnac Jemappe • « Jena - Ket and Warwick Killiecrankie, Scotland Kowno - Krasnoi Leuctra • A. D. Mar. 3, 1569 Nov. S 1792 Oct. 14, 1806 - 1549 July 27, 1689 Dec. 14, 1812 Nov 16, 1812 B. C. - 370 A. D. Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) - - 1747 Landshut (Prussians and Austjians) 1745 — — ( Austrians) • April 21, 1809 Langside - . May 13, 1568 Leipzic - • . Oct. 16, 1813 Lepanto (Greeks) - - May 9, 1829 Lewes - - - May 14, 1264 Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19, 1775 Ligny Lincoln Lisle (taken by the Allies) Lissa .... Lodi Long Island • Lutzen - Lulzingen (Gustavus slain) Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) Munda, in Spain June 16, !S15 Feb. 2, 1141 May 19, 1217 - 1708 Dec. 5, 1796 May 10, 1757 Aug. 27, 1776 May 2, 1813 - - 1632 B. C. - 363 - 45 A. D. McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) Oct. 13, 1814 Malplaquet (Marlborough) - - 1709 Manheim - - - May 30, 1793 - July 12, 1794 — - - - Sept. 23, 1795 Mantua - - . May 29, 1796 • Jan. 31, 1797 June 14, 1800 • Sept. 15, 1515 July 3, 1644 Sept. 12-14, 1848 Aprd 27, 1799 Aug. 1, 1759 • 1705 Marengo - Marignan, Italy Marston Moor Mexico Milan Minden Mittau (Swedes and Russians) Mockem Mohartz, Hungary - Molwitz • Monmouth (Amer. If Brit.) - June 28^ 1778 April 1, 1813 Oct. 14, 1813 - - 1687 April 10, 1741 Sept. 24, 1846 Aug. 10, 1759 Dec. 18, 1845 Oct. 28, 1828 Sept. 4, 1812 Sept. 7, 1812 Oct. 22, 1812 Monterey (Mexico) Montmorenci Moodkee, India Morea ( Castle surrenders) Moscow (burnt) Moskwa Moscow (retaken) Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) '• 1700 Naseby - - - June 14, 1645 Newark - - - - 1644 Newbury ..... 1643 (second battle) - Oct. 20, 164-4 New London (burnt by the. British) - 1731 New Orleans - - Jan 8, 1815 Niagara, Fort - - - Nov. 1813 Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402 Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779 Northallerton, (or the battle of the Standard) • • - 1138 250 THE WOR D'S PXiOGRESS. [b*-* BATTLES, continued. Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, Novi (Suwarrow) - Aug. 16, ... Jan. 8, Ogdensburg (British and America?is) Feb. 22, Oporto - - - May 11, Otterburn (Chevy Chase) - Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, Pharsalia - Philippi (Roman Republic ends) Palo Alto (1st of Amer. Sr Mex.) May 8, Parma (Austrians and French) (Suwarrow)- - July 12, Patay (Joan of Arc and th% English ) Pavia (French andAustri'us) Feb. 24 Penaacola (taken by general Jackson) Nov. 20. Peterwarden - - Aug. 5 PfafTendorf - - • Aug. 15 Pinkey - - - Sept. 10. Plattsburg (Americans and British) Sept. 11 Poitiers Prague Sept. 19. Nov. 9. May 6, Jan. 2, July 8. Dec. 26. July 28. June 16 Princeton (Amer. Sr Brit.) Pultowa (Charles XII.) Pultusk • Pyrenees ftuatre Bras Quebec (or the plains of Abraham) Sept. 13. (death ofMontgomery)Dec. 21 - - - April 28 Queenstown (Amer. Sf Brit.) Oct. 13, Ramilies (Marlborough) - May 23 Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9, Rosbach - - - Nov. 17, - - Nov. 5, Sackett's Harbor (Americans and British) • ■jalamanca - - - July 22, San Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) Oct. 17, Savannah (taken by the British) Dec. 29, Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, Sedgemoor ... July 5, Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31, Sempach - - - July 9, Seringapatam . . . . ( Tippoo reduced) - ( Tippoo killed) May 4, Shrewsbury - • July 21, Skenesborough - • July 7, Smolensko ... Aug. 27, 1779 1799 1800 1813 1809 1308 1708 B. C. 48 42 A.D. 1846 1734 1799 1429 1525 1814 1717 1760 1547 1814 1356 1620 1757 1777 1709 1S06 1813 1815 1759 I 1775 ! 1760 ! 1812 1706 I 1846 I 1382 1787 j 1813 ; 1812 | 1813 1777 1778 j 1762 ; 16S5 1831 1386 ( 1791 1791 ; 1799 i 1403 ; 1777 ! 1812 Sobraon (India) - Feb. iC, 1846 Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) • 1455 (second) ■ 1461 - 1567 Jan. 27, '814 May 6, 1835 Mar. 13, 1470 St. Denis (Montmorenci) St Dizier, France - St. Sebastian Stamford Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 Stratton (poet Waller) - May 16, 1643 Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 Tarragona - - - Jan. 24, . 812 Tewkesbury - - May 4, 1471 Thames (Americans and Brit.) Sept. 1313 Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822 Tivle-Tiont (French and Allies) - 1705 Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 - • Aug. 30, 1813 Tournay - - - May 8, 1793 Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 Toulouse - - • April 10, 1814 Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 Trenton (Amer. Sr Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776 Turin (French and Germans) - 1706 Ulm .... June 21, 1800 (surrendered) - Oct. 29, 1805 Valenciennes - - May 23, 1793 Varna (surrenders) • Oct. 11, lcl25 Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) March 27, 1847 Villa Franca Vimiera ( Wellington) Vittoria, Spain Wagram Wakefield Warsaw April 10, 1812 Oct. 21, 1808 - - 1702 June 21, 1813 July 5, 1809 Dec. 31, 1460 Oct. 10, 1794 Nov. 8, ibid Sept. 8, 1831 Washington (burnt by the British) Aug. 1814 Waterloo - . - June 18, 1815 White Plains (Amer. Sr Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 Nov. 30, ibid ■ (taken) Wilna (Poles) Worcester (Charles II.)* June 12, 1831 Sept. 13, 1642 - - 1651 July 1778 Wyoming massacre York (Canada) captured by Ameri- cans - - - April 27, 1813 York Town (surrender of Cornwallis) Oct. 19, 1781 B. O Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) Zela (Casar : veni, vidi, vici) Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) Zurich .... 202 ■ 47 Jk.S. ■ 1697 ■ 1789 BAVARIA. House of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century: this house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- phian family; Henry Guelph was made duke Jf Bavaria by Conrad II.. em- peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch. waa made fluke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was * This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England. N. B. — Many of the above battles are described more fully under lach name. BiU J DICTIONARY OF DATES 251 erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- ber recommends freedom of the press, &c, by almost unanimous vote, Oct, 17, 18-47. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich ; the king abdicates in favor of his son, Maximillian II., March 22, 1848. kings op bavaria. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated, 1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848. tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian IL BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wi ought by Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into cornpart- ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei red in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 1603, "with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." BAZAAR, or Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. BE ADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased persons for the repose of whose souls a certain number of prayers were re- cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler. BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. BEARDS on WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushj beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 252 the world's PROGRESS. [ BEE Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliverance — Henault. BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a moment of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 1220 ; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Hoary VIII. 1539.— Stowe. BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the skins of beasts. — Whittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty paid on " ale called here." one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. BEES. Mount Hybla. on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardiest America. BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. MargrafF first produced sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery ot sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 1207. The '■ Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 1311. BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Chi on. English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particn- BEL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253 larly in the reigns of Henry VIII. , and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgas, who were conquered by Julius Caesar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1869 ; formed into a kingdom in 1831. Became an acquisition of the house of Austria .... 1477 Charles V- annexed the Netherlands to the crown of Spain - - - 1556 Seven provinces, under William, prince of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny of Philip II. ; freed- - - 1579 The ten remaining provinces are given to the archduke - - - 1598 These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 And three to France - - - 1748 Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- wards restored - - - - 1789 The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 Placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange - - - 1814 The revolution commences at Brussels Aug. 25, 1830 The Provisional Government declares Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the Dutch are driven to the citadel, from whence they cannonade the town, Oct. 27, 1830 Belgian independence acknowledged This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- admissible. ELGRADE. Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40.000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 1717 (see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 1790. BELGRADE, Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei- taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered. Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. by the Allied Powers, announced by Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1S3D Duke de Nemours elected king; but his father, the king of France, refuses his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected king - - - July 12, 1831 He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 The king of the Netherlands recom- mences the war • Aug. 3, 1831 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] A conference of the ministers of the five great powers is held in London, which terminates in the acceptance of the 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter of Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 1832 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much mischief ensues - . April 6, 1834 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London - April 19, 1839 * Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury— the latter remarkable for hel resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, aftei mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughtel »f George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Plantagenet." May 27, 1541.— Hume. 254 the world's PROGRESS. [ BEH BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish church, used in excommunication, which see. BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles- lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto. Latini, and other learned men in different countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fon- tanel,. Literature began to nourish in France, Germany, and England, about this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- beth, and nourished in that of Anne. BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, ths potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- ces of the Romans. BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The responses of the Dodonsean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna, about a. d. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, by ring- ing them, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. — Slowe. Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 I St. Peter's, at Rome - - lbs. 18,607 Great Tom of Lincoln • - 9,894 Great Bell at Erfurth ■ - 28,224 Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 | St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127,835 Bell of the Palazzo, Floreuce - 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at £66,565 sterling. In its fusion great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the people. BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. — Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary. Holy Trinity, &c, in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious solemnity. — Ashe. BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, in Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- nated Bened'ctine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishopt, 4600 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 king* 41 queens, and 3600 saint* Their founder was canonized. — Baronius CenJ dictionary of dates. 255 BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10 533, and the number ol glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 12.000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no glebe-houses. — See Church of England. BENEFIT of CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par- ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if the ordinary said " Legit ut clericus," the offender was only burnt in the hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Skowe. Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c, in the United States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American Almanac, 1816) as follows: For theological education and other religious objects - - $1,054,966 For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594 For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 For miscellaneous objects (such as monuments, &c.) - • - 438,321 Total - $4,751,293 [Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula- tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000. Few cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- habitants.! BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. Formed. Income, Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. Missions - - - 1810 - 5260,897 Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 " Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 " Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 " Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 Formed. Income. 1849. Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 " Colonization Society 1819 17414 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be given to the distitute Irish March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from New York on same errand, „uly 8, 1847. Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, J&t7. BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the Mogul empire. — See India. The English were first permitted to trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1534 Factories of the French and Danes - 1G64 First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 The settlements first placed in a state of defence .... 1694 Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol- iiers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla : and the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 1758 Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of Bengal in the Company, by which the virtual sovereignty of the country was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal mtde the chief presidency - - J me 16, 177S See India. 256 THE world's PROGRESS. [ BBI BERESINA, Batti e of. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20.000 men in the battle, and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19 t 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; arid on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men. On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire m a few clays. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous Berlin decree. — See next article. BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English- men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806. — See Jena. BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven ashore, July 20, 1813. BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. BERNARD1NE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers gratis for three days. — Brooke. BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who SIS 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe. BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an earthquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. — Herodotus. BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephus. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In 288. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison, it was found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin Martyr. BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ- ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, about a. d. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park- hurst and Bai'low, the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts; and archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228 ; and this division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. BIBLE, Editions of the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- rome, a. d. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See Books.") The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of fb's edition was made. 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches, 258 the world's prog RESS. [ hit. 1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be trans- lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed iu Spanish -1478 Russian -1581 Manks - 1771 German - - -1522 Hungarian - - 1589 Italian 1776 English - 1534 Polish - 1596 Bengalee 1801 French - - -1535 Modern Greek - - - 1638 Tartar 1813 Swedish - 1541 Turkish - 1666 Persian 1815 Danish - - -1550 Irish - - 1685 African 1816 Dutch -1560 Portuguese - 1748 Chinese 1820 Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared m several in- stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — Wood's Fasti. Oxon. BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New-York, 1838. A bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Vincr's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794. — Statutes at large. BILL of RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, was obtained from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viner's Statutes. SILLS op EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson. Bills were used in England, 1307. — The onlv legal mode of sending money from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 — duty advanced. 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. SILLS of MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about a. d. 1536. but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the BiS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259 great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : — In the year 1780, Burials - - 20,507 1790, Burials - - 18,038 1800, Burials - - 23,068 In the year 1780, Christenings - 16,634 1790, Christenmss - 18,980 1800. Christenings - 19.176 ■ 1810, Christenings - 19,930 1820, Christenings - 26,158 1830, Christenings - 27,028 1840, Christenings - 30,387 1810, Burials - - 19,892 1820, Burials - 19.348 1830, Burials - - 23,524 1840, Burials - - 26,774 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were introduced in England in 1827. BIRDS. Divided by Linnseus into sis orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the young." — Duteronomy, xxii. 6. BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; but. its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- thew Boulton, in 1764. BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti- tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z. — of a common person, 2s. — 7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five children at a birth, September 3. 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in a certa'n district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. Petei, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. BISHOPS op ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York, London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d' Elire of the king to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Conai d' Elire, 26 Henry VHI. 1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 1641. Regained their seats. Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit 260 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [_ BLA ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterburj (Dr. Sancroft) and five bishops were suspended for refusing: to take the oaths to William and Maiy, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — 'Warner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded in 1846.— See Manchester. BISHOPS of IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. BISHOPS op SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Tb.3 see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrae, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- lution, 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be >ext to viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. The others rank according to consecration. BISHOPS in AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. - BISSEXTILE or LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. It originated with Julius Csesar, who ordered a day to be counted before the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen- dar and Leap Year. B1THYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 332 b. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took Prusa.. its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessad Constantinople. BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the black book." BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of BLO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William III., 1696-7. — Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's Bench. BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and Became heredi- tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. — Dugdale. BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in 1795. — Blanchiment des Toiles. BLENHEIM, Battle of ; between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. Fought Aug. 2, 1704.— Hume. BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Eastern Empire. BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. — Freind. Blisters are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretams, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic. BLOOD, Circulation of the, through the lungs, first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Fatt er Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by whom it was fully confirmed, 1628. — Freind' s Hist, of Physic. BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- tem by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last ilmess, drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 262 the world's progress. [beo strength, 1138. — Henault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah. Gen. ix. . and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans*- fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera- tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in England, (but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One English physi- cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way ; he died in 1691." — Freind's Hist, of Physic. BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of £500 per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. oj Bowyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. BOARD of TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, as is said by Petrarch, " possessing many charms." A copy of the first edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for £2260, June 17, 1812. This identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Bceotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- dar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished and beautiful Corinna. BOI j DICTIONARY OF DATES 263 Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216 Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages of obscurity follow - - - 112S Battle of Chasronea, in which the The- bans defeat the Athenians Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- nians at Leuctra, restores his country to independence, and puts it in a con- dition to dictate to the rest of Greece Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- bans and Athenians, near Chasronea - 44* 371 333 BCEOTIA continued. Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- mea - - - b. c. 1493 Reign of Polydore • " - 1459 Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 CEdipus, not knowing his father La'i us, kills him m an affray, confirming the oracle as to his death by the hands of his son ..... 1276 CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- solves her enigmas - - 1266 War of the Seven Captains - - 1225 Here the greatness of this country ends. Alexander destroyed Thehes, the capital. 835 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo. BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830 The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot- land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes: the title of king was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- ditary. — See Germany. The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are i ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550 City of Prague founded - - 795 Introduction of Christianity - - 894 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III., who spreads devastation through the country - - - 1041 The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, the first king .... 1061 The regal title is farther confirmed to Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199 Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his arms into Prussia - - - 1258 Ottos ;re, refusing to do homage to the emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- quished, and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Camiola - - - 1282 In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of silver are first discovered, and agri- culture is encouraged and improved (fit seq.) - - - - 1284 Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen to succeed .... 1310 Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 King John slain at the battle, of Crecj fought with the English • • 346 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which occasions an insurrec- tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed them, is deposed, and the Imperialists are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of Bo- hernia and Hungary - - - 14?7 The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1456 Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, on the death of Po- diebrad ..... 1471 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown - - 1527 The elector palatine Frederick is driven from Bohemia - - - 1618 The crown is secured to the Austrian family by the treaty of - - 1649 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742 Prague taken by the Prussians ■ - 1744 The memorable siege of Prague - 1757 Revolt of the peasantry - - - 1775 The French occupy Prague - - 1806 See Germany. BOILING to DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry VIIL, 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished by boil- ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in th« same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 264 THE world's progress. [ boo BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens i>{ architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- dosius, a. d. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting (as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its pavement. Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth century. Taken by the French, 1796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by th6 French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ; Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848. BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by "Wil- liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were lost. Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. BONDAGE, or VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See Villain. BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science. — Freind's Hist of Physic. BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still more ancient are preserved. BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30/.; and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat ; and they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices varying from 101. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3.000Z. — Times. II Decamcrone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260/.. June 17, 1812.— Phillips. A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London BOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2S5 in April 1846 for 50^. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schasffer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity on Faust ; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustas. The second printed was Cicero tie Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of the CAes.se, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, .in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Com. Nepotis Vita, in 1762. Lucian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — Stovje's CAronides. The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigreiv, (Biblio. Sussex.) the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies are now known to exist— all but one being in public libraries in Europe. [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of New York. BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the book on which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century. It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- keeping in 1569. — Anderson. BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new works published in successive years is thus stated : Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 1823 - 842 - — - 5,654 1830 - 1,142 - — - 5,926 1834 • 1,220 - — - 6,074 The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 65.474, or 1681 each year. England.— The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550; equal to 253 yearly;— but deducting tha 12 Gt. Brit. France. Germany 1836 - 1.332 - — . 7,891 1849 - — . — - — 1850 - — - 7,208 - — 266 the world's PROGRESS. [ BOO reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new books may be computed at much less than 100. The number of new works, exclusive of " all pamphlets and other tracts," issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 5.280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 each year. The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was ; according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro- duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average impression of each volume at 750 copies; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes; — value at 9s. a volume, £506.250. " The number of reprinted volumes, particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about £750,000." France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive work (Notions Statistiqucs sur la Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French press in 1816 at 66 852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any thing inferior. The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. Germany. — The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michjelmas, which are attended by the booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. " An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now living upwards of 50.000 persons who have written one or more books. The total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated from 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. Sweden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several otoer places. BOOK-TRADE of the UNITED STATES. The number of new works which appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formmg BOK J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 1,300 volumes and the cost of which may be estimated at $1,220,000. In 1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : —originals 1,030. reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; — number of volumes printed (1,000 for each edition), 1,884,000. la most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of. The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- ported literary productions in 1834 : Education Divinity - Novels and Tales History and Biography Jurisprudence Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly doubled. [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in trie Booksellers' Advertiser, edited by G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register m the Literary World.] American Publications — January to June, 1849. riginal. Reprint. Jrtginai. Reprint 73 9 Poetry - • - ; 3 37 18 Travels - - - 8 10 19 95 Fine Arts - - -8 • 19 17 Miscellaneous works - 59 • 43 -20 3 Original. Reprint. Original. Reprint. Education 36 7 Travels - • - 21 - 7 Divinity - - 25 25 Metaphysics - 3-8 Novels and Tales 18 28 Miscellaneous • -25-10 History - 20 12 Law ) Biography 15 6 Juvenile > not ascertained. Political Economy 3 Periodical ) Medicine 12 11 __ __ Science - 11 9 For six months - 200 - 128 Poetry 11 6 Total, 328. The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 907 b. c. BORODINO or MOSKWA, Battle or, one of the most sanguinary in the records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ; commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusofi; 268 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: [ BOl 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the French military power over Europe. See Moscow. BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the. election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were firs I admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the Irish, 1365. BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger sen inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassaFs bride, and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished by Malcolm III. in 1062.— Haydn. BOSPHORUS, now called Ci? -cassia. The history of this kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. . Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18,038; in 1810, 33,250 ; in 1820, 43,298; in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle op, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Henry was so -impatient to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost their lives. BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and others, between 1535 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, the fiist botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sys- BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 tem, in 1758. At the time of Linngeus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and Transportation. EOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France upon the peace. 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- sion. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, June 1846. BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British pai-liament. The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. BOUNTY, MUTINEERS op the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. BOURBON, House op. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly 270 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOT styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that year. — See France. BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 1829, by Avhich immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the Island. See Mauritius. BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. BOURIGNONISTS. a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. She died in 1680. BOWLS, or BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at Tunbridge. — Memoires de Grammont. BOWS and ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. BOXING, or PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatus of the Romans, and a favorite sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c, the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing have declined. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- 8RA] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 271 Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and September to November — endowed 1691. BOYNE, Battle or, between king William III. and his father-in-law, James II., fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a.d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 — again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillce were usually distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are female ornaments to the present day. BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, which liad become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbs VerM. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- ments. — Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. BRANDENBURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say it was founded by the Sclavonians. who gave it the name of Banber, which signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- stowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted with its use. — Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artista had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 272 the world's PROGRESS. [ BRB and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig- nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant son, now emperor, April 7,1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. — See Portugal. BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- isiana (1) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendons work was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793 : and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of France ceased here. BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Cassar. In the reign of Ho- norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other conn- tries, and at length it became general. BR1 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757; they were driven out by the Hanoverians in 1758; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. BRESLAU, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under 1 prince Bevern. who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody ov both sides, Nov 22,1757, when Breslau was taken; but was regained the sa'me year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. BREST. It was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English. a. d. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and * British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the late war. BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of England, 1066. BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- land retained Gascony and Guienne. acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to receive 3,000.000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII.. and other popes. The quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present day. BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo Saxon ancestors. — -Tlndal. ; ' One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414."- — S'owe. There are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c, who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000/. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- citing a bribe, January 1784. BRIBERY at ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable offence, Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 12* 274 the world's progress. [bbj an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; and several similar instances have occurred since. BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886.— Saxon Chron. The size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed. 1784. The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. See Building. BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 1he ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Join, near Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in a. d. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to account for it At Shaffhausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. BRIDGES in ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in that country, in 1758 : Mr. BrirTdley was the architect. The canal com- mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are BKI DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten on parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces and dispensations, as well as business. BRIENNE, Battle op, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus. a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832 ; four were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar, 65 b. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York - - - - a. D. 306 The Roman forces are finally with- drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the natives against their northern neighbors the Picts and Scots • 449 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- ons attack the natives themselves, driving them into Wales - • 455 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, since called Brittany - - - 457 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven kingdoms - - 45. Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and establishment of Christianity - - 598 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, began his reign - - - 678 The Saxon Heptarchy ends • - 828 See England, and also Tabular Views, p. 75, &c. That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. Phillips's Annals. BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 London founded by the Romans - 49 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 A vast army of Britons is defeated by Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 Reier. of Lucius, the first Christian king of Britain, and in the world - - 179 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboracum - - - 207 He dies at York - - - - 211 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne of Britain - - - - 286 He is killed by Alectus, who continues the usurpation - - - 293 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- feat of Alectus - - - - 296 276 the world's PROGRESS. [ BR.* grant by parliament of 20,000?. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000Z. The library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections,. BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron. BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. — Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, in 1757. BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act '6 George I. 1719. and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- brokers. BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fifteenth of lead and silver. BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471.—/^. Chron. BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all othei communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a benefice in the church of England. — Collins' s Eccles. Hist. BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller/' set out in June 1768, and pro- ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea. and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of" Abys- •VJC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 sinia, hi Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes— a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794. EKUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry H. of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this last sprang the royal family of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur- ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834, BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and Law's Bubble. BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of the first expedition were. Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Qstend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont. in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, whea her followers dispersed. BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. BUCKINGHAM PALACE. London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and aftoi 278 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [_ BUi. expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Prcetus and Acri- sius. of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and sih er, 309 b c. See article Armor. BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II. ; but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solynian II. at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200.000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See Hungarij. BUENA VISTA, Battle op, between the American force, of about 5,000 men, un- der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, July 6. 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 : the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- nos Ayres and Monte Video, England and France blockaded the port of Bue- nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845 ; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- verted the jesters into poet- laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every nation pursued a different system. The art' of building with stone may be referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d. 670. The first bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl cf Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 15.000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen BUO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 270 home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186 ; subdued bj Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. BULL, or EDICT op ths POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal : and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet ci Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- tors, and corsigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 1588. BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought "for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- tom, May 24, 1802. — BiUler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There waa a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514; and iron ones are first mentioned in the Fazdera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, instead of iron. — Ashe. BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston.) between the British under Howe, and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1054 killed and wounded ; American. 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- cession, &c, and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 60,000 people present, June 17, 1843. BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads throughout the volume : — Napoleon born at Ajaccio, in Italy, Aug. 15, 1769 He first distinguishes himself in the command of the artillery at Toulon - 1793 He embarks for Egypt • May 10, 1798 Is repulsed before Acre • May 27, 1799 He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 Deposes the French directory, and be- comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 Sends overtures of peace tc the king of England - - - Jan. 1 180C His life attempted by an "infernal ma- chine" • - - Dec. 21. L80C 280 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [bub BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, continued. Elected president of the Italian, late Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 Elected consul lor 10 years - May 8, 1802 Made first consul lor life - Aug. 2, 1802 Accepts 'he title of emperor from the , sena'.c; in name of the people May 18, 1804 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1605 Divorced from the empress Josephine Dec. 16, 1809 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 His overtures of peace to England re- jected - - - April 14, 1812 [The reverses of Bonaparte now follow in quick succession.] He renounces the thrones of France and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 The allies sign a treaty for his exter- mination - - - March 25. 1815 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 Is defeated at Waterloo - June 18, 181S Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 And abdicates in favor of his infant son - - - June 22, 1815 Intending to embark for America, he arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the Belleroplion - - July 15, 1 passed over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth centurj of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders and the inhabitants of the southern borders. Caledonian monarchy, said to have been founded by Fergus 1., about • b. c. 330 The Picts irom the north of England settle in the southern borders • - 140 Agricola carries the Roman arms into "Caledonia, with little success, in the reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- bred II. - - - A. d. 79 He is signally defeated by the forces of Corbred 80 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia in the reign of Donald I. - • 201 The country is invaded by the Scuyths, or Scots, and the government is over- thrown, about - - a. d. 306 The Caledonian monarchy is revived by Fergus II. 404 After many sanguinary wars between the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, unites the whole country under one monarchy, and gives it the name of Scotland ■ - - 838 to 343 See Scotland. The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- able fictions. CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, and opened in 1822. CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 804 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by adding two months ; and Julius Cassar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 865 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 365 clays six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 ysars, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of* the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are avoided. See Nev> Style. CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Conpany, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 286 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Cm Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro- hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New California 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c, 1846. Cali- fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Con- vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, Dec. 1849. CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle ; the title assumed by the Sophi of Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. Herbert. CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and. border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. — Holinshed. CALLAO, in Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some centuries before. CAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 CALVARY", Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33. Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from al] Christian countries. CALVTNISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angouleme, where he composed his Insti- tutio Christiana Rehgionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561 where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French involution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. Colville. June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. CAMBRAY, League op. This was the celebrated league against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for raffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrica were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- beth, 1580. — Stoive. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 1786, but afterwards again prohibited: the importation of cambrics is now allowed. CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. CAMERA LUCID A. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674 — Wood's Ath. Ox. Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- nent ; the last was produced in 1839. CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -Bumvt. 288 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAS CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. tAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the free- booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 1662. CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. C 4MP0 FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands. Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d. 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces. Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of £l, 000 for Papi- neau, Dec. 5, 1837. M'Leod (charged with the destruction of the Caroline, American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for payin* losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean RAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 w?,s commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That Detween the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was by Henry L, when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams. CANALS in the UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- peake and Delaware canal opened, &c, July 4, 1829. CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu- nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, about 140 b. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, a. d. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. ■ CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians. 1194, and held by them till the Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which is fragrant, and yields a bright light. CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feasi instituted by the early Christians, who conse- crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. CANNiE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50 000 Africans. Gauls, and Spaniards ; and Paulus j3Lmilius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of whom 40000 were slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 216 b. c. — Bossuet. CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 13 290 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ CAM American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in America See Anthrofophagi. CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but iliis Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by t the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymer's Fcedera. Louis XIV., upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed upon his cannon, "The last argument of kings." See Artillery. CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, " Charge me well, and sponge me clean, I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A. leathern cannon was fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law author in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — Stowe. CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henault. CANTERBURY. The Durovemum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black Prince. CANTERBURY, Archbishopric op. This see was settled by St. Austin, who preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of Kmt. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert'a dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas a Becket, mur- dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. Austin was the first bishop, 596. The see was made superior to York, 1073. cap] dictionary of dates. 291 — See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at £2816. !■< 5. 9d. — Bcatson. CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver- ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into medica. practice by Aretasus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c.— Freind\ History of Physic. CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and more than 1000 persons in October 1833. CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called Hazvia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — See India Rubber. CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the head, and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But at one period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is icferred to the year 1449; the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20^. (40 cts.) nor cap above 2s. 8d. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy Avere captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng land at the peace of 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. ('APE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 1820. The Caffres have made several irruptions on the British settlements here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct. !834 Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1818. 292 the world's PROGRESS. [ CAP CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients undet the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1446. C A.PE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1698. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 3000Z. a year. CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, a. d. 987. — Henault. CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- quinius Priscus, 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- stroyed by lightning, 188 b.c; by fire, a. n. 70. The Capitoline games in- stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes H. became king of Cappadocia. Pharnaces is declared king • b. c. 744 His successors are unknown for nearly three centuries. Reign of Ariarathes I. - - - 362 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- rathes is crucified - - - 322 Defeat of the Parthians - - -217 Irruption of the Trocmi • - - 164 Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- cends the throne - - - 162 Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 Attains assists Philopator, and Oro- phernes dethroned - - - - 154 Philopator joins trie Romans against Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- ing the throne, poisons five of her own children, the sixth and only remaining child is saved, and the queen put to death - - - - - 153 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes VII. 153 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes \TI. - 97 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96 Cappadocia declared a free country by the senate of Rome - - - 95 The people elect a new king Ariobar- zanes 1. - - - - 94 His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns - 65 He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to the Roman empire - a. d. 17 CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although tho car] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for then extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. Tha covered cars (currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the Elder, according to others. CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- ment in Sept, 1820. CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, ai»d constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the popes till a. d. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1680 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange. CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave.— Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of wisdom. — Malkvrb. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Dairies Barrington. Picquet and all the early e-ames are French. Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th Jan. 1840. — Pari. Reports. CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the initials H. B., are political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit of emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies and free institutions, August 1, 1819. CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of thts four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 294 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAR Interrupted succession from Elijah. Elisha, &c. Mount Camellias a monas- tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often referred to in Jewish histories. " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pope. CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See iV. <$• S. Carolina. CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses, even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 1750. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- minster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu- facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who produced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555 ; but not the art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen- ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- rious : they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; and hence their name. See Coaches. CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene" des Cartes, the French philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker : his metaphysical principle"" I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke ; and his physical principle, that " nothing exists but substance," is disprov- ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails throughout it, and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — Dufresnoy. CARTHAGE, founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 869 b. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total dem»- lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 146 b. c. when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of this once powerful republic. — Eusebius. CAS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 295 CARTHAGE, continued. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Eyrsa. —Blair ■ - - b. C. 869 First alliance of the Carthaginians with the Romans The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes, Herodotus, I. vii. They send 300,OUO men into Sicily The siege of Syracuse The Carthaginians laiid in Italy Their defeaf by Timoleon They are defeated by Agathocles, and immolate their children on the altar of Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 The first Punic war begins - - 264 The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro mans in a naval engagement - Xantippus defeats Regulus Regulus is crucified - - - Asdrubal defeated by Metellus Romans defeated before Lilybceum End of the first Punic war War between the Carthaginians and African mercenaries - - - 241 Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he takes with him his son, the famous DO'.) 480 407 396 379 340 260 255 - 256 - 251 - 250 - 241 Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first made him swear an eter- nal enmity to the Romans - B. C. 237 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- tones ..... 227 Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as the Iberus - - - - 219 The second Punic war begins - -218 First great victory of Hannibal - • 217 Hannibal crosses the Alps, an 1 enters Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 Great battle of Cannae {which see) - 21G New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated and slain in Italy - - - 20? The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica 204 Hannibal recalled from Italy - - 203 Great battle of Zama (uhich see) - 202 An ignominious peace ends the second Punic war .... 201 The third Punic war begins - - 149 Destruction of Carthage, which is burned to the ground .... 146 CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, tbe Ca; tha- ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps. 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of £1 ,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of Daiiphine". Their rules were formed by Basil VII.. general of the order, and were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave ; and their clothing was two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from which the order is named. — -Auberti; Mirai Origines Carthus. CARTOONS of RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- tican, under Julius II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- sent — 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- nias ; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares, are mention- ed by Homer. CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls is described as being "the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well imitated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersfield. 296 the world's PROGRESS. f CAT Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thihetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about the year 1650. — Bernier. CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful visitation of earthquakes: in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively, from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here about a. d. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. See Arragon and Spain. CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d.. 1185, and 1154: most of these were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possessions, on his accession, in 1154. CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted the toinbs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years ago: among others, a chef-d'ceuvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- combs, especially "hose of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. CATANIA, or CATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the. ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. CATAPULTtE. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They CAUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 297 were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.— Pardon. C A.THOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- gory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnanied the Catho- lic; a. d. 739 The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. See Spain. CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance, and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the rain cf his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspir- ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c. His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. C ATO, SUICIDE of. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the inde- pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might have moderated Caesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu. CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb. 23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates, Brunt, Davison, Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their co rviction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, on May 1, following. — Haydn. CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, and. continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors, 1548 b. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasia Portee, and it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Strabo. Hero- dotus. CAUSTIC in PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gai- lands of flowers: and from this circumstance the picture, which was 13* 298 the world's PROGRESS. [ CEM bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of StepAa- noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinil Hist. Nat. CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought Charles; I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated foi their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turrnas ; the com- mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In the early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field : they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c. : and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch. CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654, It was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 b. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is eighteen feet. See Globes. CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the same period. CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about a. d. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in , 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Piacentia, held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bioa Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the following among the moderns : — Newton, Locke, Bo}de, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, Handel. Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gard3ns — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many line plants thai grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only CEY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in thes« countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Phre la Chaise at Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia (183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of the Roman State. In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new census, 1841. CENSUS op the UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken this year, 1850. — See Population. CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 566 b. c. CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded by church historians. — Pardon. CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements * Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and Ms confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it ia then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs ; which in Asia Minoi-, and Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamented stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put about their graves. — Mailet ; Chandler; Butler. 300 the world's progress. Lcha were seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatani, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. CHiERONEA, Battles op. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chseronea, in which Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle of Chasronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by Sylla, and 110.000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top ot one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the first chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, July 1818. — See Menai Bridge. CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgas of Britain in the time of Caesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. CHAISE or CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Cassar, about a. d. 7. Aure- lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, about a. d. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chario* CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 b. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 b. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. CHAMP DE MARS, an open square space in front of the Military School at Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to the rver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " federation, " or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the "patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ ale Mai. CHAMPION of ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary in the Dymocke family. CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, or ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who CHA j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 301 was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office waa more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588, In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission : but it was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancellor was permanently held. LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, I {From the time of Cardinal Wolsey.) 1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 1545 Lord Wriothesiey. 1547 Lord St. John. 1547 Lord Rich. 1551 Bishop of Ely again. 1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Lord Keeper. 1653 Bishop of Winchester. 1555 Archbishop of York. 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. 1592 Sir John Packering. 1596 Sir Thomas Egerton. 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord Verulam. 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1639 Sir John Finch. 1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord Littleton. 1645 Sir Richard Lane. 1648 In commission. 1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon. 1667 Sir Orlando Bridseman, L. K. 1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 1690 In commission. 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lorS Somers. 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 1710 In commission. 1713 Lord Harcourt. 1714 Lord Cowper again. 1718 In commission. 1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of Macclesfield. 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord King. 1733 Lord Talbot. 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, and earl of Northington. 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next day. 1770 In commission. 1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- ed as earl Bathurst. 1778 Lord Thurlow. 1783 Lord Loughborough and others (in commission) - - April 9 1783 Lord Thurlow again - - Dec. 23 1792 In commission. 1793 Lord Loughborough again. 1801 Lord Eldon. - - April 14 1806 Lord Erskine. - - Feb. 7 1807 Lord Eldon again. - March 25 i 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. - - April 20 1830 Lord Brougham. - Nov. 22 1834 Lord Lyndhurst again - Nov. 14 j 1835 In commission. 1836 Lord Cottenham. - - Jan. 16 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - Aug. 31 1846 Lord Cottenham again - July 6 CHANCELLOR op IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by Richard I. a.d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named, 1232. CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned a. d. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a better footing by William I., in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to ot against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 302 the world's PROGRESS. [ CHI. women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is no ledress at common law, are relievable here. — Blackstone. EPFECT8 OP SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS. 1770 - Amount lodged - £5,300,000 I 1810 - Amount lodged - £20,212,000 1780 - ditto - - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34,208.785 1790 - - ditto • 13,338,000 1830 - - ditto - 38,886,1,35 1800 - ditto - . 19,834,000 | 1840 - ditto • - 39.772746 There are ahout 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari Returns. i CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors. — Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement ol the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chants ers. — See Chanting. CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. o. See Geology. CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Caesar relates that Cassi- belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, .n Martin cvei *HI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 305 the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- pressors, and declared independent. CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returner! by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among them ; but this is disputed. CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By others it is said to have been founded by Fohi. supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, and planets, and were ncute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. The Chinese state their first cycle to have commenced - - b. c 2700 The first of the 22 Chinese dynasties commenced .... 2207 In the history of China, the first dates which are fixed to his narrative, by Se-ma-tsien, begin Confucius, the father of the Chinese philosophers, born Stupendous wall of China completed The dynasty of Han - Literature and the art of printing encou raged - Religion of Ta '-tse commenced Religion of the followers of Fo, com menced about Embassy from Rome Nankin becomes the capital The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin flourishes The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach their doctrines They are proscribed, and extirpated The seat of the imperial government is transferred to Pekin Wonderful canal, called the Yu Ho completed about Eur 2~eans first arrive at Canton Macao is granted as a settlement to the Portuguese Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope from Rome .... The country is conquered by the East em Tartars, who establish the pre sent reigning house An earthquake throti shout China buries 300,00 persons at Pekin alone - 1662 651 551 211 206 202 15 60 166 420 449 635 845 1260 1400 1517 1536 1575 1C44 Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- blish Christianity - - - - 1692 The Jesuits are expelled through their own misconduct - - - 1724 ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. Earl Macartney's embassy; he leaves England - - Sept. 26, 1792 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, Oct. 7, 1793 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 [His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration of the kou-tou, lest he should thereby compromise the ma- jesty of England.] The exclusive rights of the East India Company cease - April 22, 1834 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, Nov. 7, 1834 Commissioner Lin issues an edict for the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 British and other residents forbidden to leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 The factories surrounded, and outrages committed - - March 24, 1839 The opium destroyed during several days by the Chinese - June 3, 1S39 The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of the emperor, and the last servant of the company leaves the country this day - - Dec. 6, 1331 Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and intercourse with England for ever - - - Jao. 5, 154* 306 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [cia CHINA, continued. Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 15 sail and several war steamers, hav- ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 Lin deprived of his authority, and finally degraded; Keshin appointed imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days to the British authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841 Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the conditions of the treaty made by Ke- shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 Hostilities are in consequence resumed against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars to be given for ring- leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of the army - - March 2, 1841 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 guns captured - - May 25, 1841 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, of which 5,000,000 are paid down, and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin- ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- claims the objects of his mission ; Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10. 1841 Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and the island of Chusan re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the Corniced- s by sir Henry Pottinger for Englanc, and Keying Elepoo and Neu-Kien on tht part of the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1842 CONDITIONS OP THE TREATY. Lasting peace and friendship between the two empires. China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part forthwith and the remainder within three years. The ports of Canton. Amoy, Foo-choo- foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the British. Consuls to reside at these cities. Tariffs of import and export to be esta- blished, more. SeeGuineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826 See Gold. MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. ■ £3,740,000 i George III. and regency, - 10,511,900 gold - - .£74,501,58& - 2,691,626 George IV. - -41,782,813 - 8,725,920 William IV. - - 10,827,603 - 11,966,576 | Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.S14 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. — Phillips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin, 1830. — Duke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching forty-five millions. See Gold. COIN of the U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from that time to 1836 was thus : — Pieces. Value. Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 Copper - - 77,752,965 . 740,331 Elizabeth - - £5,832,000 James II. James I. - 2,500,000 William HI. - Charles I. - - - 10,500.000 Anne Cromwell - 1,000.1)00 George I. Charles II. - - 7,524,100 George II. Total - 197.891,502 . . $69,581,549 1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - • $81,436,155 Total ir, 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 ounces, Dec. 8. 1848. COIiJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 COINING, lliis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill wai invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 178b, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 16° below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See Frosts, Ice. COLISiEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 72. The splendid Colisasum of London, and one of its most worthy objects of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but sonle authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. Cheshunt College founded • A.D 1792 Mareschal College, Aberdeen - a- d. 1593 Doctor's Commons, civil law - 1670 Maynooth College -1795 Durham University- ■ * * Physicians, London - - - 1518 Edinburgh University - 1580 Sion College -1329 Eton College - ■ 1441 Sion College, re-founded - - 1630 Glasgow University- 1451 Surgeons, London -1745 Harrow ■ 1585 Trinity College, Dublin - - 1591 Highbury College 1826 University, London • 1826 King's College, Aberdeen - - ■ 1494 Winchester College - - -1387 King's College, London - • 1829 COLLEGES in the United States. Th( ; first established was Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth. Columbia, New- York, 1754. Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh, Brown University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rutgers, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard College opened Jan. 1, 1848. COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- gins said to have been put to death along with her. COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly overthrown - - June 24, 1821 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico formed - - - June 30, 1824 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1625 Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- sident of the republic - Aug. 1326 Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 1826 He assumes the dictatorship • Nov. 23, 1826 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1823 Conspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 182S Bolivar resigns his office of president of , the republic - - April 11, 1825 He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 320 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COL declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; hut its several chiefs have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prej to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. New Grenada, discovered by Colum- bus - - - a. d. 1497 Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, under a captain-general - - 1547 The history of those provinces under the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- niards, presents but one continuous scene of rapine and blood. Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 Independence formally declared - - 1811 Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. — Stddas. It was known to Aristotle. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. COLONIES of GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, amounts to about 2 500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- tion, were 770.280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not beeu ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Angust 1, 1834. COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- cated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod Washington ; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry Clay Liberia purchased 1821. COLOSSUS of RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria — Vu Fresnoy. COLUMBIA, District cf. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown COM J D 2TIONARY OF DATES 321 and Alexandria ; but in 1813 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43.712, including 8.361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of tigs and a cask of wine. — Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 b. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies arc extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statius Cajcilius wrote upwards of 30 come- dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Laslius and Terence were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- land about a. d. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy (the Sr.li.ool for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after- piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens. 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577- A comet, which terri- fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ;. it is, like the preceding, one of the three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same todies, and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. — Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years ■ it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241. — See Han se Toicns. The discoveries of Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 14* 322 THE WORLD S I'UUUKbfcft. L COM I sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage extensively in its pursuit.— See the various articles connected with this subject. COMMERCE. See Navigation. COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783. COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. — Anderson. See Treaties. COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208 | The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella- tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has given the force of law, or rules generally received and heU as law, called lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), a. d. 890. The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See Custom. Laws. COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- liament, and the Directory (which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen his own -power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. — Goldsmith. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265 ; and writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260; he was killed at the battle of Efesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was not represented in that assembly, until the latter end of Henry VIII's life. or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bills (which see,) in 1832 : — English and Welsh - 500 Scotch. — County members • 30 Cities and Boroughs - 23 — 53 Irish. — County members - - 64 University - - - - 2 Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105 English. — County members - 144 Universities - - • 4 Cities and boroughs - - 323—471 Welsh. — County members - - 15 Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 English and Welsh - 500 Total (see Parliament) - 658 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown- ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the govern- CON J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 323 merit of kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- ria. Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, in the Avest. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter, 1215. The communion seiwice, as now observed in the church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Tlure are ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 1 Mercers - a. d. 1393 7 Merchant Tailors - A. D. 1466 2 Grocers - - 1345 8 Haberdashers - 1447 3 Drapers - 1439 9 Salters - - 1558 4 Fishmongers - - 1384 10 Ironmongers - -1484 5 Goldsmiths - 1327 11 Vintners - - ' i ■ - 1437 6 Skinners - - - 1327 12 Clothworkers - -1482 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 b. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- troduced the suspension of the needle as Ave have it now, 1302. Its A'ariation was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- pass used by navigators were invented by William BarloAve, an English di- vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. CONCEPTION op the VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of Dec. by the church, in 1389. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established 1488. 324 the world's PROGRESS. [ CON CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, a 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent. CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aiistotle and ipliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published nis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. CONCLAVE for the ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at Yiterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abbb Lenglet. CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff was sign- ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d. 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called, half-marriage, is still in use in some parts of Germany. CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See Champ de Mars, Bastile. CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258.000 troops to serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 See Germanic Confederation. CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2 James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 325 was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed upon, hut this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in 1661. CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted about a. d. .1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved ia heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, by the. council; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the church of England. — Burnet. TONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch; it was used by Peter and Paul; and was general, according to some church au- thorities, in a. d. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into a sacrament by the church of Rome. CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king'si Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad - Aug. 1, 1819 Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765 -Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Continental Congress met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774 : again May 10, 1775 : adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. Sep. 27, 1777 ; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778 ; at Prince- ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until the adoption of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- ington, 1800. CONVENTION, The, for forming he Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they were employed in various operations in the late war with much succegs, dis- charged by a corps called rocket-men. CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise was written by Aristteus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 See Alliances, Conventions, fyc. J26 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [cos written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo j the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force agamst them in England in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration >vas felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- meanor. — English Statutes, CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c, burnt by the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237.946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 309,978. CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded .to the crown of England by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- liam I. — Selden. CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic and the Caesars : because their names were written in the registers of the senate. CONSECRATION. Tha/ of churches was instituted in the second century, the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron saint. Tl>? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, is admit- ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the latter church in 1549. — Stowe. CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of Arches. CONSPIRACIES and INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- ties of note : — Of Anthony Babington and others, against Elizabeth - - a. d. 1586 T\,a Gunpowder Plot {which see) ■ 1605 In»urrection of the fifth monarchy men against. Charles II. - - - 1660 O'. Blood and his associates, who seized the Duke of Ormond, wounded hiin, and would have hanged him ; and who afterwards stole The crown - 1671 The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, and English Jesuits to assas- sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- con] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 mous Tilus Oates, Dr. Tongue, and others .... - 1678 The Meal- tub plot 1679 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house plot) .... 1683 Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against Queen Anne. - 1703 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- turn the government - - - 1802 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the I John Henry's secret mission from the United States .... 1807 British government, to undermine the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of divines (!) which con- demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to he burnt alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Daremont. was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. Retaken by Michael Palasologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palaeologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe See Eastern Empire and Turkey. CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- tical year towards the end of March ; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from September to the end. CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arctums, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. Ptolemseus, about a. d. 140. CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 328 the world's progress. [con it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. — Lord Bolvngbroke The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the law. — Sheridan. CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states at different times. See the respective states. The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see Naval Battles. CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte. Cambac^re, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,0002. ; and 200,000^ were transmitted from India in 1799. CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through out the volume. CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d, 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. COP } DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 CONVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk Island. Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- portation. COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Endeavor, on his first voyage. July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead. July 13, 1771. Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. la his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why- hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- ral Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold.— Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c, will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty * A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan- tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, prepared tor that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in July 176S, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, "doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa- tions made on this transit (June 3. 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed by men ot science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,000.— Butter. 330 the world's progress. [ COI mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wii liam III. COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money ia of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined, by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPYRIGHT on BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, a. d. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- acted in 1709. ■ Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary Property. — Haydn. COPYRIGHT in UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. POETRY. Byron's Works (in all) - . .£20,00} Moore's Lalla Rookh - • - 3,000 Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000 Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after ten years' publication) - - 1,000 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 FICTION. It was estimated that Scott's novels produced for copyright at least - 250,000 Bulwer received lor his novels, each 1,200 to 1,500 Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. Johnson for - - - 63 HISTORY. Fragments of English History, by C. J. Fox - - - - £5,000 History of England by Sir J. Mackin- tosh ..... 5,000 Ditto, by Lingard - - - - 4,633 Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 1 and remainder, £600 per annum for ten years, say - - - 3.000 Prescott's Historical Works are said to have produced to the author (who yet owns the copyright) before 1850 - 8100,000 BIOGRAPHY. LifeofWilberforce - - -£4,000 Life of Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4,000 Goldsmith received for '' Animated Nature" .... Noah Webster is said to have derived $1000 per annum from his Spelling Book. COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See Hemp. CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus in 1376 b. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Aero- corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, (Abbe Lenglet) . - B. c. 1520 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first called by its name - - - 1410 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon the city (idem) ■ - - - 1375 The Pythian games instituted, it is said by Sisyphus .... 1375 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors are called Bacchidse, in remembrance A colony goes to Sicily, and they build Syracuse - • b. c. 732 Sea fight between the Corinthians and Coicyreans - - - 664 Periander rules and encourages genius and learning .... 629 Death of Periander - - - -585 The Corinthians form a republic • 582 War with the Corcyreans - . 439 The Corinthian war (which see) - - 395 of the equity of his reign - - 935 j Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ■ 242 The Corinthians invent ships called | The Roman ambassadors first appear triremes ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth benches of oars - - • 786 Thelestes deposed, and the government of the Prytanes instituted: Auto- menes is the first on whom this dig- nity is conferred . - - 757 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius who sends to Italy the first fine paint- ings there seen, they being part of the spoil (Livy) • - - -146 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it is attributed to Callimachus. 540 b. c. CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 895, by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- tra, which see. CORN or GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c— Univ. 'Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. — See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century. by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its importation into England, in 1686. CORN LAWS in England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'' or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its importation when corn should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842 ; act fixing 332 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f COfl tfcs duty on wheat at 45. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter, passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws— and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew Paris. Rymer. CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The fetes given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of former times. CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mai ■ colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of illness. Aug. 22, 1843. CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch. CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Cowel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d. 1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. — Blackstone. CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cymos. The ancient inhabitants of this island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 b. c. In modern times, Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333 in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hie creditors, an I died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel- street, Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street: — " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and tie opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was "elin- quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the French. CORTES or SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution of Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and they settled the new constitution, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- ularly convened. CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane. — Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography respectively. COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,, Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- vincibly €OSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote antiquity The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, and their gam ents. which were always white, were so clear and thin / thai 334 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COT their todies could be seen through them - Ovid. As relates to costume worn on the stage, ^Eschylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles. COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that more than one thousand millions sterling have be m yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- ed in 1774. — Haydn. HISTORY OP COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. The following brief items of the history of cotton, from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a iSouth Carolina paper : — 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn in England by machinery. 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from Surinam. 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ; but not successful in its operations. 1749. The fly shuttle generally used in England. 1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made in England tor the first time. 1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent for the spinning frame, which he further improvecf. 1768. The stocking frame applied by Hammond to making of lace. 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export of machinery used in cotton factories. 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 1782. First import of raw cotton from Brazil into England. 1782. Watt took out his patent for the steam-engine. 1783. A bounty granted in England on the export of certain cotton goods. 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- wright — steam engir.es used in cotton fac- tories. 1785. Cotton imported into England from the United States. 1786. Bleaching first performed by the agency of the oxymuriatic acid. 17S7. First machinery to spin cotton put in operation in France. 178V. Sea Island cotton first planted in the United States ; and upland cotton first cul- tivated for use and export about this time. 1790 Stator, an Englishman, builds the first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents the cotton gin, which he patents. 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton erected in Switzerland. 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced into Saxony this year. 1803. First cotton factory built in New Hampshire. 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely introduced into England. 1807. The revolution in Spanish America begins to furnish new markets for cotton manufactures. 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa tented by John Bum. 1813. The India trade more free, and more British manulactures sent thither. 1814. The power-loom introduced into the United States ; first at Waltham. 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — higher than since 1810. New method of preparing sewing cotton by Mr- Holt. 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama cotton lands. 1820. Steam power first applied with suc- cess extensively to lace manufactures. 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt into Great Britain. 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 25 cents per pound. 1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented in England by Roberts. 1827. American cotton manufactures first exported to any considerable extent. 1829. Highest duty in the United States on foreign cotton manufactures. 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced a machine from the United States into Eng- land for the purpose of making cards. 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported into the United States reduced ; and in England it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, to work them more than ten hours per day, or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; in consequence they work at something else. 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 1835. Extensive purchases made of cottoi lands by speculators and others. 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. eou ] DICTIONARY 01 DATES. 335 COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 18 William III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's- yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by lire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king waa pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- endon. — See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c. COUNCILS of the CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches or ecclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1601 councils. Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - A. d Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the English church went over to attend it - The first Oecumenical or General Ni- cene, held at Nice, Constantine the Great presided ; Arius and Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council composed the Nicene Creed - At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- sius was canvassed The first held at Constantinople, when the Avian heresy gained ground At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted eighteen months At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine obliged them to sign a new confession of faith The second General at Constantinople 350 bishops attended, and pope Da masius presided The third at Enhesus, wMh pope Ce lestine presided Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar cian and his empress attended The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Vigilius presided The sixth a* Constantinople, when pope Agatho presided Authority of the six general councils re established by Theodosius The second Nicene council, seventh Ge neral ; 350 bishops attended - Of Constantinople, eighth General; the emperor Basil attended The first Lateran, the ninth General ; the right of investitures settled by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and tbe emoeror Henry V. 314 325 359 680 1122 The second Lateran, tenth General, In- nocent II. presided ; the preservation of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, the principal subject, which occa- sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- thers of the church - - a. d. 1139 The third Lateran, eleventh General ; held against schismatics - - 1179 Fouvth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 bishops and 1000 abbots attended ; Innocent III. presided - - - 1215 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under pope Innocent IV. - - - 1245 01 Lyons, the fourteenth General, under Gregory X. - - - - 1274 OfVienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth General ; Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Arragon at- tended. The order of the Knight Templars suppressed - - - 1311 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected - - 1409 Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; Martin V. is elected pope ; and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- demned to be burnt - - - 1414 Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- ral, begun by Julius II. - - 1512 Continued under Leo X. for the sup- pression of the Pragmatic sanction of France, asainst the council of Pisa, . 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. CRESSY, or CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich feathers, with the motto <; Ich Dien" in English, " I serve ;" and in memory of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. CRETE. Now Candia, tohick see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 b. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the Turks, in 1669.— Priestley. CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, as an almost necessary consequence, into crime/' A comparative view of foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and ignorance on the great mass of the pop-ilation. In North America pauper- ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- CEO J DICTIONARY Of DAlES. 339 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- ence ia painfully exemplified : — Scotland. England. Ireland. Instruction to the people- - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 Criminals among the people • 1 in 5093 • 1 in 920 - 1 in 468 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 4 William IV, 1884. See Executions, Hanging, Triak, &e. — Haydn. •CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. The Genoese were expelled by the Grim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following year; and secured to them in 1791. CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them as their tutelar saints. CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal ale Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30. 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Wales of Litera- ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the Edinburgh Review, in 1802; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The North American Review was established by Wra. Tudor in 1818; the Ameri- can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila.. 1827; the New York Review, bj Prof. C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. Set Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. CROCKERY". In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, about a. d. 1310; and it is still called fayence in French. See Earthenware, 340 the world's progress [cul CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by pope Damasius II., in 1053;. John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crowa with two circles. — Rainaldi. CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians. Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prison- ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- tine, a. d. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. CRUSADES, or Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of Croise"s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God : s will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, cost the lives of 2.000,000 of men. — Voltaire. ^TUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered > by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, defeated May, 1850. CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Ke- brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Enghsh feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe extremity of the middle finger. — Calmet. CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. CULLODEN. Battle op. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, near Inverness. April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men CYC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 341 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for sis months, while 30,- 000Z. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome, in 1788. CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This was a Norman institu- tion, introduced into England in the reign of William L, a. d. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705. CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands opposed to lex scripta. or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for 20.000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000Z. in the year 1666. — Davenant. In 1530 they amounted to - - .£14,000 In 1592 ditto - - - 50.000 In 1614 ditto . - 148,000 In 1622 ditto - - - 168,000 In 1642 ditto . - 500,000 In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, 3d. ; on every last of hides, Qd. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George . III., 1782. See Revenue. CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected were, in In 1748 they amounted to In 1808 ditto In 1823 ditto In 1830 United Kingdom - In 1835 ditto In 1840 ditto .£2,000,000 9,973,240 11,498,762 17,540,323 18,612,906 19,915,296 1789-9. - $4,399,473 1820 1800 • 9,080i938 1825 - 1505 12,936.4 R7 ia30 1810 - 8,583,309 1835 - 1815 - 7,282,942 1840 $15,005,612 ■ 20,098,714 21,922.391 19,39i;311 13,499,940 1845 1846 . 1847 1848 $27,528,113 26,712,668 23,747,864 - 31,757,070 See Tariff. CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, a. d. 463. — Blair. 342 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DAG CYCLOPAEDIA— See Encyclopedia. CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record, ft was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, hut smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. The festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 896 b. c. — Diog. Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on the ground. — Diog. Laert. CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the time^of Cyrus, who subdued them; it ranked among the proconsular pro- vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — Priestley. CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect nourished for several ages. — Laer. Ar. Cicero. CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristasus, who was the chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 b. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). — Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. D. DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre Oi Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same time by M. Niepc6, and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- don : the original idea, however, is traceable as far back sis the days of Roger Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of G009 francs. LAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 DAMASCUS. This city was in being- in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the Saracens, a. d. 683 ; by the Turks in 1006 ; and was destroyed by Tamerlam- in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the gospel, about a. d. 30. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. DAMON and PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the appoint- ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c. DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1584 b. c. — Eusebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance {contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. — Spehnan. DANES, Invasions of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- ing to other authorities, by Waldemar. I. in 1169. Seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- sit, it was restored to its former independen te, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10.000 head of cattle and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast nnmber of lives lost, April 9, 1829. DARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous town of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing 1 he passage of the Dar 344 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DEA danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them v which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from the province of Dauphine", which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert II. to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. HA. VIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day. as is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The original deacons were Philip, Stephen. Prochorus. Nicanor, Timon, Parme- nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. DEAF and DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in Edinburgh in 1773. DEAF and DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 1840 there were 6,916 blind persons, or 1 in 2.467 of the population ; 7.659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brie-ham, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe, of Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. DEATH, Punishment of. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stowe. The most eulogized heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the fate of Mithridates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia ; see also Ravillac ; Boiling to Death ; Burning to Death, &c. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment DEL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9. in other cases 1832. for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, 'at Frank- fort, same day, August 4, 1848. DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year is March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, in 71 5 b. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the year DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — JLivy. The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, ia that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be used in all law-suits in May, 1731. DEFENDER or the FAITH. Fidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Catkolica, and against Luther, who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs of Great Britain : the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- ern point was made the first general meridian. 162 b. c. Several nations have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation than that of Atheism. — Virot's Instruction Chretienne, 1563. Deism is a rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light of nature, believing that there is a God. a providence, vice and virtue, and an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft. and Godwin. DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm. Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. This state bo' - e an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 15* 346 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DEN vote in convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population — 1790, 59,594; 1840, 78,085; including 2,605 slaves. DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : :t is now in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine followed: 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to the amount of 62,000,000L sterling was said to be collected. DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 b.c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- ple was burnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the Alcmseonidge, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c n Delphi being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoij. DELUGE, the GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. Septuagint b. c. 3246 Jackson - 3170 Hales - - 3155 Josephus • 3146 Persian - b. c. 3103 Playfair - b. c 2352 Hindoo - -3102 Usher ■ 2348 Samaritan ■ - 2998 English Bible 2348 Howard - -2698 Marsham - 2344 Petavius - b. c. 2329 Strauchuis - 2293 Hebrew - - 22S8 Vulgar Jewish 2104 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction (!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built to guard against the calamity ; but the season happened to be a very fine dry one, a. d. 1524. DELUGE of DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according to Eusebivs. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. DELUGE of OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. Buffon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were taken by the British, 1796. but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Gcths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the Jutes; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi- fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. DEN 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 DENMARK, continued. Reign of Sciold, first king - B.C. 60 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750 [Ragnor is killed in an attempt to in- vade England, and for more thai 200 years from this time the Danes were a terror.to the northern nationsof Eu- rope, and at length conquering all England. See Daves.] Reign of Canute the Great - - 1014 Reign of Waldemar the Great - - 1157 Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, makes immense conquests - - 1223 Gothland conquered - - - 1347 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into one kingdom • - 1397 Revolt of the Swedes - • -1414 The nations reunited - - - 1439 Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 Accession of Christian I., from whom the present royal family springs - 1448 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 Lutheranism established by Christian III. - 1536 Danish East India Company established by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- testant league - - - - 1629 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes large conquests - - 1658 The crown made hereditary and abso- lute 1660 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, Tonningen, and Stralsund; reduces Weismar, and drives the Swedes out of Norway - - - 1716 et seq. Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 The peaceful reign of Christian VI., who promotes the happiness of his subjects .... 1730 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- denly confines his queen, Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. who is afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 KINGS OP &.. D 714 Gormo I. 750 Ragnor Lodbrog. 770 Sigefrid. 801 Godefrid. 809 Olaus I. 811 Hemming. 812 Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. 814 Harold and Regner; the latter made prisoner in Ireland, and died in a dungeon there. 849 Siward II. deposed. 856 Eric ; killed in battle 858 Eric II. 8/3 Canute I. 915 Frothon. 920 Gormo II. 925 Harold. 928 Hardicanute 930 Gormo III. 935 Harold III. 980 Suenon. The counts Struensee and Brandt are seized at the same time, on the charge of a criminal intercourse with the queen ; and the former confessing to avoid the torture, both are beheaded for high treason - April 28, 1772 The queen Caroline Matilda dies at Zell • - - May 10, 1775 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784 One-fourth of Copentagenis destroy sd by fire - - - June 9, 17 Jo Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- ed. The Confederacy of the North (see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- solved - - - April 2, 1801 Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart bombard Copenhagen, and seize the Danish fleet of 12 shins of the line, 15 ft fates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 Commercial treaty with England - 1824 Frederick bestows a new constitution on his kingdom - - - 1831 A new constitution offered by Christian VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and, Holstein de- mand separation from Denmark March, 1848 The king grants freedom of the press and of public meetings - March, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- volt and join the great German na- tion - - - March 26, 1848 Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- izes the Grand Duchy of Posen March 26, 1848 Danes victorious over the Germans, April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswig April 23, 1848 Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- while) - - - July 10, 1848 Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848 (See Copenhagen.) DENMARK. 1014 Canute n. the Great. 1036 Hardicanute II. 1041 Magnus I. 1048 Suenon II. 1079 Harold IV. 1080 Canute III. assassinated. 1086 Olaus II. 1097 Eric III. 1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 1138 Eric V. 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldamsr for assassinating prince Canute. 1157 Waldemar the Great. 1182 Canute V. 1202 Waldemar II 1240 Eric VI. 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against the Frisons. 1252 Christopher I., poisoned by the bishop of Arhus. 348 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. , r UIA 1523 Frederick. 1534 Christian III. 1559 Frederick II. 1588 Christian IV. 1648 Frederick III. 1670 Christian V. 1699 Frederick rv. 1730 Christian VI. 1746 Frederick V. 1766 Christian VII. 1808 Frederic VI. 1839 Christian VIII. died Jan. 21, 1&S&. DENMARK, continued. 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 1286 Eric VIII. 1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of seven years.) 1340 Waldemar III. 1375 Olaus III. 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and Norway. 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 1439 Christopher III. 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 1481 John. 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a dungeon, where he died. DENIS, St. An ancient town of France, six miles trom Paris to the north- ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital,— famous for its ah bey and church, the former abolished at the Revolution; the latter desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place at sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. : DEVIL and DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition of "The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. - Nouv. Diet. See Printing. DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — T'dlemont. DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpour was the first known; and where the mines of Golconda were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was valued by M. Romeo de l'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400.000Z. The diamond called the " mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul. was the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest water, and the size of tm] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a h,ilf. The great dia- mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104,166^. besides an annuity for life, to the owner, of 1041/!. which was refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catharine's favorite, count OrlofF, for the first mentioned sum, with- out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold tc the king of France for 125.000Z. in 1720. DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It w&j set on fire on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Univ. Hist. DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in stituted 498 b. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 b. c. DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages, about a. d. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle of the arts, sciences, &c, was published in 1728. The great dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis Grose's Dictionaiy of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- printed in 1 -adon, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since bom published. See Encyclopedia. DI£T of the GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of electore, the college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529; 350 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I rut and the famous det of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the GermaD princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany, DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the pardeot the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ; and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et mow droit " the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained a. d. 1198. — Rymer's Foidera. DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Or at. Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine, a. d. 328 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- diction are coeval with Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York. DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- tians in the reign of Diocletian. DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama iu this respect, that, instead of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and in the completeness of the illusion. DIPLOMACY of the UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain and France. GREAT BRITAIN. 1783 John Adams. 1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 1792 Thomas Pinckney, of S. C, min. rlen. 1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 1796 Rufus King, do. do. 1803 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly, 180S Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do. 1S15 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 1830 Louis McLane, Del. do. 1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 1832 Aaro-r. Vail, charge d'affaires. f?36 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. JS15 Louis McLi.ie, Md. do. 1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 1849 Abbolt Lawrence, do. do. do. PRANCE. 1776 B . Franklin , S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'm 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires. 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 1796 C. C. Pincknev, S. C. 1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, 1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, and W. Vans Murray, do. 1801 James A. Bayard, Del. cd. 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co. 1804 John Armstrong, do. no. 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo. 1813 Wm. H. Crawford. Geo. do. 1815 Albert Gallatin. Pa. do. 1823 James Brown, La. do. 1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 183.3 Edward Livingston, La. do. 1836 Lewis Cass, Mich. co. 1844 Wm. R. King. Ala. do. 1849 W. C. Rives, Va da DIV J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par- liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given, which wei'e to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor. DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November 1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who, with Cambacdres and SieVes, became the ruling power of France, the three governing as consirls. the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was established at Wandsworth, near London. Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon- don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c, for all classes of Dis- senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act. so much of the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c. was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- orating effect have been since passed. DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, fyc. DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, -though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, B.C. The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ireland, were drowned, June 1. 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed in sub-marine surveys. The first diving-Zxr/Ze was the wife of Captain Mor- ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. DIVORCES for ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 352 the world's PROGRESS. [ DOG to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a.d. 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying- their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. DOCKS of LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos- tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the time >jf the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d. 725. See Collegiate Degrees. DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known iD Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sim, as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton. DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by s * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ; and they compute its distance from our earth at '2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that a sound" woull not reach our earth from Sirius in 50.000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual velocity of 4S0 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to ou7 ([lobe. DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- pensed with. See Adriatic. DOMINGO, ST- Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- licane in 1806; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently occurred. DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as by the first seven letters of the alphabet. A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap years count two letters. DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called Blackfriars. DOOM'S-DAY or DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis Ansiice. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from thisbook the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- ished in a. d. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Camden. The taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu- rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day book. DORIC Order of Architecture. The most ancient of the five, the invention of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to 354 the world's progress. I^dra the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu:! took * place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native country. DOR1 . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in the breaking down of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10 : 000 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Frot- estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- pally upon points 'A' justification and grace. The synod condemned the tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. DOUAY, in France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the French next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of tlu Bible, which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the successive popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes of Catholic divines. DRACO, Laws op. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. — Sigonms de Repub. Athen. DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents to Indian chiefs. — Stowe. Rapin. DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarionand Dolon, on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 556 b. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, on a wagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a goat, 536 b. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. DRAMA in ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. •Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and DEO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy. Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger exhibitor. — Livy. DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 864, on the Passion of Cbrist, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks in 1897, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VII. 's reign. The first regular drama acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 66007, ; and he had a suit of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is saii to have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societiei 356 the world's progress. [i>uk have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate : — Latent scintillula forsan — a small spark may lurk unseen. DRUIDS. A celebrated order among -the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with supreme authority" In England they were chosen out of the best families, , that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed Caesar's first landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland'? Mona Antique/,. DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d. 140. DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Du Cange. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that of the gold 9s. 6d. — Pardon. DUELLING and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, fyc. As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- macteric. — Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- tence of the law. — Hamilton. DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, piince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged EAR j IICTIONAE.Y OF DATES. 357 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night, and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope Pius V. in 1569. DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English unde- Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and Freni h, and put into the hands of the English, June 24. 1658, the last year of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000^. U Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. DUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinaue was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Brace's soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens*was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of England) 1628. E. EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- perial standard of Napoleon ; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for king. 358 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 4 EAR EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. EARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1810. Wedgewood's patent ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c, and thereby rendered a very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See China. — Porcelain. EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. These principles at the same time ^vere advanced by Signor Beccaria, with- out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all that have occurred : — Antioch destroyed Nicomedia, Ceesarea, and Nicea in Bithynia, overturned In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and towns damaged. - Nicomedia again demolished, and inhabitants buried in its ruins One felt by nearly the whole world At Constantinople ; its edifices destroy One which made the peninsula of Eubo?a an island - - b. c. 425 Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, swallowed up ... 372 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and mc tinted on a stately horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it occasion- ed (Livy) • ■ - - 358 Duras. in Greece, buried with all its Aii.uiisiaiiiiiiopie: us eumce* inhabitants; and twelve cities in ed, and thousands perished Campania also buried - - 345 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its inhabitants .... 283 Awful one in Asia, which overturned twelve cities - - - a. d. 17 One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried • ■ 79 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a.id two in Galatia, ovu'turned • - 107 In Africa ; many cities overturned Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 500 cities were de stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- ed all calculation In France, Germany, and Italy Constantinople overturned, and all Greece shaken One felt throughout, England - One at Antioch ; many towns destroy 114 126 357 353 543 553 560 742 801 1039 EAS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553 EARTHQUAKES, continued. ed : among them, Marisaum and Ma- mistria - - - a. d. 1114 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One severely felt at Lincoln - - 1142 At Calabria, when one of its cities and all its inhabitants were overwhelm- ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1 186 One again felt throughout England - 1274 At Naples; when 40,000 of its inhabit- ants perished .... 1456 One felt in London : part of St. Paul's and the Temple churches fell - 15S0 In Japan, several cities made ruins, and thousands perished - - 1596 Awful one at Calabria - - - 1638 One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- ed Port Royal, whose houses were ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 persons perished - - - 1692 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 18.000 inhabit- ants, not a trace remained ; more than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons perished - - - 1726 Again in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up at Pekin - - 1731 One in Hungary, which turned a mountain round - - - 1736 Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent ; but the monks escaped 1740 In London, the inhabitants terrified by a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes most of the houses, and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, were swallowed up, and whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Brasa, suffered dread- fully, and St. Ilbes was wholly over- turned. In Spain, a large part of Malaga became ruins. One naif of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. Above half of the island of Madeira became waste : and 2,000 houses in the island of Meteline, in the Archipelago, were overthrown : this awful earthquake extended 5000 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 One in Syria extended over 10,000 square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 EASTER So called in England from the of Easter was instituted about a. d. 65 was fixed in England by St. Austin, in A destructive one at Smyrna - a. d 1774 At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, and multitudes buried - - 17S0 One which overthrew Messina and a number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening of the earth swallowed up many houses and 1000 persons - Ssps. 1783 Another fatal one in Sicily - • 1791 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing forth its flames overwhelmed the city of Torre del Greco - - -1794 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons lost their lives - 1791 The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama destroyed, including the cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of whose people were, in one second, hurled into eternity ... 17913 One at Constantinople, which destroy- ed the royal palace and an immen- sity of buildings, and extended into Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800 A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 persons lost their lives - - 1805 At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 Several felt throughout India. The district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons were buried with it - - June 1819 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns ; great damage sustain- . ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826 One in Spain, which devastated Mur- cia, and numerous villages; 6000 persons perished - March 21, 1S29 In the duchy of Parma j no less than 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many houses were thrown down, and not a chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 In many cities of Southern Syria, by which hundreds of houses were thrown down, and thousands of the inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337 At Martinique, by which nearly half of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839 At Ternate : the island made a waste, almost every house destroyed, and thousands of the inhabitants lose their lives - - Feb. 14, 1840 Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts of Armenia 3137 houses were over- thrown, and several hundred persons perished - - July 2, 1840 Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 Saxon goddess Eostre. The festival ! ; the day for the observance of it 597. It was ordarned by the council 360 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ( EC1 of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full ma on that occurs after the 21st of March. EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in^the defeat and death of Constantine XIIL, the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Rome. In a. d. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Veniee ; and, in 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes, or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- andria, about a. d. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 b. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. at 8' 40" p. m. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary eclipses of the sun and moon : — OF THE SUN. That predicted bv Thales ; observed at Sardis (Pliny jib. ii.) - b.c. 585 One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) - 424 Total one ; three days'' supplication de- creed at Rome (Livy) - - 188 One general at the death of Jesus Christ (Josephus) - - - a. D. 33 One at Rome, causing a total darkness at noon-day (Livy) - - - 291 One observed at Constantinople - 968 fr. France, when it was dark at noon- day (Du Fresnoy) ■ June 29, 1033 In England, where it occasioned a total darkness (Win. Malmsb.) - -1140 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning (Camden) - June 23, 1191 The true sun, and the appearance of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference by their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) - 1191 Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1331 A total one ; the darkness so great that the stars shone, and the birds went to roost at noon (Old'xiiron's Annals of Geo. I.) - - April 22, 1714 £DJ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 3G1 Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius") - 219 One at Rome, predicted by Q,. Sulpitius Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their revolt ( Tacitus) a. d. 14 ECLIPSES, continued. Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7 1820 OP THE MOON. The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon {Ptolemy, lib. iv.) - b. c. 721 A total one, observed at Sardis ( Thu- cydides,lib. vii.) - - - 413 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 836 b. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 823 b. c. EDEN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon ; and a learned Swede asserts that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden extended into Armenia. — Caltnet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — Genesis ii. 8, 9. EDGEHILL, Battle op, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. EDICT op NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- voked by Louis XIV, Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- derson's Orig. of English Commerce. EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records, Dun Edin, signifying the 'hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria. who, having greatly extended his dominions" erected it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Ca nelon, king of the Picts. 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and befora the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 16 362 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [euv EDUCATION in U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of II- struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New York, Oct. 20, 1830. EDUCATION in ENGLAND. A grant of 3Q,000Z. for national education, pro- posed in parliament liy Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the grant, July 11, 1839. EGALITFj. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. Ho was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys till 1799, when a great part of the country . was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) b. c. 2188 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abbe Lenglet, Blair) - 2126 Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) - 2111 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits to be repre- sented in sculpture and painting ( Usher, Lenglet) - - 2100 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt and hold it 260 years ( Usher) - 2080 The lake of Moaris constructed - 1938 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt to avoid the famine in Canaan " - 1921 Syphoas introduces the use of the com- mon letters ( Usher) ■ - - 1891 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Lenglet) - ... 1822 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all Egypt (Lenglet) - - 1821 Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt as a slave (Lenglet) ■ ■ - 1728 He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 His father and brethren settle here - 1706 Sesostris reigns ; he extends hits do- minion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- let)' 1618 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 Rampses, who imposecl on his sub- jects the building of walls and pyra- mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, Blair) 1492 Reign of Egyptus, from whom the country, hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Blair) - B. o. Reign of Thuons (the Proteus of the Greeks) who had the faculty of as- suming whatever form he pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, fire ..... [These fictions were probably intend- ed to mark the profound policy of this king, who was eminent for his wisdom, by which his dominion flourished. — Blair.] Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages Judea, and carries off the sacred ves- sels of the Temple The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with Petubastes (Blair) The dynasty of Sailes (Blair) Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roasted alive ( Usher) Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the longest siege in the an- nals of antiquity ( Usher) Necho begins the famous canal be- tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- terranean sea (Blair) This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries ( Usher) Apnes taken prisoner and strangled in his palace (Diod. Siculus) - The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos intr Egypt, and is in- structed in the nystenes of Egyp- tian theology ( Usher) .189 825 781 737 660 647 610 609 - 581 571 533 * The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. As to the achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings^ attributed by tlu Egyplian priests to Sesistris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. ELE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 363 EGYPT, continued. The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder of Psammenitus by Camby- ses (Blair) ■ ■ - b. c. Dread! ul excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the children of the grandees, male and female, to death, and makes the com .try a waste (Herodotus) He sends an army of 50,000 men across the desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish in the burning sands (Justin) Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued by Xerxes (Blair) ■ A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - Successful revolt under AmyrtEeus, who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) - Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its lemples pillaged ( Usher) Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests it from the Persians, and builds Alexandria (Blair) Philadelphia completes the Pharos of Alexandria (Blair) - The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- tament made about this time The famous library of Alexandria also daws about this period (Blair) Ambassadors first sent to Rome Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils, and 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian temples (Blair) - Reign of Philometer and Physcon At the death of Philometer, his brother Physcon marries his queen, and on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son of Philometer in its moth- er's arms .... He repudiates his wife, and marries her daughter by his brother (Blair) 526 521 524 283 283 233 269 His subjects, wearied with his cruel- ties and crimes, demolish his stat- ues, set fire to his palace, and he flies from their fury (Blair) b. O. 129 He murders his son by his new queen ; also his son by her mother, sending the head and limbs of the latter as a present to the parent on a feast day 129 Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he recovers his throne ; and dies - 128 Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- sons perish in Egypt - - - 12S Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous city of Thebes destroyed altera siege of three years (Diod. Siculus) - 82 Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to his eldest sou, Ptolemy, and the fa- mous Cleopatra (Blair) ■ • A During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleojiatra, Alexandria is be- sieged by Cassar, and the famous library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) - - - -47 Caesar defeats the king, who, in cross- ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign - - - - - 46 Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 years of age) and reigns alone - 43 She appears before Mark Antony, to answer for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, he follows her into Egypt 40 Antony defeated by Octavius Ca?sar at the battle of Actium (Blair) - 31 Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman prov- ince - • - - - 30 ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Rujfhead's Statutes. Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their votes, 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. ELECTORS of GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic body made choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- peror. — Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648 ; and a ninth in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to eight, in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 b. c. Electricity was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances - by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its power, of <. onductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the "Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 364 the world's PROGRESS. [ EM* was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au- rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), and discovered the mode of combining the metals ; constructed what is very properly called the Voltaic pile ; and extended the whole science into a system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism werf[ discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, :n 1807. This analogy was established in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, Germany, the United States and other countries ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, having more or less bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by Winckler, at Leipsic, 1746 ; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of "Galvanism," at Bolonga 1791. Prof. Volta's " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 1801 ; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great advance made by Prof. Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1882, patented 1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. — See Supplement. ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- tory of the Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. — Baker's Chron. ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- pus, 1356 b. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- dosius the Great, a. d. 389. ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- dias about 500 b. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that then- souls, after many thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible^ EJ4P J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies, some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38. EMBARGO m ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. EMBARGO in the UNITED STATES. Embargo on all -essels in the ports of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux Tapestry. EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were registered as born in Denmark - - - - 210 Switzerland - - - - - - 319 Other countries or unknown • - 3,013 Great Britain and Ireland . - 148,212 Germany .... 58,018 France - .... 7,743 Sweden and Norway - - 903 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter Fatima, about a. d. 650.—Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers (another title being joined). EMPALE MENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode uf putting criminals U 366 the world's PROGRESS. { ENG death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil- liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- cliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus Caesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo III. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a. d. 1749. ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedic Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri- buted, was published in 1782 et seq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States. Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. edited by Professor Napier, and published by A. & C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc., was stated to have been .£126,000, of which £23 000 were pa '.d to the contributors. This was pro- bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter- prise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 1796-1830 and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30. Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was called camp- master-general in 1634. Captahj Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Ths corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a sng] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at Washington. ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative had been used as far back as A. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons* and land, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession ot Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of thu most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the Latin disused, May 1731. ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United States during the last ten years. ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The earliest date known of a copper- plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. — ■ De Piles. ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Sennefekler may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of London in 1817. ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further impioved" it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, ■was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non ; about 1662 ; he com- rmnicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Cbiaro-oscuro en> graving originated with the Germans, and. was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincographj, fyc. ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, aftei it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in- 368 the world's PROGRESS. [ EP1 definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, in 1819. ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief maiden, or manufacturer's of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German; it was greatly improved byDurer and Lucas Van Leydea in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c, 1789. et. scq. The earliest wood en- graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. p. 1423. ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, a. d. 1639. EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to perpetuate his memory, 356 e. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — Univ. Hist. EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- trol the royal power, 760 b. g. They were five in number, and acting as censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the kings, and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities. EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See Homer. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with itself. His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- ing Latin epigram on the miracle of onr Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: — " Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Di Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen is our language : — " Live while we live !" the epicure will sav, " And taste the pleasures of the present day." " Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, " And give to God each moment as it flies." Lord ! in my view let both united be, We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Doddridge. EltA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early history is very obscure, and it is only during tbe reign of this sovereign, who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 273 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown at him from a house-top by a woman .... 272 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon - !i30 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 Annexed to the Ottoman empire A. D. 1469 Reign of the great Pyrrhus • b. c. 306 He enters into a league against Deme- trius ; the battle of Bei-sea Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first battle against the Romans •■ - ^e gains another great battle - ^is conquest of Sicily - - - His last battle with the Romans He takes Macedon from Antigonus 294 280 279 278 274 274 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — • Burnet. EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New- York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the epigram . — Boileau. EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- rus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — Bossuet. EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- larly adopted. — See Eras. Creation - • - • b. c. 4004 Deluge 2348 Calling of Abraham - - - 1921 Argonautic expedition - - - 1225 Destruction of Troy ■ - - 1184 1st Olympiad - - - - 776 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next ia the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See C/Wra- cery. ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order ; a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonass-er, after which 16* Building of Rome • - B. c. 753 Nabonassar - 747 The Seleucidse ■ - 312 The battle of Actium - 38 The Christian era - A. D. 1 Diocletian - 284 370 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. r EMB the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb 26, 747. The era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 312 e. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 776 b. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning a. d. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand th e Catholic. The disci- ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. ERAS of the CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christiana have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians have made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in this work. — See Creation, and Christian Era. ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. —Stowe. Meyrick's Ancient Armor. ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- covered by Kunkel. in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance GVE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were eruptions, 125, 121; and 43 b. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. — Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- rems of his own, to render the whole a complete and connected system of geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynams, in a. d. 1533. EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng- let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British forces, under admiral Eodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by th« French under the marquis de BoiiiUe", Nov. 26, same year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- stored in 1814. EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. — Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists. EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, ' : Do not 372 the world's PROGRESS. [ EIB kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broka up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7. 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in Ja"n. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1 S44, EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting of officers whose functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon- don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. 1673.— Stowe. The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782 See Revenue. AMOUNT OP THE EXCISE REVENUE OP GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 1744 Great Britain - £3,754,072 1830 United Kingdom £18,644,385 1786 Ditto . 5,540,114 1834 Ditto - 16,877,292 1808 Ditto - - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - 14,518,142 1820 Ditto - 26,361.702 1840 Ditto ■ - 12,607,766 1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 1845 Ditto - - 13,585,583 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab- solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, "his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign; and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight yearu) E»j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed. — Htowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the numbel of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. EXECUTIOSS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. In the year 1820 - 43 I In the year 1835 - nil I In the year 1838 - nil I In the year 184K - 1 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In the year 1842 - 2 In the year 1830 - 6 | In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | In the year 1843 - 1 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. Si), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS, and IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. Exports. Years. Imports. Exports. $19,012,041 1820 - 74,450.000 - 69,691,669 20,753,098 1821 - 62,585,724 - 64,974,3S2 26,109,572 1822 • 83,241,541 - 72,160,281 33,026.233 1823 - 77.579.267 - 74,699,030 47,989,472 1824 - = 80,549,007 - 75,986,657 67,064,097 1825 - 96,340,075 - 99,535,388 56,850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 - 77,595,322 61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 - 82,324,827 78,665,522 1828 - 88,509,824 - 72,264,686 70,971,780 1829 • 74,492,527 - 72,358,671 94.115,925 1830 - 70,876,920 ■ 73 849,508 72,483,160 1831 -103,191,134 - 81,310,583 55,800,033 1832 - 101,029,266 - 87,176,943 77,699,074 1833 - 108.118,311 - 90,140,433 95,566,021 ia34 - 126,521,332 - 104,336,973 101,536,963 1835 - 149,895,742 - 121,693,577 108,343,150 1836 - 189,980,035 - 128,663,040 22,439,960 1837 - 140,989,217 - 117,419,376 52.203,231 1838 - 108,486,616 - 113,717,404 66,757,974 1839 - 121,028,416 - 162,092,132 61,316,831 1840 - 131.571,950 - 104,805,891 38,527,236 1841 - 127,946,177 - 121,851,803 27,855,997 1842 - 100,162,087 - 104,691,534 6,927,441 1843 - 64,753,799* - 84,346,480* 52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t - lll,200.046t 81,920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t - 114,646,6061 87,671,569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 113,488,5161 93,281,133 1847 - 146.545,638t . - I58,64t,622t 70,142,521 1848 - 154,977,876t - 154,032,131t EXPORTS, Great Britain. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade, turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000?., and the imported to only 38,000/. VALUE OP EXPORTS PROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD, VIZ: — In 1700 - - £ 6.097,120 I In 1820 - - £51,733.113 I In 1842 - -£102,180,517 In 1750 - - 10,130.991 I In 1830 - - 66.735,445 In 1S43 - - 100,260,101 In 1775 - - 16.326,363 | In 1835 - - 78,376,732 | In 1844 - - 117,877,278 In 1800 - - 38,120,120 I In 1840 - - 97,402.726 I In 1845 - - 131,564,509 In 1810 - - 45,869.S39 In 1841 - - 102,705,372 In 1846 - - 134,509,118 Years. Imports. 1791 $52,200,000 1792 - 31,500,000 - 1793 31,100,000 1794 - 34,600,000 . 1795 69,756,268 1796 - 81,436,164 - 1797 75,379,406 1793 - 68,551,700 - 1799 79/168,148 1800 - 91,252,768 - 1801 111,363,511 1802 - 76,333,333 - 1803 64,666,666 1804 - 85.000,000 - 1805 120,000,000 1806 - 129.000,000 - *S07 138,500,000 1808 - 56,990,000 - 1809 59,400,000 1810 - 85,400,000 - 1811 53,400,000 1812 . 77,030,000 - 1813 22,005,000 1814 - 12,965,000 - 1815 1 13,041 i274 1816 - 147,103,000 - 1817 99,250,000 1818 - 121,750,000 - 1819 87,125,000 Only nine months of 1843. t For the year ending June 30. 374 the world's PROGRESS. [ FAX. The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : In 1341 - -£116,479,678 I In 1843 - -£113,844,259 I In 1845 - - £145,961,749 In 1842 . • 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 • - 150,879,986 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the United Kingdom was 85,281,9582; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,0282. But even this great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — Brit. Revenue Returns. EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. — Sir William Jones. The well-known ^Esop's fables {which see), were written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- cular color than the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. FAIRS and WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England by Alfred, a. d. 886.— Spclman. They were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Feriee, at which the monks celebrated tho festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people making merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slaib FEU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. FAMINES, and SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine that raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 b. c. Livy. Awful famine in Egypt - a.d. 42 j voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, A;. Romej attended by plague - - 262 In Britain, so grievous that people ate the bark of trees - - - 272 In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate their children (Dufresnoy) - - 450 In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 and vermin - - -a.d. 1315 One in England and France (Rapin) - 1353 Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 One general in Great Britain - - 1743 One which devastates Bengal • - 1771 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- sons perish .... 1775 Again, when thousands starve - - 823 j One grievously felt in France - - 1789 4gain, which lasts four years - - 954 1 One severely felt in England - - 1795 Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 In England and France ; this famine leads to a pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to - - -1195 Another famine in England - - 1251 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden liter- cepting the supplies - - - 1813 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc flabellum el ventulum huic sicfacito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England from France.— Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in church. — Pardon. FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Drama. FASTING, and FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained aa a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. FEASTS and FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- mon, 1005 b. c. — Josephus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- tled at the Reformation, el seg., see Book of Common Prayer. FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa. a feast which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex- cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600. The 376 the world's progress. (_ na slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1008. This was done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 20 George II. 1746. — Littleton; Ruffhead; Blackstone. FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791. FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about a. d. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M. rocco States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth century. FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " no fiction op law SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert I., a. d. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons (see Feudal Laios). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. FIELD of the CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900. They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to which time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- tries of the East, 2115 b. c. — Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and FIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 taught this theory ahout 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. . John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were brought to, England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See Artillery. FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although the forcing pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use oi them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin. t'IRE- WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a.d. 1360; and were first exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21. 1770. Madame Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. New York, destroying 302 stores and dwelling-houses, and property worth $6,000,000-4 lives lost - July 19, 1845 St. John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the whole town destroyed — 6,000 people made houseless - - June 12, 1846 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons burned to death - - June 14, 1846 Nantucket : 300 buildings, valued $800,000 - - - July 13, 1846 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides steamboats practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to he illegal by the Bri- tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- lic boards, and none except by an officer with a press-warrant. INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII. , 1528. INCEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the Commonwealth, in 1650. INCOME TAX in ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost. In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 1802 ; but was abandoned. In 1803. it was revived, at the rate of 5 per cent, on all incomes above 150£., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6£ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — In 1804, at Is. in the pound - .£4.650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - £11,500,000 In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c, 8,657,9372. ; from fund- ed and stock properties, 2.885,5052. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,0882. and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456Z. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax of 22. 18s. Ad. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842 : it produced about 5,350,0002. a year. This tax was renewed for three years more, in March, 1845. INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent aro] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421 The index of heretical hooks, by which the reading of the Scriptures waa forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. — Ashe. ITS'DIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan ia reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — Renntl. Irruption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. 1000 Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most bloody conquerors of the world ; 14,000,000 of the human race perish by his sword, under the pretence of establishing the worship of one god ; he died 1237 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- feats the Indian army, makes a con- quest of Hindostan, and butchers 100,000 of its people - - - 1399 The passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 Conquest of the country completed by the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- gul empire .... 1525 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions extending from 10 to 35 degrees in latitude, and nearly as much in longi- tude, and his revenue amounting to 32,000,000?. sterling - - - 1660 Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or Kouli Khan .... 1738 At Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 He carries away treasure amounting to 125,000,000?. sterling - - 1739 Defeat of the last imperial army by the Rohillas .... 1749 [The MoguT empire now became mere- ly nominal, distinct and independent sovereignties being forme 1 by nu- merous petty princes. The empe- rors were of no political consequence from this period. BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and north-west passages - 1528 Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 Levant company make a land expedi- tion to India .... 1589 First adventure from England - - 1591 First charter to the London company of merchants .... 1600 Second charter to the East India com- pany 1609 Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. See Calcutta. .... 1756 He imprisons 146 British subjects, of whom 123 perish in one night. See Blackhole. - - May 19, 1758 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at Plassey - - June 20, 1757 Warren Hastings becomus governor of Bengal - - - - April 13, 1772 India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 Supreme court established - - 1773 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 The strong fortress of Gualior taken by major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of Madras - - - June 22, 1781 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre Coote .... July 1, 1781 Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1788 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 Government of lord Mornington, after- • wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered r 1800 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov- ernment - • July 30, 1805 Act by which the trade to India was thrown open ; that to China remain- ing with the company July 31, 1813 Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- vernor-general - - July 4, 1828 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, c. INTEREST of MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twtlfth cen- tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII. , 1546. This law was repealed by Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at" which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, and punishable by the statute. — BlacJcstone. The law does not now apply to bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laws. INTEREST of MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and Floi\, eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most remarkable:— An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, 1108. The present city was built above a league from the channel where the old one Sies submerged. — Ilistoire de Flandre. At the Texel, which first raised the com- merce of Amsterdam, 1400. The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, and 100,000 people, and formed the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17, 1446. The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried away men, women, and children, in their beds, ar.d covered the tops of many mountains ; the waters settled upon the lands, and were called The Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.— Hottins'hed. A general inundation by the failure of th« dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number oj drowned said to have been 400,000. At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- ed, 1617. An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock opened, and poured out water to the height of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. Trans. Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were drowned, and incredible damage was done at Hamburg. 1717. At Madrid, several of the Spanish nefciity IOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 427 INUNDATIONS, continued. and other persons of distinction perished, 1723:— Du Fresnoy. In Navarre, where '2000 persons lost their lives by the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1737. At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. By the overflow of the Da tube, a Turkish corps of 2000 men, on a s nail island near Widdin, were surprised, and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. Jn Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin of the French arm) under Macdonald was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- land 4000 lives were supposed to have been lost, same year. In Germany, 119 villages were laid under water, and great loss of life and property was sustained, in March 1816. Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned bj the Vistula breaking through some of its dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in- habitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 10,000 houses swept away, aria &bout 1000 persons perished, at Cantor.-, ir. China, in consequence of an ir.ui.dation, occasioned by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- lamity was produced by the same cause in other parts of China, Oct. 1833. Awful inundation in France ; the Saone poured its waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses were carried away at La Guillodere ; and upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1810. Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- ed, May 12, 1849. The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi. &c, at different times, have caused great destruction of property, and (at times) of life. lives lost, April 9, 1829. INVOCATION of the VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, about a. d. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, prayers and oblations for and to them. IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active; it is of a violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, November 5. 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the seat of government. IONIC ORDER op ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement on the Doric, was founded by the Ionians, about 1350 b. c. — Vitruvius by Perrauli. IONIC SECT or PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111 428 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [IE* IPSUS, Battle op, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kirgdom by the de« feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in fantry, besides 10.500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. A nti gonus and his son were defeated, 301 e. c— Plutarch. IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wa« originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 b. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. Arrival of Heremon - -B.C. 1070 A colony from Spain bring with them the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. d. 448 The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is crowned at Tara - - • 1002 Battle of Clontarf, which terminates the power of the Danes - -1039 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and Munster; besides a number of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- tinually war with each other.] Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in- vade Ireland, on condition that he compelled every Irish family to pay a carolus to the Holy See, and held it as a fief of the church - -1157 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- ceives the submissions of the kings and princes of the country, settles the government upon a footing similar to that of England, and makes his son John lord of Ireland - - - 1172 Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 English laws and customs introduced by king John - - - - 1210 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, and cruelly mas- sacre the Protestant settlers m Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, com- menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 Landing of king William III. at Car- rickfergus - - June 14, 1690 Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of Schomberg killed . - July ] , 1690 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- pressed until the next year - - 1799 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 Roman Catholic emancipation. (See Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 Great repeal movement ; meeting at Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 O'Connell died at Genoa, set. 72, May 15, 1847 Famine and great distress in Ireland throughout - ... 1847 Relieved by England, and by voluntary gifts from the United States. Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847 Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex, in 1543. — Rymer's Fcedera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamers, &c, see Steamers. * There is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare veeighing twenty four pounds. — Anon. ITA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 IRON-MASK, the MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar- guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and waa treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of Beaufcit, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia; while ftill more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis X1IL, his ^ather being the duke of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. ISL AMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of God, a. d. 604. See Koran, Mecca, fyc. ISLE of FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMauritius. I^MAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting of 30,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were murdered in cold blood. ISSUS, Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- tured, 333 b. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and lO'OOO horse in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and' 10,000 of the latter, were left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c — Arundelian Marbles. fTALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- ceived its name from Italus, a king of the coim'.ry, or from Italos, a Greek word signifying an ox. The aborigines ol Italy v«jre the progeny of 430 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [JA1 Meshec^, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites or Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the Celts ; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna Grsecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Views - 553 Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- goths under Alaric. See Rome A. D. 410 The Huns ravage the Roman empire under Attila, " the Scourge of God" - 447 The Western Roman empire is de- stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476 The reign of Totila, who twice pillages Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to such distress, that the ladies and peo- ple of quality are obliged to beg for bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 The power of the Goths destroyed, and their kingdom overthrown by the ge nerals of the Eastern empire Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards from Germany into this country .... 568 The Lombards overrun Italy - - 596 Venice first governed by a doge • 697 Charlemagne invades Italy - - - 774 He repairs to Rome, and is crowned emperor of the West - - - 800 [During the reign of Charlemagne, the pope of Rome, who had hitherto been merely a spiritual minister, finds means to assume a temporal power, not only independent of, but superior to all others.] Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- brand, pretends to universal sove- reignty, in which he is assisted by the countess Matilda, mistress of the greater part of Italy, who makes a do- nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 Disputes between the popes and empe- rors, relative to the appointment of bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate Italy and Germany during several centuries. The Venetians obtain many victories over the Eastern emperors - - 1125 Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio are created - - - 1228 Milan erected into a duchy • - 1277 The papal seat removed for seventy years to Avignon, in France - - 13US The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- tion of a pope, they set fire to the con- clave, and separate, and the papal chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, with the title of imperial vicar .... 132S Lucca becomes an independent reput lie 1370 Naples conquered by Diaries Vni. - 1492 The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- lian provinces in a single campaign, assailed by the pope, the emperor, and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- ces, opens the sale of indulgences and absolutions, which soon replenishes his treasury .... 1517 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. See Jeddo - - - - 1619 The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, and choose Theodore for their king. See Corsica .... 1736 Milan vested in the house af Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 Division of the Venetian states by France and Austria - - - 1797 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte - - ... 1793 The Italian republic - - - 1802 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- leon crowned .... 1805 Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of Italy 1805 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon - - - - 1814 [The various other events relating to Italy will be found under the respec- tive heads of Genoa. Lombardy. Mi- lan, Naples, Rome, Venice, fyc] The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts tc 23,677,000.-- Aim, de Gotha. J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du Fresnoy. JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate JAN J DICTIONARY 01 I.ATES. 431 political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu- merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. Ttia religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. JAOOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- radaeus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- tinction is now entirely lost. JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded bj T Venables in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692 ; and the island was desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which numerous plantations were burned, and property of inmiense value destroy- ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here. Aug. 26 1843. The Cholera in 1850. JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres 5 about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "August^ nus,' : a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- ban VHI. JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. This g< id was painted with two faces 432 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEW because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among us, was originally taken. JANUS, Temple of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during above 700 years, viz : — tinder Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war, JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo; and was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 b. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See Jeddo. JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1680,000 inhabitants, a num- nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- sionaries; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expeded in 1622, and the inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. JEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, whish lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Na- poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with the loss of 30,000 slain and nearly as many thousands made prisoner* la JES | DICTIONARY OP DATES. 433 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced t« [Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and compelled him to sign a capitulation ; but major Pierson, the commander of the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 30, 1004 b. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ; Usher; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614 ; by the Saracens in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in February 1799. See Jews. JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul HI. who made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see. the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries, the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Fxris. The Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, as being ca Iculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 1764; and were banished Spain 1707. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV, in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerat-1 in othe^ states 19 434 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f JE - * and even where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- cret and extensive existence. JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year ofl Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- ment of the common era. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and his Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, a.d. 33. JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322.916Z. sterling. Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucida? until the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular Views, p. 6 to p. 42. JEWS, Modern History of. Titus takes Jerusalem; the city and temple are sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- tudes destroying themselves a. d. 70 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 [They are now banished from Judea by an edict of the emperor, and are for- bidden to return, or even to look back upon their once flourishing and be- loved city, on pain of death. From this period, the Jews have been scat- tered among all other nations.] GENERAL HISTORY. Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at a solemnization of the Passover, they sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich tradesman at Paris, for which the criminals are executed, and all Jews banished France - - - 1080 The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation-day of Richard I., at the instigation of the priests - - 1089 500 being besieged in York castle by the mob. they cut each other's throats to avoid their fury - - - 1190 Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- bers inhumanly butchered, by king John 1204 They circumcise and attempt to cruci- fy a child at Norwich ; the offender* are condemned in a fine of 20,000 marks 1235 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as interest upon a loan of 20s. — Slowe - • 1262 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- hold, passed .... 1269 Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to wear a plate on his breast signifying that he was a usu- rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 267 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping coin .... 1277 They crucify a child at Northampton, for which fifty are drawn at horses' tails and hanged - - - 1282 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one day, and are all banished England. — Rapin 1287 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in a castle, where, for want of weapons, they throw their children at thei; en- emies, and then destroy one another 131 A fatal distemper raging in Europe, they are suspected of having poison- ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- sacred. — Lenglet. - - - 1343 500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and 150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 They are banished France - - 1494 After having been banished England 365 years, they are re-admitted bv Cromwell, in virtue of a tieaty with Manasseh Ben Israel - - - 1653 jud] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 435 land, lost on the second reading, by & majority in the Commons, 228 against 165 - - • May 17, 1338 Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff of London ; and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on whom that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- mitting the title of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew who ren- ders himself worthy of it - - ISiS? Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a persecution of the Jews be- gan at Dan ascus.— See Damascus Feb. 1, IS40 JEWS, continued. Statute to naturalize them in England, passed ----- 1753 This act repealed on the petition of all the cities in England - - - 1754 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are declared to be citizens of France .... 1790 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, convened by the emperor Napoleon Jan. 20, 1807 London Society for promoting Christi- anity among the Jews - - 1808 Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph to converted Jews, Sept. 1, 1820 Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- JOAN OF ARC, or MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her age. — Voltaire's Pucelle d' Orleans. JOHN DOE and RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by pope Boniface'VIIL, in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at which period it is now fixed. JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius Anglice: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglia was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land ; and in 1351, Wil- liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench, 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died. 1689. The independence of the judges in England was established by making their appointments patents for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 436 the world's PROGRESS. [ JUL one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813. JUDGES in the UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have been John Jay, appointed, 1789 ; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796 ; Oliver Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir- cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States are thus appointed : — By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Louisana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York,* and Maryland. The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia t North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; and for one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. They are removable — By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As- sembly, in New York. JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire- land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c, fixed by statute 3 and 4 William » IV. 1833. JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera- tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil- lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated at 1,200,000 annually : of these a great many never return, and to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones : the temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Csecilius Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been immortalized by the pen of Sallust. JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 * The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new conaii tution of 1846. jur] dictionary of dates. 437 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of C. Csesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year. JUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. It had its name Junius, which some derive h Junone, and others a Juniori- bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but the matter is still hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with me." 1 — Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's, liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the jury empanelled in their actio*, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791. — Phillips. 438 the world's PROGRESS. [ KIE JUSTICES of the PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. — Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. JUSTINIAN CCDE. Wherein was written what maybe termed the statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. K. KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr c Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in tha formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. KENIL WORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000Z. a vast expenditure in those times. KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73.677 ; in 1810, 406,511 , in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1193 b. c-. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again upon divorce or separation. KIEL, Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. UN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439 KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rcy, the French Rot, all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, were all prescribed. KWG of ENGLAND. The style " kitg of England," was first used by Egbert a. d. 828; but the title Rex gentis Anglormn, king of the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire- land," by Bntish sovereigns, was not assumed until -542, when Henry VIII. changed" lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707 ; and of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — "Georgms Tertius, Dei Gratia Britanniarum Rex, Fidei Defensor" "George the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." KING of the FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title, of " king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of " king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in 1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," August 9, 1830. See France. KING of HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals ot Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See Hungary. RING of the ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 5, 1814. KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the king sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The name of this court has been altered to that of Queen's Bench, since tk(? 440 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ KNi accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- teen years, 92,107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. KING'S SPEECH. The fiist royal speech from the throne was delivered by Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus- tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become chief of a new administration, said—" Canning being now minister, of one thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things will still be written in the same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbett. KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ; he was the founder of the Babylonian monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Menes. or MisraKm, makes his son Atholas, surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Toso- thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c— Blair. Ninus founds the As- syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas • approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709. KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen of distinguished abilities* instituted in 1703, for the purpose of promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook, who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life atly educed in the late wars against England. NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, London, in ths time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spaing but, as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest degree of perfection. — Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this time. — Anderson. NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nernsea, where they were celebrated. NEW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorua who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- onse, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- Hcrodotus. NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galte of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary wan the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c, as other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma- tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. n. 439. — Du Pin. NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were united into one state, in 1549. . For the late history of the Netherlands see Holland and Belgium. NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at the general peace in the next y^ear. The capital of this island (one of the Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See these respectively. NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328 : in 1840, 284574. SEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the oeginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 498 THE WORLDS I ROURESIs. | /(JEW by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, iu 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discove- ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of tbe Bri- tish dominions. See New South Wales. NEW JERSEY. One of the United States; first settled by the Dutch from New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finns, on the De- laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lord Berkley and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at Salem, 1674 ; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi- culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47-000; in 1790, 184,189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306. NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- ington — an area of about 200.000 square miles. The country taken posses- sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F6, and founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is yet (July 1850) undecided. NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hob land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788 : but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next ear eleven days were left out of the calendar — the third of September, 1752, being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego- rian Calendar, which see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- ven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be- forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ- ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. fy'SW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is thn, after an absence of 'bur years, and when all hope of hi? return had been near- ly abandoned '- - Oct. 18, 1833 Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liverpool from their perilous Arc- tic Land Expedition, after having visited the Great Fish River, and ex- amined its course to the Polar Seas Sept. 8, 1835 Captain Back sailed from Chatham in command of His Majesty's ship Ter- ror, on an exploring adventure to Wager River. [Captain Back, in the month of Dec. 1S35, was award- ed, by the Geographical Society, the king's annual premium for his polar discoveries and enterprise June 21, 1836 Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- vening space between the discover- ies of^Ross and Parry, and establish that there is a north-west passage Oct. 1&39 Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- land - - - May 24, 1845 Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- lul expedition 1 in search of Franklin 1849 Another expedition (one sent out by lady Franklin) in search of sir John Franklin, consisting of two vessels, sailed from England, April-May 185C Still another, consisting of two vessels, the Advance and Rescue, liberally purchased for the purpose by Henry Grinnell, a New York merchant, and manned at Government cost from the U. S. navy, under command of lieut. de Haven, sailed from New York May 1850 NORTH CAROLINA, one op the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- * The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from RadclifTe, on his fatal voyage for discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where tha court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The- council and courtiers appeared st the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost tha noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parada was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice. and frozen t» death, on the coast of Lapland. — Hackluut KUL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 secution, about 16(30. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chiei magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- ed by the crown for £17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notables of France was con- vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI., in 1788. The deranged state of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, which see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, in the first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- ander, in the reign. of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745. and 1758 ; but was again confirmed to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784 ; and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators (for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius Csesar, and Augustus; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, " What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Csesars 1 " NOVI. Battle op, in which the French army commanded by Joubert was de- feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated. January 8, 1800. SALIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right 22 506 the world's PROGRESS, [ OJ.1 claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against tho Mullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S, C, same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834. NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 141 b. c. — Livy. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu- mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. NUNCIO. A spiritual envoj r from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- tion. NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Du Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald, king of Kent, 630. — Dugdalc's Monasticon Anglicanuin. See articles Abbeys and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 1790. O. DATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Gates was a wicked man, at one time chap- lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the seiwice for his immoral conduct, he became a lecturer in London ; and. in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, a. d. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685; but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rwpin. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stowe's Chron. Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and OGT ~\ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 507 abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William ill. 1701, Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528; and the words "So help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those per- sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far abov<- any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair. — Ovid, fyc. OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 14 b. c. OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 800 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel, 1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. a. d. 1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers mak« their calculations. First modern meridional instrument, by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540 First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561 Tyc.ho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1657 Royal (French) .... 1667 Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 Observatory at Nuremberg - • 1678 At Utrecht 1690 Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc- tion 171'. At Bologna - - - - - 1714 At Petersburg .... 1725 Oxford, Dr. Radcliffe - - • 1772 Dublin, Dr. Andrews - - • 1783 Cambridge, England - - - 1824 Cambridge, Mass. New Haven • • - - - Cincinnati .... OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered it to be called Faustinus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the emperor ; Commodus would have had it called Invicius ; and Doniitiau Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 757 b. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing is that of our court poets at this day. OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no othei 508 THE world's PROGRESS. [ OMM than the universal deluge ; but according to some writers, if it at all oc- curred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country. See Deluge. OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467. OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 b. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and ajar full was the prize at the Panathena^an games. It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress, Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus was successful c. the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- riod of four 3 r ears was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 740, &c. OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun- trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 1307 b. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules ; and were revived by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufres?wy. )MENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pa:t of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the London circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In New OFT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 509 York, Boston. &c., they Avere common as early as 1830. There were 4G5 licensed in New York in 1849. OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and othei dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with . him, a. d. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the chief glory, of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672. was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build- ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1785, and they became general in several of the theatres a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled " Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200Z., whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400^. — Life of Gay. OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley. and is now one of our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. [Jansen and Galileo have also been staled to be the inventors.] Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621 300 280 424 Burning lenses known at Athens at least - - - -B.C. Two of the leading principles known to the Platonists - - - - First treatise on, by Euclid, about The magnifying power of convex glass- es and concave mirrors, and the pris- matic colors produced by angular glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy - - 120 Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108 Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- en by Roger Bacon, about - - 1280 Spectacles (said to have been) invented by Salvinus Armanis, of Pisa, before 1300 Camera obscura said to have been in- vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, about - - - - - 1571 Telescope made by Jans-*: (who is said also to have invented the .-..icro- scope), about - K09 [The same instrument constructed by Galileo, without using the produc- tion of Jansen] Astronomical telescope suggested by Kepler - - - - - 1611 Microscope, according to Huygens, in- vented bv Drebbel, about - - 1621 Law of refraction discovered by Snell- ius, about - - - a. d. 1624 Reflecting telescope, James Gregory - 1663 Newton - - 1666 Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] Double refraction explained by Bartho- linus - - - - - 1669 Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 Telescopes with a single lens, by Tschimhausen, about - - - 1690 Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 Structure of the eye explained by Petit, about ----- 1700 Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757 Herschel's great reflecting telescope, erected at Slough - - - - 17S9 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807 Ramage's reflecting telesccpe erected at Greenwich - • - - 1820 OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. n. 1538.— Nouv Diet. 510 the world's progress. |_orb ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracle? were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several sorts of oracles ; as first, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep not awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere ; Pardon. ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 1732. ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. ORDEAL. ■ The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- ' The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course oi lature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or less into scalding water, which it" '>-n? brought out without hurt," they were taken to be innocent of the crime. ORR J DICTiONARY OF DATES. 511 ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III., 1261. — Lmo Did. Ri/mer's F&dcra. ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca. 1592 ; by sir Francis Drake, 1578; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis. 1808 ; Pacific Fur Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth ol the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 : occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta- blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 b. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellannine. Organs were used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile off'; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. ORGANS in England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark to Scotland in a. d. 839. and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm by St. Cohn. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. ORLEANS, Siege of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so aa its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain 512 the world's progress. [ova the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the construction of the clepsydrae and other horological automata. Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130, The planetary clock of Finde, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by Charles, earl of Orrery ; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery bar been greatly improved of late years. 'OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spa- niards, from July 1601 to September 1604. when it surrendered by an honor- able capitulation. On the death of Charles II." of Spain the French seized Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend. which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to "he banished, ab aris etfocis. But this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing Hyperbolus, a mean person. OTAHEITE, or Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of Venus; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. OTTERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Walsingham. OITOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman I. on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re-. warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the cap itoH, PAl j DICTIONARY OF DA1ES. 513 whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiua Tubertus \i as the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. OWHYHEE or HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered bj captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having- been stolen by one of the island- ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. colleges. bishop of Winchester ; first called St. All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 Chichely, abp. of Canterbury a. d. 1437 Oriel Collc-ge. King Edward II. Baliol. John Baliol, knt., and Deborah his wife ; he was father to Baliol king of the Scots - - - -1263 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525; and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 Corpus Chrisii. Richard Fox, bishop or Winchester - - - - 1516 Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- eter 1314 Hertford College- - - -1312 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Elizabeth - - - - - 1571 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop of Lincoln .... 1475 Magdalen. Waynflete. bishop of Win- chester - - - - 1458 Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 New College. William of Wykeham, Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. Whitwick, clerk - - - 162Q Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward III. - - - 1340 St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 155? University. Said to have been founded by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- liam of Durham - - -117V Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy his wife - - - - 1612 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- inally called Gloucester College - 1714 HALLS. St. Albans .... 1547 St. Edmund's - - - - 1269 St. Mary's .... 1616 St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 New Inn Hall .... 1392 OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, Aug. 1774. P. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in PADLOCKS. a. d. 1540. PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- lief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in tha reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tillemont. PAINTTNG. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. Osymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting. 2100 b. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 b. c. The ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said io have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — PUnv. The art was 22* 514 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PAl introduced at Rome from Etruria, by Quintus Fabius, who on that account was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bcde, tha Saxon historian, who died in 735. knew something of the art. It revived about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in' oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. PAINTING in the UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity was John Watson (born in Scotland. 1685), who commenced painting por- traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708: painted his first portrait in Lancaster, Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in 1760.- he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode Island, 1754). John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (New Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists in succession in the United States. See Dunlap' s Arts of Design, &c. PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. PALATINES and SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, Where parliament granted them 24 0001. for their support. 3000 were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss Protectants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 Anne, 1709. — Anderson. PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus. as he was build- ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. p., though some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^Eneas, 1183 B.C., * Parrhasius a f Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the painting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, " Zeuxis has deceived' the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis !" Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, W.d wore n crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 b. c. — Plutarch. TAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in theit hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga palmata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed to touch one another. PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles: PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amain, a. d. 1137 ; they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectce Florentine. PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama' to attract notice, and was ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since which numerous similar works have been achieved. PANTHEON at ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by Agrippa. his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, where the particular image or representation of a particular god was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de, la Rotunda. PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- poraneous with our stage. PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170 b.c. It was first made of cotton, about a. e. 1000; and of rags in 1319. White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford. '516 the world's PROGRESS. [ f Aft in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.— Stuwe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid for these articles to France and Holland 100.000Z. annually. The French refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil- lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c. Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long before Eumenes's time. TARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege sua. dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king cannot pardon a nuRance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- ment of the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice which upsets Blackstone's theory. PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 264 b. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a. d. 1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the Arundelian Marbles, which see. PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- ship. It began to be called the city of the Parish, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, when the hungry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, great par] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 517 The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594 Hospital of Invalids - - -1595 The Hotel Dieu founded - - • 1603 The Palais-Royal built - . - 1610 The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645 Arch of St. Denis erected - - 1673 The Palace of the Deputies • • 1723 The Military School - - • 1751 The Pantheon ; St. GenevieTa - - 1764 devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found under their respective heads. St. Denis founded - - A. d. 613 Rebuilt 1231 Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 The Louvre built (see Louvre) - - 1522 Hotel de Ville .... 1533 The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 Fountain of the Innocents - - 1551 ' The Tuileries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 The Pont Neuf begun - - -1578 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, and detached forts, with an enceinte of 15^ leagues, were commenced in Dec. 1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding £5,000,000 ster- ling. See France. PARK. MUNGO, h.'s Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great clangers, without his journey through intertropi- cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac- counts of his murder on the Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. It-appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, and all killed, with the exception of one slave. PARKS. The Remans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus. Pom- pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen- tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, your majesty.' 1 She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- tained. PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, op GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu- tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken from parler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d. 1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account wo have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 518 THii WuKLffS TKuGKESb. j_JP&» place 49 Henry III., 1265. — DugdaWs Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VHL, Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke. PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801, Parma was afterwards uni- ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates, England, France, and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon- ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 men, and four generals, July 12, 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people revolt ; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency ; flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over all Asia, 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The last king was Artabanus V.. who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698 ; and the second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year; the third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other similai treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. PASQUIN ADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in this way : — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at the expense of *he passers -by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533. PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem- oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp- tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before, and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated in the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher. PATAY, Battle op, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence of this victory, Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They were first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures were secured by letters patent. PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa- triarchs till the 7th century. PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church is supposed to ha*ve been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London, commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo- pher Wren. Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. I Length of St. Peter's, Borne - 669 feet. Its greatest breadth - - 223 Its greatest breadth within - - 442 Height from the ground - - 340 | Height from the ground - - 432 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave- ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and was constructed 312 B. c. In England there were few paved streets before Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847. PAVIA, Battle of, between the French and Imperialists, when the former were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with ht roic valor, 520 TTJE WORLTj's PROGRESS. [ PET; and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdu, madame, fori Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about a. d. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of London, 1127. PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13.996Z. A pearl spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400Z. PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by Richard II.. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of Kinsale, &c. in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — At the death of Charless II. - 176 peers. I At the death of George III. - 339 peers. At the death of William III. - 192 | At the death of George IV. - 396 At the death of Anne - - 209 I At the death of William IV. • 456 At the death of George I. .' 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 At the death of George II. . 229 | PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had sinned or not, would certainty have died. 2. That the consequences of Adams sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at Rome, and in Carthage about 412. PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil- son, 1783. The king. Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty- seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It began 431 b. c. and ended 404 b. c. FER J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unre- pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the Relief Bill, passed April 18, 1829. PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted in the love, of God attended with good works. They made a confession upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- judged to the sin of fornication. PENDULUMS for Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.- Dufrcsnoy. PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Mar- seilles, about a. d. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 1662. PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres sold by Penn for £400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors .£130,000 in lieu of quit- rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac- tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 j 1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033. PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- holsterer, a. d. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the crown. — Delaune, 1690. This institution was considera- bly improved in and round London, July 1794. et seq., and was made a two- penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- office. PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known te the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. — Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 522 the world's PROGRESS. [ PES PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle about 342 b. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- sophy was called Peripatetic. PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. PERONNE, Treaty op. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con- firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re- strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, a. d. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- jan, a. d. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor Severus, 197. The 6th. under Maximums, 235. The 7th, under Decius, more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. PERSECUTIONS op the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. PERSECUTION op the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.— Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La- timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the Protestants in France, when numbers perished ; their assemblies were pro- hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. See Massacres and Bartholomew. PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per- seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c, it appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when PET ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 523 Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian monarchy, a. d. 229. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi. — Justin - B. c. 2115 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- nerally confounded with the king of Bactria. — Zanthus ... 1082 Cyrus, king of Persia • - - 560 Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548 Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 Cambyses conquers Egypt {which see) 525 Darius made king of Persia - - 522 Revolt of the Babylonians - - - 512 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade the Peloponnesus - - - 490 The troops advance towards Athens, but are met in the plains of Marathon, by Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- nians. — See Marathon ■ - 490 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of this year, at the head of an immense force. The battle of Thermopylae - 480 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement off Salamis - 480 Cymon, son of Miliiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, takes several cities from the Persians, and destroys their navy, consisting of 340 sail, near the island of Cyprus -• - - - 470 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 465 The assassin is put to death in a horrible manner ----- 465 Reign of Artaxerxes - - - 464 Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449 Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See article Retreat - - - - 401 The sea-fight near Cuidus - - 394 The Sidonians being besieged by the Persians, set fire to their city, and perish in the flames - - - 351 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra- nicus [For the exploits of Alexander »n Per- sia, see the article Mocedon.] Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is torn in pieces Alexander founds the third or Grecian monarchy Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, at the instance of his mistress Thais, sets fire to the palace of Persepolis [The riches of this town, whose ruins, even as they exist at this day, are of indescribable magnificence, were so immense that 20,000 mules 'and 5000 horses were laden with the spoils.] Persia was partly reconquered from the Greeks, and remained tributary to Parthia for near five hundred years, till about Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a common soldier, restores to Persia its ancient title Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant He is assassinated Hormisdas reigns Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel and successful tyrant - Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 It fell under the dominion of Tamer- lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732 He carried the Persian arms into India, which he ravaged. See India - 1738 • 334 331 331 330 250 229 238 273 273 310 In 1747, Ahmed AMalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- petitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughtei and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- niard i, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest of th,.s country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with i ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, which however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirtj'-six horses ; with these, and two re- inforce) nents of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid the foLidation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 21, 1828. PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the "West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed 524 the world's PROGRESS. [ PHA by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. PETER, the WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, until a. d. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St. PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- sumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. PETERSBURGH, Peace of, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh, for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug. 5, 1772 Treaty of Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812. PETRARCH and LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and speara crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c. PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii. 9. PB'l DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 PHAROS at ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptoieniy Philadelphia, and esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this .ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100Z. English, if Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon it; — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible ; — '•' Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. PHARSALIA, Battle op, between Julius Csesar and Pompey, in which the for- mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its consequences. Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200. Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25.000 according to others, and 24.000 of his army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror, May 12, 48 b. c. After this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. PHILADELPHIA, City op. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo. ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia- Minor and first laid out with a view to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96 664; in 1830, 167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423. PHILIPPI, Battle op, between Octavius Ca?sar and Marc Antony on one side, and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b.g. — Bossuet. PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which latter cost Cicero his life, 43 e. c. PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- tory, which is only the Knowledge of facts ; or U mathematics, which is th« 526 the world's PROGRESS. J PHT knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. See Moral Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has undergone four great changes : — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa- tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided between the two last. PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a long time, without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in relation to this subject, see Alchemy. PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 1670, and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos- phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- lier ; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Ganton's phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod- ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology . Dr. Spurzheim improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- nological Society has been established in London. PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- ting. — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. — Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; " and the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi ana Hebrew and Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 PIG ' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527 b. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason oi the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see. PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term ia referred to Aristotle; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. PIANO-FORTE Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since greatly improved by others here. PICHEGRUS, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- ticle Georges, &c. PICQUET, The Game ok, the first known game upon the cards, invented by Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mezerai. See ar- ticle Cards. PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebuda?, or Western Isles. They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d, 838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was purchase! by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740b. c. See Painting. PIGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at iEgina a 528 the world's progress. [pji pigeon stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded \>J means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 7 Henry VI., 1428. PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 1837. PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- tutes a. d. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — Stowe. PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that side. PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 1544. PrrCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the Bounty. PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The, first administration of this illustrious states- man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which see), Dec. 27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died PhA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 529 Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still loftier pre tensions, and lie departed life in possession of the esteem of a large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- nor by parliament, and a grant of £40,000 to pay his debts. PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This nama was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in A. D. 142. PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ba- ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 2000 persons every day. 188 b. c. Pliny. At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- sons perish daily, a. d. 78. The same fatal disease again ravaged the Roman empire, a. d. 167. In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, and swept away such multitudes, that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, a. d. 430. A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is said did not cease for many years. Univ. Hist. At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- habitants perished, A. D. 746. [This plague raged for three years, and was equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece.] At Chichester in England, an epidemical disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — Will. Malms. In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a pestilence, A. d. 954. In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ; and in Ireland, 1095. Again in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. — Holings. In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 1204. A general plague raged throughout Europe, causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In London alone, 200 persons were buried daily in the Charterhouse yard. In Paris and London a dreadful mortality prevailed in 1362 and 1367 ; and in Ire- land, in 1370. A great pestilence in Ireland, called the fourth, destroyed a great number of the "people, 13S3. SO,OG0 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- lence in London, 1407. Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; aijd Dub- lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. 23 An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; ana throughout England a plague which de- stroyed more people than the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 147S. — Rapin ; Salmon. The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — Delnune. The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 1500.— Stowe. Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in three hours).. In most of the capital towns in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 H. VIII., 1517.— Stowe. Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands perished, 1522. A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence in Dublin, 1575. 30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- tinople, in 1611. In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 persons perished, 1625. In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons 60,000 persons died, 1632. The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- ples (being introduced by a transport with soldiers on board), raged with such vio- lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- ants in six months, 1656. Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 persons in London, 1665. [Fires were kept up night and day to r urify the air for three days ; and it is thought the infection was not totally destioyed till the great conflagration of 1666.] 60,000 persons persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. One of the most awful plagues that evet raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abo. Mariti 530 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, [ PLA bers were carried off by a pestilent dis- ease in 1801 and 1805. Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much resembling the plague, caused grtat mor> tality, 1828. The Asiatic cholera (see C/tolera) 1832, 1834, 1849. PLAGUE, continued. In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 1773. In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 1799. In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- PLAGUES op EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated the plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c, In this year the king, named by some Amen- ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet. PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {ivhich see), 1485. Anti- quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement ; where being scourged with broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. PLASTER op PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- ing likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about a. d. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. PLATiEA, Battle op, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian army consisted of .300 000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau- sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver- ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty upon plate passed in 1784. PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery color. It was unknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — Greig. PLATTSBURGH. on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle op; 14,000 British troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. POE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 531 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 e. c. j but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See Drama. PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued un- til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to De taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the courts of law till 1731. POET LAUR.EAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks; and in 1630. this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to 100/. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OF Q.UEEN ELIZABETH. Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, who died - - - a. d. 1598 Samuel Daniel, died - - - 1619 Ben Jonson, died - - - 1637 Sir William Da venant, died - -1668 John Dryden ; he was deposed at the revolution .... 1688 Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 Colley Gibber, died - - - - 1757 William Whitehead, died - - 1785 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 Henry James Pye, died- - -1813 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 William Wordsworth, died - - 1850 The present laureate is Tennyson. POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. — Hazlitt. The exact period of the in- vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- lime. — Exodus xv. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 b. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, nourished about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by Archilochus, 700 b. c.—Dil Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to England by Aldhelm» or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close oi the seventh century. 532 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f POI, POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maxim us, who ordered them to be pub- licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re- markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death. POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two tings, prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory. Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. POLAND, Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it tc invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550; and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- cal dignity - - - a. d. 842 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his reign was so prosperous that every succeeding native sovereign was call- ed a Piast.] Introduction of Christianity - - 992 Red Russia added to Poland - - 1059 Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of Cracow with his own hands ; his kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, and his subjects absolved of their allegiance - - -1080 He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it by order of Gregory VII., and he at length kills himself - 1081 Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102 Premislaus assassinated- - - 1295 Louis of Hungary elected king - - 1370 War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 The Wallachians treacherously carry off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to the Turks as slaves - - - 149S Splendid reign of Sieismund II. - 1548 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 Abdication of John Casimir - -1669 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 He abolishes torture - - - 1770 An awful pestilence sweeps away 250,000 of the people - - - 1770 The evils of civil war so weaken the kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the royal plunderers, the empress of Russia, emperor of Austria, and king of Prussia - - - -1772 The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 A new constitution is formed by the virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on various pretexts, pour their armies into Poland, 1792, et seq.] The brave Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko, several times contend successfully against superior armies, but in the end are defeated. Kosci- usko, wounded and taken, is carried prisoner to Russia - - - 1754 Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- * An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; butm per- mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia ; yet they now^conspired against a country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives! Russia seized Lithuania, and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of tha provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ■ and Prussia secured the maritime districts. The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affair was the total inaction of the two grta! powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by polio/ us well as justice, and deplored by the jood and brave among mankind. — Haydn. POL 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 POLAND, continued. eru 30,000 PoTss of all ages and condi- tions in cold blood.] Courland is annexed to Russia - • 1795 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, Fen. 12, 179S Treaty of Tilsit (which see) - July 7, 1807 [The central provinces form the duchy of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 New constitution - - Nov. 1815 Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; the army declare in favor of the peo- ple - - - Nov. 29, 1830 The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the Russians lose 7CH.0 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 Battle of Ostrolenka; signal defeat of the Russians - - May 26, 1831 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 183] Grand Duke Constantine dies, June 27, 1831 Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) July 14, 1831 Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 183! [This last fatal event terminated the nemorable and glorious, but unfor- tunate struggle of the Poles. ] Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth form an integral part of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and the treaty which had made it inde- pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. t D. 550 700 750 760 804 810 815 830 842 861 892 913 964 999 1025 1041 1058 i082 1102 •:40 1145 1173 1178 1194 1200 1203 1206 1228 1279 Lechus I. His posterity held the dukedom for about 150 years. Cracus I. Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. Lechus II., deposed. Venda, drowned herself. Premislaus. who on being elected was named Lescus or Less. Lescus II., killed by the French. Lescus III. Popiel I. Popiel II. Piastus, a country peasant. Zemovitus. Lescus IV. Zemomislaus. Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. Boleslaus 1, surnamed the Intrepid. Miecislaus II. , went mad. Casimir the Pacific. Boleslaus II., killed himself. Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus. Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-moulh. Uladislaus II., fled. Boleslaus IV., the Curled. Miecislaus III., deposed. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. Lescus V., relinquished. Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a few months restored Lescus V. ; but for bad conduct he was again forced to relinquish the government. Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired. Lescus V., a third time, being chosen by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- ceeded by his son, an infant. Boleslaus V., the Chaste. Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., died 1289. An interregnum of five years, when the Poles chose 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- sassinated. 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus; he refused the title of king ; deposed. 1300 Winceslaus. 1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 1333 Casimir the Great, kiHed by a fall from his horse, while hunting. 1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by his daughter, 1383 Hedwigis,"who married, in 13S5 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- braced the Christian religion, and took the name of Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to Poland. 1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 1447 Casimir IV. 1492 John Albert. 1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 1507 Sigismund I. 1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue ceeding to the French throne. 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- vania. 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king oj Sweden. 1632 Uladislaus VII. 1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter regnum for a year. 1698 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re- sign. 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re tire in 1710. 1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 1733 Stanislaus I., again. 1733 Frederick Augustus III. I 1764 Stan*';ausAugustus resigns the crown So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. POLAR sage, REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pa* 534 the world's PROGRESS. [ POM POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned ' and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by st&'i ute, June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth of Notions. 1776. POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — Henault. POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- bellion *f Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz. — a duke 100Z., a marquis 80£., a baronet 30Z., a knight 20Z., an esquire 10Z., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- dius a. d. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See Marriages. Polygamy forms an ai'ticle of the Mormon Creed. POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan- guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 ; the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three eo- pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483Z. for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- ris, by Le Jay, it 10 vols, folio, 1628^5. The fourth in London, printed by Bryan Walton, in t vols, folio, 1657. — Brunet. POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- ed at the. time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles weie pop] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 535 exhibited, The ashes buried the whole" city, and covered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, acountrjanan, as he was turning up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried city; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. fONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- tus Euxinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus fty Darius Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- rius Hystaspes - - - b. c. 487 Reign of Mithridates I. - - -383 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 Mithridates II. recovers it - - - 336 Mithridaies III. reigns - - - 301 Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi- tal by the Gauls, &c. - - - 252 Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- tack upon the free city of Sinope, and is obliged to raise the siege by the Rhodians - - - - 219 Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, and makes it the capital of his king- dom 183 Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 years of age .... 123 Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115 She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and her accomplices to death - 112 Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ; conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- chis, and other countries - - 111 He enters Cappadocia - - 97 His war with Rome - - - 89 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. S f Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself master of many Roman pro- vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to death - - - - - 81. Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chcero- nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain - SS Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this time - - - - 74 The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un- der Lucullus, in two battles - - 73 Mithridates defeated by Lucullus - 66 Mithridates defeats Fabius - - - 68 But is defeated by Pompey - 66 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies - 63 Reign of Pharnaces - - - 63 Battle of Zela (see Zelci); Pharnaces defeated by Caesar - - - 47 Darius reigns - - - - 39 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns - - 36 Polemon II. succeeds his father - a. e. 33 Mithridates VII. reigns - - - 40 Pontus afterwards became a Roman province, under the emperors. Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, a. d. 1204, which continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. j>OOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the poor were to be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. .£188,811 665,562 819,000 1,556,804 2,184,950 4,952,421 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops, it was first adopted by Hy- genus, a. d. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phocas, emperor of tha In 1580, the Poor Rates were 1680, they amounted to 1698, they amounted to - 1760, they amounted to - 1785, they amounted to 1802, they amounted to In 1815, the Poor Rates were 1820, they amounted to 1830, they amounted to 1835, they amounted to 1840, they amounted to 1845, they amounted to X5,41 8.845 7,329,594 8,111,422 6,356,345 5,468,£99 5,543,650 536 the world's progress. [ POP East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome. 606. By the connivance of Pho- cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The custom of kissing- the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161 ; and also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of England, 1226.' The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1808, for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. — Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books, 1541. The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in effigy at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died, at Valence, August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was dethroned May 13, 1809. " Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 16. 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner ■ in his palace for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See ItaJ/y ; Rome; Reformation, fyc. POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months. 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for crime led to the reformation. 1522 Adrian VI. i523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. of England. 1534 Paul III. 1550 .lulius III. 1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 days. 1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty. 15.59 Pius IV. 1566 Pius V. 1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- formed the Calendar, (which see). 1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 1590 Gregory XIV. 1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 1605 Paul V. 1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 1623 Urban VIII. 1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 1655 Alexander VII. : liberal and learned, 1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 1670 Clement X. 1676 Innocent XI. ; reformed abuses. 1689 Alexander VlII. 1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism. 1700 Clement XI. 1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of his family. " ,J When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle 2/ Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeara. Lie was elected to the popedom in 1154. POP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 537 TOPES, continued. 1724 Benedict XIII. 1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses. 1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious. 1758 Clement XIII. 1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 1775 Pius VI., February 14. 1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte. elected at Ven ice, as Pius VII, March 13. ■ 1823 Annibal dellaGensa,Leo XII., Sept.28. 1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVI..Feb.2. 1846 Mastai Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurate!.' June 21, aged 54. - - June lt>. For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Views, from page 50 to page 115. POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda. and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit! On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being' very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan- dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated and believed without offence." — Gibbon. POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — Rapin. POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c, be stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions ; America, 75 millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 1377 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483 i+ had increased to 4.689,000. The following tables of the population of the' United Kingdom are from official returns : — POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS. Year 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 Population 5,475.000 ditto 5,240.000 ditto 5,565,000 ditto 5,796,000 ditto 6,064,000 ditto 6,467,000 ditto 6,736,000 POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES. Year 1770 1780 - 1790 1801 - 1821 1841 • Population 7,423,000 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 7,953.000 8,675,000 10,942,646 14,391,631 18,844,434 r See the several States. Population 12.866,920 ditto 17^063,353 Year 1790 Population 3,929.827 Year 1830 1800 - - - ditto 5,305,925 1840 1810 - - - ditto 7,239,814 1820 - - - ditto 9,638,131 PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THE WORLD Chinese empire (Balbi) - - 180.000,000 Russia - - - 58,500,000 Russian empire - 72,000,000 France - - 36,500,000 Austria - - - 34,599,000 Great Britain and Ireland - - 27.000,000 British empire - 153,000,000 Japan - - - 27,000.000 Spain - - - 17,1)0,000 Spanish empire (total) - ■ - 19,500,000 Pruss. monarchy United States of America* Turkey - Ottoman empire (total) ■ Persia • Mexico Kingdom of the two Sicilies Brazil - Sardinia - Morocco 16,550,000 17,063,000 12,000,000 24,500,000 11,800,000 9,500,000 8,750,000 6,250.000 5,800,000 5,200,000 Holland - - - Dutch monarchy (total) Bavaria - - - Sweden and Nor- way- Belgium- - - Poland Portugal - - Republic of Co- lumbia - Eccles. States- - British America - 5,100,000 14,750,000 4,600,000 4,550,000 4,500,000 4,250,000 3,950,000 3.350,000 2,970,000 2.950,000 23* * In 1S10. In 1S50, estimated at 22,000,000. 538 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. I eoa POPULATION, continued. Switzerland Denmark - - Hanover Wirtemberg - - Saxony Tuscany- - - Baden CITIES Cities. London (.Parlia- mentary Ret.) Jeddo {reputed) - Pekin (.reputed) Paris - Nankin - Constantinople Calcutta Madras - Naples 2,450,008 2.400,000 lj780,000 1,680,000 1.650,000 i;550,000 1,400,000 Inhab. 1,776,556 1,680,000 1,600,000 1,000,000 850,000 800,000 710,000 435,000 410,000 St. Petersburgh - 405,000 Hamburgh 172,0* Vienna - - • 395,000 Lyons 168,000 New York (1845) 371,000 Palermo 147,000 Moscow 355.000 Marseilles - 146,000 Grand Cairo - • 335,000 Copenhagen • 145,000 Lisbon 298.000 Turin - 143,000 Aleppo - ■ - 280;000 Seville - 142,000 Berlin - 280,000 Warsaw 141,000 Amsterdam - • 274,000 Tunis - 138,000 Madrid 270,000 Baltimore (1818; 134,000 Philadelphia (1848) 258,000 Prague 133,000 Bordeaux - - 247,000 Smyrna - - ■ 132,000 Bagdad 245,000 Brussels '30,000 Mexico - - - £25,000 Florence - ■ 132,000 Rome - 824,000 Stockholm - lk'1,000 Rio Janeiro - - 200,000 Munich - - ■ 1 13,000 Milan - 193,000 Dresden 114.000 Barcelona - - 183,000 Boston (1845) - ■ lWiOOO Frankfort - 110,000 PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresden China. PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth ; burnt bv the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8,581 ; in 1840 15,082. PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residence of Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were established in the reign of Henry VIII. PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman arms about 250 b. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 713. They kept possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093. Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here - - - - a. d. 472 Invasion by the Saracens - - 713 The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III. establishes episcopal sees - • 900 Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish kings, and is proclaimed king by his army ----- 113J Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- bon from the Moors • • • 114} por] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 PORTUGAL, continued. The kingdom of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189 Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his country, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 John I., sumamed the Great, carries his arms into Africa - - - 1415 Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420 Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, discovered - - 149S Discovery of the Brazils - - 150U The Inquisition established - - 1526 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain 1580 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, duke of Braganza, on the throne. His posterity still possess the crown .... 1640 The great earthquake which destroys Lisbon. See Earthquake - - 1755 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and narrowly escapes death - - 1758 [This affair causes some of the first families of the kingdom to be tortured to death, their very names being for- bidden to be mentioned; yet many were unjustly condemned, and their innocence was soon afterwards made manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- pelled on this occasion.] Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- pensation from the pope to enable his daughter and brother to intermar- ry. See Incest. - . - 1760 The Spaniards and French invade Port- ugal, which is saved by the valor of the English - - 1762 and 1763 Regency of John (afterwards king) owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 The Court, on the French invasion, emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1S07 Convention of Cintra (see article under that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 Return of the Court - - July 4, 1821 Lrdependence of Brazil, the prince re- gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 The king of Portugal suppresses the constitution - - June 5, 1823 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel departs, &c. - ' - May 1-9, 1824 Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 KINGS OP i'.D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- ugal. 1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 1185 Sancho I. 1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 1247 Alphonsus III. . 1279 Dennis. 1325 Alphonsus IV. 1357 Peter the Severe. 1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- num for 18 months. Death of John VI. - Feb. 18, i 826 Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- firms the regency - April 26, 1828 He relinquishes the throne in favor of his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826 Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 1826 Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1826 Departure of the first British auxiliary troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1326 Don Miguel formally assumes the title of king - - - -July 4, 1828 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 Insurrection in favor of the queen, in which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 Don Pedro's expedition sails from Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- self regent of Portugal, on behalf of his daughter - - April 2, 1SJ2 He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832 After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 Don Miguel is permitted to leave the country unmolested - May 31, 1834 Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834 The queen declared by the Cortes to be of ase - - - Sept. 15, 1834 Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834 Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of Leuchtenberg), just married to the queen, dies - - March 28, 1835 The queen marries prince Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg - - -Jan. 1,1836 A sudden change of ministry leads to a formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat- ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 [Oporto, where a revolutionary junta is established, and other large towns, are seized by the insurgent army.] Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos, Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c, favorable to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men in killed and wounded -May 1, 1847 Intervention of England, France, and Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 Claim of the United States on Portugal for damages in the war of 1812, re- sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- bon .... July, 1850 PORTUGAL. 1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to Peter the Severe. 1433 Edward. 1438 Alphonsus V. 1481 John II. 1495 Emanuel. 1521 John III. 1557 Sebastian, killed in Africa. 1578 Henry, the Cardinal. 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Eman uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain, who united Portugal to his other do- minions, i ill 1640. 540 PORTUGAL, continued. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. POS 1750 Joseph. 1777 Mary Frances Isabella. 1799 John VI. 1826 Don Pedro ; he abdicates May 2, aj favor of his daughter. 1826 Maria de Gloria. 1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos- sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- claimed king, Dec. 1. 1656 Alphonsus VI. 1668 Peter II. 1"07 John V. POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800. — Ashe. Louis XL first established post-houses in France owing to his eager- ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. — Henaalt. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen w^th the Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post com- munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635.— Slrype. POST-OFFICE, The General, of England. See preceding article. The first chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth in 1581.* THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ In 1643 It yielded 1653 Farmed to John Manley, Esq., for - - - 1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, Esq., for - 1674 Farmed fo.T - - - 1685 It yielded - 1707 Ditto - - • - 1764 Ditto 1800 Ditto - - - - £5,000 10,( In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424.994 1815 Ditto - - . - 1,755,898 1820 United Kingdom - - 2.402.697 1825 Ditto - - - -2,255,239 1835 Ditto - - - 2,353,340 1839 Last year of the heavy postage - - -2,522,495 1840 First year of the low rate, 1 penny for all distances 471,000 The first post-office in the colo- 21,500 43.000 65;000 111,461 432.048 745,313 POST-OFFICE in the ITiNITED STATES. nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general laost-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of the cabinet. For successive Postmaster-Generals see Administrations. The following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States at different times since 1790. Year. No. of Post Amount of Net Revenue. Extent in miles Offices. Postage of Po<-t Roads 1790 - ■ - 75 - - - $37,93t - $5,795 - ■ 1,875 1800 - - 903 - - 280,804 - 66.810 - - 20.817 1810 ■ - 2,300 - - 551,684 - 55,715 - - 36,406 1820 - - 4,500 - -1,111,927 - 1 - - 72,492 1830 - - 8,000 - - 1,850,583 - 1 - - 115,000 1840 - -13.468 • - 4,539,265 - 1 . - 155,739 1845 - - 14J83 ■ - 4,289,842 - t - - 143,940 1846 • - 14,601 - - 3,487,199 1 - 1 - • 152,866 1847 - - 15,146 - - 3,955,893 1 ■ t - - 153,818 1848 - - 16,159 - -4,371,0771 - 44,227 - - 163508 3 number of dead letters returned quartei •lyi s estimated at 450,000. * Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the past was only transmitted three days a week be- tween Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 1 In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures. t The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed March 3, 1845, leducing the letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances. pra] dictionary of dates. 541 POTATOES. TLe potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori ginally carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw- kins, a. d. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 1G20. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that "patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding - ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It ia affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine; — Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c, causing great ilarni and distress, Oct. 1845. POTOSI, Mines of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in comparison of what was formerly obtained. POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, about a. d. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some sup- pose it was equivalent to an Attic mm, or SI. is. Id. Our avoirdupois weight {avoir dab folds') came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chambers. POWDERING the HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad- singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them- selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered- hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guinea for each person. The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 7000Z. per year, and in Scotland about 2501. It was abolished in Ireland. PRAETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when one praetor only was appointed ; but a second was appointed in 252 b. a. One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, two more praetors were created to assist the consul in the government of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province, a. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Caesar increas- ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers were reduced to three. PRAGA, Battle of, in which 30.000 Poles were butchered by the merciless Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothotf and Wawer, March 31, 1831. PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some- times state affairs; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings of France, wherein the rights of the Gallican church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular 542 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ PR3 contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue,- his daughters should succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713, and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, ia which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) foi . their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flee with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla- nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by the Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by the French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Brown ;, was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled him.seh according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they were to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parlinxjont themselves. PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious d isease. The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intend and import. — Ashe. PRAYERS for the DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris tian church about a. d. 190. — Eusebms. Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593. The mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boldface II., a. d. 532. PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most, of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws oi Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour- tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedemy was regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIII., 1539 5 and the other, 1 George I., 1714. TABLE op precedency. THE QUEEN. Prince of Wales. Prince Albert. Queen Dowager. Queen's other sons. Princess royal. Princess Alice ; and other I Archoisnop of Canttrfcaiy. princesses. Duchess of Kent. Queen's uncles. Queen's aunts. Queen's cousins. Lord Chancellor. Archbishop of York. 'Lord high treasura 'Lord president. 'Lord privy seal. If of the rank of barons. PRE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 543 PRECEDENCE, contii/ued: "Lord high constable. rLord great chamberlain of England. *Earl marshal. 'Lord high admiral. Lord steward of the house- hold. Lord Chamberlain. Dukes, according to patent. Marquesses, according to their patents. Dukes' eldest sons. Earls, according to their pa- tents. Marquesses' eldest sons. Dukes' younger sons. Viscounts, according to their patents. Earls' eldest sons. Marquesses' younger sons. Bishop of London. Bishop of Durham. Bishop of Winchester. All other bishops, according to their seniority of conse- cration. Secretary of State, being a baron. Commissioners of the great seal. Barons, according to their patents. [All the above, except the royal family, hold their precedence of rank by act COMMONERS. The Speaker. Treasurer, comptroller, and vice-chamberlain of the household. Secretaries of State, if they be under the degree of baron. Viscounts' eldest sons. Earls' younger sons. Barons' eldest sons. Knights of the Garter. Privy councillors. Chancellor of the Exchequer. Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Lord chief justice of the queen's bench. Master of the rolls. • Vice-chancellor. Lord chief justice of the com- mon pleas. Lord chief baron. Judges and barons, according to seniority. Hereditary bannerets. Viscounts' younger sons. Barons' younger sons. Baronets. Bannerets for life only. Knights of the bath. Grand Crosses. Knights commanders. Knights bachelors. Eldest sons of the younger sons of peers. Baronets' eldest sons. Knights of ths Garter's eldesr sons. Bannerets' eldest sons. Knights of the bath's eldes' sons. Knights' eldest sons. Baronets' younger sons. Flag and field officers, Sergeants-at-law. Doctors, Deans, and chan cellors. Masters in chancery. Companions of the' bath. Gentlemen of the pr«vy chamber. Esquires of its knights of the Bath. Esquires by creation. Esquires by office or com- mission. Younger soj is of knights of the garter. Sons of bannerets. Younger sons of knights of the bath. Younger sons of knights ba- chelors. Gentlemen entitled to bear arms. Clergymen, not dignitaries. Barristers at law. Officers of the army and navy, not esquires by com- mission. Citizens, burgesses, &c. 31 Henry VIII.] PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably appointed whatever conies to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of the most perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet intro- duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus. a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470. PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau. and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec- tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who. as well as the duke of Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel- vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting- house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguish- ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri- * Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII. t When in actual office only, by 1 George I. N. B. The priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is taken !]} rank of office, and net title." 544 the world's PROGRESS. [ PKH buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformei in 1560. Tt was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously elected president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations. PRESS, the PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton, a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Stowe's Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806, The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in . 811. and Applegath's fol- lowed. The Columbian* press of Clymer was produced in 1814; and the Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after. Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought in; o use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac- turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New-York. Their largest presses for newspapers are capable of throwing off 10.000 sheets per hour, which is so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the best in the world for book printing. See article Printing. PRESS, Liberty op the. The imprimatur, " let it be printed," was much used on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast, "The liberty of the press — it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern. London, at a Whig dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it was fully guaranteed by the constitution. PRESSING to DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, is the following : — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered two of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign- ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James I. 1605, — Statue's Chron. PRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish ballad, called, from the doughty hero, "Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21, 1745. PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender, FBI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 545 or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac- knowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- claimed, and. his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines), Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000/!. was offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Pngland, born March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the Lead of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- bers were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained to complete their wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith. PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- mily, 1491 b. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arcli-flamen or high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular sects. PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — Ashe. PRIMOGENITURE, Right of , an usage brought down from the earliest times. The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and letters, Speculum Humana Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to 546 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PBA gether. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was commenced in 1444 and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schseffer cast the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete printing, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy. Book of Psalms printed -1 A. d. 1457 The Durandi Rationale, first work printed with cast metal types 1 - 1459 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this time. — Collier. But this statement is discredited by Dibdin.] A Livy printed. — Dufresnoy - % - 1460 The first Bible completed.— Ideml - 1460 [Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of printing, in the general ruin, is spread to other towns] - - 1462 The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German (whence our English, or Black Letter) until - - - 1465 Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same year - - - - 1465 Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 A Chronicle, said to have been found in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- lace (the fact disputed), bearing the date Oxford, anno - - - 1468 William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the first press at Westminster* 1471 He printed Willyam Caxton' s Recuyel of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. — Phillips - - - 1471 His first pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices (see below). — Dibdin - - ' -1474 jEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be the first book with its leaves numbered - - - 1484 Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a Greek book printed (ap Aldi) ■ - 1476 He introduces the Italic - - - 1496 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - a. d. 1482 Homer, infolio^ beautifully done at Flo- rence, eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius '438 Printing used in Scotland - - - i609| The first edition of the whole Bible was, strictly speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see Polyglot ■ - - - _ - - 1517 The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550 The first Newspaper printed in England (see Newspapers) .... 1588 First patent granted for printing • 1 591 First printing-press improved by Wil- liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601 First printing in America at Cambridge, Mass., when the Freeman' s Oath and an Almanac were printed - - 1639 First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast.— Hardy's Tour. ■ - - 1704 First types cast in England by Caslon.- Phillips. Stereotype printing suggested by Wil- liam Ged, of Edinburgh. — Nichols. The present mode of stereotype inven- ted by Mr. Colden, of New York Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- land in the last century. — Phillips.] See Stereotype. The printing-machine was first suggest- ed by Nicholson The Stanhope press was in general use. in 1806 Machine printing (see Press) - - 1811 Steam machinery (see Press) - - 1814 1720 1735 1779 1790 TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDS. The Game and Playeoflhe Chesse. Trans- lated out of the Frenche and emprynted by vie Willia 'Ti Caxton Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. TULLY. The Bokeof Tulle of Okie age Emprynted by me simple persone William Caxton in to Englysshe as theplaysir solace and re- verence of men growyng in to old age the xij day of August the yere of our lord M.cccc.lxxxj. — Herbert. THE POLYCRONYCON. The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes of manyTymrs in eyghtBokes. Imprinted by William Caxton after hav- ing somew/iat chaunged the rude and olae Englysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer- tayn Words which in these Days be ney- ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the second day of' Juyll at Westmestre the xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward thefoaxlh', and of tlie Incarnacion of oure Lord a Thousand four Hondred four Score and tweyne [1482.] — Dibdin's Typ. Antiq.. the chronicles. The Cronicl.es of England Enpnted by me Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by London the v day of Juyn the yere of ihincarnacion of our lord god M CCCC.LXXX. POLYCRONICON. Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth days of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne ef kinge Harry the seuenth and of the Jn- ' To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged b/ the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of the Chesse," tie first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which il was printed, tut all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh. pr:] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 547 PRINTING, continued. carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv Emprynted by Wynkyn Theworde at Westmestre. HILL OF PERFECTION. The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or- der of the charterouse Accompiyshe[d] andfynysshe[d] att Westmyrister the uiii day ofjaneur the yere of our lord Thou- eande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the xii yere qfkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de worde. — Ames, Herbert, Diedin. ENGLAND. The Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot- land and Ireland speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of the same Fyti?iysshed and enprynted in Flete strele in the syne of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our lord a m.ccccc and ij. men- sis Mayiis [mense Maii]. — Dibdin's Typ. Ant. the festival. The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken out ofthegolden legend en- prynted at london in F letestrete at ye syni of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the yere of our lord m.ccccc. viii. And ended the xi daye of May e. — Ames. THE LORD'S PRAYER. As printed by Caxton in 1483. Father our that art in heavens, hallowed 6« thy name : thy kyngdome come to us ; thy will be done in earth as is in heaven : oure every days bred give us to day ; and for- give us oure tresspasses, as we forgive them that tresspass against us ; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from all evil sin, amen. — Lewis's Life op Caxton. a placard. As printed by William Caxton. If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to bye ony pies of two or thre comemoracios of Salisburi use' enpryntid after the forme of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly correct, late him come to westmon- ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good there. — Dibdin's Typ. Antiq.. Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in the Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- toria, 1839. PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 in England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414. — Rymer's Fozdera. PRISONERS op WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30, 1779. The number exchanged by eartel with France from the commence- ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri- soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, Sept. 1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the French, &c, in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest * Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is sup posed from the different color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign prim ere.— Wheatky. 548 the world's progress. I" PRO number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period cf the last war. PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.— Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems adopted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- phia, &c, have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady — Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per- son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. PRIVY COUNCIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted by Alfred, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and despatch, and Charles .II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the principal officers of state (councillors ex officio), and ten lords and five com- moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants, &c, one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c, one-eighth; ordinary and able seamen, marines, &c, two-eighths PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until tha end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign- able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish Church, Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by pope Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- ceeding pontiffs. PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid the king in a war with France, 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects •, but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to giv« fEUJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 549 an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was pi ;ased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves. — Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount in the last years of the late war. The assessments on 1 aal property, under the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,4232. PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter, are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem {Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8) executed by Titus, a. d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in Scripture. PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- stance," Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, fyc. PROVISIONS — Remarkable pacts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. — Burton's Annals. When wheat was at 65. per quarter, the farthing loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat. Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is. per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Stowe. The price of provisions fixed by the common-council of .London as follows: two pullets, three-halfpence; a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299. Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn 31. 12s. • a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs, Zd. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common- council above recited, 7 Edward II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — An- derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, foi one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle. PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 32C B. o. The Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in- 550 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [prw habited the Riphtean mountains ; and from these the country was called Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known until about a. d. 1007. St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Christianity, but is murdered by the pagans - - a. d. 1010 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by dreadful ravages - - - * * * Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 The Teutonic knights, returning from the holy wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and the conversion of the people ----- 1225 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- tal of Prussia ... - 1286 The Teutonic knights, by their barba- rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It is repeopled by German colonists in the 13th century - - --,"*'* Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by purchase from Sigismond, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- denburg .... 1415 [This Frederick is the head of the pre- sent reigning family.] Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- tives against the oppression of the Teutonic knights - - - 1446 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master of the Teutonic order, renounces the Roman Catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as a fief of Poland - - - - 1525 University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert .... 1544 The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the electorate of Brandenburg, and so continues to this day - - - 1594 John Sigismund created elector of Bran- denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608 The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric of Minden transferred to the house of Brandenburg - - 1648 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an independent state, under Frede- rick William .... 1657 Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish the part he had taken in restoring peace to Europe - - - 1660 The foundation of the Prussian monar- chy was established between the years 1640 and 1680 Frederic III., in an assembly of the states, puts a crown upon his own head, and upon the head of his con- sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 Ouelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- burgh, and Valengia, and purchases the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707 Reign of Frederick the Great, during which the Prussian monarchy is made to rank among the first powers in Europe - - - a. d. 1740 Breslau ceded to Prussia -V . -1741 Silesia, Glatz, &c, ceded - - 1742 Frederick the Great visits England - 1741 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, and a Russian army, march to Berlin. The city laid under contribution ; and pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000 crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and foundries destroyed - - - 1760 Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786 The Prussians take possession of Hano- ver Jan. 30. 1806 Prussia jvins the allies of England against France - - Oct. 6, 1806 Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18u6 [Here followed the loss of almost every corps in succession of the Prussian army, the loss of Berlin, and of every province of the monarchy except Prussia proper.] Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 Peace of Tilsit {which see) - July 7, 1807 Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808 Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813 Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 The king promised liberty of the press March, 1847 Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists urgent demands for liberal measures, March 14, 1847 Barricades and fights between troops and students - - March 15, 1847 The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 - issues tlecree demanding a federal union of Germany, and granting li- berty of the press - March 18, 1847 Another bloody collision, 274 killed March 18, 1847 New ministry formed - March 18, 1847 The king grants general amnesty March 20, 1847 Agitations general throughout Prussia A free constitution granted, in a solemn convocation, by the king - April 11, 1847 The duchy of Posen reorganized by the king - - - March 26, 1843 Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 Constitutional assembly of Prussia meets - - - May 22, 1848 The arsenal at Berlin captured by the mob - - - June 16, 1843 The king prorogues the assembly at Berlin, and appoints its meeting at Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 1848 The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the order of the king to disband. Berlin in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848 The assembly dissolved, and a new con- Dec. 6, 1843 stitution promulgated MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG, ETC. succession of time, passed into tha families of Staden, Ascanit, Bellen- A..D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. * * Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in pur] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 551 PRUSSIA, continued. stadt, and that of Bavaria; till the emperor Sigismond, with the consent of the states of the empire, gave per- petual investiture to 1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or Ironside ; resigned. 1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil- les. He confirmed the deed made by his predecessor, of mutual succession with the families of Saxony and Hesse; resigned. 1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, his son. 1499 Joachim I., his son. 1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew 1571 John George. 1598 Joachim Frederick. 1608 John Sigismund. 1619 George William. 1640 Frederick William the Great. 1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king of Prussia. KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 1701 Frederick I. 1713 Frederick William I. 1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Gr lit 1786 Frederick William II. 1797 Frederick William III. 1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, a. d. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32 600 ; and in 1790, the number in Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- bination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1. — Phillips. PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inseription on the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282. PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- gan 218 b. p., in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 12000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 552 the world's progress. I PYT where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of purgatory was known about a. d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman church in 593. — Plalina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — Dupin. PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called Candlemas-day. PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson. PYRAMIDS of EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu- ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- man labor has not been found on the earth. " Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids, " Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Youno. PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from July 25 to August 2. PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain ; by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c, and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter by $UA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553 the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the world. He was the inventor of the multiplication- table, and a great im- prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at this day, 539 b. c. PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ; though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Di< >medes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio- tyons, b. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. Q. QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addison. Quacks sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several countries, particularly England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta- blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 25(K, Oct. 30, 1830. QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- nomers under the Caliphs, in a. d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feei 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See Navigation. QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. QU&LSTOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship was the first office any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was greatly increased. QUAKERS or FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and those present with him. to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect- able sect, excelling in morals prudence, and industry, was commenced in England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith, Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by the * The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where the first Friends who arrived weie females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and to.ei. 24 554 the world's PROGRESS. [ QUS Quakers originated with their founder, who published a hook of instruc- tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1693. QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- rantine with their ships, &c, a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, between the British and allied army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name of queen, that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of king. See note to article Hungary. QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her funeral, Aug. 14. QUEENS op ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry L, or the lady Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who ears cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- eelves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em- bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in that year. See Plngue. Of the 120 few reached America. que] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 555 died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac> tnal sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen The following list includes all these royal personages : — Of William I. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and died 1084. William II. This sovereign died unmarried. Of Henry I. Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of Scotland ; she was married November 11, 1100; and died May I, 1119. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129. Survived the king. Maude oi Matilda. D<. nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry V., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, earj of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 1139. Crowned, but was soon after defeated at Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with Stephen, which secured the succession to her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. Of Stephen. Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and lied May 3, 1151. Of Henry II. Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; and died 1204. [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of this prince. Of Richard I. Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- vived the king. Of John. Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; she was married in 1189. Divorced. Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of the count de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on whose death she was remarried to the count de la Marche. Of Henry III. Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- nastery, whither she had retired. Of Edward I. Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she was married September 12, 1299. Survived the king. Of Edward II. Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; she was married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was confined for the rest of her life in her owk house at Risings, near London. — Hume. Of Edward III. Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland and Hainault ; she was married January 24 1328 ; and died August 16, 1369. Of Richard II. Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperor Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. Isabella, daughter of Charles Vl.of France; she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the inva- der of her husband she returned to her fa- ther. Of Henry IV. Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; she died, before Henry obtained the crown, in 1394. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- vived the king, and died in 1437. Of Henry V. Catherine, daughter of the king of France i she was married May 30, 1420. "She outliv- ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of Henry VII. Of Henry VI. Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and died in 1482. Of Edward IV. Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in confinement. Edward V. This prince perished in the Tower, in the 13th year of his age ; and died unmar- ried. Of Richard III. Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwick, and widow of Edward, prlace of Wales, whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is supposed to have been poisoned by Richard (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to make way for his intended marriage with the princess Elizabeth of York. Of Henry VII. Elizabeth of York, princess of England, daughter of Edward IV. ; she was married January 18, 1486; and died February 11 1503. 556 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [qu» QUEENS, continued. Of Henry VIII. Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She was married June 3, 1509; was the mother of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died January 6, 1536. Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She was privately married, before Catherine was divorced, Nov. 14, 1532; was the mother of queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- er, May 19, 1536. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. She was married May 20, 1536, the day after Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, Oct. 13, 1537. Anns of Cleves, sister of William, duke of Cleves. She was married January 6, 1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died in 1557. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; and was beheaded on Tower hill February 12, 1542. ' Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. She was married July 12, 1543. Survived the king, after whose death she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and died September 5, 1548. Edward VI. This prince, who ascended the throne in his tenth year, reigned six years and five months, and died unmarried. Lady Jane Grey. Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen on the death of Edward. In ten days after- wards returned to private life; was tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 1554, when but seventeen years of age. Mary. Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 1598. Elizabeth. Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. Of James I. Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter r>f Frederick II. ; she was married August 3); 1589; and died March 1619. Of Charles I. Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. king of France ; she was married June 13, 1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and died in France, August 10, 1669. Of Charles n. Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughtel of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. ; sh< was married May 21, 1662. Survived the king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 21, 1705. Of James II. Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,, earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep tember 1660; and died before James ascend- ed the throne, in 1671. Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution in 1683, she retired with James to France - and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur- vived her consort seventeen yetrs. William and Mary. Mary, the princess of Orange, daugh tei if James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16; 7 ■ ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- cember 28, 1694. Anne. * Daughter of James II. She married George prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed- ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen children, all of whom died young ; lost her husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 1, 1714. Of George I. Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol Zell. She died a few weeks previously to the accession of George to the crown, June 8, 1714. Of George II. Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and died November 20, 1737. Of George III. Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke ol Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married Septembei 8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. Of George IV. Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. See article Queen Caroline. Of William IV. Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she was married July 11, 1818; and survived the king. Victoria. Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen daughter of the duke of Kent ; born May 24 1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cous.ir prince Albert of Saxe-Cot«rg-Gotha, Feb- ruary 10, 1840. QUEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri- RAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 557 ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the same day. QtrtCKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by Mr. "Walker, in 1787. QT7IETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists in France. His principal tenet was, that the. purity of religion coi-sisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of absolute rest and inaction in which the, sect supposed the soul to be, when arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillip* QUITO. A presidency of Colombia (which see) celebrated as having been the scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. R. RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chai tr- ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times aa in- strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now teen in the Tower. 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, a? being con^ary to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac. 558 the world's PROGRESS. [ EA RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. ]Je left 40,0002. to the Uni- versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1. 1714. The first stone 01 the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. R ADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but on rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 1485 b. o. — Heylin. RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram- ways in and about New- castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 :— " The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, at. Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. Miles. Miles Great Britain and Ireland ■ 3,375 Italy .... 115 United States (in 1849, 6,117) - - 3,800 Denmark .... 106 Germany (in 1849, 3,100) - 1,570 Cuba .... 800 Holland - - - 200 Russia 52 Belgium - 1,095 British Colonies 1,000 France - - 2,200 East India .... 500 Total length of railways opened throughout the world: — in 1847, 21,761 miles. In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; in 1834. the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railways, 1847. RAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines complet. ed reached an aggregate of In New England 1,219 miles. In New York ' - 840 do. ,ln other parts of the United States - - - .- - -4,058 do. Total .... 6,117 do [Sea American Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.] RAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c, &c. The first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convey granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- cester, July6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 12, 1840. RAILROADS in FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as ] 783 ; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 8, 1846. RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. RAMILIES, Battle op, between the English under the duke of Marlborough and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his daughters. RATISBON, Peace op, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an<7. in some parts of France are still unknown. RAVENNA, Battle op, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 11, 1512. RAVILLAC'S MURDER op HENRY IV. op FRANCE. The death cf Ravil- lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, May 14, 1610 ; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin wero poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain ; and his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to b« In Ireland (Browne) .... 1535 In England, completed (Crammer,! u- cer, Fagius, fyc.) .... [547 In Scotland (Knox) 1560 In the Netherlands .... ]562 560 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ RE1 piuled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through thu streets. REFORM in PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of Aqui- leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wicklifie, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The eras of the Reformation are as follows : — In England ( Wickliffe) - - A. d. 1360 1 In Sweden (Petri) ■ - - a. d. 1530 In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 | In England (Henry VIII.) - - - 1534 In Germany (Luther) - - - - 1517 In Switzerland (Zuinglius) - - -1519 In Denmark 1521 In France (Calvin) 1529 Protestants first so called - - - 1529 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Luther, Protestants, fyc. RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to God. the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- troduced by Enos, 2832 b. c. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced with the Reformation {which see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv- ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. REPEAL of the UNION op Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf. on Oct. 8, was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. RETREAT op the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under IEV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 561 continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was- enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops cf moun- tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 e. c. — Vossius. REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- nary, £l, 200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. Raised to £6.000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. SINCLAIR. - £800,000 400,000 450,000 500,000 600,01 iL 895.819 1,517,247 1,800.000 - 2,001,855 3,892.205 ■ 5,691 £03 6,762,643 - 8,522.510 15,572.971 - 65.599,570 62,871,300 - 55,431,317 . . 50,494:732 - 51,067,856 SNERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC William the Conqueror William Rufus - Henry 1. Stephen Henry II. Richard I. ■ John Henry III. ■ Edward I. Edward II. Edward III. Richard II. Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. Edward IV. Edward V. Richard III. Henry VII. REVENUE SINCE - £400,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 80,000 150,900 100,000 154,000 130,000 100.( 11 10 76,643 64,976 100,000 130.000 400,000 THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN Henry VIII. Edward VI. - Mary .... Elizabeth James I. .... Charles I. - Commonwealth Charles II. James II. - William III. - Anne (at the Union) - George I. ... George II. ... George III., 1788 - Ditto, 1S20, United Kingdom George IV., 1825, ditto - William IV., 1830, ditto - Ditto, 1835, ditto • - - Victoria, 1845, ditto - REVENUE of the United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in $4,399,473 - 5,926.216 10,624,997 - 13,520,312 9,299,737 - 15,411.634 16,779,331 REVIEWS and MAGAZINES 1790 1795 1800 1805 1810 1815 1820 1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 - - $16,993.a58 1830 - - 24,280,888 1844 - - 2S,504;519 1835 - - - 34,163,635 1845 - - • 29,769.134 1836 - - 48,288,219 1846 - - 29,499.247 1837 - - - 18,032,846 1847 - - - 26,346,79C 1838 • ■ 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750 1839 - - - 30,399,043 The first publication of the character of a re- view was the " Journal des Savants" established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society o! learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued ; but in 1816. it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- tributors, as De Sacy, LangMs, Re'musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few years. The Gentleman's Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly Review, in 1749, were the first works of t'he kind published in London, that obtained any great degree of permanency .or celebrity. Of the journals which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated by Nichols; viz. "Weekly Memorials, oran Account of Books lately set forth,'' 24* 562 the world's PROGRESS. [ REV 1688-9; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; ' New Memoirs oi Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 18 vols., 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. The Gentleman' 's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate, David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 ■vols., died in 1827, having been joint or solo editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession; and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag- azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is spoken, — that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 volumes The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was established in 1749, by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it 54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 1825 108 volumes. The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764- to 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished upwards of 2,620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series was begun in 1815. The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were, the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom di'jd in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in monthly numbers ; hi 1 * ^om 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of ' : The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High Church principles. The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri- odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter ot Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith (the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished names of Play fair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham : and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- what less than 9000. The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early aa 1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- REV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High. Tory principles. It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- bered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected Avith the government. The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert Hall, and John Foster.— Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, from 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members of the established church, was commenced in 1802, and maintains what are commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have be-ai republished in this country. Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 1 he Westminster Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- tham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. The Foreign Quarterly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united to the Westminster Review. — Amer. Almanac, &c. REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 536 b. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 b. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or Greek monarchy, by Julius Csesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, France. Portugal, &c. REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated in modern history. In Portugal, a. d. 1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730 and 1762. In Sweaen, 1772 and 1809. in America, 1775. In France. 1789, 18:30. and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In the Netherlands, 1830. Iu Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 564 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. kio Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c, 1848-9. These last were temporary only — the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- tively. REVIEWS and MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- rary journals : n several places in this country, particularly Boston, New York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and religious reviews and magazines : boston. Founded. American Monthly Ma- gazine, (the first) es- tablished by Jeremy Gridley, continued 3 years, about • - 1745 Massachusetts Maga- zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 Monthly Antliology, Prf. Ticknor, A. H. Eve rett, Buckminster, &c. (to 1311) - - - 1803 General Repertory and Review, (1st Amer. quarterly,') edited at Cambridge by Andrews Norton - - 1812-13 North American Re- view, commenced by W. Tudor* - - 1815 Christian Examiner, (quarterly) Channing, Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 American Biblic. Repo- sitory, founded by E. Robinson, D.D., at An- dover - - - 1831 Christian Review,(B&p- tist) quarterly - - 1835 Boston Quarterly Re- view^ (Brownson) - 1837 New England Maga- zine, Buckingham - 1833 American Quarterly Re- gister, Edwards - 18 — The Dial, (quarterly) Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 Massachusetts Quarter NEW YORK. N. Y. Magazine and Literary Repository, (to 1792) - - 1787 Literary Review, R. C. Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1822 Atlantic Mag., Sands, afterwards New York Monthly Review, - 1824 Knickerbocker Mag., C. F. Hoffman, succeeded by Flint, and now L. G. Clark - - 1832 Democratic Review (un- til 1841 at Washington) 1837 American Monthly Ma- gazine, N. y.,(to 1838) Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- jamin - - - 1835 N. Y. Review, (quar- terly) J. G. Cogswell, (to 1842) - - 1837 American Review, G. H. Colton - - 1844 Hunt's Merchant's Ma- gazine - • - 1839 NEW HAVEN. Christian Observer American Journal of Science Sf Arts, (Silli man's) quarterly New Englander, Theol (quarterly) Church Review (quar- terly) - 182- 1818 1843 R13 PHILADELPHIA. Aitkin's Pennsylvania Magazine was the most popular before the Revolution; Thos. Paine and Francis Hopkinson, editors Amer. Museum, pub. by Matthew Carey, (to 1792) - - -1787 Literary Magazine and American Register, C. Brockden Brown, (to 1810) - - -18.6 Portfolio, pub. monthly from 1809 by Jos, Den- nie; edited by Nicho- las Biddle,] 812-16, and 1816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 Analectic Mag., Mosga Thomas, (to 1820) '8\3 Amer. Quar. Review, Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 Graham's Magazine • Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale Stryker's American Re- gister, (quarterly) - 1847 Southern Quarterly Re- view, at Charleston, (to 1833, recommenced 1842) - - -1823 Southern Lit. Messen- ger, at Richmond, by T. W. White - - 1834 Biblical Repertory and Theological Review, Princeton, N. J. - 18— ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1S46 RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. * Subsequent editors : — W. Phillips, 1817 ; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks. 1817; Edward Eferett, 18' 9; Jared Sparks. 1823; A. H. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835; F. Bowen, .842. ROM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 565 RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of the Rhine- RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Ro^er Williams and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, and founded the town of Providence, in 1686. Williams obtained a patent from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti- tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Pop- ulation in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130. RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b.c. Its famous Colossus (which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroyed by the Saracen admiral Moavht, a. d. 672 — Priestley. RIALTO, at Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in his " Merchant of Venice. 1 ' It was built in 1570, and consists of a single arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near the middle, where it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. RIGHTS, BILL op. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill oj Rights. RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812. At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- tary, Sept. 24, 1831. At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835. At New York, '-abolition riots," caused by discussions on slavery, and supposed in- tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- gamation" between whites and blacks, July 10-12, 1834. At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. At Utica, Boston, &c, same cause, 1835-6. At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 30. 1836. At New York, caused by the high price ot flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- very newspaper destroyed, and he was killed, Nov. 7. 1837. At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- nia Hall, &c, May 17, 1838. In the Pennsylvania legislature, two different legislatures organized, the Senate expelled from their Chamber by a mob. Militia called out and the contest settled after 4 days, Dec. 8, 1838. At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. Disgraceful affray in Pennsylvania legisla- ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 8, 1843. Another in House of Representatives of U. S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, Jan. 25, 1844. Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 churches burned, fourteen persons killed, forty wounded : finally put down by the military, May 6-8, 1844. The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- ed out, July 7,1844. Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 1844 : renewed in December. Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor Wright to be in a state of insurrection. Col lection of rents being resisted by rioters disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 25, 1847. Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y. against Mr. Macready, the English actor 21 killed ; May 10, 1849. Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the Senate, of the U. S., the first gross insult to that assembly, May, 1850. RIVER and HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- 566 the world's PROGRESS, [ RJM sembled at Chicago, III., July 5, 18-47. House of Representatives votes (112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- ment to promote such improvements, July 1848. ROBESPIERRE S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers ol eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through the hall ; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historian assert that this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247, when he died. — Statue's Chron. ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were first usod at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See article Boulogne Flotilla. ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform- ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi. ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his seat under the act. ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author of Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.-- Huet de Or \gine Fabul. Roman. ROS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 567 ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of Mount Palatine"; and the founder, to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard ai a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, tin; Palatine. Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neanj the whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. The three Horatit, Roman knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, having been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. — Lory. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63. Foundation of the city commenced by Romulus - - -B.C. Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the title of king of Italy, which ends the Western empire - - a. d. Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Belisarius .... Retaken by the Goths Narses, Justinian's general, again re- conquers Rome Papal power established Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, and becomes free Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- poral dominion of Rome Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor of the West - - - - 753 476 Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at Rome 1347 [The popes continued in possession of the city and territories. See article Popes and Italy.] The recent struggles of Rome for free- dom commenced in - - - 1848 Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- ter, assassinated at the senate-house. The populace march to the Quirinal, and present their demands to the pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- stituent assembly, a new ministry, &c. The pope refuses ; the people attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1848 The pope, after being a prisoner in his palace for seven days, escapes from Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis- guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1S48 [ The Roman republic proclaimed; Maz- zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 French armament against the republic reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 French repulsed under the walls of Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 days, and false promises on the part of the French - - July 2, 1849 j Rome entered by the French under Ou- dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 Oudinot surrenders the government into the hands of three commissioners of the pope, who begin the work of reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349 Letter of the French president, dictat- ing the basis of the restoration of the pope's temporal power, viz. : general amnesty, secularization of the admi- nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- ral government - Aug. IS, 1849 Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as being said in 1093. ROSES, The White and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated England, were carried on under the symbols of the White and the Bed Rose, and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan- 568 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ ROM caster chose the i ed roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii to the crown; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the thira son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdona with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parfcularly ir the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22 1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.; 1486 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of herraetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger many in 1302, and again early in the 1 7th century, They swore fidelity promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng. land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava- lurs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first president.— Leigh. ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter aa " The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thi* establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in tb.4 apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a bodj politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.'' RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of (he civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded; and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, were BUS ] DICTIONARY OF BATES. 569 permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 1649.— Goldsmith. RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in subjection till 1540. when John Basilowitz restored it to independence.'- In the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered Siberia. The foundation of the present monarchy laid a. d. 1474 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, signifying great king, and drives the Tartars clear out of his dominions, 1534 to 1550 The navigation from England first dis- covered by RQbert Chancellor - - 1554 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 30,000 of the people - - - -1571 The Novogorodians having intrigued with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- ces before his eyes .... 1531 The race of Rurick, who had governed Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598 The imposition practised by Demetrius See Impostors. 1606 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their own king, Sigismund II., upon the throne of Russia .... 1610 Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 Revolt from Polish tyranny - - - 1613 Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682 He visited England, and worked in the dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697 Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 The Russians begin their new year from January 1 - - - 1700 Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given to Anne of Courland - - - 1730 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 Peter III. dethroned and murdered ; suc- ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA 1606 Chousky murdered, The young prince, the rightful heir, till now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 The dismemberment of Poland com- menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177/- This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- ing criminals ; and dies - - 1796 Murder of the emperor Paul, who is found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 The grand-duke Constantine renounces the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1820 Nicholas invested with the order of the Garter - - - July 9, 1827 Peace concluded between Russia and the Persians - - Feb' 22, 1828 War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 [For the disastrous consequences to Turkey of this war, see Turkey and Battles.] The war for the independence of Poland, against Russia - - Nov. 29,' 1830 This war closed with the capture of Warsaw, and the total overthrow of the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 [For the events of this last war, see ar- ticle Poland.] Cracow, which had been erected into a republic, and its independence gua- ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, is occupied by a Russian and Austrian army - Feb. 13, I83o Failure of the Russian expedition a- gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1340 Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15, 1843 1461 John III. 1504 Demetrius ; 1504 Basil V. 1534 John IV. 1584 Theodore I. 1598 Bovise Godounove. 1605 Theodore II. J605 Pemetrius II. , assassinated. 1616 Michael fedorowitz. 1645 Alexis. 1676 Theodore III. 1682 Peter I., the Great. 1725 Catherine I. 1727 Peter II. 1730 Anne, a nun. 570 the world's progress. [s*;j RUSSIA, continued. 1740 John V. ; murdered, Jily 17, 1762. 1741 Elizabeth. 1762 Peter III. ; deposed, and died soon af- terwards. 1762 Catherine II. 1796 Paul I. ; murdered, Feb 25, 1901. 1801 Alexander. 1825 Nicholas, December 1. RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy t« assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New- market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1688. The plot was discov- ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Sp^in, and Holland signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. S. SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charit} r , on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the Jews, 1549. SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c, that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, &c. — Josephus. SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- tween them, 750 b. c. SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c. The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 356 b. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutarch. SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con- sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; Ushtr. Sacrifices to the gods were fii st introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of ST. V ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571 Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 83. SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in a. d. 304. They were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En- glish ladies. — Slowe. SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the Sama- ritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year. SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became master of a pile of ashes and of dead. ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami. or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31 1813. ST. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at Rome. ST. VINCENT, Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets off the Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged tb§ rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 5(2 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ SAJ* SALAMANCA. Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington waa victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. SALAMTS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. After this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, with 300.000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. SALIQUE, on SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. — Henault's France. In order to give more authority to the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. SALT and SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered about a. d. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lempriere. SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burehrs, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- minster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- pressed in 1696. SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, £AR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 573 among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. Sea Shoes. S ANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard of mankind. It was in one. of these islands that this illustrious circumna- vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihorihoand his queen died in Eng- land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- aries, &c, 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jtdd, an Ame- rican, prime-minister. 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2630 tons, belong- ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling station. See Owhyhee. SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her .beauty, and her amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. — Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. SARAGOSSA. Anciently Csesarea Augusta ; whence, by corruption, its name. Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of the inhabitants perished in a Are at the theatre. Saragossa taken by the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re- nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17 1777. SARDANAPALTIS. The last king of Assyria. .See Assyria. One of the mos( 574 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS I SA1 infamous ;md sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart- ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The richea thus destroyed were worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold, and tea times as many talents of silver III about 1,400,000,000/. sterling. — Athenceus, SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c, are supposed to have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls (when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v, Inch various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. Subjugated by the Romans B.C. 231 Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, who are, however, too weak to expel the Saracens 1132 Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes master of Sardinia - - - - 1324 Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- lish naval forces .... 1708 Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 They again lose possession - - - 1719 Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- valent for Sicily .... 1720 Victor Amadeus, having the title of king abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is taken, and dies in prison - - - 1732 [The court kept at Turin till 1706, when these dominions were overrun by the French arms, and shortly afterwards annexed to the French empire.] The king resigns his crown to his bro- ther, duke of Aoust - . June 4, 1802 Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- parte crowned king of the whole. December 26, 1805 Restored to its rightful sovereign, with Genoa added to it December 1814 King Charles Albert, having protested against Austrian encroachments in Italy, calls out an additional force of 25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1548 Proclaims the basis of a Constitution Feb. 8, 1848 Declares war against Austria, enters Milan with An army, to assist the po- pular cause, and drives the Austrians towards Mantua - - March 23, 1843 Takes Lodi .... April 1,*"* Forces the Austrian line near Verona, April 17, **** Takes Peschiara - • - May 30, **** Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, at Goito *"*-• Sardinian army driven from Vicenza, Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of Milan Aug. 4, **** Followed by an armistice - - '."" Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849 Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under Charles Albert, totally defeated by Radetsky *"** The king abdicates in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and leaves the kingdom - March 23, **" Insurection at Genoa against the new king April 1, ***" Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, **** and fully reduced - - April 11, **** Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- bon July 28, *'"*•* Victor Emanuel opens the legislative chamber with a moderate speech, and is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. *"* Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, **" The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re- lieve the refugees fom various parts of Italy • - Aug. 30, "" KINGS OP SARDINIA. A. e. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- nuel duke of Savoy. 1730. Charles Emanuel 1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1796. Charles Emanuel. 1802. Victor Emanuel. 1821. Charles Felix. 1831. Charles Albert, Apri. 27. 1848. Victor Emanuel SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made ita appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 SAW 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575 b.c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ac« companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was named by them Saterne's-day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, dies Satumi. — Addison. SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun. and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c, by Huygens in 1634 ; his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the planets. SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Romein,h<> reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount deposited, 32.661.924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous throughout the United States. SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country in 1792. and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. SAW. Invented by Dagdalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — Apollodorus, Ta- lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. . Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he e?rs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. In England saw-mills had at firsi the. same fate with printing in Tur- key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were 576 the world's PROGRESS. [_ BUB violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. C .A XONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he did not hurry himself out of the world 1 "Because," says he, "there is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — Strabo. SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Le Gendre. SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scully. In Eng- land there are now 13.642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday schools) 4.836 ; and the number of children, 181.467. The number of schools in Wales is 841. and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund in Maine amounts to $350,000; in Massachusetts, $850,000 ; in Connecticut, $2,077,641; New York, '$6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware, $225,000; Virginia. $1.448.261 ; Georgia, $262 300; Alabama, $1.215,381 ; Tennessee, $1,346,068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio. $1,566,931; Michigan, $500,000; Indiana. $2,195,149; Missouri, $575 668; Iowa, $132,909. Total in 1849, $21,420,275. In the State of New York the number of District School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libraries, &c. SCIENCE in the United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. First jourse of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of EOF ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 577 Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men turned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men. went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romneymd Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sis Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued an independent kingdom t- ; ll the death of the English queen Elizabeth, when James VI. of Scotkmd, the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign o[ queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name ^.f Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et scq. SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pum ping- screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the assistance of this screw, press down or raise ujd as much as 150 men could do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig. SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipoenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- ture was revived, under the auspices of the Meclici family, about 1460 — Abbi Lenglet. FCYTHIA. Tbe country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 25 578 THE world's PROGRESS. [ SSM Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 624 when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ they invaded the Roman empire. SEAS Sovereignty op the. The claim of England is of very ancient date. Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. SECRETARY op STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign two secretaries were appointed ; and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington, Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected by the people. SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balbi. Jews .... 4,500.000 I Idolaters, g Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of lAe Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- ther to the emperor of the French For subsequent events, see Naples. 1713 172) 17S4 1738 17l- 9 1783 15 99 A&05 1806 KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. A.d. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he resigned it to the emperor Charles VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in lieu of it. 1718. Charles VI. emperor. 1734. Charles, second son to the king of Spain, resigned in 1759. 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former king. 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 1S08. Joachim Murat; he was shot, October 13, 1815. 1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- dom of the Two Sicilies. 1826. Francis I. 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8. SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her train. - She was observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out " Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number 0$ 8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the massacre became general throughout the island. SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held ou1 for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen tury :— Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- parte ; siege raised after \ 60 days, open trenches. Algesiras, 1341. Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessels first used by a French en- gineer named Renau, 1816 Alkmaer, 1573. Almeida, August 27, 1810. Amiens, 1597. Ancona, 1798. Angouleme, 1?43 584 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [si» SIEGES, continued. Antwerp, 1576. I se of in- fernal machines 1583,1535 1706, 1792, 1814. Arras, 1414. Ath, 1745. Avignon, 1226. Azoff, 1736. Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- ken by escalade on the night of April 6, 1812. Bagdad, 1248. Bangalore, March 6, 1791. Barcelona. 1697, 1714. Bayorme, 1451. Beauvais, 1472. Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 1688, 1717, 1739, 1789, Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. Bergen-op-Zoom, 1583, 1622, 1747, 1314. Berwick, 1293. Besancon, 1668, 1674. Bethune, 1710. Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Bologna, 1512, 1796. Bommel ; the invention of the covert-way, 1794. Bonifacio, 1553. Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. Bouchain, 1676, 1711. Boulogne, 1545. Brannau. 1744, 1805. Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. Brisac, 1638, 1703. Brussels, 1695, 1746. Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 1812 ; raised. The French in their retreat blew up the works, June 13, 1813. Cadiz, 1812. Caen, 1346, 1450. Calais, 1347, (British histo- rians affirm that cannon were used at Cressy, 1346, and here in 1347. First used here in 1388. — Ry- mbk's Fcbd.) 1558, 1596. Calvi, 1794. Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. Candia ; the largest cannon then known inEurope used here by the Turks, 1667. Capua, 1501. Carthagena, 1706. Castillon, 1452, 1586. Ceuta, 1790. Chalons, 1199. Charleroi. 1672, 1677, 1693, 1736, 1794. Chartres, 1568, 1591. Chaves, March 25, 1809. Cherbourg, 1450. Chincillaroct. 30, 1312. Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706 ; July 10. 1310; Jan. 19, 1812. Colberg, 1760, 1807. Colchester, 1645. Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. Coni, 1691, 1744. Constantinople, 1453. Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. Corfu, 1715. Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. Cracow, 1772. Cremona, 1702. Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 to Jan. 12, 1814. Dendermonde, 1667. Dole, 1668, 1674. Douay, 1710. Dover, 1216. Dresden, 1745, 1813. Drogheda, 1649. Dublin, 1500. Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. Edinburgh, 1093. Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811. Flushing', Aug. 15, 1809. Fontenoy, 1242. Prnderickshal ; Charles XII. killed, 1718. Frederickstein, August 13, 1814. Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793. Gaela, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, July, 1806, - 1815. Genoa 1747, 1800. Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. Ghent, 1576. 1708. Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See Gibraltar), 1782. Glatz, 1742, 1807. Gottingen, 1760. Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. Gravelinea, 1644 Grenada. 1491. 1492. Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. Guastalla, 1702. Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. Ham, 1411. Harfleur, 1415, 1450. Heidelberg, 16S8. Herat, June 28, 1838. Huningen, 1815. Ismael: the merciless Suwar- row butchered 30,000 men. the brave garrison, and 6000 icomen, in cold blood, Dec. 22, 1790. Kehl, 1733, 1796. Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 1792, and 1793. Landrecis, 1543, 1712. Laon, 991, 1594. Leipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. Lemberg, 1704. Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. Ley den, 1574. Liege, 1468, 1702. Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. Lilo, 1747. Limerick, 1651, 1691. Londonderry, 1689. Louisbourg, 1758. Lyons, 1793. Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau- ba.n first came into notiet, 1676, 1743, 1794. Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. Malaga, 1487. Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. Marseilles, 1544. Mentz, by Charles V., lift^ 1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. Melun, 1420, 1559. Menin, 1706, 1744. Mequinenza, June 8, 1S10. Messina, 1282, 1719. Metz, 1552. Mezieres, 1521. Middleburgh, 1572. Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 1792, 1794. Mimargis, 1427. Montauoan, 1621. Montevideo, Jan. j BOS. Mothe : theFrench, taught by a Mr. Midler, an English engineer, first practised thg art of throwing shells, 1634. Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 1806. Nice, 1705. Nieuport, 1745, 1794. Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. Olmutz, 1758. Orleans, 1423, 1563. Osiend, 1701, 1706, 1745. Oudenarde, 170S, 1745. Padua, 1509. Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. Paris, 1429. 1485, 1594. Parma 1248. Pavia. 1525, 1655, 1796. Perpignan, 1542, 1642. Philipville, 1578. Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 1C8S, first experiment of firing artillery a-ricochet, 1734, 1795. Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. Uuesnoy, 1794. Rennes, 1357. Rheims, 1359. Rhodes, 1522. Riga, 1700, 1710. Rochelle, 1573, 1627. Rome, 1527, 1798. Romorentin; artillery first used in sieges -Voltaias. 1256. Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1808. Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. Roxburgh, 1460. St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. Salamanca, June 27 1812, Salisbury, 1349. Saragossa, 1710, 1809. Saverne, 1675. Schweidnitz ; first expert- ment to reduce afortrtat bilJ UCriONARY 01 DATES. 585 Thorn, 1703. Thouars, 1372, 1793. Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Toulouse, 1217. Toumay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 1667, 1709, (this was the best defence ever drawn from countermines), 1745. 1794. Treves, 1675. Tunis, 1270, 1535 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. Urbino, 1799. Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. Valencienes, 1677, 1794. Vannes, 1343. Venloo, 1702, 1794. Verdun, 1792. Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1845 Vienna, 1529, 1683. Wakefield, 1460. Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. Xativa, 1707. Xeres, 1262. Ypres. 164S, 1744, 179-1. Zurich, 15-44. Zutphen, 1572, 15S6. STEGE3, continued. by springing globes of com- pression, 1762, 1807. Scio (see Greece), 1822. beringapatam. 1799. Seville 1096, 1248. Smolensko, 1611. Soissons, 1414. Stralsund ; - the method of throwing red hot balls first practised with certainty. 1675_!213, 1807. Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. Tarragona, May 1813. Temeswar, 1716. Thionville, 1643, 1792. SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed witii free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, • February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, a. d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1180, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis L, about 1510 ; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spital- fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680/. In England silver-pkt-« and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, a.d. 709. — Tyrell's Hist, of England. Silver knives, spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 269 b. o. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which were 223 grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest- silver coin in England. See Shillings, &c, and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 25* 58G the world's prc g-ress. r SLA were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 15s. in silver, being a yearly average of 444,3301— Pari. Ret. SJMONLANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome about a. d. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet ho had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan. 24, 1834. SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very anciem custom both among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. a. d. 886, eccle- siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with jl tedious sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of the world. — St. Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the churcl» music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- nefactor ; Philopater, lover of his father ; Philometer, lover of his mother, &c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- tides was called the Just; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian Sage ; Menedaemus, the Eretrian Butt ; Democritus, the Laughing Philoso- pher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed Mac, as Macdonald. son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c, were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — Rymer's Ecedera, vol. x. SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaklea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 b. c. See Helots. SLAVERY in ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their serines or labor, they had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampiey£, 42 B. c. Csecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves 12 b. c. BLA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587 SLAVERY in ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect- ing the sale of slaves wa& made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within thai space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, become a slave to his master, 1547. SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computes that, at the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, "Add 1.000.000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, the annual number was about 100,000; and in 1807 (the last year of the English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by government, that from 1792 upwards of 8,500 ; 000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 9, 1847. SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should " European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-ereaturss, recollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — Cooper's Letters on the Slave Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im- punity. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us tha frowns and the judgments of heaven. 11 By foreign wealth are British morals changed, And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." 1 .15 trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February 1815. Napoleon,' in trie hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain. 1S17; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic continues to be encoiraged in several states.— Hizydre. 588 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ SalTf *i>e devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and Ihat the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantable negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, and carried off'42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1883, the number of slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. After several other efforts of humane and just men, the question wa3 introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis- ters, March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament. March 25, 1807. SLAVERY op the AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe, — but the next /ear the slaveij of ji- dians was recognized as lawful ; and the practice of selling the natives of North America into foreign bondage continued for nearly two centuries. The excellent Winthrop enumerates Indians among his bequests. — Ban- croft. Slave Trade. [Slavery had been already prohibited in most of the northern States in their constitutions.] Act of congress against fitting out ves- sels for slave trade - - - 1794 Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- ted States from holding property in foreign slave vessels. United States vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1801 Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, the introduction of slaves into the United States - - - - 180 Act declaring the slave trade piracy, punishable with death - - 1820 [Slavery has, however, been continued in thirteen of the States. See Mis- souri. ] The number of slaves in the United States in 1790 was 697,697 In 1800 896,849 In 1810 1,191,364 In 1820 1,538.064 In 1830 2,010,436 In 1840 2,487,355 SLAVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000.000^. sterling, passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28. 1833. By the operation of this act, slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became free. SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says ha slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so ah tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, Many of the early navigators to Ame- rica, including Columbus himself, carried considerable numbers of the aborigines to Europe, where they were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- bella commanded the liberation of Indians held in bondage in her pos- sessions, in - - - - 1501 SLAVERY in the UNITED STATES. See The first negro slaves in the English colonies of North America were brouaht to Virginia in a Dut£h vessel of war - - . - - 1620 Negroes " who had been fraudulently brought from Guinea" to Massachu- setts (the first in New England), were sent home at the public expense by the general court of that colony - 1646 Gorton and Roger Williams made a de- cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 White slaves were sold in England, to be transported to Virginia : average price for 5 years' service, £5 — while a negro was worth £25. — Bancroft - 1672 Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 The Quakers abolished slavery among themselves .... 1754 Resolutions against the slave trade passed by the first congress of the colonies .... 1774 Act against the external slave trade passed by congress of the United States ..... 1789 SOD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 589 596 b. c. We have many, and even very late, instances of persons ia these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr. Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a iia. tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left £100,000 " to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment cf the trust, 1846. Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to. enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against smuggling was enacted in 1736. SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- ably more than 3,000,0000Z. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88.263Z. See Tobacco. SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap„ In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, washed theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. SOBRAON, Battle of ; India. The British army, 35.000 strong, under Sir Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by the French government. SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or- 590 the world's PROGRESS. [ son gauged on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, ic all ages and nations : by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among the Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella, a. d. 1623 ; and by Babeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was bornatBesanconin 1772; and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instni mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Laj^'us Socinus. They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. SODOM and GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed by fire from heaven. 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. How truly the poet says — " He who through vast immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What varied beings people every star, May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope. SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October 30, 1004 b. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Us\er, Lengiet. SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions. 33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Eli- zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances of the punishment of son erers, see Witchcraft. spa] dictionary of dates. 591 SOUDAN or SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, a. d. 1165. after having killed the caliph Caym. SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 milea on the sea. See Acoustics. SOUNDINGS at SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Edipus, took extraordinary soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840. SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re- ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249.000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830, 581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. bOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2.014,000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,000/. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10.000/., and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100Z., to the enormous price of 1000Z. See Law's Bubble. SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et sea. The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain Alphonsus II. refusing to pay the Sara- from the Romans - - a. d. 412 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, The Visigoths enter Spain under their war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- leader, Euric ... - 472 riou's, and obtains the appellation of The Saracens from Arabia invade the " the chaste" - - a. d. 791 at seq. country - - - 713 et seq. Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. - 83C Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Ferdinand I, count of Castile, takes the king of Asturiis - * - 718 title of king - - -HOC 592 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SPAIN, continued. Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031 The kingdom of Arragon commenced under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of Bourbon - - -1087 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize the dominions they came to protect, and subdue the Saracens - - - 1091 et seq The Moors defeated in several battles by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - -1118 Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one great pitched battle - - - 1 135 University of Salamanca founded - 1200 Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226 Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- tile and Leon - - - - 1236 The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, their last refuge from the power of the Christians - - 1238 Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - -1252 The crown of Navarre passes to the royal familv of France - - 1276 200,000 Moors invade Spam - - 1327 They are defeated by Alphonsus XL, with great slaughter - - - 1340 The infant Don Henriquez, son of John the First of Castile, first had the title of prince of Asturias - - -1388 Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain are uni- ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the power of the Moors finally extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the western world - - - 1492 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512 Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of Spain - - - 1516 Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- tires from the world . - - 1556 Philip I. commences his bloody perse- cution of the Protestants - - 1561 The Escurial began building - - 1562 Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580 The invincible Spanish Armada de- stroyed. See Armada, and Naval Battles .... 1588 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their descendants, to the number of 900,000, from Spain - - - - 1610 Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704 Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to the crown - 1759 Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3 : 000,- 000 dollars, seized by the English Oct. 29, 1804 Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, Battle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias asrainst his father - July 25, 1807 Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 The French take Madrit A. r>. Ma-xh, 18U8 The prince of Peace disn issed by he king of Spain - March 18, 1803 Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of Ferdinand - - March 19, ISOfl And at Bayonne, in favor of his " friend and ally," Napoleon, when Ferdi- nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 180% The French are massacred at Madrid, May 2, 1S03 Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne - - May 25, 1303 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 He retires from the capital - July 29, 1808 Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 Madrid retaken by the French, ar.d Jo- seph restored - - Lee. 2, 1808 The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, Dec. 5, 1S08 [Spain now becomes the scene of the struggle called the Peninsular War, for the events of which see the arti- cles severally.] Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820 Ferdinand swears to tlie constitution of the Cortes - - March 8, 1820 Removal of the king to Seville, and thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823 The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- solved; executions - Oct. 1823 Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 The'French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1823 Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- ing the king's "indisposition, and a complete change made in the minis- try • - - Oct. 25, 1832 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to his brother's throne, should the king die - April 29, 1833 Death of Charles IV.. and his queen assumes the title of governing queen, until Isabella II., her infant daughter, attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 The royalist volunteers disarmed, with some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with his family - - June 18, 1834 He suddenly appears among his ad- herents in Spain - July 10, 1834 The peers vote the perpetual exclusion of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1034 [Here commences the desolating evil war, in which British auxiliaries take the side of the queen.] Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1838 General Evans retires from ifie com- mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- rives in London, after having achieved various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 Madrid is declared in a state of sieee. Aug. 11, 1837 [Espartero and other Christino gc terals 8~>4l DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593 SPAIN, continued. engage with the C&.- jsts, and nume- rous conflicts take place with various success.] Madrid is again declared in a state of siege - - a. d. Oct. 30, 1838 The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 The Carlists under Marota desert Don Carlos . - - - Aug. 25, 1839 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty of peace - - " Aug. 29, 1839 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France Sept. 13, 1839 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the war, enters France with a body of his troops - July ?, 1840 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 The queen regent appoints a new min- istry, who are nominated by Espar- tero .... Oct. 5. 1840 The abdication of the queen regent of Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 [She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; but returns to France.] Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during the minority of the young queen - - Apr. 12, 1841 Insurrection in favor of Christina is commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. O'DonnelPs army - - Oct. 2, 1841 It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of the kingdom - - Oct. 1841 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid, and his followers are repuls- ed, and numbers of them slain by the queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is shot ax Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 Rodil, the constitu'ional general, enters Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into Madrid - - ' Nov. 23, 1841 An insurrection breaks out at Barce- lona ; the national guard joins the populace - - Nov. 13, 1812 Battle in the streets between the national guard and the troops ; the latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 The troops evacuate the citadel, and retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1813 The regent Espartero arrives before Barcelona, and demands its uncondi- tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 The revolutionary junta is re-establish- ed it Barcelona - - June 11, 1S43 [Corui . na, Seville, Burgos, San'.iago, and numerous other towns, shortly afterwards " pronounce" against the regent Espartero.] Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, which surrenders - - July 15, 1843 Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843 [The revolution is completely success- ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and embarks on board her Majesty's ship Malabar. ] The new government deprive Espartero of his titles and rank - Aug. 16, 1843 Espartero and his suite and friends ar- rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 Reaction against the new government breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 The young queen Isabella II., 13 years old, is declared by the cortes to be of age - - - Nov. 8, 1843 The queen- mother. Christina, returns to Spain - '- - March 23, 1844 Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- linquishes his right to the crown, in favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 12 ; they return to power, March 17 ; and again resign - - March 28, 1846 The queen is publicly affianced to her cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846 Escape of Don Carlos and others from France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 Marriage of the queen ; and marriage also of the infanta Louisa to the duke de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846 [The Montpensier marriage occasions the displeasure of England, and dis- turbs the friendly relations of the French and English governments.] Amnesty granted by the queen to po- litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1546 The queen has a son born, who dies the same day - - - July 1, 1SS) KINGS OP SPAIN, A.p. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered. 411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. 415. Wallia. 420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 450. Torrismuno , assassinated by his fa- vorite. 452. Theodoric n. 466. Euric. 484. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 507. Gesalric ; killed in battle. 511. Ainalaric ; killed in battle. 631. Theodat; assassinated by a madman 548. Theodisele ; murdered for female vio- lation. 549. Agila; taken prisoner and put to deatfe. 554. Athanagild. 567. From this year to the year 687 irxteet kings reigned. 687. Egica or Egiza. 697. Vitizza. 741. Roderick; killed in X attle in 714 An interregnum till 718.- Pelagius. 736. Favila ; killed by a boar in hunting 594 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [«*• SPATN, continu :d. 738. Alpho.isus I. ; Catholic. 757. Froila I.; killed by his brother Aure- lius. 768. Aurelius. 774. Silo. 7a3. Mauregat. 789. Veremond. 791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 324. Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in one battle. 860. Ordogno I. 802. Alphonsus III. ; surnamed the great ; deposed by his son. 910. Garcias. ' 914. Ordogno II. 923. Froila II. 924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 931. Ramiro II. , killed in battle. 950. Ordogno III. 955. Ordogno IV. 956. Sftncho I., the Fat; poisoned with an apple 967. Ramiro III. 982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty. 999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of Viscu. 1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and Castile. 1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and Garcias in Galicia. 1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant ; in Castile and Leon. . 1109. Alphonsus VII. 1122. Alphonsus VIII. 1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, in Castile; Ferdinand in Leon. 1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 1214. Henry I. 1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas- tile and Leon were reunited, and per- petually annexed. 1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 1284. Sancho IV., the Brave ; Peter III. in Arragon. 1295. Ferdinand IV. 1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 1350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated by Edward the Black Prince of Eng land; afterwards beheaded by ha subjects. 1368. Henry II., the Gracious; poisoned bj a monk. 1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile. 1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 1406. John II. 1454. Henry IV. the Impotent. 1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom, by his marriage with Isabella, thfl vingdoms of Castile and Arragon were united. 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queer- Joan. 1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany, resigned both crowns, and retired ro a monastery. 1555. Philip II., married Mary, queen-reg- nant of England. 1598. Philip III., son of the preceding; he drove the Moors from Grenada and the adjacent provinces. 1621. Philip IV., his son; a reign of nearly continuous and unfortunate wars with the Dutch and France. 1665. Charles II. 1700. Philip V, duke of Anjou, grandson to- Louis XIV. of France : resigned. 1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few months. 1724. Philip V. ; again. 1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamed the Wise ; he distinguished his reign by acts of liberality and beneficence. 1759. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of his son and successor. 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of of France, also forced to resign. 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- leon; deposed. 1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded by his daughter. 1&33. Isabella II.. Sept. 29 ; who came to the throne when three years of age. While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from the kingdom. SPANISH ARMADA against England. See article Armada. SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king, 1514 b. c. From Lacedaemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history ol! Lacedaemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, from Lelex to the settlement of the Iieraclklaa, comprising about four hun- SPI^ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595 dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclida? as absol.tte monarehs, til] Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- jngation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views : Greece, page 7, et seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret, 'llie women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, tliey brought disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about a. d. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvi- no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- tacles. SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tero- ple of Fortune. Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments but such as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har- grave's ; but he rdso applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P Mips. SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet t* 59G the world's PROGRESS. [ STA condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, on the following quantities of spirits, viz.— Rum, 2,830,263 gallons ; brandy, 1,107,756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 gallons ; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons ; mak- ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns. SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- duties produced in England, in 1800. the revenue of 3, 126,535/!. ; and in 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c. STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. Standard op Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno- rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. The Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stais on its roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Slarra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- temptible. — Goldsmith. T * was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597 from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting toioe.— « Gibbon. STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b. c Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 b.c. Job, He- siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System. STATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a a eontest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed to business, without the conciirrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678. STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as '■' a way to drive up water by fire," a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising water - - - 1698 Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal Society, about - - - - 1699 Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen .... 1713 First idea of steam navigation set forth in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 Watt's invention of performing conden- sation in a separate vessel from the cvlinder .... 1765 His first patent - ... 1769 Kis engines upon a large scale erected in manufactories, and his patent re- newed by act of parliament - - 1775 Thomas Paine proposed the application Watt's expansion engine - - - - 177H Double acting engines proposed by Dr. Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 Watt's double engine, and his first pa- tent for it granted .... 1781 The marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine on the Saone - - - 178) Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's ■Im. Curios.) .... 1783-& Oliver Evans' experiments in the same 1785-6 Rumsey's experiments in the same in Virginia 1787 W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and Clyde canal - - - - 178S First steam-engine erected in Dublin by of steam in America .... 1778 Henry Jackson 1791 Engine made to give a rotary mo*'on - 1778 JoufTroy's experiments in Fr»nce - • 179S THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [STB STEAM ENGINE, continued. Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer on the Hudson 1797 First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 The experiment of Mr. Symington re- peated with success - 1802 Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 Oliver Evans' experiments m^ locomo- tive engines in Penn. - - - 1804 Woolfs double cylinder expansion en- gine constructed .... 1804 Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river Hudson, built by himself, and named "The North River;" engine by Boul- ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33 hours: first steam navigation on record - ... 1807 The next three steam-boats in the world were the Car of Neptune, - -1808 The Paragon 1811 The Richmond 1812 all in New York. Steam power to convey coals on a rail- way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 1811 Steam vessels first commenced plying on the Clyde (.first in Europe) - 1812 Steam applied to printing in tiid Times office. See Press .... 1814 There were five steam vessels in Scot- land (Pari. Returns') in - - - 1813 First steam vessel on the Thames brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1811' The first steamer built in England (Pari. Returns) 1815 The Savannah '-.earner, of 350 tons, went from New York to Liverpool in 26 days - - - - July 15, 1819 First steamer in Ireland - - - 1820 Captain Johnson obtained 10,000i. for making the first steam voyage to In- dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1325 Locomotive steam carriages on rail- ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 The Railway opened (see Liverpool) - 1830 The Great Western arrives from Bris- tol at New York, and the Sirius from Cork, same day, being their first voy- age, in IS days - - June 17, 1838 War steamers built in England - - 1838 First steamer of the Cunard line was the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas- sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840 STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States gave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153,600 tons; but these returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great : probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United States, in 1838, was 3,010. STEAM VESSELS op the BRITISH EMPIRE. STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ; Year. England. Scotland. Ireland. Dependencies. Total. 1814 - - o 1815 - - 3 5 1 6 5 2 10 1820 - - 17 14 3 9 43 1825 • - 112 36 3 17 168 1830 - - 203 61 31 20 315 1835 - - 344 85 68 48 545 1845 - - 694 139 79 89 1001 STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated ba, lance in the Pentateuch The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- tioned in 315 b. c. STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac- tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement and great simplicity. STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — Anderson. STEREOTYPE. See Privting. It is said that stereotyping was known in 1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged 8TO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran- cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro- duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem.' STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have been invented by Cadwallader Colden of New York, who sent the details of hia plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plaa to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that which Colden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. J. W. Francis. STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. — Howell. He adds, "Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much taken notice of. — Idem. Others relate that Wil- liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind made in England, 1561. — Stowe. STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols averaged in the year — 1780 - j663 13 6 I 1795 - j674 8 6 1 1785 - - 68 6 6 1800 - - 66 3 3 1790 7L 2 6 j 1805 - 58 14 1 See Publw Debt. STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; they obtained the name of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this sect is famous for. — Stanley. STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statuea was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1796. STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosias,' in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a. j 1810 - £67 16 3 1 1825 - £90 8 1815 • -58 13 9 1830 - - 89 15 7 1820 - 68 12 j 1840 - 89 17 6 600 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [STO 475.-- Geoffrey of Monmouth Erected as a sepulchral monumrnt of Ara- brosius, a. d. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which the Druids officiated. — Dr. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- ings at Ahury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. HTORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo' rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944 One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the barons, perished, 1215. — Holmshed. It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- pests of rain and wind, a.d. 1233. A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through a chamber where Edward I. and his queen were conversing, did them no damage, but killed two of their attend- ants: 1285. — Hoveden. A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which fell on the army of Edward III., then on its march. The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe- mia, on setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in the har- bor, Jan. 13S2. — Holinshed. Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her to the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1389 — Idem. A hurricane throughout Europe, which did very considerable damage; more remark- ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. The storm called the "Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- land. The devastation on land was im- mense ; and in the harbors, and on the coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack Drontheim, a. d. 1719. One in India, when many hundreds of ves- sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. A dreadful hurricane at the Havana; many public edifices and 4048 houses were de- stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, Oct. 25, 1768. — Annual Register. An awful storm in the north of England, in which many vessels were destroyed, and 4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. At Surat, in the East Indies; destroyed 7000 of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. One hundred and thirty-one villages ami farms laid waste in France, 1785. A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. Awful hurricane on the western coast of England, and in Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were drowned in the neighborhood ; the coast and harbors were covered with wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly half a million sterling. In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more were burnt, the wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1839. Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct 10-11, 1846. Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 21. 1848. rfTOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling. The number of per- sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed. and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bi- shop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. MulU lades of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. bug] dictionary of dates. 601 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port- able braziers. See Chimneys. STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, ty Louis- Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the French government, Oct. 29. 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France. STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol : fought May 16, 1643. STUCCO-WORK. The art Avas known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. It was revived by DUdine about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in England. STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c. Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. STYLE, ROYAL, op the KINGS op ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and Titles. SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of June 12, 1701. SUCCESSION, The WAR op. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the alliea withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded; 1702 to 1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. SUGAR, Saccharum officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 26 602 THE world's PROGRESS. [ EUL ancient Je^ s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 b. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — ■ Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's History of Charles V.* SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1G59, though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years sooner. Sugar was first taxed byname, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor- timer. See Beet Root. SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin L, when the soldiers, think- ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 e. c. In the Catholic church, iv the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. A PEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 Of lord James Beresford - April 27, 1841 Of the earl of Munster - March 20. 1842 Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25i 1845 Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 2% 1845 Of Haydon, the eminent painter June 22, 1845 Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 Of marshal Berihier - - June 1, 1815 Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- able passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d'. 1055. — Vattier. It * About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date su^ar was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, Gth March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte penco a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., of which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five "Million'; and a half sterling. BtJ?] DICTIONARY OF DAT.L&. 603 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth century of the Hegira. SUMMATRA, Island op. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street unless she were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 450 b. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ed- ward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 b. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculae were first discovered byChr. Schemer, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 1766, and frecpiently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.— Abbe Lenglet. SUNDAY, or LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance was made by Constantine, a. d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Sunday Sports, au- thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Rapin. Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. gCTREMACY over the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the .hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VIII. shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself. Our kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- ferred upon then, by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 604 the world's progress. [ SW1 tL'j ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous ethers, beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate study from philosophy. &c, about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; iEtius, 500 ; Paulus JEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and a new charter in 1800. SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d, 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. SUTTEES, or the BURNING op WIDOWS. This custom began in India from one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present at many of these sacrifices. On February 4, 1743, he saw a young and beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every witness of the scene. — Holwell. The English government in India have dis- couraged these self-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though rarely, taken place. SWEARING on the GOSPEL. First used a. d.. 528. Introduced in judicial proceedings about 600. — Eapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by fine; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second/ offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See Oaths. SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of the country. Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.C. 57 | barbarians, falls upon the Nor.» j. During this reign, Odin, surnamed the Europe, making vasts conquest Divine, at the head of a swarm ot | BWE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 605 SWEDEN, continued. Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- lingars, reigns ... b.c. 32 [The early history of the kingdom is altogether involved in fables and ob- scurity.] Ohf the Infant is baptized, and intro- duces Christianity among his people, about .... a.d. 1000 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike people and invasions of other coun- tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 Stockholm founded - - - 1260 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular form of government - - - 1279 The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, is made elective ; and Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, or the Foolish, king of Norway, is elected ..... 1318 Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 The crown made elective - - 1320 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365 Sweden united to the crown of Denmark and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 University of Upsal founded - - 1476 Christian II., "the Nero of the North," massacres all the Swedish nobility, to fix his despotism - - - 1520 Th« Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523 He makes the crown hereditary, and introduces the reformed religion - 1544 The titles of ;ount and baron introduced by Eric XIV. .... 1561 The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, between 1612 and - - - 1617 He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 Abdication of Christina - - - 1654 Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 Charles XII., " the madman of the North," begins his reign - - 1699 He makes himself absolute abolishes the senate - - - **** KINGS OF A, d. 825 Regnard Lobrock. * * " "Reigns uncertain.] 966 Eric, the Victor. 994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 1041 Haquin 1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 1064 Halstan. 1080 Philip. 1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 1130 Ragwald ; murdered by the Visigoths. 1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 1144 Suercherll. 1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels. 1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- nute, who reigns. 1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 1192 Sue rcher III., son of Charles; killed in battle. 1211 Eric XI. 1220 John I. Battle of Pultowa, where Chailts is defeated by the czar of Russia. See Pultowa - - - a.d. 1709 He escapes to Bender, where after three years' protection, he is made prison- er by the Turks - - - 1713 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting numerous battles, he is at length killed at the siege of Frede- rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- ic government - 1719 Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- terwards called Linnaeus - - 1741 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who are beheaded - - - 1756 Despotism re-established - - 1772 Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he expired the 29th - - - 1792 The regicide was dreadfully scourged with whips of iron thongs three suc- cessive days ; his right hand was cut off", then his head, and his body im- paled - - - May 18. 1792 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- vernment assumed by his uncle, the duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, Nov. 12, 1810 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 SWEDEN. 1223 Eric XII. 1250 Waldemar. 1276 Magnus II. 1290 Birger II. 1318 Magnus HI. ; dethroned by his ffubjsett 1365 Albert. 1397 Margaret. 1411 Eric XIII. ; abdicated. 1441 Christopher. 1448 Charles VIII. 1458 Christian I. 1497 John II. 1520 Christian II. 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 1569 John HI. 1592 Sigismond I., kin.j (f Poland. 1608 Charles IX. 1611 Gustavus Adohphus II. 1632 Christina; resigned her crown to 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke M De m Ponts. 1660 Charles XI. 606 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I awa SWEDEN, continued. 1599 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of Frederickshall. 1718 Ulrica Eleanora ; resigned when her husband was elected. 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 1771 Gustavus III., Adolphus. 1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 1809 Charles XIII. 1818 Charles John XIV., Bernadotte, Feb. 5 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. so called from the learned but ec- SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Nev Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered by Julius CEesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. The Helvetians converted to Christian- ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions the memorable revolt under the pa- triot William Tell. - - 1306 Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- ton of Basle, 11,000 souls - - 1314 Form of government made perpetual - 1315 Lucerne joins the confederacy - - 1335 Ttip canton of Zurich joins, and be- comes head of the league - - 1350 Berne, Glaris, and Zug join - - 1351 The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 Second league of the Grisons - -1424 The third league of the Grisons - 1436 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, under Louis XI. - - 1480 Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges Swiss independence - - - 1499 Schaffhausen joins the union - -1501 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and other powers - 1516 The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop compelled to retire • - 1519 The Grison leagues join the Swiss ,on- federacy as allies - - - 1544 Appenzel joins the other cantons • 1597 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town ; but in the end is defeated . - - - 1602 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- nual festival commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] t r WORD,S. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese. 1879 b. ;.—U/iiv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implements Independence of Switzerland recognized by the treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia, Peace of) - a. d. 1648 [From this period until the French Re- volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- lity, disturbed only by the changes arising out of their various constitu- tions.] Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 Domestic strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and democratic parties ; France interferes - - - 1781 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 Helvetic confederation dissolved; its subjugation by France - - 1798 The number of can tons increased to 19 ; the federal government restored; and a landamman appointed by France, May 12, 1802 Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from the republic - July 13, 1802 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 The Allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1814. The number of can- tons increased to 22, and the indepen- dence of Switzerland secured by the treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 — passes resolves against the Sonder- bund, and troops of Uri attack canton Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. 10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 Neufchatel declares independence, Feb. 29, 1848 byr'J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 607 of wai The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Ferraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 3724. SYCAMOKE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that, from this little tree have sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it has a legislative council, which was first held July 13, 1829. See New South Wales; Convicts, cf-c. SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- gogues. There are in London six synagogues. SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533. SYNOD op DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. — Aitzema. SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c. — Eusebius. 749 b. c.—Univ. Hist. Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with fnany thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, Aug. 6, 1757. SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned from Scripture ; and it otherwise afibrds nothing peculiar, being involved in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (which see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after th-3 battle of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidte) founded the celebrated city of Antioch. Seleucus, sumamed Nicator, i. e. Con- queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 JEra of the Seleucidde (which see) - 312 Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death ofAnrigonus - - 301 City of Antioch founded - - 299 Antiochus, son of Seleucus. falling in love with his fathers' queen, Straton- ice, he pines away nearly to death • but the secret being discovered, she is divorced by the father and mavrier. by the son. " - - b. c. 297 * This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of pnysic Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly with Herophilus), had observed, than when 608 THE WORLD'S rE.OGE.ESS. [STB SYRIA, continued. Battle of Cyropaedion - -B.C. Seleucus ia foully assassinated by Ce- raurius. — Lenglat. Antiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes the name of Soter, or Saviour Reign of Antiochus II., surnamed by the Milesians Theos, or God ! Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia* - Eeign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce raunus. or Thunder - Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus III. is signally defeated Antiochus' conquest of Judea - V-'ar with the Romans begins - Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes the title of Tkeos-Epiphanes, or the Illustrious God ! - - - He sends Appolomus into Judea; Jeru- salem is taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 40.000 more sold as slaves Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with her own hand Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, whom she attempts to poison ; but he compels his mother tc swallow the deadly draught herself Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and of Grypus at Antioch Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus Asiatichus, about 243 - 226 217 204 192 65 Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 [This conquest is made by the Fatimite caliphs who rule in Egypt.] Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 1068 The Crusades from Europe commence (see article Crusades') - - 1095 [The Christians ultimately conquer that part of Syria called the Holy Land. — See Jerusalem] Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 116IS Saladin puts an end to the power of the Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 1259 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1408 Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 After the conquest by Selira, Syria con- tinued in possession of the Turks till the invasion of Egypt by the French. July 1, 1798 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with great loss - - - Aug. 6, 17 38 He overruns the country, and takes Ga- za and Jaffa - 1793 Siege of Acre - March 6 tD May 27, 17.+9 Bonaparte returns to France from E- gypt .... Aug. 23, 1799 Egypt is evacuated by the French army Sept. 10, 1801 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A "re, and overruns the whole of Syria, 1831-32 Ibraham Facha, his son, defeats the ar- my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various success.] Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria and places itself at the disposal of Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839 The Five Powers propose to the Porte to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 16, 1839 Death of the celebrated lady Hester Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 Treaty of London (not signed by offend- ed France) - - July 15, 1840 Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, 1840 Fall of Beyrout (see Bet/rout) Oct. 10 1840 Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 1840 After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pfxhalic of Egypt hereditary ; n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at London, between the representatives of those powers, July 18, 1841. This result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and. its c< aticu- ance among the great powers of Europe. ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame, his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder. Erasistratus adopted an expedient which was the foundation of his great fame. He informed tne king that his heir must die, as he languished under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, " is the object of his love?" "My wife," answered the physician. " Then resign her to him," said the king. "But if," said Erasistratus "it were the queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another?' "Yes," replied Seleucus, "I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to sav« my son's life." "Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, "for the object of his love i* Stra tonice !" — Biog. Diet. ' This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oifwi. I! was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arundel in the reign of Charles II. ras] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 609 T. TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies undei sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 80,000 Spaniards), and the French army, amounting to 47.000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani, July 27 and 28, 1809. 7 ALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second century; the second, being- commentaries, &c, by succeeding rabbis, were collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimon- ides in the twelfth century. T AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued, the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403. — Chalcon- dila's Hist. Turk. TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The. use of tan was in- troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. — Guicciarditii. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. TARENTUM, War or. The war which the people of Tarentum suppo\ted against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. c 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and ad Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth century. TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names, 26* 610 the world's progress. [tea in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. " In the raigne of king Edward the Third only three taverns were allowed in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff's merriment. — Shakspeare, Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- lished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by an act of Edward "VI.. 1552. to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln. 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Taverns were licensed in 1752. TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- lator, 540 b. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55/. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D' Eon's His- toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- ment, &c. TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, beginning with the words Te Deum laudamns — We praise thee, O God. It is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about a. d. 390 ; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a great victory or for a bounteous harvest. TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. lbs. 27.803,668 - 30,544,404 - 44,360,550 - 38,068,555 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000.000/. annually. Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons, 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- land, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great Britain is 30.000,000.' — Evidence in the House of Commons, 1830. The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4,278,463 ; while that of coffee was $9,1.02 872. 1726. lbs. 700,000 1805. lbs. 24,133,000 1825. 1766. - 7,000,000 1810. - 25,414,000 1830. 1792. • 13,185,000 1815. - 26,368,000 1S35. 1800. - 23,723,000 1820. - 25,662,474 1840. TEM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 611 TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, aboat 1768. The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor- thumberland at Sion. TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsia, because the signals were always made by Are. The most ingenious of the moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular words, letter by letter. See Electric THegraph. TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes ex- act!} 7 , and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000Z. in 1802 ; but the Herschel telescope, made 1789 — 1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- meter, 3^ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See Herschel Telescope. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the most prominent of the first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger- many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in a. d. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged. and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 612 the world's progress. [tew in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed in England, and finally in 1340. TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They are called the Inner and Middle Temple. TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusebius. The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — Apollonius. For tem- ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 b. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d. 70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 b.c. A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmaeonidse, about 513 b. c.-— Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 b. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it, employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260.— The Temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed wi th her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — The heathen temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1796. Population in 1790, 35 691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili- tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, &c, was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. TEUTON! or TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made inciu*sions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made prisoners. 101 b. c. See Cimbri. TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Chri*tian army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cselestine III., a. d. 1191. See Prussia, &c. TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French king, Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. the] dictionary of dates. 613 TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis- agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indeper dence commenced 1833. and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption took place, May 18. 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery. 2d. ; lords' room, Is. — Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frcrft Drury-lane; it runs thus: "By his Majestie, his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov- rovs Lievlenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- toinpylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. I:i the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 614 the world's progress. [tub. gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cant- byses, king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. — Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Boeotia. See Bmotia. Thebes was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Thucydides. THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's acts, 9 and 10 George IV. THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660, and they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was given by God to the Hebrews. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- ver, founded 1808. THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, a. d. 1609. — Boerhaavc. Invented by Paulo Sarpi. 1609. — Fulgentio. Invent- ed by Sanctorio in 1610.— Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years subsequently. THERMOPYLAE, Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the defile of Thermopylfe, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c— • Vossius de Grcec. Hist. THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their origin, as the Achasans, the iEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. See them severally. THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 b. c. By- zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Constantinople was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet H., a. d, 1463,— Priestley. XIA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 615 THRASHING -MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use. The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, aboul 1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car- thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10.000 Romans made their es- cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius, THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a present by the council King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out; " Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing." THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English; Thursday, or Thors-day, has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 b. c. ; and Cassar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, a. d. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, about 1683. TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 19 following. TILTS and TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry IV., about a. d. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist. TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800.000 loads of timber annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c, together with about 8,000,* 000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 616 the world's progress. |_ TOS TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. .;. Early au- thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being r great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, Watches, &c. TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave thera commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his son. Edward the Black Prince, 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 400,000Z. TITHES and TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 b. c. — Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. " I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. Ofia, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Bum's Eccles. Laiv. Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, a. d. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. TITLES. ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and " My liege" conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of "Most High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred " or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- top] DICTIONARY Of DATES. 617 iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured only for exportation for some years. — Stotce's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. 10//. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited 'in England by Charles II. An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England ; n 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all Oe southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,551,122. Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad taste of this weed. TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. ;§42. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of queen Anne's reign. TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d, 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes were used in 1663. TONNAGE and POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1346. The first granted to the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cunmgham's Hist. Taxes. TONTINES, Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 100Z. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- holders his share produced him 3000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,115,- 244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798.— Haydn. TOPLITZ, Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a triple 618 the world's progress. |_toc alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty ol Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. TORTURE. It lias disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It waa used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1699. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gustavus III., 1786. It yet continues in other countries. TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- lector of tithes and taxes. — Encyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; while " the Whigs" denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe. The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (which see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See IVIiigs. TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. TOULOUSE, Battle of. The final battle between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soultj whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show TOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 619 their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word toumer, " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d. 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when tha taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- neral Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- pieces, May 6, 1794. TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, a. d. 732. TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. TOWER of LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first marked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- built ; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, and many murders See England. TOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 620 the world's progress. I TIU of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower 3 his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng- land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the first gained by iEschylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- cles, 470 b. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres. TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the emperor. TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- longing life, a. d. 1483. — Henault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, waa transported for forging a frank, (l§d. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable by transportation for life. . TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about a. d. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent tim es, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of tht council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Cave's Hist. Lit. rs.E J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 621 TRAPPISTS, or MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart- rnent of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- cipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Painboeuf, Nov. 19. and were landed from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigor of their order. RAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. — Rapin. TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to rais<» water for the irrigation of the fields. The 'fread-mill lately introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. TREASON. See High Treason. It wa« punished in EngJand only by banish- ment till after Henry I. — Bakers Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c. and even burning alive. Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason, which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; Leagues, &c. Abo, peace of - - 1743 Aix-la-Chapelle - - 1668 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of - 1748 Akermann, peace of - - 1826 Alt Radstadt - 1706 America, peace with - - 1783 Amiens, peace of - 1802 Armed Neutrality - - - 1800 Arras, treaty of - 1435 Arras, ditto - - - 1482 Augsburgh, league of - - 1686 Baden, peace of - - 1714 Barrier treaty - 1715 Basle, peace of - - 1795 Bassein, India • - 1802 Bayonne, treaty of - - - 1808 Belgium, treaty of London - 1839 Belgrade, peace-of - - - 1739 Berlin, peace of - 1742 Berlin decree - - 1806 Berlin convention - 1808 Breda, peace of - - 1667 Bretigny, peace of - 1360 Bucharest, treaty of - - 1812 Cambray, league of - 1508 Cambray, peace of - - 1529 Campo-Formio, treaty of - 1797 Carlowitz, peace of - - 1699 Carlsbad, congress of - Cateau-Cambresis, peace of Chaumont, treaty of Chunar, India Cintra, convention of - Closterseven, convention of Coalition, first, against France Coalition, second, ditto Coalition, third, ditto - Coalition, fourth, ditto Coalition, fifth, ditto Coalition, sixth, ditto Concordat Conflans, treaty of Constantinople, peace of Constantinople, treaty of Copenhagen, peace of Cressy Dresden Family compact Fontainebleau, peace of Fontainebleau, treaty of Fontainebleau, concordat a Friedwald, treaty of Fuessen, peace of Ghent, pacification of Ghent, peace o f America) Golden Bull - 181S - 155S -1814 •1781 -180* -1757 - 1793 - 1799 - 1805 • 180S • 1809 - 1813 -1801 - 1465 -1712 -1833 -1660 - 1544 - 1745 -1761 -1679 • i7a5 -1813 - 1551 - 1745 - 1576 -1814 -135e 622 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, {ran TREATIES, continued. Grand Alliance Greece, treaty of London Hague, treaty of the Hague, treaty of the Halle, treaty of Hamburgh, peace of Hanover treaty - Holland, peace with Holy Alliance - Hubertsberg, peace of Interim - Kiel, treaty of Laybach, congress of League • Leipsic, alliance of Leoben, peace of Lisbon, peace of London, treaty of (Greece) London, convention of (Turkey) Lubeck, peace of Luneville, peace of Madrid, treaty of Methuen treaty - Milan decree Munster, peace of Nantes, edict of Naumberg, treaty of Nice, treaty of Nimeguen, peace of Noyon, treaty of Nuremberg, treaty of Olivia, peace of Paris, peace of (see Paris) Paris, treaty of Paris, peace of (Sweden) Paris, capitulation of Paris, treaty of - Paris, peace of Paris, treaty of - Partition, first treaty Partition, second treaty - Passarowitz, peace of Passau, treaty of Petersburgh, peace of Petersburgh, treaty of - Petersburgh, treaty of Petersburgh, treaty of - Peterswalden, convention of Pilnitz, convention 3f - Poland, partition of - Pragmatic Sanction Pragmatic Sanction Prague, peace of Presburg, peace of - Public good, league for the TREATIES op the UNITED STATES.- Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 Treaty of Paris (independence secured) Sept. 3, 1783 Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 17S5 Treaty with Morocco - - - 17S7 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain (Jay's) ..... 1794 Treaty with the Six Nations and other Indian tribes .... 1794 Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by J. Q. Adams) ... - 1799 Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- Jri«k Henry &c. Sept. 30, 1800 - 1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the - 1829 Quadruple Alliance - 1659 Radstadt, peace of - - 1669 Radstadt, congress of ■ 1610 Ratisbon, peace of - - 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of • 1725 Religion, peace of • • 1784 Rhine, Confederation of the - 1815 Ryswick, peace of - - 1763 St. Germain's, peace, of - 1548 St. Germain-en-Laye • 1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with - 1721 France - - 1576 Seville, peace of - 1631 Siiirod, peace of - - 1797 Smalcald, league of - - 1668 Spain, pacification of (London) - 1829 Stettin, peace of . 1840 Stockholm - 1629 Stockholm, peace of - 1801 Stockholm, treaty of - 1526 Stockholm, treaty of - 1703 Temeswar, truce of - 1807 Teschen, peace of - - 1648 Teusin, peace of - 1598 Tilsit, peace of - 1554 Tolentino, treaty of - 1518 Toplitz, treaty of - - 1678 Triple Alliance - ■1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague - 1532 Troppau, congress of - - 1660 Troyes, treaty of - 1763 Turkmauchay, peace of - 1796 Ulm, peace of - 1810 Utretht, union of - 1814 Utrecht, peace of - 1814 Valencay, treaty of - 1815 Verona, congress of - 1817 : Versailles, peace of - 1698 I Vienna, treaty of -1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance - 1718 ! Vienna, definitive peace - 1552 I Vienna, peace of - 1762 Vienna, treaty of, March 23 - 1772 [ Vienna, treaty of, May 31 - 1805 I Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - 1810 [ Vossem, peace of - 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - - 1791 Warsaw, alliance of - 1795 Westminster, peace of - 1439 Westminster (with Holland) - 1713 Westphalia, peace of - 1653 ' Wilna, treaty of - 1805 ! Worms, edict of - 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of Some of the most important : Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame^ rican government Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, signed by J. Q,. A'dams, Gallatin, and H. Clay, for the L •. jted States, clos- ing the " war of 1812," Lut leaving the original dispute much as before - Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero- kees - Treaty with the republic of Colombia - Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- ing American citizens for spoliation* 1653 1718 1714 1797 1630 1306 1555 1806 1697 1570 i679 1795 1792 1613 1529 1834 1570 1630 1719 1724 1813 1664 1779 1595 1807 1793 1813 1717 1668 1820 1420 1828 1620 1579 1713 1813 1822 1783 1725 1731 1737 1809 1815 1815 1815 16T3 1768 1683 1674 1716 1648 1561 1521 1610 1808 1814 1815 1816 1325 1S2S TRI J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 623 dishing ; ratified by the se: ate Jan. 16, 1843 Treaty of peace witl. Mexico, signed at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ; ratified by the senate (with modifica- tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- ford, and Mexican minister Rosas May 30, 1848 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between North and South America; signed at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 800 years. Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. [For proofs and details see the article re- ferred to.] TREATIES, continued. during the war with Napoleon Nov. 13, 1826 Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829 Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 Treaty with Russia (commercial) Dec. 18, 1832 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al- manac for 1838, p. 102, are, The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, 700 years. (Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 years.) Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene- seo, New York, 500 years. Yeie trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, 1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 2,500 years. TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last council was held. TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at Ha warden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate.— Phillips. TRIBUNES of the PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. ntlNITY and TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Watkins G24 the world's progress. ["tec An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, bj John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of lifteen persons, was insti- tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 1813. TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was. known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28. 1668. TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their diiferent pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, b. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Ca3sar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- rate, b. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See Rome. TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes- sor, converted it into Ilium. Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- I War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 nor. — Blair - - b.c. 1546 I Reign of Priam or Podarces - - 1224 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the the city of Dardania - - 1480 j sacking of Troy.— Homer's Iliad, Reign of Ericthonius - - - 1449 j book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204 Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- , Commencement of the invasion of the pie are called Trojans - - 1374 I Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193 The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 ] Troy taken and burned in the night of Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - -1314 j the 11th of June, i. e. 23d of the Reign of Laomedon - - - 1260 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ; He- sione delivered from the sea-monster. —Blair, Usher - - - 1225 month Thargelion. — Parian Mar- bles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. — Apollodorus - - 1184 iEneas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1183 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe« TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 625 dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo waa nearly in ruins. — Priestley. TROY "WEIGHT, The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain. — Arbiiihnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It was first adopted at Troves, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. TROYES Treaty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was finally reoccupied bj the allies, March 4, 1814. TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. — Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained bv Moreland, 1671. TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from 7V isco, or Tiw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. See Week Days. TUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly those of 1789 and 1848. TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of Alcmaer. in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tidipifera/wsiS carried to England from America, about 1663. TUNBRIDGE- WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its waters, a. d. 1606. TUNIS and TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 b. c, Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 27 626 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [tub TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw« parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen. These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king of Persia, being of the sect of Ali. was the first who assumed the red color, to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798. the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- ed it to the king of Sardinia. TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of manv races of men. Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca (see Mecca) - - - a.d. 571 His imposture commenced (see Maho- metanisrn) .... 604 The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 Flight to Medina (see Medina) - 622 iEra of the Hegira (see Hegira) - 622 Death of Mahomet - - - 631 Holy wars begin (see Crusades) - 1095 The Turkish empire first formed under Othman at Bythmia - - - 1298 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take Adrianople - - - 1360 Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a guard composed of Christian slaves bred Mahometans - - - 1362 Eajazetl. overruns the provinces of the Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is at length taken by Tamerlane (see Tamerlane) .... 1403 The Turks invading Hungary, are re- pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- der Mahomet II., which ends the Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 Greece made subject to the Mahome- tans (see Greece) - - - 1458 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and take Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout Europe - - - 1480 Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- thers, and their sons - - - 1512 He takes the islands of the Archipelago from the Christians - - - 1514 He overruns Syria - - - 1515 Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 Rhodes taken from the knights of St. John, who go to Malta ' - - 1522 Solyman II.. with 250,000 nien, is repuls- ed before Vienna - - - 1529 Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to the fears of Europe from Turk- ish power (see Lepanio) - - 1571 Asnurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- gles his five brothers - - - 1574 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during this reign] The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous Schah Abbas - - a. d. 1585 Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - -1595 Great fire in Constantinople - -1606 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles his father and four brothers - • 1624 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take the city of Bagdad - - - 1639 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 Peace of Carlovitz - - - 1699 Mustapha III. deposed - - - 1703 The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Rus- sia relinquishes Azoff - - 1739 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the English and Russianfleets defeat the Turkish .... 1770 The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- sia and Austria (begun in 17S7), the Turks having lost more than 200,000 men. — Ashe.] War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 Passage and repassage of the Darda- nelles effected by the British fleet, but with great loss (see Dardanelles) Feb. 19, 1807 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- dered, and Mustapha IV. called to - the throne - - May 29, 1807 Treaty of Bucharest {which see) May 28, .813 A caravan consisting of 2000 souis, re- turning from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 Subjection of the Wachabees - -1819 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself independent - - - 1820 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia March 6, 1821 The Greek Patriarch put to death at Constantinoplir - - April 23, 182! ruR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 627 TURKEY, continue!. Horrible massa:re at Scio; the most dreadful in rmdern history (see note to Greece) - - - April 23, 1822 Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 New Mahometan army announced to be organized - - - May 29, 1826 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 Firman of the sitan abolishing the Ja- nizaries .... 1826 Fire at Consta icmople ; 6000 houses re- duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed~-by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see Navarino) Oct. 20. 1827 Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 Russian settlers, from the Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 The emperor Nicholas takes the field against the Turks - May 20, 1828 The Russian emperor arrives before Varna ... - Aug. 5, 1828 Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 The sultan leaves his capital for the camp, bearing with him the sacred standard - - - Sept. 26, 182S Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. L, 1828 Suirender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 Russians retreat from 1 efore Schuinla, October 16, 18£S Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French - - - Oct. 30, 1S28 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians Nov. 10, 1828 Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa near Schumla - - June 11, 1829 Adrianople is entered by the Russian troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829 Armistice between the Russian and Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1849 Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1822 Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 18:30 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 He defeats the army of tl. e sultan in Sy- ria, with great loss - - July 30. 1832 A series of successes brings the ar. ny ot Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues of Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 A Russian force. enters the Turkish ca- pital ... - April 3, 1833 Treaty with Russia, offensiv c -».nd de- fensive - - ■ July S, 1833 Office of grand vizier abolished by the sultan - - - March 30, 1838 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. 1388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. 1397 Isa Belis ; killed by his brother. 1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 1410 Mu'sa ; strangled by his brother. 1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his two sons. 1481 Co 'tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by his father. 1481 Xemin ; obliged to abdicate in favor of his brother. 1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother. 1617 MustaphaL; succeeded by his nephew, 16i7 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, TURKISH EMPERORS. and his uncle restored. 1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- ceeded by his grandson. 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, succeeded by his son. 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by his brother. 1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bro- ther. 1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV., deposed and succeeded by his brother. 1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 1730 Mahomet V.; succeeded by his brother. 1754 Osmanll. ; succeeded by his brother. 1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro- ther. 1774 Abelhamst, or Achmet IV. 1789 Selim III. 1807 Mustapha IV. 1808 Mah. Khan II. 1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. TURKEYS and GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a d. 1524, and to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- ing larger do not differ from ours. — Smyth. TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious Tasea 628 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f TYR enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663.-- Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with the title of king of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grana luke Leopold IT (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 Grand-duke grants a national militia. The grand-duke granted a liberal con- stitution - Feb. 1848 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 The grand-duke flees from Florence The chambers meet. Provisional government proclaimed, Feb. 9, 1849 Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- can troops - - - May 10, 1841 The grand-duke re-enters Florence and resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as king. TYLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- persed, 1381. TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 1257 b. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- chadnezzar, 572 b. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. g. — Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes were the uege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the . flames. — Phillips. TYRE, Era op. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- perberetseus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub FKI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 629 tract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. U. UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540. UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the treaty of Partition in 1795. ULM, Peace op, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously), July 3. 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under gen- eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ot soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received unction from the-pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as extreme unction. See Anointing. UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- * For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in fear of rain, borrowed the umbrdlafrom- Willis's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's pattens" As late as 1778. one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman ! why doir't you get a coach ■?' " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther information. ''At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's Louses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit 1 is arm one day from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then the English. Now it is become a great trade in London."— A ew Monthly Magazine. 630 the world's PROGRESS. [ JNi ner," by Louis XIV., 1688. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted. UNIFORMITY, Act op. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles [I., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. UNION op the CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year, UNION with IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British parliament, July 2, 1800. UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. . UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- lin. See Union. UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- ish yoke, a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland. Groningen. Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of Orange as their stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as the " Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by the appellation of the <: Seven United Provinces." Their independence was acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte waa crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated *mi J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 63] July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium. UNITED STATES of AMER CA. See America; and the separate States. Maine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con- sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, J nne 7, 1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775 See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4 1776. The title of " United States" adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776., Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris. Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports. National Debt, Treaties, Po- pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this vol., page 122, et. seq.] UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- lowing are the principal universities in Europe : Aberdeen founded ... 1494 Abo, Finland - - • - 1640 Aix, 1409 ; re-established - - 1603 Alba Julia, Transylvania - - - 1629 Altorf, Franconia - - - 1581 Andrew's. St., Scotland - - -1411 Angers, chiefly law ... 139S Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged • - - 1364 Avignon. France ... 1388 Bamberg - ... 15S5 Baale, Switzerland - - ' - 1458 Berlin 1812 Besancon, Burgundy - - - 1540 Bologna, Italy - - - - 423 Bruges, French Flanders - - 1665 Caen, Normandy - - - - 1417 Cambridge, began, 626 — according to others, 900. See Cambridge. Cambridge, New England, projected - 1630 Cologne, in Germany, re-founded - 1389 Compostella, Spain - - - 1517 Coimbra, Portugal - - - 1301 Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged - - 1539 Cordova, Spain .... 963 Cracow, Poland, 700; enlarged - -1402 Dijon, France - - - - 1722 Dillinsin, Swabia - - - 1565 Dole, Bursundy - 1426 Douay, French Flanders - - - 1562 a, S">.xony - • • 1694 Dublin .... Edinburgh, founded by James VI Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged Florence, Italy ; enlarged Frankfort-on-the-Oder Fribourg, Germany Geneva Glasgow - Gottmgen Granada, Spain - Gripswald - Groningen, Friesland Halle, Saxony Heidelberg Ingoldstadt, Bavaria Jena, or Sala, Thuringia Kiel, Holstein King's College, London Konigsberg, Prussia Leipsic, Saxony - Leyden, Holland Lima, in Peru Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbra London University Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; enlarged Lyons, France Mechlin, Flanders - Mentz Montpelier - Moscow - - 159i - 1582 - 1390 -143S -1505 -1460 - 1365 - 1450 -1734 -1537 -1547 -1614 -1694 . 1346 . 1573 - L543 - 1665 -1829 • 1544 -1408 - 1575 - 1614 - 1391 - 1326 ■ 1427 - 830 - 1440 • 1482 -1196 • 1754 632 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ DTK UNIVERSITIES, continued. Munster 1491 Naples 1216 Orleans, France 1312 Oxford (see Oxford) - ■ - - 886 Paderborn 1592 Padua, Italy 1179 Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 Paris, 792 ; renovated - - - -1100 Parma 1599 Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 Perpignan 1349 Perugia, Italy 1307 Petersburgh 1747 Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged .... 1552 Poictiera 1430 Prague 1348 Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - ■ -1560 Rome Sapienza 1303 Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - - 1419 Salamanca 1240 Salerno 1233 Saltzburg - iSffl Saragossa, Arragon = • ■ 1474 Seville - ■ 1531 Sienna •■ • 1387 Siguenza, Spain 1517 Sorbonne, Paris - - - ■ ■ 1253 Strasburg 1538 Toledo, Spain - . . . - - 1518 Treves, Germany .... 1473 Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - - - 1477 Turin 1403 Upsal, Sweden - - - N - 1477 Utrecht, Holland 1636 Valence, Dauphine 1475 Valencia in the thirteenth century, Valladolid 134« Venice 1592 Vienna 1236 Wirtemberg - - ... 1502 Wittenberg ... - la02 Wurtzburg • - - 1403 UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving "s chapel, in London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue." She was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, bivj; as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — Ann. Register. IK ANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March. 1781. USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 42>l. 6s. 8d. per annum for 100Z., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII. . the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in- terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 1714. See Interest. U i'RECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), a. d. 1579. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were iJixc security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the -al] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 633 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to-, the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner. He made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring- the pus from the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, ta % healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. .Tenner subsequently published the result to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,00QZ. for the dis- covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry VIII. , 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII.. 1535 ; and a third time convicted, death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571 . The milder statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws against vagrancy are still very severe in Englaad, and operate unequally as respects the character of the offender. VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. VALENCIENNES, Siege op. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 1793. It was retaken, together with Conde", by the French, on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. — 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30. 1794. VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, oq agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- cember 8, 1813. VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of " choosing a Valentine," as it it called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- dom under Claudius IT. at Rome, a.d. 271. It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the custom of young psaople choosing Valentines or particular friends on the" feast of Valentine. VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopria 634 the world's PROGRESS. [ VEH forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called JEones, or Ages. He taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms : to these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- tiousness. VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and died in 1798. VaNDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gem any and Gaul, a. d 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread devastation wherever they appeared. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- man piinces there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where the vassal boors are divided into classes ; as boors belonging to the sover- eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England, a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c, held of him in fee. Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," was first used by Voltaire, 1748. VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- arated from the federal union and "declared itself sole and independent in 1830. See Colombia. VENI, VIDI, VICI. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he vanquished Pharnaces. king of Cimmerian Bosphorus. 47 b. c. See Zela Battle of. VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 b. c. Marcellus con- y«3> | DICTIONARY OF DATES. 635 qw.ered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 u. c. The islands on \rhich the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- ians, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by pope Alexander III. in 1178. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 1830. Venice declares herself an independent republic - - Aug. 18, 1848 Provisional government decrees an as- sembly with lull powers to be elected by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- tulates to Marshal Radetzlcy, and is again in the power of Austria, Aug. 22, 1849 VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have, been the first man whose experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- setts, 1728. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 1764 : claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state admitted into the Union. 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589 ; in 1810. 217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679 ; in 1840, 291,948. VERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kings of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 636 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ VE8 to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated A- tons 1f% gloires de France; and freely opened to the public. VERSAILLES, Peace of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain. France, and Spain Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondiche-rry and Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey translated part of Virgil's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first composi- tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the staDza of eight lines, the Ottawa rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French chansons. — Metropolitan. Triasino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. VESTA. The planet Vesta (ths ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.— - Annual Register. VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romulus was one of the vestals. iEneas is supposed to have first chosen the Vestals. Numa. in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarch's ; but after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from the age of six to ten ; and if there was not a sufficient number that presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Bibliobheque Uni- verselle. VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the burning lava, a. d. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it : this eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, whea he] DICTIONARY OF DATES. G3\ Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town of Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been several eruptions since. VETOES of the PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows: — by Washington, twice ; Madison, four times ; Monroe, once ; Jackson, five times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Februarj 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846 French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of England. 40,000Z., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries. Oct. 14, same year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary. See next articles. VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; signed Nov. 18, 1738. VIENNA, Peace of, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol. Dalmatia, and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging tc adhere to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, October 14, 1809. VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia^ confirming the principles on which they had acted by the treaty of Chautaont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. Th Viner's Abridgment. W1TENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, a. d. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- land, a. d. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many centuries after their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche. WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and were coninionly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution oi chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ; and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's f.rst sight of Eve : " He laid him down and slept — and from his side A woman in her magic beauty rose ; Dazzled a.id charmed, he called that woman ' bride.' And his first sleep became his last repose." — Besser, trans'ated by Bowring. The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that state : Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, Moliere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman; as she is, ana as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : " Die when you will, you need not wear, At heaven's court, a form more fair Than beauty at your birth has given ; Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, The voice we hear, and you will be An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. WOOD-CUTS, or WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to Reuss, a German, a. d. 1460 ; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 656 the world's PROGRESS. [ WOE to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c, in 1789-1799; and more recently by Cruikshank, and otbers. WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com- mittee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- tioned in a. d. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331.— .Rymer's Fosdera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- fore a. d. 1200. and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- feit 51., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers. QUANTITY AND DECLARED VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE POL- LOWING YEARS : — Quantity. 1800. Pieces - 1,022,838 Yards - - 4,213,677 Declared value £3,914,661 1825. 1,741,983 7,798,610 £6,194:926 1830. 1,747,036 5,561,877 £4,608,592 1840. 2,143,796 8,170,642 £5,921,116 WORCESTER, Battle of, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his crowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 3, 1651. WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention tho jear 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- tus, about 640 b. c. The first geographical table and map of the world was WOB. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 657 made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras and bis system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated, a. d. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. WORMS, Diet op. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, April 17th. in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and his triumph was afterwards complete. WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the Egyptians, and the Tolh or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the Latins, and the Teidates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations, whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant states. — Sherlock. WORSHIP in ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola. was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation :'— " To out traistfriendis, the Lairds of Am- iilly and Kinvaid. " Traist friends, after maist harty com- mendation, we pray you faill not to pans incontinent to the kyrk of Dimkeld , andtak doun the haill images thereof, and bring furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris, and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- ments of idolctrye. And this ye faill not to do, as ze will io us sutgular empleseur ; 28* and so committis vow to the protection of God. From Edinburgh, the xii of August 1560. " Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be ony ways hurt or broken either glassin wart or iron wark. " Ae. Erbyia, "James Steward " Ruthven." C58 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [WR; WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, wbich obtained its name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, ir which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. WRECKS of SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, utterly regardless of the sufferers. — Phillips. The loss of merchant audi other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss varies ; but it is always many hundreds. SOME OP THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Phcenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Cameleon, 14 ; En- deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ; British vessels of war, all lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in October, 1780 Of the Royal George, capsized in Ports- mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 persons perished - June 23, 1782 Of the steamer Home, from New York to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 persons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- ling and her father, 15 persons were saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, and St. Andrew, packet ships, in a great gale off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 Of the Poland from New York to Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840 Of the President steamer, from New York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- sengers on board ; sailed on March days afterwards, and has never since been heard of - March 13, 1841 Of the Peacock, one of the United States exploring expedition, at the mouth of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- day and smooth water - July 18, 1841 Of the Missouri United Slates steam- frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 Of the United States schooner Shark, wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846 Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship. This stupendous vessel grounded in Dundrum bay, on the east coast of Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1816 Of the United States sloop of war Bos- ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 Of the United States brig Somers, cap- sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston, burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, Aug. 24, 1848 Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 lives lost - - June 27, 1849 See Fires, and Steam Vessels. 11, encountered a terrific storm two It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- ally lost ; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary wear and tear. WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- phics, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — Thucydides. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on two tables of stone, 1491 b. c— Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding iSR.] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 659 them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." — Dh, Parr. XANTHUS, Siege of, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat; but Xenopbon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- ducted exploit on record; 401 b. c. — Vossius XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring of 480 b. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of s'ervants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 8000 sail, conveying 1.700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at Thermopylse, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- mopylae {which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 480 b. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to Persia, leaving Mardonius. the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 300.000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. &ERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It waff formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were placed tiansversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast- bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 660 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I YE* beasts of burthen from being terrified by tbe sea, in the passage from shors to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 b. c. FEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c. ; and it was corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Ctesar, 45 b. c. See Calen- dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours. 48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and stiM partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. of France, in 1654, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written on and from January 1. See New Style, &c. YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and Avas in use among the Chal- deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. FEAR of OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was Charles III., emperor of Germany : he added •' In the year of our Lord " to his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. FEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies, and go through a second course of being. FEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was called the Jubilee Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven, and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original familieu *1I estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. FEAR, Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent traveller :— June 23, Snow melts. | .July 25, Plants ■«! flower. July 1, Snow gone. i Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. July 9, Field quite green. I Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed. July 17 Plants at full growth. j Aug. 18, Snow. for] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 661 The snow the J continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au- gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' duration in these countries. FEAR and A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes ana fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise & legal space of time. YELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- lity was great, and 50.000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it proved fatal to many thousands. YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglet, Dufresnoy. YORK. The Eboracwm of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix of lord has been granted. I"ORK, Archbishopric op, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should 1>® restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. d. 622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre- gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was 662 THE world's pr.ogr.ess. [ ZAK first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury style3 himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609£. 19s. 2d. per annum. — Beatson. YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at different periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch- bishop Roger began to build the choir in 11.71, but it was by many hands, and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; the damage estimated at 60.000/., was repaired in 1832. YORK and LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES of. The first battle be- tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22. 1455. The last was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, or While Ruses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty great battles were fought with different success, and half the country was depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See Roses. YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri- tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. ZAMA, Battljc of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; b. c. 202. EANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole group were ceded to France by the treaty of Cainpo Formio {which see), October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding .year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with Ragusa, August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified at XIW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 663 Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5> 1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 22, 1817. ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. — Ashe. ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d. 1543. ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1770, when it was circumnavigated by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of Mithridates. Ca3sar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the senate of Rome, in three words: " Veni, vidi, vici" — "I came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. a— Sue. Cas. ZELTCHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the most desperate and bloody battles lought by the Poles in their late struggle for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12.000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his flying army, April 6, 1831. ZENO, Sect or, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way of eminence, Uroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design ia to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 312 b. c. ZINC. The discovery Of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- ticed by European writers as early as a. d. 1231 ; though the method of extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate, Craven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 664 the world's PROGRESS. {" ZUB the invention of lithography hecame known in England, in 1817- See Li- thography ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from tbe Hindoos to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones, The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- imander. — Pliny. ,ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- stantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname of Calaphates. 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em- presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes, viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves, or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or insects; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of ; zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris. May 13, 1832. The Zoological Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was chartered! March 27, 1829. ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem- blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin- glius, who began as a j)reacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name and also Sacramentarians. ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4. 1799. The Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. [ Prom the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.] The following Chronological List of Authors is in extension of the Catalogue ftimished in the Companion of 1831, differing from it by adding to the name of each author the title of his most important production, or some word expressive of the nature of his works. In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is divided into thi-ee columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists; the second those who treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, his tame will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the time when each author has flourished. HEBREW. [The words in italics oetween parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons* they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, th» Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben Maimon. J m Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar Abraham.] 1500 Moses, 1572—1452. Phinehas, supposed author of the book Joshua. 1100 David, 1085—10815. 1000 Solomon, 1033—975. 800 Jonah, d. 761. Amos. Hosea. Joel. Obadiah. Micah. Isaiah, d. 681. Nahum. 700 Habakkuk. Zephaniah. Jeremiah. 630 Barucb. Ezekiel. Daniel. Zechariah. Haggai. 600 Ezra. Nehemtah, d. 430 Malachi. 300 Jesus, son of Sirach. 100 Nechoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab- bahir,' the illustrious book. The most ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase of the Bible. i. D. Onkelos, 'Targum.' Josephus, b. 35. 100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in. correctly attributed to him. Shimeon ben Jochai (Rashbi). The.' Zohar,' a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary on the Pentateuch is usually attributed to him, but was composed by his dis- ciples. Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the World.' Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- ings of the fathers. Ethics. Eliesor, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of Eliezer, a History of the World. Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna,' the oral tradi- tions of the Jews, which, with the Gemara or Commentary, constitutes tht Babylonian Talmud. 666 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphra,' a commentary on Leviticus, and of the 'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers and Deuteronomy. 21X) Ushaya, ' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary on the Mishna. Author of the 'Mechilta,' a Commentary on Exodus. Jochanan, 'Talmud of Jerusalem.' 300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen- taries on the Bible. 40C Rabasha, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen- tary on the Mishna. Martemar, continued the '• Gemara.' 500 Abina, completed the ' Gemara.' bOO Simeon Hi]ara, ' Great decisions,' jurid. Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium of the preceding. 980 Saadia Gaon, ' Philosopher's Sione,' ' Book of Faith,' 'Grammar,' &c. Sherira, 'The Book of Answers,' history. 1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. Joseph Ching, Grammarian. Judah Baizelloni, ' Rights of Women,' ju- ridic. Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium of Hebrew History.' Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian. Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 1100 Alphes, d. 1103. 'Compendium of the Talmud.' Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee Lexicon.' Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. 1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' Joseph ben Meir (Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- mentary on Talmud.' Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- phical. Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- mentaries on the Bible. Tam. d 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book of Righteousness. Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), d. 1171. 1 Commentary on the Talmud.' Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173. 'Travels.' Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- logy. Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), d. 1 199. Cab- balist. Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist. Moses ben Maimon (Rambam), 1131-1205. Yad Hazaka,' the ~*rong hand, a very celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, &c. (This author is better known by his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 13GO Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. Eliakim, Ceremonies. Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. Asher, Compendia of Talmud. Perez Haccohen (Harapfi), Cabbalist Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260. • Law of Man,' a celebrated book on Ceremoi ties, &c. Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piucepus, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs aim Fables.' Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.- Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- matical and Philosophical works fron the Greek and Arabic. Solomon ben Adras (Rashba)., Theology. Meir, Meditations, on 'Maimonides.' Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason foi the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' Isaac Israeli, ' Foundation of the World, 1 History. Judah, son of Benjamin, Riu al. Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac Dura, ' On Forbidden and Permitted Food.' Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a Ritual of much authority. David Abudraham, astronomy. Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag), d. 1370. ' Com- mentary on the Law.' Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash), 'Questions and Answers on Various Subjects.' Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.' Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work against Christianity. Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritbd), Commen- tary on Maimonides.' Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' Ethics and Theology. Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher, — ' Foundation of Faith.' Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* on the Law.' Joshua Levita, ' Introd. to the Talmud.' David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- mentary. Isaac Varro, ' Explanations of the Bible.' Elias Levi, Grammar. Solomon ben Virga, 'History of the Jews.' Benjamin Zeef, 'Questions and Answers.' Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juehasin,' Sacred an! Jewish History. Moses Iserle, Astrology. Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' Azarias Edomasus, History and Philology. Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and Chronology. Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. David Gans, History. 1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-17S5, Philosophy AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. . D. St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 667 GREEK. IMAGINATION B.C. 900 Homer, ' Iliad,-' ' Odyssey,' &c. Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' > sophy. Socrates, 468-399, Philoso. phy. Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 100 Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- cine. Democritus, 450-357, Philo- sophy.. Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- phy, Criticism. Theouhrastus,d. 288, Ethics. Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- phy^. 300 Euclid, Geometry. Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- losophy. Apollonius, Conic Section* Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphere and Cylinder,' &c. Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 668 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND BCIBNTIVIIX 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 200 Polybius, 206-121, Universal History. Apollodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' Mythology. 200 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 100 Conon, Mythology. Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. " Dionysius Halicarnassus, ; Roman Antiquities.' Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- ography 1 Diodorus Siculus, General History. 100 Strabo, Geography. Pausanias, Description of Greece. Plutarch, Biography, Morals &c. Dion Chrysostom, Orations. Dioscorides, Botany and Me- dicine. Epictetus, ' Enchiridion,' Philosophy. A. D. 100 Iamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- nonides, a novel. Lacian, Dialogues. Oppian, Poems on Hunting and Fishing. Atheneeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- sophists, anecdotes. A. D. 100 Julian, d. 140. Varieties. Appian, History. Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- ander.' A. D. 100 Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- logy. Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. Galen, .103-193, Medicine. Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the Resurrection.' Phavorinus, Lexicon. Hermogenes, d. 161, Rhe- toric. Polyasnus, Strategy. M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- losophy. Nephffistion, ' On Metres.' Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. Julius Pollux, ' Onomasti- con,' Rhetoric. 200 200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, ' Lives of Philosophers.' Philostratus, d. 244, Life of Apollonius. Dion Cassius, History of Rome. Herodian, History of Rome. Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of Pythagoras, Philosophy. 200 Ammonius, Philosophy. Origen, d. 254, Theology Hesychius, Lexicon. Iamblichus, Philosophy, Longinus, d. 273, 'On tht Sublime.' no Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon and Leucippe,' novel. Xenophon. 'Anthea and Ab- rocome,' novel. 300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- tical History. Liabanius, Orations and Epistles. 300 Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. Athanasius, 298-371, The* logy. Greg. Nazianzen, 318-38% Theology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. GREEK. 669 IMAGINATION PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC! 300 300 Eunapius, 'Lives of Philo- sophers.' Gregory Nyssaeus, d. 396 Theology. Cyril, 315-386, Theology. Diophantus, Mathematics. 3UC Aristaenetus, 'Erotic Let- 300 300 ters.' Chrysostom 354-40", Thee ology. Heliodorus, ' Theagenes & Chariclaea,' novel. Chariton, ' Chasreus and Calirrhoe,' novel. 400 Longus, 'Daphnis and 400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- 400 Nemesius, ' Nature of Chloe,' novel. tles. Man,' Philosophy. Nonnus, ' Conquest of India by Bacchus.' Stobjeus, ' Literary Collec- tions.' Quintus Smyrnaeus (com- Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman monly called) Calabar, Emperors.' Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. 'Contin. of Homer.' Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi- Proclus, d. 445, Theology. Musseus, Poem of Hero and astical History. Leander? Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias- tical History. Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- Eumathius, 'Ismenaeus & astical History. Ismenaea,' novel. Proclus, d. 500, Platonist Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape of Helen.' Tryphindorus, Poem on 'Destruction of Troy.' 500 50D Stephanus, Geography. Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign of Justinian.' Olympiodorus, ' Hist, of Honorius.' Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- graphy. Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist 500 Simplicius, ' Comments on Aristotle.' Tribonianus, Jurist. Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 600 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. Theophanes, Byzant.Hisc. Theophylactus Simocatta, Byzantine History. 600 Philoponus, Grammarian. 700 700 700 Damascenus, d 750, The- ology. 600 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 800 Theodorus Studites, 759- Syncellus, History. 826, Sermons. Photius, d. 891, 'BiWio- theca.' John Malalas, History. 900 900 Leontius, History. Genesius, History. 900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' On Chris tian Faith.' G70 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTI»ICb 900 900 Const. Porphyrogenneta, 905-959, Hist. Selections. Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives of Saints. 900 1000 1000 George Cedrenus, History.' 1000 John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, Abridg. of Dion Cassius.l Theophylactus, Theology. Michael Psellus, Mathema. John Scylitza, History. tics. 1100 C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- danthe and Dosicles,' novel. 1100 Nicephorus Bryennius, i. 1137, Byzant. Affairs. Anna Comnena, Reign of her father Alexius. Const. Manasses, History. Zonaras, History of Ro- mans, History of Jews. Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, History. John Tzetzes, History in Verse. Cinnamus, History. 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, Theology. Suidas, Lexicon. Eustathias, Commentaries on Homer. Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary on Lycophron. law 1200 Joel, History. Michael Glycas, History. George Acropolita, Hist. Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. George Pachymer, Hist. 1200 Nicephorus Blemmidas, Theology. 1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, Poems. Maximus Planudes, Anth- ology. Leo Pilatus, Literature. 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, History. Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- clesiastical History. Niceph. Gregoras, History. John Cantacuzenus, Hist. George Codinus, Hist. Michael Ducas, History. 1300 1400 Deniet. Pamperes, Tales. Marullus Tarchoniota d. 1500, Poems. 1400 Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. Origin of Turks. Laonicus Chalcondyles, History of Turks. George Phranza, History. 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 1415, Grammar. Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, d. 1450, Philosophy. Eman. Moscopulus, Notes on Hesiod. Bessarion, 1395-1472, The- ology. Geo. of Trebizond, 1395- 1468, Aristotelian. John Argyrophilus, Arist* telian. IBM) 1500 1500 Demetrius Chalcondylee, 1453-1513, Philology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. G71 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. IfiOO 1600 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- ology. 1700 Kallinikus, Poems. Nicholas Caradza, Trans- lation of Voltaire. 1700 Alexander Maurocordato, History of the Jews. Meletius, Geography. 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. Marcus Tharboures, Me- chanics. 1700 Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics. Nat- ural Philosophy. 1700 Ducas, Translation of Thu- cydides. 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. 1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. Christopulus, Anacreon- tics, Opera. Calvos, Lyrics. Ilarion, Translation of So- phocles. 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, Hist, of Wallachia, c, History. And. Vesalio, 1514-1564, Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, Anatomy. 'Amadis,' Sonnets, and G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives Falopius, 1523-1563,Medi- Letters. of Painters, &c. cine. Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, Sperone Speroni,1500-1588, Eustachi, d. 1576, Do, Tragedy. Orations. P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574, S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, Commentaries. History of Florence. Cardano, 1501-1576, Ma- A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- thematics. Comedies. tory of his Times. P. Lancelloti, 1511-1591, Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, B. Davanzati. 1529-1606, Law. ' Gerusalemme Liberata,' Hist. Eng. Reformation. Sonnets, Drama, &c. C. Baronius, 153S-1607, Ec- G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- clesiastical Annals. gedy. P. Paruta, 1540-1598, His- Guarini, 153S - 1613, '11 tory of Venice. Pastor Fido.' Possevini, 1533-1611, De- scription of Muscovy, Andrea Caesalpino, 1519- Ac. 1603, Botany. Ottavio Binuccini, Opera, P. E. Sarpi, 1552-1633, His- U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605, F. Braceilolini, 1566-1605, tory of Coun. of Trent. Natural History. 'La Croce Racquistata.' Orazio Torsellino, 1545- Oraz Vecchi, Comic Opera 1609, Grammar. G. B. Marini, 1569-1625, Poems. C. Achillini, 1577-1640, E. C. Davila, 1576-1631, Poems. Hist Civil Wars France. A. Tassoni, 1561-1635, 'Sechchia Rapita. 1 1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, Pooms, Epie, Lyric, &c. History Civil Wars of Comparative Anatomy. Flanders, and Letters. Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po- lemics. Galileo.1564-1642, Astron. T. A. Campanella, 1568- 1693, Philosophy. Zappi, 1667-1719, Poems. D. Bartoli, History of the L. Vanini, 15S5-16 19, The- Jesuits in the East In- ology. dies, &c, 1608-1685. B. Castelli, d. 1644, Ma- thematics. B. Cavalie.ri, d. 1647, Do. Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647, Botany, &c. Laur.Lippi, 1606-1664, Co- mic Poems. Forricelli, 1608-1647. Salvator Rosa, 1615-1673, P. della Valle, 1586-1652, Satires. Travels. C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist Poems. of Wars of Flanders. Francisco de Lemene, 1639 G. B. Nani, 1615-1671, His- F. Redi, 1626-1697, Nat -1704, Poems. tory of Venice. ural Hist. & Literaiura A. Guidi, 1050-1712, Lyric Oderic Eainaldi, Ecclesias- M. Malpigbi, 1628-1694, Poems. tical Annals. Anatomy. 676 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTlFtQ 1600 Ben. Menzini, 1646-1704, 1600 Sforza Pallevicino, 1607- 1600 V. Viviani,1621-1703, Ma- Art of Poetry, Satires. 1667, History of Coun- thematics. V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po- cil o/ Trent, && A.Magliabecchi,1633-1714, ems. Literature. P. Segner, 1624-1694, As- cetic and Sermons. A. Marchetti, 1633-1714, G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, Poems, Philosophy. Mathematics, Astron. D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, Mathematics. 1700 N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, 1700 1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me- Ricciardetto. dicine. G. M. Crescembini, 1663- G. V. Gravina, 1664-1718, 1728, Poetry. Law. Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750, G. B. Vico, 1670-1744, Operas. L. Muratori, 1672-1750, Philosophy of History. 8. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- Annals of'Itality. gedy, Comedy, and An- B. Giannone, 1680-1748, tiquities. History of Naples. G. Cassini, 1677-1756, As- tronomy. G. Morgagni, 16S1-1771, Anatomy. M. Metastasio, 1693-1782, F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, Dramas, Operas. History of the Valteline. A. Genovesi, 1712-1769, Metaphysics. F. Algarotti, 1712-1764, ' Newtonianism.' G. Baretti, 1716-1789, Mis- B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, G.R.Boscowi«h,mi-1787, cellaneous. History. Mathematics, Philology. C. Gozzi, Dramas, &c. A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, Philosophy. C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, 'Crimes i&Punishments.' 0. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- graphy. G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, medies. L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799, C. I. Frugoni, 1692-1768, Hist, of Italian Litera- Natural History. Poems. ture. G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- tires, Odes, but chiefly L. Galvani, 1737-1798, prose — L'Osservatore, V enito, &c. Denina, History of Italian Galvanism. Revolutions, and many Volta, 1745-1827, Do. V. Alfleri, 1749-1803, Tra- other works, chiefly his- G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, gedies, &C. oricaL Legislation. 1S0C Pindemonte, Poems. 1800 1800 Monti, Poems. Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- ems. Botta, History of Italy,&c. Scarpa, Anatomy. I. da Ponto,Poems, Operas. M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli- Manzoni, Tragedies, Po- tical Economy. ems, and one novel— I Romagnosi.Polit. Science. Promissi Sposi. Galluppi, Metaphysics. Silvio Pellico, Tragedies, Colletta, History of Na- Rosmini, Do. &0. ples. Costa, Metaphysics, hi» G. B. Niccolo, Tragedies, Conti, Universal History, torical and critical. &c. &0. Cesari, Philology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 677 BRITISH, &c. IMAGINATION. A. D SOU 600 Casdmon, Saxon Poems. Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po- ems. A. D. 500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 600 Nennius, Origin of Britons, 700 700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo- ry of England. SPECULATIVE AND SOI6JSTIP20. A. D. 500 GOO 700 Alcuin, d. 804, Theology, History, Poetry. SCO Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po ems, Translations, &c. 500 Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, History of England. J. Scot Erigena, d. 883, ' CM the Nature of Things.' 900 Ethelwerd, History of Great Britain. 900 1000 Ingulphus, 1030—1109, His- tory of Croyland. Eadmer, Chronicle. 1000 Layamon, Saxon Poetry. Nigellus, Speculum Stulto rum. Walter Mapes, Satires, So,.^. Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War. War of Antioch, Epics. BOG 1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, History of England. Florence of Worcester, d. 1118, Chron. of England. Geoffry of Monmouth, His- tory of Britain. William of IMahnsbury, d. 1143, Hist, of Britain. Henry of Huntingdon, Chronicles of England. Simeon of Durham, Chron- icles of England. John of Salisbury, d. 1181, ' Life of Becket,' &c. G. Cambrensis, Conq. of Ireland, Itin. of Wales. Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, Chron. of England. Robert Pulleyn, Theology. d 1150, Richard of St. Victor, d. 1173, Theology. Ralph Glanville, Collection of Laws. 1200 Roger Hoveden. Chron. of England. Gervase of Canterbury, History of England. Roger of Wendover, Hist, of England. Matthew Paris, d. 1259, History of England. 1200 Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, Theology. Robert Grosteste, Natural Philosophy. Alexander Hales, d. 1245, Aristotelian. John Peckham, Theology. John Holiwood, d. 12591 Astron., Mathematics. 678 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Robert of Glocester, Chron- William Rishanger, His- Roger Bacon, 1214—1292. icle in verse. tory of England. Chemistry, Optics, John Lylie, 1550—1600, Biography. clesiastical Polity. 'Euphues.' John Stowe, 1527—1605, W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, Chronicles, Topography. ' On the Loadstone,' Sir T. North, Translations L. Andrews, 1565—1626, John Fletcher, 1576—1625, of Plutarch. Sermons. Drama. F. Beaumont, 1586—1615, Drama. 600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. 1600 Edward Coke, .< 550- 1634, Epigrams. of Kings, Bishops, &c. Law. Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639, Richard Knolles, d. 1610, John Napier, 1550—1617, Poet. History of the Turks. Wm. Camden, 1551—1623, Antiquities. R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, Naval Histories. W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, History of the World. Samuel Daniel, 1567— 1619, History of England. John Hay ward, d. 1627, Logarithms. J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. English History. Ben Jonson, 1574—1637, J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist. Drama. of Great Britain. Robert Buncr., 1576—1639, P. Massenger, 1585—1639, Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, ' Anat. of Melancholy.' Drama. Antiquities. Francis Bacon, 1560—1626, J. Harrington, 1561—1612, R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, Philosophy, History. Trans. Ariosto. Antiquities. Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. S. Purchas, 1577—1628, Circulation of Blood- Tasso. Collection of Voyages. M. Drayton, 1563—1631, Poems. G. Sandys, 1577—1643, Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, John Selden, 1584—1654, Translations, Poems. Travels in the East. Antiquities, Law, Hist. J. Daniel, 1562—1619, E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581 — J. Harrington, 1611—1677, Poems. 1648, History of Henry ' Oceana.' W. Drummond, 1585-1649, VIII. James Usher, 1580 — 1656, Poems. R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. Divinity, Sermons, Hist. John Donne, 1573—1662, of England. Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679, Satires, Essays. Metaphysics Geo. Wither, 1588—1667, W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, Satires. Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, Antiquities, History. James Shirley, 1594—1666, History, Biography. Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- W. Chillingworth, 1602— Drama. 1644, Theology. Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1641, tory of Rebellion. Isaac Barrow," 1630—1677, Poems. Thomas May, d. 1650, His- Divinity, Mathematics. John Denham, 1615—1668, tory of Parliament. J. Pearson, 1612—1686, Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, Divinity. Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, Biozraphy. 3. Whitlocke, 1605—1676, Brian Walton. 1600—166). Hudibras. Polyglot Bible John Milton, 160S— 1674, History. Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, ' Paradise Lost.' Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- Divinity. Edm. Waller, 1605— 16S7, phy. Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, Poems. W. Prynne, 1660—1667, ; Discourse on Govern- A. Cowley, 1618—1667, History, Politics. ment.' Poems. Thos. Browne, 1605—1682, A. Maxwell 1620—1678, ' On Vulgar Errors.' Poems. Edmund Castell, d. 1685. Lexicon Heptag'otlon. R. Cudworth, 1617- l&B, Metaphysics.' 680 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC!. 1600 1600 1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, ' Sylva.' H. More, 1614—1687, The- ology. T. Sydenham, 1624—1689, Rochester, 1648—1680, Wm. Temple, 1629—1710, Satires. Memoirs, &c. Medicine. Roscommon, 1633 — 1684, W. Sherlock, d 1689, Di- Poems. vinity. N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. J. Tillotson, 1630—1694. John Bunyan, 162S— 1688, Sermons. Pilgrim's Progress.' Archbishop Leight.'n, John Dryden, 1631—1701, 1613—1684, Divinity. Tragedy, Satire, 'Virgil.' R. Baxter, 1615—1691, Thos."Otvvay, 1651— 168b, 'Saint's Everlasting Tragedy. R. Brady, d. 1700, History Rest.' of England. R. Boyle, 1627—1691, Theology, Chemistry. 4509 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 1700 1 The Choice.' Foedera. John Ray, 162b— 1705, Bot- any, Natural History. John Locke, 1632—1704, Metaphysics. R. South, 1633—1716, Di- vinity. lohn Philips, 1676-F08, 'Splendid Shilling.' Thos. Pamell, 1679-1718, S. Ockley, 1678—1720, 'The Hermit.' Oriental History. Isaac Newton. 1642—1719 Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, Thos. Hearne, 1678—1735, ' Principia.' Comedies. History and Antiquities. J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, John Strype, 1643—1737, Astronomy. Eccl. History, Biog. R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Ph ■ Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, osophy. 'History of his Times.' B. de Mandeville, 1670— Matthew Prior, 1664—1721, L. Echard, 1671—1730, 1733, ' Fab. of the Bcea.' Poems. History of England. Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, K. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, Thos. Carte, 1686—1754, Astronomy. Essays. Politics. History of England. Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, John Potter, 1674—1747, Natural History. ' Robinson Crusoe.' &c. Antiquities. Jos. Addison, 1672—1719, Sir W. Petty, 1623-1682, 'Spectator,' 'Cato.' &c. Statistics. Nich. Rowe, 1673—1718, Tragedy. J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- edy. A. Clark, 1696—1742, Di. W. Congreve, 1672—1728, vinity, Philosophy. Comedy. D. Waterland, 1683—1740, lohn Gay, 1688-1732, Divinity. ' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, R. Bentley, 1661—1740. M. W. Montague, 1690 — History of Rome. Divinity, Philology. ' 1762. Letters. C. Middleton, 16S3— 1750, A. Baxter, 1687—1750, Met- Robert Blair, 1699—1746, Life of Cicero, &c. aphysics. ' The Grave.' Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 1751, Politics, Literature 4 Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. G. Berkeley, 16*1—1753, ' Metaphysics, Ethics. P. Doddridge, 1701—1751 Divinity. Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762, Astronomy. F. Hutcheson, 1694—1747, Mcral Phil (sophy. D. Garrick, 1716-1779, T. Sherlock, 1078—1761, Drama. Divinity. 8. Foote, 1720—1771, C. Maclaurin, 1696— 174&, Drama. Mathematics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH, 681 IMAGINATION. i7U0 R. Rodsley, 1703— 1764, Drama. Jona. Swift, 1667—1745, Satires, Tales, SIlEHTIPItt N. Maskelyne d. 1811 Astronomy. G. L. Staunton, d. 1801 Chinese Code. W. Hersr.hell, 1738—1822, Astronomy. 1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808, Biography. E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, 1 ravels. C. J. Fox, d. 1806, History. W. Mitford, History Greece. R. Heber, Travels, &c. Major Rennel, Geography. Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831, Life of Leo X., &c. Walter Scott, —1832, History, Biography. Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766— 1832. Hist, of England. Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825 Political Annals. Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori ental Hist, and Travels. Jas. Mill, —1836, Hist. British India. Robt. Morrison, —1834, Travels, Philology. Jas. Grahame, History of United States. John Gillies, 1747—1836 History of Greece. Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Travels and Voyages. Wm. Hone. —1842, Every Day Book. R. ., 1532—1573, Odes, Trage ies, &c. Philip de Comines, 1445 — 1509, Hist, of his Times. 1500 1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425, Astronomy. John Gerson, 1363—1429, Scholastic. Raymund de Sebunda, d. 1432, Theology. Henry of Balma, d 1439, Mystic. James Lefevie, 1436 — i537, Theology. Wm. Budaeus, 1467—1540, Jurist. Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543, History of his Times. Jaques Amyot, 1514—1593, Translations. 150f J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558, Philologv. Du Bois, 1478—1555, Aiat. Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559, Philology. P.Ramu3,)515— 1572, Logic Seb. Castellio, 1515- 1563^ Philology. Jas. Cujacius, 1520—1590 Law. Lambinus, 1516-1572, Commentaries. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — FRENCH. 089 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585, 1500 1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528—1590, Poems, Criticisms. Philology. Mich, de Montaigne, 1533— J. .1. Scaliger, 1540—1609, F. Vieta," 1540—1603, Al- 1592, Essays. History, Criticism, &c. gebra. Pierre Charon, 1543—1603, Theology. Isaac Casaubon, 1559 — 1604, Philology. Fran. Malherbe, 1556— 1628, J. A. ae Thou, 1553—1617, Odes. History of France. IfiflO M. Reignier, 1573—1613, 1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, 1600 Satires. History of France. An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, Collections of Histories. History and Criticism. Dennis Petau, 1583— 1652, Ch..nology. P. Gassendi, 1592 — 1655, J. Chapelain, 1595—1674, Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo- Philosophy. La Pucelle.' graphia Sacra.' Des Cartes, 1596 1650, Henry Spondanus, 1568 — Metaphysics. Ma.;hem. 1643, History. P. Comeilie, 1606—1684, S. Guicheron. 1607—1664, Drama. Hist, of House of Savoy. Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, Ecclesiastical History. St. Evremond, 1613—1703, Literature. B. Pascal, 1623—1662, Miscellaneous. D'Herbelot, 1626—1695, Roche foucault, 1603— 16S0, Adr. Valesius, 1607— "if-92, Orientalist. Reflections. Memoirs. ' Deeds of the Frames ' Cassini, 1625-1712, Astroa Moliere, 1620-1673, Drama. La Fontaine, 1621 — 1695, Fables, Tales. Segrais, 1624— 1701. Idyls. T. Comeilie, 1625—1709, Drama. M. de Sevigne, 1626—1694, Letters. J. Racine, 1639—1699, L. Moreri, 1643— 16S0, Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy Drama. Historical Dictionary. Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, TilK=mont, 1637— 169S, Ec- Sermons. clesiastical History. La Bruyere, 1636-1696, ' Characters.' Malbranche, 1633-1715, Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. 'Search after Truth.' 17)0 Regnard, 1«7— 1709, 1700 1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, Comedies. Dictionary. Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. Hardouin, 1646-1729, of Arabian Nights. Criticism, ind. Dacier, 1651-1722. Philology. Anne Dacier, 1651-1720, Philology. Fenelon, 1651— 1715, 'Tele- machus,' &c. Deshoulierea, 1638—1694, Elegiis. Tonrnefort, 1656-1708, J. Marsollier, 1647—1724, Botany. History, various. Fleury, 1653-1723, Eccle- Fontenelle, 1657-1756, ' Plurality of Worlds, siastical History. &c. G. Daniel, 1649—1728, His- 1 Montfaucon 1655-1741, tory of France. Antiquities. Vatincourt, lOSS^-mO, Massillon, 1663-1742. Biography. Sermons. (190 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND 8CIENTIFI9 1700 1700 Vertot, 1655—1735. History. Paul Rapin, 1661—1725, History of England. Bossuet, 1662—1704, His- 1700 J. B. Rousseau, 1671 — 1741, tory, Sermons. Odes. C. Ro'llin, 1661—1741, Crebillon, 1674—1762, Ancient History, Educa- Folard, 1669-1752, Sua Tragedies. tion. tegy. Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747, Saurin, 1677-1730. Ser- ' Gil Bias.' mons. P. N. Destouches, 1680 — 1754, Comedies. J. B. Grecourt, 1683—1743, Odes, Tales, &c. Marivaux, 1688—1763, Montesquieu, 1698—1755, Novels. C. I. F. Henault, 1685-1770, ' Esprit des Loix.' Voltaire, 1695—1773, Tra- History. Reaumur, 1683—1757 gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. Natural History. Houbigant, 1686—1783, Criticism, Philology. C. Villaret, 1715—1766, Girard, d. 1748, 'Synony- History of France. mes.' L. P. Anquetil, 1723— 180S, History. Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778, Buffon, 1707-1783, Natural ' Emile,' 'Heloise,' &c. Recueil d'Historiens. History. Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En- A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin De Brosses, 1709-1777, cyclopedic,' Novels. of Laws, Arts, &c.' Philology, History. Bernis, 1715—1794, Poems. Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans. Favart, d. 1762, Comic of Herodotus. Operas. Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient Louis Racine, d. 1763, History. Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- Poems. Helvetius, 1715—1771, J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795, tical History. 'De 1' Esprit.' ' Anacharsis.' D'Aubenton, 1716—1799, Marmontel, 1719—1799, Natural History. Tales. N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law Cresset, d. 1777, Elegies. of Nations.' Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. J. De Guignes, 1721—1800, D'AIembert, d. 1783, ' En- History of the Huns. cyclopedic.' D Anville, 1702—1782, La Grange, Mathematics. Geography. G. Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist, of East and West Indies. C. F. X. Millot, 1726—1785, History. Bailly, 1736—1793, Hist. Astronomy. Lavoisier, 1743—1794, Chemistry. Montucla, 1725—1799, Mathematics. Turgot, Polit. Economy. F '.orian, 1755 -1794, Tales. Mirabeau, Politics. Beaumarchais, d. 1799, Fourcroi, d. 1S09, Chem. Comedies. J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astrou. 180U B. St. Pierre, 'Paul and 1800 Sismondi, History and 1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels, Virginia. 1 Political Science. Philology, &c. Madme. de Genlis, Novels. Barante, History. Hauy, d. 1822, Cr^stallo Augustin Thierry, History graphy. Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, Amedei Thierry, History. La Place.^. 1827, Maine- Tales. Guizot, History. matics Delille, d. 1813, 'L'Homme Thiers, History. Guvton Morveau. Chem. des Champs.' &c. Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hist Madame de Stael, 1768— Denon, d. 1825, Travels in Dumont, Legislation. 1817, ' Corinne,' &c. Egypt. P. L. Courier, Politics. H. de Balzac, 1799-1S50, J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767— J. F. Audoin, 1797—1841, Novels. 1837, History. Zoology. J J. Boissiid, 1743-1831, Louis E. Bigaon, — 1841, J. E. D". Esquirol, 1772— Fa'sles. History. 1840, on Insanity. J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840. Chas. Fourier, 1772—1837 Edtr uion. Socialism. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 691 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1800 C. Delavigna, Tragedies, 1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796—1842, and Poems. Biography. Metaphysics Victor Hugo, Tragedies, A. L. G. Laborde, —1842, A. L. de Jussinu, 1748-1836, Poems, and Romances. Travels. Botany. A. de Lamartine, Poems, Las Cases, — 1842, Biog- S. F. Lacroix, 1765— 1843, History, and Travels. raphy. Mathematics. Mad. Dudevant (George J. Michaud, —183.9, His- Lamarck, — 1829, Natural Sand), Novels. tory. History. A. Dumas, Poems, Plays, Bourrienne, — 1834 ' Life Legendre, 1753—1833, Ma of Napoleon.' thematics. A. Coille, —1838, Voyage Louis, — 1837, Surgery. a Tembuctou, &c. Broussais, — 1838, Mecli- Champollion le Jeune, zine, Physiol. 1832, Antiq. Egypt. Chaptal, — 1S32, Chem- J. P. A. Remusat, —1832, istry. - Philology, Antiquities. Say, Polit. Economy. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. P. is prefixed for Portuguese. IMAGINATION. 500 600 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 600 John of Biclair, d. 620 Chronicle. Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de Goth. Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- ology. Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. 500 Anian, Law. Fulgentius Ferrandus, Canon Law. Martin, d. 580, Ethics. 600 Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics. P. iioO Egaz Monez, Songs. P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, Songs. 1100 1100 1200 1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245. History of Spain. Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes. R. de Penafort, 1175—1275, Decretals. Alphonso X., d. 1284, Astronomy, Alchemy, Raimund Lullo, 1236— 1315, Theology, Chem- istry, &c. 1300 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- mances. 1300 1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. Virgil and Dante. E. de Villena, 1434, Moral Drama. Juan de Mena, 1412—1456 Poems. L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458, Poems. 1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 1400 J. de Torquemada, d. 1468^ Sermons, Criticism. 692 the world's progress. IMAGINATION. 1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral Drama. 1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. Torres Naharro, Comedy. Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- nets. P. B«r. Ribeyro, Eclogues. Garcilaso de la Vega, 1503—1536, Poems. P. San de Miranda, 1495—1558, Lyrics. Juan de la Cueva, Art of Poetry. P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, Comedy. J. de Montemayor, 1520— 1561, Romance. Ant. Ferreira, 1528—1569, Elegies. Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575, Poems, History. P. Camoens, 1524-1579, 'The Lusiad.' Luis de Leon, 1527—1591, Lyric Poems. Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578, Classical Poems. P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- mances. Pastorals, &c. P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, Epigrams, Pastorals. C. de Castillejo, d. 1596, Romantic Poems. A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600, ' Araucana.' Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589, Tragedy. L. de Argensola, 1565— 1613, Tragedy, History. P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. Cervantes, 1549—1616, ' Don Quixote.' 1600 Bart, de Argensola, 1566 — 1631, Tragedy, History. F. Quevedo, 1570—1645, Tales, Satires. L. Congora, 1585—1633, Poems. Lope de Vega, 1562—1635, Drama. J. P. deMontalvan. d. 1639, Tragedy. M. de Madrigal, Romances. P. Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. 1649, Pastoral Poems. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1400 R. de Zamora. 1407—1470, History of Spain. Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of Ferdinand and Isabeua. 1500 P. Damian Goez, History, Travels. P. Joao de Barros, d. 1570, ' Hist. Portugu. in India.' A. Zarate, 'Discov. of Peru.' A. de Morales, 1513—1590, History of Spain. J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist. of the West Indies. Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1580, Lives of the Popes. Luis Marmol, Description of Africa • Jeron. Zurita, 1513— 15S0, History of Arragon. Estevan Garibay, History of Spain.' Juan Mariana, 1537—1624, Hist., Chronology, &c. Blanca, History of Spain. J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of China. 1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565— 162o, History of Spain. P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617, History of Augustines. P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of John III. P. B. de Brito, 1570—1617, History of Portugal. P. A. de Andrada, d. 1633, Travels in Thibet and Cathay. Pru. de Sandoval, History Jayme Bleda, History of i Moors in Spain. I 1400 Fras. Ximenez, 1437— 151f, Polyglot Bible. 1500 Perez de Oiiva, d. 1533, Ethics. J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540, Philosophy, Theology. Ant. de Guevara, d. 1541, Ethics, Epistles. P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law. Ant. Agostino, 1516—1586, Theology, Law. S. des Brosses, 1523—1600, Grammar. P. D. de Andrada, 1528—1535 Theology. Luis Molina, 1535—1600, Metaphysics. J. Guevara, 1541—1622, Publicist. J. Va verda, Anatomy, LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 693 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND 8CIBMTW1S. '600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 1600 1600 'El Diablo Coxuelo.' Vic. Espinel, 1545—1634, Elegies. P. C. Acuna, 1597— 1641, < De- scrip, of River Amazon. E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, History of Ethiopia. Calderon, i601— 1667, P. J. F. de Andrada, 1597— Drama, 1657, Life of John de L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. Castro, Comic Poetry. P A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, Sonnets. ?. Matheo Ribeiro, Romance. M. de Villegas, 1595—1669, Anacreontics. P. Nic. Antonio. 1617—1672, Biblictheca Hispanica. Alb. Coelho, '/. 1658, ' Wars of Brazil.' P. F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. P. R. de Macedo, d. 1682, Poems. P. Viol, do Ceo, 1601—1693, Poems. Ant. de Solis, 1611—1686, Hist, of Conq. Mexico. P. F. da Castanheira, Novel. P. A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son- nets. 1700 Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 1700 J. Fr-rrevas, 1652—1735, 1700 Drama. tiistory of Spain. Ant. de Zamora. Comedy. P. Xav. de Meneses, 1673 — 1743, ' Henriqueide,' Epic Poem. Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Critj. cism. A. Ulioa, 1716—1795, Math. Art of Poetry. P. P. Barbosa Maehado, Diction- ary of Learned Men. Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist. of Castilian Poetry. Figoeireda, Eccl. History. ematician. Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, Fables, &c. P. A. de Barros Pereira, Poems. P Manoel da Coste, Poems. V. Garcia de la Huerta, Tragedy. Munoz, Hist, of America. P. P. Correo Garcao Lyric Poems. Ruiz, Botany. Pa von, Flora Peruvians. Leon de Arroyal, Odes. Cavanilles, Annals. P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, P. Paulino de Vasconcellos, Sonnets. Natural Philosophy. Felix de Azara, Zoology. J. N. de Azara, 1731— 1804s Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. P. Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. D G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811, Antiquity. ISO 1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 1800 ' Agrarian Law.' Tol. da Almeida, Satires. Inquisition. r. Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828, Jose Antonio Conde, His- Comedies. tory of Moors in Spain. M. Garcia de Villanueva, ' On the Theatre.' J. H. Davila, General Li'- •ratuie. 694 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. DUTCH. IMAGINATION. 1200 J. Van Maerlajat, 1235— 1300, Poems, ' Rymby- bel.' Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, Chronicles. Heij. van Holland, Poems. Cla'es Willems, Poems. 1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. Dirk van Minister, ' Chris- tian Mirror.' Lambert, Goetman, ' Mir- ror of Youth.' 1500 A. Byns, Religious Poems. Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and J. Secundus, 1511—1536, Amatory Poems. Dirk Koomhert. 1522— 1590, Transl. Homer. P. van Marnix, Odes, Songs. R. Visscher, Epigrams. Hendrick Spieghel, Didac- tic Poems. SPECULATIVE AND BCIEKTI&'fS 1300 Gerard Groot, Theology. 1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448. 1400 Chronicles of Brabant. P. vander Heyden, 1393 — ■ 1473, Chronicles. S. Pighius, 1520—1604, 'Roman Annals.' 600 G. Brederode, 1585—1637. Comedies, &c. D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586— 1626, Religious Poems. Daniel Heins, 1580—1655, Poems, Philology. J. Cats, 1577— 1660,' Drama. P. C. Hooft, 1587—1647, Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of the Netherlands. G. van Baerle (Barla?us), 1584—1648, Latin Poems. Just van Vondel, 1587 — 1679, Tragedies. M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. Jan van Heern^kerk, ' Ar- cadia.' J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, Epigrams. A. Schott, 1552—1629, His- tory of Spain. 1600 H. de Groot (Grotius), 1583—1645, Hist., Theol- ogy, Poetry, &c. J. W. Gransfoet, Theo. Rud. Agricola, 1442— 14S5, Philosophy, Hist., &c. 1500 Erasmus, 1467—1536, The- ology, Literature, &.<• J. Heurnius, 1543—1601, Medicine. C. Kiliaan, d, 1607, Dic- tionary. Justus Lipsius, 154-7 — 1606, Philology. Sim. tttevinus, d. 1633, Hydrostatics, Mathsm. H. Erpenius, 1584—1624, O-rientalist. J. Golius, 1596-1667, Or* entalist. Voetius, 1589—1676. Polemics. Beverwyk, 1594—1647, Medicine. Diemerbroek, 1609— ?674, Anatomy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 695 IMAGINATION. Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687, Epigrams. Jer. Decker, 1610—1666, Elegies. D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Ama- tory Poems. Nicholas Hems, 1620— 16S1, Poems, Philology. Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone of Wit.' Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- grams. Reinier Anslo, 1622—1669, ' Plague of Naples.' Ger. Brandt, 1626— 16S5, Hist, of Reformation. Cau, Collect, of Batavian History. J. G. Grasvius, 1632—1703, Roman Antiquities. J. Perizonius, 1631 — 1715, History. 700 P. Francius, 1645—1704, Latin Poetrv. J. A. Vander "Goes, 1647— 1648, Drama. Eliz. Wolff, Novels. Loosjes, Novels. Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes. Klein, Lyrics. Van Alphen, Odes. 1600 Hincopen, Odes. Helmers, d. 1831, Poems Nieuwland, Poems. Borger, Odes. Bilderdyk. Dramas, Odes, tfcc. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. .1. F. Gronovius, 1611 — 1671, Philology. J. Leusden, 1614—1699, Philology. F. Burman, 1028—1679, Theology. Chr. Huygens, 1629— 169S, Mathem., Mechanics. B. Spinoza, 1632—1677, Theology. Swammerdam, 1637— 16SO, Natural History. A. Leuwenhoek, 1632 — 1723, Natural History. J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, Greek Antiquities. P. Bondam, Collection of Batavian History. Simon Styl, History of Netherlands. 1800 Te Water, History. Engelberts, Ancient Hist, of Netherlands, 1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731, Anat. G. Bidloo, 1649—1713, Anat. C. Vitringa. 1659—1722, Theology. Binkerschoek, 1663—1743, Law. H. Boerhaave, 166S— 1733, Medicine. Hemsterhuis, 1685 — 1766, Philology. A. Schultens, 1686—1750, Philology. Gravesancie, 1688—1742, Mathematics. Chr. Hecht, 1696—1748, Philology. B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771, Anatomy. Oudendorp, 1696—1761, Philology. W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768, Law. D. Gaubius, 1705—1780. Medicine. Hoogeveen, 1712—1794, Philology. G. van Swieten, 1700— 1772, Medicine. P. Camper, 1722—1789, Anatomy. D. Ruhnken, 1723—1798, Philology. Valckenaer, Philology. 1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808, Philology. Van Kamj ^ Statistics 696 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. Tollens, Poems. Da Costa, Sacred Poems. Wilderbosch, Odes. Kluits, Hist, of Holland. Westendorp, History. Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC De Jonge, Antiquities. Hamaker, Orientalist. Vander Palm, Literature. SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. S., Sweden; D., Denmark ; Ic, Iceland. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1c. 900 Hjald, Poems. 900 900 Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. Ic. Saemund, b. 1156, The Elder Edda. 1100 Ic. Arc d. 1148, Annals of Ice- land. D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 1204, Hist, of Northern Nations. D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark. 1100 D. Sunesen, Jurist. D. Axel, Theology. Ic. 1200 Snor. Sturleson, d. 1241, Younger Edda, Hist, of Norway. Ic. Suerron, Tales. 1200 D. Sturla Thoridsen, History of Norway. 1200 1400 1400 S. Eric Olai, History of Goths and Swedes. 1400 S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, Instruction to Kings and Princes. 1500 1500 S. John Magnus, d. 1544, Hist, of Sweden. S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of Northern Nations. S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599, History North of Europe. Ic. Am. Jonas, 1545—1640, Hist, of Iceland, &c. 1500 D. TychoBrahe, 1546— 1601,; Astronomy. D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 1600 &. Andsrs Arrebo, b. 1587, Religious Poetry. D. Anders Bording, b. 1619, Poems. S. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem, 'Hercules.' 1600 D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591—1640, Danish Hist. 1600 S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, Orientalist. D. G. Bartholine, 1585—1629 Anatomy, Theology. D. Ole Worm, 1588—1654, At* tiquities, Philo. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICELAND. C97 IMAGINATION. Ic. Torfeus, 1639—1720, Hist. of Norway. D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634- Hymns.^ L. Holberg, 1684—1754. Drama, Satire, Hist. Ch. Falster, 1690— 1752, Satirist. OlofDalin, 1708— 1763 Poetry, History. Sneedorf, 1724—1764, Poems. Tullin, Lyrics. John Ewald, 1743— 1781, Tragedy, Lyrics. J. H. Wessel, Humor- ous Poems. Bellerman, 1741—1796. Lvrics. H. Tode, 1736—1806, Dramas, Fables. Samsoe, 1759—1796, Tragedies. P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758, Drama. S. Elgstrom, d. 1810 Poems. D. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC S. 01. Rudbeck, 1630—1702, Botany, Anat., f Laws. 1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, Chronicles of Russia. Cherbatoff, History. Golikoff, History. Muravieff, 1757—1816, His- tory, Didactics. Eugenius, History. 1800 Karamsin, b, 1765, History of Russia. Kachenofski, History. G. Glinka, History. Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis covery. Gretch, History of Russian Literature. Timkowski, Journey China. 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The- ology, Spiritual Dramas. 1700 Theophanes, Se:mons. Plato, 1737—1812, Sermon* P. S. Pallas, 1741—1811. Natural History. 1S00 Shishkoff, CriticiBm. Augustin, Sermons. 700 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. IMAGINATION SPECULATIVE AND 8CiBKIfW 3 60C Mahomet, Koran. Lebid, 622— 757, Poems. Zohair, Poems Abtm Massab, Poems. Abunowas,762— 810, Poems. Hehashi, Poems. A.u Obeid, d. 838, Fables. Muham. ben Omar, History, 700 Jafar. Chemistry. Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The- ology. 800 800 Asmai, 740—830, Theology. Kendi, Philosophy. J. ben Serapion, Medicine. Almamon, Astronomical Tables. Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. Alfragan, Astronomy. Nasir Kliosru, Metaphys. A.Temain, 80 1—815, Poems. Albumazar, 805—885, Ma- thematics, Astronomy. Wahab, Travels. Bochari, 810—870, ' The Abuzeid, Travels. Sahih,' Traditions. I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, Translations from Greek. Geber, Chemistry. Abu Mohammed Abdallah, Literature. 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 900 900 Albategni, Astronomy. Rases, d. 922, Medicine. Ben Musa, Mathematics. Almotanabbi, d. %5, Azophi, Astronomy. Poems Said ben Batrik, 876—937, General History. Eutychius, History. Massudi, d. 957, History and Geography. Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Ibn Haukal, Geography. 1000 Almuyadad, History of P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 1000 Achmet, Treatise on 'Shah Nameh,' Epic Saracens in Sicily. Dreams. Poem. Ibn Mesua, Medicine. Avicenna, 980-1038, Philosophy, Medicine Abiil Ola, 973—1057, Poems. Abulcasis, Medicine. Jelaleddin, Correction of Calendar. Arzachel, Astronomy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 701 IMAGINATION. 1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. Hairi, 1054—1121, Moral Poems. P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems. P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems. P. Amvari, d. 1200, Poems. Jaafar ebn Tofail, d. 1198, •Hai ben Yokdan,' a Novel. I. Elfaredh,cU234, Poems. 1100 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. Algazel, Antiquities, &c. Ben Idris, 6, 1099, Geog. 1100 Gazali,1058— 1112, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Alhazin, Optics. Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen- taries. Alchabit, Optics. Astron. A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- telian Philosophy. 1200 P. Saadi, 1193—1291, ' Gulis- tan,' 'Bostan.' Elfaragi, Poems. 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin, Abdollatif , Topography of Egypt. Abuldem, d.1244, History, El Harawi, Travels. Abulfarage, 1226—1286, Universal History. Elmacin, d. 1302, History of Saracens. Fadlallah, History of Mo- guls. 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. Caswin d. 1274, Natural History. Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, Medicine. Nasireddin, 1201—1273, Astronomy. 1300 Hafix, d. 1395, Odes. 1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1333, Geography. History. Novairi, d.1831, Universal History. Mohammed Ibn Batuta, Travels. Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, Geography. Abu Shameh,&.1299, Hist. Turan Shah, riU377. Hist. Jafei, d. 1368, Biography 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. Firuzabadi, 1329—1414, ' The Camoos.' 140*. I'. Janri, d. I486, Poems. P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, Life of Tamerlane. Makrizi, 1367—1438, Hist. Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of Timur. Baccai,rf.l480, Biography P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond, Gen. Hist, to a. r>. 1474. T. Baber. d. 1530, Autobio- graphy. 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, Dictionary. Ulug Beg, 1393—1444, Astronomy, Chronology. Babacushi, d. 1481, Politics. 1500 Alhassan, Description of Africa. Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- versal History. W-\ Jabacushi, d. 1566, Morala, 70: THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC, J SCO 1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. Abulgazi, ICU5— 1663, Hist. of Tartars. T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, History. P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani Kata,' Dictionary. 170C P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- nals of Ilindostan. 1700 Gholam A li, Grammar. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. IMAGINATION. 1600 1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, Poems. Benj. Church, 1739—1776, Poems. Wm. Livingston, 1723 — 1790, Poems. John Trumbull, 1750-1831, 'McFineal,' , &c. E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poeir-i, Tales. J. F. Cooper, 17S9— 1S51 Novels, &c. 180C Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, Botany, Travels. Jedediali Morse, d. 1826, Geog., Statistics, &c. Nathl. H. Carter, 1788— 1830, ' Letters from Eu- rope.' Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 1830, Travels in Europe, Lectures on Literature, , &c. John D. Godman, d. 1S30. Anatomy, Natural Hist., &c. John Marshall, 1755—1835, Life of Washington. &c. Jno. Armstrong, 1 758-1843, 'War of 1812.' Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, Annals of America. Timothy Flint, 1780—1340, Hist, of Mississ. Valley. A. S. Mackenzie,, — 1S49, Travels in Spain, &:. Gouverneur Morris, 17K2- 1S16, Politics. Timothy Dwight, 1713— 1817, ' Theoiugy Explain- ed and Defended.' Levi Frisbie, 17S4— 1822, Moral Philo<=ophv. Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, Law, Politics. Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835, Law W. E. Channing, 1780— 1842, sermons, Criticism. Thomas Jefferson, 1743— 1826, Politics. Philos. John Adams. 1735 — 1820, Politics. John M. Mason, D. 1).. 1770—1829, Divinity, Sermons, &c. John H. Hobart, D. D.. 1776-1830, Sermons, &c. Jos. Story, 1779—1845, Law. Henry Wheaton, 1782- 1S48, Law. History. Edw. Livingston, 1764— 1836, Criminal Code, iega of Troy. Aganip'pe, daughter of the river Permessus, which flows from mount Helicon. Age'nor, the first king of Argos. Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry. Agelas'tus smd^Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. A'jax, one of the most distinguished princes and heroes at the siege of Troy. Albu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. / Alci'des, a title of Hercules. Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra. Alci'oneus, a giant slain by Hercules. Aici'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. Alcme'na, the wife of Amphitryon. Alec'to, one of the three Furies. Alec'tryon, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mars. Ai'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. Ala'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter. Amaltha'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. Ambro'sia, the food of the gods. Am'mon, a title of Jupiter. Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypermnestrai a very famous augur. Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Peneloj?*. Amphi'on, a famous musician. Ampkitri'te, the wife of Neptune. Amyntor, a king of Epirus. Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution. Ancahis, a king of Arcadia. Andro'geus, the son of Minos. Androm'ache, the wife of Hector. Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Ca»- siope.who, contending for the prize of beauty with the Nereides, was by them Dound to a rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and married her. Ange'rona, the goddess of silence. HEATHEN DEITIES, EW 705 An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. Anta'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he was squeezed to death by Hercules. An'turos. one of the names of Cupid. Anlever^ta, a goddess of women in labor. An'thia. and Argi'va, titles of Juno. An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. Aon'ide.2, a name of tha Muses. Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus. A'pis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines ; after his death they worshipped him in the form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. A i acli'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva into a spider, for presuming to vie with her at spinning. Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus. Argenti'nus, and JEscula'nus, gods of wealth. Ar'go, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- panions to Colchis, and reported to have been the first man-of-war. Ar'gonauts, the companions of Jason. Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the ship Argo. Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him out of the Cretan labyrinth : being after- wards deserted by him, she was married to Bacchus, and made his piies?na, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. Mariana, Mel'anis, Mer'etrLv, Migoni'tis, and Mur'cia, titles of Venus. Mars, the god of war. Mauso'lus, a king of Caria, who had a moat magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife Artemisia. Mede'a, daughter of iEtes, king of Colchis, a famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob tain the golden fleece. Meditri'na, a goddess of grown peneons. Medu'sa, the chief of ihe three Gorgons. Megcb'ra, one of the three Furies. Megalen'sia, festivals in honor cf Cybele. Mega'ra, the wife of Hercules. Metani'ra, a name of Venus. Me'lim, nymphs of the fields. Me'lius, a name of Hercules. Melo'na, the goddess of honey. Melpom'ene, the muse of tragedy. Mem'non, a king of Abydos. Menala'us, a famous Centaur. Menela'us, the husband of Helena. Men'tha, a mistress of Pluto. Men'tor, the governor of Telemachus. Mer'cury, the messenger of the gods, inventor ot letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise! and robbers. Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac- chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power given him of turning whatever he touched into gold. Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. MimaVlones, attendants on Bacchus. Miner'va, the goddess of wisdom. Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi- nary justice, a judge of hell. Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. Min'ym, a name of the Argonauts. Mnemos'yne, the goddess of memory. Mo'mus, the god of raillery, wit, &c. Mone'ta, a title of Juno. Mor'pheus, the god of sleep, dreams, &c. Mors, the goddess of death. Mul'ciber, a title of Vulcan. Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of all the sciences, presidents of musicians and poets, and governesses of the feasts of the gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, and Urania. MuHa, the goddess of silence. N Nmnia, the goddess of funeral songs. Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. Narcis'sus, a very beautiful youth, who, falling in love with his own shadow in the water, pined away into a daffodil. Na'tio, and Nundi'na, goddess of infants. Namcb'a, a country of Elis, famed for a terribia lion killed there by Hercules. Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge. Nep'tune, the god of the sea. Ne'reides, sea nymphs. Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. Niceph'orus, a title of Jupiter. Ni'nus, the first king of the Assyrians. Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- phion, who, preferring herself to Latona< had her 14 children killed by Diana ani Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. No'mius, a name of Apollo. 710 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. JVojt, the most ancient 01 the deities ; she was even reckoned older than Chaos. O Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. OccaHor, the god of harrowing. Oce'anus, an ancient sea god. Ocyp'ete, one of the three Harpies. (Ed'ipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, unwittingly killed his father, married his mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out his eyes. Om'phale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- cules was so enamored, that she made him submit to spinning and other unbecoming offices. Oj-tr'tus, a name of Pluto. Opi'gena, a name of .luno. dps, a name of Cybele. Orbo'na, a goddess of grown persons. Ores'tes, the son of Agamemnon. Ori'on, a great and mighty hunter. Or'pheus, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had great skill in music, and was torn in pieces by the Maenades, for disliking the company of women after the death of his wife Eury- dice. Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons. Osi'ris, see Apis. Pac'lolus, a river of Lydia, with golden sands and medical waters. Pa'an, and Pha'bus, names of Apollo. Pa'les, the goddess of shepherds. Palil'ia, feasts in honor of Pales. Pallu'dium, a statue of Minerva, which the Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that their city could not he taken whilst that re- mained in it. Pal'las, and Py'lotis, names of Minerva. Pan, the god of shepherds. Pando'ra, the first woman made by Vulcan, and endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- ter gave her a box containing all manner of evils, war, famine, &c, with hope at the bottom. Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. Pa'phia, a title of Venus. Par'cca, a name of the Fates. Par'is, or Alexander, son of Priam and He- cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan war. Farnas'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite residence of the Muses. Par'tunda, a nuptial goddess. Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. Patiareus, a title of Apollo. Pateli'na, a goddess of corn. Patula'cius, a name of Janus. Palule'ius, a name of Jupiter. Paven'lia, and Poli'na, goddesses of infants. Peg'asus, a winged horse belonging to Apollo and the Muses. Pello'nia, a goddess of grown persons. Pena'tes wnall statues or household gods. Penel'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for hei chastity and fidelity during the long absenct of Ulysses. Per'seus, son of Jupiter and Danae, who per- forated many extraordinary exploits by means of Medusa's head. Phcbcasia'ni, ancient gods of Greece. Pha'eton, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, wha asked the guidance of his father's chariot for one clay, as a proof of his divine descent; but unable to manage the horses, set the world on fire, and was theiefore struck by Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po. PhaVlica, feasts of Bacchus. Philam'mon, a skilful musician. PailomeHa, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, who was ravished by her brother-in-law, Tereus, and was changed into a nightin- gale. Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, but was recompensed with the knowledge of futurity ; also a king of Thrace, turned into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- dusa's head. Phleg'ethon, a boiling river of hell. Phleigon, one of the four horses of Sol. Phleg'ya, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by Neptune, on account of their piracies and other crimes. Phat'bas, the priestess of Apollo. PhcB'bus, a title of Apollo. Ph&hiix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- cused of having attempted the honor of one of his father's concubines, was condemned to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege of Troy. Picum'nus, a rural god. Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womeu. Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly. Pi'tho, a goddess of eloquence. Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they wera changed into stars. Plu'to, the god of hell. PluH.us, the god of riches. Pol'lux. See Castor. Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler. Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. Polyphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- tune, with but one eye inthe middle of hii forehead. Pomohia, the goddess of fruits and autumn. Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. Prasnesti'na, a name of Fortuna. PrcbsHes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. Praxil'eles, a famous statuary. Pri'am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, Hector, &c. ; he was the last king of Troy. Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and sister of Philomela ; she was turned into a swallow. Prome'theus, son of Iapetus, who animated a man that he had formed of clay, with fire, which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole from heaven, and was therefore chained by Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture continually preying upon his liver. PropyUcta, a name of Hecate. Pros'erpine, the wife of Pluto HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 711 Pro 1 teus, a sea god, who could transform himself into any shape. Psy'che, a goddess of pleasure. Pyl'adas, the constant friend of Orestes. Pyr'amus, and This'be, two lovers of Babylon, who killed themselves with the same sword, and occasioned the turning the berries of the mulberry-tree, under which they died, from white to red. Prya'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. Pyr'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his cruelty at the siege of Troy. — Py'tkon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. Pythonis'sa, the priestess of Apollo. Quad'rifrons, a title of Janus. Qui'ea, a goddess of grown persons. Quieta'hs, and Quietus, names of Pluto. Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas. R Rect'us, a title of Bacchus. Re'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. Regi'na, a title of Juno. Rhadaman'tkus, one of the three i judges. Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. Rhe'a-syVvia. the mother of Romulus. Robi'gus, a god of corn. Rom'uius, the first king of Rome. Rumi'na, a goddess of new-born infants. Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. Rusi'na, a rural deity. Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. Salinone'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. Sa'lus, the goddess of health Sanc'us, a god oi the Sabines Sator, and Sorri'tor, rural gods. Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. Satur'nus, or Sat'um, the son of Ccelus and Terra. Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- sters, half men, half goats. Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn. Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. Sen'ta, a goddess of married women. Sera'pis. See Apis. SHi'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was drunk every day. Si'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. Sis'yphus, the son of iEolus, killed by Theseus, and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and numerous robberies. Sol, a name of Apollo. Som'nus, the god of sleep. Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, who destroyed herself because CEdipus solved the enigma she proposed. Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to have been as strong and as loud as the voicea of 50 men together. Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. Styx, a river of hell. Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests. Sy'rens, sea monsters T Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. TantaUus, a king of Paphlagonia, who, ssir- ing up to table the limbs of his son, Ptiopi, to try the divinity of the gods, was plunge* to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- ment for his barbarity and impiety. Tarla'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter carried away Europa. Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses. Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the resort of the gods. Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. Terpsicho're, the muse of music, &c. Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. The'mis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the goddess of laws, oracles, &c. Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. The'tis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- dess of the sea. Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. Tisiph'one, one of the three Furies. Ti'tan, son of Ccelum and Terra, and the elder brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. Tri'tonia, a name of Minerva. Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but they at last captured and destroyed it. Tuteli'na, a goddess of corn. Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. U Ulys'&es, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, was eminently serviceable to the Greeks sa the Trojan war. UnxHa, a title of Juno. Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persona. Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. V.allonia, a goddess of valleys. Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. Ve'nus, the goddess ol love, and beauty, Vergil'la), a name of the Pleiades. Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. Vertum'nus, the god of spring. 712 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Ves'la, Che goddess of fire. Vm'les, deities of the highways. Vibil'ia, the goddess of wanderers. Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess. Virgo, a name of Astrea and Fortune. Virilis, and ViscaHa, titles of Fortune. Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the married couple repaired after a quarrel, and returned together friendly. Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. Xan'thut, one of the horses of Achillea, born of the harpy CeUieno, a river nesj: Troy. calM also Scamander. Z Zaigreus, a title of Bacchus. Zeph'yrus, son of .flSolus and Aurora wiio pas sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put for the west wind. Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Otythia, who accompanied the Argonauts, anil drove the Harpies from Thrace. Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert in music. Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PAET I. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. II. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 yeais I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 1. From the Creation, to the Deluge, 2. From the Deluge, to the Call of Abraham, 3. From the Call of Abraham, to the Exode from Egypt, B.C.* 4004 2348.. . 1656 yea rs The Antediluvian Period. 2348 1921 427 years The Dispersion Period. 1921 1491 430 years The Patriarchal Period. , 396 years The Theocratic Period. . 507 years The Monarchical. Period. . 258 years The Persian Period. to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years, The Grecian Period. 146 years The Roman Period. 4. From the Exode, to the Kingdom of Saul, 6 From Saul, to the Captivity of Israel, 6 From the Captivity, to Alexander the Great, 7. From Alexander, 1491 1095. 1095 588. 330. 330 B From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 to the Birth of Christ, ' From the Creation to the Christian era. the dates are reckoned e o- BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. o.—the Year of our Lord. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. FIRST PERIOD— (the Antedihevicm)— 1656 yews. B. 0. 4004 THE CREATION OF THE WORLD — {Hebrew Pentateuch.)* The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour. The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman— a husbandman. 88T5 The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 8874 Seth born, the third son of Adam. Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 3769 Enos born. Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He In- troduces the use of weights and measures. — Jo- sephus. Tytler. 8679 ( ainan born. Irad. 36i'9 Mahalaleel born. Mehujael. 3544 Jared " Methusael. 33S2 Enoch " Lamech — polygamy introduced. 3317 Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) Jabal, Jubal, Tubal-cain, Naamah. 3130 Lamech " The first to He invent- He discover. She intro- 3074 Death of Adam, aged 930 years. build a Tent ed the Harp ed the mode duced the 3017 Knoch translated. for habita- and the Or- of preparing axis of Spin- 294S Noah born. tion, and to gan, or wind and using ning and 2468 The building of the Ark commenced. use cattle for and stringed iron, brassi Weaving. 2348 THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 8154 purposes of instruments and other B. c] husbandry. of music. Metals. * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700 ; the Septuagint, 5872 ; Josephus, 4658 ; the Talmudists, 5344; ScaUger, 3950 ; Petavius, 39S4; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enumerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and re- motest date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted as the most generally received standard. t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column. They a.-e, however, contemporary with those in the other column. Remarks. — The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed since the birth of Christ. Of the progress ol knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing 5s known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, caulking, and the use of pitch, or paint, of measures by cubit, etc., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in then- adaptation to the use of man, other arts, and a considerable advance in science and the mechan- ical powers. The Tabular Views are continued across two pages at the same time; so that contemporary events in different nations mat be seen at a glance 716 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. SECOND PERIOD— (Dispersion of Mankind )- 2347 Progress op Society and the Arts. 2234 2122 2100 Wine made by Noah from the grape. Bricks made, and cemenl used to unite them. Confusion of languages at Babel. Astronomical observations begun at Babylon. 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed through the earth : those of Shem probably in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Ja[ het » Europe. 2347. The curse pronounced upon the. descend. ants of Ham. 2247. The building of Babel.* 2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of Cush, and Grandson of Ham. NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son ol Shem. Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. Sculpture and Painting employed to com- memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science of Geometry beginr to be cultivated. 1398 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of Husbandry, and the method of making Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. SACRED HISTORY. 1996. Abraham bom. 1921. The call of Abraham. * The cnronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placet wabel 531 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 b, Oi —the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 427 years. — The Deluge to Abraham. 717 PROFANE HISTORY.— {In this period traditional and uncertain.) 2207 EUROPB. 2009 2059 2017 CHINA. The first imperial dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi (who is perhaps Noah him self) is mentioned as the first Chinese monarch. Bel us reigns in BABYLON. — [Some suppose Belus to be the Nimrod of Scripture. If so, there is a discrepancy of 121 years between the sacred and profane chronologies.] The origin of the kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh, and of the Assyrian empire, is variously stated by the chron- ologists. See Sacred Hist.] Ninus, son of Belus, reigns m Nineveh. He establishes the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 2188. Misraim (Menes), the son of Ham, builds Memphis, in EGYPT, and begins the E- gyptian monarchy. 2111. THEBES founded by Busiris. 2100. Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, and conquers Bactria. 2085. Egypt conquered by the shepherd kings of Phenicia, who hold it 260 years. Semiramis enlarges and embel lishes Babylon, and makes it i tfie seat of empire. [By others placed 2107 b. c] 1975, Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- j opia, and India. 089. SICYON, the first king- dom of GREECE, founded by Egialus, or Inachus. 2048. A colony of Pheniclan* land in Ireland. (I) 2042. Uranus arrives in G reeca 1938. Lake Moeris constructed. J lOST^The Arabs seize Nineveh. (1) Revolt of the Titana War of the Giante, jig THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. THIRD PERIOD — (The Abrahamic or Patriarchal)- SACRED HISTORY. Progress of Society and the Arts. 1920 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. B. C. The Jews. 1891 1822 Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 15S8 ir,s> 1580 1534 1506 1497 1494 Atlas, the astronomer. The chronology of the Arundelian marbles begins. The cymbal, used at the feasts of CyDele. 1921. Abraham called. 1920. —goes into Egypt. 1912. —delivers Lot from captivity, and re- ceives the blessing of Melchizedec. 1909. Ishmael born. 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. God renews his covenant with Abraham. 1896. Isaac born. 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in sacrifice. 1856. Isaac married. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 1739. His name changed to Israel. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 1702. End of the seven years' famine. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph. 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 1574. Aaron born. 1571. Moses born. Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. Book ot Job written about this time. (?) T\\t flute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams and draws prognostics from omens. Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 1513. The supposed era of Job. 1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bush at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to delivet the Israelites. The Ten Plagues in Egypt. Institution of the Passover. The EXODUS of the Israelites from Egypt. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) '19 PROFANE HISTORY— (Still fabulous or uncertain.) 1766 China. The 2d Imperial dy- nasty begins. Akkica. 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 1558. Rameses-Miamum reigns in Egypt. Europe. 1856. Inachus, the Pheninan plaits a colony in ARGOS. 1807. Phoronci'e reigns is Argos. 1764. Ogyges reigna m Boeotia. 1707. Apis, king ol Argos. 1732. The Ogygean Deluge in Attica. 1711. The city of Argos built by Argus, the son of Niobe. 1710. A colony of Arcadians emigrate into Italy under CEnotrus.— CEnotria after- wards called Magna Grecia. 1641. Criasus succeeds h;i father, Argus. 1556. ATHENS founded ly Cecrops. 1552. Triopas. king of Argos The kingdom divided, Poly caon reigning in Messenia. 1546. TROY founded by Sci mander. 1529. Deluge of Deucalion h\ Thessaly. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded, and th« kingdom of Laconia, or La cedemon. 1507. The Areopagus establish- ed in Athens. 1506. Crotopas succeeds to th t throne of Argos. 1504. Deucalion arrives in At tica. The kingdom of Mess* nia co?j.inencedby Polycaon 1493. THEBES in Bceotia founded by Cadmus, a Phe nician, who introduce! th* alphabet int.? Greece. 720 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. FOURTH PERIOD.— {The Mosaic or Theocratic.)— Progress of Society and the Arts. SACRED HISTORY. The Jews. I486 1453 1370 1356 1284 1263 1263 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. The fabulous or traditionary Hermes-Tris- megistus placed about this period. Bacchus, god of wine. Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. Apollo, god of music and poetry. Bucklers used in single combat invented by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- pus. Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled in music. The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the council of Amphictyons. Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the first naval expedition on record. Musceus, a poet. The axe tcedge, wimble and lever, also masts and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of Athens. 1 he game of Backgammon invented by Pala in ;des of Greece 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt The law given at Mount Sinai. 1471. Rebellion ofKorah,Dathan, and Abiram 1453. Aaron dies. 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. 1443. Joshua dies. 1405. Othniel judges Israel. 1390. The tribe of Benjamin s lmost ext net. 1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an ox goad. 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan. 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- ites — Sisera killed by Jael. 1252. Israel enslaved by the Midianlea. 1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats the fttt dianites. 1209. Abimelech judges Israel 1206. Tola judges Israel. 1183. Jair, judge of tarsal. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 721 396 yearn. — Moses to Saul. PROFANE HISTORY.— (Still uncertain.) 480 Dardanus, ki ig of Troy, builds Dardaraa. 1449 14R 1400 1374 1314 12G0 1259 1225 1222 1220 1215 Ericthoniua reigns in Troy. Cuehanrishathaim, knig of Mesopotamia. (See Scrij}- tu*z.) Teucer, king of Troy. Troas, king of Troy. Ilus, son of Troas, founder of Ilium. Laoinedon, king of Troy. Phenicia : TYRE founded. Second Assyrian Dynasty : Mithreaus or Ninus II. Troy taken by the Argonauts. Hercules arrives in Phrygia, Argon, a descendant of Hercu- les, first king of LYDIA. Priam, king of Troy. Tautanas, king of Assyria. Africa. 1491. Pharaoh and his army drowned in the Red Sea. 1485. Egyptus reigns, and gives name to the country. 1376. Sethos :«igns in Egypt. 1233. Cart: Tyrians age foundei by the 1194 The TROJAN WAR begins. 1184 Troy taken, 408 years before the 1st Olympiad. 1183 Teutaeus, king of Assyria. 1182 Trojans migrate into Italy. 31 Sthenelus reigns in Argoa. 1474. Danaus usurps the king- dom of Argos. 1463. Danmonii invade Ire- land. 1457. The kingdom of Mycene begins under Perseus, lata king of Argos. 1453. "Olympic games first ce- lebrated at Elis. 1438. Pandion begins to reign at Athens. 1400. Minos reisns in Crete. 1397. CORINTH becomes a kingdom under Sisyphus. 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 1376. The Isthmian games in- stituted. 1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- troduced. 1283. jEgeus reigns in Attica. 1266. ffidipus, king of Thebes. 1263; The Argonautic Expe- dition. 1257. Theseus unites the cities of Attica under one govern- ment. 1243. The Arcadians conducted by Evander into Italy. — Mu- sasus, a poet. 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 1225. First Theba.n War.— Euristhenes and Proclfcs kings of Lacedemon. 1222. Hercules celebiates the Olympic Games. 1216. War of the Epigomi, or 2d Theban War. 1213. Helen carried off by Theseus, is recovere-1 by Castor and Pollux, and mar- ries Menelaus. 1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 1 182. iEneas lands in lialy. 1176. Salamis founded by Teucer. 1170. Epirus: Pyrrhua Nsor> tolpnius. 722 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fourth Period. — ( The Mosaic or Theocratic^ — S 15 1 Off Progress of Society and the Arts. Mariner's compass said to be known in China. C?) A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- she. 0) SACRED HISTORY. 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines anc Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a portion of Israel. 1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and becomes judge of a part of Israel. 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- NARCHY. — Saul anointed king of Israel. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul. 723 PROFANE HISTORY.— (.Still fabulous or uncertain.) 1141 Temple of Ephesus burnt by the Amazons. 1 139 Thinasus, king of Assyria. China :— 3d dynasty; — Tchcoo 1109 Dercylus, king of Assyria. 1152. Alba-Longa buil*. bj Ascanius. 1124. iEoliau migration. THEBES, the Capital o'. Bosotia, founded. 1104. Return of the Heraclidse. — End of the kingdona cl Mycene. 724 THE WORLDS PE OGRESS. FIFTH PERIOD.— (The Monarchical)- SACRED HISTORY. B.C Progress of Society and the Arts. The Jews. 1095. Saul, King of Israel. J 085. David born. 1062. David kills Goliath. 1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron overjudah; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- naim, over eleven tribes. 1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king over all Israel. 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on the South, and Lebanon, on the North. . ! i i 1036. Solomon born. . 1023 Revolt and death of Absalom. 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 1015 M:nos gives his latM to Crete. 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence oi David. 1016. David dies. 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the temple. 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, via Red Sea, and to the. shores of the Atlan- tic, via Straits oi Gibraltar : builds Tad- mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and other cities. 985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wivea 975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. Judah. , Israel. 975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 971. Shishak plunders the temple. 958. Abijah, king. 955. Asa, king. 954. Nadab, king. 953 Baasha, king. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 725 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. PROFANE HISTORY. 104-1 Wj 01. The Ionian emigrants settle in Asia Minor. Allfance between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. Samos built. Europe. 1088. End of the kingdom o! Sicyon. 1070. Heremon, from Galiicia, conquers Ireland. 1069. Codrus devotes himsell for Athens. 1060. Athens governed by Archons. SLishak plunders Jerusalem. Alliance between Solomon and Pharaoh. Utica built 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- ture, and supposed Sesos- tris,) king of Egypt. 976. Capyf Longa. reigns in k 726 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. Fifth Period. — (TJie Monarchical.) — 937 ■■■ 10 TT6 721 710 685 Progress op Society and the Arts. Breastplates invented by Jason. SACRED HISTORY. JUDAH. 942. Asa defeats Ze- rah, king of Ethio- pia, with a million of men. 941. — makes a league with Benhadad, king of Syria. 930. Elah, king. 929. Zimri, king, Omri, king. 918. A. tab, king. Homer 's poems brought into Greece. Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta, Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of Argos. Prophecies of Jonah. Carpets in use for tents. The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels with three banks of oars. First recorded Olympiad and beginning of authentic chronology in Greece. Sculpture first mentioned in profane history — an Egyptian art. I"f jo first eclipse of the moon observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon. The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama into India. Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 12 months instead of 10 as before. Augurs instituted by Numa. Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- taius, and Evander, poets. Chess invented 314. Jehoshaphat, king. 907. Benhadad, king ol nno t , , , Syria, besieges Sa- 898. Jehoshaphat as- m aria, but is re- sists Ahab. pulsed. S94. War with Moab. 8S9. Jehoram, king. 897. Ahaziah, king. 896. Jehoram, king. 895. Elijah translated. 884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. Athaliah, queen ; usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king. 878. Jehoash, king. The Prophet Jo nah. 839. Amaziah, king. 810. Azariah, king. 758. Jotham, kins 742. Ahaz, king. " 841. Jehoash, king. 825. Jeroboam, king. 784. Interregnum.. 773. Zachanah, king. Shalium, king. 772. Menahem, king. 770. Pul invades Is- rael, and is bribed to depart with 1000 talents. 762. Pekahiah, king. 759. Pekah, king. Interregnum. Hoshea, king. 721. CAPTIVITY OP ISRAEL. 717. Hezekiah, king. 712. Sennacherib "in- vades Judah. 711. His army (185,- 000) destroyed by a pestilence. 696. Manasseh, king. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 507 yew)i>. -Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 727 PROFANE HISTORY. 97 1 Homer born. (?) 820 707 761 747 fl ! Jonah preaches to the Nine- vites. Arbaces, king of Assyria. — Media revolts. Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. Pul, king of Nineveh. Sardanapalus, king of Nine- veh. Media subjected to Assyria. Alyattes, king of Lydia. ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— Assyrian empire destroyed. — Meles, king of Lydia. Thamaces, king of Cappado- cia. xiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- ria and part of Israel. Oandaules, king of Lydia. Shalmanezer king of Nine- veh, takes Samaria, and car- ries the Ten Tribes into captivity. Gyges usurps the throne of Lydia. Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. MEDIA becomes a kingdom under Dejoces. Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. on and Nineveh under Esarhaddon. 869. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa. 825. The dynasty of the Ta- nites in Egypt ; begins with Peterbastes. 781. The dynasty of the Saites in Egypt. 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 935. Bacchus, king of Ccricth. 916. Calpetus, king of Alba. 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 895. Tiberinus drowned in tha river Albula, which is thence called the Tiber. 64. Romulus, king of Alba Longa. 845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 814. The kingdom of MACE- DON founded by Caranus. SOS. Procas, king of Alba. 794. Numitor, " " 794. Amulius, " " Olam Fodla, king in Ire- land. 0) 769. . Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 753. BUILDING OF ROME Catania founded by a co- lony from Chalcis. 747. Union of Romans and Sabines. 743. 1st Messinian War. 716. Romulus murdered by tha senators. 715. Numa Pompilius. 713. Gela in Sicily founded. 703. Corcyra built by the Co rinthiar.is. 685. 2d Messinian War 728 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.)- 651 640 629 621 600 Prooress op Society and the Arts. Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind; Interpreters instituted by Psam- meticus; children educated in the language and manners of Greece. Se-Matsien's history of China begins. The Spner ical form of the earth and the true cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, who discovers the electricity of amber. Periander encourages learning at Corinth. Draco frames his bloody code of laws at Athena. Pharaoh-Necho oegins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus circumnavigating Africa. Sappho, Alcceus, Pittacus, Bins, Chilo, My- son, Anacliarsis, JEsop, Ilychis, Theognis, Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cad?ims (ol Miletus), flourish at this time. 601 Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accom- plished. — (See Asia.) Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that of Draco". The Pythian Games at Delphi. SACRED HISTORY. 677. Mat.asseh carried to Batylon, is aftsp wards restored. 640. Amnion, king of Ju.iah. 641. Josiah. king of Judah. Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Fharaob-No- cho. 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried lo Egypt. Jehoiakim, king. 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM bj Nebuchadnezzar. 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three months, and is carried captive to Bahylon. Zedekiah, king. 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 588. CAPTIVITY OF J UDAH completed. JERUSALEM DESTROYED-the tern pie burnt. Qbadiah prophesies. xiE world's progress. 729 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) PROFANE HISTORY. Asia. 676 658 648 647 634 631 626 624 619 61* 604 699 696 Ardysus II., king of Lydia. Holofemes, Assyrian general. Phraortes, king of Media. Saracus, king of Babylon and Nineveh. Phraortes conquers Persia Armenia, &c. Cyaxares, king of Media, Sadyattes, king of Lydia. Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- racus. The Scythians invade Lydia and Media. Alyattes II., king of Lydia. Nineveh a second lime destroy- ed. Nabopolassar, king of Baby- lon. Pharaoh-Necho defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- sium, on the Euphrates. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- bylon. Daniel interprets the king's dream. A solar eclipse predicted by Thales — separates the Medes and Lydians in battle. (New- ton's GVmws.,585.) Birth of Cyrus. Astyages of Media drives out the Scythians. 31* 660. Psammeticus, king of Egypt. — Memphis becomes the capital of the kingdom. Europe. 678. Argasus, 1st king of Ma- cedon. 672. Tullus Hostilius, king oi Rome. 668. Messina in Sicily founded 665. Alba destroyed. 664. Sea fight between tha Corinthians and Coxcyreans. 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 640. Ancus Martius. — The port of Ostia built. — The Latina conquered by the Romans. — Philip, 1st king of Mace- 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king Egypt. 600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 594. Pharaoh- Hophra, ki lg of Egypt. don 629. Periander rules at Co- rinth. 616. Tarquinius Pnscue, king of Rome. 602. ^Iropus, king of ^ac* don, conquers Llyrife. 594. Solon, Archor ©f Ath 730 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. SIXTH PERIOD.— (The Persian.)- s.c Progress of Society. Jews. Asia. 585 ' 582. Nebuchadnezzar invade* Elam — takes Susa. £78 Money coined at Rome by Ser- »ius Tullius. 572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad nezz'ar. 569. Nebuchadnezzar losing his reason is deposed. New Tyre founded. 568 Depoenus and Scyllis open a school of statuary at Athens. Naucrates given to the Greeks by Egypt as a factory. Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- bited cities. 562 First comedy acted at Athens 562. Crcesus, king ot Lydia. on a cart, by Susarion and Solon and iEsop at his court. Colon. 561. Evil-Merodach, king of Dials invented by Anaximan- Babylon. der of Miletus. Anaximenes, Cleobulus. 559. Handwriting on the wall at Belshazzar's feast. 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzat killed in the night. Cyaxares II. (Darius') king of Media. Cyrus the Persian assists him. Asia Minor subjected to Croe sus. 540 The Corinthian order of ar- 546. Sardis taken oy Cyrus. — Crcesus made prisoner. — chitecture invented by Cali- The Lydian Kingdom end- machus. ed Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- 538. BABYLON TAKEN by sopher. Simonides, Anacreon, poets. Cyrus. 536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE turn of the Jews. , founded by CYRUS, com- Joshua, Zerubbabel. posed of Assyria, Media and 535 Thespis performs the first Persia. tragedy at Athens. 535. Rebuilding of the tem- ple begins. Zechariah, Haggai. 529. Cambyses, king of Per- sia. 527 Learning encouraged at Ath ens. — First public library founded. 522 Confucius the Chinese philo- sopher. 522. Darius Hystaspsa, &ing The Daric issued by Darius. 516. Dedication of the second temple. of Persia. THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 731 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander the Great. B. C. Africa. Greece. Rome, etc. 581 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- nezzar. 585. Death of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 582. Corinth becomes a repub- lic. 578. Servius Tullius, king of Rome. 571 569 Apries taken prisoner, and strangled in his palace. Amasis, king — connection be- tween Greece and Egypt. 560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Ath- ens. 549. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt by the Pisis- traiidae. 5-17. Amyntas, king of Mace- don. 539. The Phocians emigrate to Gaul and build Massilia (now Marseilles). 567. Conquest of the Etruriacs by Rome. 565. First census of Rome: 84,700 citizens. 536 Pythagoras visits Egypt. 527. Pisistratus dies. 534. Tarquimus Superbus, king of Rome. 530. Cadiz built by the Car- thaginians (near the ancient Tarskish). 525 Psammenitus, last . king of Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- byses, who defeats the Egyptians at Pelusium, and takes Memphis. Egypt becomes a Persian Province. 522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- mos. 514. Hipparchns killed. 510. The Pisistratidas expelled. — Democracy established at Athens — Statues erected to Ilarmodius and Aristogiton, leaders in the revolution. 732 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)— GU9 507 500 4;>3 479 473 471 468 Progress op Society. Abolition of the Regal Govern- ment, and establishment of Republic at Rome. Heraclitus, Theano, Prota- goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- phers. — Corinna, poetess. The Phoenician letters earned to Ireland from Spain. Pythagoras teaches the doc- trine of celestial motions. The temple of Minerva built. The Etrurians excel in music, the drama and architecture! j32schylus, Pindar, poets. Simonides, of Cos, obtains the prize at Olympia. for teach- ing a system of Mnemonics, which he had invented. Empirics instituted by Acron, of Agrigenlum. Thncydides born. Sophocles, the tragic, and Plato, the comic poet. The Jews. 483. Joachim, High Priest. jgQ Voyage of the Carthaginians to Britain for tin 458. Esther. 457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, collects the Jewish Scrip- tures : and 453. — writes the Chronicles. 508. Darius conquers India 500. The Ionians revolt from Persia and burn Sardis. 490. Darius sends an army of 500,000 men into Greece. 487. Artabazes, king of Pon- tus. 486. Xerxes, king of Persia. 481. The expedition of Xerxes into Greece. 480. The family of Archean- actes, from Mytilene, settle in Bosphorus (now Circas- sia.) 78. Death of Confucius. — China distracted by internal wars. 6. Persians defeated by s>ea and land. 465. Xerxes assassinated. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima. nus,) king of Persia. THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 733 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued. Egypt revolts — is subdued by Xerxes. Hamilcar killed in battle. 460 Egypt, under Inarus, revolts from Persia. 155 All Egypt reduced by Megaby- 505. Lacedemonian War. 504. Lemnos taken by Milti ades. 497. Alexander 1st, king of Macedon. Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela. 490. Invasion of the Persians under Datis and Artapher- nes. Battle of MARATHON. 489. Miltiades imprisoned. 484. Herodotus born. 483. Aristides banished. 480. Battle of Thermopylae. Athens burnt by Xerxes. Battle of Salamis. 479. Mardonius a second time takes Athens. Defeat of the Persians at Platea and Mycale on the same day. (?) 476. Themistocles rebuilds Athens. — The Piraeus built. 470. Cimon son of Miltiades. — Themistocles banished. — The kingdom of the Odryss extends over the most of Thrace. 466. The Persians twice de- feated at the Eurymedon by Cimon. 465. 3d Messinian War. 461. Ostracism of Cimon. — Pericles rises to great power. 459. Athens assumes to be the head of Greece. 456. Cimon recalled. Eojie and Italy. 509. The Tarquins expelled from Rome. Brutus and Collatinus first Consuls oi' Rome. 507. Second census of Rome. 130,909 citizens. The Capitol finished. — Wai against the Tarquin3 and their ally Porsonna. 498. Titus Lartiw firat Dicta- tor. Tribunes of the people. 496. Posthumius, Dictator. 491. Coriolanus banished. 488. At the request of hia mother, Coriolanus with- draws the Volsci from Rome. 485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 483. Quaestors appointed. 480. The Carthaginians de- feated by Gelon. 479. Syracuse governed \j Hiero. 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 467. Thrasybulus succeeds Hiero, and is expelled for his cruelty. Democracy in Syracuse. 461. Earthquake at R«Tie. 456. Cincinnatus Die/at* 734 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS The Sixth Period. — (T/ie Persian.) — b.c Progress of Society, etc 450 441 434 414 tlJ The Britons inflict punish ment of death by drowning in a quagmire. Empedocles, Parmenides, Aristippus, and Antis- thenes, philosophers. — Phidias the finest sculp- tor of antiquity. — Euri- pides, gains the first prize in tragedy. The Battering Ram invented by Arternones. Aristophanes, prince of an- cient comedy. Meton begins his lunar cycle. Socrates, the greatest of hea- then moralists. Hippocrates, of Cos, the father of medicine. Thucydides, Clesias, histo- rians. Democritus, the laughing phi- losopher. An eclipse of the sun causes the defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse Thucydides' history ends, and Xenophon's begins. The Jews. 445. Walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah. Sect of Samaritans. 449. Persians defeated at Sst- lamis in Cyprus. Peace with Greece. 438. Spartacus takes poasas. sion of the Boephorua. 425. Xerxes II. k. of Persia 424. Darius II. k. ol Persia. 404. Artaxerxes II. Qhi\am js.) king of Persia, THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 735 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) «07 Amyrtseus, king of Egypt, shakes off the yoke of Per- The Carthaginians send 300,- i 000 men into Sicily. 454. Perdiccas, II., king of Ma- cedon. 449. Cimon dies. 448. First Sacred War. 447. Athenians defeated at Che- 440. Pericles takes Samos. 437. Amphipolis planted by Athenians. 436. Corinth at war with Cor- cyra. 432. Revolt of Potidffia from the Athenian confederacy. 431. The Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica. 430. The Plague at Athens. 429. Pericles dies, having gov- erned Athens 40 years. 425. An earthquake separates the peninsula of Eubrea from the main land. 424. Exile of Thucydides. Campaign of Brasidas in Thrace. 420. The 90th Olympiad. Alcibiades effects a treaty between the Athenians and Argives. 416. Nicias, general of the Athenians. War in Sicily . 413. The Athenians alarmed by an eclipse. — Their army in Sicily destroyed. 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- don. 411. Athens governed by the 400. — Alliance of Sparta with Persia. 411. Alcibiades at the court of Tissaphernes. 410. Alcibiades defeats the Spartans. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians, 404. takes Athens, and establishes the 30 ty- rants. End of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Alcibiades. 451. Decemviri — the laws Oi the 12 tables. Virginia killed by hei father. 446. Syracuse reduces Agrt gentum. 445. Military Tribunes. 444. Office of Censor insti- tuted. 440. Famine in Rome. 437. The Veii defeated. 434. War with the Tuscan*. 433. The temple of Apollo de- dicated. 431. The Equi and Vo.sci d* feated. 736 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Sixth Period. — (Tlie Persian.}— I s. Progress of Society, etc. 39 SSo Catapults invented by Diony- sius. Cynics, sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes. Plato, the philosopher. Philoxenes, the poet, Treatise on conic sections by AristaMS. Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates and Isceus, orators. *:•" 401. Cyrus the younger de- feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon. 400. The city of Delhi found ed. A celestial globe brought into Greece from Egypt. Philippics of Demosthenes. Commerce of Rhodes with Africa and Byzantium 366. Jeshua slain by Johan- nan in the inner court of the temple, for which a heavy fine is laid on the daily sacn fices. 387. The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia. 383 BITHYNIA becomes a kinsdom. Mithridates 1st, king of PONTUS. 362. Ariobarzanes king of Pon- tus. — Revolt of the Persian governor in Asia Minor. 361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- erxes III. king of Persia. 360. CAPPADOCIA become* a kingdom under AriaratUss I THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 73; 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 379 362 360 The Carthaginians land Italy. Tachos, king of Egypt. Agesilaus, the Spartan, aids the Egyptians. Voyages of the Carthaginians under Hanno. 401. Thrasybulus expels the 30 tyrants. Death of Socrates. 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- cedon. 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 395. Corinthian War begun. — Battle of Coronea. 382. Thebes taken by Phoebi- das. 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- pides and Epaminondas. 100th Olympiad. 377. Spartan fleet defeated at Naxos. 372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- loponnesus, swallowed up by an earthquake. 371. Battle of Leuctra. Alexander II., king of Ma- cedon. Predominance of Thebes. 370. Perdiccas III., king of Macedon. 364. Pelopidas killed in'battle. 362. Battle of Mantinea, death of Epaminondas. Decline of Grecian Republics. 360. Philip II., king of Mace- don. defeats the Athenians at Methone. The Macedonian phalanx. War of the nllies against Athens. 358. Philip takes Amphipolis and loses his right eye by an arrow from Astor. 357. The 2d Sacred War. 356. Philip conquers Thrace and Illyria. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. A L E X A N D E R " the Great" born. Rome and Italy. 400. Siege of Veii begun. 397. Lake Alba drained 391. Camillus, Dictator, takes Veii, after a siege of ten years. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennus — The Capitol besieged. — Camillus delivers his coun- try. 386. Damon and Pythias. 384. M. Manlius Capitolinua thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 379. The Volsci defeat the Romans. 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- beian consul. Camillus, the fifth time Dictator. 371. The curule magistrates appointed. 362. Curtius leaps into a gulf in the Forum. 357. Dionvsius, the youngai expelled from Syracuse. 738 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SEVENTH PERIOD.— {The Grecian.)- B.C Progress op Society, etc The Jews. Asia. 313 Aristotle, the logician and phi- losopher, founder of the Pe- ripatetics; JEschines, ora- tor. Demosthenes ; Icetas, of Syra- cuse. - 342 The Lyceum built in Attica. 336 Alexander spares the house of Pindar. The revolution of eclipses first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian. 336. Mithridates II., long at Pontus. 336 Caustic painting or the art of burning colors into wood or ivory, invented by Gau- sias, a painter of Sicyon. 334. Battle of the Granicus. 333. Battle of Issus— Parthia, Bactriaj Hyrcania,Sogdiana, and Asia Minor, conquered by Alexander. 332. Tyre subdued after seven months' sieg«». Damascus taken. — Gaza Alexander enters Jerusa- lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the High Priest, clad in his surrenders. 331. Battle of Arbela.—Tho Persian army totally defeat- ed. 330. CONQUEST of the PER ■ SIAN EMPIRE. 329. Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander, wilh a train of 300 women. 328. Alexander extends his robes, he declares he had seen him in a vision, invit- ing him to Asia, and pro- mising him the Persian em- pire. He goes to the Tem- ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- vah, and departs. 328 The voyage of Nearchus from conquest to the Ganges. the Indus to the Euphrates. 323. Alexander dies at Baby- Apeiles, the painter ; Calis- Ion. thenes, philosopher. 322. Peidiccas takes Carp* Menander, the inventor of the docia. new comedy. Lysistratus invents moulds from which to cast wax figures. 330 First work on mechanics, writ- 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews into Eypt. 320. Eumenes defeated by A» ten by Aristotle. — Diving tigonua. Bell first mentioned. Onias I. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 739 184 gears.— 'Alexander to tlie Fall of Greece. 319 340 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, and pillages its temples. The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon. Egypt conquered by Alexan- der. Alexandria built. Ptolemy L (pis.) (Soter, son of La- Greece — Macedon. 353. The Phocians defeated by Philip. 348. End of the Sacred War. Philip takes Olynthus. 346. Philip admit fed to the Amphictyonic Council. 345. Duras buried by an earth- quake. 343. Thrace tributary to Mace don. Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander. 341. Philip makes war upon Athens. 340. — lays siege to Byzantium. Timoleon recovers Syra- cuse, expels Dionysius, the tyrant, and defeats the Car- thaginians at Agrigentum. 338. Philip defeats the Greeks at Cheronea. 336. Philip is murdered by Pausanias. ALEXANDER III., sur- named the Great. — He rava- ges Greece, destroys Thebes, sparing the house of Pindar. 335. — is chosen generalissimo f Greece against Persia. 334. — invades Persia, and after several great battles (see " Asia ") subdues the Per- sian empire and Egypt, and marches into India. 330. JEschines, the orator, banished. 325. Demosthenes banished. 323. Death of Alexander. — The Grecian cities revolt from Macedon. — Demosthe- nes recalled. 322. The Greeks defeated by sea and land near Cranon. Death of Demosthenes. 321. Antipater, regent. 319. Polysperchon succeeds Antipater, and proclaims liberty to the Grecian cities- Rome, etc. 354. Dion put to death, ana Syracuse usurped by ty« rants. 345. Twelve cities in Campa- nia buried by an earth juftke. 343. Samnian War, which con- tinues 53 years. 340. P. Decius devote* him- self for his country. All Campania is subdued. 332. The Caledonian mo- narchy (Scotland) founded by Fergus I. 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator. 321. The Samnites make tha Romans pass under the yoke. 320. The Samnites defeated a) Luceria. 740 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)- b. o. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews 317 310 300 Commerce of Maeedon with India, through Egypt. The Appian Way constructed. — The Gnomon invented to measure altitudes. Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 293 m 885 :»! 311. Judea subject to AUigo- nus. Euclid, of Alexandria, the celebrated mathematician. — Zeno, founder of the Stoics ; — Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; Epicurus, of the Epicu- reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- nes, philosopher. The great Chinese Wall built. The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor, and the time first divided into hours. Fabius introduces painting at Rome. The Colossus of Rhodes built by Chares, of Lindus. Theocrites, the father of pas- toral poetry. Dionysius, the astronomer at Alexandria, begins his era. He found the solar year to consist of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of PtO' lemy Phi) idelphus. 301. Judea under the domi nion of the PtQlemies. 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator. 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes Babylon. Era of the Seleucid tablish an Agrarian law. 240. Cleamhus, the Stoic, starves himself. 232. Philip III., of Macedon. 228. Roman ambassadors first appear at Athens and Co- rinth. The fortress of the Athe- naeum built. 226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- ta, defeats the Achasans. — Lyscades killed. — The Agra- rian law restored. 225. The Romans send another embassy to Greece. They are admitted to a share in the Isthmian games, and granted the freedom of Ath- ens. 223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- polis. 222. Battle of Sellasia. 220. The S o c i a 1 W a l —Philip, of Macedon, as- sists the Achasans. — Cleome- nes dies in Eyypt. — Agesi- polis and Lycurgus elected kings of Sparta. 218. Acanama ceded to Philip. 215. Aratus poisoned at iEgium. 214. First Macedonian War, 211. Alliance of Philip with Hannibal. Rome, etc. 247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- mans at Liliboeum. 241. End of the fijrst P2 The Jews. Libraries of Athens sent to Rome by syiia. Decline of Agriculture in Italy ; corn supplied from the provinces. Posidonius calculates the height of the atmosphere to be about 800 stadia. Zeno, of Sidon, the Epicurean ; Apellicon of Athens ; Alex- ander Polyphistor,ihe gram- marian ; Pholius Gallus, rhetorician ; Q. Valerius Anlias. Roman historian ; Q. Hortensius, orator. The cherry tree brought to Europe from Asia by Lu- cullus. — Tereritius Varro writes three books on agri- culture. The Romans possess gold mines in Asia Minor, Mace- donia, Sardinia and Gaul ; and productive silver mines in Spain. The first water mill described near a dwelling of Mithri- dates. Ebony introduced at Rome by Pompey. Vikramaditya Icing of Ozene, in India, patron of literature — at his court flourish Ame- ra Sinka, lexicographer; Varurvchi, grammarian ; Kalidasa, poet. 79. Alexandra, widow of Jan- neus, governs Judea. 70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, deposed by his brother Aris- tobulus. 67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus appeal to Pompey, who en- ters Judea and takes Jerusa- lem, and restores Hyrcanus to the priesthood. 63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- VINCE. 9S. China sti' submits to tha Han dynasty ; S e m a t - z i n , Emperor. 97. Mithridates conquers Cap- padocia. 95. Cappadocia declared fre* by Rome. — Ariobarzanes elected king. 94. Antiochus, king of Syria, defeated iy Seleucus. 93. Tigranes, king of Arme- nia. Pontus at war with Romo. 86. Mithridates takes Bythi- nia and several Roman pro- vinces. 83. Tigranes made king of Syria. 75. By the death of Nicome- des Bythinia becomes a province. 70. Damascus possessed by the Romans. 69. Mithridates and Tigranes defeated by Lucullus. 66. Mithridates defeated by Pompey. 65. Antiochus XII. defeated by Pompey. — The race of the Seleucidae becomes ex- tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., king of Cappadocia. — An earthquake in Bosphorua lays in ruins several towns. 64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia, seizes Armenia Minor. '53. Pharmaces, king of Fontua. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 753 148 years. — (Continued.) By the death of Ptolemy Apion, Cyrene becomes a Roman province. 82 Revolt in Upper Egypt.— Thebss destroyed. 81 Alexander II., king of Egypt. Roman Empire. In Asia and Africa. 97. Annexation of Cyrene. 89. Mithridatic War; Sylla commands the Roman army. 88. The Athenians seek as- sistance from Mithridates against Rome. 86. Athens, reduced by famine, is taken by Sylla. 83. Second Mithridatic War. 82. Sylla plunders the temple of Delphi. In Europe. 99. L u s i t a n i a conquered by Dolabella, and becomes a Roman province. — Birth of Julius Caesar. 91. Social War in Italy. 8- Sylla defeating the Marsi and Peligni, puts aa end to the Social War. Civil War between Ma- rius and Sylla. 82. Sylla defeats Marius, and is created perpetual dictator. SO. 7ULIUS CESAR'S First 79. P o m p e y defeats Do- Campaign. mitius in Africa. Ptolemy Egypt. Anletes, king of 75. B y t h i n i a a Roman Province. 74. Third Mithridatic War under Lucullus. 66. Metellus subdues Crete. P o n t u s becomes a Roman Province. 65. Syria, a Roman Province. 77. Sertorius revolts in Spam and defeats Metellus and Pompey. 73. War of Spartacus, the gla diator. 71. Spartacus defeated by Craa sus. 70. Pompey and Cras. sus Consuls. 69. Census 450,090. 65. M. T. Cicero, Consul. 63. Cataline's Conspi. racy detected and flup» / racy ueiecieu a I pressed by Cicero. 32* 754 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Eighth Period.— {The Roman.)- b. o. Progress op Society, etc. «: 60 £5 60 46 45 43 Magnificent houses of the nobles ; marble theatre of Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- tators. Cicero, statesman and orator Sallust, historian ; Lucre tius and Catullus, poets Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhe torician ; Aristomedes, of Crete, grammarian ; Andro- nicus, of Rhodes, peripate tic philosopher. Iron chain cabtes used by the Veneti. A water mill on the Tiber at Rome. The Alexandrian library (400,- 000 vols.) burnt. The year of confusion — so called because the calendar was altered by Sosigenes. Ccesar reforms the Calendar, by introducing the solar in- stead of the lunar year. — First Julian year. — Vitru- vius, the greatest Roman ar- chitect. Cornelius Nepos, historian ; Dio-iorus Siculus, histo- rian. 53. Crassus plunders the tem- ple of 10,000 talents. 3. Antipater, the Idumean, is made lieutenant in Judea by Caesar. 43. Judea oppressed by Cras- sus. Malichus poisons Anti- pater. 40. Herod the Great, son of Antipater, defeats his rival, antigonus, and Parcorus. the Parthian — takes Jerusa- lem — marries Mariamne — is made king by the Romans. 53. Parthian War.— The Fe- nians defeated. — Cras^ks first in- troduced. The Jews. 30. Herod kills Mariamne. 19. The Temple rebuilt by Herod — he also builds Cy- pron, Antipatris, Pharsselis, and the tower of Phasa^l in Jerusalem. The legions distributed over the provinces in fixed camps, which soon grew into cities — among them were Bonn and Mayence. The calenda" corrected by Augustus. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, historian ; and Dionysius, geographer. BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- fore the Vulgar Era. 3. Archelaus succeeds Herod with the title of Ethnarch. Cyrenius taxes Judea. Asia. 34. Antony fakes possession of Armenia, which Jsecomes a Roman province — lead* an inglorious expedition against Parthia. 29. E p h e s u s , next to Alexandria, the chief place of trade in the Roman em- pire. 20. Porus, king of India, soft- cits an alliance with Rome. Parthians defeated by Ti- berius. 14. Polemon conquers So® porus. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 757 146 years. — (Continued.) 36 34 80 Roman Empire. Cleoj atra obtains from An- tony a grant of Phoenicia Cyrene and Cyprus. — receives all Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus. Cxeopatra and Marc Antony defeated by Octavius, at Act turn. Alexandria taken by Octavius. —Antony and Cleopatra de- stroy themselves. Egypt becomes a Ro- man province. 21. Athens finally subjected *.o Rome. 20. CXCth Olympiad. 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 5. Q. Varrus appointed gov- ernor of Syria, and Cyre- nius governor of Judea. West. 36. Sextus Pompey defeated in Sicily. 32. Antony quarrels with Oc- tavius. 31. By the BATTLE OF AC- TIUM Octavius acquire* the empire. 30. THE REPUBLIC BE- COMES A MONARCHY. 29. Octavius's 3 days triumph at Rome. Temple of Janus shut Rome contains 4,101,017 citizens. 27. The titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octa- vius for 10 years. 23. Agrippa in Spain. 22. Conspiracy of Murana. 21. Augustus visits Greece and Asia. 16. Lollius defeated by the Germans. 15. Cancabria, Austria, Rhos- bia, Vindelencia and Moesia become Roman provinces — being conquered by Dru- sus. 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 12. Pannonia, conquered by Tiberius, becomes a Ro- man province. 11. Germany subdued iv Ger manicus. 4. Cymbeline, king of Britain. PAKT II. MODERN CHRONJLCGY, PROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. Epochas or Periods. L From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Persecution, o to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 \ Christians. a. " Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 Northern Invasions. m ' « Flight of Mahomet, « 622 \ " *■*•*» and Belisariu*. " CrowningofCharlemagneatRome, » 800 \ " Saracen Empire. « Battle of Hastings, « 1066 j " New Western Empire. " Founding of the Turkish Empire, " 1299 ( " The Crusa d<*- VII ) " Taking of Constantinople, « 1453$ Tamerlane,Wickliffe, and Hum, V U- ) " The Reformation; Discoveriet " Edict of Nantes, " 1598 \ and Inventions. IX. 1 " The English Vomm.onwes.Uh " Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, " 1718 { and Wars of Louis XIV. X ? " American and French Revolu \ " " Battle of Waterloo, » 1815 $ tions. XJ j « European Revolutions, Liter a- " present time (1865.) \ ture and the Arts. 760 the world's progress. MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st,— -{The Ten Persecutions.)— S6 30 48 60 Progress of Society, etc. Celsus the physician ; Phaedrus, the fabu- list ; VeUius Paterculus, Roman histo- rian. Sacred. The BIRTH OF CHRIST :— (see p. 44.) Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch of Galilee. 8. Christ reasons with the doctors. The Druids in Germany. Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. Seneca, moral philosopher. Valerius Maximus, historian. Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called the "Trumpet of the World." A census being taken by Claudius, the em- peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are found to amount to 6,900,000. — (Univ. Hist.)— [More than three times the number 67 London at present.! Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books on husbandry. 25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 26. John the Baptist begins Iris ministry. 27. Christ baptized by John 28. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew called. 29 Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and two." 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection, Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, May 4. 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 40. The disciples first called Christians at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of St. James. 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athen 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Ctesa- rea. 57. — pleads before Felix. 59. — pleads before Festus, and appeals te Caesar. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 761 306 years. — From the Christian Era to the reign of Conslantme. Roman Empire. East. Caiun Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. Thrace becomes a Roman province. West. Tiberius returns to Rome. 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. — Cains Caesar dies. 6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- vince. 9. The Germans, under Arminius, defeat and kill Varrus. Ovid is banished to Tomos. 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is succeeded bv ■Tiberius. 19. The Jews banished from Rome. — The Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 21. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by Sre. 26. Tiberius retires to Caprasa. 31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 33. Conquest of Mauritania. 37. Tiberius dies, aged 78. -Caligula, 1 (noted for his profligacy and folly.) 41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas. C 1 a u d i u s*~ succeeds to the tHrone. 43. — invades Britain with his general, Plsu- tius. 45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 48. Census of 'the city, 6,900,000. 51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con- quered and brought to Rome. 54. N e r o ,\ a profligate and bloody tyrant. 55. — poisons Britanicus. 56 Rotterdam built. 59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to daatJi by his order. 762 THE world's pr.oge.ESS. [Modern : Period I. — 306 yean 67 Progress of Society, etc. Nsrc's golden palace built; of great extent, inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in Rome more regular after the fire. Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Per- sius, satirist. Tostphus, the Jewish historian. The Coliseum of Vespasian. The Capitol rebuilt. Circumnavigation of Scotland. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii 80 Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of Titus ; the group of the Laocoon. Quintiltian, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet ; Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Py- thagorean philosopher; Epictelus, stoic; Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- losopher ; Philo ByHius ; Ignatius and Pa- pias, two of the fathers of the church. 26 Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 59. Paui is shipwrecked on the Isiasd »' Melita (Malta). 60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 63. Paul set at liberty. 64. The first persecution of Christians 6j Nero. 63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travels through the greater part of the known world. 66. Pope Linus.* The Jews at war with the Romans, and Paul beheaded. St. Peter crucified. 67. The Jews massacred by Florus.-^Josephus, governor of Galilee. Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliel. 68. Vespasian invades Judea. 70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by 7Vsm 77. Pope St. Cletus Tacitus, historian ; Juvenal, satirist ; Sta- tins, poet; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; the younger Pliny. T he Ulpian library ; Public schools in all the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes ; the city adorned with the Forum ; Pillar of Trajan, and bal/is; bridge built over the Danube. 83. Pope Anacletua. 95. Second persecution of the Christians by Domitian. St. John writes his Gospel and Apoca- lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patmos. 96. Pope Evaristus. 97. Timothy stoned. St. John returns from exile. 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. * The word Pope is used in accordance with the Roman Catholic usage, though th« name was not adopted by their Pontiffs liH several centuries alter. — Christian Era to Constantiue.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 763 Roman Empire. 6U 65 East. Corbuli subdues Armenia. Tiridates placed on ihe throne of Armenia by Ne:o. Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by Titus. Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. Revolt of the Parthians. West. 61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- feated by Suetonius, poisons herself. (54. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the Christians of the crime. — persecutes the Christians — Seneca, Lit- cian, and others put to death. ■Galba, reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 69.- •O t h o . (2 months) defeated and killed by ■ V i te 1 1 i us, who is defeated by the army of — — Vespasian. fH? 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 79. T i t u s , ^§f - (beneficent.) Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an irruption of Vesuvius. 80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. -Domitian, fH ( a cruel tyrant.) 6. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a yearly tribute. 8. Capitoline and secular games. War with Dacia 15 years. 96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. N e r v a , (well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) -Trajan, 1 (a great sovereign anda warrior.) The Roman Empire at its greates'. exient J. Severus, general in Britain. 764 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modem : Period I. — 306 years. 107 132 !?6 Progress of Society, etc. The Jbst credible historian among the Chinese. The great buildings of Palmyra. — Temple of the Sun at Baalbec. The Roman mosaics. Jurisprudence improved by the publishment of Adrian's perpetual code. Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer and geographer — Arrian, Appian, Maxi- mus, Lysius and Pausanius, Greek histo rians; Lucian, a satirical writer; Hermo- rhetorician of Tarsus. Tschang Heng, the Chinese astronomer 169 ' Galen, Greek physician ; Athceneus, a gram marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo- rian. \% Ecclesiastical. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 100. St. John dies at Ephesus, set. 94. 107. Third persecution of the Christians tef Trajan. 101 St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts. Pope Alexander I. 118. Fourth persecution of the Christians by Adrian. 119. Pope SixtusL 126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens. 127. Pope Telesphorus. 130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- 134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges three Gods. 135. Poly carp and Aristides, Christian fathers 139. Pope Hygenus. 142. Pope Pius I. Heresy of Valentine. 150. Pope Anicetus. Canon of Scripture fixed about this time 154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology fo the Christians. 162. PopeSoter. 167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Alia, 171. Pope Eleutherus. 177. The Christians persecuted at LyMi«.« Theophilus, Tatian, and Montana*. 1S5. Pope Victor I. St. Irenaus. — Christian Era to Constantine.\ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 765 102 in 130 132 Roman Empire. Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his account of the Christians. — Great victories of Trajan. Trajan's expedition against the Parthians. Seizure of Ctesiphon. Armenia Major again governed by its own kings dependent upon Rome. Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an earthquake. Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of iElia Capicolina, and erects there a temple to Jupiter. The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war of five years. — The Jews banished from Judea. 100. The Huns emigrate westwa: i. 101. Trajan reduces" Dacia. 1 15. Massacre of the Greeks and Ron. &ru by the Jews of Cyrene. 117.- Adrian. 120. — makes t progress through all tha 121. provinces-visits Britain, builds there a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.— A wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 1G0 Embassy sent by Antoninus to China 168 War with the Parthians, lasts 3 yeara. 133. — Antoninus Pius, ^g - (eminent for his virtues and love ol peace.) 140. Lollius Urbicus extends the Roman do- minion in Britain, and erects a second ram- part, called the Wall of Antoninus. 145. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians. 146. — introduces the worship of Serapis into Rome. 152. — stops the persecution of the Christians. 161. — Marcus Aurelius, ^g' (Ar>> * ninus,) (the stoic philosopher.) Escape of the thundering legion. 158. Plague over the whole known world. 169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 180. The emperor aies at Sirmium: s»» ceeded by Commodus. (profligate and cruel ;) makes peaca with the Germans. GOTHS in Dacia. 766 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [Modern : Period /.— 306 yean, Progress of Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. '.'IG 235 M2 240 860 Papinian, the greatest civil lawyer of anti- quity — Julius Africanus, chronologer. Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen- ship to all the provinces, that they may be- come liable to the taxes, inheritances, 3 Mediterranean and Northern Seas. Ecclesiastical. 251. Si Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.— Mo- nastic life originates about this time. Dispute between the churches of Roms and Africa about baptism. 259. Pope Dionysius. 262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, del iea the divinity of Jesus Christ 269. Pope Felix I. 272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 274. Pope Eutychianes. Manes originates the heresy of the Manfc- chsans— rejects all the sacraments ; refuses allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 384 Diocletian's Oriental form of government— tho monarchy considered hereditary — nomi- nation of Ca?sars as co-ru!ers. Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches of white marble, while the walls were adorned with paintings. 283. Pope Caius. The Jewish Talmud ana Targum cora posed. , , Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reh gious ceremonies multiplied.— Pagan rites imitated by the Christians. 286. Hierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserta that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and denies the resurrection. —Christian Era to Constaniine.] THE fTORLD'S PROGRESS. •09 Roman Empire. East. HUNS o'l the Caspian Sea. 260 261 264 269 273 The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman arms. The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and Ceesarea. Odenatus, king of Palmyra— he is succeeded by his wife. Zen obi a, who reigns with the titles of ' Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, and Asia Minor. Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who destroys her magnificent capital, and carries her to'Rome. The Persians defeated by Probus West. Gal lu s 251. purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con- federacy of the Franks between the Rhine and Elbe, —•a great pestilence prevails in the empire. 253.- 254.- E miiianus. Valerian. — is successful against the Germans and Goths. 256-69. Four great piratical expeditions tf the Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and flayed alive by the Persians. ■ G a 1 1 i e n u s . fpf Period of the 30 tyrants. The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 264. Alliance with Odenatus. 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths and Scythians. 268. Gallienus killed at Milan. -Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,00U Goths. 269. —dies at Sirmium. ■270, - Aurelian, l|§f (a great warrior.) 271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 273 — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to obedience. The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt.— Dacia eiven up to the barbarians. 275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. An interregnum of 6 months. — Tacitus, vg5 (a descendant of the historian,) reians with wisdom 6 months. 277, Probus, (a warlike prince.) — obtains several victories over the barba- r j ans ._The Franks permitted by Probus to settle in Gaul. 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. C a r u s 'f>. killed by lightning. Carinus and Numerianus (effeminate and cruel.) 28S. Fingal. king of Morven, dies. 284, Diocletian sends ambassadors to China. "The Era of Diocletian," or of "the martyrs," Ausust 29. 287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigns 7 years. The empire attacked by the ror'.h- e'rn barbarians, and several provinces usurped by tyrants— Maximianus, a col- league of the Emperor. 33 770 the world's progress. [Modem : Period I. — 306 years. Progress op Society, etc. 290 The Gregorian code. 304 340 357 Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elms. Sparlianus, and Vopiscus, historians ; Tre- bellius Polio. Ecclesiastical. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. Pope Marcellinus 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted torn idolatry. The praetorian guard broken up by Constan- tine. Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great. — Celebrated dome of St Sophia : the splendor of the court so great that it cost more than the legions. Constantinople becomes the seat of art and literature. MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 years — 306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantius. 310. Pope Eusebius. Arius excommunicated. 311. Pope Malchiades. Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to have flourished about this time. Eutropius and Marcellinus, historians ; Jam- bdcus and Eunapius, Greek historian. 314. Pope Sylvester I. 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine the Great. 325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th, 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, who condemn Ari&nism. —Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- rian. — Lactantius. Athanasius, Arius, Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the reign of Constantine. 336. Pope Marcus. 337. Pope Julius. Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, the cross reverenced, and incense used by the Christians. 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumaintius. 356. Pope Felix II. St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, ol Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F. — Elites Donatus, bishop of Carthage.— Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem. — Monasteries ia Thebais. —Christian Era to Constantine. \ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 771 Roman Empire. East. JVarsis, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- potamia, and Assyria. Alexandria taken by Diocletian. Hormiadas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. From Constantine to Odoacer. 325 328 340 350 351 351 331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- ples to be destroyed. The first general council a . Nice. The seat of government removed to Constan- tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on May 11th, 330. Great famine and pestilence in Syria. Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- persed over the empire. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, Constantius, Constans,and Constantine West. 291. The Franks make themselves masters ol Batavia and Flanders. r 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em pire to Constantius and Galerius. 306. — Constantine the Great, ^ff (first Christian emperor.) Licinius, Maximian, and Mazentius, hia three colleagues. Constantine defeats the Franks. 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 314. Civil war with Licinius. 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- tianity. 321. — appoints the observance of Sunday. 322. —defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- comes sole emperor. 325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and assemblies. 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an earthquake. Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire. Gallus put to death by Constantius. y Constantius dies at Tarsus. A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. EASTERN EMPIRE astending from the lower Danube to the con- fines of Persia. 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and killed by Constans at Aquilea. 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at Strasburg. 361. — Julian, the Apostate, wif - — attempts in vain to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 363. — is slain in a war with the Persians. 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession oi Valentinian and Valens, under whom the EMPIRE is DIVIDED : WESTERN EMPIRE, •extending from the Caledonian ramparta to the fty. of Mount Atlas. 772 the world's progress. [Modern: Period II. — 170 years, Progress op Society, etc. ■A-2 feated by Theodosius. G r a t i a n gains a victory over the Germans ; suc- ceeds to the eastern empire on the death ol Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. — Gratian killed at Lyons. 379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- via, and defeat the Vandals. 383.- Valentinian II. is dispossessed by Maximus, but is re- stored by Theodosius; makes Treves his capital. 384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a Gaul, commander of the army. Theodo sius wl becomes sole emperor of the East and West. Complete down fall of Paganism. Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. A r c a d i u s . -Theodosius 1 1 .^ff — a ehild ; Athenius, minister. Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. Persian War. Armenia divided between the Persians and Romans. A great part of Constantinople destroy©. 1 by fire. Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained (rom the western empire. H o n o r i u a . 401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, Gaul, &c. 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths under Alaric. 412. Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- louse. 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths. 420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their first king, on the lower Rhine. 424. — Valentinian III . flf 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 428. jEtius, the Roman general, defeated bj the Franks and Goths. Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con quests to the river Somme. 433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," form* an immense empire from China to the At- lantic. 437. jEtius defeats the Goths. 439. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 441. The Roman territories invaded by the Huns, Persians and Saxons. 445. The famous embassy from Britain, soil- citing aid against the Picts. 774- THE WORLD'S progress. [Modern: Period II.— 170 years. *>> Progress op Society, etc. Zozimus and Olympiodorus, Greek histo- rians. ffi The principle established that every accused person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- narchy. The tottering empire of the west was finally overthrown by Qdoacer's sack of Rome, the great event which precedes the middle or "dark ages." The form of the old Roman government remained — the senate, the consuls, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a succession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of public tyran-'v and domestic slavery, was nearly a desert Ecclesiastical. 447. Eutyches asserts the existence of onlj one nature in Jesus Christ. 449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa ; and Eusebius, bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 450. Sozomen and Theoaoret, ecclesiastical historians. 451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon, at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianism are solemnly condemned. 461. Pope Hilarius. 465. Pope Simplicius. Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Con 1 stantinople, Alexandria, An.tioch, and Jeru- salem — all striving for the supremacy.— The church now begins to assume a poiit* cal aspect. -From Constantine to Odoaccr.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. Eastern Empire. 160 457 4G1 M a r c i a n , ^g a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual tribute to the Huns. Western Empire. 448. Franks :— Merovoeus 1st, king of the Me- rovingians. iElius defeats the Huns. 451. The arrival of the Saxoni in Britain, under Hengist and Horea. 452. The city of VENICE founded. 455. Valentinian assassinated by -Petronius Maxim us. fi|? Leo I . , (the Thracian,) m 475 first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch War with the Goths. Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is received from them as a hostage. Z e n o . a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- racies. Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, and invades the empire. He ravages Thrace. ■Maj orian . fgf- 458. Franks : — Childeric I., conquers as far as the Loire and takes Paris. ■ S e v e r u s . 467.- Athenius. (The last three emperors slain by Ricimer.) 468- Spain : — The Visigoths, under Eric, esta blish their kingdom. O 1 y b i u s . ||§ Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- tinople. 473.- 474.- G 1 y c e r i u s .f§?- Julius Nepos. fl 475. — Romulus Augustulus. Wg 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of the Herulii : END of the WESTERN EMPIRE. 1228 years after the building of Rome ; and commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un- der Odoacer. 76 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS MODERN : PERIOD III— 146 wars Progress of Society, etc. \i£ 4SQ 501 511 613 514 Rise of the feudal, system in France, under Clovis. Theodoric introduces the architecture of Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- bylon. Burgundian laws published, being a collec- tion of the rights and customs of the Bur gundians. The Salic law established in France. Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- tinople. The Christian Era proposed and introduced by Dionysius, a monk. Ecclesiastical. 483. Pope Felix III. excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of Constantinople. 484. Christians persecuted by Kuneric, kvu% of the Vandals. 492. Pope Ge.asius I. 494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his supre macy. 496. Christianity introduced into France. 630 631 U3 The schools of Athens suppressed. The fables of Pilpay translated into Pers.an. Chess introduced into Persia from India. Justinian 1 s pandects and code of laws. Architecture : the church of St Sopkia ! ui'.t at Constantinople. Proclus, a learned Platonist. 513. Christianity embraced by the Persian king, Carbades. 514. Pope Hormisdas. 519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin 523. Pope John I. 525. The Arian bishops deposed. 526. Pope Felix IV. Extreme Unction introduced. 529. The Order of Benedictine monks in stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 530. Pope Boniface II. 533. Pope John II. 535. Pope Agapetus. 536. " Sylvester I. Separation of the Armenians fr>m the (lie-id church. 53S. Por e Vigilius. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 777 —Odcacer U Mahomet. [The " Middle or Dark Ages''' begin here.] Eastern Empire. An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the greater part of Constantinople. Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul Anastasius I The Green and Blue factions. The emperor's persecution of the Catho lies, and protection of the Manichaeans, oc casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. The empire ravaged and the imperial army destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. Long walls built to protect Constantinople from the Bulgarians. A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 killed. Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet is consumed by the burning glass of Proclus. Anastasius killed by lightning. a peasant of Dalmatia. Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. •Justinian I celebrated for his code of laws and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Narses. Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- roes. —quells i conspiracy in Constantinople, — defeats the Vandals in Africa, —subdues Sicily. — takes Naples. —takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in Italy. — the Huns in Thrace, and Europe, generally. 481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,fg' fcun 3el . of the French monarchy. 484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 4S5. France : — Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis. 487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by Prinoe Arthur and Ambrosius. 490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. Britain : — kingdom of Sussex. 491. France : — Clovis subdues Thuringia. 493. Italy : — c onquered by Th. e o - d o r i c , king of the Ostrogoths. — Odoa- cer put to death. 499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with Theodoric in Italy. 500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 510. France : — Clovis makes Paris his capital. 511. France: — Clovis dies. -Childebert I.* 512. The HERULII settle in Thiace. 516. The Christian Era adopted. 517. Getae ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c. 519. Britain: — Prince Arthur defeated ax Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 522. Spain :— Amalaric, the first Gothic king, who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- tal, Seville. 530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber*. 536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, eurrei> ders his possessions in Gaul'to the Fiwfc king. 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 33* 778 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modem : Period III. — 146 yean Progress op Society, etc. Th? manufacture of silk introduced from China by the monks. Procopius, a Roman historian— the last of the classic writers. The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit- ed by the Wittenagemat. Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the servile.— Trial by ordeal. Ecclesiastical. 540. The. Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Jesus Christ. 552. The Fifth general Council at Constanti nople. 555. Pope Pelagius I. 557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, buiJI at Paris. 560. Pope John III. The Tritheists acknowledge three God% and deny the resurrection. 68K 588 Christianity introduced among the Picts by Columbi. The old Roman municipal system in Raly overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards —and the feudal system established. Written laws compiled among the nations of Herman origin— first by the Visigoths in Spain. Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- tecture of churches, with much grotesque sculpture. The Latin language ceases to be spoken in Iialy, while it supersedes the Gothic in Spain. The origin of fiefs. The Roman Catholic faith established in Spain. Gregory of Tours, the father of French his tory. Dretwalda, king of England, converted to Christianity. Asrathus, a Grecian historian. Gildas, the first British historian. Evagrias. ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to Theodoric. The Saxons, having conquered England, it relapsed, in a great measure, into the state of barbarism, from which it had been par- tvilly raised by the Romans. 573. Pope Benedict I. 575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. Great increase of miracles. 578. Pope Pelagius II. )0. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. The doctrine of purgatory first taught.- Mass introduced. 598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 604. Pop'e Sabianus, or Sabinian. 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni- versal Bishop assumed. The Waldenses refuse submission 1c Rome -From Odoacer to Mahomet.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 779 540 542 548 649 552 554 50 1 562 563 505 669 574 576 578 570- 600 Eastern Empire. Europe, generally. VH Viliges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor- sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern empire. Plague at Constantinople — during three months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. Siege of Petra. Narses defeats and kills Totila. Italy governed by Greek exarchs. A plague extending over Europe and Asia, and lasting nearly 50 years. Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. " restored: — he quells a conspiracy. Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly destroyed. Justinian dies. Justin II. M Belisarius dies in prison. The TURKS first mentioned in history.— They send embassies to Justin, and form an alliance. Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- ernment. Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. Tiberius II. Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and almost to the Caspian Sea. The Avars flourish under Baian— invade the Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, Poland, and Prussia. — P hotas, ]§§? — a centurion, elected king The empire invadei by the Persians. 539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 542. Britain : Cornwall. -Prince Arthur murdered in 550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first duke and legislator. His brother, Zech, first duke of Bohemia. The Greeks form settlements on tha Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 556. Civil wars in France. 558. France :— C lotaire I . Hf 559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar- chy commences. 5G0. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbria, formed by the union of Bemicia and Deira. — Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues meet ol the Saxon kings. 561. France :— C haribert I. f|g 565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, undei Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 575. " East Anglia formed into a king- dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- gin of the name England. 583. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi- goths. France :— C lotaire II. fH 586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. Spain : — Recared, king. 588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda III. Italy : — the Lombards, under Authans, successful against the Greeks and Franks. 595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded bj the Sclavonians. 596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgurdy. 597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. Augustine. 600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 607. Britain:— Supremacy of the Pope so knowledged. 780 THE world's progress. [Modern : Period III.— 146 yean &.D. Progress op Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. The aristocracy acquire great power in France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 606. Pope Boniface III. of the palace. 607. Pope Boniface IV. Rites and superstitions increase in all Europe. The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to Goo, — Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- the Virgin, and the Saints. nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning 609. The Christians massacred by the Jews a' of candies by day. — Exorcisms, &c. Antioch. Hereditary Jiefs. — Aristocratic class. 615 S^cundus, historian of the Lombards. 617 Elhelbert publishes the first code of laws in England. 618. Pope Boniface V. MODERN: PERIOD IV— 178 years. Progress op Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. 620 Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and philosopher. 625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for splendid cathedrals and processions. Monks and monasteries increase. Africa and Asia, with the churches of 632 Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta- Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to blished in the East. In the Caliphs were the Christian world by the progress of Mo- united the highest spiritual and regal autho- hammedanism. rity. 640. Pope Severinua. 640. Pope John IV. 636 Christianity introduced into China. In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- cal architecture; circular arches intro- duced; churches built at Canterbury, Glas- tonbury, St. Albans, Winchester, <&c. - In civil architecture, forts and castles — Conis- borough Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown 642. Pope Theodoras. He assumes the titla in Derbyshire, &c. of " Sovereign Pontiff." 844 University of Cambridge founded. 644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of the clergy. Separation between the Greek and Some of the monasteries of Europe continue Roman churches. to be the repositories of learning and the a-ts. 654. Pope Eugenius. Vel bacy if the clergy enjoined. 657. Pope Vitalian. He established tha \mj. versal use of the Latin language tti the service of the church. 672. Pope Adeodatua -From. Odoacer to Mahomet.} THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. '81 4..D. Eastern Empire. Europe, generally. 604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by Ethelbert, king ot Kent. 610 Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phooas, and makes himself king. GI2 MAHOMET publishes his Koran. Svna ravaged by the Arabs. 612. Britain: — Ethelfrith, king of Northum- bna, defeats the Britons, and destroys the C14 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. monastery of Bangor. 615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 617. Britain: — St. Peter's (now Westminste 613 Constantinople taken and pillaged by the Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. Avari. Britain :— Bretwald IV. — From Mahomet to Charlemagne. [Dark Ages, continued.} 633 634 636 641 642 647 653 559 661 668 670 6 7 3 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from Mecca to Medina. Era of the Mahometans. Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- Death of Mahomet. Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the Saracens. Omar, caliph. " takes Jerusalem, which is held by the Saracens 463 years. Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys another famous library. Constantine III. -C o n s t a n s 1 1 . ,1 (11 years of age.) The Saracens become masters of Africa and Cyprus. The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. Persia becomes a part of the empire of the Caliphs. The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the Treasury. Mjawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- tal. Constantine IV. fHfinvades Sicily. Grand Cairo founded. Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a yearly tribute. Europe, generally. 62S. France :--D a g o b e r t I . ^§8 Ha builds the church of St. Deny, the burial place of the French kings. 631. Samo, a merchant of France, makes himself king of Bohemia. 633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embraces Christianity. tS-i Briuin:— Bretwald VI. 633. France — C 1 o v i s II .jppf5 years old. The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years old,) being king of Austrasia. 642. Britain:— Bretwald VII. 644. Britain : — The University of Cambridge founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 650. Britain:- tianity. Mercia converted to Chris- 656. France : — C lotaire III. fBf 660. France :— C h i 1 d e r l c II. 663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke of Beneventura. 672. The Saracens driven from Spain, bf Wamba king of the Goths. 782 the world's progress. [Modem : Period IV. 178 years. A.D. Progress of Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. 674 Stone buildings and glass come into use in England. 676. Pope Domnus. The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of The popes become indeper dent of th» Gilling founded. Greek emperor. The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 679. Pope Agatho. and power, by the introduction of Chris- 680. The sixth general Council at Constantino- tianity. ple, called by the emperor Ccnstantine, who In France, the Teutonic language supersedes presides. the Latin. — National assemblies established, 682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of in though confined to the aristocracy. vestiture. 634. Pope Benedict II. In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 685. " John V. the Mohammedan. 686. " Conon. 687 Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 6S7. " Sergius. 691 Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 697 The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 698 A king first elected in Poland. Adhetin, the first British writer in prose and verse. 701. Pop e John VI. Sclaxonian republics in Bohemia. 704. The first province ,nven to the pope. 705. Pope John VII. 703. " Sissinius (20 days). Christianity greatly extended amons the Ger- 708. " Constantine. man nations and other people in the north of Europe; but almost exterminated in Africa, by the progress of Mohammedan- ism 709 711. Custom of kissing the Pope's fc»t intro duced. 714. Pope Gregory H. 716 The art of making paper brought from Sa^ marcand by the Arabs. George Si/ncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 718 Glastcnbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pro- cure the assassination of the Pops. Tla? ! 1 Romans defend nim. — From. Mahomet to Charlemagne.'] the world's progress. 783 69 083 683 cs;. 695 697 71)5 700 Eastern Empire, Asia. &c. Europe, generally. The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. Yezid, caliph of ihe Saracens. Moawiah II., caliph. Abdallah, caliph. Justinian II, Abdulmelek, caliph. He discontinues the tribute to the Greek emperor Justinian H deposed, and his nose cut off by Leojihius, who is also deposed by Absimerus Tiberius. Armenia and the provinces between the Black and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- melek. Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa completely subjugated. Justinian II. restored. Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. 673. France :— T h i e r r y I . f|f 675. Spain: — Wamba gains a naval victory over the Arabs, who attempt to inv.idn hJa kingdom. 6S2. Spain : — Wamba abdicates and turaa monk. 690. France :— P epin d'Heristel ,|§f mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia ( defeats Thierry, and becomes king. 691. France :— C 1 o v i s III . W ■ 716 Africa subdued by the Saracens. Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes, who reigns under the name of Philippicus. -Anastasius II .W| Theodosius III. fpf pro- claimed by the revolted army ol Anastasius. ft Leo III., (the Isaurian.) f|l| son of a shoemaker. " — C h i 1 d e b e r t II .fg 698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective monarchy established. Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge. 700. Britain :— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- vence become separate dukedoms. 705. Britain :— Alfred the Wise, in Norths umbria. 710. Spain: — R o d e ri c, king, fH (the last of the Goths.) 711. France :— D agobert II. 713. Spain conquered by tha Saracens under Muca. By the mar- riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with fhewido* of the Gothic king, the two nations are united in interest. 714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aua- trasia. 715. France :— C h i 1 d e r i c II If — — 716. Britain :— Ethelbald, king of Mercia. 718. Spain : — Pelagius founds the kingdom $A Asturias. 720. France :— T h i e rr y II .^ — - » 784 the world's progress. [Modern: Period IV. — 178 yean Progress op Society, etc. Increasing power, spiritual and temporal of the Popes. Dark period of European literature. /31 735 740 J 12 748 757 ■ :j m 735 I'M m Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- pel to the Prisons. The venerable Bede dies — a grammarian, phi- losopher, historian, and theologian. The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- courage learning. Fredegaire, a French historian. Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic for believing in the existence of antipodes. An organ sent by Constantine to France. John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- tic philosophy. Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory of Tours. The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- sidae caliphs. Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character- ized the age preceding Charlemagne. The first palm-tree planted in Spain. Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the caliph Harounal Raschid. Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals, by Charlemagne. The Gregorian chant. The Synod of Frankfort, George, the mink. Ecclesiastical. 726. Image worship being forbidden by th« emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 728. Leo orders the pope to be seized. 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 1. Pope Gregory III. 736. The images throughout the empire ia- stroyed by order of the emperor. Monks persecuted. 741. Pope Zachary 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of France, by a papal decree. 752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- bards, assisted by Pepin. 754. — he journeys to Pepin to implore his protection. 755. Commencement of the Pope's temporal power under the auspices of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- archate of Ravenna. 757. Pope Paul I. 768. Stephen IV. 760. Council of the Lateran. 770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the emperor. 772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 77?. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- lemagne, for the support of the clergy, churches, schools, and the poor. 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by- Charlemagne. 787. The seventh general Council at Nice, in which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was condemned. 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagse for confirmation. Masses said for money. —From, Mahomet to Charlemagne, .] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. T 85 741 740 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. The Arabs invest Constantinople by land with 120,000 men, and by sea' with 1800 ships The city is saved by the Greek fire — the Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. The Greek. possessions in Italy are lost in cor. sequence ol" the edict i irbiddmg image wor- ship. Constantine V. (Copronymus). The Arabs defeated by Constantine. — Rhodes, Cyprus, and Antioch captured. ?62 766 774 775 781 785 780 788 793 Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes it his capital. Asia Minor ravaged by the Turka Great victory over the Bulgarians. Leo IT.W Europe, generally. 725. France : — Charles Martel crosses th» Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- lege at Home. 732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great victory over the Saracens near Tours. 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- covered by the Pope. 742. France :— C hilderic III. @ ■ 752. France :— End of the Merovingian line of French kings. -Pepin 1 e Bref,] Constantine VI. (Poiphyrogenetus).^g Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. The empire is invaded by Hafoun al Raschid, caliph of Bagdad. Constantine imprisons his motlier, Irene, for her cruelty. Irene Hf — — puts him to death, and assumes the s)le power. — proposes to marry Charlemagne is dethroned by Nicephoi us. The Saracens ravage Thrace. first of the Carlovingian line. 753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large army against the Lombards. Italy :— Ravenna a dukedom. 756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate . Abderhama. 761. Spain : — Froila, grandson of Pelagius, builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of his kingdom. 768. France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- man, until 771. 774. Charlemaene invades Italy; defeats Didier, -king "of Lombardy, and annexes Italy to his empire. End of the Lombard king- dom. 778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated at Roncesvalles. 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, and the Saxons. Charlemagne conquers the Avari. — attempts to unite the Rhine and the Danube. 787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of tba Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings. 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. Sweden conquered by Iva Viafama, § 786 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD. V— The Middle Ages.— 266 yean A.D. ' Prosress op Society. Ecclesiastical. 302 Agriculture and horticul- ture encouraged by Charle- magne ; both flourish in Spain under the caliphs. Gold mines worked in Spain. 801 Paul Warefredus (Diaconus) the historian. Haroun al Raschid, courting his alliance, presents Charle- magne with a striking clock. This clock was adorned with automaton figures, which moved and played on va- rious musical instruments. Fine Arabian breed of horses introduced into Spain. Alcuin, of York, a pupil of Bede, forms schools at Tours —patronized by Charle- magne. Transient revival of learning under Charlemagne. Eginhard, historian, secre- tary to Charlemagne. 813 The reign of Mamuh (caliph) is regarded as the Augustine age of Arabian literature. 800. The Pope separates from the Eastern Empire, and becomes supreme Bishop of the Western. Charlemagne reforms the church. Many bishoprics founded. — Great increase of monastic institutions. St. Mark's Church at Venice built. Turpin, archbishop, to whom is attributed the famous " De Vila Caro'i Magni et Rolandi." New Western Empire. 813. Insurrection against the pope. 816. Pope Stephen V. 817. " Paschal I. The College of Cardinals founded. 00. NEW EMPIRE of tha WEST founded by Charle- rnagne, who is crowned at Rome, by the pope, king of Italy, Germany, and France 802. Charlemagne receives an embassy from Nicephorus and from Haroun al Ras- chid. D6. Charlemagne di- vides the empire be- tween his three sons. t>8. First descent of the NOR MANS upon France. 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 814. L o u i s I . !§«§'— — (Debonaire) an inglorious and turbulent reign. 817. Louis divides the empire between his three sons. 820. Invasion of the Normans. 824. Pope Eugenius II. Christianity in Denmark and Sweden. 827. Pope Valentine. 828. " Gregory IV. Missionaries sent from France to Sweden. 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a monk of Corbey, father of the doctrine of transub- stantiation. This doctrine disowned by the English Church. Ratramus and Scotus Eri- gena, theologians, holding much the same opinions as Luther. 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of Louis, associated in the gov- ernment. 840. — L othaire .fl? — 841. —defeated by his brothers, Louis and Charles, in the battle of Fonlenoy. Division of the empire. France :—C h a r 1 e s I.^g (the Bald). Ger. : — L o u i s I . Ygg — surnamed the Ger- Italy :— L othaire Hg with imperial dignity. The Normans plundej Rouen, and advance to Paris, THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. (a. d. 800-1066.) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 787 Eastern Empire. — N icephorus .^gf — The Saracens ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a tribute. — Michael I . l8g (Caropaltes) ; at war with the Bulgari. Kthe Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. ravage the empire. Michael 1 1 .|§§f (Balbus or the Stammerer). Constantinople besieged by the Saracens. The Bulga- rians raise the siege. The Saracens obtain possession of Crete, and name it Can- dia. — T h e o p h i 1 u s . f§f — —Michael III. (the Drunkard). England. 813. Egbert, king of Wessex. defeats the Britons. 827. The seven king- doms of the Hep- tarchy united by Eg- bert, king ofWe'ssex, under the name of ENG- LAND, or the Land of the Angles. E g b e r t . iff Invasion of the Danes. 38. — Ethel wolf, fjf~ a weak prince. Scotland : — Kenneth, king of the Scots, defeats and ex- tirpates the Picts, and be- comes sole monarch. The Danes return, and ravage the country unmo- lested, and burn the city of London. Ethelwolf makes a pilgri- mage to Rome; The World, elsewhere 801. DENMARK becomw a kingdom under Gothcus 818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- tron of learning. 10. First dismemberment of the Arabian monarchy. The dynasty of the Ta'herites founded at Khorassan. !6. The Danish prince, Ha- rold, is baptized at Ingel- heim. 833. Motassim, caliph. He builds Saumora, which he makes the seat cf gaveriv ment. 788 THE world's progress. [Period V— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. Vr : > Progress op Society. The aristocratic Feudal sys tern in all its power. Here- ditary nobility, which, with the clergy, was the domi- nant order in the state. The barons independent of the king. Gradual intro- duction of the Roman and tommon law. First inciosure of lands at Spalding, where Richard de Rules does much to improve agriculture. Clocks brought to Constanti- nople from Venice. The Faroe Isles, and Iceland discovered in this century. Ecclesiastical. France, Spain, Germany. 814. Pope Sergius III. (Bucca Porci). Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople. Persecution of the Chris- tians in Spain. 847. Pope Leo IV. 850. Christianity propagated by Auscharius in Denmark and Sweden. 855. Pope Benedict III. 858. Pope Nicholas I. First coronation of a pope. 859. Eulogius, archbishop of Cordova, martyred. 860. The schism of the Greeks begins. 884. The Bible translated into Slavonian. 367. Pope Adrian II. 8th Council at Constan- tinople — Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, deposed. 872. Pope John VIII. 882. Pope Martin II. 884. " Adrian III. . « Stephen VI. 855. Lothario retires to a mo nastery and dies. New division of the em- pire at Mersen. 856. Germ. : — Louis II. ^g has Italy with the im- perial dignity. — establishes his court at Pavia. 858. France invaded by Louis the German, who is finally compelled to retire. 68. Lorraine annexed to France. 877. Fr. :— Louis 1 1 .f§f— (the Stammerer). -Louis III. and C & rl o m an reign jointly. 'A. France :— C h a r 1 e sfjjF the Fat, an usurper. 885. Paris besieged by the Normans ; gallantly defend- ed by archbishop Goslin. 886. Charles makes a disgrace- ful peace with the Normans. 17. Germany : — A mold, -(the im- emperor,^, perial dignity transferred from France to Germany). 888. France :— E u d e s> .f§g— — Charlemagne to William I.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 789 844 851 Eastern Empire. Decline of the Caliphate be- gins.— Jews and Christians persecuted. — Frequent wars between the Greeks and Sa racens. Bazil I.fgjf (the Macedonian), defeats the Saracens. Crete and the Sicilies reco- vered from the Arabs. S3S Basil commences the Mace donian dynasty. Publication of the Basilica. 849. Alfred the Great, born. 852. Ethelwolf defeats the Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 857. EthelbaldandEthel- b e r t fgf — reign jointly : — increase the influence of the clergy. The World, elsewhere. Leo VI (the philo3ophet 866. -Ethelred.®- 867. The Danes conquer Nor- thumberland. 872. Alfred the Great] — defeats the Danes. 879. Alfred abandoned by his subjects, retires to the Isle of Athelney, but soon draws together his friends and con- quers the Danes. 845. The Normans plunder Hamburg, and penetrate into Germany. 846. The Saracens destroy the Venetian fleet, and besiege Rome. .9. — defeated by the Pope's allies. 851. Sardinia and Corsica ra- vaged by the Saracens. 856. The coasts of Ho. and plundered by the Normans. 860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- ed from Odin,) unites Jut- land and the Danish Isles, and becomes king of Den- mark. 861. Iceland discovered by the Normans. 862. RUSSIA : — Ruric, first grand Prince, builds the city of Lagoda. 868. Egypt throws off its de- pendence on the caliphs, un- der Ahmed. 874. Iceland, a republic, found' ed by the Normans. 875. NORWAY: — Harold Harfrage, first king. 866. The Scythians saige Cro- atia. 89. Hungary : — Arpad layt the foundation of the king- dom. 790 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period V.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. k.D. Progress of Society. 630 ,"00 929 933 f«9 ',.'■&) Oxford University found- ed. — Alfred the Great esta- blishes a regular militia and navy, and the mode of Z?7'crf by jury ; mstitutes_/'a»'s and markets. — Johannes Scotus Erigena, a learned philosophical writer. England divided into coun- ties, hundreds, and tithings. The county courts, held monthly, become the great safeguard of the civil rights of Englishmen. Hired troops substituted for the feudal. 891. Pope Formosus. 896. " Boniface VI. " Stephen VII. <8. " John IX. Veneration for saints and a passion for relics prevail. 900. Pope Benedict IV. 903. " Leo V. 905. " Sergius III. 912. The Normans in France embrace Christianity. 914. Pope John X. The University of Cam- bridge founded. The Anglo-Saxon monarchy rises into importance. Azophi, Arabian astronomer. Printing invented among the Chinese O) Cordova, in Spain, becomes the seat of Arab learning science, industry, and com rnerce. Its celebrated schools of geometry.astronomy, che- mistry and medicine, toge- ther with its equally cele- brated poets and philoso phers, render it famous throughout the world. Luitprand, the historian. Mints established in Kent or Weasex. Ecclesiastical. 921. The Bohemians embrace Christianity. 928. Pope Leo VI 929. " Stephen VIII. Eudes, monk of Cluni. 931. Pope John XI. Mere children elevated to the highest offices in the church. 936. Pope Leo VII. 41 978 861 882 The mercantile character raised by a law of Athelstan, that a merchant who made three voyages over the high seas with a ship and cargo of his own, should enjoy the rank and privileges of a thane. The figures of arithmetic brought into Europe ley the Saracens. Silver mines in the Hartz Mountains. Manufactories of linens and woollens in Flanders, which becomes the sea: of western commerce. Geber, Arabian astronomer. Suidas, grammarian and lexi- cographer. Rhazes, Arabian physician. The Saxon fleet, consisting of 360 sail, in three squadrons, makes the circuit of the island, under the command of king Edgar. Abbo, monk and astronome/. Albirunius, Arabian geogra- pher. Greenland discovered by the Norwegians. Almoin, historian. Dublin much frequented ' for trade, also many places on the Baltic. 946. Pope Agapetus II. 955 Baptism of Olga, and con- version of Russia to Chris- tianity. 956. Pope John XII. Quarrel with the emper- ors respecting investiture. 959. St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, attempts to reform the church — enforc- ing clerical celibacy. The influence of the monks greatly increased. 963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by Roman citizens. 964. Benedict V. elected by a council. 965. John XIII. Poland receives Christianity under Miecislus. 972. Pope Benedict VI. 973. Boniface VII. : deposed and banished for his crimes. 974. Domnus II. 975. Benedict VII. 984. Pope John XIV. 986. « John XV. 989. Christianity propagated in Russia by Waldimir — they hold to the Greek church. 950. Germany : — Bohemia be- comes tributary to Otho. 953. The Hungarians sub- dued. 954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.f|? — confers the dukedoms of Burgundy and Aquitaine on Hugh the Great. 957. Germany : — Otho defeati the Slavonians in Saxony, 964. Italy united to the empire of Germany. Tuscany becomes a duke- dom. 973. Ger. :— Otho Il.fg subdues the Bohemians. 979. Otho at war with Lo thaire. 83. — O th o III. ,W — (3 years of age). 86. Fr.:— Louis V.,@ ("the Slothful,") last of th« Carlovingian race. S8.Fr.: Hugh Capet,f|| —founder of the third at Capeiian line of Frencfc kings. ~Charle?nagne to William I.\ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 793 Eastern Empire. England, &c. The World, elsewhere. Constantine III. retires mto a cloister. 946. E 1 d r e d@ governed by Dunsian, abbot of Glastonbury. 952. Scotland :— Malcolm I.. king. 963 955. Scotland :— Indulf, king. 955. E d w y insulted by Dunstan, and deposed — his queen, Elgiva, put to death. S67 969 975 esc — R omanus II poisoned by his wife, Theo phano. -Nicephoru? II. — he recovers Cyprus and An- tioch from the Saracens. — is murdered by — John Zimisces.f® — Basil and Constantine viii. fjf — Apu.ia and Calabria recover- ed and united to the empire. ._ 959. -E dgar marries the beautiful El frida, after the violent death of Athelvvold, her lover. 960. Scotland :— Duff, king. Wolves expelled from England and Wales, in con- sequence of a reward beins offered for the purpose by the king. Violent disputes between the monks and the clergy. 975. E d w a r d® (the martyr), murdered by his stepmother, Elfrida. 978. — Ethelred I l.,lgp- (" the Unready.") — Dunstan still minister.— The people become discontented. 985. Danish invasion, under Sweyn. The king purchases their retreat. 950. Spain :— Ordono III. kina of Leon. 955. Spain :— Sancho I., king of Leon. 958. Italy ; - War between thi Normans and Saracens. 961. Candia recovered from the Saracens. 962. Poland:— Miecislas esta- blishes Christianity. 967. Spain:— Ramiro III, kin" of Leon. 96S. The Northmen devastate Galicia, but are defeated and almost exterminated. 973. Hungary : — St. Stephen, first hereditary king, extends the kingdom eastward ; gives it a constitution and written laws 976. Spain :— Hixem, caliph of Cordova. Almansor, regent, obtains many victories over the Christians. !0. Russia:— Waldimir I; marries Anna, sister of the emperor Basil II. 983. Italy : — Venice distracted by violent commotions. 9S5. Sweyn I., or Sweno, king of Denmark, invades Eng- land. 34 794 THE world's progress. [Period V—{a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. A.d. Progress of Society. S97 1002 1024 Venice and Genoa carry on a flourishing trade between Asia and Western Europe. Stephe.i, duke of Hunga- ry, propagates Christianity among his subjects. Paper made of cotton rags. Spain, the seat of Arabian and Jewish learning. Churches first built in the Gothic style. Foundation of the House of Wisdom at Cairo. The French language first be- gins to be written. Leo, the grammarian. The arts faintly revive in Italy — paintings in fresco and mosaic. Literature, the arts and sci- ences,and commerce flourish at Ghizni. Musical scale, consisting of six notes, invented by Guido Aretino. Avicenna, a famous Arabian chemist and physician. Glaber Had, historian. Campanes, of Navarro, astro- nomer. Hermannus Contractus, monk and mathematician. Ecclesiastical. 993. First canonization of saints. 996. Pope Gregory V. 997. " John XVI. 999. Pope Sylvester II. Hungary a fief of the Romish church. 1003. Pope John XVIII. 1009. Pope Sereius. 1012. " Benedict VIII. Persecution of the Albi- genses in Languedoc. 1024. Pope John XIX. He gained his election by bribe- ry. He was not of the clergy, but consul and senator of Rome. 1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten years old). "Peace of God," pub- lished by the bishops. France, Germany, &c. 996. Fr. : — R o b e r t II. ,fg' — (the Wise,) succeeds his father Hugh. 98. — is excommunicated by the pope for marrying his cousin Bertha. 1002. Ger. :— Henry II. Hf — (duke of Bavaria). Italy : — Ardoin, margrave of Ivrea, elected king. 1004. Italy :— Henry invited by the German party — Ardoin loses most of Italy and re- signs. — Pavia burnt in a quarrel between the troops and people. 1015. Germany : — The empe- ror receives an annual tri- bute from Poland. 1024. Ger. :-Conrad Il.fjpl —(the Salic,) first of the Franconian line. 1025. Expedition into Italy. 1029. War with the Poles. 1031. Fr.:— H err y I.flf— 1032. Burgundy annexed a the empire. — Charlemagne to William I.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 795 1000 Eastern Empire. Basil drives the Bulgarians from Thessaly. 1018 Bulgaria again reducad to a Grecian province. 1028 1031 1034 England, &c. 994. Scotland : — Constantine IV. slain by 995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 1002. Dreadful massacre of all the Danes in England — upon which Sweyn lands a large armament, and brings war and all its miseries upon the country. 1003. Scotland:— Malcolm II., an able, renowned prince. 1012. An annual tribute pro- mised to the Danes. 1013. The Danes, under Sweyn, become masters of England. 1016.— Edmund II.,f|L (Ironsides.) fights six battles with Canute, king of Den- mark, with whom he finally divides the kingdom. 1016.- Canute f§| the Great, patronizes litera- ture and the church. — R omanus III. (Argyrus). —expels the Saracens from Syria. — poisoned by his wife Zoe. -Michael IV.W — 1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru f — sole monarch. The World, elsewhere. 995. Norway :— Olaf I. Christianity introduced. 997. Drontheim founded. Mahmud Sultan ofGhiz* ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- bul, and part of India to his dominions; patronizes litera- ture. 998. Spam :— Division of tha Mohammedan kingdom of Cordova. 1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) king of Navarre, takes tha title of emperor. 1000. Savoy : — independent un- der Bervald, its first count. Poland : — Boleslas I. f (the Lion-hearted). 1006. Pestilence in Europe for three years. 1012. Spain: — Suleiman, ca- liph. 1014. Denmark :— Harold III., king. 1015. Norway :— Olaf II. 1016. Denmark :— Canute II., (the Great). 1019. Norway conquered by Canute. Venice, G:noa, and Pisa rise into importance. 1025. Poland :— Miecislas II. 1031. Canute penetrates into Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 1032. — performs a pilgrimage to Rome. 1034. Scotl'd : — Duncan, king. 1035. —Harold I . ,W — (Harefoot,) cruel anci un- popular— ruled by Earl Godwin. 1035. Spain : — Ramiro I , king of Arragon. 1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile, in right of his wife succeed* to Leon ; successful against the Mohammedans. 1036. Denmark : — Hardica* nute III. 1037. Norway : — Magnus L, (the Good). 79 3 THE world's progress. [Period V— (a. d 800-1066.)— 266 years. A.d. Progress of Society, etc. 1055 Ferdusi, the Persian Homer. Franco, mathematician. George Cedrenus, historian. Ecclesiastical. Michael Psellus, a celebrated Greek philosopher and his- torian. English parents prohibited by law from selling their chil- dren. First age of scholastic philoso- phy. 1038. The Pope, for his scan dalous conduct, driven from Rome, but re-established by the emperor, Conrad. 1044. — again driven from the throne, and succeeded by Sylvester III. After three months Benedict is restored by the Counts of Tusculum. But finding the people will not tolerate his crimes, he sells the papal chair to Gre- gory. —deposed for simony, by a council called by Henry III. 1046. Pope Clement II. 1048. Damascus II., 23 days. " Leo IX., the first who kept a regular army. 1053. — is defeated and taken prisoner by the Normans. 1054. The papal chair vacant one year. Excommunication of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Greeks. 1055. Pope Victor II. Hildebrand, the real head of the church from the time of Leo IX. The church improving in piety and dis- cipline. 1057. Pope Stephen IX. 1058. Nicholas n. Benedict X., (antipope). The election of pope transferred to a conclave of cardinals. 1059. Quarrel between the popes and the German em- perors, respecting investi- tures and nomination to the Holy See. 1061. Pope Alexander II. 1062. Berenger, a celebrated French ecclesiastic. Alexander forbids the massacre of the Jews. 1066. Alexander deposes Ha- rold, and gives England to William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy. France, Germany, &c. 1039. Ger.:-Henry II I. f|| — defeats the Bohemians and Hungarians — claims ths right of nominating to the papal chair. 1046. France : — Disputo be- tween William the Con- queror and William of Arques, for the duchy ol Normandy. 1053. Germany :— Henry HI. causes his son, Henry, to be proclaimed king of the Ro- mans. This tiile was ap- plied, for several centuries, to the king's eldest son. Ger. :-Henry IV.f|f — (the Great), aged six years, under the tutelage of his mother. 1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, becomes a vassal of tha pope. 1060. Fr. :— Philip 1 H?~ -Charlemagne to William I. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 797 H.D. 1038 1041 1042 1012 1SM3 1054 1054 1056 1057 Eastern Empire. Earthquakes and famine at Constantinople. — Michael V., 1 ^^ (Calaphales). — Zoe & Theodora. fU— Constantine X (Monomarchus). First invasion of the Seljuk Turks. The Russians invade Thrace with 100,000 men, and are repeatedly defeated by the Greeks. Theodora, iffif the last of Macedonian dy- nasty. The Greek church becomes independent. Michael VI. ,flf (Stra iotichus). 1 s a a cw? — ■ (Comnenus). 069 — C onstantine — (Ducas). XI. England, &c. 1039. -Hardicanute.lgg- Scot'd. : — Macbeth mur- ders Duncan, and usurps the throne. The Saxon line restored under JL 1042. E d w a r dfHf (the Confessor). The coun- try prospers under his mild sway. 1051. Rebellion of Earl God- win and his sons. William, duke of Nor- mandy, visits Edward. 1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. Earl Godwin dies. The Welch and the Irish several times invade Eng- land, but are repressed by Harold, son of Godwin. 1054. Macbeth defeated and killed at Langfanan, by Sivvard, earl of Northum- berland. 1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III The World, elsewhere. 1042. Denmark : — Magnus, (the Good,) of Norway, king. 1066. —Harold II., Hf — elected king ; killed at the BATTLE of HASTINGS. — WILLIAM I , W — duke of Normandy, styled "the Conqueror." End of the Anglo- Saxon dvnasty. Edgar Atheling flies to Scotland. 1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Ea- tritson, or Suenon D. 1050. The Pisans and Genoese take Sardinia and Corsica from the Saracens. 1055. The Turks reduce Bag- dad, and overturn the em- pire of the caliphs. 1059. Sweden: — Ingeldus or Ingo I., the first Christian king. 1060. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, is created by the pope, duke of Apulia. 1062. 70,000 Europeans are killed, or made prisoners by the Turks in Palestine. 1065. Jerusalem taken by th« Saracens. 1065. Castile and Leon — At phonzo, kir g. 798 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD. VI.— The Middle Ages— (Continued.)- d. PitoaRESs op Society, etc. 1062 1081 10*1 1090 Feudal System introduced in England by the Normans. Surnames first used amonj the English nobility. 1073 Knights errant in Spain. Ingulphus, historian, secre- taiy to William the Con- oueror. Marianus Scotus. Booksellers first heard of. London Bkidgs and Westmin- ster Hal) tjtAi. Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- terbury. Doomsday Book cwapJIed by order of Williain J&a Con- queror. William of Spires, mathema- tician. A rigid police established in England. — The curfew. Ncrtnan French taught in &M the schools, and made use of in all legal proceedings. Literature patronized in the East by Melek Shah. Fortress of Newcastle and of Carlisle built. Ecclesiastical. Popery at the height of its power, claiming supreme dominion, tem- poral and spiritual, over all the states of Christen- dom. France, Germany, & Spain, 1066. William, Duke of Nor. mandy, claims the crown of England, and makes war upon Harold to obtain it 1071. Philip engages in a war with Robert, count of Holland. 1072. Henry IV. of Germany, summoned befpre the pope, for selling the investiture of bishops. Treats the man- date with contempt. 1073. — summoned again by Gregory VII. 1073. Pope GregoryVII., (Hildebrand,) who attempts to free all the clergy from the civil jurisdiction. He quarrels with the emperor. 1074. Simony and celibacy forbidden. 1075. The pope sends legates to the various courts of Eu- rope. 1076. — sends an ambassador to to depose the pope — is excom municated by Gregory. Goes barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses his feet. 1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by the Empress Matilda. 1076. Spain :— The Cid. 1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- emperor. Rudolph dies in 1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be elected. The war continues till 1084, when Henry triumphs over Gregory, who flees to Sa lemo. and dies in exile in 1085. KF4. The order of the Carthu- sians instituted by Bruno. 1Q8C Pope Victor III. 1085. Spain :— Toledo taken from the Moors, by Don Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by Raymond, count of Tou- louse. 1086. Spain:— The battle of Zalaca. 1087. France : — War with England : Robert, duke ol Normandy, opposes Wil- liam Rufus. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1066-1299. — William the Conqueror to Olhman I. 799 1067 1071 Eastern Empire. Eudocia.^f She marines Romanus III., fly (DiDgenes.) He valiantly but vainly opposes the Turks — is defeated and taken prisoner by Alp Ars- lan, Emir oi'Omrah. Michael VII. (Parapinaces). Andronicus I.f§sp— -Constantine XII 1074 Syria and Palestine subdued by Melek Shah. England & Scotland. 1078 I.0S1 Nic.ephorus, W$ (Botoniates). — Alexius I.fHf (Com- nenus). The empire in- vaded by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, who defeats Alexius- at Durazzo. 1066. —William I.,fgf- " THE C0N9,UER0R," first of the Norman line. 1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of the Saxon line, takes refuge in Scotland. His sister, Margaret, marries Malcolm III. 1070. The feudal system in- troduced by the king. All the offices of the government placed in the hands of Nor- mans. The Norman lan- guage introduced. Malcolm III. of Scotland, ravages Durham. 1072. Peace between the Nor- mans and the Scots After the capture of Jerusa- lem, by the Turks, the Chris- tian pilgrims are insulted, robbed and oppressed, which gives rise to the crusades. — Great struggle between Christianity and Mohamme- danism. 1076. Robert, the king's son raises a rebellion in Nor- mandy. 1087. William invades France, and is killed at Mantes. 1037. —William II., fg (Rufus). Revolt of the Norman nobles. The World, elsewhere. 1067. Poland : — Boleslas fl — he conquers Russia. 1068. Poland :— Romanus Di*- genes. 1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, (Emir,) extends his domin- ions from the Jaxartes to the Mediterranean. 1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. Palestine invaded and subdued by Melek Shah.— Jerusalem taken. 1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- shop of Cracow, murdered. The king excommunicated and dethroned. 1079. Poland :— Uladislas I. 1083. Italy : — Rome taken after a siege of two years, by Henry IV. 1084. BOHEMIA erected into a kingdom by the empereor Henry IV. 1090. Sicily conquered by Roger the Norman, after a war of thirty years witl. iu masters, the Saracens. 800 the world's progress. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 1095 1096 1099 1100 1118 1120 Ecclesiastical. France. Germany & Spain. 1093. Conrad, son of the em peror, rebels. The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. — of Navarre and Arragon, The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countries cl Christendom. ■ . i [The Council op Clermont. The FIRST CRUSADE ;— Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, sM out with a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start. Nathan Ben Jechiel, learned Jew. Knights of St. John insti tuted. Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius I., Eastern emperor, historian. William of Poitou, first trou- badour. Abelard, French scholastic. Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo- The Knights Templars. Tograi, Hairi, and Abdallah Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. Scholastic Philosophy attains its highest point by the writings of Peter Abelard. Peter, the Lombard, (master of sentences). The chieftains of the 1099. Pope Paschal II. first crusade were, 1. Godfrey of Bcuillor or Boulogne. 2. Hugh of Vermandois. 3. R o b e r t of Normandy 4. Robert of Flanders. 5. Stephen of Chartres. 6. Raymond of Toulouse. 7. Bohemond. 8. Tancred. 600,000 warriors, 100,00fl cavalry. 1118. Pope Gelasius II. 1119. " Calistus II. 1123. First Lateran, or ninth general council. 1124. Honorius II. 1104. Spain : — Alfonzo I., king of Navarre and Arragon. 1106. Ger. :— Henry V .@ — maintains the right of in- vestiture. 1108. Fr.:— Louis VI., 'gf — Le Gros. Abbe Sugar, minister. 1109. Germany :— Henry en- ters Italy, takes the pope prisoner, and compels him to crown him. 1114. Henry V. marries Ma tilda, of England. 1118. Spain :— AL'fcmso I. cap- tures Saragossa. 1120. Rivalry between Eng- land and France com- 1125. Germany: — Lothaire 1 1 .|U opposed by Fre- dericj and Conrad, duke of Suabia. J066-1229, — Continued.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 801 Eastern Empire. 1099 1104 1109 1111 1118 Order, learning, and com merce revive. By the courage and talents of the Comneni, the empire is feared or respected by the nations of Asia and Europe. Invasion by the crusader; great numbers pass through Constantinople. Battle of Dorylasum, which secures the march of the crusaders through Asia Mi- nor. Acre taken by the crusaders. England & Scotland. Tripolis taken by crusaders. Berytus and Sidon taken by the crusaders. — John I., ^g* (Comne- nus),a noble prince ; reforms the manners of his people. Tyre taker, by the crusaders. 1093. Scotland :— Malcolm III. invades England, and is slain near Alnwick Castle by Roger de Mowbray. 1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, king. William again invades Normandy. Sct'd. : — Duncan usurps the crown. William quarrels with Anselm, archbishop of Can- terbury. 109S. Scotland :— Edgar puts out Donald's eyes and de- thrones him. 1100. William II. accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. — H e n r y I . ,^§ — (Beauclerc.) grants the Eng lish a charter, and marries Maud, a Saxon, thus unitin_ the Norman and Saxon in- terests. 1101. Robert, duke of Nor mandy, invades England. 1106. Henry invades Norman- dy ; takes Robert prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai. Scotland : — Alexander I. 1107. Henry quarrels with An- selm. 1120. Shipwreck and death of Prince William and 140 no- blemen. 1124. Insurrection in Norman- dy suppressed. Scotland :— David I. pro- motes civilization. The World, elsewhere. 1095. Hungary : — Colomar„ 1096. Egypt :— Mustali. th« eighth Fatimite caliph. Ha takes Jerusalem. 1097. Baldwin founds ths principality of Edessa. 1099. Jerusalem taken by the crusaders, under Godfrey who is elected king. 1102. Poland :— Boleslas III. 1 105. Denmark : — Nicholas 1106. Italy: — Venice, Genoa, and Pisa greatly enriched by the crusades. 1109. Norway : — Segurd's ex- pedition to Palestine. 1117. Persia :— Sanjar subdues Khorasan and Samarkand. 1119. War between Pisa and Genoa. 1120. Italy: — Rise of th« house of Guelph. Zengi, governor of M sul, a great prince 34" THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VI — The Middle Ages.— A.D Proorbss op Society, etc. 1137 1558 Aristotle's logic comes into repute. Pandects of the Roman law (Justinian,) discovered at Amain, and the study oi the civil law revived. Gratian collects the canon law. William of Malmsbury, Eng- lish historian. Vacarius teaches civil law at Oxford. Otho, bishop of Friesengen, historian, introduces thep ripatetic philosophy into Germany. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, travels from Spain to India, by Constantinople, and re- turns through Egypt. The magnetic needle known in Italy. Suidas, lexicographer. Eben Ezra, ofToledo, Jewish historian. Arnold, of Brescia, condemn- ed and burnt. Eustalhius, commentator on Homer and Pionysius Per. Bank of Vsnire established. — fairs at Leipsic. London eintains 40,000 inha- bitants Poem of the Cid. Colleges 3f theology, philoso- phy and law at Paris. English commerce confined to the exportation of wool. — A woollen manufactory esta- blished at Worsted, and soon after at Norwich. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany & Spain. 1127. — makes war against Roger, king of Sicily. 1130. Innocent II. and Anacle- tus, rival popes. 1137. A pretended Messiah in France. 1138. — another in Persia. 1139. Second Lateran, or tenth general council. 1143. Pope Celestin II. 1 144. " Lucius II. 1145. " Eugenius III. 1112. Spain- — Alfonzo VII., kin?, Leon and Castile. 1134. Spain :— Garcia IV., king of Navarre. Rami ro II., king of Arra- gon. 1135. Lothaire in Italy — cap. ture of Amalfi. 1137. Fr. :-Louis VII.® — (le Jeune). 1133. Germany : — Hot s e of Suabia: — Conrad I.fjf 1139. Portugal becomes a king- dom. — Henry of Besancon, king. 1141. Germany and Italy. — Dissensions of the G u e J fs and G h i b e 1 i n e s . 1147.The Second Crusade excited by St. Bernard, and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. 1149. France: — Louis divorces his queen, Eleanor, who marries Henry of Anjou, af- terwards king of England; thus Guienne and Poitou are lost to France. 1150. Spain : — Sancho V., king ot Navarre. 1152. Germany and Italy : — 1 153. Pope Anastasius IV. 1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- lishman, Nicholas Breaks- peare). 1159. Pope Alexander III. Victor IV., antipope. 1160. Order of the Carmelites instituted. The Waldenses and Albigenses begin to ap- peal* 1164. Pascal HI., antipope. 1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa. 1168. "Jalistus III., antipope. Frederic I . (Barbarossa). 1157. Spain: — Castile and Leon divided under Ferdi- nand II. and Sancho II. 1158. Germany: — The empe- ror Frederic receives the title of king of Bohemia al the diet of Ratisbon: — con- quers Poland, and makes it tributary. 1162. Frederic destroys Milan. Spain : — Alfonic H, king of Arragon. 1066-1229.— Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 803 Eastern Empire. England & Scotland. 1H3 IMS —Manuel Commenus. Edessa being retaken by the Turks, gives rise to the second crusade. The Normans, under Roger, arrive before Constantino- ple ; are repulsed by Manuel. 1155 1156 The Greeks reduce Apulia and Calabria. Manuel forms the desien of conquering Italy an5 the western empire, but fails Kelso, Melrose, and Holy- rood house founded. 1127. Matilda, the king's daughter, marries Geoffrey Plantagenet. 1135. Stephenflf of Blois. 1136. Matilda asserts her right to the throne ; David, king of Scotland, assists her. 1138. —is defeated in the " bat- tle of the Standard." 1141. Stephen made prisoner at the battle of Lincoln. Civil war : Stephen and Matilda. 1149. Henry Plantagenet in- vades England. The World, elsewhere: 1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald I 1133. " Magnus I. 1154. —Henry II. (Plantagenet). 1158' Thomas a Becket intro- duced to the king's notice by Theobold, archbishop of Canterbury — becomes chan- cellor and preceptor of the prince. 1159. Becket sent as ambassa- dor to Fiance. 1162. —made archbishop of Canterbury — opposes the king. 1164. —resists the constitutions of Clarendon — flies to France. 1166. Scotland :— William. 1139. PORTUGAL becomes a kingdom, under Alfonso I.f|| Sweden :— Suercher II. 1147. Russia : — the city ol Moscow founded. 1150. Denmark : — The coasta infested with pirates. 1150. Sweden :— Eric X 1157. Denmark : Waldemar I. 1158. Venice a great maritima power. 1162. Sweden :— Charles VH 1167. Italy :— League of tha Italian cities to preserrf their liberties. 804 the world's progress. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— A.d. Progress op Society, etc. 1175 1177 1178 Ecclesiastical. Foundation of the military order of Santiago. Circuit Judges appointed in England. 1178. Innocent III., antipope. The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks during his visitation. The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- runners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- ral Council, and severely per secuted. 1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- venth General Council. Robert Wace, first French poet. Translation of his Mist, des Rois d' Angleterre, by Layaraon, the first Eng- lish composition. 1189 1190 1196 John Tzetes, Greek gramma- rian. Maimonides, of Cordova, one of the most learned of the Jews. Henry, of Huntington, and William, of Newbury, his- torians. Rainulph de Glanville makes a digest of laws and customs of England. Dreadful massacre of the Jews at the coronation of Richard I. Teutonic order instituted. Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author of a /.life of galadin, in Ara- bic. The Jews become the princi- pal bankers of the world. Order of the Holy Trinity in- stituted in Germany. 1181. Pope Lucius III. 1185. Pope Urban III. 1187. Pope Gregory VIII. 1187. " Clement III. France, Germany, & Spain. 1170. France:— The Walden> ses. They derived theif name from Peter Waldo, a merchant of Lyons. 1174. Frederick's fourth expe dition into Italy. 1176. Frederick defeated al ttu battle of Legnano. 1178. Henry, the Lion, duke of Saxony, deposed, and Saxony divided. 1180. Fr.:— Philip II., \ (Auguste). 1183. The Peace of Constancy re-establishes the independ- ence of Italian republics. 1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX. king of Leon. 1190. Third Crusade led by Philip Augustus, of France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- rossa. 1190. Ger. :— Henry VI. 1191. Pope Celestine III. 1198. Pope Innocent III. emperor and king o' and the Sicilies. Italy 1196. Richard Cosur de Lion seized and retained in cap tivitv. 1198. Philip, of Suabia, and Otho, of Saxony, dispute the crown; the former sup- ported by the GhibelineSj and the latter by the Guelfs, 1066-1299.— Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 805 Eastern Empire. England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 1170. Becket returns to Eng- land, and is murdered at the altar. 1172. Henry conquers Ireland. 1174. Treaty of Falaise, in which William agrees to do homage lor Scotland. Henry makes a pilgri- mage to the shrine of Becket. 1180 1183 1171. Egypt :— Saladin, sm\ tan. . — He extends his domi- nions in Egypt, and con- quers Syria, Assyria, Meso- potamia, and Arabia. 1174. Poland :— Miecislaus III. 1175. Portugal— a fief of Use Holy See. 1178. Poland :~Casimir, (the Just: -Alexius II.' ■ Andronicus I. -Isaac II. 1190 1195 (Angelus). The empire invaded by the Bulgarians. Iconium taken by Frederick Barbarossa, but afterwards restored. — — Alexius Angelus,^ usurper and tyrant. 1189.— Richard I.® (Coeur de Lion). He en- gages in the third crusade. 1182. Denmark :— Canute. 1183. Saladin takes Aleppo, and deposes the sultan of Mosul. 1185. Portugal :— Sancho I. 1186. Saladin directs all hia efforts against the crusaders. 1187. —gains the. victory of Tiberias, and takes Jerusa. lem, which leads to 1190. The third crusade. 1191. Kingdom of Cyprus founded. 1191. Acre taken by the cru- saders. 1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon ; but, abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of thie* years. 1193. John attempts to seize the crown in the absence of Richard. 1193. Saladin dies. 808 THE world's PROGRESS. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— A.B. Progress op Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany & Spam The power of the pope supre me — Rome mistress of the world, and kings ber vassals 1-200 1203 1206 1209 1222 The University of Bologna contains 10,000 students. Ville Hardouin, historian. Saxo Grammaticus,hislo):ian. University of Paris founded. The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted. 1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France. 1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, end Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They take Constantinople. , 1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce. The works of Aristotle, im- ported from Constantinople, condemned by the council of Paris. Period of the Troubadours in France ; the Minstrels in England ; and the Minne- singers in Germany. University of Padua founded. Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Bitter persecution of the Albigenses. The doctrine of transub- stantiation and auricular confession established. 1215. Fourth Lateran, and twelfth General Council against the Albigenses, and all heretics. 1216. Pope Honorius III. 1217. The fifth crusade by Andrew II., king of Hun- gary. 1227. Pope Gregory IX. 1229. The Inquisition at Tou- louse. The Scriptures forbid- den to all laymen. Normandy reunited to France. 1210. Germany :— Otho placed under the ban of the pope. 1212. — F rederickll. Spain :— The Christiana gain the battle of Navas de Tolosa. 1215. Otho loses the battle of Bovines. 1217. Spain •—Ferdinand, king of Castile. 1223. Fr. : Louis V. .I.H? (The Lion). Crusade against the Al- bigenses. 1226. Fr. : L o u s X . ® (Saint). 1227. Germany : — Crusade ol the emperor after being ex communicated. 1230. Spain: — Castile and Leon united by Ferdinand III., who takes Cordova Se- ville. ddiz, &c. from the Moors. 1066-1299.— Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 807 1204 1206 221 J228 123V Eastern Empire. Alexius IV. ^pf — — The crusaders plunder Con- stantinople. Baldwin, count of Flanders. Henry II. f§J — John of Brienne 1 'ppf king of Jerusalem, and em- peror. -Baldwin II.' England 340 5345 1347 1350 1356 Giotto, a shepherd boy, the first who drew portraits from life. Greek literature revives. — Barlaain teaches Petrarch. — Leontius lectures on Ho- mer at Florence. First comet, whose course has been accurately described. GUNPOWDER in use at the battle of Cressy. Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo- rentine painter. First bank at Genoa. 1324. Contest of the popes with Louis of Bavaria. 1328. Crusade preached againsn Louis, who sets up Nicholas V. as anti-pope. 1334. Pope Benedict XII. 1339. Struggles in Rome be- tween the Colonna and the Ursini. 1342. Pope Clement VI. Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri- bunes. Manufactures improve in England. — Commerce in- creases. Bartolus and Baldus, cele- brated j urists Merino sheep introduced into Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- gon. Sir John Mandeville's Tra- vels, the first English book in prose. 1322. France : — C h a r 1 s I V.fj|f — (the Fair.) Germany :— Frederic, of A i.jstria defeated and taken prisoner. 1324. Germany : — Louie ex- communicated by John XII — appeals to a general coun- cil. 1328. France :— P h i 1 i p VI of Valois.'g 1332. France :— The Flemings revolt and acknowledge Ed- ward III. as king or France. 1338. France :-War with Eng- land. Germany :— Declaration of the Diet of Frankfort, that the pope had no tempo- ral power in the empire. Louis sides with the English against France. 1346. France : — Normandy overrun by Edward, with his son, the Black Prince.— French defeated at Cressy. Germany :— C harlea IV., king of Bohemia. The empire offered to Edward III., who declines. 1350. France :— .T o h n ,Hs — (the Good.) 1352. Pope Innocent VI 1354. Rienzi killed.— Albernoz, cardinal legate, restores the papal dominion. 1355. Germany : — Promulgv tion of the golden Bull. 1356. France:— King John de- feated and taken prisonor ai Poitiers. — Charles the dau- phin regent. Insurrection in Paris. 1360. France:— John regains his liberty— cedes much ter- 1 ritory to England 1299-1453— 154 years.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 817 1320 Eastern Empire. Disputes and civil war be- tween the emperor and his son, Michael. England & Scotland. 1326 1328 Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, makes Prusa his capital. Andronicus, ffj^ — (the younger.) 1322. Lancaster executed. 1323. Conspiracy against the king. The World, elsewhere. L320. Russia: — The grand duchy of Wladimir confer- red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 1341 1343 — John Cantacuzene. W$ — 1327. Peace between Scotland and England. — The inde- pendence of Scotland ac- knowledged. — E dward III. %J_ 1329. Scotland :— David it. 1332. Edward invades Scot- land.— Balliol crowned, but soon expelled. 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. — Balliol restored — does ho- mage to Edward. 1338. Struggle for the French crown,which lasts 120 years. War with the Genoese, defeat of the Greeks and Venetians I iiEif i —John Palasologus. 1 1360 Amurath I., Sultan of the Turks. 35 Sluys — gives spirit to the English navy. David, of Scotland, in vades England. 1346. Battle of Cress y. IW. Siege and capture oi Calais. 1350. Viciery over the Spanish fleet. — Parliament divided into two chambers, lords spiritual and temporal. 1356. Edward, the Black Prince, gains the battle of Poitiers.— John made prisoner.— Two years' truce. — Edward again invades Scotland— is obliged to re- treat. 1353. — again invades France. 1360. Peace of Bretigni. 1326. Tartary ; — Tamer- lane born at Kesh. 1327. Italy .-—Invaded by Louis, emperor of Germany. 1333. Poland : — Casimir the Great. fsBf 1339. Italy:— Simon Bocane- gra, doge of Genoa. 1340. The victory of Helvoet 1340. Denmark : — Waldemar IV. restorer of the kingdom. 1342. Hungary : — Louis the G reat. 1343. Italy : Commercial treaty between Venice and the sultan of Egypt and Syria. 1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the last of the Tribunes, rules at Rome. 1350. Italy :— Naval war be- tween Venice and Genoa. 1353. Establishment of the Ot- tomans in Europe. 1354. Italy :— Rienzi killed — papal power restored. 1356. First war between Hun- gary and Venice. 13o9. Hungary :— Conquest ol the principalities lying on the Danube. 818 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— A.d. Progress of Society, etc. :364 i365 138(1 Petrarch and Boccacio. Charles V. founds a college of medicine and astrology at Paris. Foundation of the University vf Vienna. Geof. Chaucer, fath er of English poetry. Mysteries played in France. 1383 Wickliffc's translation of the Bible. University of Heidelberg founded. Froissart's, Chronicles. John Van Eyck, invented oil painting — founder of the Flemish school. 1390 1392 1400 Ecclesiastical. 1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig- non — beautifies the city of Rome — presents the right arm of Thomas Aquinas to Charles V. of France, as an object of worship. 1370. Pope Gregory IX. 1378. " Schism of the West:" Pope Urban VI. ac- knowledged in the empire and England. Clement VII. acknow- ledged in France, Spain, and Scotland. France, Germany & Spain, 1364. Fr. :— Charles V. — (the Wise.) 1365. War with Navarre—bat- tle of Amoy. t 1378. Germany :— Wesnces- las, (king of Bohemia), emperor. 1380. Fr.: Charles VI. f|| (the Maniac). 1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the Flemings defeated — Arte- velde killed. 1386. France :— Fruitless at- tempt to invade England. The first mill in Germany for the manufacture of linen paper. Chaucer's Astrolabe written. Revival of Greek literature in Italy. 1389. Pope Boniface IX. at Rome. 1391. The English clergy for- bidden to cross the sea for benefices. 1394 Tope Benedict XIII. Chaucer dies. John Qo%eer, English poet. 1392. — Charles seized with madness. 1394. Germany :— The emper- or imprisoned by the people of Prague. 1400. Ger. :— R o b e r t ,1 (Count Palatine), 1299-1453,— 154 years.— Continued.] the world's progress. 819 Eastern Empire. 1373 1389 1391 1396 1402 Treaty with Murad, the Otto- man emperor. Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks. • Manuel II. England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- mond, of Hungary, defeated by Bajazet I. Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane, at the battle of Angora. 1362. The Black Prince aids Peter the Cruel, of Castile, to recover his throne. 1369. A new war with France ; unsuccessful. 1371. Scotland :— Robert li- the House of Stuart. 1376. Death of the Black Prince. 1377.— Richard II. fgg— First Speaker of the House of Commons. 1378. Fruitless invasion of France. Insurrection of Wat Ty- ler. 1382. The king marries Anne, daughter of Charles IV. 1384. The Scots, assisted by France, invade England. 1385. The English burn Edin- burgh. 1388, Battle of Otterbourne. 1390, Scotland : Robert III. Persecution of the Wick- lifites. 1398. Henry, of Lancaster, banished. House of Lancas- 1399. —Henry IV.fg — Richard II. deposed. 1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- dower, and 1403. of the Percys, who are defeated at the battle of Shrewsbury. 1362. Italy : — War betwtes Pisa and Florence. 1369. Tartary : — Tamerlane makes Samarcand the capi- tal of his new empire. 1370. Poland :— Extinction ol the royal race of Piasts. 1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me- dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- rence. 1380. Russia : — Dimitri Ivano- vitsch victorious over the Tartars, near the Don. 1382. The Tartars sack Mos- cow. 1384. Persia: — Invaded by Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. — Pyramids of human heads. 1385. War between Austria and Switzerland. 1386. Battle of Sempach:— the Austrians defeated. 1387. Denmark & Norway :— Margaret, f§f the Semi- ramis of the north. 1391. Italy:— Pisa falls under the yoke of the Visconti. 1395. Tamerlane overruns Kipchak and Russia 1397. Union of Calmar, form- ing Denmark, Sweden, and Norway into a single mo- narchy. 1399. Invasion of India bj Tamerlane. 820 THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VII. -The Middle Ages. A..D. Progress of Society, etc. 1407 1409 1420 1423 1425 1430 1434 Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish historian. University of Leipsic found- ed. Thomas a Kempis. John Suss. Jerome, of Prague. First Portuguese colonies on the coast of Africa, Madei- ra, &c. George of Peurbach, astrono- mer at Vienna. Peter d'Ailly, theologian. The arts promoted in Italy by Cosmo de Medici. England increases her trade with the Mediterranean. Michael Walhgemuth, Ger- man painter,' (teacher of Durer). Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter. INVENTION OF PRINT- ING at Mayence. John Midler Regiomontanus, German astronomer and mathematician. Ecclesiastical. 1404. Pope Innocent VII. 1406. " Gregory XII. 1409. The council of Pisa de- poses Gregory and Bene- dict, and elects Alexander V. ; — neither will yield, so that there are three popes at once. 1410. Pope John XXIII. 1414. Council of Constance. 1416. John Huss, and Jerome, of Prague, burnt by the Council of Constance. 1417. Pope Martin V. 1429. Pope Clement VIII. at Avignon, resigns, and ends the "Schism of the West." 1431. Pope Eugenius IV. Council of Basle. France, Germany, & Spain. 1407. France : — Murder of Louis, Duke of Orleans. Spain: — John II., king of Castile. 1410. Spain : —Ferdinand, king of Arragon. — Yustef III., king of Granada. 1410. Fr. : — Civil war between the parties of Orleans and Burgundy. Germany : — Death of Robert. 1411. S i g i s m u n d , (king of Hungary),^ -empe- 1413. France: — The French defeated by Henry V., of England, at Agincourt. 1416. Spain : — Alfonzo V., king of Arragon and Sicily. 1419. Sigismund succeeds to the Bohemian crown. 1422. France :— Death of Char les VI — Henry VI. pro- claimed at Paris king of France and England. — Charles Vll.ff? — at Poitiers. 1427. Orleans besieged by tho English. 1429. — saved by J o a n o 1 Arc. Charles crowned at Rheims ; makes a vain at- tempt to gain Paris. 1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- soner and burnt as a witch. 1431. Germany : — Sigismund visits Italy, and is crowned emperor by Pope Eugenius IV. 1435. Peace of Arras, between France and Burgundy. 1436. France :— Recovery of Paris. 1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, establishes the liber- ties of the French church. 1299-1453 : — 154 years.— Continued.] THE world's PROGRESS. 821 1403 Eastern Empire. Solyinan I., Sultan of the Turks. 1413 1421 1425 England & Scotland. 1406. Scotland :— James I. The World, elsewhere. 1406. Italy : - Pisa cor quered by Florei ce.— Subjugation of Padua and Verona by Venice. Mohammed I., Sultan of tba Turks. 1433 Amurath II. Sultan of the Turks. John VII. peror. 1413. —Henry V .f§f — 1414. — claims the French crown. 1415. — gains the battle of Agincourt. The emperor visits Italy to obtain help against the Turks— submits to the pope. 1420. Treaty of Troy es.-Henry marries Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and is de clared heir to the French crown. 1422. Death of Henry V. — H e n r y VI .^g— 1424. The Duke of Bedford defeats the French at Ver neuil. 1427. — besieges Orleans. 1429. The siege raised by the Maid of Orleans. 1431. — she is taken prisoner and burnt. 1435. Death of the Duke of Bedford, followed by the loss of all the English pos- sessions in France, except Calais. 1436. War with Scotland. 1437. Scotland .-—James II. 1412. Italy:— Sack of Rome by Ladislas, king of Naples. Denmark, Norway, &c. : Eric VII., of Pomerania.flj 1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by the Portuguese. 1419. Bohemia : — Hussite war. 1420. Discovery of Madeira by the Portuguese. 1424. Bohemia : -Death of John Ziska, the Hussite leader. Italy :— War of the Duke of Milan against Florence. 1429. Florence:— Cosmo di Medici, patron of the arts and sciences. 1431. Italy :— Second war of Venice and Milan. 1434. Poland :— Vladislas in. 1436. Italy:— Third war be. tween Venice and Milan. 1437. Portugal : — Expedition into Africa. 1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V., king.fH 822 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— Proqress of Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. 1414 1446 1147 1448 1460 Leonardo da Vinci } sculptor, architect, and painter — dis- covers perspective. Pet. Perugino, founder of the Roman school of painting. teacher of Raphael. Library of the Vatican, found- ed. The Azores discovered. Alain Chartica. French poet, Flourishing period of Flan- ders' trade. — All European nations have warehouses at Bruges and Ghent. — Book trade at Mayence. ler. 1447. Pope Nicholas V. 1448. Concordat of Aschaflfen- berg, by which the liberties of the German church are compromised. France, Germany & Spain. 1438. Germany : — House of Austria: — Albert II. W — (king of Bohemia and Hun- gary.) 1440. Ger. :-F rede ric III. France :—■ The dauphin, (Louis XI.), rebels — but is pardoned. 1444. — establishment of the companies of Archers, the first national standing army. 1446. Germany : — War with Hungary, for refusing to give up the young prince, Vladislas. 1451. Expedition of Frederic to Rome. 1453. Austria made an hersdi- tary duchy by Frederic. End of the French eod English wars. 1299-1453.— 154 years.— Continued.] the world's progress. 823 Eastern Empire. 1443 144-1 Insurrection of Scandeberg — victory over tha Turks near Nissa. Battle of Varna — Vladislas, king of Poland, defeated and killed by the Tarks. England sumes independent authiv rity. 1598. Russia: — Boris Goda- n°v,fj|f begirt a n.;w dynasLy. Sigismund lands in Swe den, to re-establish his pow- er — but is defeated, and ra turns to Poland. 834 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD IX— 120 years.— AD. Progress op Society, etc. America. England. France. 1601. Earl of Essex be- 1G02 English East India Compa- ny founde_ headed. 1603. — James I.^Hf — Union of the Exportation oi. Eng.ish wool 1604.— Acadia co- English and prohibited. lonized by the French. Scotch crowns. 1603 Conference at Hampton Court. 1605. The Gunpowder 1604 New Translation of the Bi- ble begun; (published 1611). Plot. 1606 Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- er of electricity, and of con- ductors and non-conductors. 1606. — Discovery of Hudson's Bay. 1607.— E n g 1 i s h settlement at Jamestown, (1st permanent one in N. Ame- rica.) 1608. —Quebec founded. 1609. — Jesuit mis- 1610 Telescopes invented by Gali- sions in Para- guay. 1610. Assassi- leo. 1612. English factories at nation of Surat. Henry IV., by Ravail- lac. Louis 1615 Coffee at Venice. XIII, -W 1616 Tobacco in Virginia. 1616.— The Tobac- 16115. Ministry of Villiers, (9 years old). co plant introdu- duke of Buckingham. Mary de Me- Bacon's Inductive Philoso- ced into Virgi- dici, regent. phy. nia. 1617. Sir Francis Bacon, lord chancellor. 1614. Last as- sembly of the 16 IS Harvey discovers the circula- 1618. Sir Walter Ra- States-gene- tion of the blood. leigh's unsuccessful ral. 1620 Thermometers invented by 1620.— Negro voyage to America — 1615. The king ' Drebel. slaves first im- he is beheaded on his marries lnigo Jones, celebrated archi- ported to Virgi- return. Anne, of tect. nia. Austria. Martin Opitz, German poet. Emigra- Civil war:— Negro /Slavery co 'naienced in Virginia. tion of Pu- C o n d e ritans to heads the New Eng- Hugue- land. nots. 1621. —John Car- ver, 1st Gover- nor of N. E. 1624 Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 1624. New Am- jft 1624 Ministry 1625 Massinger, the dramatist. sterdam set- 1625.— C h a r 1 e s I.f|f of Carding 1626 Kepler's " Ast: Dnomia Nova ' led by the Dutch. Rich) Celestis." Buckingham, prime lieu. Torricelli invents the barome- minister. 16'C ter. The Parian marbles brought 1627. Boston found- 1627. War with Prance, in support ot to England by the earl of ed. the Hugue- Ar rodei. nots. Rochelle J 629. Wouter Van 1629. No parliament for reduced by 1630 Gasettes first published in Twiller, gover- eleven years. famine — af- Venice. nor of New Am- sterdam. 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege o| ten moa'.ha. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. \598-1718.— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 835 1609 1613 1621 1625 1625 1630 Spain and Portu- gal. Expul- sion of the Moors. War of the Mont- ferrat succes- sion ' in Italy. 1606. Truce of Co- morra, for twenty years, with the Porte. 1608. Protestant union, under Fre- deric, the elector palatine. 1610. The Catholic League, under the duke of Bavaria. 1612. Matthias. 1615. Truce of Co. morra confirmed. 1618. The Thirty Years' War begins. 1619.— Ferdinand 1620. Victory of the White Mountain, near Prague. - Massacre of Prague.— The Pro- testant religion to. tally suppressed. 1626. Victory of Ti ly over Christian IV., of Denmark, at Lutter. 1628.Wallenstein recovers all the shores of the Bal- tic, except Stral- sund. 1629. Gustavus Adol- phus lands in Ger- many. — Diet of Ratisbon. — Wal- lenstein dismissed, succeeded by Til- Italy. 1605. Leo XI., pope. Paul V., pope. 1609.Tuscany — Cosmo II Leghorn, the empori um of the Levant trade 1618. Conspi racy of Bed- mar, the Spanish en voy, to re duce Venice under sub- jection to Spain. 1621. Gregory XV., pope Tuscany : — Ferdinand II 1623. The fa- mous library of the Pala- tine at Hei- delberg, sent to Rome. 1628. Genera Italian war on the death of the duke of Mantua. Ottoman Empire. 1605. Revolt in Syria and Caramania, under the pasha of Aleppo. 1606. Com- mercial treaty with France and Holland. Tobacco first brought to Turkey. 1617. — Musta- II Great Per- sian victory at Shibli. 1620 War with Poland, and unsuccess- ful invasion of Poland. 1623. Murad 1625. Truce with the em- pire renew- ed. The World, elsewhere. 1604. Sweden : Charles IX. 1605. India : —Jehangir, sul- tan. 1609. India :— Arrival of Haw- kins, first English envoy from the East India Com- pany. Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3 A d o 1 p h u s . fHf 16U. Sweden: — War with Denmark.— Calmar and Ris- by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, minister. — Russia devasta- ted by Poles and Tartars. Russia : — Michael Ro- manoff, czar. 1615. Denmark :— First stand ing army 1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe ambassador from James I. of England. Sweden predominates in the north. 1618. The Synod of Dor I- Arminius condemned. Settlement of Tanquebar, in Coromandel. 1621. Dutch West India Com- pany incorporated. 1622. Persia :— Ormuz gained from the Portuguese by .he help of the English. 1625. Netherlands : — He-.ry Frederic— Breda, taken by Spincla. 1627. Persia:— Shah Soofi I. 1629. Peace of Lubeck. 83G THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— a.d. Progress of Society, etc. 1G30 1631 1.636 1638 1639 1641 1643 Lotteries for money first men- tioned. Calico first imported into Eng- land. Edward Com, the great ju- rist. Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish dramatist. Flourishing period of flower trade in the Dutch cities. Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- ters. The Jansenists, founded by Jansenius, bishop of Ypres. Printing in America. First Swedish manufactories. Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and Claude Lorraine, French painters. Coffee brought to England by Nat. Conopius. Cond6 and Turenne, the great- est generals of the age. The Dutch sole masters of Bra- zil. 1632. Maryland settled by a colo- ny under Lord Baltimore. 1635. Connecticut settled. — Guada- loupe and Mar- tinique, by the French. 1637. Maine and New Hampshire colonized. Harvard Col- lege founded. 1639. First print- ing office in Ame- rica, at Cam- bridge, by Sam. Green. 1640. Whole num- ber of emigrants to New England previous to this, 21,000. 1643. Confedera- tion of the colo- nies of New England, for mutual defence. 1630. Wentworth, earl of Strafford, minister. Laud, archbishop of Canterbury. 1633. The king visits Scotland — is crowned at Edinburgh. 1637. Trembles in Scot- land, caused by Char- les's plan to overthrow the Scotch presbyterian church, and enforce episcopacy. 1639. War with Scotland. 1640. Parliament assem- bled — dissolved with- out effecting any thing. The Scotch invade England— take posses- sion of Newcastle. The Long Parlia- ment, Nov. 3. Impeachment of Straf- ford and Laud. 1641. Strafford beheaded. — Courts of Star Cham- ber and High Commis- sion abolished. — Rebel- lion of Roger Moore in Ireland. — Massacre of Protestants by Irish Ca- tholics. 1642. C i v i 1 W a r and Revolution . Rise of Roundheads and Cavaliers, both of the popular party. — Battle of Edgehill, inde- cisive. 1643. Royalists victorious at Carlsgrane — defeated at Newbury.— Solemn league and covenant be- tween the Scotch and English parliaments. France. 1631. Treaty with Swe- den and the popular prin- ces against the emper- or. 1635. Alliance with Holland against Spain, for the par- tition of the Austrian Ne- therlands. 1636. Alliance with Sweden against Aus- tria. Invasion of Gascony by the Span- iards, and of Picardy, by the Impe- rialists, who threaten Pa- ris. 1638. Invasion of Spain, siege of Fon- tarabia. 1640. Turin ta- ken by the French. The first Louis d'ors struck. 164L. Alliance with Portu- gal against Spain. — Ca- talonia and Rousillon re- volt, and sub- mit to France. 1642. Cinq Mars and de Thou be- headed. 1643.- L o ui 3 xiv.fif— (the Great.) Anne, of Austria, re- gent. Victory of Roscroi over the Span- iards, by Conde. Ministry o Cardinal Ma 1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 837 Spain and Portu- gal. 1640 1631. Sack of Mag- deburg, by Tilly. ' — Gustavus Adol- phus takes May- 1632. Defeat and death of Tilly, at Lech. — Gustavus takes Munich. — Wallenstein again in command. — Bat- tle of Lutzen. — Victory and death of Gustavus Adol- phus. 1635.Peace of Prague with Saxony. 1636. Swedes victo- rious atWittstock. 1637.— Ferdinand Galas successful against the Swedes. 1638. Bernhard. of Saxe Weimar, de- feats the Imperial- ists at Bheinfield — takes Brisac. 1639. Battles of Ol- nitz and Brandiez, gained by the Swe- dish general, Bau- ner. 1640. Prussia- — Fre- deric William. 1642. The Swedes de- feat the Austrians at Leipsic. 1643. — invade Hol- stein, and compel the Danes to desert Austria. 1631. Peace of Chierasco. — The influ- ence of France increases. Ottoman Empire. 1634.Murad ir vades Per- sia — take e Falreeze. 1636. Peace with Poland renewed. 1637. Troubles on the Tar- tar frontier; Azoph taken by the Cos- sacks. Bagdad ta- ken by the Turks. All the con- quests of Ab- bas recover- ed. 1640. Ibrahim. 1642. Recap- ture of Azoph from the Cos- sacks. The World, elsewhere. 1632. Sweden '. — Christina, queen f®f 1632. Sweden : — OxenstierUj regent. Russia: — War with Po- land; twc years' siege oi Smolensko. — Russian army capitulates, and the Polish king advances to Moscow. 1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- vantageous to Russia. 1639. Holland. —Great na tal victory by Van Tromp, ever the Spanish fleet in the Downs. 1640. India : — Madras foo&cted 838 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Peiiod IX.— 120 yews.— }- quillity to Europe. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 841 Spain and Portu- gal. 1661 Invasion of Por- tugual. l663 665 1667 1669 1673 Italy. Ottoman Empire. 1663. The Diet per- manent at Ratis bon. 1664. Montecuculi victorious over the Turks at St. Go- thard. 1665. The Tyrol uni- ted to Austria. 1673. War of Austria and France. 1675. Turenne and Montecuculi op- posed on the Rhine. — Victory of Consarbruck over the French, under Crequi. — Treves taken. 1676. General revolt of Hungarians un- der Emeric. 1661. War with Aus- tria. 1662. Invasion of Hungary. The World, elsewhere. 1667. Clement IX., pope. 1669. Candia taken from Ve- I nice by Kio- prili. Peace with the Porte. 1670. Cosmo HI., grand duke of Tus- cany. — War between Ge- noa and Sa- voy. Clement X., pope. 1674. Revolt of Messina in favor of France. 1676. Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanish fleets. Death of De Ruyter. Innocent XI. pope. Death of the atheist, Spi- noza 1672. The Sul- tan invades Poland. 1673. — defeat- ed by Zo- briski, at Choezim. 1676. Peace of Zurawno with Poland. 1678 First war with Russia, on account of the Cos- sacks. 1660. Demark : — Peace of Co penhagen. — The Swede! restore Bomholm, and Dron- theim. Revolution in Denmark. Sweden :— Charles XI. "Hi Peace of Oliva. Prussia acknowledged in- dependent. 1660. Poland :— Great victory of Marshal John So b i.e s k i over the Tartars 1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre- da : loss of New Nether- lands. 1668. First embassies from Russia to France and Spain. India :— Rise of the Mah- ratta power. — Sevajee takes and sacks Surat. 1670. Den. :— Christian V. W 1672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and the English and French fleets- Dutch defeated. Den. :— William HI.© 1674. Poland : — Jolir Sobies- 1675. The Swede? invade Brandenburg. 1677. Battle of the 7 \mti, N* tween (he Swedes and Pane* Q.& THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— 120 ycars.- 1081 $83 Progress op Society, etc. Bernini, Italian sculptor. Museum for Natural History, at London. Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. Penny post established in Lon- don. Kempfer's travels in Japan. John Banyan, " Pilgrim's Progress." 1696 1687 1690 1692 1693 1692 1692 1693 1699 Otto Von Guericke, inven- tor of the air-pump and electrical machine, died. Telegraphs invented. Newton's Principia, publish- ed. G. Batt. Lully, from Flo- rence, founder of French opera music. Arch. Corelli, celebrated vio- linist and composer at Rome. White paper first made in England. Leibnitz, German philoso- pher, founds the Academy of Sciences a( Berlin. First opera in London. Purcell, English musician. Bank of England. Telescopes, first refiecling one made on the principles of Sir Isaac Newton. 1686. Sir Edmund Andros, governor of New England. 1683. General sup- pression of char- ter governments. 1689. Montreal de- stroyed by the Five nations. Leister usurps the government of New York. 1690. The English settlements of Schenectady, N. York,Casco, Me. and Salmon Falls, N. H, destroyod by a party of French. Port Royal, No- va Scotia, redu- ced by Sir Wil- liam Phipps. — Expedition against Canada, unsuc- cessful. 1691. Schuyler defeats the French at La Prairie. Witchcraft superstition in New-England. John Locke and Sir Isaac Newton in England. Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, in France. Bank of England. Phc»2'horus discovered. 1692. New Hamp- shire purchased by Allen. N. York: Leis- ler executed. 1693. N. York :— Episcopacy in- troduced. William and Mary's College founded- 1697. Kidd's pira- cies. 1699. French colo. ny in Louisiana, — Gold mines in Brazil. Great Britain. Rise of the names of Whigs and Tories. 1633. "RyehousePlot." Execution of Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney. In this reign the Roy- al Society of London was instituted by Wil- kins, bishop of Chester. — Bombay ceded to England. 1685.— James 11.® Rebellion of Mon- mouth, in England, and Argyle, in Scotland, both defeated and exe- cuted. Judge Jeffries. 1686. The king favors the Catholics. 1687. — re-establishes the Court of High Com- mission. 16S8. "Revolution of 1688."— The Whigs and Tories unite in ap- plying to the Prince of Orange, who lands in England with 15,0U0 men — the king flees to France. 1639. -William III. and M a r y I I .HI? — War with France. James II. lands in Ireland— besieges Lon- donderry. 1690. William in Ireland. — Battle of the Boyne. James defeated, returns to France. 1691. Limerick taken, and William acknowledged. 1692. Invasion of Eng- land undertaken by the French in favor of James. — Naval victory bv the Dutch and Eng- lish. 1693. Bunk of England in- corporated. 1694. Death of queen Mary. 1697. General peace 1698.First partition treaty, between France, Eng land, and the Empire to dispose of the crown of Spain. 1699. Visit of Peter the Great. France, the most formi- dable powel in Europe. 1683. Invasi )n of the Span- ish Nether- lands. 1681. Truce of Ratisbon fsr twenty years with Spain. 1635. Revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. 1688. War of Spain — the Empire, Hol- land, Savoy, and England against France. 16S9. Grand al- liance against France, head- ed by Wil- liam HI. 1690. Naval victory over the Dutch and English off Dieppe. Victory of Luxemburg, at Fleurus. 1692. Marshal Luxem- burg de- feats William at Steenkirk, and 1693. —at Ne- uvinden. Institution of the order of St. Louis. ofRyswick — between France an« the allies. 598-1718.J THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 843 1689 1691 1697 Spain AND Portu- gal. 1680. Great part of Alsace seized by France. 1683. Turkish war, siege of Vienna by the Turks — victory of the Germans and Poles, under Charles, of Lor- raine, and John Sobieski. Treaty of the Hague against France. 1686. League of Augsburg against France. 1686. Buda taken af- ter being held by the Turks 145 years. 1687. Decisive victo- ry of Mohaez : Croatia and Tran- sylvania subdued. Joseph I. crown- ed king of Hun- gary. 1689. Grand alliance ratified at Vienna. The Palatinate desolated by the French. 1690 Joseph I. elect- ed king of the Ro- mans by the Diet of Augsburg. — Victories over the Turks. Revolt of Cata- lonia in favor of France. Incur- sion of the French into Araeon. Peace of Ryswick In- tiigues 1697. Victory over for the the Sultan Musta- succes- pha at Zenta, by Bion. the Prince Eugene. Ottoman Empire. 1682. War with Austria. 1683. Total rout before Vienna. 1684. Alliance of Venice with Poland, and the Empire against the Porte. 1689. Alexan- der via., pope. 1691. Innocent XII., pope. 1693. Battle of Marsaglia — the allies in Italy defeat- ed by the Marshal Ca- tinat. 1686. Russia declares war. 1637. Revolu- tion in Con- stantinople, Mohammed dethroned. Solyman 1689. Defeat at Nisa. 1690. Musta- pha Kiopri- li drives the Austrians across the Danube — re- covers Bel- grade. 1691. Ahmud The Would, elsewhere. 1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock holm. 1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe ter,gg their sister, S» ] hia, regent. 1683. Denmark :— The Code o king Christian published 1686. India : — The Deskin con. quered. Golconda and Besapore. 1687. —The English factories in Bengal suppressed— after- wards restored. 1688. Prussia :— Frederic III Russia : — Ivan resigns — Sophia is confined in a con- vent : 1689. Peter the Great .f|p 1692. Russia: — First trade with China. India : — Height of the Mo- gul power, annual revenue .£32,000,000. China: — Great influence of Jesuits. 1693. Sweden :— The king de- clared absolute. 1695. Holland : Bombard- ment of Brussels by the French, under Villeroi. 1696. Poland :— Death oi So- bieski — succeeded by 1697. — Frederic Augustus I. Sweden :— C h a r l g a XI 1.1 -(15 years old.) Russia :— Introduction oi various manufactures — equipment of a fleet, etc. 1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ff| Alliance of Denmark, Rus- sia, and Poland, agaiost Charles XII. of Sweden. 844 THE WORLD'S FROGRLSS. [Period IX— 120 years.— 1704 1709 1710 1713 1714 1715 1716 1/18 Progress op Society, etc. First manufactories in Russia and Denmark Fenelon, Bossuet, Masillon, in France. National Debt of England commenced. Godfrey Kneller, English painter. First Russian newspaper. — St. Petersburg!! founded. Flourishing period of French literature. — Great splendor in the French court. A newspaper in America. Incorporation of the United British East India Com- pany. Prussia acid discovered by Diesbach. A post-office in America. The famous bull " Unigeni- tus" against the French Jan- senists. Rise of commerce in Austria ; first manufactories. Law's bank at Paris. The monastery of Mafra, ' the wonder of Portugal,' built. Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- son, flourish in England. First standing army in Eng- land. The coffee tree brought from •'ava to Surinam. 1701. Yale College founded. 1702. Rice intro- duced into Caro- lina from Mada- gascar. 1703. Apalachian Indians subdued. Maine ravaged by French and Indians. 1704. Captain Church's expe- dition against the Indians. Boston News- Letter, first Ame- rican periodical. 1706. Carolina in- vaded by the French and Span- ish. 1707. Unsuccessful expedition against Port Royal. 1708.The Saybrook platform, form- ed. 1709. First paper money in New- Jersey. 1710. First post- office at New York. Fruitless expe- dition against Ca- nada. 1713. "Queen Anne's War " closed by the treaty of Utrecht. 1715. Indian war in South Carolina. 1717. New- Orleans settled by the French. Great Britain. 1700. A British fleet sent to assist Charles XII., of Sweden. Foundation of the national debt in this reign. 1701. War of the Spanish succession. 1702. The French invade Holland, «i der Boufflers — repulsed by Marl borough. A nne .|gf 1703. Methuen treaty of commerce with Portu- gal. 1704. Marlborough enters gains the battle of Gibraltar taken by Rooke. 1706. T reatyofunion with Scotland. Battle of Ramillies, feated. 1707. Victory of Almanza lish and Portuguese. The first United Parliament of Great Britain meets. 1708. Battle of Oudenarde, feated. Sardinia and Minor the English. Unsuccessful attempt of the Pretender to land in Scotland. 1710. Victory of Vendome Dr. Sacheverell's trial. — Collision of Whig and Tory principles. 1713. Peace of Ot Perpetual separation of France and Spain — quires Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, also Mi bialtar. The Rhine is between Germany and 1714. Factions at court — disgrace of Harley, chancellor of the exche- quer. Death of the queen. — H ouseof Ha.no- v e r : — G eorge I .^§§f — Robert Walpole, pre- mier. 1715. Insurrection of Ja- cobites. — Battles of She- riffmuir and Preston. War against Sweden. 1718. Quadruple al Emperor, England, Ho France against the desi 1702. Revolt oi the Hugue- nots suppress- ed by Mar- shal Villars. Germany, Blenheim. Villeroi de- over the Eng- — French de- ca captured by atVillaviciosa r e c h t . of the crown? England ac Acatfla, and norca and Gi the boundarc France. 1714. Peace o- Radstadt : tin Emperor ac knowledges Philip on the cession of Lombar- dy, Naples and Sardinia. 1715. Louis Duke of Orleans re- gent. — Du bois, minis- ter. 1 i a n c e : th» Hand, and gns of Spain. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 845 Spain AND Portu- gal. Death of the king, who names the duke ol'Anjou as his success- or. Philip The" arch- duke Charles lands at Lisbon, and en- ters Spain. Barcelo- na taken by the allies. Port. :— John V. English and Por- tuguese enter Madrid. Charles leaves Spain on becom ing Em- peror. Barcelo- na taken by Ber- wick. Albero- ni, prime minis- ter of Spam. 1701. Grand alliance of the Hague, between England, Holland, and the Empire, to pre vent the union of France and Spa in. 1702. Battles of Stol hafen, Hochstedt. and Spires, gained by the French. 1710. Treaty of the Hague between England. Holland, and the Empire. 1711. — Charles Ministry of Count Linzendorf. 1713. Pragmatic sanction, vesting the succession to Austria in the daughters of Char- les. 1714. Peace of Ras- tadt and Baden with France. . 1718. Quadru- ple alliance against Spain. 1702. Victory of Luzzace rained by the Fiench over the Impe- rialists. 1706. French driven from Italy by prince Eu- gene. 1707. All the Spanish pos- sessions in Italy aban- doned to the allies. Ottoman Empire. 1703. 111. 1709. Charles XII. takes refuge at Bender— hence war with Russia. 1714. War of Venice with the Porte. I 1715. Corinth taken by the Turks — the Emperor joins Venice — sie ge of Corfu raised on the news of their 1716. deleat at the battle of Peterwar- den. 1717. Defeat of Crusca — loss ol Belgrade. 1718. Peace of Passarowitz, between the Porte, Venice, and Hunga ry. , The World, elsewhere. 1700. Russia :— Peter the Great invades Ingria — defeated bj Charles XII., at Narva. War of the Northern Powers. 1701. PRUSSIA erected into a kingdom under Frederic I. iff— Charles XII. invades Po- land — is victorious at Riga. 1702. —enters Warsaw— takes Cracow. 1703. Victory of Pultusk - Poland :— The throne de- clared vacant, and 1704. Stanislas Leetzinskt elected king-flg 1706. The Swedes victorious over the Saxons and Rus- sians at Traverstadt. 1707. Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles invades Russia, crosses the Dnieper, and ia 1709. defeated at Pultowa. Sweden at war with Den- mark. Poland :— Frederic Augus- tus re-ascends the throne. 1712. Victory of the Swedes at Gadebusche. 1713. Prussia :— Frederic Wil liam I.fBf 1714. Russia:— Naval victory over the Swedes.— Aland and Finland conquered. 1715. Netherlands Barrier treaty of Antwerp with Aus- tria. Sweden : — Return of Char- les—Prussia and England join the alliance against him. 1718. Charles XII. invade* Norway ; is killed at th& siege of Fredericshall. Sweden:— Ulrica Eleo 846 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD X.— 97 years.— 1721 1728 1729 1733 1740 Progress of Society, etc. Cotton Mather, " Magnolia," and Increase Mather, Hist, of War with Indians. Inoculation introduced by Lady Montague. The same year introduced into Boston by Dr. Boylston. Academy of Sciences at Peters- burg. The " Appellants," in France, headed by the Cardinal de Noailles, appeal from the bull '• Unigenitus," to a ge- neral council ; but without effect. Behring's Strait discovered. Balloons invented by Gusmac. In England : In France : Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous Young, Thompson seau, Le Sage, Rollin. Montesquieu. 1732. Birth of Washington. 1733. Savannah founded. Watts, Lord Bolinf 'iroke, Doddridge, Chesterfield. Halley, astronomer. First Lodge of Freemasons in . America, at Boston. 1740. Tennessee first explored. 1719. First Philadelphia news- paper. 1721. First New-York news- paper. 1723. Vermont settled. Increase Mather, died. 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 1727. Great earthquake in New-England. 1728. Cotton Mather, died. Discovery of diamond mines in Brazil. 1729. The Carolinas separated. Irish linen manufactories, and English steel and cutlery flourish. L. Holberg, Danish drama- tiat. 1742 Invasion of Florida by Indians and Spaniards — re- pulsed. England. 1719. Unsuccessful attempt to invade Scotland by tlie Span- iards. "The South Sea Scheme." 1720. " Bursting of the South Sea bubble." 1721. Sir Robert Walpole'a ministry continues. 1725. Leag/i e of Herrenhauser., 1727. George I. dies at Osna- burg. George 1 1 .flf — - 1728. Peace of Pardo wita Spain 1729. Treaty of Seville, be 1731. Treaty of Vienna with Holland and the Empire. 1739. War with fepaln. 1740. Porto Bello taken by Ad- miral Vernon. — Anson's voy- age round the world, and capture of the Manilla gftl' leon. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 847 1718-1815.— Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. France. to*" 1 ? The ihig assumes the government. 'Duke de Bourbon, mirjister. Congress of Cam- bray between England. Tranc?, Prussia, and Holland. Ministry of Cardi- nal F 1 e u r y . .•728 Congress of Sois- sons dissolved, without effecting any thing. tween England. France, and Hol- land. ?:::; ■ 734 i no ira War of the Polish succession : France, Spain, and Sardi tia. Conquest of Lor- raine. War of the Aus- trian succession — Marshals Belle isle and Broglio : — defeated by the allies at Dettin- gcn. Spain AND Portu- gal. 1725. :- Alliance of Vienna, Spain, 1734. :— Con- quest of Nap;j.s and Sic' Iv by Don Carlos?. 1739. :— War with Eng- land, for infrac- tions of the Asi- ento treaty. rtnd Austria. 1733. War of the Po- lish succession ; Austria, Russia, and Denmark. 1735. Preliminaries of Vienna:not con- cluded till 1738 1740. Warof the Aus- trian succession. Maria The- resa succeeds to the he-reditary States. 1741. The .French, Saxons, and Bava- rians, overrun Aus- tria, take Prague, and crown Charles VI. emperor. iH? Treaty of Bres- lau with Austria. 1743. The French driven across the Rhine. The World, elsewhere. 1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the Spanish. 17:4.) .• Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity restored in the n.rth. Sweden : — The queer* abdicates in favor of her husband. 1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope. Frederic. ^ggf Peace of Nystadt wnh Russia. Russia: — Peter assumes the title "Emperor of all the Russias." 1721. Turkey :— Mahommed Effendi, am- bassador to Paris. 1723. China:— Christians expelled. 1723 Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici), grand duke of Tuscany. 1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia. 1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope. 1725. Russia: — Catharine I., widow of Peter, flf 1725. Turkey :— Partition treaty for sew- ing the north and west provinces A Persia. 1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria. 1726. Turkey : — First printing press brought from Paris to Turkey. 1727. Russia :— Treaty with China. Peter II. ^g 1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 1728. Denmark:— Fire at Copenhagen, destroys the public library. — colony of Danes in Greenland. 1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.© 1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. Russia : — Anne.fH? 1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus II fgf The diet elect Stanislaus, but are compelled by the Russian army to elect Frederic. 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- capes to Koningsberg. 1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- sia by Nadir Shah. 1736, — war with Russia and Austria. 1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, gram duke of Tuscany. 1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shab who takes and plunders Delhi. 1739. Turkey :— Turks defeatttl nea Choezim. 1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope. Turkey:— The Turks invade Persi — are repulsed by Ashraf. -peace of Belgrade. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X. — 97 years. ■ 1747 Prooress of Society, etc. 1748 ■750 1752 1753 1761 1764 1766 Frederic the Great makes great improvements in mili- tary tactics— imroducesjly- ing horse artillery. Durante and Leo, celebrated musicians. Handel, and Seb. Bach, musi- cal composers. indigo first produced in Caro- lina. Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- rian. Dr. Franklin's discoveries in electricity. England introduces the " New Style " Calendar. British Museum founded. British. A Ian Ram- say, •S/n'iistone, Gray, Collins, Akenside, Churchill. Ilelvetius, Fr. Racine, Fr. Gellert, Ger. Winckle- mann, Ger- John Rysbrach, sculptor. Hogarth, Wilson, $■ Joshua Reynolds, painters. Potatoes first planted in France, by Turgot. Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. Wesley 8? Whitefield preach. Philadelphia Medical School, first in America. Wallis and Carteret's voyage of discovery in the South 1745. Louisburg and Cape Breton taken from France 1 by the English. 1747. David Brainerd and Benjamin Coleman, died. 1749. English settlement in Nova Scotia. 1752. Hostilities between Eng 1754. Washington's mission to the French. 1755. Defeat of Braddock. 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby taken by the French. 1757. Fort VVm. Henry cap- tured. 1758. Repulse of Abercrombie at Ticonderoga. Fort Du Quesne taken. 1759. Invasion of Canada — death of Wolfe — Quebec taken. Capture of Niagara. Crown Point, and Ticonde- roga. 1763. End of the " Old French War." 1765. " American Stamp Act " resisted in Massachusetts and Virginia. First Colonial Congress at New-York. Great Britain. 1744. Naval victory over the French and Spanish fleets in the bay of Hieres. 1745. Scotch rebellion — Char- les Edward lands in Scot- land. 1746. he is defeated at Cul- loden. 1747. Victories over the French off Belle-isle and Cape Finisterre. 1748. Peace of Aix la mutual restitution of con 1752. The new style intro- duced; the year hereafter commences Jan. 1. land and France on the boun 1756 "Seven Years' Subsidiary alliance with Prussia. Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m Pitt, the elder. 1757. Victory of Plassey, in India. 1759. Naval victories over the Lagros, and off Brest. Surat, in India, taken, from the Dutch. 1760.— G e o r g e III .f§?— 1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 1762. War with Spain. Conquest of Havana, Trinidad, and Manilla. 1763. Peace of Parii 1765. Bengal ceded to the East. India Company by tli« treaty of Allahabad. 1718-1815.] THB WORLDS PROGRESS. 849 France. Germany. 1744 1745 •746 1747 War declared against England and Austria. Battle of Fontenoy , allies defeated. The French victo- rious by land, but unsuccessful by sea. War with Holland. C h a p e 1 1 e quests. dariesof NovaSco- Itia. Influence of Ma- dame de Pompa- dour. War." Capture of Minor- ca from the Eng- lish. 1757 1758 1760 J7M Invasion of Hano- ver. Defeat at Crefeldt. on the Rhine. French off" Cape Attempt to invade Ireland. Loss of all Canada. The Bourbon Fa- mily Compact. Siege and capture of Belleisle, by the English. between France, Spain and Eng- ■ land. 1764 Expulsion of the Jesuits. 1745. Charles dies at Munich. House of L o r r a i-n e : — F r a n c i s I . \ husband of Maria Theresa. The World, elsewhere. 1748 pelle ; the on Peace of Aix la Cha- Spain, and Prussia iy gainers by the war. 1756. Seven Years' War of Austria and Prussia. Invasion and conquest of Saxo- ny, by Frederic II. Alliance with France. 1757. Prussians vic- torious at Prague. Rossbach, Lessa, and Breslau. The French take Verdun and Bre- men. 1758. French defeated at Crefeldt, 1759. and at Mirjden. Victory at Max- en over the Prus- sians. — Dresden re- taken. 1760. Great victory at Torgan, by Fre- deric. 1762.Prussians victo- rious at Freiburg. 1763. Peace of Hu- bertstrug. 1765. Joseph II. 1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .|§J (the Great,) Prussia increase* in in? ponance. — War with Austria. Russia : — Ivan V. 1741. Sweden : — War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland. Russia : — Elizabeth. |0f 1743. — Peace of Abo with Sweden. 1743. Turkey :— War with Persia. — Defeat near Erivan. 1744. India:— Hostilities between French and English. 1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French and Spaniards, who take 1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. —Genoa bombarded by the English. 1746. —French and Spaniards driven frona Lombardy. 1746. Denmark :— Frederic V.g§ 1747. Netherlands :— William IV. Persia: — Revolution: Nadir. Shah murdered. 1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder. Denmark : — Ministry of Count Bern- storff. Sweden: — House of Holstein Got- torp : — Adolphus Frederic. ^§ 1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, revolt against Genoa. 1754. Turkey :— Othman III. 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- tinople. 1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- bob of Bengal. 1757. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 1757. Prussia :— Russian invasion. 1758. — victory of Londorf. 1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope. 1759. Prussia :— The king defeated at Kunnersdorf. 1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken. India:— Shah Alfm II. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by the English. Kingdom of Mysore founded by H y d e r A 1 i . 1762. Russia : Peter III, months). C atharine II. __ 1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Poniatowski. 1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. — Establishment of a British empire 1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany. A^ 1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. Hf 1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egypt revived under Rodvan and Ali Bey. 36^ 850 THE WORXD'S PROGRESS. 'Period X. — 97 years.- Progress of Society, etc. 1767 First spinning machine in England. 17C8 Cook's first voyage of discovery. Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua Reynolds, first president. United States. 1769 1770 Letters of Junius. Whitefield dies at Newburyport. .774 1774 1774 Captain Cook discovers New California. The Spinning- jenny, invented by Robert Arkwright. The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt and Bolton. In England. Goldsmith, Warburton, Johnson, Littleton, Lowth, Garrick, Hume, Robertson, Blackstone. Adam Smith, Home Tooke, Priestley, Horsley, Burke, Pitt, Fox, Cooper, Slieridan, McPherson, Burns. Kaimes, Reid. France. Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Condillac, Jussien, Lavoisier, La Harpe, Barth fie ny, Buffo . Ger. Mosh- eim, Zimmerman, Kant, Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Ste. Linnaeus, It. Metastasio. Rus. Kheras- kov, Kostrov. Deerhavin, Bogdanovich, Khemnitzee. 1768. Boston occupied by the British troops. 1769. Daniel Boone ex- plores Kentucky. 1772. Hancock, S. Adams, and P a - trick Henry, promote the revolu- tion. 1773. Tea destroyed at Boston. 1774. Continental Con- gress at Philadelphia. 1775. AMERICAN WAR: April 19, Skirmish at Lexington. June 17, Battle of Bun- ker's Hill Prescott, Put- nam,&Warren. WASHINGTON, commander-in-chief. Montgomery Montreal, and falls at 1776. The British troops evacuate Boston. Moultrie de Sullivan's Island. DECLARA- TION OF IN- DEPENDENCE, July 4. Americans (S u I 1 i - van) defeated at Flatbush. Aug. Battle of White Plains. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 26-7. 1777. Arrival of Lafay- ette. Capture of Ticon Great Britain 1766. American Stamp Act repealed. — New ministry under the Earl of C h a t h a m . 1767. First war with Hyder Ali in My- sore. 1770. Lord N t> r t h , prime minister. 1771. The Falkland Islands ceded by Spain to Great Bri- tain. 1774. The Boston Port Bill passed. 1774. Warren Hastings, governor general of India. REVOLUTIONARY 1775. Lord North's " conciliatory mea- sures " rejected by the colonies. takes St. Johns and Quebec. 1776. The city of Lon- don remonstrates against 'he American war. feats the English at The British army takes possession of New- York. Hessians hireiJ for service in America. deroga by the British July 5. 1718.-1815.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 851 *.D. France. Germany. The World, elsewhere. Discipline of the Ottoman troops im- proved by Baron de Tott. 17G7. Spain :— Jesuits expelled. India:— Hyder Ali resists the Eng- lish. 17G8 Genoa cedes Corsica to France. 1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. 1769 Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. 1769. Pope Clement XIV. The Russian army occupies Wa.lachia 770 Marriage of the dauphin with Marie Antoinette. and Moldavia. 1771. Sweden :— Gustavus in.^§H 1772. Joseph 1772. First Partitionof Polanl. II. with the Emperors of Russia and Prussia, dis- 1773 Madame du Barri rules the member Po- 1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- king. land, divid- ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi JL ing it be- Hassan. 1774 L o u i s XVI .fU tween them- Pope Clement abolishes the order of Marie Antoinette, queen : — selves. Jesuits. Maurepas, prim-3 minister. 1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British governor-general. Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.fHf— 1775. Pope Pius VI. Spain .-—Able ministry of Florida Blan- ca. 3770 N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- 1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. ral. East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-ge" Franklin in Paris. neral, imprisoned by his own council. 1777. Portugal :— Maria, qveeau 852 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X. — 97 years.-" 1731 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 Progress op Society, etc. Herschel's discovery of the Georgium Sidus. Prussic acid obtained in a se- parate state, by Scheele. Air balloon of Montgolfier. First American vessel in China. Institution for the deaf and dumb at Paris, by the Abbe de l'Epee. Sunday schools established in England, by Robert Raikes. Herschel's Telescopes. Stenography, by Taylor. Panoramas in London. First spinning machine in France. Talnxa, the celebrated trage- dian. United States. Great Britain. Battles of Bennington, 11, and Stillwater. Philadelphia taken by lis. Battle of German ceives Burgoyne's Articles of confederation, adopted Nov. 15. 1778. Alliance with France. Battle of Monmouth, Washington victorious, June 28. Arrival of the French fleet under D'Estaing. Massacre of Wyoming. Savannah taken by the English. 1779. Wayne recovers Stoney Point. Paul Jones's Victory off 1780. Battle near Camden: D e K a I b killed. Treason of Arnold. 1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- ed by Morgan. Surrender of Co town, Oct. 17. 1782. Treaty with. Holland, by J. Adams, Jay, Frank 1 i n , and Laurens. 1783. PEACE OF VERSA Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept the English, under Cornwal town, Oct. 4.— G a t e s re- surrender, Oct. 17. 1778. Capture of Pondicherry, in India. Scotland. 1780. War with Hyder All in India. War with Holland. rnwallis at York- 1781. Victory off the Dogger- bank. ILLES : INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac knowledged by Great Bri- tain. 1784. New- York Chamber cf Commerce founded. 1785. John Adams, 1st States of America to Great Britain. 1786. Shay's insurrection in Massachusetts. 1787. General Convention at Philadelphia. Federal Con- stitution of the United States, adopted. 1788. Cotton planted in Geor- gia. 1789. George Wash- ington, first Presi- dent : Jefferson, Ha- milton, Knox, Ran- dolph, and Jay, form the cabinet. 1791. First United States Bank. 1792. Kentucky admitted to the Union. Un .ted States Mint esta- blishes. 1784. Pitt, the younger, premier. Peace with Tippoo Saib. ambassador from the United 1786. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 1788. The king insane.— Deatn of Charles Edward, the last pretender. Trial of Warren Hast- ings. 1792. Provision for the p ndua, abolition of the ,«!«» v* >•. 1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 853 1778 France. Alliance witlt America. 1779 Scheme to invade England from Normandy. 178C 1781 1782 1783 Rochambeau sent to aid the Americans. Necker resigns. Defeat of De Grasse in the West Indies, by Rodney. Peace of Versail- les. 1787 17S9 179. 1792 La Perouse's voyage of disco- very. Financial difficulties — New taxation : Colonne, Bnenne, and Necker, ministers suc- cessively. FRENCH REVOLUTION begins.— Bastile taken and razed, July 1-t. — L a f a y - e 1 1 e , commander of the national guards. — M i r a - beau, leading orator. 1778. War of the Bavarian succession. — Bavaria seized by Germany. 1779. Congress and Peace of Teschen. 1782. Punishment of death abolished. The Pope visits the em- peror, to dissuade him from hostilities against the church. 1785. 2,000 religious houses suppressed by the emperor. 1788. The emperor attempts to control the Universities. 1790. Leopold II .f|f — Congress of Reichenbach. Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. nes. — Lafayette resigns. ' 1792. — F rancis II. fg — War with Germany : — The French take Spires, Mentz, and Longwy— Lafayette im- France declared a prisoned at Olmutz. republic. Girondists and Mountainists. The World, elsewhere. 1780. Declaration of the arrr.ea neutrality — to protect neu- tral flags from the right o( search claimed by Britain. 1782. Italy :— Pontine marches drained. India:— Rise of Sindia— Tippoo, Sultan. 1783. — alliance with the French. 1786. Prussia — Frederic Wil- liam II. 1787. Russia :— War witfi the Porte. 1788. Spain :— Charles IV. 1789. Ottoman Empire:— Se- lim II. 1790. Tuscany : — Ferdinand III. 1792. Sweden:— Gustavvs IV 854 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X. — 97 years. 1799 1801 18)2 1304 Progress op Society, etc. Tom Paine, Alfieri, Italian Fisher Ames. poet. HannahMore, Gainsboro' , Moreland. Bognslawski, Krasiki, Po- lish poets. Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Albrechtsber- gen, Beethoven. Pestalozzi, system of elemen- tary education. Mungo Park's travels in Africa, published. Iron railways in England. Polytechnic school in Paris. First book-fair in New- York, First Locomotive Steam En- fine used on the Merthyn 'ydvil road in Wales. United States. 1793. Washington re-elected. Neutrality in regard to France. Grbat Britain. 1794. Commercial treaty with England. Commencement Brit: n f » V. n H n 1. 11 fi f V i - Y\0€W Til 1793. First coalition against France, directed by Eng- land — all Europe, except Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- key. \_/ u ill ill e !» i< i- in c i of the n a v y—6 f r gates built, 1796. Washington resigns. 1797. John Adams, 2d president. Difficulties with France. 1798. Regular army organized, Washington commander-in- chief. 1799. Death of Washington. Tennessee becomes a State. 1800. Seat of government transferred to Washington, D. C. 1801. Thomas Jeffer- son, 3d President. Exports of United States, $93,0(10,000. 1802. Ohio joins the Union ; it has 76,001) inhabitants. 1803. Purchase of Louisi- ana, for $15,000,000. U. States frigate Philadel- phia, taken by the Tripoli- tans. 1804. Decatur recaptures the Philadelphia. Preble bombards Tri- poli. Burr kills Hamilton. 1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- sident : George Clin- ton, of New- York, Vice- President. uina. British array defeated near Dunkirk. 1795. War with Holland. 1798. Second coalition against France. — Irish rebellion. — Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile. Wilberforce's motion to abolish the slave trade, lost, 87 to 83. 1800. Union of Eng- land and Ireland. — Malta taken. 1801. Battle of Alexandria.— Pitt resigns, succeeded by Addington. 1802. Peace of Amiens. Successful war in India. 1804. Pitt again premier. 1805. Nelson defeats the French and Spanish fleets off Trafalgar. 1718-1815.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 855 1793 1794 1795 1790 1797 1796 1799 1800 1601 1S02 1803 1804 1806 The king and queen beheaded. 1793. First Coalitior against France Reign of Terror. Marat assassinated by Char- lotte Corday. Victories of Pichegm and J o u r d a n —the allies every where driven back, i Revolution of the 9thThermi- dor. Robespiere guillotined. NAPOLEON BONA- PARTE, commander of the army ; quells an insur- rection in Paris. War in Italy. Battle of Lodi. Bonaparte's Austrian Cam paig n— PI o c h e and M o r e a u ' s cele- brated passage of the Rhine Peace of Campo Formio. The World, elsewhere. Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt is defeated by Nelson at Aboukir, Aug. 1. The French enter Switzerland under Bernadotte and Jourdan. — Return of Bona- parte. — R evolution of the 18th Brum aire — B onaparte, first consul. Battle of Marengo. 1798. Second Coalition against France. — M o r e a u ' a victory of Hohen linden. Veace of Lunevile. Bonaparte elected president of the Italian republic. Peace of Amiens. Legion of Honor instituted. War with Epp'and. Bank of France. Duke D'Enghien shot. Bonaparte crowned as NA POLEON I., Emperor of the French. Marshals Soult, Murat, N e y , &c. Austrian Campaign, Peace of Napoleon Protector of the 1804. The emperor of Ger- many assumes the title of emperor of AUSTRIA. Batttle of Auster 1 i t z. Presburg. Confederation of the Rhine. 1793. Second Partition of Po- land by Russia and Prussia. Hay ti independent re- public, under Toussaint L'Ouverture. 1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra- cow. — K osciusko, go- neral-in-chief. — Russians de- feated at Warsaw. 1795. Final partition of Poland — extinction of the kingdom. Batavian Republic :— Shi- melpennink. 1796. Russia :— Paul I. 1797. Switzerland : — General Revolution — The French invade Berne — Helvetian Republic. Prussia : — Frederic Wil- liam III.® 1798. India :— Marquis Welles- ley, governor-general. 1799. Russians, under S u - w a r r o w , defeated neatf Milan. 1800. Armed neutrality of the north. Pope Pius VII. Ionian Republic founded. 1801. Russia: Alexander. ffjf 1802. Italian Republic— Bona- parte president. 1803. India :— Great MaJiratta War. 1804. Russia :— War witfe F»i sia. 856 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period X. — 97 years.— A.D. Progress of Society, etc. United States. Great Britain. 1806 Planet Juno discovered. 180(3. Fourth Coalition against Lewis <5" Clark's expedition France. to the Rocky Mountains. !307 Fulton's first success- 1807. Embargo on all the 1807. Bill for the abolition of ful trial of Steam- ports of the United States. the slave trade, passed. boats. Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. 1808 General University established Slave trade abolished. 1808. The English, under by Napoleon, to superintend W e 1 1 e s 1 e y , enter Spain national education. as allies. Lithography invented. 1809. James Madison, 1809. Fifth Coalition. In England : France : 4th President. Walcheren expedition. Flaxmaii, Westmacott, Chanirey. La Orange, Mange, Hauy, Embargo repealed ; the non-intercourse act passed. sculptors. Biot. B. St. Pierre, poet. 1810 First steamboat built in Eu- rope. 1810. War with Sweden. 1811. Engagement between 1811 George, Prince of Wales, the ' President ' and the Prince Regent, (the king be- ' Little Belt.' ing insane). Indians on the Wabash, Population of Great Bri- defeated by Gov. Harrison. tain, 12,552,144. Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 1812 American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Mis- 1812. War with Great Britain. sions, founded. Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 1814 Steam carriages in England. The Constitution captures tie Guer Gas used for lighting the r i e r e : | streets of London. (First check of British Lord L ' : >/ e r p o o 1 naval supremacy.) | premier. ^15 Safety lamp invented by Sir Wool victorious at Queenstown, O.t. 12. Humphrey Davy. Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frol ,« Oct. 18. In England : H. K. White, Keats, Reg. Heber, Bilderdyk, Dutch. The " United States," Captain Decatur, captures the British frigate Macedonian. The Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captures the Bri tish frigate Java. Shelley, Crabbe, Sir W. Scott, Byron, Coleridge, Lamb, German: Louisiana admitted into W. Schlegel. the Union. F Schlegel, ' 1813. Perry's victory 1813. Sixth Coalition against Richter, on Lake Erie. France — Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, and Kotzebue: Battle of the Thames : Weber and Tecumseh killed. Austria. Montgomery, Higg. Spohr, musi- 1814. City of Washington 1814. Treaty of Ohaumoct be- cal compo- burnt by the Bt*''sh. tween Austria, Prussia, Rus- France : sers. sia, and Great Britain. Mad. de Stael, Russia: Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. Mad. deGenlis, Karamsin, Chateaubriand Somorokor, 1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; Ouvier. Dmitriev, British defeated by General 1815. Candy and Almora cap- Krilov. Jackson, Jan. 8. tured. Melendez Val- Wellington vic- dez, Spanish War against Algiers de- torious at Waterloo, June 18, poet. alared. 1718-1815.J THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 857 Victory of Jena over the Prussians. Berlin decree. War with Russia. Battle of Friedland. — P e a c e of Tilsit. Invasion of Portu- gal. French ir» Spain defeated at Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- lesley. Battle ofWagram- Napoleon marries Maria Lou- ise. — Continental peace ex- cept with Spain. Birth of the emperor's son; created king of Rome. Soult victorious in Spain — takes Badajos ; is defeated by the English at Albuesa. Russian Campaign. Battles of Smolensko and Bo- rodino. Moscow entered by Napoleon's army — and burrsd by the Russians. Peace of Vienna. M e 1 1 e r n i c h , minis- ter. Victories of L u t z e n , Bautzen, and Dres- den, over the allies. Battle of Leipsic — The allies enter Paris. Napoleon abdicates, and retires to Elba. House of Bourbon restored: Louis XVIII. Bjfia parte returns from Elba. The hundred days. Napoleon victorious at Ligny. BATTLE OF WATERLOO. The allies enter Paris. Bonaparte banish ed to St Helena. 1812. Austria in alliance with France against Russia. 1813. War of German inde- pendence. Austria joins the Coali- lion. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine, loses his whole army. 1815. German League. Congress of Vien na. The World, elsewhere. 1806. Holland :— Louis Napo- leon, king. Prussia at war with Franc* in alliance with Russia. 1807. Ottoman Empire :— Mus tapha IV. 1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VU. " Joseph Napoleon. Naples :— Murat. Denmark :— Frederic VI. Ottoman Empire :— Man moud II. 1809. Sweden :— Charles XIU 1810. South America : —VE- NEZUELA declared inde- pendent. 1811. NEW GRENADA do clared independent. 1812. Invasion of Russia by Napoleon.— BURNING OF MOSCOW. Kutosoff pursues the retreating French. Poland :— Diet of War- saw : the Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. 1813. South America:— B a 1 i v a r drives the Spaa iards from Caraccas. 1814. Union of Holland and Belgium. — Peace of Kiel Sweden, and England. Union of Sweden ana Norway as two kingdoms under one monarch. 1815. Netherlands:— William The "Holy Al- liance' '--B.uasia, Prus- sia, and A ustria. 858 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD XI.™ 50 years. M..O. Progress op Society, etc. United States. 1815 1816 1817 1819 1821 1822 1823 1825 New corn law in England. Polytechnic institution at Vi- enna. Manufactories introduced into Poland. The family of Rothschilds conies into notice at Frank- fort. Abolition of the slave trade by the congress of Vienna. Second United States Bank chartered for 20 years, capi- tal $35,000,000. Public schools established throughout Russia. Belzoni penetrates the second pyramid of Gheza. Abolition of predial bondage in Bavaria and Wirtemberg. 1816. United States Bank in- corporated. Indiana admitted. 1817. James Monroe, 5th President. Mississippi ad- mitted! 1818. Illinois admitted. War with the Seminoles. First passage of the Atlantic by steam, by the Savannah — New-York to Liverpool. Rise of mechanic institutions in England. Hieroglyphics deciphered : — Champollion. — Sir William Herschel died. Huskisson's/ree trade system in England. First manufactory in Egypt, established by Mehemet Ali. Inland navigation of the United States : the great Erie Canal opened. Mail-posts in Prussia. — Steam navigation on the Rhine. General financial panic in England. Vast increase of periodical literature in England, France, Germany, America, &c. Alexander Volta dies, disco- Terer of the Voltaic battery. 1820. Maine admitted. 1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri admitted. Slavery compromise. 1824. Lafayette's visit. Erie canal opened. Protective tariff. 1825. J. Q. A d a m s , 6th President. Great Britain. 1816. Bombardment of Algiers — The Dey compelled t» make peace and abolish slavery. 1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- dition to Algiers 1820.- Seorge IV-Hf— 1823. Canning ministry. The Ashantees in Africa defeated. 1825. Commercial treaty with Prussia. 1827. Treaty of London to favor of Greece. 1828. Wellington ministry ■ Disturbances in Ireland THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 859 1816-1865 3 as 1821 1S24 Congress of Aix la Chapelle. — France joins the " Holy Alliance." Death of Napoleon at St. He lena. -Charles X . Fleet sent to Algiers. Austria, &c. 1821. Congress of monarchs at Laybach. — Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia. — Alexander Ypsilanti de- feated and carried prisoner to Austria. The World, elsewnere. 1816. Portugal -JchnVlfg? in Brazi: Union of Naples and Sicily. 1817. Republic of the Ionian Islands. India : — The cholera com- mences its ravages. 1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV. (Bernadotte.) India : — The Mahratta power completely over- thrown, and the British suc- ceeds. 1S19. South America: — Re- public of COLOMBIA:- Bolivar, President. 1821. Hayti :— B oyer, em- peror. South America :— PERU and GUATEMALA inde- pendent. 1822. BRAZIL declared inde. pendent. Mexico : — Iturbide, em- peror. Greek Revolu- tion. Declaration of Indepen- dence. Massacre of Scio. 1823. Italy :— Leo XII., pope, 1824. Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi. 1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a 9 182G. —War with Persia. Greece : — Missolonghi taken by the Turks. 1827. Treaty between Russ:i and the Porte respecting Greece. Greece : — B a 1 1 1 e of Navarino. Portugal : — Maria de Glo- ria, queen. f§§f —Rebellion in favor ol Don Miguel as regent. 1828. War between Russia and the Porte. 860 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XI. — ^50 ijeais.— 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1836 Progress op Society, etc. In England : Jeremy Ben tham, Thomas Chal mers, Thomas Dick W. Kirby, Hallam, Lingarrf, Wordsworth. Southey, Campbell, Moore, Leigh Hunt, Mrs. He/nans, Bulwer, " Barry Corn- wall." Russia : Kuramsin, Somorokov, Dmietriev, Krilov. U. N. Webster, Irving, Cooper, Flint, Wirt, Marshall, France : Cuvier, Talma, trage- dian, Segur, La Place, Beranger, Lamartine. Germany : Spohr, Mayerbeer, Kotzebu&, Gall, Spurzheim. Sweden : Tegner, Dahlyren. Italy : Rossini, Paganini. S. A. Wheaton, Kent, Story, Gallatin, Livingston, Charming. Liverpool and Manchester Railroad opened. The two Landers succeed in tracing the Niger from Lake Tchad to the ocean. The first newspaper in Con- stantinople. — The Factory Bill in England, limning the hours of labor for children. Reform Bill in England: — Extension of Suffrage. Trade unions in England, France, Germany, Switzer- land, tt$ Bomp.uie oilers ^be wnftscaticn tf tho Oi - leans pro^tTty, Jan. J2. Austria, etc. 1852. The Ernpe ror of Russia visits the Em- peror of Aus- tria at Vienna, May 8. The World, elsewhere. 1851. China: — Imperial court seriously alarmed at the progress of the disturb- ance in the Southern provinces. June. A large portion of the Chinese part of Hong Kong destroyed br ih - e : from 470 to 500 houses destroyed, including all the printing oi"8ces and the finest edi- fices and public buildings. Many lives lost. Dec. 26-28. 1S52. Argentine Confederation : — General Urquiza, Commander of the liberating army, completes the passage of the Parana with 28,000 men, 50^000 horse, and 50 pieces of artillery, and prepares to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza with 30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops of Rosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- sults in the total defeat of Rosas and his flight to England. During the night, the city is saved from pillage by detach- ments from the various ships of war of all nations in the harbor, Feb. 3. The allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. — Urquiza, Director of the Argentine Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10. — The Chamber of Representatives of Buenos Ayres declares the rivei Parana open to the navigation of all na- tions, Oct. 13. Belgium: — Formation of a new mi- nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party under M. de Brouckere, Nov. 1. The law against the liberty of the press is adopted in the Chamber of Representa- tives, Dec. 1. Cuba: — The police of Havana disco- ver and capture the press of the paper, " The Voice of the People," with the materials and forms for the fourth num- ber. The proprietors and employes are arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, having cleared at Havana, is brought to and boarded at the mouth of The harbor, and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few days after, the United States mail steam- ship Crescent City is refused permission to land her passengers and mails at Ha- vana, and ordered to quit the port— Captain-General Canedo objecting to the purser of the vessel, Mr. Smith, alleged to be the reporter of false news to the New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- cent City again enters Havana harbor, with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Canedo refuses to allow passengers or mails to be landed, and forbids all intercourse be- tween the ship and shore. The Captain protests to the American Consul, and leaves the harbor. 876 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL — 50 year3.- Proqress of Society, etc. Great floods in the United States, March, April, Sept., and Dec. ; in England, Nov. and Dec. ; on the conti- nent of Europe, Sept. Telegraphs across the Eng- lish Channel. Earthquakes in Cuba August 2 and Nov. 26; in Manilla and adjacent parts, Sept. 16, Oct. 18; at Acapulco, Dec. 4; in the Eastern Archipe- Is-'o, Nov. 27 and Dec. 21. At Stafford House, in London, some English ladies, headed by the Duchess of Suther- land, adopt an address to the women of America on the subject of negro slavery. It subsequently receives 576,000 signatures. Nov. 26. Punishment of Death re- stored in Tuscany. Fall in England of the protec- tionist ministry of Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, after an existence of nine months — Dec. 20. Deaths in 1852. U. S. Europe. H. Clay, 8. Nott, M. Stuart, D. Drake, J. H. Paine, M. Greenough. Amos Law- rence, Milledoler, J. Yanderlyn, D. Webster, J.L. Kingsley, J. P. Norton. Thos. Moore, Schwartzen- berg, Pradier, "Wellington, Dr. Mantell, D'Orsay, Lee. United States. Great Britain. 1852. Southern Eights conven- tion at Montgomery, Ala., passes resolutions against making resistance to tho compromise measures issue of their party, and against intervention, March 5. Riot during election at St. Louis, April 5. First national agricultu- ral convention assembles at "Washington, D. C, consist- ing of 151 members, repre- senting 22 States, and the District of Columbia, orga- nised by the choice "of Marshal P. "Wilder, of Mass., president. June 24. Convention for revising the Constitution of Louisi- ana, July 5. Kossuth continues to be feted in different cities, and finally quits the country under the name of Alexan- der Smith, July 16. Henry Clay dies, June 29. Obsequies celebrated at New York with great pomp and magnificence, July 20. Great Britain insists upon the convention of ISIS, re- specting North American fisheries, being carried out by the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast of New Brunswick, etc. The United States government dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore Perry on board," to the disputed fishing grounds ; some sixty fishing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- formation and advice. July — Aug. Commodore McCauley, commander of the United States naval forces in the Pacific, by proclamation, withdraws his protection from American vessels pro- ceeding to the Lobos Is- lands for guano, Oct. IS. This difficulty with Peru settled by the withdrawal of American pretensions, Nov. 15. 1852. Submarine telegraph wires coated with gutta percha, laid across St. George's Channel from Ho- lyhead, a distance of eighty miles, completing the com- munication between Lon- don and Dublin. June 1. Queen Victoria issues her proclamation against " Koman Catholic ecclesias- tics' wearing the habit of their order, exercising tho rites and ceremonies of toe Roman Catholic religion in highways and places ol public resort." June 15. Daniel "Webster dies, Oct. 24. Funeral solemni- ties celebrated at Boston with much state, Nov. 15. The United States de- clines the tri-partite con- vention respecting Cuba proposed by England and France, Dec. 1. Immigration, 375,000. Duke of Wellington dies, Sept. 14. His funeral obse- quies take place in London with great pomp, Nov. 18. Fall of the Protectionist ministry of Lord Derby and Mr. D'Israeli, after an exist- ence of nine months, Dec. 20. By a decree of the Go- vernor General of British India, thti province of Po gu is ann vt<)d to the British dominion^ Dec. 20. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 877 Fkanok. President Bonaparte com- mences his tour through Southern France, Sept. 16. Visits the Chateau D'Am- boise, and releases Abd-el- Kader, who had been a prisoner for five years, Oct. 10. Eeturns to Paris, ma- king a pompous entry into the city, Oct. 16. A decree of the President convokes the Senate for Nov. 4, for the purpose of deliberating on the restora tion of the empire. Oct. 19. The Senate decrcos the re- establishment of the em- pire, s abject to the ratifica- tion of the people, Nov. 7 The vote is taken through- out France and Algeria Nov. 21 and 22; result- 7,824.189 in favor off estab- lishing the empire, against 253,145 negative, and 68,326 void ballots. The Senate goes in a body to St. Cloud, to announce offi- cially the result of the elec- tion to Louis Napoleon, and hail him Emperor, Dec. 1. At the Hotel de Yille, in Paris, Louis Napoleon is publicly proclaimed Emperor of the French, under the name of Napoleon III, Dec. 2. Austria, etc. The "World, elsewhere. 1852. Greece: — Signing of a convention in London by the five powers, England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in reference to the affairs of Greece. None but a prince of the Greek religion is hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece. Nov. 18. Hawaii: — Eruption of Maun a Loo; lasts several weeks. Feb. India:— The Burmese evacuate and burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, Nov. 21. Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany, refuses to give audience to an English Protestant deputation in favor of Rosa and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. — The punishment of death is rees- tablished in Tuscany, for treason, crimes against religion, murder, and robbery with violence, Nov. 10. — The Pope addresses a letter to the King of Sardinia, strongly adverse to the bill under consideration in the Pied- montese parliament, permitting mar- riages without religious ceremonies; it is consequently withdrawn by the mi- nistry, Dec. 20. — At Rome, Bishop Ives, of North Carolina, U. S., formerly an Episcopa- lian, is received into the Catholic Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. Liberia :— President Roberts attacks and gains possession of the native chief Boyer's principal town, Jan 15. A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and Rome is ratified, stipulating that the former shall main- tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and 1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid by tho Papal government. Nov. 10. Mexico : — Carvajal attacks Camargo and is defeated, Feb. 21. The French Count Boulban de Ra ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- nora, is defeated at Hermosillo, and his expedition completely overthrown, Nov. 1. Spain : — A priest, aged 63, attacks with a dagger, and wounds the Queen of Spain, on her return from celebrating at the cathedral a Te Deum for the birth of her child, Feb. 2. Ho is tried, convicted, degraded from his priestly office, and suffers death from the gai te, 7th. — Ninety-five Americans belonging to the Lopez expedition, who had been sent to Spain, arrive, at New York, March 13, having been liberated by the Queen. — The Cortes dissolved by royal de- cree, for having elected De la Rosa, th« anti-ministerial candidate, their presi- dent, Dec. 2. 1S52. The Empe- ror of Austria visits the King of Prussia at Berlin, Dec. 17. Prussia : — ■ The bill for bi ennial parlia- ments becomes a law, Dec. 23, 878 THE world's PROGRESS. [Period XL— 50 years.— A. d. Progress op Society, etc. 1853 Firmans accordod to all sub- jects of the Porte (not Mus- sulmans) confirming their religious rights, June 22. The first Norwegian railway openec July 4. The American expedition un der Com. Perry arrives at Japan, July 8. On the 14th he lands and delivers to the Imperial commissioners the letter from the American President ; a few days after leaves the island, to return in the spring. United States. Over 60,000 pilgrims enter Aix-la-Chapelle", to visit the exhibition of the relics, Ju- ly IT. 1S53. Caloric ship Ericsson makes her trial trip to the Potomac, Jan. 11. Adverse decision of Na- poleon, arbiter between the United States and Portugal, in case of the General Arm- strong, read at Washington. Jan. 17. Franklin Pierce and William R. King declared duly elected President and Vice-President for four years from 4th March next, Feb. 9. W. R. King sworn in as Vice-President, at Cumbre, Island of Cuba, Consul Sharkey administering the oath, March 24. Second American Arctic expedition leaves New York, May 81. Important amendments to the city charter of Now York, restraining the power of municipal officers money matters, adopted by a vote of 36,672 in favor. 8,351 against, June 7. Crystal Palace at New York opened in presonco of the President of the United States, otc, July 14. Great Britain. 1853. Mr. Ingersol, American envoy, feted at Liverpool and Manchester, Jan, 4-7. Sandilli and other Caffre chiefs send in their submis- sion to General Cathcart, thereby closing the war, Feb. 10. Peace concluded, March 9. Doncaster church, built in 1070, destroyed by fire, Feb. 28. Warlike stores, supposed to be for Kossuth, seized, April 14. Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- thoress of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," received at Stafford House by many of the no- bility and statesmen ol England, May 7. Dublin Industrial ExM^ bition opened, May 12. The "strike" at Stock* port ceases, and 20,000 men resume labor, having ac- complished their object, an advance of ten per cent, in their wages, August 8. Si- milar strikes occur at Leeds, Kidderminster, and othel cities. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 1868 Feanoe. The Pantheon at Paris re- opened as the Church of St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. Russia, Austria, and Prussia, at last acknowledge Napo- leon III. Emperor of the French, Jan. 11. Marriage of the Emperor and Eugenie de Montijo, Count- ess de Teba, celebrated at Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris. Amnesty granted to 4,312 political prisoners and exiles, Jan. 30. ■General St. Priest, and many other legitimists, secretly arrested in Paris, on the charge of political commu- nication with the Count of Chambord, and some of having sent false intelli- gence to foreign journals, Feb. 5. Application is made by the French government to the English for Napoleon's will, Feb. 17. Subsequent- ly grantod. Funeral of Mme. Ras»>ail at Paris, the occasion of a formidable socialist demon- stration. 40,000 persons march in procession to Pere la Chaise, March 13. Fleet sent to Turkish waters, March 20. A peace address, signed by 4,000 English merchants, bankers and traders, is pre- sented to Napoleon III. at the Tuilleries, by English- men, March 28. A bill restoring capital pun- ishment for attempts on the life of the Emperor, or to subvert the Imperial go vernment, is passed, May 28. Austria, etc. 1S53. Austria of- fers herself as a mediator be- tween the Turks and Montenegrins, Feb. 1. Attempt on the life of Em- peror of Aus- tria at the ram- parts of Vien- na, Feb. 18. Baden : — Prof. Gervinus tried for high treason,in pub- lishing his "In- troduction to the History of 19th century." Sentence, ten months' im- prisonment, and book to be destroyed, March 5. Prussia : — Democratic conspiracy dis- covered at Ber- lin, March 29. Austria re- cals her mi ;iis- tor from Berne May 20. The "Wokld, elsewhere. 1852. Switzerland : — The Canton of Ticino suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, and expels all of that order under 65 years of age, Nov. 25. Turkey : — War breaks out between the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15. 1853. Belgium: — A maritime congress as- sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. — Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-apparent of the throne, and th« Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. Canada and New Brunswick: — Ga- vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; riots ensue; military called out; June 6-9. — The first sod of the European and North American Railroad turned at St. Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 25,000 persons, Sept. 14. China : — Nankin taken by the rebels ; Tartar garrison (20,000) massacred; March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. Denmark : — Parliament prorogued, and a "fundamental" law issued, by which the government becomes hereaf- ter an absolute one, July 19. Hawaii : — Small-pox rages, having carried oif since May 1,805 out of a po- pulation of 60,000 persons, Aug. 31. Holland : — The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious li- berty, Sept. 8. India : — Battle of Donabew, in Bur- mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, March 19. Italy : — An insurrection breaks out at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed by Radetsky, Feb. (5. The property of the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- tered till they can prove they are not implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- versies between Anstria and both Sar- dinia and Switzerland, follow — Sardinia solemnly protesting, April 16. — The Pope prohibits the circulation of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- ons, May 10. Guerazzi tried at Florence for high treason, and found guilty, June 11. — Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests, Aug. 15. — Order signed for immediate release of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9. — New church, built for the "Wal- denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, Dec. 15. Mexico : — New revolution ; Arista resigns the presidency, Jan. 5. — Santa Anna having been elected President, is received in Mexico with I great enthusiasm, April 17. 830 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [Period XL— 50 years.— a.b. Progress of Society, etc. United Status. Great Britaik. 1853 A great national horse-show at Springfield, Mass., U. S., Oct 19-21. The first Presbyterian Chinese church organized at San Francisco, U. 8., Nov. 6. Duel between Soule and De Turgot, American and French ministers to Spain, Dec. 18. Cholera prevails in Europe. Several new asteroids discov- ered, raising the number to 27, between the planets Mars aad Jupiter. Deaths in 1858 : U.S. 0. B. Adams. JimiusSniith, W. R. King, B. Bates, Sim. Green- leaf. Europe. Arago, Von Buch, I) acres, Mrs. Opie, Wardlaw. 1858. Great heat throughout the country — thermometer every where 100° Fah. Deaths from it in New York city in four days, 400, Aug. 11-14. Remaining portion of "Table Rock," at the Falls of Niagara, breaks off, Sept 9. "Great Republic," ves sel of 4,000 tuns, largest merchantman in the world, launched at East Boston, Mass., Oct. 4. Captain Gunnison and party massacred by the Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. Inauguration of the "Washington aqueduct. President Pierce turns the first turf, Nov. 9. A mob of men and wo- men demolish the railroad track near Erie, Penn., Dec 9, and repeat the outrage. Dec. 27. Yellow fever epidemic in the States bordering Gulf of Mexico, carries off from 12,000 to 15,000 per sons. Bedini, the Papal Nun- cio, tries to influence the BomanCatholic laity to give up their church property to the Bishops, but does not succeed. He quits the country ignominiously. Immigration, 868,000. 1853. Naval Review at Spit- head, in presence of the Queen, Aug. 11. Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Aug. 29. Deputation from tho Protestant Alliance, headed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, waits upon Lord Clarendon. to state the case of Miss Cunningham, arrested at Lucca for distributing Ita- lian Bibles, etc., and to urge the government to procure her immediate li- beration, Sept. 28. A depu- tation of clergymen and others, headed by Sir Cul- ling Eardley, wait upon Lord Clarendon and thank him and the government for the exertions which had been made, Oct. 27. Bronze statue of Sir Ro- bert Peel erected in front of the Royal Infirmary at Manchester, Oct. 8. Captain Inglefleld, of the Phoenix, arrives from the Arctic regions, with the news of fhe discovery of the North-west Passage, on Oct. 26, 1S50, by. Captain McClure of the Investiga- tor, Oct. 7. The first stone of a Ro- man Catholic cathedral laid at Shrewsbury, by Bishop Brown— the young Earl of Shrewsbury giving £15,000 towards its erection —Dec. 12. The Dublin Exhibition building is formally opened as a winter garden, by the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess St. Germain^ Dec. 15. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 8S1 France. Austria, etc. The World, elsewhere. 1853 Plot to assassinate the Empe- ror, while on his way to the Opera Comique, discovered ajt Paris, July 7. A Roman circus of great size discovered at Tours, Aug. 81. The Duke de Nemours, on behalf of the entire Orleans House, effects a reconcilia- tion with the Count de Chambord, Nov. 17. Inauguration of the statue of Marshal Ney, on the spot where he was shot, and the anniversary of his execu- tion, Dec. 7. 1S53. Persia: — Earthquakes destroy Shi- raz, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Teho- ran, July 11. Peru: — Difficulty at Cbineha Islands between Peruvian commandant and American shipmasters, Aug. 17. Portugal :— Maria (Queen) dies, Nov. 1853, AnAustrian war vessel in the port of Smyrna, seizes and attempts to carry off Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee, travel- ing under an American pass- port, who claims protec- tion of Ameri- can flag. An American fri- gate places the Austrian un- der her guns, and Koszta's release is impe- ratively de- manded, June 21. Austrian go- vernment pro tests against proceedings of Captain Ingra- ham at Smyr- na, in a circu lar addressed to the Europe- an courts, Aug. 1, and through its envoy ad- dresses a note to the Ameri- can govern- ment on the same subject, Aug. 29. ' Eastern Affairs. — War between Turkey and Russia. — Prince Menschikoffsentby the Emperor of Rus- sia with demands which are rejected by the Porte, May 21, June 15. The Russians cross the Prutb, 120,000 strong, June 21-28. — The Porte addresses a protest to the Russian cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July '-•14. The" Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated " Vienna note," for the joint acceptance of Russia and Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts; Turkey re- quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will not ac- cede to, Sept. 14. Military congress at Olmutz, Sept. 20. The note is dropped, Sept. 30. Turkey declares war against Russia, Oct. 3. Hostilities commenced on the Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicholas in the Black Sea, Oct. 31. Turks defeat Russians at Oltenitza, Nov. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11. The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4, and the Bosphorus, Nov. 15. Turks beaten and massa- cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 30. The Vienna Con- ference continues its efforts to effect an arrangement be- tween the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of the people of Constantinople in favor of war, Dec. 21. Russians uniformly victorious in Asia. The religious fana- ticism of both parties is aroused. 10. Spain: — New and stringent law against liberty of the press published, Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo- ration of her birth-day, orders three screw-frigates to be constructed, to be called after the three queens from whom she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra- gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. Switzerland: — Insurrection in Fri- burg by the Jesuit party speedily sup- pressed, April 22. Venezuela : — Earthquake at Cumana ; 600 persons killed, July 15. 882 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period Xl.^-50 years. 1854 Progress ofSooietv, etc Deputation of " Friends" pre sents to the Emperor of Russia a peace memorial, Feb. 10. Complete equality before the law secured to all subjects of the Porte, without dis tinction of creed, by treaty, March 12. Commercial treaty concluded between the United States and Japan, March 23. In Turkey, the possessions of the Mosques to be declared the property of the State from March 27. The first railway is opened in Brazil, the Emperor and Empress being present at the inauguration, April 30. Tbo changes introduced in the Ottoman Empire by the in- fluence of the Allied Pow- ers, amount to a revolution in its social condition. Marked increase in the num- bers and prosperity of Christians in Turkey ; Mo- hammedan population, ex- cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- ing out Cross raised In a Catholic bcrying ground belonging to the French, in Turkey United States. 1854. The steamer San Fran cisco founders at sea; 240 U. S. troops washed over board ; the rest of 700 res- cued by the Three Bells, Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan. 5. Astor Library opened for use of the public, in New York city, Jan. 9. Outrages on the railroad near Erie, Pa., renewed by mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31 Skirmishes between U. S. troops and Apache and Utah Indians, March 5, 30. Certain sections of the " Maine Liquor Law" deci- ded to be unconstitutional in Massachusetts, March 13. Miss Dix's bill for ame- liorating the condition of the indigent insane, vetoed, April 20. Great flood in the Con- necticut river, hundreds driven from their dwel- lings, May 1. Mass meetings at Bos- ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, N. H., Feb. 27; New York, May 13, against the Ne- braska bill, which, how- ever, becomes a law, May 80. Riots in Michigan, April 17; at Boston, (attempt to rescue a fugitive slave,) May 26 ; at New York and Brooklyn, (papist interfe- rence with street-preach- ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. San Juan, Nicaragua, bombarded and burnt by the U. S. sloop-of-war, Cy. sne, July 13. Great Britain. 1S54. Parliament opened by Queen, who expresses a de- sire that exertions for an amicable settlement of the Eastern difficulties' shoull be persevered in, Jan. 81 . The Queen reviews th« fleet on its departure for the Baltic, March 11. A day of humiliation and prayer observed, April 26. Launch of the "Royal Albert," the Queen chria- tening the vessel, May 13. Crystal Palace at Sy- denham opened by *a> Queen, June 10. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 883 France. Austria, etc. 1654 The Emperor and Empress attend the first agricultural exhibition ever held in Pa- ris, June 9. The Emperor reviews a di- vision of troops about to procoed to the Baltic, July 13. The World, elsewhere. 1854. Alliance, offensive and defensive, be- tween Austria and Prussia, 6igned April 20. 1854. Brazil : — San Salvador destroyed by an earthquake, causing a loss, in less than one minute, of 200 lives, and $4,000,000 of property, April 16. Canada: — Parliament House at Que- bec burnt, including government library and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1. India: — The Ganges Canal, a work of vast magnitude opened, April 8. — Day of humiliation and prayer for success of the British arms, observed at Bombay and all over India, by the na- tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the country between Florence and Borne, May. — Railway from Lusa to Turin inau- gurated in presence of King and Queen of Sardinia, etc., May 22. Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be tween some Frenchmen under Count Baousset de Boulbon and tho Mexicans, July 13. The Count is defeated, taken prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. Russia : — An imperial ukase calls out nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por tion of the Empire, May 9. Spain : — Earthquake at Fiana, crum- bling down the greatest part of the Al- cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, and causing large chasms in nearly all the streets, Jan. 13. — Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- zans demand of the municipal authorities that the price of provisions be reduced, and wages increased, March 81. — The insurrection of the people at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the Bivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- tero enters the city, and is received with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,00C defenders of the barricades defile before the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- ing herself on the balcony, July 31. — Dona Maria Christina, the Queen Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- der escort of troops, but against the will of the people. She was indebted to the State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. Turkey: — Fire at Constantinople, 400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. — Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- ings, April 8. — Banquet given by the Sultan to Prince Napoleon, May 8. — Fire at Varna, destroys 180 houses and vast quantities of military storey Aug. 10. 884 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XT. — 50 years. — A.D. Pbogkess of Society, etc. United States. Great Britain. 1854 The Sultan issues a finnan for 1854. Grisi and Mario, the two the construction of achurch most renowned lyric ar- at Scutari, Sept. tists of the old world, arrive at New York, Aug. 19. Deaths in 1854. U.S. Europe. y. B. Blunt, Anglesea, Jacob Bur- Bodisco, nett, Cockburn, Extensive drought pre- John, Davis, Forbes, vails several weeks. Com. Doiones, Jameson, J. Harring- Maitland, ton-, last sur- Melloui, vivor of bat- Montgomery, tle of Lex- Paixhans, ington. Pellico, Mrs. E. Jud- Plunkett, Rubini, Cholera prevails, June- son. Nov. ; yellow fever prevails, Bishop Wain- Schelling, Aug. -Nov. wright. Mme. Sontag, Mrs.C.South- Talfourd, Wilson, St. Arnaud, Immigration, about 500,000. Denman, "Ostend Conference" be- Lockhart. tween Buchanan, Mason, Soule, Oct 10, 11. "Immaculate Conception of Law passed for the en- the Virgin" proclaimed as a listment of foreigners in the dogma by the pope, Dec. 8. British service, 'Dec. 22. 1865 1855. Panama railroad com- 1855. Southern Commercial 1855. Visit of the Emperor pleted, first train on it Jan. Convention at New Orleans, and Empress of France, 28. Jan. 8. April 16. Financial panic in California, Soul6 quits Madrid Jan. Death of Lord Raglan, Feb. 81. Commander-in-chief at Se- vastopol, June 28. Suspension Bridge at Niaga- U. S. S. Waterwitch fired ra first crossed, March 14. on, on the Paraguay, Feb. 1. The Queen and Prince Albert visit the Emperor Difliculty in Phila. about U. S. Dist. Court in Wis- Louis Napoleon at Paris, slaves of J. H. Wheeler of consin pronounces the Fu- Aug. 18. N. Carolina, July 18. gitive Slave Law unconsti- tutional, Feb. 8. Election riot at Louisville, Ky., between Americans Convention at Lawrence, and foreigners, Aug. 6. Kansas, Aug. 14. Walker (filibuster) takes possession of Granada, Oct. 16. Kansas : Convention at Topeka, Oct 23. • Passmore Williamson re- leased from jail (where he had been three months in the Wheeler slave ca«e). Nov. a 1815-1865.J THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 885 France. Atjbtria, etc. The World, elsewhere. 1856. Subscriptions to the French loan of 500 millions of francs amount to 2,000 millions of francs, offered by 177,000 persons. Death of Don Carlos, claimant of the Spanish throne, March 10. Indust'l Exhibition open- ed at Paris, May 15. 1854. Saxony: — 1854. Venezuela: — Slaves emancipated, The King April 25. thrown from his carriage at Innspruck, and killed, Aug. 10. Eastern Affairs. — The Anglo-French fleet enters the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Russians at Citate, Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi- enna Conference, Jan. Russian ambassadors quit Lon- don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa- dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and France resolve to summon Russia to evacuate the Prin- cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Russians cross the Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Russia refuses a reply. England and France declare war against Russia, March 28. Counter declaration of war by Russia against England and France, April 12. Convention between England and France, April 18. Odessa bombarded, April 22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Russians raise the siege of Silistria, June 23, and re-cross the Danube, July 7. Russians defeated by Turks at Rutschuk, July 12 and 18. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Russians at the Alma, Sept. 20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Russians repulsed, Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Russians again repulsed, Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 1855. Russia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. — The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of Azoph, May 24. — The allies repulsed In an assault on the outposts of Sebastopol, June 18. — Kars investod by the Russians, June 23. FALL OF SEBASTOPOL— The MalakhofF carried by the French, Sep. 8. Terrific attack of the Rus- sians on Kars repulsed, Sep. 2®. Mexico : Santa Anna abdicates. Aug. 9. Car- rara chosen to succeed him. 886 • THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL- 50 years. Progress op Society, etc. United States. Great Britain. 1855 Deaths in 1855 : U.S. S. H. Cone, Abbott Law- rence, Jihn C. Spen- cer, T. E. Beck. Europe. Sir H. Bishop, Silk Bucking- ham, Jos. Hume, Miss Mitford, Nicholas I. "Currer Bell.'" Sir W. E. Par- ry- Lord Raglan, Saml. Eogers, Ans. Roths- child, Lord Truro. Launch of the stm. Adriatic (the largest yet afloat) at N. T., April 7. 1S55. Proclamation against Jtlibus- terism by President Pierce. Dec. British Arctic vessel Resolute found and brought to New London by an American whaler, Dec. 23. Personal Assault on Senator Sumner of Mass., in the U. S. Senate by Brooks of S. Ca., May 22. Suomarint Telegraph cable laid from Cape Breton to Newfoundland, July 12. Burlinghame's acceptance of Brooks's challenge, July 21. Brooks and Keitt re-elected to Congress from S. C, July 28. Dudley Observatory inaug. at Albany. Aug. 28. Preston S. Brooks, the as- saulter of Sumner, publicly welcomed and presented with a cane, at Columbia, S. O, Aug. 29. Charles Sumner received in Boston with public hon- ors, Nov. 3. N. Y. and Newfoundland Telegraph line, 1715 miles, opened to St. John's, Nov, 10 1856. N. P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect- ed Speaker of House of Represent, of U. S., after a contest of 9 weeks, by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2. Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon sin, Jan. — Feb. Mr. Fillmore nominated for Pres't by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 22. Free State Legisl. at Topeka. Kansas, elect Reeder and Lane as delegates to Congress, Feb. 8. Kansas Investigation Committee appointed, March 19. Padre Vigil recognised as Mlnist. from Nicaragua, May 14. President's message announcing difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enlist- ments in the U. S., May 29. Buchanan nominated for Pres't by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7. Fremont nominated for Pres't by Repub. Conven. at Phila., June 17. H. Repres. U. S. pass a bill ad- mitting Kansas under Topeka Con., July 3. Topeka legislature dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. John "W. Geary confirmed as Gov. of Kansas, July 81. Whitefleld and Reeder both re- jected by H. Repres. as delegates from Kansas, Aug. 1. Extra session of Congress ad- journed Aug. 30. Municipal election riot at Balti more, 9 &., Oct. 8. U. S. troops in Ka.isas arrest and disarm parties of emigrants from N, E., Oct. 10. Buchanan elected Pres. Nov. 4 1S55. Visit of the King of Sardinia to England, Nov. 30. Captain McClure receives the re- ward of £5,000 for discovery of " the If. W. passage, ,: and is knightod Nov Brit, fleet bom« bard and partially destroy Canton, China. Oct 28. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 887 Europe, elsewhere. The "World, elsewhere. 1855 1856 1855. Omar Pasha defeats the Russians at the Ingour, Nov. 5. Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder at Sebastopol, Nov. 15. Surrender of Kars to the Russians after a famous de- fence by Gen. "Williams, Nov. 25. 1S55. Mexico : — Alvarez ro« signs the presidency, and ii succeeded by Comonfort, Dec Peace Conference at Paris opened Feb. 25. Birth of an heir to the throne, March 16. Treaty of Peace with fimsia signed at Paris, March f " Destructive floods near Ly- ons, &c., whole villages de stroyed, June. 1856. Preliminaries of Peace signed at Vienna, Eeb. 1, The Crimea wholly eva cuated by the Allies, July Russia : — Alexander II. crowned emperor, Sept. 7. — Railways of 2600 miles contracted for by Government. Capital, 1000 millions of francs, Oct. 28 Naples : — French and English ministers leave, Oct 28. 1856. Costa Rica : — Schlessin- ger and Walker's invasion defeated, March 20. — Walker defeats 3,000 Costa Ricans at Rivas, Ap. 11. Panama: — Riot on the Panama R.R., 30 passengers killed, April 15. Gunpowder explosion at Salonica, Turkey, 700 *. and to., July 17. Earthquake in Egypt, Syria, and isles of Med. About 1200 lives lost, and many thousand building! destroyed, Oct. 12. Granada, city of, de- stroyed by Walker, Not. 20-25. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XI— 50 years.— 1856 Progress of Society, etc. Revival of the African Slave Trade recommended by Gov. Adams in S. Ca. Arctic discovery ship Reso- lute presented to Queen Victoria by Lieut. Hart- stene for the U. S. Govern- ment, Dec. 30. Deaths in 1856 : TJ. S. J. M. Berrien. Ogden Hoff- man. Com Morris.' J.G. Perceval. Jno. 0. War- ren. J. M. Clavton, u. s. s. George Steers, naval archi- tect. T. Crawford, sculptor. Louis M'Lane. Europe. Jno. Braham, vocalist. Sir W. Hamil- ton, meta- physician. VonBiela, as- tronomer. L'd Hardinge Father Mat- thew. Hugh Miller. Sir jno. Ross. Westmacott. Tarrell. PL Delaroche. 1S57 Geo. Peabody gives $300,000 I .to establish a free Literary and Scientific Institute at Baltimore, Feb. 12. The Chief-Justice of the U. S. proclaims that negroes have no rig his which white men are bound to respect, March 6. * Bred Scot decision,' 1 '' de- nounced by the Legislature of N. Hampshire, June 25. The Atlantic Telegraph Ca- ble first joined at sea by the Niagara and Agamem- non, Aug. 5, but breaks Aug. 11. Loss of the Central America and 450 lives. Sept. 8. Mass meetingeof unemployed workmen in N. T., Nov. 2 and 10. Stm. Adriatic starts on first voyage to Liverpool, Nov. 88. United States. 1856. Barrier Forts, near Can ton, China, destroyed by U. S. squadron, for an at- tack on an American boat, Dec. 6. Resolution against the Slave Trade passed by H, of Reps. U. S., Dec. 15. 185T. Four members of H. of Representatives of TJ. S. from N. Y. and Conn, ex- pelled for corrupt conduct, Feb. 19. Buchanan inaugurated President, March 4. Lord Napier recognised as British minister, March 16. The Dred Scot Deci- sion delivered by Chief- Justice Taney, March 6. R. J. "Walker accepts ap^ pointment as Governor of Kansas, March 26. Attempt to arrest Mayor Wood in N. T. for an as- sault on the Street Com- missioner, June 16. General Financial Pa- nic begins with suspension of Ohio Life and Trust Co., Aug. 24. Zecompton Convention, Kansas, meets Sept. 7. Suspension of Philad, banks, Sept. 25 and 26, fol- lowed by general suspen. of banks in Pa., Md., D. G, R.I. Suspension of N. T. city banks, Oct. 13-14, and Mas- sachusetts banks same day. Payments resumed, Dec. 12. British Empire. 1857. Treaty of Peace with Persia signed March 6. Palmerston Ministry out- voted on the Chinese ques- tion, March 5. New septennial Parlia- ment meets, April 80. The Manchester Art Ex- hibition opened, May 5. Rebellion in India begins May 9 ; King of Delhi pro- claimed sovereign of India. Havelook defeats the re- bels under Nena Sahib, and recaptures Cawnpore, July The Emp. and Empreaj toria, Aug. 6. Sir Colin Campbell, the new com. -in-chief, arrive* at Calcutta, Aug. 14. Delhi taken after an aa» sault of 6 days, Sept 14. 1815-1865,] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 8S9 Feanok. Europe, elsewhere. World, elsewhere. 1857. Austria: — Amnesty to political offenders in Loni hardy, &&, Jan. 25. 1857. Mexico: New constitu- tion promulgated, March 11. Costa Eica : — Walker sur- renders Rivas, and agrees to leave Nicaragua, May 1. of the FreDch visit Queen Vic- Sweden and Norway: — Charles Louis, Prince- Royal, made Regent. Sep, 26. Emperors of France and Russia meet at Stuttgart, Sept. 25. Nicaragua : — Walke, and his men surrender tc U. S. ship Wabash, Com. Paulding, Dec. 8. 38 890 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— 50 years.— Progress of Society, etc. United States. Great Britain. 1857 Death* in 1857. U. S. j Europe. 0. Col ton. Beranger. E. K. Kane. C. Bonaparte. W. L. Maroy. J. W. Croker. Thos. J. Rusk..Thos. Dick. Eli Smith. Marshall Hall. Earl of Elles- mere. Douglas Jer- rold. W. Scoresby. Eugene Sue. And. Ure. Cavaignac. Aug. Compte. Havelock. Chris. Eauch, sculptor. Commercial failures in one year, ending Dec. 25, 1857, amount to 5,123 : liabilities, $291,750,000. Launch of the monster steam er Great Eastern at Lon- don, Jan. 31. Crawford's Monument to Washington, at Richmond, inaugurated, Feb. 22. Extensive and remarkable re- ligious " revival" through out the U. S. in February, March, &c. Gold mine excitement Washington and Oregon territory. New " Divorce Court" open- ed in London, May 10. Donati's Comet seen in June and July. " Vigilance Committee" in N. Orleans, June 2. New Prohibitory Liquor Law voted in Maine, June 7. Turkish Admiral, Mehemet Pacha, and suite leave Bos- ton, after an extended visit in the U. States, July 14. A Jew in Brit. Parliament, July 26. Atlantic Telegraph. National Teachers 1 Associa- tion — 1st Ann. Convention at Cincinnati. Aug. 11. 1S57. " Lecompton Constitii' tion" adopted by Convex tion, Nov. 9. Walker resigns as Go- vernor of Kansas, Dec. 15. W. Walker reaches N. T, "on parole," and surren- ders to U. S. marshal, Dee, 28. 1857. English and French ture the city, Dec. 2S-30. 1858. Mr. Buchanan's " Kan- sas Message" to H. Eeps., with Lecompton Constitu- tion, Feb. 2, " Anti- Lecompton De- mocratic " meetings in Phila., N. T., &c, Feb. and March. Bill to admit Kansas as a State, under Lecompton Const, passes the Senate, March 23. The House passes another bill. New Free State Conven- tion of Kansas, at Leaven- worth, March 25. The " English Kansas bill" passed both Houses of Congress, April 30. Minnesota State Govern- ment organized at St. Paul, May 23. Atlantic Telegraph fleet land, June 10. The President sends a message announcing peace- able settlement of trouble in Utah, June 10. Treaty of Peace and Ami- ty with China, signed at Tien-Tsin, June 13. 1858. French and English the Governor, Yeh, Jan. 5. The Princess-Royal oi England married to tho Prince of Prussia, Jan. 25. Steamer Great Eastern first floated, Jan. 31. Resignation of Palmer- ston's Ministry, and acces- sion of Lord Derby, Feb. 20. sails from Plymouth, Eng- Eng. steam. Cyclops bom- bards" Jeddah, July 25-26. Baron Eothschild takes his seat in H. of Commons July 26. Queen Victoria and Pr. bourg, Aug. 4. Queen Victoria's message to Slaver Echo captured and carrried to ust 27. News of the completion of Atlantic Telegraph re- ceived with joyful demonstrations, Aug. 5. Magnificent celebration at New York, Sept. 1. The English bill voted on by the people of Kan-i sas and rejected, August! 9. | resident Buchanan sent and received, August 16. Charleston. Au-I L815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fban :b. Europe, elsewhere. Tue Woeld, slsewhere. fleets bombard Canton, and cop tr< ops enter Canton and capture Attempt by Orsini and others to assassinate the Emperor with a hand gre- nade : 8 persons k. and 156 wounded, Jan. 14 1857. Naples : Terrible earth- quake,14,000 persons killed. Albert visit the Bmperor at Cher- 1858. Mexico : — Revolution , Comonfort gives up the Go- vernment to Juarez; Zulo- aga proclaimed president by a H. of Representatives. Turkey : — Massacre ot Christians at Jeddah— -45 killed, June 15. 892 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Ptriod IX.— 50 years.- 185S 1859 Progress of Society, &c. United States. The N. T. State quarantine buildings at Staten Island destroyed by the citizens as a nuisance, Sept. 1. First overland mail for Ca- lifornia leaves St. Louis, Sept. 16. Boston Public (Free) Library opened, costing $450,000, Sept. IT. The " General Admiral" stm. frigate, built for Russian government, launched at N. T., Sept. 21. Crystal Palace, N. T., burnt, Oct. 5. The yacht Wanderer lands 300 Africans near Brunswick, Ga.. Nov. 28. The Grand Jury at Columbia, S. C, refuse to indict the slaver " Echo," Nov. 30. First railroad in Egypt. Deaths in 1858. 1858. TJ. St. stm. Niagara sails from Charleston for Liberia, 'with rescued slaves of the " Echo," Sept. 20. U.S. T. H. Benton. Rob. Hare. H.W. Herbert. Freem'nHunt. Com. Perry. Gen. Quitman Gen. P. F. Smith. N. W. Taylor. B. F. Butler. Parker Cleve- land. Wm. Jay. Europe. R. Brown, bo- tanist. Geo. Combo. " Rachel." Marshall Hall. Duchess of Orleans. Reschid Pa- cha. Radetsky. Ary Scheffer. Robt. Owen. Sir W. Reid. Foresti. U. 8. Agricultural Conven- tion at Washington, D. C, Jan. 3 1859. New Hall of the U. S. Senate first occupied, Jan. 4. Slidell's bill, giving $30,000,000 to facilitate the acquisition of Cuba, introduced Jan. 10. Mr. McLane recognises the Juarez government in Mex- ico, April 4. Sickles kills Key at Washing- ton, for seduction of his wife, Feb. 27 ; he is tried and acquitted, April 26. Southern Convention at Vick'sburgh discusses the opening of the Slave Trade, May 11. Great fire at Key West. 110 houses ; May 16- loss $2,T50,000, Telegrams — India to Eng- land. Several slavers captured by U. S. vessels. Great Britain. 1858. T7ie East India Com- pany ceases to exist, and its vast possessions pass into the hands of the Brit. Government, Sept. 1. 1859. D'Israeli introduces a new Reform Bill, Feb. 28. Lord Lyons, new British minister at Washington, re- ceived, April 12. England protests against Austrian menaces of Sardi- nia, April 21. English court in mourn- ing for the tyrant king of Naples (May). New Parliament meets, May 80. J. E. Dennison elected speaker. Telegrams to India acce- leratedTseven days by cable on the Red Sea, June 8 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 893 FllANCE. Europk, elsewhere. The "World, elsewhere. 1858 1858. Egypt : — First train on the Suez Railroad crosses the isthmus in eleven hours, from Suez to Alexandria, Dec. 5. Hayti : — Revolution — Faustin banished — General Jeffrard proclaimed Presi- dent, Dec. 21. 1859 The Emperor's Hew- Year's speech to Hubner, Austrian minister, canses a war sen- sation, Jan. 1. Prince Napoleon marries the Princess Clothilde, Jan 1859. Austria demands that Sardinia shall disarm, Ap. 23. England protests against this menace. Sardinian army on a war footing. French troops reach Turin and Genoa, April 26-80. War declared, in alliance with Sardinia, against Aus- tria, May 3. Subscriptions for loan of 500 million francs exceed four times that sum. from 525.000 persons. Tuscany :• — Grand Dnke ahdicates; his troops fra- ternize with revolutionists, April 27. Austria debtor en WAR AGAINST SARDINIA, and her troops cross the Ticino, April 29. The Emperor L. Napoleon arrives at Genoa, May 12. Empress made Regent. | Battle of Monteoello : Austrians defeated, May 20. Garibaldi enters Como, May 27. Battle of Palestro : Austrians defeated, May 80. Battle of Magenta : Allies victorious, June 4; and enter M ilan. June 8, 1859. Mexico. — Miramon ap- pears before Vera Cruz, March 18-27. Peru : — Earthquake de- stroys part of Quito, March 29. Naples :— Death of Ferdi- nand II., and accession of Francis II , May 22. 894 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. [Period XL— 50 years.- K.T Progress op Society, etc. United States. Great Britain. 1859 Remarkable religious revi- val in Ireland, June, July, etc. French and English in Excessive heat in California the forts of the Peiho, June and in Europe, June-July. Com. Tatnall. 1859. Gen. Harney takes possession of the island of San Juan (now "Vancouver's island) July 9. "Wise travels 1200 miles in a Kansas Const. Conven- Builders strike begins m balloon from St. Louis to N. tion meets at Wyandote, London, July 25. York state, July 1. July 5. Gen. Harney proclaims possession of the island of Gold images found in Indian San Juan for the U. States, graves at Chiriqui, July. July 27. Mr. "Ward, U. S. minis- ter, reaches Pekin, July 30. Cosmopolitan celebration of Treaty with China rati- 100th birthday of Schiller, fied, Aug. 16. Captain McClintock re- Nov. 10. J. T. Mason, U. S. mi- turns, bringing relics of nister to Prance, dies at Franklin's expedition, Sep. Paris, Oct. 8. 21. Brilliant meteor seen in N. T. John Brown's Raid for Steamer Royal Charter and N. England, Nov. 15. the liberation of slaves, at wrecked in British Chan- Harper's Ferry, Va., Oct. nel ; 445 persons lost, and 17. 12 of his men and 1 £1,000,000 in gold, marine killed. 2 of his men Deaths in 1859 : hung, Dec. 16; and 2 more March 16, 1860. U.S. Europe. J. W. Alexan- Dr. Abbott. der. T. K. Hervey. W. C. Bond. HUMBOLDT Kufus Choate. Leigh Hunt. Bp. Doane. Jejeebhoy. Hor. Mann. D. Lardner. Den. Olmsted. C. R. Leslie. W. H. Pres- Lady Morgan. OOTT. Jos. Sturge. Rich. Rush. De Tocque- Geo. Bush. ville. J. T. Mason. Metternich. Theo. Sedge- De Quincey. wick. J. A. James. Linn Boyd. J. P. Nichol. Washington Thos. Nuttall. Irving. I. K. Brunei. Carl Ritter. Louis Spohr. Sir J.Stephen. Macatjlay. Robert Ste- Congress assembles, Dec. Death of Lord Macaulay, phenson. 5. Dec. 28. leso Law passed in Arkansas, Jan. 1860. Pennington of N. Jer- 1860. Lord Clyde proclaims 1, to banish free negroes sey elected speaker of the the rebellion in India as from the state. House of Representatives, subdued, Jan. 7. after a balloting for nearly two months, Feb. 1. Commercial Treaty with den and Lord Cowley and Decree by the Emperor of Austria in favor of rights of the Jews, Jan. 10. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 895 Europe, elsewhere. The "World, elsewhere. 1859 Perugia sacked by papal troops, June 20. Battle of Solfcrino, June 24. Austriaus under the Empe- ror in person defeated by the allies: great loss on both sides. China repulsed in an attack on I 25. They are aided by American! | Treaty of Peace signed by the Emperors of France and Austria, at Villafranca, July 11. The Emperor returns to St, Cloud, July 2T. Entrance of "the Army of Italy" into Paris, Aug. 14. Political amnesty, Aug. 17. Treaty with Japan, ratified at Jeddo, Sept. 22. The Emperor advises Victor Emanuel a programme for the Regeneration of Italy, Oct. 20. Exchange of ratifications of the Treaty of Zurich, Not. 21. The Emperor's letter to Eomagna, Dec. 31. Treaty with Nicaragua rati- fied. Jan. 11. France, signed at Paris by R. Cob- the French ministers, Jan. 23. 1860 1859. Tuscany:— Council of State votes in favour of annexation to Sardinia. July 12. Conference at Zurich opened, August 8. Sardinia : — Cavour dis missed from the ministry, July 13. Tuscany: — The Nation Assem. decrees the perma nent exclusion of the Aus- trian dynasty, Aug. 16. Modena : — Farini dicta tor, opens the Nat. Asseru bly, Aug. 16, aud assumes, government of Parma, Aug. 18. Home : — Concordat be- tween the Pope and Spain, Aug. 26. Russia : — Schamyl taken prisoner in Caucasia, Sept. 6. Bologna : — Assemb. Nat. under pres. of Minghetti decree independence from the Pope. Sept. 7. Sardinia: — The king receives deputations from Modena and Parma, ten dering annexation to Sar- dinia, Sept. 15. Romagna : — Decree of annexation to Sardinia. Oct. r. Spain declares war against Morocco, Oct. O'Donnell named com. -in- chief of Spanish army. Sardinia : — Prince Ca- rignan made regent of Ro- magna, Parma, etc., Nov. 6, but declines in favor of Buoncompagni. the Pope, advising cession of 1860. Spain:— The Moors defeated at Castellejor, Jan. Rome : — The Pope re- plies to the Emperor, refus- ing to cede the Legations, Jan. 8. Sardinia : — Cavour re- called to the premiership, Jan. 15. 1859. Mexico : — Juarez do crees the confiscation o, church property, July 12. Venezuela: — Civil war: downfall of Castro, thi Pre- sident, July. Costa Rica : — Revolution — fall of Mora, Ang. 14. Buenos Ayres .'—Battle with the troops of Argen- tine Confederation, Oct. 28. 896 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— 50 years.— Progress op Society, etc. United States. Gkeat Britain. 1860 First " Pony Express" reaches Carson Valley in eight and a half days from Missouri; and news thence by telegraph reaches San Francisco in nine days from New York. 1860. The "Covode Com- mittee" (House of Eepre- sentatives) appointed to ex- amine alleged corruption of the government, March 5. U. S. corvette Saratoga captures Miramon*s vessels at Vera Cruz, March 7. Japanese Embassy arrives at San Francisco, March 28 ; at Washington, May 14 ; at Baltimore, June 8 ; at Phila- delphia, June 9 ; at New York, June 16. Sails for Ja- pan, in the U. S. frigate Niagara, June 30. Universal Suffrage in Cen- tral Italy. 1860. French treaty ratified hy 116 majority ic the Com- mons, Feb. 24 . Lord J. Eussell proposes a new Eeform Bill, March 2, hut abandons it, June 11. Papal bull against agitators and reformers. Fight of Heenan and Sayers for the championship of England, April 17. Ministers defeated on a bill for repeal of paper duty — passed by the Commons but rejected (89 majority) by the Lords, May 21. Review of 1€,000 volun- teers by the Queen in Hyde Park, June 23. Democratic Convention at Charleston, April 23. Mr. McLane's treaty with Mexico (Juarrez) rejected by the Senate, May 31. National Eepub. Conven- tion at Chicago meets May 16, and nominates Abraham Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin for Vice- President of U. S. Law of Maryland prohibiting the manumission of slaves takes effect, June 1. Tornado in Iowa and Il- linois destroys whole vil- lages, June 3. Nat. Democratic Conven- tion (adjourned) at Balti- more, June 18, nominates Douglas and Fitzpatriek : a seceding Convention no- minate Breckenridge and Lane, respectively for Pre- sident and V.-Pres. of U. S. The Great Eastern arrives at New York, from Southampton, June 28. Dr. Hayes's Arctic Expedition from Boston, sails July 7. i Remarkable meteor in various northern states, July 20. Visit of the Prince of Wales to British North Ame* rica and the United States. He lai ds at St. John's, July 24; arrives at Quebec, August 18; Montreal, 24th; Ottawa, August 31 ; Niagara, September 14 ; Detroit^ Sept. 20 ; Washington, Oct 3; Philadelphia, Oct. 9; New York. Oct. 11; Bos- ton, 17th; Portland, 20th; Plymouth, England, Nov. Lincoln and Hamlin elected Pres. and V.-Pres. oi the U. S. by the votes of all the northern states ex- cept New Jersey, which chose 4 electors for Douglas and 3 for Lincoln, Nov. 6. This election is made the pretext for rebellion and "secession" of the cotton states— S. Carolina leading, and adopting in Convention an ordinance of secession W. C. Preston. H. H. Wilson, from the U. S., Dec. 20. Deaths in 1860. IT. S. J. A. Alexan- der. W. E. Burton C. A. Good- rich. S. G. Good- rich. Theo. Parker. J. K. Pauld Europe. Sir O. Barry. Lady Noel Byron. G. P. K.James. Anna Jame- son. Jullien. SirW. Napier. Baden tuv- ell. H. H. Wilson. 1815-1861.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 897 LW) France. Europe, elsewhere. Thouvenel foreign minister, Jan. 24. V Univers," ultra-montane journal, suppressed, Jan. 29. Diplomatic correspondence of Antonelli, Feb. — March. Negotiations respecting an nexation of Nice and Sa- voy. Treaty for cession to France signed at Turin, March 24 ; but Switzerland protests. Nice votes for annexation to France 24,44S for, and 160 against. Savoy gives 131,744 for and 233 against. The Emperor refuses an ap- plication from Naples to act as mediator, June 7. French troops sent to Syria to punish tbe murderers of Christians, Aug. 5. A. French fleet placed before Gaeta; for which 6ide is not proclaimed. 18G0. Spain : — Decisive vie tory over the Moors at Te touan, Feb. 4. Sardinia : — The army raised to 50,000, Feb. 26, Thouvenel with Cavour and Buoncompagni resigns as governor of Central Italy, March 3. Tuscany : — Result of vot- ing on annexation to Sardi- nia pub., viz: For, 366,571 ; against, 14,925 (for sepa rate kingdom) Austria advertises for new loan, March 24, and protests against Sardinian occupation of Tuscany, &c Spain : — Peace with Mo rocco ratified, March 29. Borne : — Papal bull against revolutionists, Mar. 29. Revolution in Sicily be- gins at Palermo, Messina, and Catania, April 4. Eome: — Antonelli pro- tests against Sardinian an- nexation of Eomagna. Sicily:— Garibaldi lands at Marsala, with 2,000 men, from Genoa, May 10 Proclaims himself dictator on behalf of Victor Ema- nuel, 14th. Naples: — Concessions pro claimed to the people, May 19. — Garibaldi takes Pa- lermo, May 27. — A liberal ministry formed at Naples, June 28. The King grants new con- stitution and amnesty, J'ne 25. Garibaldi's victory at Me- lazzo, July 20-21. Sicily (excepting the ci- tadel of Messina) evacuated by the Neapolitans, July 30. Garibaldi's troops land in Calabria, Aug. 8. — Enters Naples. The King of Naples re- tires to Gaeta, Sept. , and is besieged there by the troops of Garibaldi and Victor Emanuel. Garibaldi resigns his power to Victor Emanuel, and retires to Caprera. The "World, elsewhere. 1860. Argentine Confed. D@t- qui president, Feb. 5. Mexico : — Miramon at- tacks Vera Cruz, March 7- 13. Japan : — The Regent wounded in a riotous at- tack. Mexico : — Znloaga pro- claims himself president, and denounces Miramon, May 1. Asia Minor: — Horr ble massacre of the Christ.ans and Maronites, May. 3,000 killed at Damascus, July 9. Honduras : -W. Walker the "filibuster," taken pri- soner and shot, Sept. 12. Syria : — Fuad Pasha sent against the Druses, Aug. 5. 167 Moslems implicated in the massacres are executed at Damascus, Aug. 20. 898 the world's progress. [Period XL— 50 years.^ Progress of Society. <86l Heresy of " S E C E S- S I O N " or Treason in the United States. Dentin in 1861 : Prince Albert, Mrs.Brown- ing-, Count Cavour, Czar tory ski, Dr. J. W. Francis, Geof. St.Hi.'aire, Pr. Gort- ehakotf, Nathaniel Lyon, fiug'e Scribe. July — First War Loan of the United States Government, $250- 000,000. Oct. 1. Commercial treaty bet'n France, England and Bel- gium in force. Nov. 1. Telegraph be- tween Malta and Alexandria ooened lay 1. International Exhibition at Loc don. United States. 1861. This example folio-wed by Mississippi, Jan. 9, Alabama, Jan. II, Florida, Jan. 12, Georgia, Jan. 19, Louisiana, Jan. 26. Attempt to carry Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, N. Carolina, Missouri, and Arkan- sas for secession defeated, Jan. — March, 1861. Texas carried for secession, but a strong reaction for union follows. Gen. Twiggs surrenders the U. S forces in Tex- as, and the military stores, to the state, Feb. Inauguration of Lincoln, (Eepub.) Presi- dent U. S., March 4. WAR of REBELS against U. S. April 13. Fort Sumter surrenders to rebels. April 15. 75,000 men called for by proclama- tion. April 15. Great meeting in New York to support the Government. April 19. Attack on Massachusetts troops in Baltimore. April 21. Harper's Ferry arsenal burned by its garrison. April 25. Virginia secedes. May 6. Arkansas secedes. May 20. North Carolina secedes. May 21. Tennessee secedes. June 8. The Savannah privateer captured. June 10. Big Bethel defeat. July 4. Congress meets. July 11. Rich Mountain victory. July 21. Bull Run defeat. Aug. 29. Fort Hatteras taken. Oct. 21. Ball's Bluff disaster. Nov. 1. McClellan Commander-in-Chief. Nov. 7. Port Royal forts taken. Nov. 8. Wilkes seizes Slideli and Mason. Nov. 30. Jeff. Davis elected President of the Confederate States. Dee. 2. Union armies have 660,971 men. 1862. Jan. 1. Mason and Slideli released. Jan. 19. Mill Springs defeat. Feb. 6. Fort Henry taken. Feb. 7. Roanoke taken by Burnside. Feb. 16. Fort Donelson taken. Feb. 23. Nashville taken. March 9. The Cumberland and Congress lost at Hampton Roads. March 10. Manassas found evacuated by Rebels and is occupied by Union troops March 11. McClellan takes command of Army of Potomac. March 14. Newbern taken by Burnside. April 1. Beaufort taken by Burnside. April 4. Slavery abolished in D. Columbia- April 5. McClellan " besieges " Yorktown. April 6. Shiloh defeat— A. S. Johnson killed April 11. Fort Pulaski taken. April 96. New Orleans taken. May 5. Yorktown occupi i<* by McClellan— Action at Williamsbuigr... May 10. Norfolk taken— the Merrimac burnt— Farragut ascends the Mississippi —Little Rock taken. British Empiee May 13. Queen's proclamation of " neutrality " in the American con- flict. Nov. 8. Excitement about seizure of Mason and Slideli in British steamer Trent. Dec. 23. Death op Prince Albert. April 7. Treaty with U. S. to suppress slave trade. May 1. Internation- al Exhibition opened at Lon- don. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ,899 A.D.I FRANCE. 1861 Europe, elsewhere. Would, elsewhere. June 10. " Neutrality " in American conflict pro- claimed by the Emperor. Oct. 31. Convention with England and Spain for in- tervention in Mexico. Jan. 7. French army lands at Vera Cruz. March 28. French victories in Cochin China — six pro- vinces ceded to France. April 16. War against Mexi- co declared. 1861. Gaeta surrenders to Victor Emanuel's troops, Feb. 13— The King of Na- ples escapes on board i French frigate. End of Bourbon Rule in Italy. The Italian Parliament declares Victor Emanuel KING OF ITALY, Feb. 1861. " Italy " recognized by Eng- land, March 31, and by France, June 24 Oct. 18. William I. crowned King of Prussia. Oct. 2 . Canton restored tm the Chinese by the French and English. Feb. 13. Military revolt in Greece. 900 the world's progress. [Period XL — 50 years. — a.d J Progress op Society. 1862 Deaths in 1862 : Brodie (surgeon), M. Van Buren, T. Hartwell Home, Sam. Hous- ton, T. J. Jackson, A. Sid. Johnson, Phil. Kearney, Du- chess of Kent, J. Sher. Knowles, Sir James Ross, Joseph "Wolff. September — Internal Rev enue Tax en- forced in the U. S. Jan. 2. Abolition of Sla-very in the TJ. S., by proclamation of the Commander- in-Chief. Feb. 9. The Geo. Gris- woM,with food given by New Yorkers for Lancashire opera- tives, arrives at Li verpool. i>lar. 4. Nat. Academy of Arts and Sciences founded by Congress June — G- rant and Speke arrive in Eng- land from Source of the Nile. July 13-16. Irish anti- negro and anti-draft, riots at New York, Deaths in 1863 : R.Hil- dreth, Mar. Lans- downe, Mulready, Mrs.Trollope, Arch- bishop Whateley. Sept. — Kussian squad ron entertained at New York. Dec. 24. Thackeray dies. United States. May 27. Hanover C. H, Va., taken. May 31. Fair Oaks battle— indecisive. Co- rinth taken. June 6. Memphis taken. June 27. Pope takes command of U.S. forces in N. Virginia. June 25-30. McClellan's skirmishes on Pen- insula. Jijne 26-July 1. Seven days' battles on the Uhickahominy. July— Tariff duties raised— 300,000 more volunteers called for. Z Ay 17. Emancipation and Confiscation Act cigned by the President. July 26. Halleck Commander-in-Chief. U. S. debt $1,222,000,000. Aug. 9. Banks defeated at Cedtr Mountain Aug. 16. McClellan retreats frcm Harrison'' Landing. Aug. 30. Second defeat at BuM Run. Sept. 5. McClellan agar: Ccmmander-in- Chiet. Sept. 17. Antietam victory. Sept. 18. Harper's Ferry lost. Sept. 22. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclama- tion issued. Sept. 25. Habeas Corpus suspended. Oct.— Premium on gold, 29. Oct. — Piracies of the Alabama. Nov. 4. Democratic victory in New York elections. Nov. 7. Burnside supersedes McClellan. Dec. 10-13. Defeat at Fredericksburgh. 1863. Jan. 1. Murfreesboro' victory (Roseerantz over Bragg). Jan. 2. Proclamation of Emancipation is sued. Jan. 26. Hooker supersedes Burnside. April 7. Monitors repulsed at Charleston- the Keokuk lost. May 2-4. Chancellorsville defeat— Jackson killed. May 18. Vicksburgh invested by Grant. June 14. Maryland and Pennsylvania in- vaded by Lee. June 27. Meade supersedes Hooker. July 1-3. Getiysivurgh victory. July 4. Vicksburgh occupied. July 8. Port Hudson taken. July 13-16. Riots at^?ew York. Aug. 7. Sioux war ended by Gen. Pope. Aug. 20. Chickamauga defeat. Aug. 21. Fort Sumter bombarded. Oct. 19. Grant, Thomas and Sherman su- persede Roseerantz in Tennessee. Oct. 17. President calls for 300,000 more volunteers. Nov. 23. Chattanooga victory by Sherman and Thomas. 1864. Feb. 1. Draft for 500 000 men ordered. Feb. 20. Olustee (Fla.) defeat. Feb. 27-March 1. Kilpatrick and Dalghren's raid on Richmond. British Empire. Mar. 10. Marriage of Prince of Wales to Alexandra of Denmark. Oct. 31. Steam rams built by Laird for U. S. Rebels seized by Government. Oct.— British Con- suls dismissed from Rebel States of U.S. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 901 FRANCE. Europe, elsewhere. World, elsewhere. 1862 June 7. Greece: Insurrec- tion spreads. I8G3 Oct. 15. Drouyn de L'huys, Foreign Minister. Oct. 30. Mediation proposed in Amer. conflict declined by Russia and Gt. Britain. Jan. 9. Mediation of France again offered to V. S. Aug. 19. Garibaldi in Sicily, proclaims a Provisional Government. Aug. 29. He is wounded and taken prisoner by the king's troops. Sept. 30. Bismarck, Premier of Prussia. Oct. 5. Garibaldi and his fol- lowers released under general amnesty, and the state of siege in Sicily abolished. Jan. 18. Egypt : Ismail, Viceroy ; succeeds Said Pasha. March 30. Greece : George I of Schleswig-Holstein pro- claimed King — England agreeing to give up Ionian Isles to Greece. July— Income-Tax Bill passed in Italy. Aug. 16. Congress of Ger- man Sovereigns at Frank- fort—" One Federal State' proposed — Russia dissents Nov. 15. Denmark: Chris- tian EX. succeeds Freder- ick VII. 1864. Jan. 21. War of Austria and Prussia against Denmark about Schleswig-Holstein — German troops enter Holstein. i 902 the world's progress. [Period XI. — 50 years.^ Feb. 29. Peabody fund — Divellings for the poor in London — First block opened. April 3. Garibaldi's visit to England. May 16. Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portu- gal, and Spain, for telegraph to America June— Oct. — Cattl® Aug. — Abd-el-Kader's visit to England. Deaths in 1864 : Frank. Bache,Josh'a Bates, W. J. Fox, T. C. Grattan, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edw. Hitchcock, Leonard Horner, Archbishop Hughes, Jasmin (poet),O.M.Kirkland, 1865 Progkess of Society, United States. March 2. Grant succeeds Halleck as Com mander-in -Chief. May 5-6. Battle of the "Wilderness. May 11-12. Battle of Spottsyiv&nia. June 15. Grant befor-. Peter." rgh. June 19. Kearsage sinks the Alabama. July 1-13. Maryland again invaded by a Rebel raid. July 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta, Ga. July 30. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Re- bels. plague in England, jjuly 30. Grant's mine at Petersturgh, Va., exploded. July 80. Secretary Chase resigns— Fessenden Secretary of the Treasury. Aug. 8. Farragut's victory in Mobile Bay. Sept. -McClellan nominated tor President, by Democratic Convention at Chicago. Stp't. 2. Atlanta captured by Sherman. S~pt. 1 9. Sheridan's victory at Winchester. Oct. 19. Cedar Creek defeat made a victory by Sheridan. Oct. 21. Rebel raid at St. Albans, Yt. Ncv. 8. Lincoln re-elected President — Mc- Clellan resigns his command in army. Nov. 30. Thomas repulses Hood at Nash- ville. W. Savage LandcnyDec. '.5-16. And again totally defeats him John Leech, J. R., thesis. Macculloch, Meyer- Dec. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and beer, W. Curtis | Dec. 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman. British Empire. April 24. European conference at Lon- don on Schleswig- Holstein question. July 10. Palmerston sustained in the general elector. Aug. 15. English fleet visits Cher- bourg. Aug. 30. French fleet visits Portsmouth. Oct. 18. Death of Lord Palmerston. Noyes, Pellisier, Jo- siah Qnincy, Edw. Robinson, H. R. Schoolcraft, R. B. Taney, J. G. Totten. Slavery Abolished in the IT. States. Feb. 22. Rebel Con- gress decrees the arming of slaves. April 2. Death of Rich- ard Cobden. Deaths in 1865 : Bishop Brownell, Adm. Du- pont, Val. Mott, Edw. Everett, Mrs. Gaskell, Sir W. J. Hooker, Kiss (sculpt.), Leopold I., Ab. Lincoln, Dr. Lindley. Dec. 24-5. Butler and Porter repulsed at Wilmington. 18G5. Feb. 1. Congress abolishes slavery ry ■*& amendment to the Constitution. Feb. 3. Lincoln and Seward's interview with Rebels at Fort Monroe. Feb. 18. Lee takes command Rebel armies, and ur°"..s arming of negroes. Feb. 22. Wilmington captured by Schofleld. Feb. 22. Charleston i vacuated by Rebels. April 1. New and higher tariff comes in force April 2. Richmond and Petersburg!! occupied by U. S. forces, after three days' fighting. April 6. Grant's victory at Farmville. April 9; Surrender of Lee with his whole army. April" 12. Mobile taken. April 14. Fort Sumter occupied. April 14. Assassination of President Lin' coin and attack on Seward. April 15. Andrew Johnson sworn in as President. April 18. Sherman's convention with John- ston. April 25. Johnston's surrender. April 26. Booth, the assassin, shot. May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders. May 10. Jeff. Davis captured. May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in Texas. END OF THE REBELLION. March— Fenian out- breaks in Ireland. May 6. Reform League meeting in Hyde Park in defiance of Go- vernment. 1815 -1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 903 France, Europe, elsewhere. "World, elsewhere. 1861 May 22. Death of Marshal Pellisier. May 20. Convention between France and Japan signed. 1864, March 10. Louis II., King of Bavaria. April 18. Duppel taken by Prussians. June 1. Ionian Isles made over to Greece. July 8. Prussians take Al sen. Sept.15. Franco-Italian Con- vention signed — French troops to quit Rome in two years. Florence made the capital of Italy — Riots at Turin in consequence, Sept. 21 22. Oct. 30. Peace between Den- mark and the Allies, to whom Schleswig and Hol- stein are surrendered, Prussia retaining posses- sion of them. July 18. China : Nankin taken (" a heap of ruins ") by Gor- don for the Imperialists. March 31. Valparaiso bom- barded by Spanish fleet. Famine in Bengal and Madras 1865. May 7. Hayti: Military in- surrection against Geffrard. 904 THE -WORLD'S PROGRESS. a.d. Progress of Society, United States. Great Britain. 1835 Aug. — Treaty of Com merce between Italy and Japan. Sept. — Several South- ern States pass ordi- nances annulling Se- cession, abolishing slavery, &c. Rinder-pest or cattle- plague in England, July, 1865, to Feb., 1866. Cholsra prevails in France, Spain, and Naples. 1866 Jan. 27. Death of Gib- son, Eng. sculptor. July 28. Atlantic Telegraph success- fully completed ; cable landed at New- foundland and re- portsPEACE between Prussia andAustria. Deaths in 1866 : Mar- quis D'Azeglio, Jared Sparks, Win "Whewell. 1867. April 1. Opening of the Great Exposition of Industry of all nations at Paris. July 1. Awards of the juries in the Great Exposition. July — 1800th anniver- sary of St. Peter's martyrdom cele- brated at Rome. May 22. Proclamation opening Southern ports and exceptional amnesty. June 1. National Fast. June 29. Trial of assassins ended. July 7. They are hung. July 29. Prisoners of war released on oath of July 31. U. S. debt $2,757,253,000. August — Eebel privateer Shenandoah de- stroyed about thirty vessels. Nov. 2. National thanksgiving. Nov. 9. Shenandoah at Liverpool — crew re- leased. Nov. 10. "Wirz executed for cruelty to U. S. prisoners. 1866. May 3. Colorado bill vetoed. May 29. Death of Winfield Scott. June — Resignation of Speed, Att. Gen. ; Dennison, P. M. Gen. ; and Harlan, Sec. Int. July 28. Congress adjourns, having passed Freedmen's Bureau (continuation) bill ; Civil Rights bill ; Pacific Railway (supp.) bill ; Army bill, and other important measures. July — Grant appointed General-in-Chief ; Sherman, Lieut.-General ; Farragut, Ad- miral ; Porter, Vice-Admiral. Aug. 14. " National Union Convention " at Philadelphia. Sept. 3. Southern Loyalist Convention at Philadelphia. Sept. 6. Corner stone of Douglas Monument laid at Chicago by President Johnson. Oct. 6. Elections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, In- diana, and Iowa result in increased Re- publican majorities. Nov. — Republicans also victorious in Mass., N. H., N. Y., N. J., Mich., Minn., Nevada, and Mo. In Delaw. and Md. the DemO' crats are successful. Dec. 13. Suffrage given to colored men in Dist. Columbia, by act of Congress. 1867. Feb. 9. Nebraska admitted into the Union as a State. March 2. " Tenure of Office " bill passed. March 2. Military government for the South — bill passed over the President's veto by 135 to 48 in the House, and 38 to 10 in the Senate. March 4. iOth Congress meets. March 23. Supplementary Bill on Military Government of the South, passed over President's veto— Senate, 40 to 7 ; House, 114 to 25. Southern States divided into five military districts, under Gen. Schofield, at Richmond; Sickles, at Columbia, &c. ; Pope, at Montgomery ; Ord, at Vicksburgh ; Sheridan, at New Orleans. April 10. Treaty for purchase of Russian America approved by the Senate. British and French Governments re- scind their recog- nition of American " Confederates." October 18. Death of Lord Palmerston. Oct. — Movements of Fenians at New York, Phila., &c. October 7. Riots in Jamaica ; Gordon, a Baptist minis- ter, hanged by Governor Eyre as a rioter. November 27. Trial of Fenians at Dub- lin. 1866. Jan. 6. Gov. Eyre in Jamaica super- seded by Storks ; hot discussions in England as to his conduct in. the riot. 1867. May 9. Conference at London on the question of Lux- emburg. Treaty signed making the Duchy neutral territory — fortress to be razed. July — The Viceroy of Egypt and the Sultan of Turkey visit London. 1%5-1867.] THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 905 Europe, elsewhere. 1S65 867 Ssiit. !. ciere. Death of Lamori- January — Railway between Boulogne and Calais opened. Jan. 19. Emperor decrees greater freedom of discus- sion in Legislature and the Press. 1866. Jan. 15. Death of D'Azeglio, the patriot. June 18. Prussia and Italy declare Wae against AUSTRIA. June 24. Italians defeated at Cus tozza. June 27-29. Austrians defeated by Prussians in three battles won by needle guns. July 3. Great Battle of SADOWA ; 250,000 on each side. Prussians victorious ; Austrians lose 44,000 K, and W., and 100 guns. Austria cedes Venetia to Prance. July 11. Prussians defeat Bavarians at Kissengen. July 14. Prussians occupy Prank- fort. July 18. Italian fleet defeated off Lizza. July 26. Preliminary treaty of peace Prussia requires Hanover, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfort. October 3. Treaty of Peace between Austria and Italy, signed at Vienna. Nov. 5. Venetia proclaimed to be part of Kingdom of Italy. Nov. 7. K. Victor Emanuei's public entry into Venice. Feb. IS. Hungarian Constitution restored by Austrian Emperor. Feb. 24. First parliament of the German Confederation opened by K. ofPrussia. War in Crete continued with various fortunes. April 4. New ministry in Italy. April 1. Great Exposition opened by the Emperor. Waleswski resigns as Pres. of Corps Legis. May. 18. Emperor signs Luxemburg treaty. June 6. Attempt on life of the Czar, while riding with the Em- peror, in Paris. The Sultan, Viceroy of Egypt, King of Prussia, Prince of "Wales, and other notables, also visit the Great Exposition in Paris in June and July. Wobld, elsewhere. Sept. 18. Brazil : Uru- guayano surrenders to the allies. Sept. — Greeks in Crete rise in revolt against the Turks. Oct. 7. Jamaica riots. 1867. Feb. 5. Mexico: The City ot Mexico evacuated by the French troops. May 15. Mexico. Maximilian and his generals captured at Queretaro. Egypt declared by the Sultan to be a se- parate sovereignty after June 11, 1867. July 1. Execution of Maximilian in Mexico. July 1. Cuba: Decree of the Queen of Spain freeing all children of slave parents born after this date. 906 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Progress of Society. 1867 1867 July — England visited by the Sultan ; first time in history. ! Reform in England. Deaths in 3867 : Vic tor Cousin, Charle: Anthon. 1868 Jan. 15. Education con f erence opens at Man Chester, England. Feb. 6. A horse-flesh dinner at the Lang ham hotel, London. June 25. Luther mon- ument inaugurated at Worms. Sept. 9. Brunei's In- ternational Congress of Workmen resolve that arbitration is better than strikes. Oct. 5. Papal emissa ries and Greek Pa triarch of Constan- tinople disagree as to general council. Deaths, 1868 : Ex-pres Buchanan ; T h a d Stevens; ex-sec'y Bates. 1869 Jan. 24. First Protes- tant meeting for pub- lic worship in Madrid Apr. 3. Bibles in for eign languages ad mitted into Spain. May 10. Kailway con nection completed in U. S. between Atlan- tic and Pacific. July 14. French At- lantic telegraphic cable completed. Deaths, 1869: W. P. Fessenden ; Admiral Stewart (" Old Iron- side") ; G. Peabody ; Ex -pres. P i e r c o ; Gen. Wool ; Ex-sec'y Stanton. United States. 1867 May 13. Jeff. Davis released on bail. July-1. Congress meets in extra special ses- sion, and enacts, over President's veto, a bill to confirm and strengthen the Military Government, passed in March. Aug. 10. Jury on trial of Surratt (assassina- tion of Lincoln) disagrees. Surratt dis- charged, Nov. 6, 1868. Aug. 12. Sec'y of War Stanton removed, after refusing to resign. Replaced by Sen- ate, Jan. 14-15, 1868. Sept. 9. Pres. Johnson proclaims general amnesty. Sept. 17. Antietam cemetery dedicated. Dec. Treaty for purchase of Danish islands, St. Thomas and St. John, for $7,500,000, signed. Jan. 21. Senate transfers jurisdiction over the Southern States from Johnson to Gen. Grant. Feb. 24. House votes to impeach Pres. John- son. March 6. Impeachment trial. May 21. Republican Convention nominates Grant and Colfax. May 26. Senate adjourns, after refusing to impeach Pres. Johnson. June 5. Chinese embassy received at Wash- ington. July 7. Democratic Convention nominates Seymour and Blair. July 22. Wyoming territory organized. Nov. 3. Grant and Colfax elected. Dec. 14. House of Representatives denounces repudiation of national debt. 1869 Jan. 14. Clarendon and Johnson convention on Alabama claims signed. Feb. 6. Nolle prosequi ends prosecution against Jeff. Davis. Feb. 21. Fifteenth amendment (negro suf frage) passed. March 3 and 15. Schenck bill passes, declaring that all national obligations will be paid in coin. Apr. J. L. Motley appointed Minister at Lon- don. Apr. 15. ■' Naturalization treaty with Great Britain ratified. June 15. Peace Jubilee at Boston. 1867 July 15. Passage of New R e f o E M Bill, nominally D'Israeli's, really Gladstone's ? Sept. 24-27. Pan- Anglican synod at Lambeth. British Empire. 1868 Jan. 28. 113,674 spe- cial constables sworn in in l the United Kingdom, from apprehension of Fenians. Feb. 25. Derby min- istry resigns ; D'ls- raeli, premier 29th. Sept. 30. Nearly 21,- 000 extra deaths from the hot sum- mer. Dec. 2. D'Israeli min- istry out ; Glad- stone's succeeds, 9th. 1869 July 26. Irish Church disestabl ishment bill passed. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 907 A.D. Fbance. Europe, elsewhere. Would, elsewhere. 1867 1867 1S67 1867 July 1. The Emperor dis- July. Great excitement in Europe Oct. 29. Destructive tributes medals of honor respecting the death of Maximilian hurricane in W e s t at the Great Exposition. in Mexico. Indies. Oct. 30. French troops enter Russian America sold to the United Nov. 1. Furious cy- Rome. States. clone in Bengal. Nov. 18. Pacific speech of July 1. Great assemblage of Prelates Emperor on opening Cham- of R. C. Church at Rome. bers. Aug. 6. Violent outbreak of cholera Dec. 5. Rouher declares (for at Albano, Italy. government) that Italy Sept. 8. International Peace Congress shall never seize upon at Geneva ; broke up 12th, from Rome. furious quarrelling of members. Sept. 24. Garibaldi arrested while preparing to invade Papal States, and sent to Capreia. Oct. 13. Garibaldi escapes from Ca- prera ; 26, defeats Pope's troops at Monte Rotondo ; 27, King of Greece marries Grand Duchess Olga ; 30, French troops enter Rome. Nov. 4. Garibaldi beaten and taken at Mentana. 1868 1868 1S68 1868 Jan. 1. Army bill, amounts March 21. Defeat of papal party at Feb. 19. Brazilians to furnishing an army of Vienna on civil marriage bill. force the pass of 1,20(1,000. Sept. 29. Queen of Spain flees into Humaita against June 1. New press law, less France ; provisional government set Paraguayan batte- stringent. up. ries. Aug. 1. Rochefort's Lanterne Nov. 24. Croatian deputies sit togeth- Apr. 13. Capture of suppressed ; he escapes to er with Hungarian, met for first Magdala, Abyssinia, Belgium. time. by British ; death of Dec. 30. Final surrender of revolu- King Theodore. tionary Cretan government an- May 22. Russians oc- nounced at Constantinople. cupy Samarcand. June 25. Paraguayans evacuate Humaita, after over 2 years' siege. Nov. 17. Suez canal formally opened. 1869 1869 1869 May 20. Spanish Cortes votes 214 to June 9. Violent election riots 71 for monarchical government. at Paris. June 16. Serrano chosen regent of June 26. Great increase of Spain. opposition in Assembly. Dec. 8. Vatican Council opened at July 13. Ministerial respon- Rome. sibility introduced by the Emperor. Aug. 15. Centenary of birth of Napoleon I. ; pensions, amnesty, etc. Sept. 10. New constitution promulgated. 908 THE WORLD S PKOGRESS. Progress op Society. United States. British Empire. 1870 1870 Apr. 2. Railway from Calcutta to Bombay opened. Apr. 10. Keshub Chun- der Sen conducts re- ligious services in London. May 19. English. House of Lords rejects bill permitting to marry deceased wife's sis- ter, 77 to 73. May 25. Organization of English commit- tee to revise author- ized version of Bible. Dec. 25. Mount Cenis tunnel completed. Deaths, 1870: Admi- rals Dahlgren and Earragut ; Gen. Lee. 1870 Jan. 26. Darien canal scheme approved by Congress. March. Mr. Revels, first colored member of House (from Mississippi), takes his seat ; 16th, his first speech, for universal amnesty and suffrage. April. Fifteenth amendment ratified. July. New tariff adopted, to take effect Jan. 1, 1871. July. Mr. Motley recalled. Oct. 1. Internal taxation begins to be re- duced. Nov. Republican majority in Congress greatly reduced by the fall elections. Dec. 5. President Grant's message regrets failure of proposal to annex St. Domingo. Dec. 21. General Schenck Minister to London. Dec. Census makes value of TJ. S. $31,000,- 000,000. 1870 July 19. Neutrality in Franco-Prussian war proclaimed. Aug.-Nov. Foot and mouth disease in 1 cattle. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 909 Fbance. Europe, elsewhere. 1870 Jan. 12. Pope's decree condemning the Fenians. May 17. Espartero declines the crown of Spain. June 25. Queen Isabella of Spain abdi- cates in favor of her son Alfonso. July. Vatican Council votes the Pope's infallibility. July 30. Austrian government dis- solves the concordat with Rome. Sept. 20. Italian troops occupy Rome. Oct. 2. Vote of people of Papal States for annexation to Italy, 133,681 yeas to 1,507 nays. Kov. 16. Prince Amadeo of Italy elected king of Spain by the Cortes ; accepts, Dec. 5. Nov. 23. Pope excommunicates all concerned in annexing Rome to Italy. Dec. 10. German empire voted at Berlin by the Reichstag ; crown presented to King Wilhelm of Prus- sia at Versailles, 18th. Dec. 27. High and damaging flood in the Tiber at Rome. Dec. 28. Marshal Prim assassinated at Madrid. Dec. 31. King Victor Emmanuel ar rives at Rome. 1870 1870 Jan. 3. Liberal (Ollivier) min- istry formed. Jan 10. Victor Noir murdered by Prince Pierre Bonaparte, Jan. 22. Rochef ort fined and imprisoned for libel. May 8. Plebiscite on govern- ment amendments to con- stitution, adopted by 5 to 1. May 14. Riots and barricades' in Paris. July 2. Orleans family de mand to return to Prance ; refused by Assembly, 173 to 81. July. Prince Leopold declines candidacy for Spanish throne ; Prussia refuses guaranties ; 17th, Prance declares war. July 23. Empress regent ; Emperor joins army ; 26th, first skirmish at Nieder- bronn ; 30th, French re- pulsed at Saarbriick. Aug. 2. French take Saar- briick; 4, Germans de- feat French at Wissem- bourg and Geisberg ; 6, severe defeat of French at Woerth ; 7, state of siege at Paris; 8, French de- feated at Forbach; Bazaine in command at Metz ; 10, new war ministry ; decree for great increase of army ; Strasburg invested by Germans ; 12, Germans pass the Vosges ; 14, Germans gain battle of Courcelles ; 16. of Vionville ; IS, of Gravelotte and Rezonville ; Trochu gov- ernor of Paris ; 22, Bazaine isolated at Metz ; 25, Germans oc- cupy Chalons ; 30, several engagements lost by parts of Mac- Mahon's army retreating north ; 31, they retreat to Sedan ; Aug. 31 and Sept. 1, Bazaine repulsed and driven into Metz. Sept. 1-2. Battle of Sedan ; surrender of MacMahon's army and Napoleon III. ; Sept. 4, revolution at Paris ; republic declared, and government of defence, Trochu president ; Empress and min- isters flee to Belgium ; 5, Germans occupy Rheims. and 7, St. Dizier ; 9, Germans advancing on Paris ; 15, siege of Paris formed ; Sept. 17, important circular of Favre, confessing that France is in the wrong, and asking that the war stop ; 16, Bis- marck's circular asserting necessity of material guaranties from France; 19, Paris completely invested ; 21, Versailles surrenders ; Favre reports failure to agree with Bismarck ; 23, Durnouf gets out of Paris with mails by balloon; levee en masse in French de- partments ordered ; 28, Strasburg capitulates ; red republican rising put down at Lyon Oct. 7. Gambetta escapes from Paris by balloon ; 9, organizes a government at Tours ; 7, great sortie from Metz repulsed ; 10, 11, red republican attempt to establish the commune at Paris de- feated ; 11, Germans take Orleans ; 16, take Soissons ; 21, French sortie from Mont Valerien (Paris) repulsed; 27, Metz and army surrendered by Bazaine; 29, Germans take Dtjon ; 31, riots in Paris ; commune established for a moment, but dislodged. Nov. 4. Germans have taken 11 towns, 3,653 guns. 155 mitrail- leuses, nearly 500, COO chassepots, 90 eagles, about $20,000,000 in money ; hostilities continue in various parts of France ; 24, Ger- mans take Thionville ; 27, take La Fere ; 28, occupy Amiens ; 30, great sortie of 120,000 men from Paris ; they retreat, Dec. 2. Woeld, elsewhere. 1870 Jan. 15. Salnave shot in Hayti ; Saget pres- ident. March 1. Defeat and death of the Para- guayan leader Lopez. May 25. Fenian raid • into Canada repulsed by volunteers. June 21. Mob at Tien- tsin in China; French consul and residents murdered. 910 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1870 1871 Pkogbess or Society, 1870 1871 Sept. 22. Old Catholic meeting at Bonn, a- gainst new dogma of infallibility. , . Dee. 28. Gradual slave- emancipation law passed in Brazil. Deaths, 1871 : G. Tick- ner ; Alice andPhcebe Gary ; (Jen. B. An- derson ; R. Cham- bers ; Schamyl, the Circassian chief; Omer Pasha; Thal- berg ; Herschel ; Au- ber ; G. Grote ; Prin- cess Belgiojoso ; Paul de Kock; R. Bent- ley ; C. Babbage ; Sir R. Murchison ; Mar- shal Benedek ; G, Hudson ( ' ' railway king "), United States. 1870 1871 Jan. 12. Great meeting in New York for Ital ian unity. Apr. 6. Report of commissioners to St. Dom- ingo, in Senate. May 26. Treaty for Alabama claims commis sion, etc., ratified. June 4. U. S. army on peace footing of 35,284 men. June 10. Statue of S. F. B. Morse unveiled in N. Y. June 29. Polaris expedition sails for North Pole. July 12. Riot in New York, Romanists against Orangemen : '62 killed, 117 wounded. July 16. First exposure of Tammany Ring in N. Y. Times. Oct. Great fires in Minn., Wise, and Mich, forests. Oct. 8-9. Great fire at Chicago ; 18,000 build- ings destroyed; $200,000,000 lost. Nov. Russian Minister Catacazy dismissed for discourtesy to U. S. authorities. Bbitish Empiee. 1870 1871 Apr. 3. 8th census taken. July 20. Purchase of army commissions stopped by royal warrant. Sept. 30. South Ken- sington Exhibition closed (open since May 1). i 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 911 France. Europe, elsewhere. 1870 1870 1870 Dec. Obstinate fighting by the army of the Loire ; other hostilities ; Germans mainly successful ; 11, Gambetta's government moves to Bordeaux. 1871 1871 |1871 Jan. 1-10. Bombardment of Jan. 2. King Amadeo arrives at Paris ; hostilities in other drid. parts of France continu- Feb. 8. Complete amnesty for politi ing ; mostly German sue- cal offences in Austria, cesses; 19, great sortie of June 16. 25th anniversary of pope .100,000 men from Paris dom of Pius IX. celebrated at Rome repulsed ; 23, Trochu re- Nov. 18. Uniform coinage law en- signs ; 24, Vinoy governor acted in Germany, of Paris ; 28, Paris capit- ulates ; 30, Bourbaki's army of 80,000 driven into Switzerland and "in- terned ; " treaty of peace, ceding Alsace and part of Lorraine, and to pay Ger- many $1,000,000,000; pre liminaries signed Feb. 26. Feb. 18. Thiers becomes exe- cutive. March 1-3. German troops enter Paris, and remain 48 hours. Treaty concluded May 10, ratified by French Assembly, May 18. March 18. Insurrection at Paris, and commune estab- lished there ; 20, regular government at Versailles ; 28, government of the com- mune proclaimed at Paris. April 2. Military operations begin between government and commune ; 4, com- munist insurrection sup- pressed at Marseilles. May 14. House of M. Thiers destroyed by commune ; 16, column Vendome pulled down; 21, government troops enter Paris and oc- cupy part ; 23-24, Tuileries, Hotel de Ville, etc., burned by communists; 28, fight- ing ends and communists suppressed ; about one- fourth of Paris burned, and loss of property through commune, $160,- 000,000 ; 29, decree disarm- ing Paris. Sept. 1. Thiers made Presi- dent for 3 . years ; 20, Ger- mans evacuating forts around Paris. Nov. 2S. Commrtnist leaders shot. Dec. Said to be sixteen poli- tical parties ; 19, Due d 'Au- male and Prince deJoinville take seats in the Assembly. World, elsewhere. 1870 1871 June 11. TJ. S. and French storm Corean strongholds and pun- ish Coreans for in- sults. Oct. 1. Military revolt in city of Mexico ; suppressed with much bloodshed. 912 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. A.D. Progress of Society. United States. British Empire. 1872 1872 1872 1872 Aug. 6. Spain prepares Jan. 16. General amnesty bill passed. Feb. 29. Arthur O'- to free slaves in June 17. Boston peace jubilee opens. Connor presents an Porto Rico and July 10. Democrats and Liberals join to nom- empty pistol at the Cuba. inate Greeley for president. Queen. Aug. 22. International Aug. 19. Judge Barnard removed and dis- March. Agricultural statistical congress qualified, for corruption in office. laborers' strike in at St. Petersburg. Sept. Geneva award (Alabama claims) an- Warwickshire. Sept. 8. Australia con- nounced. June. Strikes in va- nected by submarine Oct. 23. Island of San Juan awarded to U. S. rious trades. telegraph with the Nov. 5. Grant re-chosen president. Sept. 14. Final Ala- Indo-European tele- bama award. graph system. Nov. 5. New com- Oct. 16. Railway op- mercial treaty ened from Yokoha- signed with France. ma to Yeddo, in Ja- Nov. 24. Serious ill- pan. ness of Prince of Deaths, 1872: J. Gil- Wales ; begins to lott; Due de Per- recover Dec. 14. signy ; Abp. Spal- ding ; John Poole ; J. Mazzini ; Rev. F. D. Maurice ; Lord Dalling ; C. Lever ; J. G. Bennett; Rev. N. McLeod ; L. Feu- erbach ; Charles XV. of Sweden; Mrs. Parton ("Fanny Fern ") ; T. Gautier • Sir J. Bowring ; Gen. Halleck ; W. H. Seward ; H. Gree- ley. 1873 1873 1873 1873 Jan. 1. European cal- Jan. Modoc war begins. Jan. Strikes of col- endar introduced in- Feb. Fighting and disturbances in New Or- liers ; coal very to Japan. leans. scarce. May 5. Treaty of Great March. Credit Mobilier scandal in Congress. June-July. Shah of Britain with Zanzi- Apr. 11. Gen. Canby and others murdered by Persia visits Eng- bar to suppress slave Modocs. land. trade. June. Modocs surrender. Deaths, 1873; Napole- Nov. Excitement over execution by Spaniards on III. ; M. F. Mau- of Americans from steamer Virginius. ry ; Rev. T. Guth- rie ; C. Knight ; Ba- ron Liebig ; W. C. Macready ; Dr. Liv- ingstone ; A. Man- zoni ; F. von Rau- mer ; H. Powers ; M. Odillon-Barrot ; Duke of Brunswick ; Mrs. Mundt; Sir E. Land- seer; Sir H. Hol- land ; U. Ratazzi ; S. P. Chase. 1874 1874 1874 1874 June 22. Telegraph op- Feb. Women's whiskey-war ; women try to Jan. 23. Duke of ened between Great stop liquor-selling, by prayer, etc., in Ohio Edinburgh marries Britain and Brazil. and N. X. Grand Duchess Marie of Russia. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 9i; 1S72 1872 April 23. Law against the " International " society. Sept. Government is estab- lished at Paris. Oct. 6. P i 1 g r'i m a g e s of some 20,000 persons to Lourdes. Nov. 5. New commercial treaty signed with Great Britain. 1873 1874 1872 Jan. Insurrectionary movements be- gin in north of Spain. Apr. 1. Tercentenary of Dutch inde- pendence observed. May 1. University of Strasbnrg re- opened (closed by French, 1792J. May 2. Don Carlos enters Spain ; 6, flees back to France. June 12. Jesuits expelled from Ger- many. July 18. 1000th anniversary of King- dom of Norway celebrated. July 31. Extradition treaty signed, Belgium and Great Britain. Sept. 30. Revolt in Montenegro. Dec. 18. Coinage made uniform in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Dec. 31 . Diplomatic relations broken off between the Pope and Germany. 1873 Feb. Letter of Comte de Chambord. destroying all hope of Bourbonist fusion. March 15. Convention for complete evacuation by Germans on payment of whole indemnity. May 24. Thiers and his min istry resign ; 26, MacMahon chosen president by the assembly. Aug. 2. Germans have left France, except Verdun ; 5. the Orleanists recognize Comte de Chambord as chief. Sept. 5. Last instalment of German indemnity paid ; 13, Germans leave Verdun ; 16, last Germans leave France. Nov. 20. MacMahon's term made 7 years. Dec. 12. Bazaine condemned to death for surrender of Metz ; commuted to 20 years' imprisonment. 1874 March 16. Imperialist dem- onstration at Chiselhurst, at majority (18 years) of prince imperial. 39 Etjkope, elsewhere. 1S72 March 1. War between Honduras and San Salvador. March 26. Attempt to assassinate the Mika- do of Japan. July 22. Military re- volt at Lima ; Presi- dent Balta killed. Aug. 17. Japanese em- bassy in England. 1873 Feb. 9. Extradition treaty signed, Italy and Great Britain. Feb. 11. King Amadeo of Spain ab dicates. May 1. International exhibition at Vienna opened. Oct. 21. Jesuits expelled from their convents and colleges at Rome. 1874 Apr. 13. Revised constitution adopt- ed in Switzerland. July 23. Extradition treaty ratified, Netherlands and Great Britain. World, elsewhere. 1S73 Feb. 23. Emperor Toung-Chi of China assumes government. March 25. Netherlands declare war against Atchinese. 1874 Feb. 5. British force under Sir G. Wolse- ley occupies Goomaa- 914 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Progress of Society. 1874 1874 Aug. International congress at Brussels on laws of war. Sept. 15. Internation- al postal congress at Berne ; adopts a sys- tem Oct. 7. Deaths, 1S74 : Ex-pres, Fillmore ; C. Sum- ner; P. G-uizot ; A. von Rothschild ; Chang and E n g (Siamese twins) ; Dr. D. P. Strauss; J. Michelet. 1875 1875 Jan. Civil registration and civil marriage adopted by law in Germany. May 20. International convention at Paris for adopting' metric system. 13 nations represented. May 23. P e o p 1 e of Switzerland adopt civil marriage by vote. Nov. 28. Italian gov eminent buys the Northern Italian railroads. Deaths, 1875 : Ex-pres. Johnson ; A. Helps ; E. Pereirs; E. Qui- net ; Toung-Chi, em peror of China. 18761376 iPeb. 1. International courts in Egypt be- gin to sit. Feb. 6. Turkey replies to Andrassy note, promising reforms, which are decreed 14th. March 1). Egyptian in- vading force beaten by Abyssinians. Oct. 27. Capt, Nares's Arctic expedition re- turns ; reports that North Pole cannot be reached. Dec. 21. New penal code adopted for German Empire. Deaths, 1876 : Vice- pres. H. Wilson ; F. Deak; Reverdy John- son ; Abdul- Aziz, ex- sultan of Turkey ; Gen. Santa Anna ; C. Perier ; Cardinal Antoaelli. United States. 1874 Apr. 22. President Grant vetoes bill for in- convertible paper money. July. Bcecher scandal breaks out. Aug. 17. Riots at Austin., Miss., negroes and whites ; so-called negro insurrection also in Aug., at Trenton, Tenn. Sept. Centennial of meeting of colonial dele- gates at Philadelphia. .Sent. 18. Gov. Kellogg of La. deposed by a rising of whites ; restored by U. S. forces. Oct. 27. Triennial Episcopalian convention : canon against ritualism. Dec. Senate passes bill to resume specie pay- ment Jan. 1, 1879. 1875 Feb. 4. Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty with Canada. Feb. Civil rights bill (for negroes) rjassed. Apr. 19. Centenary of Lexington. June 17. Centenary of Bunker Hill. July 2. Beecher trial ends. Jury disagrees (9 to 3 for Beecher). Sept. 30. First American Cardinal (McClos key) received at Rome. Oct. Inflationist defeats in Ohio and Iowa. British Empire. 1874 Feb. 81. Gladstone ministry out ; D'ls- raeli succeeds him. May 13-21. Visit of Czar of Russia. 1876 Jan. 1. Centennial year, great demonstrations in Philadelphia. March. Minister Schenck resigns in con- sequence of Emma Mine scandal. April. Senate rejects R. H. Dana's nomina- tion as minister to England. Apr. 14. Lincoln monument, erected by ne- groes, unveiled at Washington. May 10. International exhib. opened atPhila. June 16. Hayes and Wheeler nominated at Cincinnati. June. Winsiow released at London ; extradi- tion treaty thus ended. June 25. Custer and his command ambushed and destroyed by Sioux. June 29. Tilden and Hendricks nominated at St. Louis. July 9. Hamburg (S. C.) massacre of negro militiamen by Butler and others. Aug. 1. Gen. Belknap, ex-secretary of war, impeached for corruption, but acquitted by 35 to 25 in Senate (two-thirds must con- vict). Aug. 2. Colorado admitted into the Union. Oct. 17. President Grant's proclamation against unlawful combinations to affect elec- tions in South. 1875 March 9. Moody and Sankey, the reviv- alists, arrive in London ; sail (on return) Aug. 4. Sept. 27. Railway ju- bilee at Darlington. Nov. 25. Government purchase of Suez canal shares an- nounced. 1876 May 1. Queen pro- claimed Empress of India. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 915 Fbance. Europe, elsewhere. World, elsewhere. 1874 1874 Aug. 31. Vendome column restored. 1874 Dec. 31. Alfonso, son of Queen Isa- bella, proclaimed King of Spain, enters Madrid and assumes govern- ment, Jan. 14, 1875. 1875 1876 1875 Feb.-March. Constitutional changes in a republican direction. June 23. Destructive floods at Toulouse. Dec. Reports on trial of com- munists shows 9,596 con- victions and 110 death sentences. 1875 Oct. 6. Turkey announces suspension of payment on half the interest of her public debt. 1876 Jan. French revenue for 1875 $500,000,000, said to be the largest ever received by any government. Feb. -March. Republican ma- jority elected to Chambers Nov. 3. France announces her neutrality in the Russo Turkish war. Dec. 12. New ministry under Jules Simon. 1874 Feb. 13, King of Ash- antee makes peace. Feb. 22. Bishop of Per- nambuco condemned to 4 years 1 imprison- ment for disobedi- ence to law. Feb. 26. Insurrection at Nagasaki, Japan. 1875 Apr. 5. Island of Sag- halien ceded by Ja- pan to Russia. May 18. Seven Chilian towns of 30,000 popu- lation, destroyed by an earthquake. 1876 Jan. 31. Andrassy note presented to Turkey, suggesting reforms. March 20. Triumphal entry of Al- fonso into Madrid, the Carlist in surrection being suppressed. May 6. Assassination of French and German consuls at Salonica in Tur- key. May. Risings in Bulgaria, cruelly put down by Turks. May SO. Sultan Abdul-Aziz deposed ; Murad V. succeeds. July 9. Turkey repudiates payments on public debt until better times. Aug. 31. Sultan Murad deposed ; Ab- dul Hamid II. succeeds. Nov. 1 . Six weeks' armistice between Turkey and Servia. 1876 Feb. 20. Khokand an- nexed to Russia, as Ferghana. July 17. Gen. Canal president of Hayti. Oct. 31. Terrible cy- clone in Bengal ; im- mense loss of prop- erty and life. Dec. 10. Baez, Presi- dent of St. Domingo. 916 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. Pbogeess or Society. United States. Beitish Empibe. 1876 1877 1876 1877 Deaths, 1877: Tayler Lewis ; J.. L. Mot- ley ; Gen. Changar- nier ; Dr. Muhlen- 1876 Nov. 7. Presidential election ; Hayes and Wheeler chosen by 185. to 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. 1877 Jan. IT. S. Government commission report Darien canal practicable. Jan. Extradition treaty signed with Spain. Jan. 8. Two governors (Nicholls and Kellogg) inaugurated in Louisiana); Kellogg main- tained by U. S. troops. Jan. Fourteen fishing schooners, overdue at Gloucester, Mass., given up for lost with all on board. Jan. Moody and Sankey opened meeting in Boston. Apr. 10. XJ. S. troops evacuated South Caro- lina state house ; Gov. Chamberlain has to yield to Hampton. Apr. 24. IT. S . troops evacuate state house at New Orleans ; Kellogg government yields to Nicholls. June 6. Civil suit against P. B, Sweeney com- promised for $400,000. June 29. Pres. Hayes's letter prescribing that national office-holders must not be managing party officials, nor be assessed for party expenses. July. Anlndian war under chief Joseph breaks out in Idaho. 1876 1877. July2-9. Pan-Presby- terian conference at Edinburgh, 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 917 A.D. Pbanoe. Europe, elsewhere. Wobld, elsewhere. 1876 1876 1876 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 Jan. 18. Turkey rejects proposals of Peb. Diaz is in posses- the European powers. sion of power in Jan. 23. New Turkish constitution Mexico ; ex-president proclaimed. Lerdo escapes to San Apr. 24. Russia declares war against Francisco. Turkey, and enters Roumania. May 9. Great earth? May 21. Jubilee at Rome, 50th anni- quake and tidal wave, / versary of Pope's episcopate. coast of Peru; loss, June. Russians cross the Danube at $20,000,000 and 600 Galatz ; 25, at Hirsova. lives. July 6. Over 120,000 Russians have crossed at Sistova. July. The German quarrel with Rome has caused the deposition of 4 bish- ops and 6 archbishops; expulsion of 600 persons (120 priests) from Cologne alone ; vacancy of 476 parishes in 7 bishoprics alone. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO UNIVERSAL HISTORY. N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended to include every name mentioned in history, hut merely the most important in their several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lists are given in their proper place. This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World's Progress ; " and Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. Tims : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. c. The tables on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. Milton was born a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he was 17 when Charles L succeeded JameB, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Wiuthrop, Cotton.and Eliot, in America ; Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moliere, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died A. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London* 14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be found at a glance, on referring to the tables. Abbreviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. {Barbarian) includes several different nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ are indicated by b. c. ; all others are k. d. In some cases the dates are necessarily left blank. NATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION. Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . . Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . . Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . . , Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . , . Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . . , Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels . Nor. Abel, Nicholas H„ mathematician . , , BOKN. DIED. f. 1188 c. 1570 1453 f. 022 1813 1854 1562 1623 1763 1849 1803 1805 1806 1886 1822 1810 1856 1804 1844 1802 920 THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED Sp. Abenezra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. . 1119 1174 Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary . , 1784 1860 Aberc.-ombie, John, author of 'IntellectualPowers' . . 1781 1S44 Aberoromby, Sir Ralph, military commander . . 1738 1801 Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer , 1764 1831 Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . . 1606 1664 Aboul, Edmond, novelist, traveller, &c. ... Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation . B. c. 1995 b. o. 1821 Abrantes, duchess d', biographer .... 1784 Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. 1128 Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . . 561 Abulfuda, the geographer .... 1273 Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) . b. 0. 171 Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . . . Accum, Fred., operative chemist (in England) . . . 1769 Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. o. 1100 Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 3d cent. Ital. Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher . . . 1803 Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author . . 1741 Adam, Robert, an architectural author . . . 1728 Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. . . 1735 .A. me r. f John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. . 1767 ^ me r. f Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic . 1726 Eng. Add'son, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 1672 Adelung, John C, philologist and lexicographer . . 1732 Adolphus, John, author of history of England, &c. . . 1766 A drain, Robert, mathematician (at Now York, &c.) . . 1775 Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) ... 76 jElfrit, archbishop of Canterbury, author cf Anglo-Saxon works uElian, the historian and rhetorician , . 160 JSneas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . . f. b. o. 11S3 iEschines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates . . , orator . . . i Eng. Scot. Eng. Eng Fr. Er. Jew. Fr. Dan. Ara. Syr. Rom. Ital. G*r. Eng. Ger. Eng. Ire. Rom. Eng. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Rom. Rom. 1838 1203 624 1S45 1229 1S3,8 1834 1232 1809 1794 1826 1848 1808 1719 1806 1845 1843 138 10C5 JBsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . iEtius, military commander (defeated Attila) . . Africanus, Julius, historian .... Sp.Moor -, Leo, author of travels in Africa . . . Gr. Agamemnon, "the king of kings" ... 9r. Agathius, historian and poet . . . . f Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist .... !3t. Age6ilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) Icot. Aginkard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne . . 3t. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings ... Sng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible . , lom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander ... &er. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomianu . . Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea . . £r. , Cornelius, philosopher, Leonard, an historian .... ItaL , Peter, a satirist .... Eng. Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-governor of Virginia Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . Span. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet . . Span. , Bartholomew, historian . . Scotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . Mex. Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . . Gr. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher Gr. — , grammarian and critic ... Gr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . Gr. , ^Elius, an orator and sophist . . Gr. , one of the fathers of the church . . Gr. Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniacs f. b. o. 392 Gr. Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot . . . . f. B. o. 662 BORN. DIED. 1033 1109 1697 1763 1750 1828 1793 1797 1867 251 356 il£5 1231 . JJ. C. 301 . B. C. 319 B. 0. 423 1806 86 161 ber 121 180 B. c. 86 B. c. 30 . 1201 1697 1782 A. D. 1st cent. f. 80 B. C. 5th to 2d cent. B. o. 194 £, b. o. 242 9? f. 143 n . 1772 1819 A. D. 2d cent. 1224 1274 1786 1853 1705 1759 B. c. 273 B. c. 21T . 1735 f. B. O. 450 f. b. c. 719 f. b. c. 685 b. o. 2S7 b. c. 212 B. c. 408 b. o. 360 995 1369 1414 1192 1556 ia 1572 339 1779 1565 1613 1566 1631 1678 1743 1474 1533 1802 1855 f. B. O. 280 B. o. 160 B . O. 467 129 185 f. 127 924 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. KATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic puet . . Gr. Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics Gr. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect Span. , Houtanus, Benedict, orientalist . Eng. Ark-wright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies Fr. Ariincourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist Ger. Arminius, the deliverer of Germany . . Dutch. , James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect Eng. Armstrjig, John, M D., poet Anier. , John, general, statesman, and historian Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour . Jr. , Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet . Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer . Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . . Pruss. Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist Ame) . Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . Ital. , of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard Eng. , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. . Eng. , Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist Eng. , Thomas K., author of classical test-books . Scot. Arnott, i.7iel, popular scientific writer . . • Gr. Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . . Eng. Arrowsmilh, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts . Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . . : Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia . . . Bar. > founder of the new Persian kingdom . . Flem. Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader ' • Eng. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . Amer Arthur, Timothy S., author of tales and essays Eng. Arundel, Thos. H., earl of, importer of tbe Arundelinn marbles Eng. Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States Eng. Ascban, -^oser, a learned writer .... Bar. Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . . Eng. Ashb-arion, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . Amer. Ashmun, John K., jurist, professor of law . Eng. Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield . Gr. Aspasia, the accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . Eng. Asser, John, historian .... Ger. Ast, George A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York . Amer. A u chison, David X., senator, United States, from Missouri Gr. Athanasius, St., OLe of the fathers of the church . . Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher .... Gr. Athenais, Empress o^ the West and authoress, called also Eu doxia ..... Gr. Athenasus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . Bar. Attalus, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of parchment ..... Qr. — — — , Ehodius, mathematician . . . . I Eng. Atterbnry, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy Ziom. Atticns, a knight and author (works lost) . . Fi. Auber, D. F. 3 ., famous musical composer . . EOEN. BIBB C. 389 0. 884 439 1527 2598 1732 1792 1789 1856 20 1560 1610 1709 1779 1758 1843 1220 1718 1805 1710 1778 f. 303 1781 1831 1740 1801 1555 1822 1795 1842 1800 1853 1788 f. 140 1823 c. 250 B. o. 425 1832 472 542 1809 1646 1745 1816 1515 1568 B. c. 220 1774 1848 1800 1833 15-1T f09 'l778 1°41 1763 1848 1807 296 371 £ 177 f. 190 . 173 1662 . 109 1784 B. o. IjS 1731 b. O. 32 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 925 RATION. Swiss. Eng. Fr. Fr. G. Jew. NAME AND PROFESSION. Aubigne' J. H. Merle d', historian of Reformation . Auckland, William, lord, statesman • Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . • Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com . Auerbach, Berthold, novelist . . . Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church -, the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Cante/bory Rom. Angustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the West . Rom. Augustus, Caius Julius Csesar Octavins — 1st emperor Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India . , Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet . . . Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist . , . . Eng. , Sarah, essayist and translator . Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus — republican — military commander Axa. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician and author . Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &o. Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author BORN, UBi', 1794 , 1K1J 1797 Ida 1757 1816 1512 354 430 te.'Vjtry 604 . 476 a. o. 63 14 . 1018 1707 394 1775 1817 (abt) 1800 s . 1836 17*3 1800 . 119T 1797 &80 1037 1804 1813 1865 1736 1845 . 178°. 1866 Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author Port. BacceUar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . Gr. Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . £ 3 Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian Eng. BacK, Geo. Cnpt. R. N., Polar navigator and author Amer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . . Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t man ...... Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature . Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay , Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . . . Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. . Eng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer . . Eng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . . Eng. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist . . Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . . Boot. , Matthew, physician and anatomist . Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo' lution ..... Enf. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician Amer. Bainbridge, William naval commander . (Princeton) . 27-50 1734 1797 1724 1806 3, O. 450 1806 1867 1790 1796 1724 1806 1802 1214 1292 ' t03- 1561 1626 1735 1804 1584 1622 179? L.-1 1857 1742 178V r 1649 1706 1762 1351 1761 1823 1736 1793 1774 1344 on) 1774 1^3 92G THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IT A3 ION, Amer. Scot. Tark. Amor. I'ial. Span. Fr. Irish. Scot. Boot. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Amer. Swe. Irish. Amer. Amer. Eng Fr. Fr. Pruss. Eng. Turk. Amer. Fr. Amer. Amer, Eng. Ital. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Dutch. Amer. Fr. Eng. Irish. Amer. Eng. Eng. Ivish. Eng. Amer. Ger. Fr. Amer. > NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. Baird, Rohert, D. D., author of travels . , , 1798 — — , Sir David, military commander . . . 1757 Baja-.ct, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane • . . Baker, Edward D, U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bluff) 1811 Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer . 1782 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America . Baldwin, who became emperor of the East • . Balfe, \/m. Michael, musical composer . . . 1808 Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . » 1259, Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott . Ballou, Hosca, universalist minister and author . . 1771 Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland . 1582 Baltic, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XL . • Balzac, Honore" de, novelist ... 1799 Bancroft, George, historian of the U. S., secretary of navy, &c. . 1800 Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . • 1596 Banim, John, novelist ..... 1800 Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society . 1743 Baraguay d' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France . . 1795 Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . . 1782 Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age . 1721 Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 1743 Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers . . Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army . • 1751 Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer . . 1674 Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . . Va. 1775 Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . Va. 1783 Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &c. . 1716 Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist—' Ingoldsby Legends' 1788 Barker, Joseph, noted financier .... 1779 Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet ... 1756 Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator . . . 1811 Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. . 1798 , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar ... 1654 , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . . Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . . Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author . Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) , Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . •, Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . Barry, John, the first American commodore , Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . . Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &c. Bartlett, John R., author of explorations, &c . 1547 1759 1755 1726 1767 1768 1630 1764 1745 1795 Va. 1785 1821 1716 1805 DIED 1863 1829 1413 1861 1517 1206 1314 1833 1852 1632 1850 1641 1842 1862 1820 1740 1825 1518 1783 1728 1842 1841 1690 1789 184? 1812 1712 1818 1619 1818 1829 1802 1831 1851 1667 1848 1803 1860 1836 179S BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 927 RATION NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Barllett, Josiab, statesman, gov. N. n., &o. . . Eng. , Win. H., artist and author . . . Amur, Barton, Benj. Smith, M. L\, a learned physician and botanist Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet . . . Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . . , Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . . Eng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . . Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman Fr. Bastial, Frederick, political economist . . . Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . . Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, . Eng. Bath, "William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . , Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . . Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . . . Hung. , Lnjos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) . Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity . Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author , , Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . . Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer . Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist and historian Fr Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's D tionary') ..... Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . . . . Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet ... Fi. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland . Fr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com. viceroy of Italy, &c. .... Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . . Fr. Beaumont. E'ie de, mineralogist and geologist . . Eng. , Francis, dramatic writer . . . Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher . Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy and author Amer. Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist . . Amer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman . Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (' Vathek') . Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &c. . . Fr. Becquerel, Antoine Ca?sar, natural philosopher Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator . Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • • Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . . Amer. , Henry "Ward, theologian and politician . • Amer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . . Eng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral. Arctic voyager . , Prnt.8 Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) Ger. Beethovsn, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer . JORN. DIED. 1729 1795 1809 1854 1766 1815 17*4 1849 r.-i 1777 326 379 1706 1775 1653 1723 1758 1839 1%1 1850 1790 17*8 1864 1662 1764 1684 1775 1713 1780 1307 1854 180:1 1849 18UV 1792 1615 1691 1476 1524 1767 1815 1627 1694 1738 1647 1706 1797 1839 1735 1803 1837 ',70 1824 1733 1799 17 »8 1^55 1616 l'<_4 1789 1716 1781 1735 1793 1800 1853 1791 1855 1119 1170 1760 1844 1739 1811 1788 672 735 1793 1834 1435 1796 1856 1800 1833 1770 1821 928 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ger. Behaim, or Beliem, navigator and geographer • « Fr.g. B-jhn, Aphra, dramatic writer . . • Rr/.ss. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator • • Gcr. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . • Eng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator . . Rem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror . Ital. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philanthropic Amer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . Scot. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe . Amer. , John, statesman . . • • feco,. , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist . ■ Scot. , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . . Arcer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author . Ita... Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet . ... . . Fr. Beideisle, count de, military commander . . . Eng. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . Ital. Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . . • Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . Eng. Beloe, Win., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c, Er. Belcn, William, naturalist and traveller . Eng. Belstim, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer Ital. Balzoni, the -celebrated traveller in Egypt . . Pol. Bern, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria « Ital. Bern! o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature • Eng. Bemb , T , John, a gallant admiral . a Ital. Benedict, (St., one of the originators of monasteries . Ital. , XIII., pope, theological writer . . , Ital. , XIV., " " "■•■'. Fr. Benezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (diedin America' Ger. Bengal, Jobann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist Eng. Bengsr, Elizabeth Ogiivy, author of historical memoirs . Amer. Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer andjournalist . . Sp. Jew , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East . < Bar. Bentidad, king of Syria .... Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist ■ . • Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . . Eng. 3entham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar , Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • . Fr. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . . Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist . . Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria G-3r. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer . . Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal . . BeL Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . Irkfi. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher im3r. , William, governor of Virginia ... Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer ... Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . Amer. , Francis, governor of Massachusetts . . BORN. 1459 1640 16S0 1T85 1799 1808 1744 1767 1797 1763 1781 1719 1542 1528 1684 16i4 1808 1814 1756 1518 1752 1778 1795 1470 1650 4S0 1G49 1675 1713 1687 1778 1809 DIES, 3506 168P 1741 566 1798 1830 1825 1842 1790 1626 1577 17 M r72 1 35 1817 1564 1827 1823 1*5<3 1542 1702 547 1728 1758 1784 1752 1827 1864 1173 B. c. 895 1800 1612 1742 1662 1782 178i li85 c. 1st to 3d cent 1797 1735 17S4 1802 1684 1753 1067 1<03 I" :34 1844 1838 1697 1779 1C91 1832 1742 1858 1S57 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 929 RATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. Dutch. Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author Fr. , St., preacher of Crusades and author . Fr. , Simon, engineer and military commander Amer. Berrien, John McPherson, U. S. Senator from Georgia Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Swe. Ger. Fr. Amer. Eng. ItaL Ear. Eng. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' in 11 vols. 4to ...... Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated) , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 1J91 1779 1781 1681 1778 1798 Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 Berryer, Pierre A., statesman .... Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsburg) Berzelius, John James, chemist .... Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . . Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet , Betterton, Thomas, famous actor .... Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer , Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius' . Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver . Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer ... Fr. Bezout, mathematician .... ItaL Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author . . Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages .... Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist • , Irish. Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatist .... Eng. Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . . . Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy Eng. , John, an eminent Sociniau writer . . . Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy . Amer. , " , financier and litterateur . . , Biela, William, baron von, astronomer . . Am-' 1 . Bigelow, John, medical writer .... Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian .... Gr. Bion, pastoral poet .... Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniac) . . Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician .... Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions Amer. Bird, Robert M., M. D., novelist .... Arner. Birr.3Y, James G., anti-slavery politician . . Fr. Biro: ., .'■ ike of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) Eng. Bish .j, Sir Henry R., musical composer Amer. Bisseil, William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer . . Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author . . . S^an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name of tho Cid ..... Scot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . In.Am. BlacV Hawk, Indian Chief .... Eng. Bla-ekstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author 1790 1753 1748 1778 1670 1779 1784 176.> 1805 17% ins 1791 1753 2519 1730 1662 : 606 1771 1733 1786 17S3 1615 1750 1786 ;?82 ,187 17;1 1774 1776 1803 1792 1561 1775 1811 1759 1757 1040 1784 1768 T 1723 DITID, 1751 ll'S li,3 1-51 1820 1863 'J.8J.5 1823 1*44 17.34 1815 18S2 1810 1801 1828 1605 1783 1729 1801 1787 1850 1848 1662 1778 1844 1856 1841 C 300 3, 240 1862 1841 1854 W? 1603 1855 1805 .1793 LQS9 1839 1781 930 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. HATION Eng. Scot. Amer. Amer. Soot. Amer. Eng. Scot. Amer. Irish. Eng. Prus. Ger. Swe. Brit Ital Ital. Fr. Fr. Eng. Ger. Ger. Dutch. Rom. Ger. Fr. Eng. Ital. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Eng. Colom. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Eng. SwIbs. Eng. Eng. Fr. Eng. Amer. NAME AND PROFESSION. Black-well, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician . . , Francis P., journalist and politician. » , Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers . , Robert, a divine and poet . . • Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &c. . Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . c Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist . . Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar . . , Robert, a poet . . . • Blucher, a celebrated military commander . Blum, Robert H , publicist and politician . . Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist . . Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy Boccalina, a satirist .... Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . . . Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of library . Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • . Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist . . Boerhaave, one of the most eminentof modern physicians Boethius, a statesman and philosopher Bogatzky, Chas. Henry, theologian, (' Golden Treasury') Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . . . Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') . Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . . Boissard, Jean J., fabulist • . . Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . . , d' Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . . Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of "Westphalia . , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain . , Louis, ex-king of Holland . , , Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and emperor .... , Lucien, Prince of Canino . . . , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon . , Napoleon, emperor of France , Bond, William C, astronomer Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician , . , John, " . Bonpland, Aime, traveller and botanist i Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian Boone, Daniel, the first settler in Kentucky BORN. hies. 1821 1718 1800 1791 1821 1699 1777 1788 1857 1599 1657 1S03 1845 1757 1783 1789 1849 1788 1840 1766 1823 1742 1819 1807 1848 1752 1840 61 1313 1373 1556 1613 1509 1567 1530 1596 1544 1612 1575 102+ 1668 1738 455 526 1690 1744 1111 1434 1494 1636 1711 1743 1831 1694 1758 1756 1826 1507 1536 1678 1751 1785 1831 1784 1859 1768 1844 1778 1846 1808 1775 1840 1750 1836 1769 1821 1789 1859 1569 1720 1793 1840 1S21 1840 1796 1852 1730 1823 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 931 KAT10H. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ger. Bopp, Franois, Sanscrit scholar . . * Ital. Bregli, philosopher and mathematician • . Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian . Ital. Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools . Ital. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL Ital. , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI Ital. Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . , Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain ' • Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist . . » Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral . Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer . Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France . . ' Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian . • Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . . Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . . . Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson . Eng. Bosworth, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer • Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . . Ital. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . . Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician ... Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist . Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander • Fr. Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian • Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . . Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist . . , Fr. Bourdaloue, a noted preacher . . Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician . < Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author . Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France Fr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet . Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • , Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer • Fr. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist , , Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . . Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, , 1840 1820 1793 1838 1S40 1639 I860 1893 1859 1851 1792 1773 1857 1858 183? 175i 1S4C 1683 1791 1823 1845 1629 1644 1788 1757 1823 1786 I860 C. Fr. Cabet, Etienne, communist . . . Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North America Eng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator • . Bpan. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator . . Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, &c. . Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet . . . Amei Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . Rom. Coesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . Fr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . • Fr. CaiDi, Ren6, ' Voyage a Timboucto,' &c. . • . 178S 1858 1477 1557 1500 1810 f. 1456 1450 1742 1803 1769 1821 6S0 1743 1786 B 0. 100 B. O. 44 1743 1795 1787 1838 936 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOH Ital. Gr. Eng. Span. Amer. Amer. Ital. Amer. Rom. Gr. Ger. Gr. Gr. Fr. Ital. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Fr. Eng. Pers. 3ng. Soot. Soot. Tort. Fr. Amer. Scot. Scot. Scot. Scot. Scot. Scot. Ger. Fr. Fr. Eng. Fr. Ital. Dan. Fr. Eng. Span. Gr. Rom. Ital. Brit. Brit. Ital. Eng. Fr. NAME AND PROFESSION. Cajetan, v.irdinal, diplomatist and author . Oalaber, Qlintus . • • Calamy, EJmund, Presbyterian divine and author . Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author . , Rev. James, revolutionary patriot Calepino, Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages Calhcun, John C, senator of the United States Caligula, Roman Emperor . . . Calippu:;, astronomer and mathematician . Calixius, Geo., Lutheran theologian . . Callinacnus, a poet . . • . f. Calluienes, philosopher and historian . , • Ca'rnst, Augustine, an erudite divine and author ■ Cs/.ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author . . Ce.lonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state . Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . . Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . . , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist . Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. . . Cambyses, second king of Persia . . Camden, "William, an eminent antiquary and historian . Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronians , Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country . Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author . Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect . . ■ , George, a divine and author . . , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &o. ■ , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich , John, lord chancellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancellors , Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c, Lord Clyde ■ , Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch,' &c. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . • Campiston, John G. de, dramatist . . . Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian . . Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . • Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea . . Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher . • Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' the Great ' Carefiguc, A. H. A., historian . Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . < • Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . • • Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . • Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . . Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson. . Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. . Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain . . Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist . . BORN. DIED 1510 1593 £ 250 1600 1666 1600 1687 1772 1853 1734 1781 1435 1511 1782 1850 12 41 b. c. 330 1588 1656 B. C. 150 B. ft. 328 1672 1757 1699 1768 1734 1802 1509 1623 1803 1676 1753 1824 1774 1850 » b 0. 521 1551 1623 16B0 1719 1517 1579 1752 1822 1792 1709 1796 1708 1775 1678 1743 1778 1861 1791 1863 1777 1844 1722 1789 1656 1723 1610 1688 1770 1827 1809 1805 995 1035 1799 1713 1781 1754 1810 1776 1831 188 217 1770 1799 (i ilt.) 100 250 293 1501 1576 . 1797 1720 1783 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 937 NATION. Fr. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Ital. Irish. Irish. Ital.* Eng. Eng. Span. Span. Ger. Scot. Scot. Gr. Fr. Eng. Eng. Fr. Gua. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Ger. Amer. Amer. Eng. Span. Amer. Amer. Fr. Ital. Rom. Eng. Ital. Port. Ital. Eng. Rus. Rus. Span.E Span. Eng. It. Fr. Eng. Rom. NAME AND PEOFESSION. Carfime, Mark Antony, famous cook . • Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars' Carew, Thomas, poet . . • . Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . . , Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . • , Henry C., political economist . , , Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c. . , William, missionary to India . . Carissimi, James, musical composer . • . Carleton, Wm., novelist . . , , Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . , Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer Carlos, Don, son of Philip IL, (hero of Schiller's tragedy; , Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico , Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times * . , Thomas, historian and metaphysician . Cameades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy, Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author . , "Wm. B., physiologist . . . Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician . Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . . , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . . Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . , Jonathan, traveller and author . . Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of ' Dante' . . Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . , . Cassin, John, ornithologist . . . Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar . Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer * Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal . Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist , . . Catesby, Mark, naturalist . , . Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great . . II., empress the " Great " and the vicious , of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . . , of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England — — — — Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . , de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . , Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL , Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator 40 BORN. "UBD. 1784 •.335 16&3 1773 1589? 16J9 1822 1596 1661 1793 1760 1839 1761 1822 1600 1673 1798 1724 1808 1720 1795 1802 1884 1768 1840 1545 1568 1788 1855 18- 1721 1805 1795 J. 218 b. o. 128 1753 1823 1780 1840 18— 1800 1836 1814 1737 1832 1717 1806 1830 1535 1603 1789 1732 1780 1621 1772 1840 1474 1564 1782 1866 1813 1625 1712 470 516 B. 0. 42 1606 1685 1468 1525 1355 1782 1849 1680 1749 1682 1727 1729 1796 1483 1536 1638 1703 1521 1542 1519 1589 1548 B. 0. 63 938 THE WORLL S PROGRESS. HAT ION. Ft. Amer. Rom. Eom. Rom. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. ItaJL E. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ital. Eng. Fr. S"r. Eng. EQg. Eng. Rom. Gr. Ital. Rom. Gr. Ital. Rom. Irish. Spun. Ital. ItaL Eng. Scot. Scot. Scot. Eng. Scot. Fr. Ger. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Fr. Fr, Ger, Swe. NAME AND PROFESSION. Catinat, Nicholas, military commander . . Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . Cato, Marcus Portius, the censor, statesman and author , Marcus Porcius, ofUtica, statesman . Catullus, Cuius Valerius, poet . . . Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . . Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist . Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ' Holy Court' Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1S48 Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . . Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer . , Thomas, navigator . . . BORN. 1637 D1SD. 1711 B. 0. B. 0. 232 b. o. 147 95 B. o. 46 S6 Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman Caston, William, the introducer of printing into England Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer . Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator . . Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . , , , Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . . , Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman ... Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 1780 1773 1583 1802 1749 1691 1505 1564 1809 1410 1720 1752 1748 (abt.) 1550 1520 2d cent. 1857 1807 1651 1857 1809 1754 41557 1591 1861 1492 1765 1805 1810 1612 1598 Cecrops, 1st king of Athens .... (abt.) b. o. 1500 Collini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music • . 1500 1570 Colsus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician . f. 30 , an Epicurean philospher . . • . f. 50 Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . . Censorius, a critic and grammarian . . . . f. 240 Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer ... 1667 Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ' Don Quixote' . 1547 Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . . 1783 Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author • . • 1730 Chalmers, Ales., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &c. . 1759 , George, miscellaneous writer . . . • 1744 , Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist . 1770 Chambers, Robert, publisher and author • . • 1802 , Sir William, an architect ... 1726 — , William, publisher and author . . . 1800 Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 1820 Chamisso, A. von, author of ' Peter Schlemihl,' bt ) 1560 1748 1771 1770 1772 1812. 1800 1732 1713 1730 1764 1190 L 3. c. 30 DIED. 1780 1855 1822 186- 1S43 1813 1768 1S06 1817 1864 B. c. 28 1 ? B. o. 283 CP. 322 1828 1813 1854 1812 1783 1810 1859 1816 1800 1650 1794 1806 1542 1754 1717 1646 1863 1841 1849 1672 1500 1814 1841 1847 7.859 1865 1808 1784 1804 1*S« 946 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. XAME AND PROFESSION. Pruss. Diebitsch-Zabalkansky, count, military commander • Ger. Diffenbach, John Fred., Burgeon and surgical author . Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' Athenseum 1 . Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist . . . Maced. Dinoerates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . . Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor . . . Gr. Dio-Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible • Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian . . . Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher . ... Gr. , Laertins, biographer . •--■•• Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of « Roman History ' . . Gr Dionysius, a geographer .... Gr. , of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church . Gr. , the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian Gr. — , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse . . Gr. , of Halicarnassus, critic and historian . Gr. , the younger, tyrant of Syracuse • • Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' . . Amer. Dix, D'r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums • Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. Eng. Dixon, W;lliam Pepworth, author and critic . . Amer. Doane, leo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &c, Eng. Dobell, Rj-diey, poet ..... Eng. Dodd, Or. "V illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) Eng. Doddridge, f'hilip, a gifted and pious divine and writer Eng. Dodsley, Kcbert, publisher and author . . Ger. Doebere:'me" v 7 "W., chemist . . . Span. Dominic De jruzman, founder of preaching friars . Rom. Domitian, etiperor .... Scot. Don, David, ootanist ... . • Ital. Donatsllo (/cneto di Beilodi Bardi) sculptor . Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer • • Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . • Eng. Donovan, Edward, writer on natural history . • Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) Amer. Dorr, Tr <-mas ■W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island Er. En. D'Oiv ay, Gouct Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau ' . Hind. Dost-M-jhtmmed, emir of Caboo . . Eng. Douce, Fr&ncis, antiquarian and author . . . Scot. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . • Amer. . Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor . Scot. Sir Howard, general, military and naval author Amer. , Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois Amer. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher . . . Amer, Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . Amer. Dowmng, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening and horticulture ... . . . Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator ... Eng. Drake, Dr. Nsthan, physician and essayist • . BORN 1>IE* 1785 183] 1792 1847 1775 1825 1810 1864 1802 f. b C. 350 245 313 f. B. C.30 1576 1649 f. B. C. 10 B. 0. 413 b. 0. 323 155 f. 140 265 . a. d. 1st cent. b. 0. 430 b. 0. 367 . 53 B. O. 367 b. 0. 343 1767 1848 1821 1799 1859 1824 y) 1729 1777 1702 1756 1703 1764 1780 1170 1221 52 96 1800 1840 1383 1466 1797 1848 1573 1631 1798 1837 1468 1560 ,nd 1805 1854 179S 1852 1785 1863 1762 1834 . 1474 1521 1817 - 1776 1861 1813 1861 1777 1834 1786 1855 mg 1815 1852 1772 1856 f. 623 1766 1839 BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 947 KATION. Amer. Amer. Eng. E. Am. Eng. Dutch. Eng. Fr. Fr. Scot. Eng. Scot. Rom. Eng. Amer. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Swiss. Fr. Scot. Scot. Scot. Scot Scot. Scot. Amer. Amer. Eng. Scot. Eng. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Ger. NAME AND PROFESSION. Drake, Joseph Rodman, poet . . . , Samuel G., historian of the Indians, Boston, &o , Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist . . Drayton, Michael, poet, ' Poly-olbion ' . . Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer . Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author Drouyn de l'Huys, Edward, statesman Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights , Sir 'William, scholar, author and diplomatist -, William, poet Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany Dryden, John, an eminent poet . Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' . Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . . Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . Duchesne, Andrew, a historian ... Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician Dugdale, Sir "William, antiquarian author . . Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . Duhalde, Jean B., geographer . . . Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c . . , Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist , J. B., chemist .... Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator . Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . . , P. S. L., writer on legislation . . Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' , William, poet .... Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . . , William, logician and translator • . Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral . Dunglisson, Rohley, M. D., medical author . . Dnnlap, William, painter and historian . . Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer . . Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . . Dunstan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician . Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . . , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . ■ , Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian . Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c, (at Philadelphia) Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral . . . Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . . , Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . . Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engraver . , Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author • Durer, Albert, painter aad engraver . . BORN. T>TBT}< 1795 1820 179S 1545 1590 1811 1563 1681 1572 1634 1765 183£ 1805 1773 IS5C 1797 1840 1760 1835 1585 164» B. C. 38 £ 1631 1700 1760 1835 1610 1688 . 15th cent. 1803 1584 1640 1704 1722 1823 1605 1686 1314 1380 1674 1743 1803 1S24 1800 1790 1842 1726 1759 1829 1730 1823 1774 1851 1465 1535 1731 1804 1714 1760 1741 1811 1775 1860 1798 1766 1839 1731 1783 1274 1308 925 988 1783 1865 17S4 1637 1719 1760 1S44 1803 1865 1778 1835 1610 1688 1796 1800 1471 152* 948 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. KATION, Amer. Eng. Eng. Fr. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Scot. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Ger. Amer. Ger. Irish. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Ainer. Ger. Flem. Ger. Ger. Eng. Scot. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. Dmrfee, Job, priest and author . . . Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author . . . Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer . , Theo., author and journalist . . , Theo., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian Duyckinck, Evert Aug. , author and critic . , Geo. Long, author andcritio . . Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - . Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece ' . . Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist E Eastburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. . Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critio • Eaton, Amos, botanist .... , Wm., military officer and consul in Africa . Eckerraan, John Peter, litterateur . Eckford, 3enry, eminent shipbuilder . . * Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist . . . . Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . . , Bola B., theologian and miscellaneous author . Edwards, 3ryan, an historian , tTohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism . , Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist -, W. S 1 ., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) Eginhard, S.E historian, biographer of Charlemagne Egmont, i amoral, count, patriot and martyr Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist . Eichbom, E C, theologian and jurist . Eldon, L.rl, lord chancellor of England . . Elgin, T., 3ruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles Elizabeth, queen ...... Eliot, Samjel, author of ' History of Liberty' . Ellenboro-:gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice . . : — t Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India E?lery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence Ellesmere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author Elle.t, Eliza F., biographer and critic . . Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . . Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . . (abt.) Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England' , Ebenezer, poet ' Cora Law Rhymes' , J. D., commodore in American navy , Stephen, naturalist . . Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman and author . . Sir Henry, antiqtiary and author . BORN. DIED. 1790 1841 1628 1723 1792 1840 1772 1813 1752 1817 1765 1848 1866 1816 . 1823 1863 1797 1700 1758 1796 1720 1801 1793 1776 1842 1764 1811 1792 1852 1775 1832 1674 1730 1767 1849 1330 1376 1802 1743 1800 1799 1703, 1757 1777 771 840 1552 1568 1795 1781 1854 1750 1838 1771 1841 1533 1603 1821 1750 1818 1790 1727 1820 1800 1857 1604 1690 1795 1812 1817 1781 1785 1845 1771 lfcW 1815 1777 '- BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 949 KATIOH. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Soot. Fr. Dutch. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Irish. Irish. Amer. Amer. Gr. Amer. Ger. Eng. Fr. Er. Gr. Gr. Gr. Dutch. Ger. Gr. Span. Span. S.Am. Eng. Pruss. Ger. Scot. Scot. Scot. Assyr. Span. Span. Amer. Fr. Ger. Eng. Fr. Aust. Eng. Afric. Fr. Span. Swiss. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ellis, "Wm. Rev., missionary and author . Elliston, Robert W., actor . . . i Ellsworth, Elmer E., military officer in Union army . , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. S. BORN. (abt.) 1795 1774 1837 3745 1782 1778 1811 Elmes, James, arcbitect and author . Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . Elssler, Fanny, danseuBe . . . Elzevir, Louis H. G. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries Embury, Emma E., poet . . . Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author . , ' . — ■ , Ralph "Waldo, poet and essayist , . "William, a distinguished mathematician . . . Emmet, Robert, ' United Irishman ' (executed) , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator • Emmons, Eben, geologist and author — , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . • Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . Encke, John Francis, astronomer .'"'•'"'• Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts • • Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . • Enfield, "William, miscellaneous writer . , Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) . Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and „cldier Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . . Epictetus, a stoic philosopher Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phLotOpliulS . B Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and ftltlxr . Erastus, Thomas, founder of ' Erastianism' tbeo'iogy • Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher 1 Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet . Eriocira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian . Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . , Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . Erman, A. G., ' Travels in Siberia,' &c. . . . Ernesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic . • Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian . . . ■ , Ralph, divine, 'Gospel Sonnets' . . , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin. - of Assyria Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist . Espartero, J. B., Duke of Vittoria, statesman and soldier Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . . . Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . . Ess, L. Van, theological miter . . • Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander , Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist . 1636 Euclid, an eminent geometrician . . . f. B. 0. 300 Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 166S Eugenie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , . 1826 Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician . . 1707 DIMl 1831 1861 180J 185S 1806 1797 1803 1701 1780 1764 1798 1746 1791 1589 1804 1741 1772 1728 40 342 1467 1524 276 1525 1614 1803 1806 1707 1680 1685 1750 B. C. 15S9 1792 1785 1772 1770 1567 1729 17S2 1803 1827 1863 1840 1865 1665 1849 1797 1804 1810 b. C. 363 b. o. 371 1556 1583 b. o. 196 1595 1781 1758 1752 1823 7th cent. 1669 1860 1840 1847 1601 1794 1694 1736 950 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, Gt. Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet . . . ] Gr. EuteVrus, bishop of Cassarea, a learned father of the church, and ecclesiastical historian . • • Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • Rom. Eutyehes, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect . Amer. Evans, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . Amer. Evarts, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) . ']■ ig. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer , . . •Amer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist . Amer. — ■ — , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author fel-er. Ewflld, Geo. H. A. von, orientalist and theologian . Kn.Am, Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics Amer. Ewing, Thos., statesman and jurist . . Eng. Exmouth, V,dw. Pellew, viscount, admiral • F Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer . Eng. , Frederick: Wm., Eoman Catholic priest and theological author ..... Rom. Fabiu>i, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . . Ger. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . Ital. , John Christian, a celebrated entomologist Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . . Eng. Fabyan, Robeil, chior'oler ... "Ital. Facciolato, or Pacciclati. Jac, philologist . . Pruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher Eng. Fairfax, Edwfcd, poet, translator of Tasso Eng. , Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war . ling. Falconer, William, a poet .... Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) . Eng. Falkland, Lucius Gary, viscount, poliiician and author Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Richard, poet and diplomatist . Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist .... Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet . Eng. Farmer, Hugh, theologian .... Amer. Farnham, Mrs. Eliia W., traveller and philanthropist Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist . . . Amer. Farrar, John, m?tbe>;i-atician and author * . Vi. Fancher, Leon, political economist . . . Fr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author Ger. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing . . St. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician . . Eng. Eawkes, Francis, a poet and translator . . Amer. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist . . Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer , Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East . Amer. Felton, Cornelius fa., scholar and critic, president of Harvard College .... Fr. Fenfilon, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and one of the most virtuous of men . . Bwe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist . BORN. 0. 480 f. 360 DIES. 0. 40« 343 1755 1819 1781 1831 1620 1651 1790 1S47 1794 1865 1803 1792 1789 1757 1833 1773 1815 1854 • B O. 204 1668 1736 1742 1807 1732 1803 1450 1515 1684 1760 1686 1736 1633 1611 1671 1730 1769 1355 1610 1643 1608 1668 1790 1867 . 1588 1647 . 1714 1787 1815 1864 1678 170T 1779 1853 1803 1854 1772 1844 1463 1809 1632 1693 1807 . 1632 1693 1799 1807 1651 1743 186a 171S BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 951 NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher . Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c. Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art ' . 8pan. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . . Scot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist .... Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist Amer. , Wm. Pitt, U. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas. Ger. Feuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist . Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher . . . Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . . Amer. Field, Cyrus "W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph . Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria . Amer. Fillmore, Millard, loth president IT. S. Amer. Finney, Char'.es G., preacher and theological writer . Pers. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses Amer. Fisk, "Wilbur, president "Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &c, Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . Rom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . Rom. , Caiue, general, consul, and censor of tribune Eng. • Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal . . Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet .... Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-conformist divine . Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . . Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist ...» Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author . Eng. , Giles, poet .... Eng. , John, a dramatist . • . . Eng. , Phineas, poet .... Fr. Fleury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman It. , Claude, a divine and historian . . Amer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian . . Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . , Ger. , John G., lexicographer . . Ger. Follen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . Fr. Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . . Eng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . . Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . . Eng. , John, M. D., medical writer ... Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian • • Ital. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer « , Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author . . BORN. 1724 1710 1808 1652 1782 1763 1771 1806 1804 1775 1701 1762 1433 1819 1805 1822 1787 1707 1S00 1792 940 1792 1743 B. a. 230 b. s. 1646 1633 1627 1632 1801 1785 1658 1580 1576 1584 1653 1640 1780 1755 1802 1788 1796 1787 1657 1806 1721 1815 1787 1790 1688 1586 DIED. i8ia 1.78 lies 1854 1839 1837 1833 1764 1814 1499 1855 1754 1547 1020 1839 1798 C. 17 G. 17 719 1688 16.1 1710 1857 1716 1627 1625 1650 1743 1722 1840 1794 1855 1846 1865 1757 1863 1771 1864 1640 952 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. FiTrOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain , Itai Foresti, E. Felice, patriot aud litterateur . An.er, Forrest, Edwin, actor . . • j.'c a . l\->rster, John, journalist and author • G6r. , John R., traveller and naturalist . Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archasologist (Ency. Antiq.) Ttal. Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice Ital. Foseolo, Nicol Ugo, poet and musical author . Eng. Foster, John, essayist Fr. Fouche, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist Ger. Fouque, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &o, Fr. Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system . Fr. , Francis M. C, writer on social science . Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist . . . Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orator Eng. , George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' . Eng. , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . Ital. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . s Francia, Jose G. R., dictator of Paraguay . . Ame* Francis, John W., physician and author . . Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' . . Savey. , de Sales, saint and bishop . • • Irish. , Sir Philip, political writer ... Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman En£. , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer . . Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, jacobite leader, beheaded . Piuss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. S. Amer. Frelinghuysen, Theo., statesman ...» Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman . Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . . . Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . • Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. . . Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . • Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author '. . . Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . . Amer. Frothingham, Richard, Jr., historian and journalist . Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist ... Amer. — , "Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . * Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . . Amer. , Richard, D. D., Baptist preacher and author Amer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, litterateur . Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian . . Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist ... Fr. Furetiere, Anthony, a philosopher . . . Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author Ger. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist . Swiss. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art . BOEN t»p*» 1796 1851 1793 1853 1806 1S12 1729 179J 1780 1841 . 1770 1842 1372 14511 1777 1827 1770 184? 1763 1820 1777 1843 . 1772 1388 1772 1831 1809 ors 1748 1800 1624 1690 1517 1587 . 1810 1769 1806 1757 1840 1789 1861 1182 1228 1567 1623 1740 1808 1706 1790 17S6 1847 1667 1747 1712 1786 1759 1835 1787 1862 1813 1752 1832 1769 1846 1773 1594 1806 1333 1400 1812 1780 1845 1815 1864 1754 1815 1808 1810 1850 1608 1661 1812 1620 1683 >r 1802 1805 1741 1821 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 953 G RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer, Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman , * Amer. , James, statesman and negotiator . • Eng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetts • . Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . • Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..'... Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian Amer. Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander . • Rom. Gaius, or Caius, jurist and legal •writer . . • Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . > • EruAm. Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer * . Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science of phrenology .... Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet S. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnoL Amer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for deaf and dumb ..... Russ. Gallitzin, Ihe name of several distinguished princes . . Russ. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . Scot. Gait, John, novelist ...... ItaL Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dis- coverer of galvanic electricity .... Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law . Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist . . . . Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer . . . Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry Spau. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru . Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader Pr. Gamier, Count Germain, jurist . . • Eng. Gai-rick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist . Amer Garrison, "William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... Eng. Gaskell, Elizabeth C, novelist . . . Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher . Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, general, . . Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the Revolution Fr. " Gavarni," real name Snlpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet .... Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist .... Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian . Amer. Gayarre, Charles A., historian .... Eng. Gell, Sir William, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) Ger. Gellert, Chrisiian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer Rom. Gellius, Aulius. grammarian .... Fr Genest, ci Genet, Edwarrt O, diplomatist . . BORN. DIED 1724 1806 178S 1858 1787 1670 1740 1755 1829 1"2S 1806 1777 1849 1st cent. 131 1786 1564 1642 1758 1828 1808 1761 L849 1787 1851 16th to 17th cent. 1770 1840 1779 1839 1737 179S le 1524 88 1798 1841 1779 1832 1503 1536 1559 1483 1555 1806 1754 1821 1716 1779 1805 1718 3 1350 1413 1820 1865 1592 1655 1489 1512 172S 1806 1.801 1688 1732 1778 1850 1809 1805 1777 1836 1715 1769 A.D, 2d cent. 1705 1834 954 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NAUOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. Bai. GenghiB-Khan; a celebrated conqueror . . G-enlis, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century Geoffroy-Saint Hilaire Etienne, zoologist . . , Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . . Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France . Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Caesay, military commander Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author . Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller GervinuB, George Gottfried, historian and politician Gesenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critio Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist ... , John Matthias, a philologist . . Fr. Eng. Fr. Fr. Fr. Rom. Amer. Fr. Amer. Ger. Ger. Swiss. Ger. Ital. Ame' Giannone, Peter, an historian . . . . , Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author . Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians Amer. Gibbs, Josiah "W., philologist .... Amor. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo- lution ...... , Thomas Milner, statesman . • Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman . • • Gifford, William, a critic and poet . . , John, an historical and political writer * Gieseler, John K. L., church historian . . Gilbert, James W., writer on banking . , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer Eng. Amer Eng. Eng. Ger. Eng. Eng. Scot. Eng. Gilfillan, George, clergyman and author . . Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author Amer. Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering Scot. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. Amer. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire • Amer. , Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author . Eng. Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' ■ . . Eng. , Wm., writer on the picturesque . . Eng. Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist . . Ital. Gioberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences . Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist . . . Fr.Am. , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire • Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . . Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author . Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author . . Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . . • Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author . Ger. Glnck, Christop W. von, musical composer . Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist Fr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the Crusades ..... Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, — , Jeded. V., poet and novelist . . BORN. DIED. 1522 1568 1730 1792 1803 1780 1862 1778 1S17 1785 1864 1736 1806 , C. 114 b. c. 50 1769 1835 8th cent. b. c. 1805 1741 1828 1815 1801 1793 1862 1726 1790 1752 1827 1819 1724 1758 1725 1799 1814 1596 1666 1804 1795 1765 1848 1672 1769 1750 1831; 1813 1860 1611 1630 1721 1762 1836 946 996 1798 1864 1802 , 1775 1845 1753 1825 1767 1835 1769 1859 1711 1776 1777 1855 1779 1S59 1753 1818 1400 1456 1804 1S58 1784 1859 1785 1859 1826 1728 1792 1809 1707 1791 1744 1813 1815 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 963 KATIOlf, Anier, Eng. Eng. Ger.. Irish. Amer. Eng. Amer. Ger. Eng. Scot. Dutch. Fr. Ind. Gr. Jew. NAME AND PROFESSION. Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author . Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &c. . Huskisson, Rohon "William, able statesman . Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer . Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer * Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N. E. Antinomians . ' , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) -, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian Hutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician , James, a geologist and philosopher Huygens, Christian, a scientific author . Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior , Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher . Hyrcanus L and IL, high priests . BORN. DIED. . 1319 172C 1808 1769 1830 1376 1416 1694 1747 1643 1617 1664 n 1711 178C 1488 1523 1737 1823 1726 1797 1629 1705 1776 1857 1717 1782 . 370 415 1st and 2d cent. Turk. Gr. Span. Eng. Fort. Amer. Amer. Scot. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Gr. Eng. Amer. Amer. Scot. Amer. Amer. Amer. Span. Span. Gr. Heb. Fr. Gr. Span. Iamblichus, Neo, Platonic philosopher . Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , * Ibycus, a lyric poet . . , Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits . , Saint, primitive father of the church , St., patriarch of Constantinople . . Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist , Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal . . Ingersoll, Charlas J., statesman and historian , Joseph E., statesman and lawyer . Inglie, Henry D., traveller and author » Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar . . Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter , John, journalist and litterateur . , Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . . Irenasus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author . Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour ' . . ■ , W. H., author of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries' Irene, a Byzantine empress ... Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of bis general Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels , Peter, author (brother of Washington) . , Rev. Edward, theological writer , Theodore, author of Conquest of Florida' , Washington, historian and essayist , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus II. , queen of Spain ... Isaeus, an orator . . . • . Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophets . Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist . . Isocrates, an orator . • . . Iturbide, emperor of Mexico • • • • A. D. 4th cent. 1789 1848 f. B. 0. 550 1491 1556 . 107 779 877 • 1756 1821 1355 • 1782 17S6 1862 . 1795 1835 1774 1850 • 1801 1846 1850 . 402 to 1687 2d cent. . 1750 1800 1777 1835 . 752 803 rals 1610 1810 1651 1771 1838 • 1792 1809 1834 • 1783 1859 1766 1821 • 1451 1830 1504 B. C. 418 b. o. (abt; 800 , 1792 1857 • E. 0.436 . 1784 1824 964 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. Amer. Ives, Levi S., ex-protestant episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797 Amer. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) . • .1742 1804 Amer. Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. . Amer. , James, eminent physician . . . Amer. , Gen. Andrew, military commander, president U. S. Amer. , Patrick T., eminent merchant . . Amer. , Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall '), rebel general Eng. , "William (' of Exeter ') musical composer . Heb. Jacob, the Patriarch Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &o. . Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist Fr. Ja'cotot, Jean J., educational writer . . Fr. Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom Fr. Jacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . Dutch. Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist . Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar • Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian • Amer. , Henry, philosophical writer . . . Amer. , John Angell, congregational clergyman and author , St., the Elder, apostle . . . , St., the Less, "... Eng. Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art . . S C0 t. , Robert, naturalist and author . . Pers. Jami, or Djami, poet .... Scot. Jamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author . Fr. Janin, Jules, litterateur .... Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect . . Ital. Januarius, patron saint of Naples . . . Amer. Jarves, James J., traveller and author . . Amer. Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist Fr. Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet . . . Amer. Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution . Amer. , John, a distinguished patriot and statesman Amer. Jay, "William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist . Eng. , Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . . Ger. Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician Irish. Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pros, of the U. Scot. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic . Eng. Jeffreys, George, infamous judge Hind. Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthrop Aust. Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia , Eng. Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier . . Eng. Jenkyns, William, non -conformist (' on Jude ') . Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculation Eng. Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellaneous writer . Scot. Jerdan, William, journalist .... Heb. Jeremiah, prophet . . • . fl. B 1805 1777 1767 1845 1780 1847 1826 1863 1730 1803 0. 1836 b. C. 1689 1743 1819 1764 1847 1770 1840 1752 1834 1801 1832 1727 1817 1750 1817 1801 1860 1811 1785 1859 44? 66? 1797 1860 1774 1854 1414 1492 1759 1838 1804 1585 1638 272 305 1818 1786 1S51 1793 1864 1750 1779 1745 1829 1779 1858 1769 1853 1412 1431 1763 1825 1736 1775 1743 1S26 1773 1850 1648 1689 1783 1859 1801 1859 1770 1828 1612 1685 1749 1823 1704 1787 1782 . 0. 678 67« BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 965 f. RATION. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Er. ItaL Heb. HoL Fr. Heb. Eng. Ger. Pol. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir "William, general and governor in North America Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . , Scot. , Alex. K., geographer . • . Scot. , George, writer and naturalist . . Scot. , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author Fr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler . Fr. , Francois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louie, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer . Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . . Heb. Jonah, the prophet . . - . Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas NAME AND PROFESSION. Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church . , of Prague, reformer, companion of Huss Jerrold, Douglas, essayist . . . Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral , Jewell John, learned prelate and author . Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist . » Joan of Arc, 'the greatest of heroines' . Joanna, queen of Naples . . Joel, the prophet ...» Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everard), poet Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . . John, the Evangelist . . . , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster , king of Saxony and author . — — , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general , Edward, historian of N. England . Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty , Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' , Alex B., philologist and miscellaneous wr , Andrew, president U. S. . , Reverdy, jurist and statesman , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. S , Samuel, first president Columbia College and author , Walter R.. physicist .... iter Eng. Amer. Scot. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Icel. Irish. Dan. Eng. Fr. Jew. Heb. -, Inigo, an eminent architect ... -, Jacob, commodore in the U. S. navy -, John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States -, Owen, architect and decorator . . -, Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology -, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer -, Rev. William, ' of Nayland, 1 Hutchinsonian divine -, William, divine and author . . Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian . . Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author , Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites BORN. DIED 420 1416 1782 1857 1774 1823 1522 1571 1833 1410 1431 b. o. 800 1511 1538 1803 1852 100 1340 1399 1801 . 1629 1696 1600 1672 . 1649 1703 1709 1784 1786 1808 1796 3. 1780 1850 1696 1772 1794 1852 ea 1715 1744 1803 1862 1804 1798 1855 . 1796 1855 1224 1319 1818 1730 1714 1744 1775 f. B . O. 862 1798 1858 . 1572 1652 1770 1850 1736 1792 1809 1810 1746 1794 1726 1800 1726 1800 1574 1637 1704 1789 1762 1814 1779 1830 1698 1770 1761 1814 . v 37 95 B. 0. 1509 966 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. rATiON Heb. Heb. Fr. Fr. Ger. Mex. Jew. Heb. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Dan. Eom. Fr. Hind. Ger. Ger. Dutch. Fr. Fr. Fr. Gr. Rom. Gr. Gr. Rom. NAME AND PKOFESSION. jTosiah, 17th king of Judah . , . Jotham, king of Judah . . < Jouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman Jourdan J. B., marshal of France . . Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor . . Juan, or John, of Austria, don, -warrior , . Juarez, Benito, statesman and president . Juba, king of Numidia ...» , king of Mauritania and historian . . Judah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist , Judas Maccaheus, patriot . . . Judd, Sylvester, author of ' Margaret ' . . Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India . , Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above . , Emily Chubbuck, third wife of above, and author (' Fanny Forester ') . . , Sarah Boardman, second wife of above . Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral . .. Jugurtha, Numidian king . . . Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, tate' ..... Julien, A. J., orientalist ... Jullien, Louis G., musical composer, &o. . Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . • Junge, Joachim, philosopher . . Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author . . Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer , Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &e. Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor , Latin historian .... , Martyr, one of the fathers of the church Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists 1 Apos< BORN. DIED. B. C. 641 B, o. 609 B. C. 783 b. o. 742 1796 1842 1762 1833 364 1546 1578 1807 B. C. 46 B. C. 18 129 194 B. C. 160 1813 1853 1788 1850 1789 1826 1817 1854 1803 1845 1629 1697 B. 0. 104 331 363 1799 1812 1860 1816 1587 1657 1740 1817 . 1512 1575 1771 1813 17S4 1839 1748 1836 450 627 B. 0. 200 91 165 482 565 128 Ger. Ger. Fr. Bwe. Scot, Amer. Ger. Russ. Fr. K Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . . Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer . Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... Kamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich Islands . ... — — , II. king, introduced Christianity . , III. introduced Constitution . , ; , IV. (Alex. Liholiho) . . Karnes, Henry Home, lord, judge and author . Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician . . . Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire Karr, J. B Alphonse, miscellaneous author . . (abt) 1651 1719 1717 1715 1800 1824 1817 1834 1596 1820 1724 1765 1808 1716 1799 1780 1779 1854 1827 1857 1804 1826 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 967 NATION, Eng. Irish. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Irish. Soot. Fr. Fr. Irish. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger. Eng. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. Kater, Henry, mathematician • . Kavanagh, Julia, novelist .... Kean, Charles John, actor • • • , Edmund, tragedian .... , Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion Keats, John, a poet .... Keble, John, divine and poet .... Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author . . Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral . , James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian serri , Thos., mathematician, (' Use of Globes ') . Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general . , Franc Etienne, son of above, general . Kelly, Michael, composer and singer . . Kemble, Charles, actor .... , Frances Anne, actress and author . , John M., scholar and historian . . , John Philip, celebrated tragedian . Kemfelen, "Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imitation of Christ' Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological writer Amer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . . Amer. , George W., journalist and author . , Amer, Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author . Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . . Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist . Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . . Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critio . Ir.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author . Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria -, James, jurist, chancellor of New York • . — , William, judge, esteemed jurist . , Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist .... , John, poet .... Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Ger. Eng. Scot. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer ... Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . . . Kerr, Robert, miscellaneous writer ... Amer. Key, Francis S., author of 'Star Spangled Banner' Eng. Kidd, "Wm., noted pirate, executed . . . Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist . . . Scot. Kilmarnock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded . Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , . . Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New Tork - , Amer. , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist . . Amer. , Thomas Starr, author .... Amer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president Eng. Kinglaka, Alex. Wrn., M. P., author of 'Eothen' . Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities Eng. Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet . Amer. Kip, "Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author Amer Kirkland, Caroline M., author of travels and essaya . BORN, 1777 1824 18,11 1787 1805 1S15 1796 1790 1800 1746 1696 1759 1735 1770 1762 1775 1S11 1S07 1757 1754 1380 1637 17S9 1810 1809 1782 1795 1660 1718 1797 1767 1763 1732 17S3 1571 1726 1779 1612 1702 1818 1789 1755 1824 1786 1802 1795 1819 1811 DfED, 1835 1S62 1820 1820 1758 1824 1820 1835 1826 1854 1857 1823 1806 1471 1711 1825 1728 1783 1863 1S20 1S47 1861 1802 1S56 1630 1786 1814 1843 1701 1690 1746 1S67 1827 1864 1S53 1837 1864 968 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Kitchine,WilliMn, writer on Cookery . . Eng. Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author , Hung. Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author • Pruss. Klapioth, Henry J., philologist aid ethnologist Fr. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer . « Ger. Klopstock, the ' Milton of Germany ' . Ger. Knapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . . Amer. , Samuel L., miscellaneous writer . Eng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author , Eng. , Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer . Irish. Knowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author Amer. , Henry, military officer and statesman . Ger. Knyphausen, baron, general in British service . Ger. Koch, Christopher William, historian . . Pr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist . Ger. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . . Dan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer Ger. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet Pol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and pitriot, served in the Ameri- can army during the Revolution . . Hung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary . Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Per. von, historian, &c. . Hung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist . . Pol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . . . Ger. Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian • Ger. » Fred. William, religious writer . . Russ. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . . , Ger. Kugler, Frunz Theodore, writer on art, &c. . Ger. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic .... Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist .... Russ. Kutusofl, Michael L. G., field-marshal . Ii. Ft. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian . . Ital. Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist . , . Eng. Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman . Fr. Laborde, A L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. . . Fr. Labruyere, see Bruyire .... Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist Fr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur . . Fr. Lacroix, Sylvestre ¥., mathematician Lactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero Rom. Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, praetor and consul Fr. Laennel, an eminent physician .... Fr. Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner Fr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c, military commander and states- man ..... Fr. — , George W., statesman . , Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman Fr. , Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate . BORN. DISS 1821 1804 1864 1820 1784 1835 1754 1800 1724 1803 1753 1825 1784 1S38 1791 1750 1824 1784 1862 1752 1821 1750 1806 1730 1789 1737 1813 1794 1808 1804 1791 1813 1746 1817 1802 1761 1819 1804 1860 1780 1855 1768 1845 1770 1846 1808 1858 1768 1841 1788 1745 1813 1663 1738 1794 1858 1798 1774 1842 1756 1825 1802 1766 1817 1765 1833 325 C. 186 b. O. 115 1782 1826 1816 1852 1757 1834 1768 1844 1780 P 182* BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 969 SATIOV. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ger. La Fontainej Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous Fr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist , , Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Louis, able mathematician . , Fr. La Gueronniere, Louis E. A., viscount de, publicist . Fr. Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &c. , Scot. Laing, Malcolm, historian . . ... Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer . Amer. Lamar, Mirabeau B., second president of the republic of Texas Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist . . . Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 Fr. Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states' man ..... Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist .... Eng. , Bady Caroline, novelist . . . Ital. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution . Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .... Eng. ■ , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds . Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer Fr. Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general . . . Fr. Lamotte Fouque, Fred., baron de, novelist ' Undine' Eng. Bancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education . . Amer. Lander, Fred. "W., military officer (k. at Ball's Bluff ) . Eng. , Richard and John, travellers in Africa . . Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts . Eng. , (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist . . Eng. Landor, "Walter Savage, poet and essayist . . Eng. Landseer, John, engraver and author . . . Eng. Lane, Edw. Wm., orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &c, Amer. , James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon . Ger. Lange, commentator on scripture . . . Amer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator . , Ital. Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury . . Eng. Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author . . . Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury Fr. Lannes, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France . Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council Eng. , William Petty, marquis of, premier Ital. Lanzi, Buigi, writer on art .... Fr. La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator Fr. Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo metrician ..... Lappenberg, Johann M., historian . • , Irish. Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science . Eng. , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . . Fr. Larrey, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author . Fr. La Salle, Robt. C, sieur de, navigator and author . . Span. Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . . Fr. > biographer of Napoleon, &c. . . . Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian . Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer Eng. Latham, John, ornithologist .... Eug. — — - — . Robert G., philologist and ethnologist 41* BORN. DIED. 1756 1831 1621 1695 1736 1813 1816 1739 1793 1762 1818 1732 1801 1798 1853 1782 1807 1770 1832 1802 1776 1834 1785 1828 1748 1792 1761 1842 1770 1809 1782 1854 1806 1866 1777 1843 1771 1839 1822 1862 1834 1826 1S02 1839 1775 1864 1769 1852 1801 1867 1739 1819 1605 1689 1735 17- 1228 1769 1809 1780 1863 1737 1805 1732 1810 1741 1789 1749 1827 1794 1793 1859 1684 1768 1760 1842 1635 ".687 1474 1566 1762 1843 1800 1470 1555 1740 1851 970 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Land, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition Soot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History Amer. Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war Amer. } Henry, patriot and statesman . . Fr. Laval ette, M. C, count de, military commander . Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist . Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . Scot. Law, John, financier of the ' Mississippi Bubble ' ■ Eng. , "Wm., religious and mystical author . . Amer. Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . Amer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist • Amer. , James, captain in U. S. Navy . . Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . . Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to Washington, diplomatist . Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet . . . Leclerc, John, eminent critic . . . . Le Conte, John, naturalist . . . , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) , John, M. D., naturalist, (G-eorgia) . Amer. Amer. Amer. Fr. Amer. Amer.' Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Fr. Amer. Fr. Amer. Ger. Eng. iEng. Scotch Amer. Amer. Eng. Irish. PoL Fr. Eng. Eng. Fr. Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician . Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman . . , Charles, officer in the Revolution . . , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . . , Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . , Henry, general in Revolutionary War . , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies , Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . • , Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar . . , Sophia, Miss, novelist . . • Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litterateur . Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . . Leighton, Robert, able prelate . . Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer . Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . , John, eminent divine and author . , Thomas, eminent divine and author . Lelewel, Joachim, historian Lemaitre, Fred., actor . -. ■ • Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of ' Punch ' Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer L'Enclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan BOKN. 1573 1784 1756 1724 1769 1644 1741 1743 1671 1686 1792 1786 1781 1817 1792 1777 1760 1729 1657 1784 1825 1818 1808 1751. 1740 1730 (7) (abt.) 1800 1734 1750 1756 1S08 1732 1783 1750 1817 1755 1797 1753 1802 1646 1532 1752 1613 1824 1691 1772 1786 1798 1809 1824 1615 MEt» 164S 1848 17S2 1792 1830 1710 1801 1794 1729 1761 1855 1852 1S13 1860 1826 1807 1736 1783 1782 1782 1797 1824 1816 1794 1852 1824 1864 1820 1843 1833 1840 1716 1588 1842 1684 1691 1766 1785 1683 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. Dutch. Lennep, David J. van, jurist and poet . . Dutch. , Jan van, poet and novelist . . Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. T.) . . Er. Lenornrand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors Ital. Leo X, pope (John do Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts Ger. Leo, Henry, historian .... Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylae . f. Ger. Leopold L, king of the Belgians . Ger. I, emperor of Germany .... Ger. VI, " " . Ger. II, "".... Bom. Lepidus, noted Boman family ... Ger. Lepsius, Karl Bich., traveller and Egyptologist . Buss. Lermontoff, Michael, poet .... Fr. Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist ... Er. Leroy de St. Arnaud, J. A, marshal of France, general in chief Fr. Lesage, Alain Bene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias ' Eng. Leslie, Charles Bobt., artist and author ... Scot. , John, bishop, theological writer . . Scot. , John, mathematician and natural philosopher . Fr. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist ... Ger. Leasing, Gotthold E., critic and author ... Amer. Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . . Eng. LEstrange, Sir Boger, political writer ... Fr. Leuret, Francis, anatomist .... Fr. Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist . Irish. Lever Chas. Jas., novelist .... Amer. Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author . . Fr. Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer . . . Amer. Le Vert, Octavia "W., authoress .... Scot. Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher Eng. Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author . . Amer. Lewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence Amer. , Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. Eng. , Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer, Monk Lewis Amer. , Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . . Amer. , Samuel, educationist ... Eng. , Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman . Amer. , Taylor, classical scholar and author . . Scot. Leyden, John, author ..... Fr. L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France Ger. Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher . Amer Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin) Ger. Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist ... Buss. Lieven, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . . Eng. Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . . Dutch Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and author . ItaL Liguori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer Eng. Lilly, George, dramatist ...-,. Eng. , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer . , Eng. , William, astrologer . .' . . 971 BORN. DIKH 17T4 1802 1710 1804 1772 1843 s. 1475 1521 1799 B. c. 491 1790 186- 1640 1705 1747 If 92 1797 B. c. 200 86 1811 1811 1841 1798. 1S01 ' 1S54 1668 1747 1794 1859 1570 1671 1766 1832 1S05 1729 1781 1815 1616 1704 1797 1851 1753 1824 1806 1803 1836 1811 1820 1813 1817 1713 1803 1754 1S32 1773 1818 1774 1799 1854 1806 1802 1775 1811 1504 1573 1742 1790 1800 1803 1784 1857 1735 1814 1735 181* 1696 17S7 1693 17E3 . 1553 1600 1602 1681 972 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION Dutch. Amer. Amer. Amer. Anaer. Swe. Eng. Eng. Scot. Swe. Eng. Fr. Swe. Eng. Eng. Hung. Eng. Ger. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Scot. Rom. Span. Eng. Fr. Eng. Scot. Eng. Ind. Amer. Amer. Eng. Irish. Russ. Irish. Amer. Amer. Gr. Eng. Amer. Amer. Fr. Amer. Amer. Span. , NAME AND PROFESSION. Limboreh, Philip, theologian and author . . Lincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. S, , Benjamin, major-general in the Revolutionary War , Levi, attorney -general of the U. S. (from Mass.) -, Levi, governor of Massachusetts . . Lind, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist Lindley, John, botanist Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &c , Sir David, poet . „ . Ling, Peter E., physiologist and poet . . Lingard, John, author of ' History of England' Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian . Linnaeus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists Lipsius, Justus, critic .... Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon Listou, John, comic actor . . . . . Liszt, Francis, performer on piano . . Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist . Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier Livingston, Brockholst, soldier and jurist . . , Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman . , Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence , Bobert B., statesman and jurist , William, governor of New Jersey and poet Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian . Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &c. . Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author . . Lobau, count, marshal of France . . Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of' Quarterly Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief ■ , James, colonial statesman and author , John A, major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. Lofft, Capel, author . . ' . Lola-Montez, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author „ . — , James, rebel general . . Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . Longworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer Loomis, Elias, physicist, astronomer . . Lope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist BOHIi. DIES. 1633 17U 1809 1865 1733 1810 1749 1820 17S2 1821 1799 1812 (abt) 1490 1555 1776 1839 1771 1851 1736 1794 1707 1778 1547 1606 1S01 1S42 1776 1846 1811 1481 1781 1840 1S11 1770 1828 1757 1823 1764 1836 1716 1778 1747 1813 1723 1790 1815 1866 . B. c. 59 A P. 17 1756 1823 1729 1783 1770 1838 1632 1704 1794 1854 1756 1S39 1780 1674 1751 1751 1824 1824 1S61 1S22 1711 1765 1769 1822 1784 1807 f. b. c. 250 1699 1755 1790 1619 1679 . 1782 1865 1811 1562 1635 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 973 NATION, Fr. Amer. Soot. Eng. French. Fr. Ft. Fr. Scot. Amer. Amer. Irish. Irish. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Span Eng. Rom. Gr. Rom. Ger. Rom. Rom. Eng. Span. Amer. Amer. Ger. Irish. Fr. Gr. Eng. Scot. Amor. NAME AND PROFESSION. Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist . . • Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agriculture, and architecture . . . , Mrs. Jane "W., horticultural -writer LOUIS, the name of eighteen kings of France Louis I., the Debonnaire . . IX, Saint XL, 6th of house of Valois . XII., 8th " " XIII., 2d Bourhon . , XIV., 3d «' XV., tth " XVI. XVII. XVIII. . Louis, baron, eminent surgeon . . Philippe, king of the French Napoleon. See Bonaparte. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist • , Rev. E. P., abolitionist journalist Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author . , James Russell, poet and critic . -, John, lawyer and philanthropist -, John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute , Mary, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer . Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union , "William J , statesman . . , , William Thomas, 'Biblio-Manual' . . Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author . Loyola. Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits . Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . -, Marcus Annaeus, Latin poet . . . Lucian, celebrated writer . . . Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . . . Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian . . . Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet . . Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . . Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L • Lully, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist . • Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist . Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation Luttrell, Henry, poet .... Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . .. • Lycni'gus, the Spartan legislator . * Eydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) . . LyeU, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller . . Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence BORN. 1524 1813 1783 1800 778 1215 1423 1462 1601 1638 1710 1754 1785 1755 1773 1667 1811 1802 1797 1769 1782 1819 1769 1799 1810 1722 1782 1710 1491 1800 120 :. C. 148 1792 . c. 95 . c. 115 1620 1235 1789 1484 1628 . O. 898 1375 1797 1749 DIES 1574 1813 1858 84C 1270 1483 1515 1643 1715 1774 1793 1795 1824 1837 1850 1747 1864 1837 1844 1861 1840 1836 1800 1861 1843 1787 1556 37 210 B. o. 191 1855 B. o. 49 1693 1315 1839 1546 1851 1695 1461 1"7J 974 the world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. Amer. Lynch, William P., captain U. S. navy, author of* Dead Sea, &c. 1805 Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) Amer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist . Amer. , Matthew, politician .... Amer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at "Wilson's Creek Gr. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . . Gr. Lysias, orator . . Gr. Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals . • Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian • m. Fr. Mabillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . « Scot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist . Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman . . Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . . Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . . Irish. MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of North-west passage Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist ... Amer. Maccorst, David J., political writer . . Scot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author . . Scot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . . Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author ... * Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . . Fr. Macdonald, S. T. A., marshal of France . Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake Ohamplain .... Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Union Army . . Amer. Macdume, Geo., U. S. senator from South Carolina . Scot. Macgillivray. Vm., naturalist . . . Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels Scot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. . . Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . . Scot. Macknight, James, divine and author . . . Aust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general . Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . ■ Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician . Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Court Eng. MacLean, L. E. L., (Miss Landon), poet and novelist 1772 1797 1849 1746 1822 1819 1861 . B. o. 395 b. c. 459 B. c. 360 B. 0. 281 1709 1763 1632 1707 1756 1836 . 1737 1806 nan 1800 1859 1768 1838 1733 1791 1819 1807 1826 1797 1855 1810 1789 1864 1826 1773 1835 . 1779 1808 1720 1790 1765 1840 1783 1825 ISIS 178S 1851 1796 1852 1797 1857 1469 1527 1S12 1734 1S17 1803 1849 1745 1831 1S09 (ibt.) 1S10 1766 1832 1690 1796 1721 1800 1752 1828 17S6 1857 1698 174« 17S5 1804 183S BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 975 BATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Irish. Mac.ise, Daniel, historical painter . , . Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . . . Amer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . , Scot. Maclnre, William, geologist, &c . . , , Fr. MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal . Scot. MacNah, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . . . Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. T.) Amer. Macomb, Major-General Alex., military commander Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian .... Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 1772 Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author . . . 1801 Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer .... 1794 Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . 1751 Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . . 12th Span. Madoz, Paecuale, statesman and author . . . 1806 Horn. Mascenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature Ital. Maffei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. Amer. Maffitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . . Irish. Magee,"Wm., archbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) . . Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . . Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist .... Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic Fr. Magn an, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author . . Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which hears his name ...... Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian .... Jew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi . . . Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen . „ . Ital. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics Ital. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . Eng. ' Maittaire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . Heb. Malachi, the prophet . . . Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author . Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' . Pr. Malebrahche, Nicholas, metaphysician Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . Ital. Malibran, M. P., Madame, vocalist . . Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet J . . Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer . . Swiea. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian . . . Eng.. Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . Eng, , Jas. H. H., (son of above), statesman . Eng. , William of, historian . . Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . ItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist Eng. Malt by, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist . BORN. DIED 1811 1774 1835* 1S21 1763 1840 1807 1798 1763 1841 1782 1841 1757 1837 1738 1798 1S28 1864 1793 1835 1836 B. C. 9 1675 1755 1794 1S50 1765 1831 1521 1783 1855 1793 1842 1791 1864 1810 569 632 1430 1480 1610 1686 1131 1204 1635 1719 1753 1821 1C6S 1747 B. C. 5th cent.'' 1787 1S64 1799 1769 1833 1638 1715 1721 1794 1808 1836 1555 1628 1702 1765 1730 1S07 1746 1820 1807 1143 1741 1812 1628 1694 1770 1858 976 THE WOELD'S FROGEESS. NATION. Ger. Ger. Eng. Ital. Eng. Pers. Ital. Ital. Amer. Eng. Eng. Ger. Amer. Scot. Eng. Ital. Ital. ItaL Ital. Fr. Eom. Ital. Arrer. Pt~s. SY. I>. 0er. Dan. Fr. Aust. Span. ItaL Span. Ger. Fr. Fr. Fr. Ital. Amer. Rom. Eng. Fr. Fr. Eng. Amer. Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Eng. Amer. NAME AND PROFESSION. Malte Bran, Conrad, poet and geographer . , M., geographer . . . Malthus, T. R., political economist . • Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author . Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author Manes, or Maniehaaus, founder of the Manichasan sect Manfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . . Mann, Horace, statesman and educationist . . Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author . Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . . . , "Win. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman Mantell, G. A., geologist . . . Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author , the Younger, printer and author . Paulns, (son of Manutius), printer BORN. . 1775 1766 1799 1300 239 (abt.) 1231 1804 1795 1812 1815 15S5 1803 1705 1790 1447 1547 1512 1784 1754 B. c. 267 1256 1786 Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi . . Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist • Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, general . . Marco Polo, Venetian traveller . • . Marcy, "Wm. Learned, statesman . • • Mardonius, Persian general in Greece . • Margaret of Angoul&me, queen of Navarre . . 1492 Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England . . 1429 Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 Margaret, queen of Denmark, &c, ' Semiramis of the North ' . 1353 Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552 Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . Mariana, John, celebrated historian .... Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . • MarieAmelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . . Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . . Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution Marins, Caius, famous general and demagogue . . B. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and traveller ...... Marrnontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . . Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet ... Mapes, James J., agriculturist .... Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi . Marrast, Armand, journalist and politician . . Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . • •_ Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . , Marsh, Anne, novelist .... Marsh, Geo. Perkins, philu'ogist and diplomatist 1806 1574 1537 1717 1782 1755 1821 1810 J. 153 1650 1773 1723 1564 1637 1800 1778 1755 (abt.) 1800 1801 DIED, 1828 183- 1372 27 1857 1859 1625 1862 1793 185- 1517 1597 1574 1793 E. C. 203 1323 1857 B. 0. 479 1549 1481 1530 1412 1612 1847 1642 1624 1780 1793 1795 0. 86 1722 1852 1799 1593 1865 1675 1852 1847 1634 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 977 CATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician , Amer. Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer . Eng. Marsbman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author , Eng. Marston, John, poet and dramatist . . , Rom. Martial,. Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist , . Eng. Martin, Benj., optician and author , . , Fr. Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . . . Amer. Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian >. Eng. MartineaU, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress . Eng. , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor .... Span. Martinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur Ger. Mai tius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller . . Eng. Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist • • . ItaL , Peter, reformer and theologian . . Eng. Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman ... Eng. Mary I., first queen regnant of England . . Eng. , II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange . . Scot. Stuart, queen of Scots .... Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller ... Eng. Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician . . Eng. Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer ...» Amer. Mason, George, statesman ...» Amer. , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman ... Amer. , John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . Eng, , John, divine and author .... Amer. , John M., eminent divine . . . Amer. , John, M., senator from Viiginia, rebel . . Amer. , John T., statesman and minister to France . Amer. , Lowell, musical teacher and composer . . Eng. , William, divine and poet . . . Ind. Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags . . . Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals Eng. Maesey, Gerald, poet .... Fr. Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . Massinissa, king of Numidia .... (ab Scot. Masson, David, biographer and essayist . . . Eng. Maunder, Samuel ' Treasury of Knowledge ' . . Amer. Mather, Cotton, divine and author ... Amer. , Increase, clergyman and author . . Irish. Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' . . Eng. Mathias, Thomas, author of ' Pursuits of Literature ' . Eng. Matthew of Westminster, historian . . . Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist Amer. ' Matthias ' (Robert Matthews), religious impostor . . Fr. Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . . Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet . Eng. Maundrell, Rev. Henry, -traveller in the East . . Fr. Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. Hoi. Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder BORN. mm 175S 1S39 1794 184T 1755 1S3S 1767 1^37 (abt.) 1570 1634 40 100 1704 1782 1704 1782 1S10 1764 184S 1800 1753 1S35 1786 . 1781 1812 103? 167? 1500 1561 1621 1678 1515 1558 1662 1694 1542 1587 1792 1848 1731 1824 1732 1SU 1726 1792 1768 1S48 1600 1672 1706 1763 1770 1829 1795 1859 1792 1725 1797 1661 1758 1817 1828 1663 1742 ) B. C. 240 b c, 143 1823 1790 1849 1663 1728 1639 1723 1790 1856 1750 1835 13th sent. 1776 1835 'abt'/ 1790 183- 1791 1782 1825 1650? 1710 1698 1759 1567 162* 978 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EATIOST. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author . Eng. , Thos. Rev., histor* of Hindostan, &c. . Mauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzantine emperor . Amer. Maury, Matthew F., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &c. Fr. , John Siffrein, cardinal and statesman Eng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. . Ger. Mavrocordato, statesman . . . Eng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and conchologist . . Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany . . Ger. , prince, emperor of Mexico . . Rom. Maximums, Caius J. V., emperor of Rome . Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., ' Life of Wellington,' &c. . . Amer. Mayer, BraDtz, lawyer and historical writer . Ger. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer . . . Eng. Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers, morous and miscellaneous •writers . . Amer. , Jonathan, clergyman and author . . Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . . Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks . . Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac . Amer. , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author I.Amer.Meagher, Thos. F., gen, in Union armies, gov. Idaho Eng. Medhurst, Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal .... , Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany ,' pater patriae,' Florence . . (shot) hu (abt) Ital. Ital. Ital. Ital. Ital. Turk. Ger. Ger. Eng. Amer, Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Scot. Gr. Ger. Ger. Port. Span. Ger. Ger. Russ. Bubs. Ger. Ger. -, Lorenzo de, poet, gov. of Florence, and patron of arts -, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts . Mehernet-Ali, pasha of Egypt . . . Meinei's, Christopher, historian . . . Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . . Melbourne, Wm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . . Mellen, Grenville, poet .... Melmoth, Win., ' Letters,' translation of Cicero, IEP. 1740 1823 1794 1864 . 1800 1779 1844 1794 411 457 1798 1734 1815 1698. 1782 1785 1846 3. C. 250 69 1773 1859 1579 1639 1791 1783 1848 1610 1682 1774 1849 1772 1835 f. B 0. 750 1839 1717. 1791 1767 1839 1746 1802 1809 1798 1801 1798 1S55 1734 1788 . 1683 1750 1743 1787 1627 1744 1800 1796 1802 1823 1775 1838 1806 1829 1776 1851 1684 1738 1802 1856 s 1781 1849 1782 1816 1759 1791 1726 1785 . 1788 1826 1800 1809 1744 1797 1773 1844 980 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. RATION Gr. Eng. Er. Amer. Rom. Hex. Span. Fr. Er. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger. Ger. Turk. Bar. Ger. Ger. Scot. Fr. HoL Eng. Er. Fr. Span. Scot. Eng. Eng. Swiss Swiss. Amer. Ger. Er. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Fr. Fr. Er. Er. Ger. Fr. Fr. NAME AND PKOFESSIOH. Miltiades, illustrious Athenian general . Milton, John, the Homer of Britain . . Minie, Claude E., inventor of the Minie rifle-bullet Minot, George R., historian . . . • Minutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer . Miramon, Miguel, military leader . . a Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general 1810 1758 3d cent, (abt.) 1830 1750 Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the Revolution and author ..... 1749 Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist .... 1776 Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general . Mitchell, Donald G., essayist .... , Maria, astronomer ..... , Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist , Thomas, classical scholar and critic . . Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist . . , Rev. John, editor of poets, .... , "William, historian and philologist . . MithridateB, king of Pontus, warrior . . . Mitscherlich, E., chemist ..... Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman . Mohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) — Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites Mohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian . . Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist .... Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . . Molle, M. L., comte, statesman . . • • Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist . . Molesworth, Sir William, statesman avid author Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian Moliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . . . Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . . . Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . . Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer . Monod, Adolphe, ' reformed pastor ' and author . . , Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor' at Paris . . Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president TJ-"i + ° j sir Robert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &c. . Eng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- tional author ..... 1800 1863 Amer. _____ Horatio, D. D., episc. bishop of New York • Eng. , John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr. Antiq.' . 1674 1747 BORN. DIED, 1475 1541 1796 B. o. 430 b. c. 347 b. o. 227 B. 0. 184 r 1749 1819 1819 23 79 61 115 203 270 1765 1854 50 120 • 16X7 1604 1691 1704 1765 1811 1856 1796 1773 1851 1781 1840 1500 1558 1780 1847 1611 1741 1795 1819 1806 1864 1799 1827 1250 1323 B. c. 205 b. C. 123 169 1699 1782 1667 1703 1772 1764 b. o. 106 b. c. 48 1460 1521 1763 1813 1732 1798 1712 1769 1624 1779 1688 1744 t, 1823 233 304 1759 1808 1540 1616 1781 1832 1780 1843 1776 1850 1780 1842 1731 1808 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 989 BATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator . Eng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist . , Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . , . Kuss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . . Eng. Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet . . Amer. Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the TJ. S. Navy Amer. Prentiss, Sargent 8 , lawyer and politician, famed for eloquence Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian Amer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina . Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque . Eng. Prideaus, Humphrey, learned divine. . Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy . Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N". England . Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . . Eng. Prinsep, Cbas. R., political economist . ■ Eug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . . Eng. Pritehard, J. C, ethnologist, 'Natural History of Man Rom. Piobus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor . . Ital. Procida, John of, patriot . . . Gr. ProMus, a Platonic philosopher . . Procv *iius, historian .... Rom. , Antbemius, emperor . . Eng. Proctor, Miss Ade aide A., poetess . . Eng. , Bryan "W. (' Barry Cornwall '), poet and critic Rom. Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, poet Fr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary Fr. Psalmanazar, George, literary impostor Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographe: Ger. Puckler-Huskau, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &c, Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian Eng. Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service . Ital. Pulci, Louis, poet .... Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author . . Eng. Purcell, Henry, musical composer . . Eng. , Thos., musical composer . . . Eng. Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage Amer. Pursh, Fred., botanist .... Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ' Amer. Putnam. Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution Amer. , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio Eng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, 'Art of Eng. Poesie' Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate . . Eng. Pym, John, republican politician . . , Amer. Pynchon, "Wm., founder of Springfield, MaFB. Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect . Pyrrbus, king of Epirui . . . Gr. Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher . . BORN. DIED. 1721 1804 1787 185? 1795 1841 1768 184J 1802 1839 1759 1837 1761 1807 1810 1850 1796 1859 1794 1860 1728 1791 1747 1829 1648 1724 1799 1851 1733 1804 1687 1758 1789 1834 1788 1864 1664 1721 1785 1848 232 282 1225 1303 410 487 410 487 472 1864 1787 O. 52 B "0. 12 1809 1865 1609 1669 1679 1763 70 1785 1632 1794 1811 1852 1747 1779 1432 1487 1814 1658 1695 1682 1577 1628 1774 1820 1800 1718 1790 1738 1824 1600 1745 1813 1584 1643 1591? 1662 0. 300 B. O. 273 0. 586 b. c. 497 990 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. NA1 /ON. Eng. Eng. Fr. Fr. Span, Eng. Fr. Amer. Amer. Fr. Span. Rom. Rom. Amer. NAME AND PROFESSION. Quain, Jones, M. D., anatomist . , , Quarles, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' . Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . • . Quekett, John, microscopist ... Quesne, Abraham du, admiral . , . Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' , • Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician . Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poel . . Quin, James, actor ..... Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist . . Qm'ncy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author . , Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier Quinet, Edgar, litterateur Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian , Quratilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator . Quintus-Curtius, historian . . . f. time Quitman, John A, general and gov. of Mississsipi n Fr. Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . • Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist , . Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress . . Eng. Radcliffe, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of Udolph Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander in Italy Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector Bug. , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of ' History of Java Amer. Kafinesque, S. C. J., botanist Dan. Rafn. C. C, historian and antiquary . Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist . Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ' Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, ' a man illustrious in literature' ... . . Hind. RamrnobuD, Roy, philanthropist . , Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet .... Amer. , David, historian . . . Span. Ramusio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' . Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman Amer. , Peyton, first president of Congress Ger. Ranfee, Leopold, historian . . . Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller , Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England' Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . Pan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer . Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman Pruss. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician . . Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . . Amer. Rawle, William, jurist ...» BORN. t«EB. 186S 1592 1644 1782 1857 1815 1861 1610 1688 1699 1774 . 1796 1580 1645 1693 1766 1635 1668 1772 1864 1802 1803 1772 1857 42 122 isian 1st Cent. 1799 1858 1483 1553 1589 1699 . 1820 1858 1764 1823 1766 1858 1788 1863 1781 1826 1784 1842 1795 1788 1855 . 1784 1842 1785 1S11 1552 1618 1776 1833 1685 1758 1749 1812 1485 1557 1773 1833 1728 1775 1795 1790 1798 1661 172S 1770 1847 1784 183g 1794 1806 1841 1781 1759 1836 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 991 KATIOS. HAME AND PBOFESSIOH. Eng. Rawlfnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist Eng. Ray, John, naturalist and author Fr. Raynal, "William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher Bcot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author . Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral . Eng. Reade, Charles, novelist . . , Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . . Eng. Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author . Amer. Redfleld, William C, meteorologist Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief , Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist Eng. , Isaac, critic and editor . , Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution , Amer. , Wm. B., politician and author . , Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopsedia &o. Eng. Reeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' a Eng. , John, comic actor Eng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher Fr. Regnard, John Francis, comic writer Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . ♦ Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist Irish. Reid, Capt, Mayne, novelist Bcot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, • Use of Storms Amer. — — , Samuel C, naval commander Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . Ger. Reinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ,) Fr. Remnsat, J. P. A, historian and Unguist . Fr. Rene, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . Eng. Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller Scot. Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architect Amer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army . Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg Eng. Ricardo, David, -writer on political economy and finance , Joseph Lewis, (on International law) • Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . . Eng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . . • Eng. Richard I, Cceur de Dion, king of England * Eng. III, king, killed at Bosworth . Eng. Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) . Scot. , James, traveller in Africa . • Eng. , Samuel, eminent novelist . . Scot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. . Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr . . Span.- Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . • ItaL Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer , Ital. Ristori, Adelaide, actress . . • BORy 1810 1623 1713 1821 1777 1785 1789 1759? 1808 1742 1748 1743 1723 1799 1814 1647 1810 1788 1818 1791 1783 1710 1753 1788 1409 1742 1761 1825 1752 1802 1614 1779 1820 1772 1S12 1157 1450 1775 16S9 1787 1585 1763 1500 1783 1313 1821 1703 1796 1862 1849 1S57 1830 1854 1807 1785 1825 1803 1838 1865 1709 1S58 1861 1796 1812 1832 1480 1830 1821 1862 1818 1858 1679 1859 1863 1823 1862 1700 1850 1199 1485 186& 1851 1761 1865 1642 1825 1555 182S 1354 992 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, ffATTOK. HAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Ritchie, Leitch, journalist and author , . Amer, Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, ' Richmond Enquirer' . Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • Amer. Rittcnhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer • * Ger. Bitter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' . . Ger. , Charles, geographer . • • Span. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet Amer. Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . . Amer. Rives, John 0., journalist, ' "Washington Globe ' . Amer. Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. Y. • . Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . Scot Robertson, William, celebrated historian . . Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist ' of the revolution Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist Scot. Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) Fr. Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal . Fr. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . Fr . Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . . Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy . , Eng. Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . Eng. Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman . . . Eng. Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . . Amer. , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow Eng. , Samuel, poet .... Eng. Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist . Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author Fr. , M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian . , Eng. Romaine, "William, divine and author . . „ Eng. Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . Rom. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome . . Ger. Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer Eng. Rooke, Sir George, admiral .... Span. Rosa, don Francisco Martinez do la, statesman, poet, historian &c Span. Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . Rom. Rosclus Quintus, actor of proverbial talent Eng. Roseoe, Henry, biographer .... Eng. , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . Ger. Rose, Gustave, chemist .... Eng. -, Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' , . Eng. — , Win. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . . Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &c, Amer Roseorans, W. S., gen. in Union army . Ger. Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phi! osophy ..... Ger. Rosenmuller, E. F. C, orientalist . . . Ital. Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic . . Eng. Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator . . Eng. , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer . . Eng Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer » • Ital. Rossini, Joachim, musical composer . . BORN. d:ed. 1800 186S 1778 1854 • 1752 1803 1731 1793 1791 1779 1850 1791 1796 1864 1724 1802 1796 1864 1721 1793 1759 1794 1794 1864 t) 1763 1725 1807 . 1747 1827 1773 1794 1771 1838 1717 1792 1802 1806 1763 1855 1779 1733 1793 1754 1793 1661 1741 1714 1795 1757 1818 • B 0. 716 1813 1G50 1708 !& 1789 1793 B. O. 61 1800 1836 1751 1831 1633 1684 1795 1795 1838 1775 1843 1800 1843 1819 1805 1768 1835 1783 1854 . 1777 1856 1800 1883 . 1800 1792 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 993 EATION. HAMS AND PROFESSION. Ger.Jw.Rothschild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great banking-house , Anselni at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and Solomon, sons of Meyer Anselm Rothschild . . Ger. Rotteck, Chas. "W. E. von, historian .... Fr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet ...» Ft. ! — , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer • Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . . ItaL Eubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist .... Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet .... Amer. Eumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, officer (in foreign service) and philosopher ..... Amer. Eumsey, James, inventor . • . . Ger. Rupert, prince, warrior ..... Amer. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 Amer. Rush, Richard, diplomatist .... Eng. Rushworth John, ' Historical Collections ' . . Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., TJ. S. senator from Texas » . . Eng. Ruskin, John, writer on art .... Eng. Eussel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters' Eng. , Lord 'William, one of the martyrs of liberty Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe . . Irish. , William H., Times correspondent and author * Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman ...» Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . • Dutch. Ruyter, M. A de, admiral .... Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, ' Federa ' • . BORN. D1ER 1780 1821 1775 1840 1670 1741 1712 1778 1673 1718 1795 1S54 1789 Id 1753 1814 1743 1792 1619 168? 1807 1780 1607 1690 1803 1857 1819 1636 1723 1641 1683 1808 1792 1746 1794 1821 1749 1800 1739 1800 1607 1679 1713 s. Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist . . Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet ..... Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . , Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt . . Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . . Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . . Fr. St. Hilaire, Auguste de, botanist . . , , Fr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of 'Paul and Virginia,' &c. ItaL St. Real, Csesar Vichard abbi de, historian . . Fr. St. Simon, ClaudiuB, count de, philosopher . Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral * . Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales . . Eng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author . . Bar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman . Bom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, historian ... 42* f. B. O 1790 1672 1724 1613 1684 1758 1838 1175 1296 1567 15S7 1822 1863 1798 1854 1735 1813 1799 1861 1772 1844 1736 1814 1639 16S3 1760 1823 1734 1823 1790 1827 1137 1193 1680 1736 1550 1619 . 86 B. O. 35 994 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. KATIOH. SAME AND PROFESSION. Ft. Salmasius, Claudius, scholar and author . . Fr. Salvandy, N, A., comfce de, statesman . , . pi - ; Salverte, miscellaneous writer . , . Heh. Samson, judge of Israel .... Heh. Samuel, last judge of Israel . . . Phce. Sanconi.itho, philosopher and historian . • Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist . Amer. Sanderson, John, litterateur .... Amer. Sands, Robt. C, poet and litterateur . . Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president Gr. Sappho, poetess ..... Chald. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian Heh. Saul, 1st king of Israel .... Fr. Sauley, Louis P. J., count de, antiquarian . Fr. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . • Fr. Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . Fr. Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . . Fr. -, Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . Eng. Savage, Richard, poet .... Fr. Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' ' Letters on Egypt' Ger. Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1696 Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior . Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian . . . Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say Fr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy . Amer. — , Thomas, naturalist .... ItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian Ital. , Julius Caesar, learned critic . Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Ahinger, jurist . . Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . . . Ger. Schadow, Juiien Gottfried, sculptor . . Swe. Scheele, Charles Win., eminent chemist . • Ger. Schelling, Pred. Augs., novelist . . , Ger. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . . . Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . Pruss. Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent historian and dramatist Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Royal' Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist Ger. , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian Ger. Schlosser, M. S. F., historian . . . Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . . , Amer. Schofield, major-general and governor Virginia . . Ger. .Scholl, historian ...... 1766 BOBN. DrBD, 1588 1653 1795 1858 . 1771 1839 . b. c. 12th Cent. B. c. 11th Cent. f. B. C . 760 1804 1785 1844 1790 1832 1623 1672 1600 1667 1798 f. b. c. 606 B. 0. 876 "i orian 1522 1623 B. c . 1055 1807 1757 1836 1677 1730 1740 1799 1767 1845 1697 1743 1750 1788 1779 1861 1452 1498 service 1696 1750 1600 1639 1134 1208 1794 1767 1832 1787 1834 1540 1609 1484 1558 warrior 1404 1467 15-10 1600 1769 1844 1610 1660 1764 1742 1786 1766 1839 . 1775 1854 . 1773 1809 1759 1805 1778 1856 . • 1767 1845 1772 1829 1768 1834 . 1776 186; 1736 179a 1833 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 995 BATIOH. Dutch. Ger. Amer. Ger. Dutch. Ger. Dutch. Ger. Amer. Ger. Ger. Ger. Rom. Rom. Scot. Eng. Scot. Amer. Fr. Fr. Eng. Dutch. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Er. Eng. Scot. Scot. Chald. Rom. Eng. Ger. Span. Amer. Rom. Span. Egypt, Fr. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Scot. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOEN. Schomberg, Armand Frederick, warrior . . 1619 Schomburgk, Sir Robert H., naturalist and traveller . 1801 Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . . . 1615 Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior • . . 1661 Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... 1780 Schutz, C. G., critic and litterateur .... 1747 Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . . 1731 Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . . . 1771 , prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian . . 1576 Scipio, iEmilianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) . , Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician . . , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . . 1747 , Sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular writers of modern times .... 1771 , "Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. S. army 1786 1791 1775 1693 1511 1790 1815 1780 1811 1639 1753 1584 Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate ... Secundus, John, Latin poet ... Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist , John, (of Conn.) Union general . , Theodore, statesman and political economist , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... Segur, count Louis de, diplomat! st and writer . Selden, John, antiquary and historian . , . Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer f . Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) . . Semiramis, queen of Assyria . . . f. b. 0. 1250 Seneca, Lucius Annseus, philosopher, statesman and moralist b. c. 2 Senior, Nassau W., political economist ... 1790 Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian . . . 1490 Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . . . 1779 Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin . 1509 Sesostris, king of Egypt .... f. b. c. 1500 Sevign6, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer . 1627 Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . . . 1747 , "William H., statesman, U. S. senator from 1ST. Y., sec of state 1801 Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, 'Characteristics' 1671 Shakespeare, John, orientalist . . . 1774 ■ , William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist .... 1734 , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated . . 1618 Shaw, George, naturalist ..... 1761 DIED 169a 1864 1864 1838 1667 174T 1850 1804 1820 1852 1649 B. 0. 128 B.C. 189 1291 1821 1832 1866 1861 1851 1768 1536 1867 1864 1839 1859 1701 1830 1654 1723 65 1864 1834 1572 1852 73 1553 1696 1809 1692 1683 1713 1858 1616 1813 1679 1818 996 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION, Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Irish. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger. Amer. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Gr. Gr. Scot. Eng. Eng. Hind. Swiss. Eng. Ger. Eng. Scot. Scot. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. NAME AND PROFESSION. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion , . Shedd, "W. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critio Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . « Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist < , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . . Shenstone, "William, poet .... Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department , Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator . , Thomas, actor, and author . . . Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of "London . * Sherman, Rogei - , patriot and self-taught statesman . « , John, U. S senator from Ohio . . • , "William T., general . . « Sherwood Mrs., novelist . . . » Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . . Shirley, James, dramatist . ... Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval officer , • Shuhrick, John Templar, naval officer . . , William B., rear admiral ... Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Oldand New Tesament' Sibbes, Richard, theologian, ' Bruised Reed ' Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses . Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman . Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . . -, Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author . Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and "botanist . . Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-65 • Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . . Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . . , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor . , Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic . . Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . . Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet . . ■ , of Eos, lyric poet .... Simpson, Robert, mathematician ... , Thomas, " ... Sinclair, Catharine, authoress . . . Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere . Sismondi, J. C. L., historian . . . Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII . • Sleidan John Philipson, historian . . . Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist ... Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy , Alex, poet ..... , Charlotte, poet .... ■ , General Samuel, military commander and statesman , Horace, poet, ' Rejected Addresses,' &c. . , James, poet, '■'■... M « • , John, * History Viginia' . . , John Pye, theological writer • . • — — , Joseph, Mormon prophet • . • BORN. DIED, 1740 1824 1787 1863 . 1798 1851 1792 1822 1714 1763 1751 1818 1722 1788 1678 1761 1721 1793 1775 1852 1792 1851 1594 1666 1650 1705 1778 1815 1754 1577 1635 1755 1831 . 1757 1844 1620 1683 . 1554 1586 1796 1824 1791 1865 1779 1864 1759 1836 392? 461? 1806 B. o. 660 ? 550? 16S7 1768 1710 1761 1800 1864 1779 1839 . 1773 1843 1450? 1529 1506 1556 1660 1752 y 1723 1790 1830 1749 1806 1752 1839 1779 1849 1775 1839 1579 1631 1774 1851 1805 1844 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 997 NATION, Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Scot, Eng. Eng. Eng. Pol. Ital. Gr. Gr. Span. Heb. Gr. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger. Gr. Fr. Amer. Fr. Fr. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Fr. Fr. Gr. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Span. Dutch. Ger. Amer. Ger. Eng. SAME AND PROFESSION. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist . • , Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . * , Sir William Sidney, military commander . , T. Southworth, writer on sanitary reform . , William, classical scholar and author . Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (XL S.) Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer . . Soane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, warrior . . Socinns, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect . Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers • , ecciesiastical historian . . • Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . . • Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs , Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer . Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer . . . , Wm., poet, 'The Chase' . . . Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . . Sophocles, eminent tragic poet . . . Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the S. College at Paris. Soule, Pierre, V. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist Souli6, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . . Soulouque, Faustin, ex-emperor of Hayti Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of France and statesman ..... South, Robert, eminent divine Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. S., N. Y. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) . Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . . Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . . , Robert, poet, historian, biographer * Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian . . Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . Spence, Wm., entomologist . . • Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York • , earl of, statesman . • • , John C, jurist and sec. navy . • , Wm. R., translator . . • Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . • Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior » Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) . . Spohr, Louis, musical composer . • Spooner, Shearjashub, {Diet of Painters) . . Sprengel, Kent, botanist . ... Spurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman BORN. 1768 1759 1764 1790 1814 1721 1764 1788 1753 1629 1539 B. c. 470 B. 5th cent. 1610 B. f. B. 1650 1790 1692 1804 ?. 495 1201 1800 1789 1769 1638 1787 1750 1662 1787 1775 1806 1800 (abt.) 1794 1827 1561 1783 1765 1758 17S8 1770 1553 1571 1633 1783 1766 1834 DIED. 184S 182S 1840 1861 1835 1771 1849 1S65 183T 1690 1594 . c. 400 , A. D. 1686 0.975 c. 598 1716 1743 1854 C.404 1274 1847 1851 1716 1842 1814 1746 1854 1843 1854 1858 450 1866 1864 1643 1860 1848 1835 1855 1834 1598 1630 1677 1838 998 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION Ger. Amer. Amer. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Eng. Eng Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Rom. Eng. Irish. Eng. Eng. Fr. Amer. Eng. Eng. Scot. Ger. Irish. Eng. Pruss. Amer. Amer. Amer. Scot. Amer. Eng. Amer. Russ. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Gr. Eng. Eng. Ger. Ger. Eng. Eng. Russ. Bcot. , NAME AND PROFESSION. Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) Sprague, Charles, poet ...... , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary . . Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist. Bible ' . Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress . , Madame, talented writer . . • Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E. . • Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter . . • Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor . . Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian Stanton, Edwin M., sec! etary of war . . „ Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution . Statius, Publius Pepinus, poet . . . Staunton, Sir Geo. L. ' Embassy to China' . , . Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist . . Steevens, Geo., ' Comment, on Shakespeare ' • • Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author . Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers , John L., traveller and author . . Stephenson, George, engineer . . * , Robert, «« . . Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic ■ Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer . . Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms . Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the American cause ...... Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . . Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England . Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author , Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer . Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian . . . Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of "Worcester and author Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red Jacket' ..... Storch, Henry F., political economist . . Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . Stow, John, antiquary and historian . . Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . . . , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist . Stowell, lord, jurist .... Strabo, eminent geographer . . . Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist . Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author Strickland, Agnes, historian of ' Queens of England' Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer , • Stuart, Gilbert, historian . . , . BOEN. 1776 1791 1795 1820 1680 1766 1693 1584? 1798 1753 1776 1805 1728 61? 1737 1671 1736 1789 16th 1805 1788 1803 1806 1806 1713 1749 1784 1798 1753 1727 1633 1793 1766 1779 1525 1814 1746 19 1593 1788 1808 1786 1806 1643 1793 1742 DIB3 1S39 1753 1817 1750 1656 1867 1S16 1839 1822 96? 1801 1729 1800 1859 cent. 1652 1848 1859 1844 1768 1794 1838 1857 1828 1795 1699 1844 1835 1845 1605 1838 1641 173? 1864 1789 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 999 RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. St> art, James, architect and author . . Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general « Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . . Eng. Sturge, Joseph, philanthropist Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, 'Reflections,' &c. Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands Fr. Suchet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal . . Eng. Suckling, Sir John, poet and dramatist , . Sue, Eugene, novelist . . . . Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior ...» , Tranquillus Caius, historian , . Fr. Horn. Kom. Dan. Gr. Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian « Suidas, Greek lexicographer . • . Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer » Amer. , John, revolutionary general . . Amer. , We LL. D., political writer Fr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman Amer. , Thomas, portrait painter Amer. Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher Amer. Samner, Charles, TJ. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist Amer. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Russ. — Edwin Vose, Union general . — John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. C. Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman • Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet . Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . , Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. III. . Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury . Suvarofl", or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel rior .... . , Swain, Charles, poet .... Dutch. Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . , Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect . . Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist . . • Swinburne, Algernon, poet , . . Swinton, Wm,, critic aDd historian, ' Army of Potomac' Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &c, Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurper Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to Ava ' , . Syphax, Numidian prince .... Eng. Irish. Eng. Amer. Eng. Rom. Eng. Afric. T Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian • Rom. , Marcus Claudius, emperor . . • Swe. Taglioni, Marie, dansuese . . • Eng. Talbot, Jno., 1st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . Amer. , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . Eng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . . Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., RevoL officer . . . Fr. Talma, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors . BORN. DIED. . 1713 1788 1832 ? 1864 . 1780 1851 1854 1740 1788 1602 1682 1772 1826 1613 1641 . 1808 1851 37 f. 100 1728 1798 t abt. 1000 1744 180& 1740 1795 1774 1839 an 1560 1641 1783 1798 1825 opist 1811 .' 1796 1863 17S0 1862 1734 1832 1641 1702 1515 1547 1779 1834 1773 1843 1755 1828 ruel war- 1730 1800 1803 1637 1681 1689 1772 . 1667 1745 1793 1841 B. c. 137 B. C. 78 1809 ■ B. o. 201 . 56 135 200 ? 276 1804 1373 1453 1750 1813 1795 1854 1754 1838 1529 1585 1754 1835 . 1763 1826 1000 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. nation. Tartar. Amer. Scot. Span. Eng. Ital. ItaL Ger. Ger. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Swiss. Eng. Amer. Amer. Eng. Ger. Eng. Eng. Rom. Amer., Eng. Ger. Ger. Ger. Gr. Fr. Gr. Eng. Gr. Rom. Gr. Span. Eng. Gr. Fr. Fr. Fr. NAME AND PROFESSION. Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror . . , . Taney, Roger B., chief-justice TJ. S. . . Tannahill, Robt., poet .... Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer . Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America . Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . , Isaac, essayist .... , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer ... , John, ' the Water Poet ' . . . , Sir Robert, sculptor and architect . , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . , Tom, dramatist . . „ Wm., miscellaneous writer. ... , Zacbary, major-general TJ. B. Army, victor in Mexico, pres. U. S. . Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . . Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty Temple, Sir "William, statesman and writer . Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer . , Rev. Wm., famous for ' France' . . , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer Tennyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' . Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B, Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . Tertulliau, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of the Church ..... Terry, Alfred H., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . . Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture . Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist .... Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of Philosophy .... Themistocles, eminent Athenian ... Thenard, chemist and statesman . . Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . . . f. b. Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare . Theodorefc, ecclesiastical historian . . Theodosius, Flavius, Roman emperor and warrior Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . .. Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian . . Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian • • — — — — , Amedee S. D., historian . « 177T 1864 1774 1810 1754 1833 1493 1569 1544 1595 1836 1825 1787 1865 1613 1667 1580 1654 1714 1788 1758 1835 1817 1800 1849 1784 1850 1813 1757 1834 1354 1628 1698 1703 1764 1705 1777 1S04 1761 1819 1810 1762 1832 . 192 160 245 1811 1863 1752 1828 1812 c. 639 b. O. 543 o. 535 b. o. 470 o. 285 1744 386 457 346 395 c. 371 1515 1582 1794 C. 576 1795 1859 1797 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 1001 ITATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Thiers, A dolphe, historian and statesman . . Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c . . ■ Ger. Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian Ger. Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian Amer. Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . . , Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author Scot. Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer . Amer. , Chas., president of Congress . . Scot. , Dr. Thomas, chemist • • . Boot. , James, popular poet . . Amer. Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor . . . Gr. Thrasybulus, Athenian general ... Gr. Thucydides, historian .... Eng. Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . Rom. Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor Rom. Tibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . . . Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator . Amer. Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature . Ger. Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . . . Eng. Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ' Psyche' . . . Tillotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury Ger. Tilly, John F., count de, military commander. . Gr. Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse . Tart. Timour Beg. See Tamerlane ... Hind. Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior . Swiss. Tissot, Simon A., medical writer Rom. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, emperor, father of his people Eng. Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' . Fir. Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman . Eng. Todd, Robt. B., ' Medical Cyclopaedia ' &c. Russ. Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . . Eng. Tomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of Winchester Amer. Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. TJ. S. . Irish. Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion Eng. Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . . Eng. , Thos., 'History of Prices ' . . Eng. , Wm., miscellaneous writer ... Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . . Span. Torqueniada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . . Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist Amer. Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . . . Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, iuv. of barometer Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . . Amer. Totten, Joseph G, military engineer . . Amer. Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . . Toussaint l'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti . Eng. Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment, on Bible ' Fr. Tracy, A L. C. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi losophy ..... Eng. Traill, Thos. J., editor 'Encyclo. Britannica' . . Bom. Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior . BORN BIED 1798 1784 1860 1797 1799 r 1783 1778 1849 1729 1824 1773 1852 1700 1748 1817 1862 1771 1844 B. O. 389 B. 0. 459 B c. 400 1732 1806 b. c. 84 37 b. c. 30 1686 1740 1791 1773 1853 1774 1810 1630 1694 1559 1632 B. C. 337 1739 1799 1728 1797 pie 40 81 1770 1804 1805 1859 1810 1866 1818 1750 1787 . 1774 1825 1763 1798 1736 1812 1774 1858 1744 1820 1740 1778 1498 1783 1840 1608 1647 . 352 1788 1776 1854 1745 1802 1857 1754 1836 . 1781 1862 62 117 1002 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIUN. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author . . Eng. Trench, Rev. Rich. Ohenevix, poet, philologist and theologian Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . . Er Tristan, l'Hermite, Erancis, poet . . . Eng. Trollope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller . Dutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral . . Amer. Troost, Gerard, chemist and geologist . . Amer. Trumbull. Col. John, stateBm.au and hist, painter . Amer. , Benj., historian of Connecticut . . Amer. , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut • Amer. , John, poet, born in Ot. . . Eng. Truro, TIiob., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . Amer. Truxton, Thos., naval commander . . Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer . . Amer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist . . Amer. ■ , Jos., writer and philanthropist . Amer. Tudor, Win., editor K. Amer. Rev. and biographer . Eng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist . Er. Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . Er. Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman . ■ Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary . . Eng. , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry ' . Amer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critio . Eng. , Sharon, 'History of England' . . Amer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist . . Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) . , Francis, (son) " " " • , John A. (son) " " " Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' Amer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general . Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . . Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and rebel Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible into English . . • . . • Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author . Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian . ' . , . Gr. Tyrtaeus, poet .... Scot. Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc. writer g co t. ( Patrick Eraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots' Scot. , Wm., historical and misc. writer . • U Ger. Uhland, Ludwig, poet .... Span. Ulloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . . UncaB, North American Indian chief (Monegans) . Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian . Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretaiy of state . Scot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . . Irish. Usher, James, learned divine and historian . a URN. 1788 1807 1726 1741 1601 1778 1597 1776 1756 1735 1740 1750 1782 1755 1705 1784 1778 1779 1810 1611 1727 1798 1791 1768 1810 1588 1623 1671 1500 1790 1734 1790 1500 1800 1642 . o. 668 1747 1790 1711 »IEH 1829 1794 1810 1655 1863 1652 1850 1843 1820 1809 1831 1853 1822 1774 1851 1840 1830 1675 17S1 1858 1839 1861 1847 1859 1631 16S7 1737 1536 1862 1804 1862 1536 1718 1813 1849 1792 1787 1716 179o 1680 1779 1845 1844 1778 1857 1580 1653 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1003 STATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Vailliant, Sebastia.1, eminent botanist . . Dutch. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and critic . Ft. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses . Valentia, George A., viscount, ' Voyages and Travels ' Horn. "Valerian, emperor .... Rom. Valerius Flaccus, poet . ' . . . Rom. Maximus, historian . . . Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . . Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator . . . Eng. Vandenhoff, John, actor . . . Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . . Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India ■ Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general . . Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist . Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the Patrooa ' . Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans . Ital. Vasari, George, architect and biog., * Lives of the Painters ' Ger. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations . Fr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ' dissenting ' divine and historian Span. Vega, Garcilasso de, poet . . . Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet ■ . Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon . Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior . Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' . Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . . Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet . . Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . . Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral . . . Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery . Fr. Veron, Louis Desire, author and journalist . Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic . Fr. Vertot, Ren6 Hubert, abbe de, historian . . Eng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary Rom. Vespasian, Titus Plavius, warrior and emperor Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given to the new world . - . , Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress . Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . „ Eng. Victoria Alexandrinu, queen of Great Britain . Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - . , Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . * Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police Fr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . , c Fr. Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critio « Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, able general Fr. Villemam, Abel, Fr. politician and author . BORN. 1MKD i 1669 1722 1715 1785 f. 12th cent. . 1770 1844 260? 88? f. 30 1406 1457 1782 1864 1750 1798 1790 1776 1852 1593 1645 1823 1863 1612 1662 1781 1853 1764 1839 B.C. 116 B. c. 27 1512 1574 1771 1826 1714 1767 1633 1707 ian 1503 1536 1562 1636 1795 1654 1712 1725 1797 1814 1846 1789 1864 1684 1759 1774 1849 1798 1655 17S5 1684 1756 79 1451 1516 1797 1853 1820 1819 1826 1855 . 1490 1566 1775 1850 , 1820 . 1799 1653 1734 1791 1004 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PUOFESSION. Eng. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer Fr. Vinet, Alex. R., theologian Rom. Virgi 1, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets Ital. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . < Ital. Vittoria Colonna, scholar . . Russ. Vladimir the Great, grand duke , • Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden « Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht . • Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist . , Fr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . • Ital. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, and historian , . . Ger. Voss, J. G., historical painter . . >mer BOBN. DIED 1821 . 1797 1847 oman poets b. c. 70 B. c. 19 1831 f. B. c. 27 , . 1490 1547 , . 1015 # . 1647 1714 # , 1619 1667 m m 1829 1856 . m 1757 1820 , . 1745 1826 philosopher, 1694 1778 • • 1577 1649 w Ger. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic . . Amer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist . Amer. , James S. (son), patriotic general . Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist . . Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York , Eng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic . . Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . . Fr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . . Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . . Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury Amer. , "William, ' filibustering' adventurer Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist Scot. , "William, patriot and hero Irish. , William Vincent, musical composer . Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general . Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet . . • Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general . Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author . Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . . Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New Tor Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist . , Eng. — , Izaak, angler and biographer . . Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. T. Eng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . Amer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution . Scot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian Amer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author Amer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author Amer. f William, novelist, ' Zenobia,' &c. . Amer. Warren, John Collins, emineBt surgeon Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 1794 1768 1844 1807 1864 1805 1792 1854 1796 1862 1756 1801 1762 1864 1810 1732 1807 1801 1824 1860 1817 1852 1276 1305 1815 1865 1583 1634 1603 16S7 1597 1688 1718 1797 1676 1745 1784 1858 1536 1590 1815 1865 1600 1661 1593 1683 1789 1698 1779 174S 1800 1780 1853 1764 1845 1794 1S43 1797 1852 1778 1856 1741 1776 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1005 WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Wanen, Mrs. Mercy, historian, ' American Review' . Eng. -, Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Tear ' • . Eng. Sir John Borlase, naval officer . . , • Eng. Warton, Joseph, poet and critic . . . Eng. ■ , Thomas, poet and critic Eng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of IJ. S. Amer. Amer. Eng. Amer. Scot. Eng. Scot. Scot. Eng. Eng. , George, the father of his country . , Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution . Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agriculturist, and historian Robert, historian , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer . , Robert, bibliographer . Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist . . . Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer , Amer. Wayiand, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution Eng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. . Amer. Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author . Ger. Weber, Carl Maria \on, eminent composer . . Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic . , Webster, John, dramatic poet . t . , , Daniel, statesman .... Eng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Scot. Eng. Amer. , Noah, author of English Dictionary . ( Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . . Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain . . Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . Amer. Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . . Irish. Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. of Ireland ... . . Eng. Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman Amer. Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . Eng. , Edward, theologian and scholar . , Amer. , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia . . Scot. Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . BORN. 1728 1807 1754 1720 1728 1759 1732 1752 1683 1758 1730 1737 1736 1774 1799 1674 1796 1745 1792 18i9 1786 1783 17th 1782 1758 1733 1731 1821 1760 1769 1663 1815 1794 Eng-Am. Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Hamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 Eng. Ger. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. — , Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist . . , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist . . Wesley, Kev. Charles, ' Hymns ' ... , John, founder of Methodist society Westal!, Richard, historical painter ... WTiateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu cational writer ..... Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... Eng. > Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Common Prayer' Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . Eng. Wheatstone, Charles, electrician . . . Amer. Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College Eng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer 1593 1750 1768 1708 1703 1765 1787 1753 1686 1785 1802 1711 1795 DIED. 1314 1822 1800 1790 1471 1829 1799 1810 174a 1842 1780 1816 1819 1819 1864 1748 1865 1796 1862 1856 1826 1813 cent. 1852 1843 1805 1795 1825 1852 1842 1852 1727 1848 1845 1820 1641 1817 1823 1788 1791 1837 1863 1794 1743 1848 1779 1868 1006 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOif. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic arid essayist . • Amer. Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways j£ng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . Eng. "Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament Eng. White, Hei:ry Kirke, poet .... , Rev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author Eng. , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church in United States .... Eng. Whitefleld, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists . Amer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . . . Amer. Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist Amer. Whittingham, Wm. R., epis. bp. of Maryland and author Eng. Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London Eng. Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Reformation Ger. Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . . Eng. Wiffen, J. EL, poet and historian . . • Eng. Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author . « Eng. , William, statesman and philanthropist . Amer. Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and litterateur . • Eng. Wilkes, John, celebrated political character . • Scot. Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter Eng. Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian Eng. , Sir Charles, oriental philologist . . Amer. Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author . Eng. , Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist . • Eng. Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman Amer. Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVII. a Eng. , Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . a Eng. , John, missionary and author . . • Eng. , Major-gen. Sir Fen wick, defender of Ears . Amer. , Otho H., general .... En.Am. — — , Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island . . Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina . Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour nalist ...... Scot. - Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . . Eng. , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . . Eng. , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit Scot. , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist Eng. , Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author Ger. Winckelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art ' . Anst. Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo Eng. Windham, William, statesman ... Ger. Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . . Swiss. Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . . En.Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . Eng. — , Forbes, physician and WTiter on insanity , Amer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author Amer. , Miron, D, D., missionary and orientalist . Bng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter' . En. Am. Wintbrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . • Sa.Am , John (son), governor of Connecticut . BORN. DIKE-, . 1819 1800 1849 1667 1752 t 1638 1726 1785 1806 1775 1841 1747 1836 1714 1770 1765 1825 1808 1805 1419 on 1S24 1384 1733 1813 1792 1838 1805 1759 1853 1789 1847 1717 1797 17S5 1841 1614 1672 1838 1757 1825 1797 . 1324 1404 17S7 1 ? 1858 1762 1827 1796 1839 1800 1748 1794 1606 1683 1735 1819 1807 1867 1766 1813 1778 1858 1808 1860 17S5 1854 1846 . 1717 1768 1787 1862 1750 1810 1789 1858 1386 1595 1655 • 1810 1800 1864 1789 1864 1803 1588 1649 1606 1676 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1007 RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Wintbrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general U. 8. and biographer Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author Amer. . Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist Eng. Withers, George, poet .... Amer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian ... Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian . Irish. Woffington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . » Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet . Amer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence Amer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. . EDg. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . . Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . . Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . . Ger. WolfF, John Christian, philosopher and mathematician Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. . Eng. "Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman . Eng. "Wollstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author a . Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer . Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state . Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . . Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) . Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (seeTytler) historian Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian . . . Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . . Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, ' Oaken Bucket ' . Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army , . Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist . Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general . . Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions , Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece ' . , William, poet laureate . . . Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Aust. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng Eng. Eng. Worth, William J., major-general IT. S. army . Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . . Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect . Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer , Silas, governor of New York and senator TJ. S. , Thomas, antiquarian author . . Wurmser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army . Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author . , Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . . . Wycliffe, see Wickliffe, reformer ' . . Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth Wyndham, Sir William, statesman BORN. DIED. 1828 1861 1772 183d ithor 1802 1865 1761 1818 1590 1667 1722 1794 1636 1708 . 1679 1734 1719 1760 1738 1S18 nee 1727 1797 1079 1767 1795 1862 1759 1824 1726 1759 1791 1823 1679 1754 1766 1828 1471 1530 1759 1797 1632 1695 1716 1771 1789 1851 1745 1822 1773 1827 1747 1813 1770 1851 1486? 1785 1S42 1789 1720 1773 1710 1777 1667 17S4 1865 1770 1850 1770 1S50 1794 1849 1806 1S55 1568 1689 1751 1831 1632 1723 1796 1853 1795 1847 1810 1717 1797 1820 1503 1540 1640 1715 1324 1404 th. 1324 1404 1687 1748 1008 THE WOBLD'S PEOGEESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Wyso, Sir Thomas, M. P., -writer on education , Amer. Wythe, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 1809 Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, 'Apostle to the Indies' . . Gr. Xenocrates, philosopher . Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics Gr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general Pers. Xerxes I., king of Persia .... Pers. II., king of Persia . . . Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman • Amer. Yale, Elihu, early patron of Yale College . . Eng. Yarrcll, "William, naturalist and author; . , Eng. Youatt, William, author of works on the horse . Amer. Young, Ales., D. D., historian of Pilgrims . * Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer . . . Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . . , Eng. , Charles, actor . Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer . . Eng. , Thomas, physician and philosopher . . Gr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. Span. Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet . . Z Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A, voluminous writer . • Heb. Zechariah, the prophet . . . • . Ital, Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer . • • . Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . . . • Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . Zenohia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of the arts . Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet .... Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . . Swiss. , John George, miscellaneous writer . Ger. Zinzendorf, N". L., count, chief of the Moravians . Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher . < Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer Gr. Zozimus, historian ..... Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales ' .Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer . . (for. Zumpt, Earl, author of Latin Grammas * . . 1506 1552 B. o. 406 B 0. 314 £b. O. 540 B. C. 446 b c. 360 B c. 465 B. C. 425 1457 1517 1648 1721 1T84 1856 1777 1847 1800 1854 1741 1820 1801 1777 1856 1681 1765 1774 1829 1792 1828 1750 1790 1714 1795 f.B. c. 520 1668 1750 B c. 463 B. o. 362 b O. 264 sof 300 f.B O. 520 1743 1815 1728 1795 1700 1760 1730 1788 1737 1815 f. 400 1771 1848 1484 1531 1793 i85a BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 1009 ARTISTS. PAINTERS— ENGRAVERS— SCULPTORS— ARCHITECTS. B. 0. 1578 1400 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Gr. A gatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. Gr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor. Gr. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. Ital. Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., So., and Archit. Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto . . Painter. Gr. Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) . . Sculptor. f. Scot. Allan, Sir William . . . . Painter. 1781 Amer. Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Painter. 1779 Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 1488 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., So., and Arch. 1474 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 15C9 Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. f. Gr. Apollodorus, an Athenian ... Painter. f. : Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 1754 Gr. Aristides, of Thebes .... Painter. f. Fr. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 1640 (Eight painters and engravers named Andran nearly contemporary.) BORN. DIED. b. c. 480 f. b. c. 5th Cent. 5th Cent. 1660 1490 1520 0. 450 1850 1843 1530 1568 1609 . 330 . 408 1817 240 1703 Ital. Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- meo) . . • . . Painter. 1469 1517 Eng. Bacon, John . . . . Sculptor. 1740 1799 Amer. Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) . . Port. Painter. Flem. Bal en, Henry van . , . . Painter. 1560 1632 Ital. Bandinelli, Baccio . . • . Sculptor. 1489 1559 Eng. Banks, Thomas . . Sculptor. 1745 1805 Dutch. Barents, Dietrich ... Histor. Painter. 1534 1582 Irish. Barker, "Robert, inventor of panoramas . . Painter. 1740 1SC6 Irish. Barry, James ... . Painter. 1741 1805 Eng. Barry, Sir Chas. . . . . Architect. 1795 1860 Ital. Bartolini, Lorenzo . . Sculptor. 1777 1850 ItaL Bartolozzi, Francesco . • . Engraver. 1730 1813 Ital. Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco . Painter. 1469 1517 Ital. Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. ICth ( Century. ItaL Batoni, Pompey . . • . . Painter. 1708 1787 Ger. Bauer, Ferdinand ... Botanical Painter. 1826 Eng. Beechy, Sir William . . . Landscape Painter. 1753 1833 Amer. Beard, Wm. H. (N. T.) . . • Painter. Eng. Beaumont, Sir George H. . . . Painter. 1753 1827 Ital. Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine • 43 • Engraver. 1610 1684 1010 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOE r. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBK. wsm Ital, Bellini, Giov., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 1462 151? Ital. Bellini, Gen tine . . . Portrfc't Painter. 1421 1501 Ital. Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Aren't. 1598 168? Flem Berchem, Nicholas . Engraver. 1624 1689 Eng. Bewick. John, publisher of various works with wood- oats . . Wood Engraver. 1760 1795 Amer. Bierstadt, Albert (N. T.) Landscape Painter. Eng. Bird, Edward . . , Painter. 1772 1819 Eng. Blake, William B Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826 Flem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) . Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608 Eng. Bone, Henry . . , Enamel Painter. 1755 1834 Ital. Bordone, Paris . . . . . Painter. 1503 1588 Dutch. Both, John and Andrew . , . Painters. 1610 1650, '56 Ft. Bourdon, Sebastian , . Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671 Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 1756 1811 Eng. Boy dell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804 Dutch. Brentel, Francis . . . . Painter. f. 1635 Ital. Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L., (1st of St. Peter's Church) . . Architect. 1444 1514 Amer. Brevoort, J. R. (N. T.) Landscape Painter. Dutch. Brill, Matthew . . . . Painter. 1550 1584 Dutch. Brill, Paul . . . Landscape Painter. 1556 1626 Amer. Brown, Geo. L. , , e * Painter. Amer. Brown, Henry Kirke , . . Sculptor. 1814 Flem. Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . „ Painter. 1370 1441 Ital. Biunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444 Ital. Buonarotti, see Angelo Eng. Burnett, James . . , , Landscape Painter. 1788 1816 Ital. C Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 1588 Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and sons of Paul Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. . . Landscape Painter. 1779 1844 ItaL Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio • . . Painter. 1495 1543 Gr. Calimachus ... Sculptor and Architect. f. B . C. 540 Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese . . Painter. 1527 1587 ItaL Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 1768 Ital. Canova, Antonio ... . Sculptor. 1757 1822 Ital. Caracci, Ludovico . . . . Painter. 1555 1619 ItaL Caracci, Agostino . . , . Painter. 1558 1601 Ital. Caracci, Annibale . . , . Painter. 1560 1609 Ital. Caracci, Anthony . . , , . Painter. 1583 1618 ItaL Caravaggio, see Angelo . . . ItaL Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro with three plates to imitate drawings . 1486 1530 Fr. Casas, Louis Francis . , Painter and Architect. 1756 1827 Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. V.) . Lands. Painter. Span. Castilio y Saavedra, Anthony • PaiDter. 1603 1667 Ital. Cavendone, James . . . Fresco-Painter. 1577 1508 Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- 1500 1670 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — ARTISTS. 1011 NAME AND PROFESSION. Painter, Sculptor, Architect. , . Painter. , Painter. , . ■ Sculptor. . Hist. Painter. . Painter. Painter and Sculptor. a Lands. Painter. , Painter. MATION. Bpan. Cespede.s, Paulde Flem. Champagne, Philip de . . , John Baptist Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis . . Amer. Chapman, John G. . . Gr. Chares ...» Fr. Chaudet, Anthony Denis . Amer. Church, Fred. E. . . Ital. Cignani, Carlo . . Ital. Cimabue, Giov., Florentine , Ital. Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine Gr. Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Venus) Amer. Cievenger, Shobal Vail . Amer. Cole, Thomas . . . Lands, and Hist. Painter, Eng. Collins, William . . Lands, and Fam. life Painter, Amer. Colrnan, Saml. (N". T.) . . . Lands. Painter, Eng. Constable, John . * . Eng. Cooper, Samuel . Amer. Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) Ger. Cornelius, Peter von . . Ital. Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school Dutch. Cort, Cornelius . . . Ital. Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan . . Eng. Cosway, Richard . , Fr. Courtois, James, known as H Borgognone Fr. , William (brother) Fr. Couture .... Fr. Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) Fr. , William. Fr, Cousin, John . Eng. Cox, David . . Ger. Cranach, Lucas . Amer. Cranch, Christr. P. • Amer. Crawford, Thomas . Amer. Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. V.) Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G. . Dutch. , Albert (son of Jacob) Dutch. , Benjamin ■ BOBN. 1538 1604 1643 1781 DIED. 1608 1671 1688 1841 Painter. Painter. Sculptor. Sculptor. Painter. Miniature Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. Engraver. Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. Sculptor. Sculptor and Architect. . Paint., Sculp., etc. Lands. Painter. Engraver. . . Painter. Sculptor. . Lands. Painter. Lands, and Cattle Painter. Lands, and Cattle Painter. • • Hist. Painter. f. I. 0. 300 1763 1810 1628 1719 1240 1300 1600 16S2 f. b. C. ISO 1812 1844 1802 1848 1788 1847 1776 1689 1737 1787 1493 1536 1596 1740 1621 1628 1658 1716 1500 1723 1470 1814 1568 1606 1650 1837 1776 1815 1534 1578 1669 1828 1673 1679 1731 1777 1590 1859 1553 1857 1649 1667 Eng. Danby, Francis . , . . Painter. 1793 1861 Eng. Daniel, Thomas . . • . . Lands. Painter. 1749 1840 Eng. , Wm» .... Lands. Painter. 1769 1837 Ger. Dannecker, John Henry, ' Adriadne,' &c. . Sculptor. 1758 1841 Amer. Darley, F. O. C. . . . Painter and Designer. 1822 Fr. David, James Louis . . . . Painter. 1750 1825 Fr. , Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French school) . . . . • Sculptor. 1789 1856 Fr. Delacroix, F. V. E. . . ... Painter. 1798 1863 Fr. Delaroche, Paul ... Hist. Painter, 1797 1S58 1012 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SATIOJJ Get. Dutch. Gr. Ital. Ital. Ital. Fr. Amer. Dutch. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Ger. NAME AND PROFESSION. Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. De "Witt, James .... Painter. Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. Donatello, or Donato Dore, Gustave . Doughty, Thomas Douw, or Dow, Gerard Dubuffe, Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse Dunlap, "William Durand, Asher B. (N. T.) . Durer, Albert (and author) . Florentine Sculptor. Painter and Designer. Lands. Painter. . Familiar Life Painter. , Hist. Painter. Painter. Hist. Painter. Painter and Engraver. Paint., Eng., Sc, and Arch. BORN. MFD 16S5 17« 1695 1747 f. b. o. 330 1616 1688 1581 1641 1383 1466 1793 1S56 1613 1674 1611 1665 1766 1839 1471 E Eng. Eastlake, Chas. L. . . . . Painter. Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. Eng. Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on glass ..... Painter. Amer. Ehninger, .Tohn "W". (N. Y^ . . . Painter. Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. Y.) . . Port. Painter. Eng. Etty, "Wm. Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . Eng. Flaxman, John . Eng-. Finden, "Wm. Amer. Forbes, Edwin . Scot. Forrest, Robert . . . Fr. Frere, Edouard Swiss. Fuseli, Henry (resided in England Swiss. , John G. . . . G Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. S., baroi. . Fr. , John I. (Granville) . Ital. Ghiberti, Lawrence Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak Eng. Gibson, John Amer. Gifford, Sanford E. . Fr.Am. Gignoux, Regis . . Ital. Giordani, Luke (the Proteus of Painting) Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelli . . Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) Fr. Girardon, Francis Fr. Girodet, Trioson Aim6 Louis 1793 1768 1865 1859 1805 Painter. 1787 1849 Painter. ainting in oil) Painter. 1370 1411 . Port. Painter. . Lands. Painter. . Sculptor and Artist. 1755 182* Engraver. 1787 18591 . . Painter. Sculptor. 1790 1852 . Genre Painter. . Painter. 1741 1823 . . Painter. 1706 1781 . Lands. Painter. 1727 1788 Painter. 1770 1837 Caricaturist. 1803 1847 . Florentine Sculptor. 1378 1456 oak . Sculptor. 1648 1721 Sculptor. 1791 1867 . Lands. Painter. Lands. Painter. j) . Painter. 1629 1704 . . Painter. 1477 1511 Paint. Sculp, and Arch. 1276 1338 . Sculp, and Arch. 1630 171S . Painter. 1767 1824 BIOGRAPHICAL IOT)EX. — ARTISTS. igi; RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ital. Giulio Romar.o (Pippi) .... Painter. Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Sculptor. Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. Amer. Greenotigh, Horatio . . . Sculptor. Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. Er. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter. Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. ItaL Guido, Reni (excelled in "beauty of expression and grace) Painter. BOEN. DIED. 1492 1546 1515 1572 1805 1726 1590 1574 1852 1805 1606 1642 H . . . Painter. Painter. . • . Painter. . Landscape Painter. +• . Architect. . Historical Painter. ... Painter. Engraver. . . . Painter. Painter. Historical Painter. . . Landscape Painter. Painter. Portrait and Historical Painter. Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry Amer. Hart, ¥m., b. in Scotland Amer. Hart, Jas. M. " Amer. Haseltine, W. Stanley Eng. Haviland, John . Eng. Haydon, R. B. . Amer. Healy, Gr>o. P. Eng. Heath, Charles . Amir. Hennessy, W. L • Amer. Hicks, Thos. Eng. Hilton, William . Flem. Hobloema, Mynderhout Eng. Hogarth, William . Swiss. Holbein, Hans . Ger. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates . Engraver. Amer. Homer, Wir.slow .... Painter. Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) . Painter. Amer. Hosmer, Harriet .... Sculptor. Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . . . Engraver. Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. Amer. Hnbbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . . . Sculptor. Amer. Huntington, Dan. . , , Painter. Eng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) . Painter. Dutch. , Justus (The Old) . , . Painter. Dutch. (The Young) . . Painter. 1787 1823 1828 1792 1786 1808 1823 1786 1611 1697 1498 1607 1592 1831 1698 1746 1736 1806 1816 1827 1682 1659 1684 1853 1846 1849 1839 1699 1764 1554 1677 1660 1780 1828 1813 1749 1716 1706 Amer. Inman, Henry I Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1S01 1840 Amer. Jarvis, J. W. Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.> Amer. ' , David (N. T.) Fr. Johannot, Chas. H. A. Fr. , Tony (brother) Amer. Jones, Alfred, IS. Y. Eng. , Inigo . Amer. , Thos. D. . Portrait Painter. . Painter. . . Painter. Painter and Designer. 1S00 1887 Painter and Designer. 1803 1852 i . Engraver. • Architect. 1572 1652 . . Sculptor. 1014 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. RATIOS. Flem. Jordacns, Jacob Ital. Julio, Eoniano NAME AND PBOFESSION. BORN. Painter. 1595 Painter and Architect. 1492 K Swiss. Kauffman, M. A. Angelica 0. (in England) Poetical Painter. 1747 Amer. Kensett, John F. .... Painter. 1818 Ger. Kiss, August .... Sculptor. 1802 Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) . Painter. 1648 DIEIv. 1678 1516 180-i 1723 Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. Fr. Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. Eng. Landseer, Chas. . . . Painter of Genre. Eng. , John .... Engraver. Eng. , Sir Edwin .... Painter. Amer. Lang, Louis (h. in Germany) ... Painter. Eng. Lawrence, Sir Thos. .... Painter. Lehrun, Charles (painter to Louis XrV.) . . Painter. Leech, John . . . Humorist Artist. 1640 1711 1826 1852 Fr. Eng. Gr. Fr. Amer. Ger. Amer Fr. Eng. Gr. Amer. Scot. Amer, Eng. Ital. Flem. Ger. Ital. Amer. Fr. Fr. Ger. Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) . Leslie, Chas. E. (resided in England) Leasing, Carl Fred. Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . , Liverseege, Henry . . Lysippus (made 600 statues) Painter. Painter. Painter. . Painter. . Painter. Painter and Engraver . Painter. . Sculptor. Malbone, Edward G. Marshall, ¥m. O. , Wm. C. . Martin, John . Masaccio Matsys, Quintin . Mayer . . Mazzuolo, Francis McEntee, Jervis Meissonier, Justus A. , Jean L. Mengs, Anthony R. (the Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel . Dutch. Mieris, Francis . Fr. Mignard, Peter Amer. Mignot, Louis R. Amer. Mills, Clark . . Swiss. Mind, Gottfried . Ital. Morghen, Raphael , Amer. Morse, Samuel F. B. Amer. Mount, William Sidney Eng. Moreland, George Bp&n. Murillo, Bartholomew 3. m; . Miniature Painter. . . Sculptor. . . Engraver. . . Painter. . . Painter. ... Painter. . . Bculptor. . . . Painter. . . Painter. Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. Painter. of Germany) . Painter. Familiar Life Painter. . Familiar Life Painter. . . Painter. . . . Painter. <, . Sculptor. . . Painter. , . Engraver. , . . Painter. . . Painter. . . . Painter. , . Painter. 1769 1803 1814 1769 1619 1816 1618 1617 1794 1808 1816 1494 1533 1803 1832 f. B. O. 324 1830 1696 1680 1655 1859 1777 1813 1789 1402 1460 1503 1695 1815 1729 1615 1635 1610 1815 1768 1758 1807 1764 1613 1807 1854 1427 1529 1540 1756 1779 1669 1681 1695 1814 1S04 1683 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — ARTISTS. 10 J 5 N RATION. NAMB AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIEB^ Dutch. Neefs, Peter . . . Architectural Painter. 1570 1651 Eng. Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) , . Historical Painter. 1785 1835 Eng. Nollekins, Joseph, .... Sculptor. 1737 1823 Eng, Northcote, Janiea . . . . Painter. 1746 1831 Eng. Opie, John . . Dutch. Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) Dutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) Eng. Owen, William . . Painter. 1761 1801 Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1686 . Painter. 1617 1671 . Painter. 1769 1825 Amer. Page, Wm. ... . , Painter. 1811 Fr. Pajou, Augustin ... . Sculptor. 1730 1809 Ital. Palladio, Andrew . . . a Architect. 1518 1580 Span. Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. Painter. 1653 1728 Itai. Pannini, Giov. Paolo . . Architectural Painter. 1691 1764 Gr. Parrhasius, of E-pbesus . . Painter. f. B. 0. 420 Amt/, Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 1741 1827 Amer. , Rembrandt Painter. 1778 1860 Er. Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre.) Architect. 1613 1688 Ital. Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) Painter. 1446 1524 Swiss. Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) , . Painter. 1607 1691 Bel. Peters, Bonaventura . , . Marine Painter. 1614 1652 Bel. , Francis Lucas . . . . Painter. 1606 1654 Bel. , John Marine Painter. 1635 1677 Gr. Phidias (the most famous of anoient sculptors) . Sculptor, b. 0.498 b. 0.431 Eng. Phillips, Thomas, R. A. . . . Port. Painter. 1770 1S45 Fr. Picart, Bernard . . . Engraver. . 1663 1733 Er. Pigalle, John Baptist . . , Sculptor. 1714 1785 Ital. Pietro, da Pietre . . Hist. Painter of Rome. 1671 1718 Fr. Piles, Roger de . . . Author and Painter. 1635 1709 Ital. Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) . Ed graver. 1707 1778 Ital. Polidors, da Caravaggio . . , Painter. 1495 1543 Gr. Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) . Sculptor, b. c. 430 Ital. Pordenone, Regillo da , Painter. 1484 1540 Dutch. Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) . Painter. 1625 1654 Fr. Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) Painter. 1594 1665 Ital. Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) . Landscape Painter. 1613 1675 Ital. Piombo, Sebastiano del . . . Painter. 1485 1547 Amer. Powers, Hiram . . . . Sculptor. 1805 Ft. Pradier, Jacques - . , . 'Sculptor. 1798 1852 Amer. Pratt, Mathew . . . . Painter. 1734 1805 Gr. Praxiteles , '. , „ Sculptor, f. B. c. 350 Eng. Prout, Samuel ... Water-colorist. 1783 1S52 Fr. Prudhon, of Cluny , . . . Painter. 1760 1823 Fr. Puget . . Sculptor, Painter and Architect. 1622 1694 Eng. Pugin, Augustus A. W. . . . . . Architect, 1811 1852 1016 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. R NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. dibr Ital. Raphael, d' Urbino (real name Sanzio) A . prominent Painter. 1483 152(1 ItaL Raphael daRhegio (Raffaelino) Hist, and Port. Painter. 1552 158C Ger. Raucb, Christian David . . Sculptor. 1781 1859 Dutch. Rembrandt van fiyn, Paul Geritz . . 1606 1669 Ger. Retsch, Moritz . . . . Art Designer. 1779 1859 E-ag. Reynolds, Sir Joshua , . Painter 1723 1792 Eng. Richardson, Jonathan . Writer on Art and Painter. 1665 1745 Ger. Riedinger, John Elias # Animal Painter. 1695 1767 Fr. Rober, Fleury • . • . Painter. 1797 Scot. Roberts, David . o Painter. 1796 1864 Fr. Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) • Sculptor. 1746 1816 Eng. Romney, George ... . Painter. 1734 1802 Flem. Roos, Philip Peters . . . • Painter. 1655 1705 Ital. Rosa, Salvator • . • . Paint"?. 1614 1673 Amer. Rossiter, Thomas P. . . . Painter. Fr. Roubilliac, L. F. . . • Sculptor. 1695 1762 Fr. Rousseau, James . . . Painter. ie3o 1693 Eng. Rowlaiidson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng. 1756 1827 Flem. Rubens, Peter Paul , . . . Painter. 1577 1646 Scot. Runciman, Alexander . . Painter. 1736 1785 Dutch. Rnysdael, Jacob . . Landscape Painter. 1636 1684 Dutch. Ruysdael, Solomon ... Painter. 1616 1670 Dutch. Ryckaert, David ... Painter. 1615 1677 Dutch. Ryckaert, Martin . . Landscape Painter. 1591 1636 Dutch. RysbraecU, Ieter . . . Landscape Painter. 1657 1718 Eng. Rysbiach, John M. (works in Westminster i Lbbey) Sculptor. 1694 1770 Ital. Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) . Ital. Salvi, Nicholas ... Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael ... Ital. Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanucchi . Eng. Savage, James ... ItaL Seamozzi, Vincent . . Pruss. Schadow, J. G. . . . Ger. Schadow, Godenhaus F. W. . Ger. Schadow, Rudolf ... Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) Ger. Scheffer, Ary .... Ital. Schidone, Bartolomeo . . Gr. Scopas • • . . Eng. Sharp, William ... Amer. Shattuck, Aaron D. . . . Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy Eng. Sherwin, John Keyse ... Amer. Smillie, James ... Amer. , George H. • , . Amer. ■ -, James D. . . . Painter. 1605 1685 Architect. 1699 1752 Architect. 1484 1559 Architect. 1778 1852 Architect. 1550 1616 Sculptor. 1764 1850 Painter. 17S9 Sculptor. 17S6 1822 Painter. 1643 1708 Painter 1795 1858 Painter. 1560 1616 Sculptor, b. C.460 B. C. 353 Engraver. 1740 1824 Painter. Painter. 1795 1850 Engraver. 1751 1388 Engraver. Painter. ' Painter. iOEN. DIED 1084 1751 1579 1657 1714 178.1 1716 1822 1589 1656 1636 1689 1721 1792? 1854 1749 1802 1713 1788 1756 1823 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 1017 RATIOU. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Smybert, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter. Flera. Snyders, Francis . Landscape and Animal Painter. Fr. Soufflot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. Dutch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan . , Flower Painter. Span. Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Ribera la • , . Painter. Dutch. Steen, Jan . , , Painter. Amer. Stone, William O. « , , Portrait Painter. 6cot. Strange, Robert . , . Engraver. Amer. Strickland, "William * . ; Architect. Eng. Strutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter. Eng. Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. Amer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. Ger. Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) . . . Engraver. ItaL Tenerani, Pietro . . . Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) Scot. Thorn, Jas. (Tarn O'Shanter, &c.) Eng. Thornhill, Sir Jas. . Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert . . . Ger. Tieck, Christ Fried . Qr. TimaDthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) ItaL Tintoretto (Venetian — pupil of Titian) ItaL , II (James Eobusti) ItaL Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school Fr. Troyon, Constantino . . • Amer. Trumbull, John . . . Eng. Turner, J. W. M. . . . Eng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A. . . • Painter. 17S3 Amer. Van Beest (b. in Holland p) . . Marine Painter. Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arch't. Amer. Vanderlyn, John . . . Historical Painter. Dutch. Vander Neer, Arnold . . Landscape Painter. Dutch. Vandervelde, Adrian . . . Landscape Painter. Dutch. , the younger . . ... Painter. Dutch. , "Wm., marine and battle . • Painter. Dutch. Vanderwerf, Adrian . . Historical Painter. Flem. Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait Painter. Dutch. Vaneyck, Hubert .... Painter. Dutch. Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) . Painter. Ital. Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . . . Painter. Ital. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan . . Architect. Ital. Vasari, George, biographer of artists Architect and Painter. Bic. Vasi, Joseph . . Designer and Engraver. 43* • Bculptor. 1789 , . Painter.' 1582 1649 ) Painter. 1610 1694 Sculptor. 1790 1850 Historical Painter. 1676 1732 Sculptor. 1772 1844 . Sculptor. 1770 1851 . Painter. f. B. c. 240 . Painter. 1480 1579 . Painter. 15!2 1594 . Painter. 1480 1579 Painter. 1813 1865 Historical Painter. 1756 1843 . Painter. 1775 1851 1672 3720 1776 1852 1619 1633 1639 1672 1633 1707 1610 1693 1654 171 S 1598 1643 1366 1426 1370 1441 1488 1530 1700 1773 1512 1574 1710 1783 1018 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IIATION. Span. Flem. Amer. Fr. Fr. Ital. Ital. Eng. Ital. Ital. Gr. Ital. Fr. NAME AND PROFESSION. Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . Painter. Verboeckhoven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. Ver Bryck, C. . Landscape Painter. Vemetj Horace . . Historical Painter. Vernet, Joseph ..... Painter. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) Ven-ochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking features in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. Vertue, George (500 plates) . . . Engraver. Vigtiola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter's Architect. Vinci, Leonardo da . Painter. Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . . Architect. Volpato, John ..... Engraver. Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- ry of Charles I. . . . Painter. BOBfi. WEB l599 1660 1799 1813 1844 1789 1863 1714 1789 1422 1488 1684 1756 1507 1575 1452 1519 f B. o. 30 1733 1802 1582 1649 W Fr. Wailly, Charles de Amer. Ward, J. Quincy A. Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving Fr. Watteau, Antoine Amer. Weir, Robt. W. . Amer. , James F. Dan. Wertmuller, (?) (painted in America) Amer. "West, Benjamin . . . Eng. Westall, Richard . Eng. , William R. A. br. Amer. White, Edwin Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . . Scot, Wilkie, David Eng. Wilson, Richard Eng. Woollett, William Dutch. Wouverman, Philip Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &o.) Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, & Eng. "Wyatt, R. J. . . on steel Architect. Sculptor. Engraver. Painter. . . Painter. . Painter. Port. Painter. Painter. Historical Painter. Designer. Painter. Landscape Painter. Familiar Life Painter. Landscape Painter. Engraver. Painter. . . Architect. 3.) . Architect. . . Sculptor. 1729 1684 1803 1738 1781 1781 17S5 1713 1735 1620 1632 1743 1795 179S 1823 1721 182(1 1836 1856 1841 1782 1785 1668 1723 1813 1850 X Span. Ximenes, Fran. Painter. 1598 1666 Slem. Vples, Charles de Painter. 1510 1563 Ital. Zablia, Nicholas . . Gr. Zes^is, celebrated ancient . Ger. Zincke . . . ItaL Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo , Ital. Zuccarelli . . . Architect. . . Painter. Enamel Portrait Painter. . Painter. Painter. . Painter. 1674 1650 B. c. 490 B. O. 400 1684 1789 1539 1639 1529 1568 1710 1788 PAINTING. 1019 PAINTING. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged ia Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement at the Nineteenth Century. (From Bell's Edition of Bredow's Tables of Universal History.) 1. Florentine School.— Stylo elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace— 1240, Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, Andrea Tafli; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Verrochio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Leonardo da Vinci; 1469, Bartolommeo di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Per uzzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 1434, Dominico Beccafumi; 1488, Andrea del Savto; 1493, Jacopo Carrucei da Pontormo; 149 i, Del Eosso.. 1500, Perino del Vaga; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510, Francesco Salviati; 1510, G iorgio Vassari ; 1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luigi Oardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Bosselli; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo- foli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni; 1702, Pompeo Battoni. 2. Eoman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical study of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most sublime beauty ; coloring and chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 14S3, Eaffr.el; 1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero ; 1543, Frederico Zucchero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine; 1602, Ceriozzi' 1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspro, ±616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Bomanell; 1623, Giacinto Brandi; 1623, Filippo Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, Ciro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Baffael Mengs. 8. Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; this school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgione ; 1477, Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore) ; 14S0, G. A. Begillo ; 1485, Sebastiano del Piombo ; 1510, Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539, Dario Varotari; 1540, Felice Biccio ; 1540, Jacopo Palma (ifVecchio); 1544, Jae Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino; 1560, Maria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 15S6, Tiberio Tinelli; 1590, Aless. Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti; 1642, Andrea Pozzo ; 1656, Franc. Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Eicci ; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Eosa Alba Camera; 1675, Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 16S2, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canaie; 1693, Giov. Bat. Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 4. Lombard and Bolognese Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and voluptuous (though perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his colo r - ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correggio. 1450, Francesco Franco ; 1490, F. Prirnaticcio ; 1494, Correggio Antonio Allegri ; 1495, Polidorl Caldari ; 1504, Fr. Maz- zuoli; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi j 1546, Carnillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Car- ravaggio; 1555, Lodov. Caracci: 1557, Agostino Caracci; 1560, Annibale Caracci; 1560, Bartol. Schidone ; 1575, Guido Eeni, called Guido ; 1576, Lionello Spada ; 1577, Aless. Tiarini ; 1578, Francesco Albano; 15S0, Giacomo Cavedone ; 1581, Dora. Zampieri, called Domenichino; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov. Lana ; 1600, Mie. Aug. Colonna ; 1606, Grimaldi ; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani ; 1612, Simone Canlarini ; 1624, P. Fran. Mola; 162S, Cignani; 1633, P. F. Caroli ; 1643, Lodov. Quaini ; 1643, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, Guis. del Sole f 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 1665, Guis. Maria Crespi; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani; 1671, Donato Creti ; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1691, G. P. Panini. (Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having founded general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools." Neapol- itan. — The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fil del Tesauro, 1320 ; 1500,"and Sabbatani ; 1560, Guis Cesare d'Arpino; 16u0, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator Eosa; 1631, Luca Giordana ; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli; 1679, Sebast. Concr., 1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design, — 1400, Nich. da Vottri ; 1527, Cam- biasi; 1544. G. B. Paggi; 1557, Bern. Castelli; 1581, Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590 Gio. Ca.-lone; 1618, Benedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gauli; 1664, Greg. Ferrari, 1654, Bart, ©uidoboni ; 1660, II Molinaretto ; Spaniards. — These painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often display its brilliant coloring.— 1400, Alonso Berragente; 1487, Bla*B* 1020 PAINTING. dePrado; 1519, Morales; 15£8, Luis de Vargas ; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete ; 1550, Pabl* de las Rovias; 1589, Joseph Ribera; 1599, Don Diego "Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Canoj 1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolme Esteban deMurillo; 1617, Franc. Rizzi ; 1681, Matias de Torres; 1640, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan de Alfaro; 1651, Juan O. Falco; 1668, P. di Pietri.) 5. German School. — This School having never had a common point of union, bears no general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1357, Theo. de Prague ; 1367, N. Wurmser ; 1479, Albert Durer ; 1492, Lucas Muller : 1498, Hans Holbein ; 1E..5, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz ; 1556, John Van Aachen: 1564, J. Rottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzbeimer; 1593, S;im. Hofmann : 1600. J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611, Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink; 1618, P. Van de* Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J. Hen Roos ; 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Merian ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R. Hnber: 1669, Anna Waser; 1685, Balthasar Denner; 16S9, Fr. P. Fergl 169S, J. E. Riedenger ; 1709, Brinkman; 1712, 0. W. E. • Dietrich ; 1728, Raffael Mengs ; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 6. Flemish or Belgio School. — This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imi- tation of nature, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design ; it produces eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birth ia this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442. — 1306, Eubert Van Eyk; 1870, John Van Eyk; 1450, Qnentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabiise ; 1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 154S, O. Van Mander; 1550, H. Steenwyck; 1555, Denys Calvart ; 1556, Otto Venius ; 1569, P. Van Breughel : 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S. Frank ; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 1577, Peter Paul Rubens; 15S0, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Van Artois ; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1663, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort, 7. Dutch School.— This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence of the chiaro oscuro ; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School 1467, Erasmus ; 1494. Luke of Leyden ; 149S, Martin Hemskerk"; 1518, An. Moro ; 1564, Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol de Brey; 1585, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynants; 1606, Albert Cuyp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn; 1608, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade ; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met- zu; 1620, Philip Woiivermans; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph Bakhytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Buysdael, Hobbema; 1635. Fran, Mierirs; 1636, John Steen ; 1637; Van den Heyden ; 163S, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1632, John Van Huysum. English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Hans Holbein ; 1543, F. Zucchero; 1572, Inigo Jones,; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610. W. Dobson ; 1620, Ric. Gibson; 16J9, John Greenhill ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James Thornbill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Rich. Wilson; 1723. Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thorn. Gainsborough; 1733, Sawrey Gilpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg ; 1735, David Allan; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Northcote ; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Reinagle ; 1751. William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beechey ; 1755, Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1.774, Edward Bird ; 1776, John Constable ; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Tho- mas Daniell ; 1785, David Wilkie ; 1786, R. B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty. 8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the differ* ent Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics ; they are in general more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most numer- ous and flourishing school of all. — 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Rosso de Rossi ; 1502, J. Cousin ; 1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Ponsin ; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Valentin; 1600, James Blanchard; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur; 1619, Charles le Brun; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien 1667, Nicholas Bertin; 1667, Antb. Rivallv; 1684, Ant Watteau; 1688, Francis Le Moine; 1692 Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire; 1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vi»» ■ 1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet. % vo "SSEQ