(General n T5T^ i(^j k' > 1 'K , A' ThALH ELMER MjgiiMMMiMMiiiiiipiii^^ #LIBRi\IlY OF CONGRESS.! ||l.ap."D2.\. |opjtighf |o # \ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, i AN OUTLINE GENERAL HISTORY jFor ti^e M^t of Scftoolis. i / BY M. E. THALHEIMER, Author of "A Manual of Ancient History," ''A Manual of Mediceval and Modem History," "A History of Efigland," etc. V VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO. 137 Walnut Street 28 Bond Street cincinnati ' new york /^r7 THE LIBRARY or CONGRESS WASHINGTON Copyright 1877 BY Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. Electrotyped at Eclectic Press Franklin Type Foundry Van Antwerp. Bragg & Co Cincinnati Cincinnati )9^^ 1 d3(^ I PREFACE. The Outline of General History has been prepared with especial regard to common schools. Several distinguished teachers, while expressing their kind approval of the Manuals of Ancient, Medieval and Modern History, by the same author, have regretted that these volumes are, in size and general scope, beyond the range of a majority of pupils. For many of these — so short is the time devoted to education — the most that the school can offer is a clear outline of the world's history, affording a system of classification for future reading, or, at least, supplying needed intelligence con- cerning nations whose present movements constitute a chief interest of our times. The Manuals will be found useful as books of reference, and may well be used at each recitation to complete the impression received from the memorized lesson. It is believed that the Outline, from the simplicity of its arrangement and style, will present no difficulty to any pupil who is old enough to enter upon the study of General History; while the comprehensiveness of its plan may render it a sufficient guide to older students, whose time does not permit them to undertake a larger book. (iii) IV PREFACE. The references to authorities, at the end of each chapter, will, perhaps, aid teachers in presenting a fuller narrative whenever the time and circumstances of the class admit of it. The Map Questions will, if thoroughly studied, add much to the clearness of conception in the mind of the student. The Maps themselves, which form an important element in the value of the work, have been prepared with much expense of time and labor, by the personal direction of one of the Publishers, to whom the author is under great obligations. Acknowledgments are also due to Mr. H. F. Farny, for the delicate and beautiful drawings with which he has illustrated the book. His choice of subjects, no less than the minute accuracy of his execution, evinces remarkable fidelity to historical truth. The author has been unwilling to disfigure the pages of the text with marks for pronunciation — distracting the pupil's mind, by their uncouthness, from the facts to be communicated — but wherever there seemed to be a pos- sibility of error, names have been carefully marked in the Index. It is earnestly hoped that this little book may contribute something to the facility and enjoyment of the study of History in our schools. Brooklyn, N. Y., ] August, 1S77. I CONTENTS Introduction Page 7 BOOK L— THE ANCIENT WORLD. PART I. — Nations of Asia and Africa. Chapter P^ge I. Dispersion of Races — Chaldiiea, Assyria, Media, and Babylonia ....... 9 II. Smaller Asiatic States — Phcenicia, Syria, and Asia Minor 17 III. The Hebrews 21 IV. The Medo-Persian Empire ..... 25 V. African States and Colonies ..... 34 PART II. — Hellenic States. VI. Earliest History of the Greeks — their Religion . 42 VII. Sparta and Athens ....... 51 VIII. The Persian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian Wars . 56 IX. Greek Literature, Philosophy, and Art ... 66 X. Alexander the Great ...... 74 XI. Successors of Alexander ...... 77 PART HI. — Rome. XII. The Roman Kingdom — Its Religion XIII. The Roman Republic — Samnite Wars XIV, The Roman Republic, Continued — Punic Wars XV. " " " Civil Wars XVI. The Roman Empire ..... XVII. " " Continued XVIII. The Northern Barbarians .... (V) 82 86 93 99 108 114 120 CONTENTS. BOOK II. — MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Introduction PART I.— The Dark Ages. Chapter I. Settlements of the Northern Tribes 11. The Roman Empire in the East III. The Saracens ..... IV. The Western Empire Restored V. The Northmen Page 127 VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. PART II.— The Middle Ages The Crusades . Guelfs and Ghibellines Cities The Tartar Conquests Plantagenets in England . House of Capet in France The Empire and the Church Languages and Literature Dawn of the Modern Era Rise of Italian and German 129 132 134 138 146 153 161 166 169 176 182 186 189 BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY. I. The French in Italy ..... II. Charles V. and the Reformation — The Turks III. House of Orleans in France .... IV. The Tudors in England ..... V. Rise of the Dutch Republic .... VI. The Stuarts in Great Britain .... VII. The House of Austria and the Thirty Years' War VIII. European Colonies ...... IX. The Northern Kingdoms .... X. The Bourbons in France .... XI. Great Britain under the House of Brunswick . XIL British Empire in the East .... XIII. The P'rench Revolution ..... XIV. Absolutists and Liberals in Europe XV. The Second French Empire .... XVI. American Affairs ...... 197 202 210 215 224 230 242 248 254 264 274 284 289 303 310 318 OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 1. From the earliest known times, men have been divided into two classes — those who, wandering from place to place, lived iipon the wild products of the earth, or upon the milk and flesh of their herds; and those who, preferring setded abodes, built cities and villages, and increased their wealth by mining, tillage, mechanical arts, and commerce. 2. The first settled communities could only exist near great rivers, where the fertile soil afforded plenty of food, as in the valleys of the Ganges, Indus, Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile; while beyond the great mountain barrier which divides central from southern Asia, roamed the ancient Scythians, ancestors of fierce and wandering tribes, which have often burst their bounds, carrying ruin to the rich cities and harvest fields of the southern plains. With the progress of the world, the nomadic or wandering races have become fewer, and the civilized more numerous; but to this day the steppes of central Asia are occupied by roving tribes. 3. History begins with the formation of settled com- munities. Other sciences deal with man as an animal, or classify the several races according to their languages, habitations, and use of metals. History has to do with (7) 8 INTRODUCTION. civilized man, and describes the raids of barbarians only as it tells of earthquakes and floods which have overthrown his dwellings and destroyed his wealth. 4. The populous communities of India, China, and Japan — though they contributed their jewels, spices, per- fumes, and silken garments to the luxury of the western Asiatics — were so little known to the Greek and Roman writers, that they also are beyond the range of ancient History. We have only to tell the story of those nations which, through their art, their literature, or their laws, have helped to make our modern society what it is. 5. History is divided into three periods: Ancient, Me- diaeval, and Modern. Ancient History describes the states that rose and fell in western Asia, Africa, and Europe, until the time when the German race became predominant in the latter, and overthrew the Roman Empire of the West. Mediaeval History covers the thousand years between the breaking-up of the old order and the establishment of the new. It tells how the tribes of northern barbarians grew to be the nations of modern Europe. The opening of Modern History is marked by the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire, the revival of learning, the multiplication of printed books, the discovery of America, and the reformation in religion. Cuneiform Characters. BOOK I.— THE ANCIENT WORLD. PART I. — Nations of Asia and Africa. CHAPTER I. DISPERSION OF RACES — CHALD^^A, ASSYRIA, MEDIA, AND BABYLONIA. Assyrian War Chariot. ^^^■^HE earliest known attempt to form a settled W^\ community was made by the sons of Noah, ^^^ at Babel, after the Flood. It was defeated by the Confusion of Tongues. See Gen. xi : 4-9. The three families then separated. The children of Japhet were divided, one part traveling westward to Asia Minor and Greece, while another, moving eastward, occupied the (9) lO THE ANCIENT WORLD. table-lands of Iran, Bactria, and nordiern India. They were die parents of the Indo-Germanic or Aryan race, whose active intellect has made it the leader of the world in art, literature, and laws. 7. The children of Shem remained upon the fertile plains of the Tigris and Euphrates, This family has ever been distinguished for intense religious feeling; and from its ranks came the Chosen People, to whom were com- mitted the written revelations of God. Part of the Hamites moved to the shores of the Med- iterranean, and established the great empire of Egypt; while Nimrod, a grandson of Ham, built Babylon, and became the founder of the Chaldaean Kingdom south of the Euphrates. The Hamites were great builders : in Egypt their massive pyramids and temples have proved almost as lasting as the eternal hills; but in Chaldsea the want of stone compelled them to use a more perishable material. Gen. xi : 3. From the clay of the plain and a natural bituminous cement, they erected buildings which were the wonders of the ancient world. 8. The Chaldseans were diligent students of the heavens, and their astronomical records date from the twenty-third century before Christ. They were the inventors of writing, which the Phoenician merchants learned from them and taught to the rest of the world. In writing, as in build- ing, their ingenuity enabled them to make use of simple and rude materials; their wedge-shaped letters were im- pressed, with a stick, upon tablets or cylinders of clay, which were afterward either baked or dried in the sun. The earliest Chaldaean literature, so far as it has yet been read, consists chiefly of prayers, hymns, and charms against evil spirits. 9. In the thirteenth century B. C, Chaldrea was ab- sorbed into the Semitic Empire of Assyria. This, at its greatest extent, reached from the Nile and the Mediter- ASSY JUAN EMPIRE. II ranean on the west to the mountains of Media on the east. The Assyrians were a vigorous nation, "all mighty men ; " and their kings commonly led their armies in person, sharing the hardships of night-marches and toil- some campaigns among the mountains. a. The First Period of Assyrian history begins in un- known antiquity, and ends with the Conquest of Babylon by Tiglathi-nin, about 1250 B. C. b. The Second Period extends from the latter event to the independence of Babylon, about 745 B. C. c. The Third Period comprises the New or Lower Em- pire of Assyria, B. C. 745-625. 10. Although monuments, lately discovered, give com- plete lists of the Assyrian kings, from B. C. 1850, yet we know very little of the early centuries of their history. It was Tiglath-pileser I ( B. C. 11 20-1 100) who made As- syria the foremost nation in the world. It declined as the Hebrew monarchy expanded, but became powerful again after the death of Solomon. 11. Tva-lush IV, or Vul-nira'ri (B. C. 810-781), Avas the husband of Sam'mura'mit, a Babylonian princess, whom the Greeks called Semiramis. Almost all the great cities of the East were said to have been built by her; and w^onderful stories were told of her conquests in Egypt, Ethiopia, and India. But these were mere fables. Her real power and wealth were, however, so great as to entitle her to a mention in Assyrian annals — an honor accorded to no other woman. There is some reason to believe that during this joint reign of Iva-lush and Sammuramit, the Hebrew prophet Jonah preached repent- ance to the Ninevites. (Read Jonah, iii and iv.) Forty years of humiliation followed, and the subject province of Babylon became not only independent but for a few years supreme. THE ANCIENT WORLD. 12. Tiglath-pileser II (B. C. 745-727) was the founder of the New or Lower Assyrian Empire. He extended his dominion to the Mediterranean, and received tribute from all the kings of Syria and Palestine. Tyre, the richest maritime city in the world, paid three tons of gold into his treasury. He and his successors removed thousands of captive Israelites to Media and the river Gozan, filling their places with Babylonians. (Read 2 Kings xv : 29, and xvii : 4-6, 24-33.). 13. Sargon (B. C. 721-705) was one of the greatest Assyrian kings. He defeated the Egyptians and Philis- tines in the great battle of Raphia, and afterward annexed Babylon to his empire. His son Sennach'erib (B. C. 705- 680) gained many victories over Phoenicians, Philistines, Egyptians, and Ethiopians. He took "all the fenced cities of Judah," and insolently threatened Jerusalem. But his pride was humbled by the sudden destruction of 185,000 of his soldiers, and he had to abandon most of his western conquests. (2 Kings xviii : 13-21, and xix.). 14. E'sarhad'don (B. C. 680-667) conquered Babylonia, Egypt, and Arabia; and his son As'shur-ba'ni-pal raised the empire to its. greatest power and glory. He built many temples, and the finest of Assyrian palaces. He also collected a great library of clay tablets, inscribed with the records-!^ of former kings, their letters, treaties, and laws; discourses on mathematics, geography, and natural history; •••These kings' own words prove all that the Hebrew prophets wrote of their cruelty, not less than of their splendor and power. One of them thus describes his treatment of a conquered city: "The men, young and old, I took prisoners: of some I cut off the feet and hands; of others I cut off the noses, ears, and lips: of the young men's ears I made a heap ; of the old men's heads I built a tower. I exposed their heads as a trophy in front of their city. The chiklren I burnt in the flames. The city I destroyed and consumed and burnt in the fire." DESTRUCTION OF NINEVEH. 13 directions for worship, and primeval traditions. Among the latter is the Chaldgean story of the Deluge, coinciding in many important points with that which we have in the Bible. 15. The glory of Asshur-bani-pal was quickly followed by ruin under his successor. A wild horde of Scythians (§2) plundered the Assyrian cities; Media and Babylonia revolted; Nineveh was besieged and taken, its king was slain, and his dominions were divided between the con- querors, B. C. 625. The great cities of Assyria long lay in ruins: even the Greeks could only point to heaps of rubbish, under which Nineveh, Calah, and Resen were sup- posed to be buried. In late years, many of these mounds have been explored, and the magnificent palaces of Sargon, Sennacherib, and their successors, have contributed their sculptures to the adornment of European museums, and their inscriptions to our hitherto scanty knowledge of the primitive eastern nations. 16. Media. — B. C. 633-558. The two allies who had put an end to the Assyrian Empire, were of very different rank. Media, a rough country south of the Caspian Sea, was inhabited by Aryan tribes, which had claimed inde- pendence of Assyria but little more than a century. The founder of Median greatness, who first united these tribes into one kingdom, was Cyax'ares, the joint-conqueror of Nineveh with Nabopolas'sar. He is said to have been the first Asiatic who properly organized an army, separating cavalry, spearmen, and archers into distinct companies. Under his reign, and that of his son Asty'ages, Media rose rapidly in wealth and importance. Extreme luxury took the place of rude manners and simple dress; and their passion for hunting was all that remained of the hardy Medes in the jeweled courtiers of King Astyages. At this point the Persians, a kindred but subject nation, gained the supremacy, by reason of their brave and manly character. M THE ANCIENT WORLD. 17. Babylonia. — Babylon, on the contrary, was the seat of one of the oldest Asiatic states, long celebrated for wealth, luxury, and learning. The wonderful clear- ness of the air over the plain of the Euphrates early attracted attention to a study of the stars. Observations were carefully recorded, and tables still existing prove the painstaking skill of the Babylonian astronomers. They measured time by sun-dials, and were the inventors of other astronomical instruments. 18. After his country had been for 500 years subject to the Assyrian Empire (§ 9. b.)^ Nabonas'sar, a Baby- lonian general, set up an independent kingdom. But the fifth king of his line was taken captive by Sargon (§ 13); and for nearly a century the country was again ruled by Assyrian viceroys, though always ready to revolt. Fearing a double attack, from the north and south, which had been planned by the Medes, the last Assyrian king sent his general, Nabopolas'sar, to defend Babylon. But Nabo- polassar turned traitor; he allied himself with Cyaxares, and led a Babylonian army to the siege of Nineveh NEB UCIIADNEZZA R. 1 5 (§16). In the division of the spoils, which followed the capture of the great city, Nabopolassar received Susiana, Babylonia, and Chaldaea, with all Syria even to the bor- ders of Egypt; while Assyria proper was added to the dominion of Cyaxares. 19. B. C. 604-561. Nebuchadnez'zar, the second Baby- lonian king of this line, was one of the greatest monarchs whom the whole world has seen. By his victories over Egypt, Phoenicia, and Palestine, he reigned from the Med- iterranean to the Indus. The royal descendants of David ate the bitter bread of captivity at his table in Babylon (2 Kings xxiv : 10-16, and xxv : 6, 7, 27-30). He adorned his capital with the celebrated Hanging Gardens, and pro- tected it by walls of enormous thickness, while he en- riched the whole country by canals and reservoirs, which distributed the waters of the Euphrates over its vast and fertile plain. 20. Babylonia became preeminent in industrial arts; and merchants from all parts of the world thronged her markets. There they found delicate muslins and linens, and magnificent carpets from the Babylonian looms, as well as fine wool from Cashmere ; pearls from the Persian Gulf; diamonds and perfumes from India; bronzes and musical instruments from Phoenicia. The amazing fertility of the Babylonian soil — probably the richest on the globe — afforded abundance of barley and dates for even the poorest people, while the rich enjoyed every luxury which the ancient world could boast. 21. At the height of his grandeur, Nebuchadnezzar was suddenly cast out from the society of men, and for seven years fed with beasts. His pride being humbled, his reason returned; and, acknowledging the supremacy of the Most High, he resumed the "excellent majesty" of his kingly state (Daniel iv : 24-36). After a reign of 43 years, Nebuchadnezzar died, and with him ended the real great- i6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ness of his kingdom. Under Nabona'dius, the fourth of his successors, and the crown-prince Belshaz'zar, Babylon was taken by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and its whole territory was added to the Medo-Persian Empire. Describe, from Map I, the Rivers Tigris, Euphrates, Nile. Point out Chaldaea, Babylonia, Media, Assyria. Nineveh, Baby- lon, Raphia. Read Daniel i-v. Jeremiah xxvii : 5-8. Rawlinson's Five Ancient Eastern Monarchies. Herodotus, Volume I. Heeren's Asiatic Re- searches. Children of Shem. Children of Ham. Children of Japhet. Assyrians Chaldceans \ Hindus Asiatic Aryans j Medes and Persians ^ Bactrians. Hebrews Phoenicians ■•• Greeks Romans European Aryans - Celts, Germans Arabs Egyptians , Slavonians. "•■•The language of the Phoenicians was Semitic, though they were descended from Canaan, son of Ham. CHAPTER II. SMALLER ASIATIC STATES. m^ hoenicia. — The narrow strip of land between Mt. Lebanon and the sea held some of the most im- portant communities of early times. They were not a nation, but a mere cluster of commercial cities, of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief. Now and then some great danger led them to form a league; but usually they were only united by a common language and religion, each city having its king or judge, who was also its high- priest. The name Phcenicians was given them by the Greeks. They called themselves Canaanites, and were of the same race as the tribes expelled or conquered by the Hebrews. 23. The importance of Phoenicia was owing to her wonderful maritime enterprise. The Mediterranean and western Atlantic, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean, all were highways for her ships, and their coasts and islands were dotted with her colonies. In her markets might be found silver from Spain, tin from Britain, and amber from the Baltic; gold and apes from Africa; pearls, Hist.- 2. (17) 1 8 THE ANCIENT WORLD. rubies, and diamonds from India and Ceylon; no less than engraved seals from Babylon; copper and horses from Armenia; oil, honey, and balm from Palestine; wine and white wool from Damascus; lambs and kids from the the Bedouin Arabs; and embroidered linen from Egypt. In return, the gold, silver, bronze, and glass-wares of the Phoenicians, and the precious dye known as Tyrian purple, found great favor in foreign markets. 24. Penetrating the remotest corners of the ancient world, the Phoenicians were carriers of ideas as well as of merchandize. Our greatest debt to them is the alphabet (§8). They were not inventors either in art or literature, nor were they inspired, like the Greeks, with a love of freedom. So long as trade flourished, they were content to pay tribute to Assyria, or to lend their ships and sailors to the Pharaohs. This is true especially of Sidon and the smaller cities. Tyre withstood three memorable sieges: one of five years by Sargon, B. C. 720-715; another of thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and a third by Alex- ander of Macedon (B. C. ^iZZi 2i'h'^)'> after which 8,000 of her people were slain, and 30,000 sold into slavery. The second of these sieges is celebrated in the Hebrew Script- ures (Ezekiel xxvi-xxviii). The bravery of the Tyrians probably secured favorable terms, for while a great num- ber sailed away with their families and goods to Carthage, others removed to an island half a mile from the main- land, and soon made New Tyre richer than the Old. 25. When Nebuchadnezzar's kingdom was overthrown, the Phoenicians submitted to Cyrus, and their ships made the principal part of the Persian fleets. They brought cedar- wood from Lebanon to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem, as their forefathers had done in the days of Solomon and Hiram (i Kings v: 6-18. Ezra iii : 7). 26. Syria. — The most important Syrian state had its seat at Damascus, one of the oldest cities in the world. ASIA MINOR. 19 It alone was able to hold out against David and Solomon, who reigned over all the remaining country from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates ; but three centuries later it became subject to the Assyrian kings. Other Syrian nations were the Hamathites, in the valley of the Orontes; the northern and warlike Hittites, whose chief city was Carchemish; and the southern Hittites, a peaceable trading people near the Dead Sea, 27. Asia Minor. — Probably the earliest inhabitants of Asia Minor were the Phrygians, a hardy race of farmers and vine-dressers, who had come from Armenia and brought thence a tradition of the Flood. Later came the Cappadocians, also sons of Japhet (§6), who crowded the Phrygians westward of the River Halys; then the Thracians, who took possession of the north-western coast, to which they gave the name Bithynia, from one of their tribes. The "brave, shield-bearing Faphlagonians'''' occupied the rest of the Euxine coast. A mixed population of Aryans and Shemites inhabited Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia on the southern shore; while the borders of the ^gean were very early colonized by Greeks. 28. Among all these nations, Lydia became supreme under its last five kings, who ruled B. C. 694-546. In the time of Ardys, the second of these kings, occurred one of those great movements of the northern barbarians, which have been mentioned in § 2. The Cimmerians (Crimeans) of southern Russia, ancestors of the modern Cossacks, swarmed over Asia Minor, captured Sardis, the Lydian capital, and ravaged all the western provinces. Successive waves of the same great tide of migration spread through Italy; another, taking a more northerly direction, reached the western coast of Britain, where the Cymry, their descendants, still live. 29. Croesus, the fifth and last king of Lydia, was noted for his enormous wealth. Having become master of all 20 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Asia Minor and the Isles of Greece, he leagued himself widi the great empires of Egypt and Babylon, to resist the Persian power, which was then becoming formidable. His efforts were vain; having fought one battle in Cappa- docia, Cyrus marched swiftly upon Sardis, defeated and captured its king, and made Lydia a province of the Persian Empire. Map 2. Asia Minor. Point out, on Maps i and 2, the following countries and cities: Phoenicia — Sidon, Tyre, Berytus. Syria — Damascus, Hamath, Carchemish. River Orontes. Asia Minor — Phrygia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lydia, Sardis. River Halys. Bound Asia Minor. Read Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Vol. II, pp. 402-412, 444; Vol. Ill, 51-53, 392. Herodotus, Book I, g i ; III, ^19; IV, §42; V, §58. Grote's History of Greece, Chapters XVII, XVIII, XXXII. CHAPTER III. THE HEBREWS. ROM the Shemites east of the Euphrates, God called Abraham to remove westward and become the founder of a great nation. The story of this people — com- prising its education out of heathenism into the belief in One God, and the suc- cessive captivities which placed it at school in the great empires of Egypt and Babylonia just at the periods of their highest civilization — is among the most wonderful records in ancient history. 31. Driven by famine into Egypt, the descendants of Abraham became slaves, and remained in bondage until Jewish High-Priest. ^^^^ numbered about 3,000,000 of souls. Then Moses arose — trained in all the "learning of the Egyptians" — to be the liberator, leader, and lawgiver of his people. Crossing the Red Sea, they were led to and fro in the desert forty years, receiving the Divine Law from Mt. Sinai, and suffering many penalties for their cowardice and disobedience, until most of those who had been slaves were dead. Then Joshua, Moses' successor, led their chil- dren into the Promised Land, which lay mainly between the Jordan and the Mediterranean. By a remarkable series of victories, the Canaanites were subdued or driven out, and the wanderers of the desert then became tillers of the soil. 32. The Judges. — After Joshua's death, the people departed from the true faith, and were often subdued by (21) 22 THE ANCIENT WORLD. their heathen neighbors. From time to time a "Judge" arose, and deHvered them from their oppressors ; but, when he was dead, ''every man did that which was right in his own eyes," until a new calamity called for a new deliver- ance (Judges ii: 10-19). 33. The Monarchy. — At length they demanded a king. Saul was chosen, and by a series of successful wars established the independence of Israel. But he lost the favor of God by disobedience, and David was anointed as his successor. The Philistines invaded the country; Saul and his sons were slain, and David was crowned at Hebron. For seven years Saul's only surviving son ruled nominally over eleven tribes; but on his death David be- came king of the whole country. 34. He made Jerusalem his capital, and the home of the Hebrew worship. David was a great conqueror, and his kingdom extended from the borders of Egypt to the Euphrates. But his fame as a sacred poet is greater than as king or warrior. In lyrical strains, that have never been equaled for purity and elevation, he sang the victory of the soul that trusts in God. His old age was clouded with sorrow for the misconduct of his sons. But the suc- cessive rebellions of Ab'salom and Adoni'jah were ended by the death of the offenders, and Solomon, David's favorite son, came peacefully to the throne. 35. Under Solomon, Israel first became a commercial nation. The king kept fleets of merchant vessels in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, by means of which the luxuries of Europe, Asia, and Africa were brought to Jerusalem. His greatest work was the building of the Temple. Its dedication (B. C. 1004) was so important an event as to make the beginning of Hebrew chronology. (Read i Kings viii.) Solomon's wisdom surpassed that of all the children of the East and of Egypt (i Kings iii : 5- 14; iv : 29-34; x: 23, 24); but in old age his heart was THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 23 corrupted by luxury and power. His people were heavily taxed to maintain his court and his great public works. After his death, ten tribes revolted against Rehoboam, his son, and established the rival kingdom of Israel. 36. Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, set up an idol- atrous worship, in order to wean his people from Jerusalem and the House of David. His wicked plan succeeded, and for centuries the only witnesses to the true God were solitary prophets (i Kings xvi : 1-3; xvii-xix). The nine- teen kings of Israel belonged to nine different famiHes, and many of them died by violence. The later kings had wars with Assyria, which ended in the overthrow of their kingdom, and the captivity of their people. The land was left so desolate that wild beasts prowled in the cities, until colonists were brought from beyond the Euphrates to replace the captive Israelites. (§12.). 37. The kingdom of Judah remained loyal to the House of David; and, notwithstanding its exposed posi- tion between the great warring empires of Egypt and Assyria, it kept its independent existence nearly a century and a half longer than Israel. Of the eighteen kings who reigned over Judah alone, eight ''did right in the sight of the Lord." The rest were idolaters. The last of the good kings, Josiah, repaired the temple and discovered the Book of the Law, which had long been lost. A solemn Passover was now held (B. C. 623), at which not only the men of Judah but all true believers who were left in the desolate land of Israel wxre present, and renewed' their allegiance to the God of their fathers. 38. During this reign, Palestine had its share in the Scythian invasions (§15), and a still greater calamity marked its close. Josiah was slain in battle (2 Chron. XXXV : 20-27). His son became a captive in Babylon, but the next king, Zedekiah, revolted and allied himself with Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar then besieged and took Jeru- 24 THE ANCIENT WORLD. salem, destroyed die Temple, and carried all its treasures, with the king and the whole nation, away to Babylon. The land was desolate, and Jewish history ceased, B. C. 586, for fifty years. 39. The empire of Nebuchadnezzar was then in its turn overthrown by the Persians, who, like the Jews, worshiped one God, and abhorred idolatry. Their great king, Cyrus, whom the Hebrew prophets had long ago described as the deHverer of their nation (Isa. xliv : 28- xlv: 4), B. C. 536, ordered the return of the Jews to their own land, and the rebuilding of Jerusalem and its temple. The neighboring heathen tribes violendy opposed the work; but Ar'taxerx'es, the great-grandson of Cyrus, con- ferred great powers on Ezra, the priest, and Nehemiah, the last of whom completed the defenses of Jerusalem. Ezra, meanwhile, collected and edited the sacred books which make the Old Testament. 40. After his death, and Nehemiah's departure, the old troubles returned. Even the High Priest proved a traitor; and the Sabbath was profaned by common traffic and labor. Nehemiah came back from Persia as a royal gov- ernor, reformed these abuses, and expelled the new high- priest because he had married a pagan woman. There- upon, her father built a rival temple upon Mt. Gerizim, in Samaria, for the exiled priest; and there to this day the rites of Hebrew worship are maintained. But "the Jews had no dealings with the Samaritans;" indeed, at this point, the mixture of Jewish and pagan practices wholly ceased. Point out, on Map T, Jerusalem, the Red Sea, the River Euphrates. Note. — The story of the Hebrews— briefly outlined in this chapter — is told in the historical books of the Old Testament, from Genesis to Esther, and illustrated by the Psalms and Prophecies. Read, beside, Josephus' "Antiquities," Mihnan's "History of the Jews," and Stan- ley's "Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church." CHAPTER IV. THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Bas-Relief from Persepolis. '■ ^Y the victories of Cyrus, 1—^ the Aryan or Indo- I B Germanic race became ^ predominant in West- ^ ern Asia, and it has ever since filled a chief place in universal history. The Medes and Persians were united un- der one king ; but while the former had become enfeebled by luxury (^i6), the latter still kept their hardy habits. "To ride the horse, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth," was the education of their noblemen. Their religion- — the purest, probably, of unrevealed faiths — taught them a belief in one God, and an abhorrence of idols. The Medes, on the contrary, had abandoned the doctrines which they and the Persians had received from Zoroas'ter, and, by contact with the Scythians, had adopted a gross form of Nature-worship. Fire was the chief object of their adoration. The Magi were their priests, without whose aid no man could pray, so elaborate were their religious rites. 42. Cyrus, the Persian prince, spent many years of his youth at the court of Ecbat'ana, and gathered about him a party of the younger Medes, who at length revolted against Astyages and secured to their young chief the crown of the two kingdoms. No sooner was his power Hist. — 3. (25) 26 THE ANCIENT WORLD. confirmed at home, than a league of Babylon, Egypt, Lydia, and some Grecian states, demanded his attention abroad. He subdued Lydia (^^29), and added all Asia Minor to his dominion; then, turning eastward, he spent thirteen years in conquering the country between Media and Hindustan, including the populous j^rovinces of Hyr- cania, Parthia, Bactria, etc. 43. His greatest success was the siege and capture of Babylon, This great capital of Nebuchadnezzar was the strongest city of the ancient world. Its walls were 200 cubits high, and fifty in thickness. The Euphrates flowed through the city, but its banks were guarded by walls and brazen gates, while a network of canals, sluices, and reservoirs, above and below Babylon, was so contrived that the whole country could be laid under water in case of an enemy's approach. 44. Nevertheless, the city fell. Cyrus had turned off the waters of the Euphrates into a lake without the walls, leaving -its usual bed dry. The crown-prince, Belshazzar, trusting in the strengtli of his defenses, left the river gates unguarded, while he and his courtiers were engaged in drunken revelry. Cyrus and his army entered the city; Belshazzar was slain at his palace gates; his father surrendered himself a prisoner, and Babylon became the winter-capital of the Medo-Persian Empire. -I^ 45. Cyrus was killed in a war with the wandering tribes east of the Sea of Aral, and his son, Camby'ses, inherited his crown. He first took possession of Phoenicia and Cyprus, thus gaining fleets in the Mediterranean, and then proceeded with his father's plans for the conquest of Egypt. He desired also to conquer Carthage, and extend "* Read the story in Daniel v. "Darius, the Median," was prob- ably the deposed king, Astyages (^42), who was consoled for his lost kingdom by the rich satrapy of Babylon. REIGN OF DARIUS. 27 his empire to the Atlantic, but the Phoenicians refused to serve against one of their own colonies (§24). His at- tempts upon the interior of Africa miserably failed. One army of 50,000 men was buried in the sands; another nearly perished of starvation. 46. Cambyses enraged the Egyptians by ridiculing their worship, and stabbing their sacred calf with his own dagger. Their priests declared that he was smitten with madness, as a punishment for this act; but in truth his only insanity sprang from his unregulated passions. He had caused his only brother to be put to death. He now heard that the younger son of Cyrus had taken possession of the throne. This was, in fact, a Magian impostor, who happened to resemble the murdered prince; but as the crime of Cambyses was a secret, every one believed that his brother was really reigning at Ecbatana. In the act of setting out for home, Cambyses was mortally wounded, and died bewailing his crimes and follies. 47. The usurper meanwhile closed the Persian temples, stopped the rebuilding of that of the Hebrews (Ezra iv : 17-24), and restored the corrupt Magianism (§41) which Cyrus had overthrown. The Persian nobles began to suspect him, and by a bold attack put an end to his life and reign. 48. Dari'us Hystas'pes, cousin of Cyrus, then became king of the Medes and Persians, and proceeded to make a compact and well governed empire out of the many countries which Cyrus and Cambyses had conquered. The native kings were removed, and the 20 satrapies or prov- inces, into which the empire was new^ly divided, were committed to Persian or Median governors. Each prov- ince had three chief officers : the satrap, who ruled in civil affairs; the gena-al, who controlled the army; and the royal secretary, w^ho kept the king' informed of all that was done. Neither of these could revolt w^ithout the others, and mutual jealousies kept them from combining. 28 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 49. Instead of levying immense and arbitrary contribu- tions at any time, like other Asiatic monarchs, the Great King required from each province a regular yearly tribute according to its wealth. The satraps were permitted to support themselves out of the possessions of the people; but if convicted of extortion, they were sure to be pun- ished. Each satrap Hved in royal magnificence; but the court of the Great King far surpassed those of the prov- inces. 15,000 persons fed daily at his expense; a great army guarded his person. Chief among these were the ic,ooo ''Immortals," whose armor gUttered with gold, and who were chosen from all the nation for their strength, stature, and beauty. 50. Darius endeavored to reconcile the Persian religion with Median fire-worship, which better suited the ceremo- nious splendor of his court. The Magi accepted the chief doctrines of Zoroaster, and were entrusted with the care of religious services. They kindled the sacred fires in the temples and on the summits of the mountains, and chanted hymns at the rising of the sun. They studied the starry heavens, and believed that they read the pur- poses of God in the motions of the planets, as well as in the interpretation of dreams (Daniel ii : i-io). The edu- cation of princes was committed to them, and they became the most trusted councilors of the king. 51. Darius conquered an important part of western India, increasing his revenues one third by its gold tribute; then turned his arms against the Scythians. Their incursions a century before had not been forgotten (§15); like a black thunder-cloud in the north they seemed always threatening the existence of his empire; and, moreover, Darius was now planning a conquest of Greece, a movement which might easily be defeated by the wild tribes north of the Danube, unless they were first over-awed by his power. With an army of more than 700,000 men, he marched as BATTLE OF THERMOPYLJE. 29 far as the present Russian town of Voronej, and burnt a Greek trading station, then the only town existing on that vast, desolate plain. The barbarians avoided a battle; having no settlements to defend, they only retired into remoter wildernesses; but Darius, returning in triumph two months after crossing the Danube, added to the num- ber of his subjects the "Scythians beyond the sea." One of his generals meanwhile conquered the Thracian coast, and extended the Persian power over Macedonia, which submitted to tribute and allegiance. 52. The Asiatic Greeks soon afterward revolted, and their united forces surprised and burned Sardis. But Miletus, the chief of the Greek cities, and the leader of the revolt, was subdued in the sixth year of the war. The vengeance of Darius was then excited against the Athenians, who had aided their Asiatic brethren in rebellion (§109). His first expedition against European Greece was baffled by storms and the valor of the Thracians; the second was defeated by the Athenians in the battle of Mar'athon (§115). Before he could go in person to punish the Greeks, Darius died (B. C. 486). 53. His son Xerx'es — probably the Ahasue'rus of the Book of Esther — spent seven years in arming and drilling recruits and providing stores of food; then, with more than 2,000,000 of fighting; men, he crossed the Hellespont into Europe. A fleet of 1,200 first- class, and 3,000 smaller vessels, bearing another half milHon of men, attended him along the shore. At Thermopylae, a narrow pass between Mt. CEta and the sea, the Spartan king, Leon'idas, awaited him with 6,000 men. For several days this little band withstood the whole Persian host, which was then admitted to the pass only by the treachery of a Greek. Leonidas now dismissed all his force except 300 Spartans and 400 Thespians, who fought until the last man but one was slain. 30 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 54. Meanwhile, storm and battle had destroyed 600 Persian ships; but Xerxes marched on, receiving the submission of the greater part of central Greece. He plundered and burnt Athens, and prepared for a decisive naval battle off the Isle of Sal'amis. Here the Greeks won a still more glorious victory than that of Marathon. Well acquainted with the narrow seas, they drove their brazen-pointed ships dexterously into the clumsy Persian galleys. From early dawn till night the combat raged, while Xerxes watched it from his throne on Mt. ^ga'leos. At length, humbled and depressed, he withdrew his forces and marched for the Hellespont. 55. His brother-in-law, Mardo'nius, remained with 300,- 000 men in Thessaly, and was defeated and slain the next year in the battle of Platae'a. No Persian army was ever again seen in Greece, and for twelve years no Persian sail appeared in the ^gean. Xerxes, having wrecked his youthful hopes by vain ambition, gave up his later years to idle luxury, and was murdered at last by two of his servants (B. C. 465). 56. B, C. 465-425. During the forty years' reign of his son Ar'taxerx'es, the Long-handed, the power of the empire declined. Egypt and Syria revolted, with aid from the Athenians; and though the Persian power was reestab- lished, the king was unable to punish the rebels as Darius would have done. He acknowledged the freedom of the Asiatic Greeks, and promised not to visit their shores with . either fleet or army. 57. Three sons of Artaxerxes wore the crown in rapid succession, while the empire constantly became weaker. Under Darius H (B. C. 424-405), the queen, Parysa'tis, ruled in the palace, and her cruel passions alienated those who should have been the best supports of the throne. Egypt threw off the Persian yoke. Cyrus, a younger son of Darius and Parysatis, was satrap of Phrygia, Lydia, ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 31 and Cappadocia; but with his mother's aid he plotted for the possession of the whole empire. 58. At this point Darius II died, and Artaxerxes II succeeded him. Cyrus hired an army of Spartans, whom he kept ignorant of his true designs; and, marching against his brother, was defeated and slain at Cunax'a. The Greeks who had been entrapped into the '' ' '*°'' war were now in a perilous case, but Xen'ophon, whom they chose for one of their leaders, rescued them by a bold and successful movement toward the Black Sea. His story of the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand" is a wonder- ful record of hardships borne and dangers surmounted. Artaxerxes not only kept his kingdom, but he extended his power over the Greeks, in revenge for the aid which they had afforded his brother. 59. B. C. 359 — 338. Artaxerxes III was a spirited and powerful monarch, and under him Egypt became again a Persian province. After the short and insignificant reign of his son. Arses, Darius Codomannus, one of the best, but also the most unfortunate of the Persian kings, came to the throne. The Greeks had been nursing their revenge against the Persians for nearly 200 years. In the young king Alexander, of Macedon, they had now a leader abler than Cyrus, and more am- bitious than Xerxes. 60. Crossing the Hellespont with his 35,000 Greeks, Alexander defeated the Persians at the little river Granicus, and proceeded to set free all the cities of the western coast. At Issus, near the gates of Syria, he first met Darius ; and the latter, with his half million of men, was utterly overthrown. After conquer- ing Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt, Alexander marched east- ward for the grand contest which was to decide the fate of Asia. The battle is named from Arbela, where the Persian stores were deposited, though it was 20 miles from 32 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the field. Darius had mustered more than a milhon of men, next to the Greeks the finest soldiers in the world. He had chosen his ground on a great plain, east of the Tigris, where his chariots and horsemen, as well as the enormous numbers of his foot-soldiers, could act with the greatest advantage. 6i. Nevertheless, the Macedonian phalanx* proved in- vincible, as usual. Penetrating to the very presence of Darius, who was fighting bravely at the center of his army, they broke up the Persian lines, and the king be- came a fugitive. Two of his officers wished to betray him to Alexander, but finding themselves too closely pressed, they wounded him and left him by the road-side to die. The Battle of Arbela put an end to the Medo-Persian Empire, which had lasted from the first victories of Cyrus, 227 years (B. C 558-331)- 62. The Persians were a "keen-witted race, loving poetry and art, though less inventive than the Babylonians or the Greeks. Our knowledge of their religion is derived from the Zend Avesta, a very ancient collection of hymns, prayers, and directions for religious ceremonies. It was the work of Zoroaster, a Bactrian prophet, who lived and taught long before the Medes or the Persians existed as *"The phalanx, which formed the center of Alexander's army, was the most effective body of heavy-armed troops known to ancient tactics. The men were placed sixteen deep, armed with the san'ssa or long pike, twenty-four feet in length. When set for action, the spear-heads of the first six ranks projected from the front In receiving a charge, the shield of each man, held over the head with the left arm, over- lapped that of his neighbor ; so that the entire body resembled a monster, clothed in the shell of a tortoise, and the bristles of a por- cupine. So long as it held together, the phalanx was invincible. Whether it advanced its vast weight upon an enemy, like a solid wall of steel, bristling with si)ear-points, or kneeling, with each pike planted in the ground, awaited the attack, few dared to encounter it." — Anc. Hist., '^i^St,, p. 100. PERSIA \ CHARACTEK. 33 settled nations. This great reformer protested against the corrupt Nature-worship then prevalent in the East, and became the founder of a more spiritual faith (§41). 63. The Persians were a frank, generous, and friendly people. They hated fraud and debt, and even contemned commerce, as involving temptations to deceit. Their Greek enemies declared that no one could surpass them in courage. Their devotion to their kings was admirable, until it became so excessive as to destroy their self-respect, and make them sacrifice all that was dearest to them to the lightest whim of their sovereign. Thus when Cam- byses (§46) brutally shot the son of one of his courtiers, the wretched father only complimented the king on his skillful archery ! 64. The Medo-Persians excelled all other Asiatics in their talents for government ; and the dominion organized by Darius I was very different from the loosely connected countries which had been conquered and ruled by Sargon and Nebuchadnezzar. Darius and his successors knew what was passing in the remotest corners of their empire by means of a myriad of spies, who were called the "King's Eyes" and the "King's Ears,"' and by the swift couriers who continually traveled over the royal roads. Trace, upon Maps I, 2, and 3, the conquests of Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius. The march of Xerxes. The sites of Alexander's victories. Point out Ecbatana, Cunaxa, Platiea, Issus. Read the story of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand in Xenophon's "Anabasis," or in Grote's History of Greece. For general Persian history, see Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Herodotus, and Heeren's Historical Researches; Asiatic Nations, Volume I. CHAPTER V. AFRICAN STATES AND COLONIES. IFRICA is, of all the continents, least fit for the home of man. One fifth of its surface is covered by a sea of sand, and the interior consists often of marshes and tangled forests. Its northern coast, however, is among the most favored regions of the globe. Here are the great Moorish corn-fields which once fed the hungry W r^ N^S ^/ millions of Rome; while the Nile valley ^ 1 1 1 1 I II! "N. in the north-east has sustained, from the earliest times, a swarming popula- tion. This great river, in its overflow, spreads every year over the lowlands a new deposit of fertile soil, so that the farmer has only to cast his grain upon the retiring waters, and a plentiful harvest springs up without further tillage. No wonder that the old idol- aters worshiped the Nile ! 66. Egypt. — Long before our oldest records were writ- ten, Hamites, from south-western Asia, had settled in the valley of the Nile (§7). At first they formed a multitude of petty states, but gradually these became united into the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. Now and then some powerful monarch, reigning at Thebes or Memphis, reduced both kingdoms under his sway, and reigned from the Isle of Elephantis to the sea. 67. The Egyptians were great builders, and their pyra- (34) Cleopatra's Cartouch. EG YPTIAN HIS TOR V. 35 mids, temples, and palaces seem destined to stand as long as the earth itself endures. More than this, they were great writers, and, now that the key to their language has been found, we may read their characters and daily em- ployments, their thoughts about life, death, and immortality, almost as familiarly as those of our own ancestors. 68. Egyptian history, before the Persian conquest, is divided into three Periods : I. The Old Empire, from unknown antiquity to 1900 B. C. II. The Middle E.mpire, or that of the Shepherd Kings, 1900- 1525 B. C. III. The New Empire, 1525-525. During these three periods, 26 Dynasties^ or families of kings, are on record; but sometimes two, three, or even five of these were reigning at once in different parts of the country. The kings of the Fourth Dy- nasty built most of the pyramids. These enormous masses of stone face the four main points of the compass; and one, known as the Great Pyramid, is so delicately adjusted for observations of the heavens that some wise men believe it to have been built by Divine direction. The useful and elegant arts made great pro- gress under the Pyramid-Kings. The copper-mines of the peninsula of Sinai were worked chiefly by captives taken in war; and the pictures on the tombs indicate a refined and intelligent life among the people. 69. Egypt was soon divided into five separate kingdoms, and these, one by one, became the prey of invading tribes from Asia, led by the Shepherd Kings. These rude and ignorant people made slaves of the Egyptians, and arrested the progress of arts and sciences for 400 years. 70. At length a deliverer was found in the Theban Amo'sis, who rallied the spirit of the Egyptians and drove out the intruders. He became king of the whole country. ^6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. and founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty. For 800 years Egypt continued to be a united kingdom, and enjoyed the brightest period of its history. The government, though strong, was mild to its native subjects, but probaoly cruel to the captive Hebrews, whose lives were made bitter with hard bondage (§31) in the brick-kilns, and who built many of the vast temjiles and palaces for which this period is celebrated (Exodus, i: 7-14). 71. Greatest of Egyptian monarchs was Rameses II, who made conquests in Asia, Africa, and Europe, and brought home a great train of captives to build new monuments of his glory. Fearing the increasing numbers of the race already enslaved, he ordered every Hebrew boy to be thrown into the Nile. It was probably his son, Meneph'thah, who suffered the ten judgments of God for his oppressions, and finally let the Israelites go out from the land (Ex. vii : 19-xi : 5; xii : 29-33). For twenty years the buildings ceased, and the glory of the Egyptians was long in decline. 72. During the seventh century B. C. the country was ruled by Assyria (g 14); but when that empire fell, Psam- met'ichus, and his yet greater son, Ne'cho, revived the Egyptian power. By conquering Phoenicia, Necho gained power on the sea, and the continent of Africa was first circumnavigated by his fleets. The story of the successful navigators was scarcely believed by the ancient world, because they declared that in rounding the southern cape, they had seen the sun to the northward. With our better system of astronomy we find this circumstance a strong confirmation of their truthfulness. Necho reigned for three years over all the country between the Mediterranean and Euphrates; but he was then defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (§19) in the great battle of Car'chemish, and lost all his possessions in Asia. His successors paid tribute to Baby- lon, and, when freed from that yoke, they soon fell under RELIGION OF THE EGYPTIANS. 37 the greater power of the Persians. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, and became a part of the Persian Empire. 73. The Religion of the Egyptians contained some true and noble principles, mingled with a disgusting idolatry. They believed in a future life, and that its happiness depended on their well doing while here. Their tombs were always in sight, in the sandstone ridges which bounded the narrow valley of the Nile. Between the city of the living and that of the dead lay a sacred lake, before passing which to his final rest, every man, whether king or peasant, had to be approved by the judges. If his life was found to have been unworthy, he was forever shut out from the sepulcher of his fathers. It was believed that the soul also must appear before a judgment-seat of the gods, and only when sealed as "justified," could it enter the abode of the blessed. 74. If acquitted by the judges, the body was embalmed and returned to the house of its earthly abode, to be kept at least a month, and sometimes even a year, while joyful feasts were held in its honor. It then passed the sacred lake, and was laid away in a tomb which was more richly ornamented than the home of the earthly life. In late years the repose of these Egyptian tombs has been broken, and many "mummies" — the mortal forms of the men and women who walked about the streets of Thebes or Heli- op'olis thousands of years ago — have been added to the "curiosities" of our museums. 75. The Egyptian priests were philosophers, who knew a great deal more than they chose to tell the people. They believed in one Supreme God, and thought it impious to represent Him by any work of human hands; but they made Him known to the multitude under various names and attributes. As the Creator, he was Phthah ; as the Revealer, he was Amun; as the Benefactor and the Judge of men, he was Osiris, etc. Even plants and animals were 38 THE ANCIENT WORLD. supposed to possess some portion of his life, and were accordingly worshiped by the ignorant. Thus Memphis had its bull, Apis, which was regarded as a living symbol of Osiris. It was worshiped in life, and buried after death with great pomp and solemnity. Heliopolis, likewise, had its sacred calf, Ombos and Arsinoe their crocodiles, Thebes and Sais their sheep, all objects of local adoration. Every year at the rising of the Nile a seven days' feast was held in honor of Osiris, the preserver and benefactor of men. 76. Castes. — The priests constituted the highest rank in the kingdom, and by their knowledge, especially of physical science, they exercised great power over the common people. Not only religious services, but all the learned professions were entrusted to them. Their medical skill was widely famed, so that kings of Assyria sent to Egypt for physicians. Their power over body and soul was equally great, for, as the earthly judges of the dead, they could refuse to any man the passport by which he hoped to enter the abode of Osiris. 77. Next below the priests stood the soldier -caste. During intervals of service, the soldiers lived on their own lands, each man having an allotment of about six acres. The kings sprang either from the priestly or the military order, usually the former, and in any case each monarch was made a priest as part of the ceremony of his coronation. He bore the title Phrah (Pharaoh), signi- fying the sun; and as representing the god of light, was head of the state religion not less than of the monarchy. 78. Below the two privileged classes were the great mass of the people, divided into four castes: farmers, boatman, aftisans, and herdsmen. They owned no land, at least after the time of Joseph, the Hebrew prime- minister, who during a famine required all proprietors to sell their acres for food, holding them afterward merely as tenants of the king (Gen. xlvii : 18-26). The system CARTHAGE FOUNDED. 39 of castes crushed all ambition among the people. Every man was compelled to follow his father's occupation, and when the labor market became over crowded, the king had only to project some grand, but often useless work, and draft thousands of men into the quarries to draw stones for a new pyramid. One huge stone required the labor of 2,000 men, three years, for its transportation. 79. In the crowded cities of Egypt many industries were carried on. Vases of glass and porcelain, and engraved gems, still exist to prove the skill and industry of this ancient people. They excelled all other nations in the fineness of their linen fabrics and in embroidery. Doubt- less the Hebrew women learned of them the art by which they contributed to the beauty of the Tabernacle (Exodus xxvi : 2i^ ; xxxv : 25). 80. The genius of the Egyptians is chiefly shown in their architecture, which, for grandeur of proportions and the masses of material employed, has never been equaled. In the great Hall of Karnak, the whole Cathedral of Notre Dame could stand without touching either walls or ceiling; and the Temple of Karnak is connected with the palace of Luxor by an avenue of 1,000 colossal sphinxes. Egyptian sculpture was rather huge than beautiful; yet there is an imposing dignity in the gigantic figures of kings who guard the entrances of some temples. In painting, the Egyptians aimed to represent facts rather than to please the imagina- tion; and though the pictures in their tombs afford most interesting views of the daily life of the people, they are hardly to be considered as works of art. 81. Carthage. — The numerous Phoenician colonies have already been mentioned {§23). Of these, the most im- portant was Carthage, founded by the Tyrian Queen, Dido, about 850 B. C. The neighboring African tribes were friendly, and the new city grew rapidly in size and wealth. Every known sea was penetrated by her ships; the Atlantic 40 THE ANCIENT WORLD. coast was explored from Norway to the Cape of (jood Hope, and the products of the whole ancient world filled her markets. The destruction of the mother city by Nebuchadnezzar ( § 24 ) threw nearly all of the western commerce of Tyre into the hands of the Carthaginians. All the Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean acknowledged Carthage as their leader, while her own colonies were scattered over Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, western Africa, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. 82. The government of Carthage was copied, with little alteration, from that of Tyre. In place of the king were two officers called Suffetes or Judges, elected for life from certain noble families. They were aided, or perhaps oftener opposed, by a grand council of several hundreds of citizens, from which committees were chosen to administer the various departments of state. Another Council of One Hundred was afterwards appointed, before which all generals, returning from war, had to render account of their actions ; and so severe were its judgments, that an unfortunate commander sometimes chose to kill himself rather than appear before it. 83. The religion of Tyre, of course, descended to her daughter, with the same gloomy and cruel observances. In times of calamity, children were thrown into the heated arms of a brazen image of Moloch, whence they rolled into a furnace of burning coals. No military movement was made without the direction of a prophet or diviner; and the progress of a battle was often interrupted while the general offered sacrifices. 84. Three hundred years after her foundation, Carthage came into fierce collision with the Greek cities of Sicily and southern Italy, and destroyed one of their fleets in a naval battle. The Greeks were great traders, and, therefore, rivals of the Carthaginians. In 509 B. C, Carthage made a friendly treaty with the infant republic of Rome, which TKEA TY WrrH ROME. 41 seemed less likely to become her rival, as the Romans despised trade, dividing their attention between farming and war with their Italian neighbors. They grew to be, however, the bitterest enemies, and finally the destroyers of Carthage. But the story of these later days will be more conveniently told in the history of Rome. Point out, on Maps I and 4, the course of the Nile. Thebes. Memphis. Carthage. Read, concerning Egypt, Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians; Herodotus, Book II; and Palmer's Egyptian Chronicles. Concerning Carthage, read Ileeren's Historical Re- searches; African Nations. Egyptian Sculptors. Hist. PART II. — Hellenic States. PERIOD I. — The Age of Fable. CHAPTER VI. EARLIEST HISTORY OF THE GREEKS — THEIR RELIGION. E ^XCEPTING the Jews, the nations hitherto de- scribed have given but few ideas to our modern hfe. The influence of Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia has doubtless reached us in- directly through their dealings with the Hebrews and Greeks; but those mighty empires are too remote in time and cir- cumstances to have affected us greatly. Greece, on the con- trary, by her art, literature. Bust of Homer. and philosophy, has exerted a controlling influence upon the intellectual life of the world. 86. The Greeks were Aryans, like the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, and the Brahmins of India, and were probably among the earliest emigrants from the original home in (42) THE GREEK PENINSULA. 43 Asia (^5). The first-comers were called Pelasgi; their successive abodes in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy may be traced by remains of their buildings, which may still be seen, composed of enormous masses of rough stone joined without cement. Many other tribes followed, among whom the Hdle'ncs at length gained the chief joower in Greece, and gave their name to all the Aryan settlers of \hOtywpus 5"^ \ YlW^ Anilracl C ^ ^ «7,f w^^H*'/" \\ I 1 < r ' J^] U ^-J _Ly CcilBtliL Sal ! S /. Ten synD-> I ^r %< Cj r^ -7, y ~ Kc. vr Map 3. — Greece. that peninsula and its neighboring islands. '' Wherever the Hellenic tongue was spoken, there was Hellas;" the names of Greece and Greeks were of later origin. 87. If you look upon Map 3, you will see that the Greek peninsula is divided, by deep gulfs, into a northern, a central, and a southern part. These are, moreover, in- 44 THE ANCIENT WORLD. tersected by mountain-chains, so that twenty-four separate states existed within this little peninsula, which is only 250 miles long and 180 miles wide at its greatest extent. Northern Greece contained two countries, Thessaly and Epirus; Central Greece, eleven, of which Attica was the most celebrated, though not the largest; and the Pelopon- nesus, or Southern Greece, had also eleven, among which Lacedsemon, with Sparta for its capital, long held the supremacy. 88. The Greeks were a bright, active, and enterprising people. Tempted by the bays and inlets which so deeply indent their coasts, and by the many islands w^hich afford easy stepping-stones to Asia, they very early became sailors and traders to foreign lands. Their cities in Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy surpassed those of the mother- land in wealth and beauty. Thus open on every side to foreign influences, the Greeks could not fail to profit by the civilization of older nations. They learned the art of alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and derived many ideas concerning philosophy and religion from "the learn- ing of the Egyptians." 89. Hellenic history will be treated in four periods: I. The Age of Fable, ending with the Dorian Migra- tion, 1 1 00 B. C. II. Authentic History, from the Migrations to the Per- sian Wars, 500 B. C. III. From the Beginning of Persian Wars to the Suprem- acy of Macedon, 338 B. C. IV. Empire of the Greeks in Europe, Asia, and Africa, until their conquest by the Romans, 146 B. C. 90. The Age of Fable is also called the Heroic Age. The Heroes were supposed to have been sons of the gods, and to have surpassed all common men in strength, beauty, and greatness of soul. Among the most celebrated were Her'cules, whose "twelve labors" delivered the land from SIEGE OF TROY. 45 noxious pools, savage beasts, and still more dangerous men ; The'seus, the civilizer of Attica, and founder of the Isthmian Games {§103); Mi'nos, king of Crete, a great lawgiver and judge; and Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, who sailed with fifty brave comrades through the Black Sea to Colchis in quest of the Golden Fleece. The stories of these and many other heroes may be read in the Greek Mythology. gi. Last and greatest of the heroic deeds, was the ten years' siege of Troy, in Asia Minor. Paris, son of the Trojan king Priam, had carried away Helen, wife of Menela^is, king of Sparta. All the Greek princes mustered their ships and men to punish the wicked deed; and, choosing Agamem'non, brother of the injured Menelaus, as their leader, they sailed across the blue y^gean, and be- sieged Troy. The closing scenes of the war are narrated by Homer in the Iliad, one of the greatest poems of the whole world's literature. 92. Achiries, the favorite hero of the Greeks, quarreled with Agamemnon and shut himself up in his tent. Hector, the bravest of the Trojan princes, now gained the advan- tage and drove the Greeks to their ships. Patro'clus then borrowed the armor of Achilles, and at the head of his Myrmidons drove back the Trojans and saved the ships, but was himself slain by Hector. To avenge his friend, Achilles reappeared in battle, and killed the brave Hector, whose corpse he dragged behind his chariot about the walls of the city. Achilles himself perished in the fight, but the Greeks were victorious. Troy fell, and for ages lay so buried in ruins that some have even doubted whether it ever existed. Within a few years, however, the efforts of Dr. Schliemann have brought to light the palace of Priam, and many of its ornaments in gold, silver, and bronze, together with a gate and temple which were de- scribed by Homer. 46 THE AXCIENT WORLD. 93. Whether we beHeve the poet's story or not, his descriptions afford true pictures of early Greek customs in war, government, and home hfe. Each httle state (5^87) had its king, who was supposed to be descended from Zeus (§95), and who was at once the father, the judge, the general, and the priest of his people. A council of nobles, also sons of the gods, aided him with their wisdom and their arms. They had broad lands, many slaves, and treasures of gold and silver; but king and nobles lived simply and industriously, plowing and reap- ing their fields, building and rowing their boats, and even somedmes cooking their own dinners. 94. Queens and noble ladies wove the wool and flax of their husbands' estates into garments for themselves and their families, while princesses brought water from the well, or helped their slaves to wash garments in the rivers. These early Greeks loved poetry, music, and all the arts; and in every house a cordial welcome awaited the minstrel who sang the brave deeds of heroes, or the visits of the gods to men. In this way Homer's poems passed from mouth to mouth centuries before they were committed to writing. 95. Greek Religion was for the most part a refined form of Nature-worship. All Hellenes believed in Zens, the Thunderer, king of gods and men; in Posci'don, god of the sea; Apol'lo, the sun-god; A' res, god of war; HephcEs'fus, of fire and the useful arts; and in Her' vies, the promoter of commerce and wealth. The six chief goddesses were Hera, wife of Zeus; Athe'na, his favorite daughter; Ar'temis, the moon-goddess; Aphrodi'te, the impersonation of beauty and love; Hes'tia, the guardian of domestic life; and Deme'ter, the bountiful mother of harvests. These twelve consdtuted the supreme council of the gods, on the heights of Mt. Olympus; but every field, river, and forest was supposed to be inhabited by its sei)arate divinity. GREEK RELIGION. 47 96. "Mysteries," in honor of Demeter, were celebrated every year at Eleusis, in Attica; and so reverently were they regarded, that it was a crime even to mention them in the presence of foreigners or others who were not admitted to a share in them. Of course we have no means of knowing what rites or doctrines were so secretly com- memorated; but ancient writers seem to intimate that they were connected with the hope of a future life. They gave a feeling of comfort and security to their participants; and, in case of sudden peril, strangers often asked each other, "Have you been initiated?" 97. Much less respectable were the orgies or drunken rites held in honor of Diony'sus, god of the vine. Troops of women, called Bacchantes, spent whole nights upon the mountains, shouting, leaping, and clashing noisy instru- ments, even tearing human victims to pieces and devouring their flesh. They believed that this frenzy arose from the presence of the god, and that those who resisted it would be punished with madness. 98. In spite of these strange occasional excesses, the Greeks believed that the Ruler of the world demanded truth, purity, and justice from men. In the earliest times, if deadly sins were committed, there was no hope; the guilty person was haunted by avenging goddesses, who never slept, but stood or walked by his side with flaming eyes until his crime was punished. Afterward the idea of atonement for sin was derived from Asia — perhaps indi- rectly from the Hebrews. In case of famine, pestilence, or defeat in war, whole cities or states endeavored to cleanse themselves by prayers and sacrifices, from some known or hidden crime, 99. From very early times the gods were supposed to make known their will to men by dreams, oracles, divina- tions, and the motions of the stars. The most celebrated oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. His priestess seated 48 THE ANCIENT WORLD. herself at the mouth of a cave, whence issued an intoxi- cating vapor, and, when sufficiendy giddy or inspired, uttered a response so obscure that the inquirer needed more wit to discover what it meant than to decide upon the best course of conduct for himself. It is said that Croesus, king of Lydia, asked counsel at Delphi, whether he should make war against Cyrus (§29). The reply was, "If thou make war against the Persians, thou shalt ruin a great empire." When Croesus had lost his crown, he was not much comforted by the priestess' explanation, that his own empire had been great, and was now ruined. 100. The Heroic Age ended with important movements among the four Hellenic tribes.^ The barbarous Illyrians crossed the northern border, and crowded the Hellenes into closer quarters. The Dorians of central Greece then passed over to the Peloponnesus, of which they made themselves masters; and their leaders became kings re- spectively of Argos, Messenia, and Lacedsemon. Many lonians, thus crowded out of southern Greece, founded twelve new cities on the islands and eastern coasts of the ^gean. These soon became rich and flourishing, and were early noted for the brilliant genius of their people. The poets Homer and Anac'reon were lonians of Asia. loi. The Dorians, not content with their conquered peninsula, seized the islands of Cos and Rhodes, and a small portion of the Asiatic mainland, where they built Cnidus and Halicarnassus. The ^olians also built many new cities, both in Asia and in Italy. Great changes occurred in the Grecian governments dur- ing the time of the Migrations. Almost all the monarchies were replaced by republics. Cities acquired much greater importance; in fact, each state now consisted of a city, with its little tract of subject territory. Though completely independent, and often envious and hostile toward each The Dorians, lonians, Achseans, and ^olians. THE OLYMPIC GAMES. 49 other, the Greeks of all these states, in Europe and Asia, prided themselves upon their common language, religion, and ancestry, which distinguished them from the rest of mankind, whom they called barbarians or babblers. » 102. This national feeling was kept alive by the great games and festivals, which, at least once in every year, drew together throngs of Greeks from the remotest corners of Hellas. Here were chanted the war-ballads of Homer, which described all the Greeks as united against a com- mon foe. Here, too, were friendly contests in running, leaping, wrestling, and racing with horses and chariots. Every Greek, however poor or unknown, was admitted to the competition; but all barbaria/is, though of royal birth, were excluded. The victor was crowned with wild olive, laurel, or pine; he was welcomed home with choral pro- cessions, and with all the honors that his native city could bestow. 103. Oldest and most famous of all were the Olympic Games — said to have been founded by Hercules — which were celebrated once in four years, in E'lis, the Holy Land of the Hellenes. While these games lasted, all wars ceased; and so great was their importance, that the Greeks of later years used the period of their recurrence as a measure of time. The J^t'rsl Olympiad ^2js> B. C. 776-772. Next in rank were the Pythian Games, in honor of Apollo, held in Phocis, the third year of every Olympiad. They included competitions in music and poetry, as well as ath- letic contests. The praises of Zeus were again celebrated by the Nemean Games, every two years, near Cleonae in Argolis; and those of Poseidon, the sea god, in the alter- nate years, by the Isthmian Games, near his temple on the Isthmus of Corinth. 104. Another bond of union was formed by leagues of kindred tribes, for worship and for mutual counsel and defense. The sacred Isle of Delos was the religious me- Hist. -5. 50 THE ANCIENT WORLD. tropolis of the Cyclades, whither all the Ionian cities sent yearly embassies to offer sacrifices to Apollo. The Ionian and Dorian cities, in Asia Minor, had each a federal union, whose meetings Avere celebrated by games and religious festivals; and on the Greek peninsula a grand '' Amphictyonic Council" of twelve tribes met twice every year — in the spring, at Delphi, and in the fall, at Anthela, near Thermopylae. The faith of the Council was pledged to the protection of every member by the following oath : ''They would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off their streams in war or peace; and if any should do so, they would march against him and destroy his cities; and should any pillage the property of the god (Apollo), or plan any thing against his temple, at Delphi (§99), they would take vengeance upon him with hand and foot and voice, and all their might." Name the natural boundaries of Greece. Point out, on Maps 2 and 3, the Ambracian, Corinthian, and Saronic gulfs. The states of northern Greece. Of central Greece. Of the Peloponnesus. The islands of Euboea, Delos, Samos, Lesbos, Lemnos, Rhodes, Crete. Miletus, and other Ionian cities in Asia Minor. Mitylene, and other ALolian cities. Cnidus, and other Dorian cities. Troy. For ilhistration, read Kingsley's "Heroes;" Hawthoi-ne's "Wonder Book" and "Tanglewood Tales;" Homer's Iliad, in Bryant's or Lord Derby's translation. For information, see Felton's Smith's Greece, Book I, and the early volumes of Grote's History of Greece. PERIOD II. — From the Migrations to the Persian Wars. CHAPTER VII. SPARTA AND ATHENS. iHE history of the Greeks is mainly involved in that of the two leading states, Sparta and Athens. These not only represented the two more im- portant tribes, the Dorians and lonians, but the two opposing principles which divided every state in Greece, except, perhaps, Sparta herself: namely, the prin- ciples of oligarchy and democ?'acy, the former aiming to place the government in the hands of a few powerful men, the latter, to entrust it to the people themselves. The Dorians were remarkable for their severe and simple manners; the lonians, for the brilliancy and harmonious balance of their minds, and their genius for all the arts which beautify life. io6. The laws of Sparta were said to be the work of Lycurgus, who lived about 850 B. C. ; but, probably, he only shaped the customs already prevailing into more exact form. When the Dorians conquered the Peloponnesus (51) Pallas Athena. 52 THE ANCIENT WORLD. (§ioo), most of the former occupants of the country be- came tenants and slaves of their conquerors. The Spartans were but few in comparison with these subject Achaeans, and Lycur'gus resolved to make up, by military drill and efficiency, what they lacked in numbers. To this end, every Spartan was a soldier, and was taught that his life belonged to the state. 107. Every newly-born babe was brought before a committee of old men, who decided upon his right to live. If puny or sickly, he was cast into a ravine to perish; but if he seemed likely to be strong, he was accepted as a son of Sparta, and was endowed with one nine-thousandth part of the public lands. At seven years of age he was taken from his mother, and, until he was sixty, lived the life of a soldier. He ate black broth at the public tables; he was toughened by exposure to heat, cold, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and scourging, and thought himself disgraced if a word or sound of complaint escaped him. The girls were almost as severely trained as their brothers, and learned to prefer the glory of Sparta above all home affections. One mother shouted for joy when told that her eight sons had perished on one battle-field. 108. Sparta had always two kings, supposed to be descended from twin grandsons of Hercules; but their power was only that of priests and generals, subject to the Senate, and, later, to the committee of five "Ephors," who really governed the state. The population of Lacedaemon was divided into three classes: (i) the Spartans proper, descended from the Dorian conquerors, who kept- to them- selves all honors and power in the government, and lived in the city of Sparta as in a camp, always ready for mili- tary duty. Commerce and all useful arts were left to (2) the subject AcJucaus, who inhabited the country towns. The fields were cultivated by (3) Helots^ a race of serfs attached to the soil, who were kept in a most cruel slavery. To SP.IRTA AND A 71/ ENS. 53 shut out foreign luxuries, I>ycurgus ordered Spartan money to be made of rusted iron, so that no other nation would receive it. log. For three hundred years from the time of Lycur- gus, Sparta was engaged in contests with her neighbors in the Peloponnesus — the Messenians, Arcadians, and Argives — which gave her the control of the peninsula. So great was her power, that she would, perhaps, have become mistress of all Greece, if the Persian Empire, now domi- nant in Asia, had not tried to extend itself into Europe. King Darius turned his revengeful eyes upon the Athe- nians (§52), and his efforts to subdue them — or, rather, their brave resistance — made them, after the wars, the leading power in Greece. no. Athens was not only the rival, but the perfect contrast of Sparta. More than any other people that ever lived, the Athenians loved music, poetry, eloquence, and all the arts of expression; while the Spartans prided them- selves upon their blunt, laconic speech, and thought it a crime to use three words where two would suffice. 111. The last king of Athens fell in battle with the Dorians (§100), and for several centuries the nobles governed the state. Their power was often oppressive — especially when, in times of calamity, the poor were com- pelled to borrow money from them at a ruinous rate of interest, and became slaves from inability to pay their debts. At length, the people made their voice heard in a demand for written laws. To rebuke their presumption, the nobles appointed Dra'co, the sternest of their number, to prepare a code. Draco's laws were said to have been written with blood : the slightest crimes were punished with death, and the lives of all the people were placed at the mercy of the nobles. 112. These cruel enactments drove the people to revolt, and the nobles, now convinced of their error, chose So'lon, 54 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the wisest of their class, to prepare a more just and Hberal constitution. He abohshed slavery for debt, ■ ^^'^" gave to every freeman the right to vote, and laid the burdens of the state on those who were best able to bear them. 113. Still the rights of the people were not fully secured. Pisis'tratus, a kinsman of Solon, the most popular and ac- complished man of his time, but also the most ambitious, managed to usurp the supreme power. For this reason he was called a tyrant; but, though he gained his power by force, we can not deny that he used it wisely and well. He strictly enforced Solon's laws, and did much for the improvement of the people. He first collected the war-ballads of Homer into the great epic poem called the Iliad; and his library, the first in Greece, was freely open to all who wished to consult it. Though he was twice expelled from Athens, and once remained in exile eighteen years, Pisistratus at length established his power; and his sons, Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, succeeded him peaceably at his death, 527 B. C. 114. But the Athenians had now learned to be more careful of their liberties. Hipparchus was murdered by a citizen wiiom he had offended, and his brother, Hippias, was sent into exile. To prevent any citizen's becoming too powerful in future, the singular custom of ostracistn'^^ was introduced. The best of men could be exiled for ten years, without accusation, trial, or defense, simply by a vote of one fourth of the Athenian freemen. To be ostracised was no disgrace, for it implied no crime, but was a tes- *So called from oarpaiiov, the Greek name for the tile, or oyster- shell, on which the name of the person was written. If the Senate decided that public safety demanded the ostracism, the citizens assembled, on an appointed day, in the market-place, and cast these ballots in a heap. If one man's name was found on 6,000 tiles, he left the city within ten days. ATHENIAN OSTRACISM. 55 timony to the talents and sometimes even to the virtues of its victim. This precautionary measure was the work of CHs'thenes, who, next to Solon, may be considered as the founder of Athenian liberty. He ''took the people into partnership," and extended the rights of citizens to all free inhabitants of Attica. These he enrolled in ten tribes, each having an equal share in the control of civil and military matters. From this time Athens always had a "government by the people," excepting at two calamitous periods, when the Spartan faction, which existed in almost every city, was able to revolutionize its affairs. About ninety years after the adoption of Clisthenes' con- stitution, it happened that two great men called for the vote of the Senate, under which each hoped that the other would be ostracised. The Senate pronounced that some one must be exiled; but, before the day appointed for the popular vote, the rivals made up the quarrel, and agreed to "fire off the safety-gun of the republic" against an insignificant man, whose presence or absence could make no difference to his fellow-citizens. But the ostracism, thus degraded, was never called for again. "It was not against such as him," said a Greek writer, "that the shell was intended to be used." * Name the boundaries of Lacedasmon. Of Attica. Of Argolis, Arcadia, Messenia. Grote's History of Greece is the best authority for this period. Read, also, in Rawlinson's Herodotus, the two Essays following Book V. PERIOD III.— From the Beginning of the Persian Wars to the Ascendency of Macedon. CHAPTER VIII. MARATHON, THERMOPYL/E, SALAMIS : SUCCESSIVE SUPREMACIES OF ATHENS, SPARTA, THEBES, MACEDON. E have learned in the history of Persia (§52) how the Athenians drew upon themselves the venge- ance of the great King Darius, by aiding their brethren in Asia to revolt. The first fleet which he sent to conquer Greece was wrecked at Mt. Athos; but the second — after burning Carystus and Eretria, on the island of Euboea — landed B. C. 490. . 100,000 men on the east- ern coast of Attica. The Athenians, led by Milti'ades, met them upon the plain of Marathon. Both armies fought long and bravely. The Medes and Persians were the most magnifi- cent soldiery in the world, and they outnumbered the Athenians ten to one. Nevertheless, they were driven to their ships with great slaughter, and sailed away to Asia. A ten years' breathing-space then enabled the Greeks to collect their forces. • (56) A Grecian Soldier. BATTLE OF SALAM/S. 57 116. In the spring of 480, B. C, the greatest army that the world has ever seen (§53) came pouring into Greece. The two Spartan commanders, Leon'idas on land, and Eiirybi'ades with his fleet upon the sea, met Xerxes at Thermopylae. In this narrow pass between Mt. GLta and the Malian Gulf, a mere handful of Greeks held the whole Persian host at bay for more than a week. At length a treacherous Greek showed the Persians a path over the mountain, by which they could attack the little army in the rear. Thus betrayed, Leonidas dismissed all his forces excepting 300 Spartans and a few hundreds of Thespians and Thebans, and, rushing upon the enemy, fought until every man but one was slain. 117. The gates of central Greece were now open, and the army of invaders pressed on. Eurybiades would have withdrawn the whole fleet to the Peloponnesus, leaving Athens to its fate; but Themis'tocles, the Athenian leader, persuaded him to stay long enough at Salamis to allow the people of Athens to find places of safety. The oracle at Delphi had directed them to seek refuge in ''wooden walls," which Themistocles assured them must mean their ships. A mournful procession of refugees immediately withdrew from the city, leaving behind only a few who were too poor or too feeble to be removed. Beautiful Athens was burnt, in revenge for the destruction of Sardis. 118. The great decisive combat between the Greek and the Persian forces, took place in the straits of Salamis. Xerxes himself, from a golden throne upon the shore, watched the battle between his magnificent armament of 1200 ships and fewer than 400 on the part of the Greeks. But the Greek pilots knew all the currents and soundings of these narrow seas, and could drive the brazen beaks of their light craft straight into the cumbrous Persian vessels. The battle was long and obstinate, but it ended in a glorious victory for the Greeks. Xerxes sailed away 58 THE ANCIENT WORLD. in bitter humiliation to his own land. The next autumn, his great general, Mardo'nius, was defeated and slain at Plataea, and the remnant of his fleet was destroyed the same day at Mycale on the opposite side of the yEgean. 119. The Persian kings gave up the attempt to conquer Greece, but for two hundred years they never ceased to meddle in her affairs by bribery and by stirring up the jealousies of the several states. Even the Spartan regent Pausa'nias, who had won the victory of Platoea, was per- suaded by their golden promises to betray his country. His treason, however, was discovered in time, and he was starved to death in a temple of Athena, his own mother bringing the first stone to block up its gates. Athens, instead of Sparta, now became the leading state in Greece. 120. A Hellenic League was formed for the protection of the islands and coasts of the /Egean against the Per- sians. Its treasury, to which all the maritime states con- tributed, was on the sacred isle of Pelos. "Aristi'des the Just" — the best and greatest Athenian of his time — was the first president of the league; and such con- ■ ^'''^' fidence did all men place in his wisdom and nitegrity, that he alone decided how much each state should pay into its treasury, and no one ever complained of his assessments. 121. His successor .was Ci'mon, the son of Miltiades. In 466 B. C., he gained a great victory over the Persians at the River Eurymedon, and swept the coasts of Asia Minor of their ships and armies. Cimon's immense wealth and generosity made him the idol of the Athenians, whose city he adorned with marble colonnades and temples, with groves and fountains, until it became the glory of all Greece. Yet even he had to suffer, as Aristides and Themistocles had suffered before him, from the ingratitude and fickleness of the Athenians. AGE OF PERICLES. 59 122. Sparta was in great trouble through a revolt of the Helots (§ 108). These wretched people found courage at last to revenge themselves for centuries of ill-treatment; and the Messenians seized the opportunity to strike a blow for independence (§ 109). During the ten years' war which followed, Cimon persuaded the Athenians to forget their causes of complaint against Sparta and send her aid in her distress. He himself twice led an army to her assistance. But Spartan hatred of Athens could not even now be suppressed. The Athenian troops were insultingly dismissed; and so great was the vexation at home, that Cimon was ostracised as a friend of Sparta (§ 114). 123. The popular party now came into power, with Per'icles, the most brilliant of all Athenian leaders, at their head. Knowing that freemen can only be governed by reason and persuasion, he had spent his youth in studying the history and the interests of Athens, the science of gov- ernment, and the arts of eloquence. Nothing could exceed the power and beauty of his oratory, or the influence he acquired over his countrymen. 124. The "Age of Pericles" is celebrated as the cul- minating period, both in the power and genius of Athens. Her maritime empire extended over all the Greek coasts and islands, and on the main-land she was the successful rival of Sparta. At the same time sculptors and architects, painters and dramatic j^oets were producing the most per- fect works of art that the world has ever seen; and the liberal encouragement offered to talent drew to Athens the greatest intellects from every land. Athenian citizens spent a large portion of their time in discussing public affairs, for private business was chiefly in the hands of slaves, who were three or four times as numerous as the freemen. Hence, it happened that the whole mass of citizens was better trained to civic duties than was ever any similar class of people, before or since. We must not imagine 6o THE ANCIENT WORLD. Attic slaves to have been in condition at all like the Helots (§ 1 08). The Athenians were of more gentle and generous nature than the Spartans, and no cases of cruelty are on record. 125. The perpetual rivalry of the two leading states occasioned several wars, one of which grew from a dispute for the control of the Delphic oracle. Pericles, though free from superstition himself, well understood its power over others, and he desired to enlist Apollo on the side of Athens. The rashness of the younger Athen- '*'^^' ians led to a sad defeat at Coronaea in Boeotia; and most of the allied cities in central Greece now re- sumed their oligarchic governments under the influence of Sparta (§105). 126. From these and many other elements of strife arose the Peloponnesian war, which, for twenty-seven years (B. C. 431-404), involved all Greece in calamities. Almost every summer a Spartan army ravaged the fields of Attica, and the people took refuge within the walls of Athens. Every nook was crowded; a plague broke out among the swarming population, who ascribed it to the wrath of Apollo, the especial protector of the Spartans. Their com- plaints were loud against Pericles, whose cautious policy they were unable to understand. He was even accused of embezzling the public funds, and was heavily fined. 127. Pericles bore their unjust accusations with admir- able patience, but his strength was now broken by afflic- tion. His son and nearest friends had died of the plague; a slow fever seized the great statesman himself As he lay dying, his friends around his bed were talking of his great deeds, when he interrupted them, saying, "All that you are praising was due to the favor of Heaven. What I pride myself upon is that no Athenian has ever had oc- casion to mourn on my account." THE PELOPONNESJAN WAR. 6 1 128. The war grew more cruel every year. Mitylene, having revolted against Athens, was brought back to its allegiance by its own popular party, which outnumbered the friends of Si)arta. Nevertheless, the Athenian assembly which was called to decide the fate of the recaptured city — carried away by the eloquence of Cleon, a violent dem- agogue — sentenced all the men of Mitylene to death, and its women to slavery! The author of this brutal decree dispatched a galley to Lesbos with orders for its immediate execution. But a night's rest brought a better mind to the Athenians; they revoked their cruel act, and sent another galley in still greater haste to save the lives of the doomed people. 129. Happily, it arrived in time; the Mityleneans were spared, but the walls of their city were destroyed, and their fleet was absorbed into that of Athens. Corcyra soon after- ward suffered a reign of terror in which brothers murdered brothers, and fathers their own sons. Sparta, afraid of her slaves, treacherously murdered 2000 Helots, the bravest and, therefore, the most dangerous of their class. Floods, earthquake, and pestilence combined with the evil passions of men to destroy unhappy Hellas. 130. All parties were now wearied out, and, in 421 B. C, the Peace of Nicias provided for fifty years' truce be- tween Sparta and Athens. Unhappily, war soon broke out again, through the ambition of Al'cibi'ades, a brilliant young Athenian, whose genius might have made him the glory of his native city, but who was in fact the chief occasion of its ruin. He persuaded his countrymen to take part in a war between the Doric and Ionic colonists in Sicily; and was one of the three generals who commanded the Athenian forces. But he was soon called home to answer a charge of sacrilege: namely, of having burlesqued the Eleusinian Mysteries (^ 96) in a drunken frolic. He took refuge with the Spartans, and betrayed to them all the 62 THE ANCIENT WORLD. plans of the Athenians. The Sicilian expedition ended in a miserable failure. The Athenian fleet was destroyed in the harbor of Syracuse; the soldiers perished either in battle or of starvation ; and the few who survived were sold as slaves. 131. All the rivals, enemies, and unwilling subjects of Athens now took advantage of her distress. Sparta made a treaty with the king of Persia, offering to put him in possession of the whole Grecian territory north of the Corinthian Gulf, with all the islands and coasts of the yEgean. But Alcibiades had found a new refuge with the Persian governor of Asia Minor, and by skillful flatteries he partly defeated the Spartan plans. By several great naval victories he regained control of the grain-fleets in the Black Sea, and so relieved a famine in Athens. For these serv- ices his offenses were pardoned, and he was made general with unlimited powers. 132. Persian gold and Spartan skill, however, turned the scale against the Athenians; and they suffered a defeat at ^gos-Potami, which ended their supremacy in Greece. The Spartans besieged and took Athens. Its walls were destroyed, and its government was remodeled on the Spartan pattern. The chief power was committed to Thirty Tyrants, who for eight months sub- jected the citizens to fines, imprisonment, or death at their will. The second period of Spartan supremacy (B. C. 404-371) was marked by the overthrow of free govern- ments throughout Greece. 133. But Sparta's leadership was not easy to maintain. The king of Persia was enraged by the aid she had given to his rebellious brother (§ 58), and a league of many Grecian states, disgusted by her oyerbearing tyranny, brought on the Corinthian war. Sparta had her best and greatest man, the king Ages'ila'us, for her chief commander, and gained decisive victories over her enemies at Corinth DEATH OF SOCRATES. 6^ and Coronsea. A great naval battle with the Athenians and Persians off Cnidus was less fortunate to her, for it resulted in the destruction of the greater part of her fleet and the rapid decline of her power. 134. Athens meanwhile had been rescued from Spartan rule by Thrasybu'lus, one of her exiled citizens, who mus- tered an army of his fellow-exiles and defeated the Spartan forces at Phy'le and Muny'chia. The laws of Solon were restored. The only blot upon the happy time was the ex- ecution of the philosopher Soc'rates — one of the best and wisest men that ever lived — on a false charge of having introduced a new worship and corrupted the Athenian youth. Socrates was, in fact, too wise to believe in all the superstitions of the Greeks; but he w^as also too prudent to destroy the childish faith of his pupils until they were able to receive something better in the place of it. He refused to accept his life on the condition of forbearing to teach; for the great aim and passion of his life was to promote virtue and wisdom in the young. He spent the thirty days of his imprisonment in cheerful converse with his friends, expressing to the last his firm conviction of the soul's im- mortality. When the appointed moment arrived, he drank the poison hemlock and calmly expired. 135. The Spartans, weary at length of the disastrous war, sent a messenger to the Persian court, begging the Great King to interfere and settle the affairs of Greece. This was his sentence: *'King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia and the islands of Clazom'enae and Cyprus should belong to him. He thinks it just to leave all the other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent, except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong to Athens as of old." — B. C. 387. 136. Spartan power having fallen, Thebes became the next leader of the Greeks. This Boeotian city had been for some years governed by a Spartan garrison; it was 64 THE ANCIENT WORLD. rescued by the bold and ingenious contrivance of one of its own noblemen, and became the head of a new confed- eracy numbering seventy cities. The Theban Epam'inon'das was the greatest general whom Greece ever produced, and his purity of character was still more admirable than his military genius. At Leuctra, a few miles north- ^' *^" ^^'' west of Platsea, the most fiercely contested of all Grecian battles was fought, resulting in a victory for Epaminondas, which ended the leadership of Sparta. 137. Four times he invaded the Peloponnesus, where he established an Arcadian League to balance the Spartan power, and called home the exiled Messenians, who had been for three hundred years a banished race, but whom he now settled in the homes of their fathers (§ 109). Sparta itself, which in all the centuries of its existence had never seen an enemy in arms, was threatened by the Thebans, but it was saved by the energy of its old king Agesilaus. During his fourth invasion of southern Greece, Epami- nondas was slain in the fatal batde of Mantinea. With his death the Theban power fell, and Athens enjoyed another short period of leadership in Greece. 138. The kingdom of Macedon on the north had now become powerful enough to be regarded with fear. The Macedonians were barbarians (§ 102), but their kings claimed to be descendants of Hercules, and as such had been admitted to a share in the Olympic Games. Philip II, one of the ablest of these kings, had in his boyhood been a hostage at Thebes, where he had learned the art of war from Epaminondas. He had, moreover, become proficient in the Greek language; while he had acutely studied the fatal dissensions among the Greeks, which promised a fair field for his talents both as general and as orator. 139. Soon after his return to Macedon and assumption of the crown, Athens became weakened by the "Social PHILIP'S SUPREMACY. 65 War," in which many of her late allies and subject states turned against her. Philip seized the opportunity to con- quer all her dependencies on the Thermaic Gulf. Then, availing himself of the Sacred War* to interfere in central Greece, he was made a member of the Amphictyonic Council (§ 104) and commander of its forces. 140. Demos'thenes, the great Athenian orator, saw the danger and used all his eloquence to avert it. It was in vain; gold and persuasion were working secretly for Philip, while his arms were advancing in the north; and at length the great battle of Chasrone'a, in which his army defeated that of Thebes and Athens, ' ^^ made all Greece subject to Macedon. The Congress of Corinth, the next year, acknowledged Philip's supremacy, and appointed him to command the Hellenic forces in a war which was now preparing against Persia. But Philip was murdered at a feast, and this new enterprise was left to the yet greater genius of his son Alexander. Point out, on Maps 2 and 3, Marathon, Salamis, Platcea, Eretria, Carystus, Thebes, Coroncea, Chreronea, Corcyra, Corinth. The Ther- maic Gulf. Macedonia. The Hellespont, Thrace. The authorities for this chapter are the same as for the preceding. *So called because the Phocians seized the treasures of Apollo's temple at Delphi, and the Thebans undertook to punish the sacrilege. Hist.- 6. CHAPTER IX. GREEK LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND ART. IT is time for a brief sketch of those poets, historians, and philosophers, to whom — even more than to her great generals and statesmen — Greece owes her fame; and whose dominion in the minds of civilized men has never been shaken, though their native land has for ages been trampled by barbarians. 142. For one practical reason, if for no other, poetry must have existed in Greek literature long before prose. The art of writing, though very early known to the Greeks, was for a long time used almost exclusively for inscriptions on bronze or marble tablets in temples and palaces. There were no cheap and convenient materials for writing; so that a ship-master, whom Homer mentions in the Odyssey, had no written list of his cargo, but carried the items in his memory. Now a poet might produce his song or epic, and retain it, by the help of rhythm, in his memory, until others had learned it from his lips (§94); but this would be almost impossible in the case of long compositions in prose. (66) HOMER AND I/ESIOD. 67 143. A better reason is found in the intense love of poetry and music, which was universal among the Greeks. All their life, public and private,^ in war or peace, was associated with song. Hymns to the gods were probably their earliest compositions. Triumphal odes welcomed the victor at the Games (§102) home to his native city. The ten thousand Athenians rushed down from the heights, and across the plain of Marathon, singing a battle-hymn, which the poet .4[s'chylus, who was one of them, has preserved for us. The Greek ships moved into the combat at Salamis to a similar strain: "On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for the freedom of your country! Strike for the freedom of your children and your wives! — for the shrines of your fathers' gods and the sepulchers of your sires." 144. The two great epic (narrative and heroic) poets of Hellas were Homer and He'siod. Homer was an Ionian of Asia — of what city can not now be known, though many contended for the honor of his birth. An English poet has written : " Seven ancient cities claimed the Homer dead, Through which the living Homer begged his bread." This may not be literally true, but it is probable that the "Father of Poetry" lived a sad and wandering life, shad- owed in his old age by blindness. He lived about 850 B. C. Beside the Iliad, which has been mentioned (§91, 92), he was the author of the Odyssey, which described the adventures of Ulys'ses, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. 145. Hesiod lived about a hundred years later, in Boeotia, where he tended his flocks upon the slopes of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. In contrast with Homer, who sang the mighty deeds of princes and heroes, he depicted the homely, rustic scenes with which he was familiar. His chief poem is the "Works and Days," consisting mainly of maxims for common life. Beside this is the "Theogony," 6S THE ANCIENT WORLD. which described the origin of the world, and of the gods and heroes ; but it is beHeved to have been composed by some poet of his school, not by Hesiod himself. The poems of Homer and Hesiod constituted the "Bible of the Greeks;" for these first put into permanent form the beUefs concerning the gods. 146. Epic poetry naturally flourished most while the kings ruled in Greece (§93, loi), for it celebrated the doings of gods and heroes, from whom the kings sup- posed themselves to be descended. When the common people gained power, lyric and dramatic poetry sprang to life. The two great lyric poets of Sparta were Tyrtse'us and Alc'man; but neither was Spartan-born. The one-was Athenian, and the other a Lydian Slave. The story goes, that the Spartans, being in great distress during the second Messenian war (§ 109), were directed, by the oracle, to borrow a leader from Athens. Not daring to disobey the priestess, but not wishing to render any real aid, the Athenians sent the poor, lame school-master, Tyrtgeus, to be the general of their rivals. But Apollo was not to be thwarted. The stirring songs of Tyrtceus did more than martial feats could have done to reinforce the courage of the Spartans; they immediately began to gain victories, and the lame school-master became the hero of the war. 147. Simon'ides lived during the Persian wars, and his songs celebrate the heroes who fought and fell at Mara- thon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platsea. Pin'dar was a Theban poet, but he studied at Athens, and was honored by all the states of Greece. His triumphal odes in honor of victors at the Games (^102) are all that have come down to us, though he wrote many hymns, dirges, and processional songs. 148. ^schylus was the father of dramatic, as Homer was of epic i)oetry. The first tragedies and comedies were recited by a chorus alone, and were not really dramas, as GREEK POETS AND HISTORIANS. 69 we understand the term. Both had their origin in tlie songs and dances which were part of the festivals of Dionysus; and these festivals, which occurred every spring, in Athens, continued to be the occasion when new plays were produced. So fond were the Athenians of this sort of entertainment, that they would sit all day long in the theater, while ten or twelve plays were successively per- formed. Their theater was open to the sky, and, from the hill-side on which it was situated, commanded a magnifi- cent view of land and sea. 149. ^schylus is distinguished by the rugged grandeur of his dramas; Soph'ocles, for the exquisite perfection of his art; Eurip'ides, for his tender and pathetic pictures of e very-day life. These three are confessedly at the head of the Athenian tragic drama, and were unsurpassed by any ancient poets. Aristoph'anes, on the other hand, was the master of comedy. In his fun-producing plays, he fearlessly attacked the greatest Athenians of his day — the half divine heroes, and even the gods themselves. 150. If we turn to prose literature, we find that (ireek historical writing, like philosophy and poetry (§100, 152), had its origin among the lonians of Asia. Hecatae'us, of Miletus, was the first prose-writer of note. He traveled extensively, and wrote books on history and geography. Herod'otus, the "Father of History," was a native of Halicarnassus (§101), but he early removed to Samos and learned the Ionian dialect. He traveled in many lands, and took the greatest pains to ascertain the truth of events which he wished to narrate. His theme was the great conflict between the Persians and the Greeks; but he found occasion for many interesting accounts of other nations. There is a story that he recited the whole nine books of his history at one of the Olympic Games, and that Thucyd'ides, then a boy of thirteen years, hearing him, was moved to tears of admiration. The assembly greeted 70 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ' the great work with shouts of deUghted applause, and conferred on each book the name of one of the Muses. 151. Thucydides was the greatest philosophic historian among the Greeks; some competent critics declare him to be the greatest of any age or nation. He wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War (§126) to its twenty-first year; and his account of its causes and incidents is our best authority concerning the relations of Greek states and parties. He was an actor in the events which he describes. Xenophon was a pupil of Socrates (§134); he continued the history which Thucydides left unfinished, and wrote a narrative of the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand" Greeks from the mad expedition of Cyrus the Younger (§58). He had accompanied the army as a volunteer, but, when the Greek generals had been slain, he was chosen one of the leaders of the homeward march. His story presents a lively picture of the countries through which the route lay. Among his other works are a defense of Socrates, and a romance, called the Cyropaedia, concerning Cyrus the Great. 152. The "Seven Wise Men of Greece" flourished during the sixth century B. C. They were Solon of Athens (§112), Tha'les of Miletus, Pit'tacus of Mitylene, Perian'der of Corinth, Cleob'ulus of Lindus, Chi'lo of Sparta, and Bi'as of Priene. ( Notice that four of the seven lived in the Asiatic colonies, §100.) Thales was also celebrated as the founder of the earliest school of Greek philosophy, called the /^;//r. His most illustrious successor m that school was An'axag'oras, the teacher of Pericles, Socrates, and Euripides. He, first of the Greeks, believed in a creative Mind as the author and ruler of the universe; and to this purer faith we may trace the elevation of spirit which enabled Pericles to bear serenely the unjust reproaches of the mob, and Socrates to look calmly into the face of Death (§134). Anaxagoras, like his great GREEK PHILOSOrJIERS. 71 pupil afterward, was tried in the Athenian courts for im- piety; but his Hfe was sj^ared on the condition of his departure from Athens. 153. The second school of Greek philosophy took its name from Elea, in Italy. Xenoph'anes, the founder of the Elcatic school, censured Homer and Hesiod for ascrib- ing human passions and weaknesses to the gods, and taught that the Creator is one. ' ^'*°" Still more important was the Pythagorean school, which also had its headquarters in Italy. Pythag'oras, of Samos, its founder, had studied not only with earlier Greek phi- losophers, but with Egyptian priests (§75), and, perhaps, with Babylonian and Hindu sages. He made some great discoveries in music and mathematics; but his most important work was that of a religious teacher. He believed himself inspired of Heaven to make known a purer mode of life than was prevalent among the Greeks, The last forty years of his life were spent at Crotona, in Italy, where he became the head of a numerous and powerful society. Its members bound themselves, by strict rules, to temperance and self-control, and aspired to a serene life, above the dominion of the passions. Similar clubs were formed in many cities of Italy; and the Pythagoreans numbered many thousands — among them some of the best and noblest men in Greece. 154. The death of Socrates has been mentioned (§134). Though one of the wisest of the Greeks, he did not teach any system of philosophy, but aimed rather to put his disciples in the way of finding the truth for themselves. He was unattractive in person, humble and simple in life; he received no payment for his teachings, but taught in the street or the market-place, wherever any chose to listen. The greatest of his disciples was Pla'to, the founder of the Academic School, so called because his lectures were given in the grove of Academus, near a gate of Athens. 72 THE ANCIENT WORLD. We are indebted to Plato for most of what we know of Socrates; for a great portion of his writings is made up of dialogues, in which Socrates had part. His own philos- ophy is the highest and purest of which the ancient world could boast. 155. Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander the Great, was the founder of the Peripatetic School of philosophy. His lectures, at Athens, drew about him a throng of listeners from all the Hellenic cities in Europe and Asia; and he discoursed to them while walking up and down in the shady groves which surrounded his Lyceum. Aristotle was an acute and patient student of physical, as well as mental, science. When Alexander, the greatest of his pupils, became the master of Asia, he caused rare col- lections of animals and plants to be sent from all his provinces to his old teacher, who found in them materials for his great works on natural history. The mental philosophy of Aristotle continued for two thousand years predominant in Europe. 156 In the arts of architecture and sculpture the pre- eminence of the Greeks is even more decided than in literature. Greek poetry and philosophy have been rivaled, and, in some respects, surpassed; but the greatest modern sculptor admits the impossibility of attaining that perfection of repose and beauty which distinguishes the works of Phid'ias and Praxit'eles. The stirring scenes of the Persian War aroused all minds to their highest pitch of energy; and the seventy years of Athenian supremacy were the blossoming time of Hellenic genius. The necessity of rebuilding ruined Athens afforded the opportunity which Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles gladly embraced, to make their idolized city the glory of all lands. 157. Then arose the Par'thenon, or temple of Athena, the Virgin, which, for exquisite "beauty of proportion, has never been surpassed. Then was cast the colossal statue GREEK ART. 73 of Athena Proma'chos, from the bronze spoils of the Persians, which were found upon the field of Marathon. Its glittering helmet and spear might be seen far off at sea, as if the goddess were keeping perpetual guard over the city which bore her name. This was the work of Phidias, the greatest of the Greek sculptors, and, therefore, the greatest whom the world has yet produced. 158. Other works of Phidias were the gold and ivory statue of Athena, which stood in the Parthenon ; and, most admirable of all, the colossal statue of Zeus, in his temple at Olympia, in Elis. Though size was the least of its merits, we may say that the figure, though sitting, was nearly sixty feet in height. The throne and the pedestal on which it stood were adorned with elaborate sculptures in gold. The figure itself represented jDerfect majesty in repose, as if the god were presiding at the games which were held in his honor. 159. As Ionia had her schools of poetry and philosophy (§152), so she had her peculiar order of architecture: perhaps the most refined and graceful of the three Greek orders — equally removed from the simple grandeur of the Doric, and the exuberant ornament of the Corinthian. The most noted example of the Ionic order was the temple of Ar'temis, at Ephesus; of the Doric, the Parthenon, at Athens; of the Corinthian, the temple of the Olympian Zeus, begun by Pisistratus and his sons, at Athens, but completed 650 years after its foundation by a Roman emperor. The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer have been best translated by our countryman W. C. Bryant ; the existing Tragedies of rEschyhis and Sophocles, by Prof. Pkimptre ; Herodotus, by Prof. Rawlinson. Translations of Thucydides and Xenophon are found in all large libraries. Read accounts of the Greek philosophers in Grote, Chapters xvi, xxxvii, Ixviii, and in K. O. Miiller's History of the Literature of Greece. Find descriptions of Greek Orders of Architecture in Fergusson's " Handbook," Book VI, Chapter ii. Hist. —7. PERIOD IV. — Hellenic Kingdoms in Europe^ Asia, and Africa. CHAPTER X. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. LEXANDER III. of Macedon, though only twenty years old when he became king, had already proved his extraor- dinary genius for war and government. A new congress at Corinth conferred upon him the same command which his father had held (§ 140), and in the spring of 334 B. C. he crossed the Hel- lespont with a Greek army of 35,000 men. As before, the perfect training of the Greeks more than matched the im- mense numbers of the Persians (§§ 115, 118). At the passage of the Granicus, Alexander defeated a superior force which opposed him; then, turning southward, he quickly made himself master of Asia Minor. Darius III, with half a million men, was defeated at Issus, and fled, leaving his mother, wife, and children in the hands of the conqueror. 161. Alexander then purposely left him time to collect the whole force of his empire for a decisive combat, while he himself turned aside to receive the submission of Phoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt, and thus prevent any (74) Demosthenes. BATTLE OF ARE E LA. 75 attack by sea upon Macedonia or Greece. Kgypt and Palestine gladly threw off the Persian yoke; and — though Tyre withstood a long and obstinate siege — in less than two years, all the Mediterranean coast, as far as Libya, was added to the dominion of Alexander. At the western mouth of the Nile he built a new city, called from his own name Alexandria, which has ever since been an im- portant mart of exchange between the East and the West. 162. At length he marched eastward for the grand battle which was to decide the fate of western Asia. Darius had mustered and drilled more than a million of men, and had carefully chosen a field, near Arbela, which gave him all the advantage of this immense number. The ground was leveled and hardened, so that his scythe-armed chariots might operate with full ' ' ^^^' effect. He himself was present in the midst of his men, and his example increased their bravery. Nevertheless, Alexander and his Macedonian phalanx were again victo- rious, and Darius became a fugitive and a captive (§§ 60, 61). The three Persian capitals, Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, soon submitted to the conqueror. 163. The young Greek general was now an Oriental monarch. His court, composed equally of Asiatics and Europeans, was as splendidly ceremonious as that of Xerxes himself. He put on all the haughty airs of a Persian king. His old comrades were required to prostrate them- selves on their faces in approaching his throne; and some of his best friends Avere put to death for daring to express their opinion of these new pretensions. But if his sudden successes were fatal to Alexander's good sense, they did not destroy his energy and talents. During the remainder of his short life, he reduced all the remaining provinces of the Persian empire to his sway. (See §§48, 51.). 164. He was no brutal conqueror, like those Asiatic chiefs (p. 12, note) whose tracks were marked by the ashes 76 THE ANCIENT WORLD. of burnt cities and by pyramids of human heads. Wher- ever his armies advanced, rivers were cleared for naviga- tion; roads were made through tangled forests; new cities sprang up; trade revived, or was led into new channels; and western thrift took the place of oriental indolence and stagnation. Learned men accompanied his fleets and armies; and their reports afford our first definite knowledge of India. 165. But while Asia gained, Europe lost in almost equal measure. The Greeks, like the Persians before them (§ 63), lost their free spirit, and learned the slavish habits of courtiers. Art and literature declined as the spirit of the people became enslaved. The grand result of Alexander's short and brilliant career was to diffuse Greek civilization from the Adriatic to the borders of India, and from the Crimea to the cataracts of the Nile. By giving to all this region one common lan- guage for government and literature, Alexander's con- quests prepared the way for the more rapid progress of Christianity. 166. Having extended his empire eastward beyond the Indus, Alexander was planning the conquest of Italy, Carthage, and all the western coasts of the Mediterranean. His schemes were, however, broken off by his sudden death from a fever, at Babylon. He was 32 years of age, and had reigned 12 years and 8 months. Trace, on Map i, Alexander's progress from the borders of the yEgean Sea to Arbela. Point out the countries and cities which he conquered. Read the story of Alexander in Felton's Smith's Greece, Ch. XLIV. CHAPTER XT. SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. LEXANDER'S great empire fell to pieces shortly after his death, and his principal officers fought over the division of the spoils. After twenty-two years of fierce contention, a battle at Ipsiis in Phrygia, B. C. 301, finally gave Syria and the East to Seleii'cus; Egypt to Ptol'emy ; Thrace, with part of Asia Minor, to Lysim'- achus; Macedonia and Greece to Cassan'der. 168. The Seleucidse.— The kingdom of Seleiicus was by far the greatest and richest of these divisions, and under his energetic reign it rapidly became Hdlcnizcd. His capital, Antioch on the Orontes, continued for a thousand years to be one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in the world. The last survivors of those who had marched and fought under Alexander were Seleucus and Lysimachus ; and these two made war in their old age against each other. Lysim- achus was slain, and his dominions in Asia Minor were added to the kingdom of Seleucus; but the latter was soon afterward murdered in Europe, where he was still pushing his conquests. 169. The successors of Seleucus were inferior to him in character; and two independent kingdoms, Parthia and Bactria, sprang up in the north-eastern part of their do- (77) A Greek Lady. 78 THE ANCIENT WORLD. minion. (See map i.) The Bactrians were of the Aryan race (§6), and their new kingdom was thoroughly Greek in spifit; the Parthians, on the contrary, were nearly re- lated to the barbarous Scythians; and their movement for indejDendence was a revolt against Hellenic ideas. 170. Anti'ochus III, the fifth of the Seleucidae, had many wars but few successes : nevertheless, his flatterers called him "the Great." His reign is marked by the first serious collision of the Greek kingdoms with Rome. He suffered four signal defeats from the Romans, who took from him Asia Minor, except Cilicia, with all his ships and elephants, and an enormous treasure. His son, Antiochus Epiph'anes, had nearly conquered Egypt, when the Romans again interfered and made him resign all that he had taken. He obeyed, but revenged himself by plundering and des- ecrating the Temple at Jerusalem, B. C. 168. 171. The Jews sprang to arms, inspired by their brave leader Ju'das Maccabae'us. Antiochus, who was now be- yond the Euphrates, set out in a great rage to punish their revolt; but, in attempting to plunder another temple in Elymais, he was seized with a furious madness in which he died. Rome took the part of the "Maccabees," and Judcea became a separate kingdom. Between the Parthians on the east and the Romans on the west, the Seleucidae were engaged for a hundred years in constant wars, until, in 65, B. C., their whole dominion was absorbed into that of Rome. 172. The Ptolemies. — B. C. 323-30. The Egyptian kingdom of Ptolemy was the most brilliant of all the Hellenic dominions. Under his thrifty management Egypt became a market for the whole world's wealth. Traders, scholars, and artists thronged in multitudes to Alexandria, which soon rivaled Athens in its beautiful buildings, while it surpassed the Attic city by its famous library — the greatest in the ancient world. To enrich this collection, Europe THE PTOLEMIES. 79 and Asia were ransacked for literary works, and copies were obtained at any cost. A special embassy was sent to Jeru- salem to ask of the High Priest a copy of the Hebrew Scriptures and the services of a company of learned men who could translate them into Greek. These were royally received and entertained by Ptolemy, and the version which they produced became one of the chief treasures of the Alexandrian Library. It is called the Scptiiagint, either be- cause the translators were seventy in number, or because it was sanctioned by the Sanhedrim, or Council of Seventy, at Alexandria. 173. The first Ptolemy was perhaps the greatest and best man among Alexander's generals — distinguished in an age of fraud and violence for his truthfulness and self- control. None of his descendants equaled him in char- acter; but his son, Ptolemy Philadel'phus, continued the patronage of learned men with still greater liberality, while his wise commercial policy made Egypt the richest country in the world. 174. Ptolemy IH., called Euer'getes, was a great con- queror, and extended his kingdom both westward and northward along the Mediterranean from Cyrene to the Hellespont. He even made conquests east of the Euphra- tes, and brought back some old Egyptian images which had been carried away by Sargon or Esarhaddon (§§ 13, 14), but his eastern acquisitions were abandoned almost as soon as they were made. The rest of the twelve Ptol- emies had hardly any history worth recording. Egypt, like all the other Mediterranean countries, became subject at last to the Roman power. Cleopa'tra, a brilliant but unscrupulous princess, was the last of this royal line ; she tried to beguile the Roman generals by her arts, when she could not oppose them by arms ; and for some years she was successful. But at length An'tony, her lover, was de- feated in his contest with Octa'vian, and Cleopatra killed 8o THE ANCIENT WORLD. herself to escape from adorning the triumphal procession of his conqueror. Egypt became a Roman province. 175. The Egyptians, under the Ptolemies, kept their own language, religion, and customs, while, as in all the other Hellenic kingdoms, Greek was the language of the government. Royal and priestly decrees, intended to reach all the mixed population of the country, were written in three languages: the hieroglyphics, or sacred language of the priests, the demotic speech of the common people, and Greek. About eighty years ago, a stone, bearing one of these threefold inscriptions, was accidentally found by a French engineer near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. Learned men, with immense patience, compared the Greek sentences, which they could easily read, with the corre- sponding characters of the unknown tongues, and thus ob- tained a key to the long-sealed writings of the ancient Egyptians. The Rosetta Stone contained a decree of the priests, ordering divine honors to be paid to the fifth of the Ptolemies at his coronation. 176. Greece, led by Athens, vainly attempted to make herself free from Macedon after the death of Alexander. The ''Lamian War" ended in only confirming the Mace- donian supremacy, while Demosthenes (§ 140) and most of his party were condemned to exile or death. In this time of calamity, the Greeks learned too late the necessity of a closer union of the states. Several federations were formed, of which the most important were the Achaean League in southern, and the ^tolian in central Greece, But, unhap- pily, the several states were still divided by jealousies, which gave every advantage to their enemies. Rome and Macedon played off one League against the other almost at will; while the Romans were steadily advancing toward universal dominion. 177. Philip V, the greatest of the later Macedonian kings, was at length so ruinously defeated by them at Cyn'oceph'- CONQUEST OF GREECE. 8i alas, that he gave up all attempts to control the Greeks, having, indeed, more than enough to do in keeping a foothold in his own land. Philopce'- '' ' '^^' men, the chief of the Ach^an League, was the greatest man in Greece at this crisis. He infused his own brave and energetic spirit into the whole nation, and enabled it for a while to resist the encroachments of Rome. After his death, B. C. 183, the Roman power became irresistible. Per'seus, the last of the Macedonian kings, was defeated at Pydna, B. C. 168, and was afterward carried as a prisoner to Italy, where he died in a dungeon near Rome. 178. A few years later, the remnant of the Achnsans made a desperate effort to shake off the Roman yoke. One of their leaders was defeated and slain near Ther- mopylae; another made a final stand at Corinth, but he, too, was defeated and the city was taken, plundered, and destroyed. But captive Greece ruled her conquerors by her intellectual greatness. Roman nobles sought instruction at Athens; and Greek philosophy and poetry inspired all that was best in the literature of Rome. Point out on Maps i, 2, 3, and 4, Antioch, Alexandria, Actium, CynocephalDe, Pydna, Corinth, Athens, Thermopylce. The latest period in tlie History of Greece may be read in Grote, Chs. XCV, XCVI, and in Freeman's History of Federal Government, Vol. I. Some account of the Seleucid^e will be found in Rawlinson's Sixth Monarchy. Their history and that of the Ptolemies may be found in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. Read also of Alexandria and its schools in Smith's Dictionary of Geography. PART III. — Rome. CHAPTER XII. THE ROMAN KINGDOM — ITS RELIGION. HE Italian peninsula had now become the seat of the most powerful and long-enduring government that the world has ever known. But, if we would trace the stream of conquest to its source, we must go back to a little village on the Tiber, founded in the eighth century before Christ, if common report* be true, by a band of shepherds and robbers. Southern Italy and Sicily were already occupied by many Greek cities; while north of the Tiber were the Etruscans, a civilized and powerful "1 people, whose singular religious customs largely affected those of the Romans. 1 80. The latter belonged to the Latin Standard-Bearer. , i r ^i t.. t j branch of the Italian race, and soon allied themselves with the League of thirty Latin cities, between the Liris and the Tiber. They resembled the Spartans in their stern and haughty character; and the influence of Rome in Latium, as of Sparta in Greece, was * For the legendary account of the founding of Rome, see Ancient History, pp. 249, 250. ^ (82) KINGS OF ROME. 83 always in favor of government by the nobles, against any assumption of power by the common people. 181. Rome was governed by kings for more than two centuries after its foundation (B. C. 753-510). Tradition names seven monarchs : Rom'idiis, the mythical founder of the state, and Nu'ma, of the religion of Rome; Tul'lus Hostil'ius and An'cus Mar^tius, who extended its dominion by conquests; the first Tar'quin^ who enriched the city by many grand and useful works; Ser'vius Tid'lius, who gave to every free Roman the right of voting, divided public lands among the people, and organized tlie whole state into a military system; and Tarqiiin the Frond, who, trying to rob the people of their newly found rights, was expelled with all his family. 182. A republic was then established under the "good laws" of Ser'vius. Two chief magistrates, afterwards called consuls, were elected every year, with full kingly powers. They were attended by a guard of twelve lictors, bearing fasces, or bundles of rods, as symbols of authority. At the end of their year of office, the consuls could be tried and punished for any abuse of their power. 183. In the earliest times, Rome contained only the patricians — consisting of 300 families — with their clients and slaves. The clients, though free, had no civil rights; they were represented in courts of law by the patrician whom they chose as their patron — whose lands they culti- vated, or whose influence protected their trade. Each patrician was proud of the number of clients who assumed his family name. The heads of the 300 noble houses constituted the Senate, an august assemblage, mostly of old men, distinguished by the broad, purple stripe upon their mandes, and by their thrones and scepters of ivory. The whole body of patricians constituted the Comitia Curiata, which confirmed or annulled all laws proposed by the magistrates. 84 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 184. Later, there arose at Rome a new class, called plebeians, who were either foreign settlers, or children of mixed marriages, or clients whose protecting families had become extinct. The patricians were very angry when the new Assembly of the Hundreds, formed by the good king, Servius TuUius (§181), included even plebeians in the right to vote. They believed that patricians alone could ap- proach the gods with prayers and sacrifices, and that, therefore, it would be an insult to Heaven if a plebeian were admitted to any office which must be entered with religious rites. • Another point of jealousy was found in the division of lands conquered in war. The patricians wanted these for the pasturage of their enormous flocks; but Servius thought it right to give the plebeians also a share. 185. Every free Roman was a soldier, and was enrolled, according to his wealth, in one of five ranks. The richest, being able to equip themselves in complete brazen armor, fought in front of the army; the rest, according to their means and equipment, were placed in successive ranks toward the rear. 186. The Religion of the Romans was less poetical than that of the Greeks; but it was bound up with their love of home and country, and strongly affected their daily Hfe. As Greek monarchs were supposed to be descendants of Zeus, so the first Roman king was fabled to be a grand- son of Mars, the war-god; and the whole history of this martial people justifies the legend. The two chief divinities of the Romans were Jii'piter and Mars; and almost all their yearly religious festivals were connected either with war or tillage. The worship of some of the other divinities was borrowed from abroad; e. g. that of Apollo from the Greeks, and that of Miner'va from the Etruscans. 187. But the "household gods" were nearest and dearest to every Roman heart. Every house was a temple, and KELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 85 every meal a sacrifice to Ves'ta, the home-goddess. Her temple was the hearthstone of the city, where six noble maidens guarded the sacred fire by night and day. Over the door of every house was a little chaj^el of the Lares, or ancestors of the family, to whom the father i)aid his devotions whenever he entered. 188. The Romans, like the Greeks, believed in oracles (§99), while from the Etruscans they borrowed rules for the interpretation 'of signs in the heavens, of the appearance of sacrifices, and of dreams. The Four Sacred Colleges were those of the Pontiffs, the Aitgufs, the Heralds, and the Keepers of the Sibylline Books. The first regulated public worship and kept the calendar; the second con- sulted the gods with reference to all public affairs; the third guarded the honor of the nation in its dealings with foreign powers; the fourth, in times of great public calamity, looked into the Sibylline Books, which were supposed to prophesy the fate of Rome. 189. Once in five years, after the taking of the census, there was a solemn purification of the city and all the people, by means of prayers and sacrifices, to avert the anger of the gods. In like manner farmers were supposed to purify their fields, and shepherds their flocks; generals their armies, and admirals their fleets, to guard against disasters which might be visited upon some secret or open impiety. Name the boundaries of Italy. The tribes who occupied it in the early days of Rome. What islands near Italy? Read the early history of Rome in Arnold, Niebuhr, or Mommsen. CHAPTER XIII. XHE ROMAN REPUBLIC — SAMNITE WARS. .HE 480 years' history of the Roman Re- pubUc is a record of ahiiost continual wars; but there were four dis- tinctly marked periods, which will help us to un- derstand the development of this remarkable nation. I. Wars for existence, and growth of the Re- publican Constitution, B. c. 510-343- II. Wars for possession of Italy, B. C. 343-264. III. Wars for Foreign Dominion, B. C. 264-133. IV. Civil Wars, B. C. 133-30. 191. Patricians and Plebeians. — In the contests with the Latins and Etruscans, which followed the expul- sion of the kings (§ 181), a great part of the Roman ter- ritory was lost, and the rest was laid waste. The poor people, who derived their living from the soil, were in great distress, and had to borrow money from the patricians at ruinous interest in order to go on with their farming. Some even sold themselves as slaves, and others were thrown into the dungeons of their creditors. At length, tired of a government which cared only for the rich, and had neither justice nor pity for the poor, the plebeians seceded to the Sacred Mount, and resolved to form a new city. (86) Tribune and Lictor. AGRARIAN LAWS. 87 192. The patricians now consented to cancel the debts of all who were unable to pay, and agreed to the yearly election of two tribunes^ whose duty it should be to de- fend the interests of the plebeians. The next year an "Agrarian Law" provided for the distribution of a certain part of the public lands among the plebeians, while the rents of those leased to patricians were applied to the pay- ment of soldiers who had hitherto been compelled to give their services to the state. The consul who proposed this law was condemned and beheaded at the expiration of his term; and the first tribune who attempted to enforce it was murdered. But its enemies only defeated themselves, for so violent was the popular rage that the next tribune, Publirius, was able to obtain a still greater security for the rights of the plebeians. This was, the power to elect their own officers* in their own Meeting of the Tribes; and there, too, to discuss all questions affecting the whole na- tion, before they were presented to the Assembly of the Hundreds. This prevented the plebeians being outvoted by the clients of the noble houses, who of course were controlled by their masters. 193. Some proud patricians, rather than share their power with inferiors, went over to the enemies of Rome. Among these was Ca'ius Mar'cius — called Co'riola'nus, be- cause he had taken the town of Corioli from the Volscians; but it was with these same Volscians that he now took refuge, and even led their armies against his native city. A sacred embassy of priests and augurs went out to meet him, but he refused all terms of peace. At last, his mother, his wife, and his little children appeared, followed by a procession of noble ladies, entreating him to spare * " From that time," says a Roman historian, ''the election of tribunes and aediles was made withotU birds,'''' alluding to the cere- mony of "taking the auguries," which must precede every election in which patricians had part. See ^ 184. 88 THE ANCIENT WORLD. their altars and their homes. Coriolanus yielded, but with the despairing cry: "Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but thou hast lost thy son ! " He led away his army. Some say the Volscians killed him in their revenge, but others, that he lived to great age, lamenting, in the loneliness of exile and infirmity, the foolish pride that had robbed him of home and honor. 194. After many years of contention, all classes agreed to appoint ten men {Decemviri), who should consider and adjust all conflicting claims and make a new constitution for Rome. The results of their labor were the Laws of the Twelve Tables,* which be- came the "source of all public and private right" in Rome for a thousand years. They were approved by the Senate, and ratified by the Assembly of the Hundreds. But, though formally accepted, the laws were not enforced until two secessions and many violent tumults, caused by patri- cian outrages, had proved the power of the plebeians. 195. Rome was soon afterward visited by a terrible calamity. The Gauls, who had conquered northern Italy, came pouring through the defiles of the Apennines, and defeated the whole Roman army with great slaughter in the battle of the Allia; then, pushing on with ' ^^°' irresistible fury, captured and burned the city. The rocky height of the Capitol was bravely defended for several months, and then ransomed for 1000 pounds of gold. The Gauls continued for many years to ravage Italy, and twice encamped within a few miles of Rome, but at last they withdrew to the fertile plain between the Alps and the northern Apennines, which was thenceforth named from them Cisalpine Gaul. They learned letters and civilized habits from the Etruscans, and taught them in some degree to their wild kindred among the Alps. *So called because they were inscribed on bronze tablets. 7'HE SAMNITES. 89 196. The poverty and distress of the plebeians, resulting from the ravages of the Gauls, made the patricians only more haughty and overbearing. Rome was a, shapeless heap of rubbish, through which even the direction of former streets could not be traced; while orchards and farm-buildings outside the walls had all been burnt. Again the dungeons beneath the patrician houses on the hills were crowded with insolvent debtors, who cried out against the cruelty of their tormentors. 197. The tribune Licin'ius Sto'lo, and his colleague L. Sex'tius, then brought forward a series of laws, which were designed to raise the plebeians to absolute equality with the patricians in civil rights and the use of the public lands. Of course the latter violently opposed the meas- ures ; but, after some years, the ' ' Licinian ' " ^ ^* Laws" were passed, and Rome had for the first time a really popular government. Of the two consuls chosen every year, one was henceforth a plebeian. The consuls still had unlimited military power; but most of their judicial duties were now committed to a prcetor, who for a time was chosen only from the patricians. 198. Wars in Italy. — At peace with herself, Rome now looked out upon the broader field where she was to become mistress of the world. The Samnites to the south- ward were more civilized and powerful than the Latins. They had conquered most of the Greek settlements (§88) in southern Italy, and had adopted Greek ways of living and thinking, so that they were superior in intellectual culture to their neighbors, with whom they were now to contest the rule of the peninsula. But the Romans had already proved that wonderful genius for government which afterward enabled them to bind together all their conquests into one great empire; while the Samnites had only a loose confederation of cities without any recognized leader. Hist.— 8. 90 THE ANCIENT WORLD. igg. All Italy was engaged on one side or the other; and the three Samnite Wars lasted, with brief intervals, more than half a century (B. C. 343-290). The Latin allies, becoming unruly, were reduced to obedience by a war, which broke up the League (§ 180) and subjected all Latium to Roman law. Two incidents of the ■ ^^^" Latin war illustrate the Spartan-like sternness of the Romans. All soldiers were forbidden to leave the camp on pain of death; but Ti'tus Man'lius, the consul's son, vexed by the challenge of a Latin warrior, went out and killed him, and, returning in triumph, laid the spoils at his father's feet. The consul ordered his guards to behead the young man before his tent in the presence of all the army. 200. The battle which decided the fate of Latium, took place at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, 339 B. C. The augurs had declared (§ 188) that Fate demanded the destruction of an army on one side and a general on the other. It was therefore agreed by the Roman commanders that, if any portion of their army should begin to give way, the consul commanding in that quarter would devote himself to death for the deliverance of the state. Manlius led the Roman right; De'cius, the plebeian consul, the left. All fought bravely, but at length the Roman left wavered. Decius called the pontiff, and with his aid repeated the solemn words in which he devoted himself and the Latin army to the gods of death and the grave; then, mounting his horse, plunged into the thickest of the fight and was almost immediately killed. 201. B. C. 326-304. The Second Samnite War lasted 22 years. The Romans suffered a disgraceful defeat at the Caudine Forks, where the remnant of their army which survived had to ''pass under the yoke," in token of submission. A treaty of peace was then made; but the Roman Senate refused to be bound by it, and sent the THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR. 91 two consuls and two tribunes who had signed it, bound in chains, to suffer the vengeance of the Samnites. Pon'tius, the Samnite general, generously released them. After many reverses and a few great victories, the Romans were at length acknowledged as masters of Italy. 202. The Samnites, however, made use of the six years' interval of peace to enlist all the Italian nations in a new league against Rome, and, in 298 B. C, the Third Samnite War broke out. Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, on the north, were allied with Lucanians, Apulians, Greeks, and Samnites on the south. In a great battle at Sentinum, the Gauls and Samnites were ' " ^^^' defeated, and 25,000 men were slain. Pontius, the Sam- nite general, still defended his country by his brilliant genius; but at length the Romans gained a victory, in which he was made a prisoner and compelled to walk the streets of Rome loaded with chains to adorn the triumph of the consul. When the procession reached the foot of the Capitoline Hill, he was led aside and be- headed in the Mamertine Prison. Samnium was com- pletely subjected, and a Roman colony of 20,000 people guarded its territory. 203. Two short wars added to the Roman possessions the lands of the ^qui and Sabines, rich in oil, wine, and forests of oak. These were divided among the people, many of whom had been made poor by the long wars; and, by the wise laws of Hortensius, Rome was saved from civil strife for 150 years. 204. The next important contest was with Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus, an ambitious and able prince who was invited into Italy by a league of many ' ' ^ '"^^ ' nations, with the Greek city of Tarentum at their head. At Heracle'a, his elephants put the Roman horse to flight; and his military genius was proved by many other vic- tories. But while Pyrrhus was fighting for glory, Rome 92 THE ANCIENT WORLD. was fighting for existence. As often as one army was destroyed, another was ready to oppose him; and at length he withdrew into Sicily, hoping to recruit his forces for a fresh attempt. He was defeated two B. c. 275. yQ2.x?, later at Beneventum, and left Italy never to return. His allies submitted, and the whole Italian peninsula, properly so called, was now subject to Rome. 205. Her power was secured by many new colonies and by military roads, the remains of which may yet be seen. The maritime colonies possessed the full "Roman right;" /. e., the colonists retained all the powers and privileges of Roman citizens. They could go to Rome and vote in the assemblies; and they could be elected to any office which would have been open to them when living in the mother city. The "Latin right" was that which had been given to the cities of Latium when they were first made subject to Rome. It was bestowed on the less favored colonies; but it included commercial and other privileges, which bound them to Rome by ties of interest. Point out, on Map 5, the nations engaged in the Third Samnite War : see \ 202. Point out Sentinum. Tarentum. Beneventum. Heraclea. Read the story of this period, more fully told, in Arnold's History of Rome. CHAPTER XIV. ROMAN REPUHl.lC, CONTINUED — PUNIC WARS. Hannibal Crossing the Alps. AVING conquered Italy, Rome was now to come into collision with the great Republic of Carthage, on the opposite coast of the Mediterranean. The island of Sicily was the object of dispute. The Romans, like the Spartans, despised com- merce, and had few ships, their wars having hitherto been upon land; but they prepared, with great spirit, to meet Carthage upon her own element. A Carthaginian war- vessel, wrecked on their coast, served them for a model; in two months they had a fleet of loo ships, and in their very first sea-fight gained a decisive victory. A second (93) 94 THE ANCIENT WORLD. and third were equally successful, and the consuls now- invaded Africa, laying waste the rich lands about Carthage with fire and sword, B. C. 256. 207. One half the victorious army returned to Rome on the approach of winter, while Reg'ulus, one of the consuls, remained, and, for a time, carried all before him. Multitudes of towns fell into his power, and Carthage itself might have been starved into submission, but for the arrival of Xanthip'pus, a Spartan general, and an army of Greek hirelings. With this timely aid, the Carthaginians were at length able to defeat and capture Regulus. The fleet, which was carrying home the shattered remnant of the Roman force, was wrecked in a storm, and the Sicilian coast was strewn with the remains of 260 ships and 100,000 men. Nevertheless, Roman courage never wavered, and a few years later, Metel'lus gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginians at Panor'mus. A hundred elephants made part of the triumphal procession* which attended his return to Rome. 208. The next eight years were full of disasters to Rome; but at length her wealthy citizens fitted out a fleet with which the consul Luta'tius gained a decisive victory among the ^gu'sae. The Carthaginians now agreed to surrender Sicily and all the neighboring islands, pay 2000 talents ($2,500,000), and release all Roman prisoners without ransom. The First Punic War had lasted nearly 24 years (B. C. 264-241). 209. In the interval which followed, Rome seized Sar- dinia and Corsica, and, by a three years' war, conquered Cisalpine Gaul. The latter was planted with Roman colo- nies; but the three islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, * For description of a Roman triumph, see Manual of Ancient History, pp. 291, 292. THE PUNIC WARS. 95 were organized into provinces — the first examples of the system of government by which Rome afterward managed her immense foreign possessions. The consuls, on com- pleting their term of office, divided the provinces between them; and each exercised, in his own province, both civil and military command. One tenth of the whole produce of these countries went as tribute to Rome, beside a duty of one-twentieth on all imports and exports. The fertile fields of Sicily became the granaries of Rome, while the forests of Corsica afforded abundant materials for her fleets. 210. If Carthage had seemed to submit, it was only for a time. Her great general, Ham'ilcar, foreseeing a renewal of the war, devoted all his energy to the conquest of Spain, and, at his death, left to his son-in-law, Has'drubal, the task of improving the resources of that rich country. Hasdrubal built towns, fostered trade and tillage, drilled the natives into soldiers, and, by working the newly found silver-mines, laid up an ample treasure for the coming war. Han'nibal, son of Hamilcar, had meanwhile grown to manhood. When only nine years old, he had sworn, at his father's command, an oath of eternal hatred to Rome; and a youth spent in the Spanish wars had only Strengthened this feeling, while it developed and trained his wonderful genius. 211. Placed at the head of the army, Hannibal first made sure of his power over Spain, and then deliberately sought a quarrel with Rome, which led to the Second Punic War. The Romans expected him to cross the sea to the western coast of Italy; but Hannibal surprised them by a far bolder movement. Crossing the Ebro and the Pyrenees, with an army of 90,000 foot, 12,000 horse, and many elephants, he marched through the friendly tribes of southern Gaul; climbed the snowy Alps, fighting his way against hosts of enemies, as well as the mightier 96 THE ANCIENT WORLD. forces of nature; and descended upon the plain of the Po, attended by scarcely more than one-fourth of the mighty army with which, in the spring of 218 B. C, he had set out from Carthagena. 212. The Cisalpine Gauls hailed him as a deliverer; and in three great battles he routed the best and bravest of the Roman soldiery. Fa'bius was now made Dictator, with unlimited powers. Seeing the impossibility of defeat- ing Hannibal in battle, he tried to weary him with harass- ing marches, cutting off his stragglers and supply-trains while refusing to fight. But the Romans murmured at this ''Fabian policy;" and the consuls, listening at length to their demands for a battle, led a great army to Cannae, only to suffer the most overwhelnixiig defeat that Rome ever knew. One consul, 80 senators, and nearly 50,000 men lay dead upon the field. All southern Italy, except the garrisoned towns, submitted to Hannibal. The kings of Macedon and Syracuse allied themselves with Carthage, and for fourteen years Hannibal maintained his footing in the peninsula. 213. The two Scip'ios, Cne'ius and Pub'lius, meanwhile managed the Roman interests in Spain with great skill, and prevented reinforcements from reaching Hannibal. When, at last, his brother came to his relief, he was defeated and slain near the Metau'rus. Hanni- bal held out four years longer in the mountain- fastness of Bruttium; but at last the younger Scipio, son of Publius, conducted an army into Africa, and the Cartha- ginians were compelled to recall their great general. The final battle was fought at Za'ma; the power of Carthage was overthrown; and, in the peace which followed, she was compelled to surrender Spain and all her island settlements, with her fleets and elephants, and to engage, beside paying a yearly tribute, to make no • war without the, permission of Rome. MAP No. V. // U. Vail. del. DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 97 214. Scipio, now called Africa'nus, in honor of his vic- tory, was welcomed at Rome with a magnificent triumph (§207, note). Rome rewarded her veteran soldiers with the confiscated lands of the Italian nations who had aided Hannibal; then turned her attention to the East, where Antiochus the Great (§170) had welcomed the great Carthaginian to his court, and seemed to be challenging a contest. The battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, destroyed his hopes, and made the opening scene of Roman conquests in Asia. A war with Macedon ended in the captivity of the last of her kings (§177), and Rome was now acknowl- edged as the leading power in the whole civilized world. 215. Carthage, her disarmed and humbled victim, was only awaiting her doom. Ca'to, the sternest of the Roman statesmen, never ended a speech in the Senate without the words, "Carthage must be destroyed." To prolong their existence, the Carthaginians submitted to the most unreasonable demands; but, when ordered to destroy their beloved city and remove to a new site away from the sea, they refused with one voice. Then began a four-years' war, in which the sole operation was the siege and defense of Carthage. Night and day every man, woman, and child toiled at the defenses of the city. A new fleet was built in the blockaded port, and a channel was cut through the land to enable it to reach the sea. Two thousand shields or weapons were made every day in the arsenal, and the women gave their long hair for bowstrings When at last the Romans forced an entrance to the city, they had to fight their way, house by house and street by street. Fires were kindled in all directions; and when, after 17 days, the flames were arrested, only heaps of ashes remained of the homes of 700,000 human beings. 216. The lands of Carthage became the Roman "Prov- ince of Africa." The same year Corinth, also, was destroyed (§178), and Greece became the "Province of Achaia." Hist. — 9. 98 THE ANCIENT WORLD. War was still going on in Spain, where the town of Nu- mantia withstood a long siege with heroic courage. It was starved into surrender, 133 B. C; and at length the whole peninsula, except the Asturias, submitted, and was divided into three provinces. Hither and Farther Spain, and Lusitania, now Portugal. All southern Europe, with an important part of Africa, was now subject to Rome; and in Egypt and Asia Minor many client-states owned her power and begged her protection. The relation of Rome to Egypt, Pergamus, Judaea, etc., was much like that of a proud patrician to his dependents whom he fed and domineered over, while permitting no other person to injure them. Trace, on Map 5, the march of Hannibal from Spain. Point out Cannae, the Metaurus, Magnesia, Carthage, Tunis, Panormus (now Palermo), Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily. Mommsen is the best authority for this and the following periods. Arnold's History of Rome was, unhappily, left unfinished in the midst of the events described in this chapter. CHAPTER XV. ROMAN REPUBLIC, CONTINUED — CIVIL WARS. Roman Soldier. CENTURY of internal conflict ends the history of the Roman Republic. The strife between patricians and plebeians was long ago ended; but in its place had arisen a grinding, igno- ble jealousy between the rich and the poor. Rome was a " commonwealth of millionaires and beggars." Many rich proprietors held four times the amount of public lands to which the law entitled them; and, instead of hir- ing free labor, preferred to cultivate by means of gangs of slaves who could be bought cheap after every Roman victory. These slaves, often the equals of their masters but for misfortune in war, — strong, intelligent, and trained to the use of arms — constituted one of the greatest dangers to which Rome was now exposed. 2i8. In the year 133, B. C, Tibe'rius Grac'chus, Tribune of the People, brought forward a bill for a re-distribution of the state lands, limiting the patricians, as before, to 500 jtigera (about 312 acres), and dividing the remainder into homesteads for the poor. His fellow-tribune, Octa'vius, vetoed the bill; but Tiberius moved the people to depose him, and the Agrarian Law was passed. Other propositions followed, designed to raise up a middle-class of peasants, which would prevent collision between the two extremes of society. But the wrath of the wealthy class was now excited, and Tiberius was murdered on the steps of the Capitol. (99) lOO THE ANCIENT WORLD. 219. His younger and yet abler brother, Ca'ius Grac'- chus, became Tribune of the People, B. C. 124. He provided for the hungry crowd by forming new colonies, not only in Italy, but beyond the seas, and by building immense granaries at Rome, whence the government dealt out wheat at less than half price to all who chose to apply for it. The first of these measures was wise and benef- icent; the second was very dangerous, for it drew into Rome a thriftless crowd from all the country, and there were never wanting leaders whose wicked ambition made use of these people for their own ends — sometimes for the destruction of the state. Caius Gracchus lost his life in a popular tumult; 250 of his followers fell with him, and 3000 were strangled in prison by order of the Senate.* 220. Roman virtue, if not dead, was in a fatal decline. A war with Jugur'tha — an African prince, ° ^°^' who had murdered two heirs to the kingdom of Numidia in order to seat himself on its throne — brought to light the disgraceful fact that even senators and consuls would sell themselves for gold. One general made a dis- honorable peace, and another, with his whole army, passed under the yoke (§ 201). At this humiliating crisis, when neither great wealth nor noble birth escaped reproach Caius Ma'rius, a Latin farmer's son, was made consul and entrusted with the w^ar in Africa. Among his officers was Corne'lius Sul'la, a young patrician, of dissolute character, "•■■ The noble character of the Gracchi was due, in great measure, to their mother, Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Africanus. Their father died when they were very young, and Cornelia, refusing all the lures of ambition — among others a royal crown — devoted her- self to the training of her boys. She lived to see both of their young lives sacrificed for the good of their country ; and, though the Senate forbade her to mourn for them, a grateful people after- wards placed upon her tomb the proudest of inscriptions: ^'■Cornelia, tJie Mother of the Gracchi, '''' MARIUS AND SULLA. loi but great ability, to whose tact and bravery the capture of Jugurtha was due. That wily prince was starved to death in a Roman dungeon, B. C. io6. 221. Marius, in violation of the law, was reelected to the consulship five successive years. Italy was trembling at the approach of two great hordes of barbarians from beyond the Danube, who had destroyed a Roman army of 80,000 men at Arausio, on the Rhone, and now threatened the peninsula. The Teutones were to enter Italy from Roman Gaul, while the Cimbri were to pass through Switzerland and descend upon the Lombard plain to the eastward. Marius and Sulla hastened to meet them, and gained a victory at Aix, which ended in the total destruction of the Teutones. The next spring the Cimbri were defeated at Vercellae, and 60,000 captives were sent to the slave-markets of Rome. 222. The danger arising from so numerous and warlike a slave-class (§ 217) was already felt in Sicily. In the First Servile War (B. C. 134-132), 200,000 rebels were in arms; and the Second, which broke out B. C. 102, taxed for three years the best Roman generals. It was suppressed B. C. 99; but the masters did not soon forget their terror. 223. Another peril threatened Rome from her Italian allies, who, disappointed in the hope of full "Roman rights," which Caius Gracchus had wished to give them, formed a federal Republic by themselves, and defeated sev- eral armies which were sent to subdue them. Rome gained peace only by yielding to the just demands of the states. All the Italians were admitted to full Roman citizenship; the "Latin right" (§ 205) being reserved for Spaniards and other provincials — and so the "Social War" was ended. 224. A furious contest, which now arose between Marius and Sulla for the command in a war against Pontus, ended by making Sulla master of Rome and driving Marius into I02 THE ANCIENT WORLD. exile. But when Sulla had departed for the East, Marius returned. By capturing the corn-fleets from Sicily and Africa, he starved Rome into surrender, and R C 88 proceeded to massacre all who were opposed to him. But he died on the eighteenth day of his seventh consulship, and Sulla, returning with his victorious army, soon turned the tables. 225. In five campaigns he had brought the Pontic War to a triumphant conclusion, and had recovered the revolted provinces of Achaia, Macedonia, and Asia. He came laden with treasure and followed by a devotedly attached soldiery, with whom he many times defeated the ' ' Mari- ^' ans " and established a new Reign of Terror at Rome. Six thousand soldiers were massacred by his order; new "proscription-lists" were published every day, and the streets flowed with blood. 226. Sulla was made Dictator, with unlimited power; and he now tried, with some show of reason, to restore at once the simple virtues and the patrician rule which had belonged to the early days of the Republic. But, though aristocratic government was restored for a time, Roman virtue was dead ; and Rome, enslaved by luxury, could no longer hope to escape an outward servitude, whenever her master should appear. At the end of three years, Sulla suddenly resigned his power and retired to Puteoli, where he died, B. C. 78. 227. The Romans, though rich and luxurious, were hardly less brutal than the wolves whom tradition made their foster-brothers. Their favorite sport was to see the bravest of their captives fight with wild beasts, or butcher each other in the arena, "to make a Roman holiday." One of these "gladiators," named Spar'tacus, moved his comrades to revolt; they were joined by enslaved herdsmen from the mountains, so that their number rose, the first year, to 40,000, and the second, to VICTORIES OF POMPEY. 103 100,000 men. For two years they defeated all the armies of Rome, and convulsed all Italy with terror ; but jealousy divided their forces; Spartacus was defeated and slain by Cras'sus, and the remnant of his followers, attempting to escape northward, were met and destroyed by Pom'pey. 228. This general had been a favorite lieutenant of Sulla; and he had distinguished himself by conquering the remnant of the Marian party in Africa and R P fi-r Spain. He now received the consulship with Crassus. After its expiration he rendered yet more bril- liant services by sweeping the Mediterranean of Cilician pirates, who were ravaging all its coasts; by ending the wars with Pontus and placing that country, as well as Bithynia and Syria, under Roman rule. He captured Jeru- salem by a three months' siege, B. C. 63, and established Hyrca'nus as High Priest and ruler of the people. 229. Rome, meanwhile, barely escaped ruin from the corrupt elements within her borders. Cat'iline, a dissolute nobleman, plotted with comrades like himself to murder the consuls, overthrow the government, and assume control of affairs. Plans were laid with great skill and secrecy, and the wicked plot seemed likely to succeed; but, happily, it became known in time to Cic'ero, the great lawyer and orator, who was then consul, and by his prompt measures it was brought to naught. Catiline fell, fighting at the head of his legions, and most of his accomplices were put to death. Cicero was rewarded by the unbounded gratitude of his fellow-citizens, and by the title, "Father of his Country." 230. Pompey might now have been master of the Roman world; but, to avoid exciting alarm, he disbanded his army as soon as he set foot in Italy, and journeyed privately to Rome. In the triumph (§ 207, note) decreed him by the Senate, he was declared to have conquered 22 kings and 12,000,000 of people, and to have almost doubled the rev- I04 THE ANCIENT WORLD. enues of Rome. Nevertheless, the aristocracy, who had opposed his appointment in Asia, now refused to ratify his acts, or to give lands to his veteran soldiers. Pompey, though by birth and taste an aristocrat, had to ally himself with Ju'lius Cse'sar, the rising leader of the Marian party, in order to fulfill his pledges to his troops. 231. Crassus, on account of his great wealth, was ad- mitted as a partner in their plans; and the three formed the First Triiinivirate, which for several years ruled the Roman world. It was not a magis- tracy, but a private agreement — what, in modern times, would be called a "Ring." Caesar was made consul, and, by dividing the rich Campanian fields among the poorer citizens, satisfied the claims of Pompey's veterans. At the end of his term he chose the government of Gaul (§ 216) — the poorest and most turbulent of all the provinces. 232. Pompey and Crassus became consuls. When their year was out, Pompey went to Spain, and Crassus under- took a war with Parthia — now a vast empire reaching westward to the Euphrates — in the hope of increasing his wealth by the plunder of the Asiatic cities. But he suffered an overwhelming defeat near Car'rhae, and was treacherously murdered by a Parthian officer, B. C. 53. 233. By swiftness, energy, and good management, Caesar subdued the Gauls in eight campaigns, beside invading Britain and Germany. In choosing the most difficult of the provincial governments, he had especially wished to train an army which would enable him to carry forward the great scheme which he was maturing. He perceived that the mere city-government which had sufficed for Rome in her poorer days, was unfit for the almost world-wide dominion which she had now attained. He wished to civilize western Europe, give equal rights of Roman citizenship to all the provinces, and make one compact Empire out of so many scattered nationalities. C^SAR DICTATOR. 105 234. Pompey's friendship was now turned into jealousy and hatred, and with many powerful men at Rome he was plotting Cassar's destruction. The Senate ordered the whole army in Gaul to be disbanded on a certain day. Csesar's resolution was quickly taken. Crossing the little river Ru'bicon, which separated his ' ' '*^' province from Italy, he marched with his devoted legions upon Rome. Pompey retired into Greece; and the nobles following him organized a new Senate at Thessalonica. 235. Pompey was master of Spain, Africa, and the East- ern provinces, while Caesar had only Italy, Illyricum, and Gaul; but the wonderful energy of the latter turned the balance in his favor. His able policy soon restored order and confidence in Italy; then, by a toilsome but decisive campaign of forty days, he conquered the Pompeian party in Spain; and, returning to Rome only long enough to be elected consul and pass some laws giving relief to debtors and proscribed persons, he pressed on into Greece, where the great decisive combat took place at Pharsalia in Thes- saly. Pompey was defeated, and, fleeing into Egypt, was murdered by an officer of Ptolemy, B. C. 48. 236. His party rallied in great force in the province of Africa, but Caesar defeated them at Thapsus, where 50,000 Pompeians were left dead upon the field. Caesar was now the acknowledged head of the Roman world. The Senate declared him Dictator and Imperator* for life, with liberty to name his successor. His statues were placed in the temples, and his name was invoked in legal oaths like that of a god. Caesar used his power in a way that proved his genius to be even greater for govern- * This title had often been given by acclamation to successful generals ; it now acquired a special meaning equivalent to the mod- ern Emperor. Ccesar's name has also given to three great empires their title for the highest dignitary : Kaiser and Czar. lo6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ment than for war. Instead of the proscriptions and mas- sacres which had followed the return of Marius and Sulla (§§224, 225), amnesty to all was his policy. He seemed to have forgotten the injuries which he had personally received, and sought out men of merit in all parties to aid him in the restoration of order and prosperity. 237. He reformed the calendar, which had fallen into great confusion, and with such wisdom that it has needed only one slight amendment from his time to our own. He planned great works of public utility for Rome, while he equally studied the interests of every part of his vast em- pire. He rebuilt the cities of Corinth and Carthage, and founded many new colonies in Europe, Asia, and Africa, giving to all the people as nearly as possible the same privileges as to those of Italy. Yet all these works and many more were accomplished in the intervals of seven toilsome campaigns, which he conducted between his cross- ing the Rubicon and his death — a period of little more than five years. 238. Caesar still had bitter enemies, and they were joined by a i^\\ honest Republicans, who believed that the one- man power had destroyed Roman freedom. On the eve of his departure for Asia — where he meant to punish the Parthians for the fate of Crassus (§ 232) — Caesar was murdered in the Senate House. But though the Dictator was dead, the Romans were not free. It was easier to destroy one man's life than to restore to the nation the strong and simple character which had been the true foundation of the Republic. The conquests in the East had brought to Italy a crowd of Asiatics, who lowered the tone of Roman society; and, ever since ease and wealth had been regarded by the people at large as of more value than honesty and freedom, the Republic had been doomed. A new Tri- lunvirate (§ 231), composed of Mark An'tony, Lep'idus, DEFEAT OF ANTONY. 107 and Caesar Octavia'nus — nephew and heir of the great Dictator — soon divided the world between them. A pro- scription followed, in which 2,000 knights and 300 sena- tors — among the latter, Cicero, the Father of his Country — lost their lives. The last of Caesar's murderers were defeated at Philippi, 42 B. C, and ended their lives by suicide. 239. The Triumvirate was soon broken by the defection of Lepidus, and a quarrel between Antony and Octavian. Antony was enslaved by the arts of the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra (§ 174), on whom he bestowed Syrian territories which belonged to Rome, and for whose sake he forgot both duty and honor. In a great battle off Actium, he was deserted by many of his ' ' ^'' officers, and fled to Egypt, leaving the victory to Octa- vian. The next year he was again defeated at Alexandria, and in despair put an end to his own life. Cleopatra followed his example. Egypt was made a province of Rome, and the younger Caesar was now lord of the world. Point out, on Map 5, the provinces of Ccesar and of Pompey before the battle of Pharsalia, § 235. The site of Crassus' defeat, § 232. — Pharsalia, Thapsus, Philippi, Actium, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Numidia, the Danube, the Rhone, Arausio, Aquae Sextise (Aix), Vercellae, Puteoli, Thessalonica. Read Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire, For- syth's Life of Cicero, Coesar's Commentaries, and Mommsen's History of Rome, Vol. IV. CHAPTER XVI. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 'Al'-ViTxEC ArJu^li T II. III. IV. Gladiatorial Combats. HE history of Imperial Rome will be best under- stood if divided into four periods: I. Nominal Power of the Senate. B. A. D. 192. Tyranny of the Soldiers. A. D. 193-284. Absolute Imperialism. A. D. 284-395. Eastern and Western Empires Divided. C. 3 A. D. 395-476. 241. C^sar Octavianus is best known to history by his new title, Augus'tus. He carefully avoided all kingly show and parade, though he exercised more than kingly power : living in his private house on the Palatine hill, and walking the streets unattended, like any other citizen. The forms of the republic were still kept up. The people elected consuls, tribunes, etc., every year, but they always chose the persons proposed by Augustus; and at length these offices were, one by one, granted to him for life. The multitude were kept in good humor by a continual succession of games, and by liberal supplies of corn, wine, and oil, dealt out by the Imperator. The Senate passed all the laws which he introduced, and was treated in return with perfect respect. (108) \ BIRTH OF CHRIST. 109 242. Augustus boasted that he "found Rome of brick, and left it of marble." Commerce and all the industries flourished; the peace of the city was never broken during his reign; and so many great writers enjoyed his protec- tion, that the brightest period of every nation's literature is called, in allusion to them, its "Augustan Age." Among them were Vir'gil, Hor'ace, Ov'id, and other poets, and. Liv'y, the first Roman historian. 243. But the chief distinction of the age was little dreamed of by the brilliant circles at Rome. In the twenty-seventh year of Octavian's reign, the long promised Messi'ah was born at Bethlehem, in Judaea. Over His cross, thirty-six years later, men read the announcement, "This is the King of the Jews," written in JIcb?'€W, and Greek, and Latin: perhaps a hint of what was meant by the "fullness of times," when the three highest human types, thus far, had reached their perfection in Hebrew religion, Greek intelligence, and Roman law; and the world was waiting for the spiritual kingdom which was to outlast the glories of imperial Rome. 244. The Roman Empire now embraced the whole Med- iterranean, with its coasts and islands, from Sahara to the Rhine, Danube, and Euxine, and from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. Its 27 provinces were divided by Augustus between himself and the Senate. Those which were securely at peace were called Senatorial Provinces, and governed by proconsuls; those which needed the presence of an army were Imperial Provinces, managed by the emperor or his legates. The standing army, which kept this vast dominion in awe, consisted of 25 legions; each legion, in horse, foot, and artillery, numbered nearly 7,000 men. Beside these, the provinces furnished an equal number of auxiliary troops, so that the emperor had at his command not fewer than 350,000 soldiers. These do not include the "City Cohorts," an armed police, who THE ANCIENT WORLD. kept order in Rome, nor the 10,000 Praetorian Guards, who protected the person of the emperor. 245. The only miHtary disaster of Augustus' reign was the destruction of three legions in Germany, putting an end to Roman conquests north of the Rhine. ' ^ The victor was Her'man — the Romans called him Armin'ius — the first great champion of German inde- pendence. Modern Germany has lately honored him by a colossal statue on the site of his great victory. 246. Augustus died, A. D. 14, and the Senate conferred his titles upon his adopted son, Tibe'rius, The army would gladly have crowned German'icus, its favorite general, the nephew and adopted son of Tiberius, but Germanicus re- fused the honor. The new emperor never forgave him for being more beloved than himself: he recalled him from Germany, when he was on the point of reconquering it, and sent him to the East, where he was probably poi- soned by order of the emperor. Tiberius was suspicious of all abler and better men than himself; but as he could not govern alone, he raised a low-lived man named Seja'nus to the post of praetorian praefect, and committed the empire to his disposal. 247. The new laws of Tiberius destroyed the last remains of popular government in Rome. He assumed the right to put any person to death without trial; and placed on the list of capital crimes words or even thoughts unfavorable to himself. At length he detected Sejanus in a plot against his life, and, with the just execution of that minister, he lost the only man whom he ever trusted. Thenceforth the best and noblest persons in Rome fell victims of his jeal- ousy; and the world breathed more freely when it heard of the sudden death of Tiberius, A. D. 37. 248. Army and people gladly united in putting the purple robe upon Caius Caesar, the only surviving son of Ger- manicus; In his childhood he had been the pet of his THE LAST OF THE CALSARS. Ill father's soldiers, and, from the little military boots which he wore to please them, he acquired the nickname Calig'ula, which has always clung to him. He began well, but, soon spoiled by too much power and wealth, he became the maddest of tyrants. He demanded to be worshiped as a god; he rejoiced in the death-agonies of victims slain for his amusement, and wished that all the Roman people had only one head, that he might chop it off at a single blow ! 249. After four years, Caius was murdered by his guards, and his uncle Clau'dius, a weak old man, became emperor. His reign is chiefly marked by the evil deeds of his wives, Mes'sali'na and Ag'rippi'na. The latter persuaded him to disinherit his own son, and name hers by a former marriage as his heir; then poisoned him, to make way for the accession of Ne'ro. 250. Nero's tutor was Sen'eca, a wise and upright phi- losopher; but as soon as the new Caesar was old enough to assume power for himself, he proved a wicked tyrant. He murdered his mother, his wife, and the best of his ministers and generals. He is said to have ordered the kindling of a fire which destroyed two thirds of Rome; but he charged it upon the Christians, multitudes of whom were burnt to death as a punishment. To do him justice, he rebuilt Rome on a greatly improved plan, both for health and safety. Instead of narrow, crooked streets, there were ample thoroughfares; and every house had an abundant supply of water. 251. At length Roman patience was exhausted by the vanity and tyranny of Nero ; and Galba was chosen to succeed him. Knowing that resistance would be vain, Nero killed himself, and with him ended the descendants — even by adoption — of the great Julius, though the names of Ccesar and Augustus were retained as titles by all succeeding emperors. After three short reigns, each ended by violence, the general, Vespa'- 112 THE ANCIENT WORLD. sian, assumed the purple robe of Augustus, and soon restored order and prosperity to the Empire. Rome was adorned by the Colise'um and the Temple of Peace; Britain submitted to Roman rule; and the Jewish War of Independence was ended by the capture and destruction of Jerusalem. 252. Vespasian was succeeded by his son Ti'tus, the conqueror of Jerusalem. He was a brave and able soldier; but his earlier years had been so stained by cruelty and excesses that the people feared they were to have another Nero for their ruler. On the death of his father, how- ever, Titus sent away all his bad associates, and set him- self diligently to the duties of his high place. During his short reign of little more than two years, he did all that wise liberality could do to repair the calamities of fire, pes- tilence, and earthquake, which afflicted Rome. It was at this time that Herculaneum and Pom- peii, beautiful Campanian towns, were suddenly destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. Domi'tian, a brother of Titus, was the next emperor. He proved himself a morose and cruel tyrant, and was murdered by his guards, A. D. 96. 253. Five good emperors, — NerVa, Tra'jan, Ha'drian, and the two An'tonines, — followed in turn. Trajan (A. D. 98-117) was not only a great general, but a wise, just, and painstaking ruler. He carefully studied all causes which were brought before him; wrote letters to the pro- vincial governors to aid them in difficult cases; lightened the taxes, and yet managed so well as to have means for many useful works. The emperors had hitherto respected the dying advice of Augustus, to regard the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (§244) as the limits of their dominion. Trajan, however, conquered Dacia, Armenia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia. The first continued to be a Roman province, guarded by colonies and forts; but the Asiatic conquests were surrendered by Hadrian. MAP No. VI. (Copyri^/tt, 1S77, by verp, Mrui'ff gr Co.) JI. Chandler, le. REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS. 1 13 254. During a peaceful reign of 20 years, Hadrian vis- ited every part of his great empire, which is said to have been better governed at this period than ever before or since. Peace and prosperity continued, how- ever, during the 23 years which followed, un- . 13 i i- der T. Aure'lius Antoni'nus, the first emperor who especially protected the Christians. Mar'cus Aure'lius, the adopted son and successor of Antoninus, was one of the best char- acters whom History has portrayed; but his reign was marked by many calamities. Parthians on the East, and Germans on the West, overran the Empire, while 43 years of peace had unfitted the legions for the toils of war. The only exception to the justice and gentleness of the emperor was his persecution of the Christians. This was owing to the bigoted Stoics who were his chief advisers, and who could not bear to see their boasted virtues sur- passed by even the humblest disciples of Christ. The venerable bishop, Pol'ycarp, a friend and disciple of St. John, suffered a martyr's death at Smyrna, A. D. 167; and ten years later the churches of Vienne and Lyons, in France, were subjected to frightful massacres. Aurelius labored unceasingly, and often with success, to repel the invaders of his empire, and it was during a war with a German tribe that he died at Vienna, on the Danube, A. D. 180. 255. His only son, Commo'dus, was already associate- emperor, at the age of 17. He was one of the worst of the tyrants; and, under his weak and dissolute reign, the very foundations of order and peace seemed broken up. Soldiers obeyed no one, but plundered and ravaged Roman territories at their pleasure, while citizens lived in lazy luxury, unmindful of the poverty which was creeping over the world. Trace, upon Map 5, the boundaries of the Roman Empire under Augustus. Under Trajan. Read Merivale and Josephus. Hist. — 10. CHAPTER XVII. ROMAN EMPIRE, — CONTINUED. HERE followed a dis- graceful time when the Praetorian Guards set up and put down em- perors at their will, even once selling the crown at public auction ! The le- gions on the borders (§ 244) thought they had a still better right to dictate; and three rival generals were at once proposed as masters of the Roman world. Septim'ius Seve'rus was the successful — candidate; and he proved one Roman Lady and Servant. of ^^e ablest of the emperorS. In a war with the Parthians, he took their capital, Ctes'- iphon, by storm, and added, not only Mesopotamia, but a large tract east of the Tigris, to the dominions of Rome. He replaced the old Praetorians with 40,000 troops chosen from the legions, and made their chief, the praetorian praefect, the most powerful perso-n in the world, next to the emperor. Severus made war, in per- son, against the Caledonians, in the north-western ex- tremity of his empire, and died at York, the Roman capital of Britain, A. D. 211. 257. His two sons reigned together for a year, but Car'acaria, the elder, then murdered his brother, and, ("4) ALEXANDER SEVER US. 115 goaded by a guilty conscience, made the whole world suffer five years from his agonies of remorse. He put to death 20,000 persons on the pretext that they were his brother ^'Ge'ta's friends." The only good act recorded of this wretched prince is the gift of full Roman citizen- ship to all the inhabitants of the Empire. Very likely this was done only to simplify his tax-rolls; but it had the im- portant effect of making the protection of Roman law the equal right of every person. 258. Macri'nus, the murderer and successor of Caracalla, was himself defeated and slain by the armies of Elagab'alus, a Syrian boy of fourteen years, whom the armies in the East had been bribed to acknowledge as their emperor. In his infancy he had been made a priest of the Sun; and the worship of Baal was now placed at Rome above that of Jupiter himself. Old Roman worship, however mistaken in its objects, had at least been decorous and solemn. Elagabalus added to the disgust inspired by his gluttony and drunkenness, by profaning every thing that the Romans held sacred. At last he was murdered by the praetorians, A. D. 222. 259. His cousin, Alexander Severus, a very different character, was gladly acknowledged by both army and Senate as their chief. His blameless life and noble aims promised happiness to the Empire. Good men were called to the highest offices, the public money was honestly spent, and the Senate was respected as in the days of Augustus. A great revolution had taken place in Asia. The Parthian Empire (§§169, 232) was now overthrown by the new Persian monarchy of the Sassan'idse, who aimed to govern all the provinces of Darius the Great (§ 51). Alexander met the new Artaxerxes and defeated him on a plain east of the Euphrates. Then, returning to the West, he set out for a campaign in Germany, but was slain in a mutiny of his troops, A. D. 235. Il6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 260. It is needless to name all the puppet-chiefs who were set up in turn by the soldiers — now a Thracian peasant, now an African proconsul, now a child of twelve years — each one sure to be deposed and slain as soon as the whim or resentment of his masters called for a change. Under De'cius, the second great persecution ■ ^'*^"^^'' of Christians took place ; and the bishops of Rome, Antioch, and Jerusalem were among the martyrs. Decius fell in battle with the Goths — one of the most powerful German tribes — who were ravaging the country south of the Danube. 261. Vale'rian (A. D. 254-260), the bravest and ablest of this series of emperors, had to struggle against count- less hordes of barbarians from the north, and against the rising power of Persia in the east (§258). At last he was made prisoner by Sa'por, the Persian king, in a great battle near the Euphrates, and spent the rest of his days in a cruel captivity at the Persian court. Various fragments of the Roman Empire set up independent gov- ernments under many chiefs, known in general as the "Thirty Tyrants." 262. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) reunited the Roman dominions, defeated the pretenders to sovereignty within, and the hostile barbarians beyond, its limits; and ex- tended one victorious empire again from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. Several of his successors were wise and good men; but their reigns were short and usually ended by violence, until the dangerous power of the legions was overthrown by Diocle'tian, A. D. 284. 263. Period III. Perceiving that the Roman dominion was too large to be well governed by a single sovereign, Diocletian shared his title of Augustus with his friend Max- im'ian. A few years later each emperor adopted a son and successor, who bore the title of Caesar during his adoptive father's lifetime, and was especially charged with PERSECUTION OF THE CJIRISTTANS. 117 the defense of the frontiers. Ahuost every province needed the presence of a great army, so fierce and constant were the attacks of barbarians. Diocletian had his capital at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor; Maximian, his at Milan, in northern Italy; while the Caesar Constan'tius fixed his head-quarters at York (§ 256), and the Caesar Gale'rius at Sirmium, on the Danube. 264. The succession being thus regularly provided for, the soldiers lost their power of dictating the choice of new emperors. The removal of the government from Rome, destroyed the influence of the Senate. The emperor's edict had all the force of law ; and instead of veiling his power under simple, citizen-like manners, he now assumed the state of an eastern monarch, and could only be ap- proached with ceremonies of reverence. 265. The religion taught by Christ and His Apostles had now reached every portion of the Empire ; and, in those times of ruin and corruption, Christians were known as the most orderly, industrious, and worthy members of any community. Nevertheless, for their refusal to worship the emperor's image, they were subjected to a horrible persecution. In 303, A. D., Diocletian published an edict ordering the destruction of all their churches and sacred books, and the death of all persons who presumed to hold secret meetings for worship. The passions of envy and hatred were let loose, and every soil was wet with innocent blood. 266. In 305, A. D., Diocletian, weary of power, laid aside his crown, and compelled Maximian to do the same. Some years of contention followed, during which the Roman world had at one time six masters, then four, then two, and finally only one, who was Con'stantine', son of Con- stantius. This great general had always esteemed the virtues and protected the lives of the Christians so far as he was able, even in times of persecution. He was now Il8 THE ANCIENT WORLD. to do more. On his march into Italy it is said that he saw a flaming cross in the heavens, with the inscription : By this, conquer! He adopted the emblem as his standard, and soon gained two victories over Maxentius, ■ ^'^' son of Maximian, which gave him the posses- sion of Rome and all Italy. 267. As soon as his power was established in the East, Constantine issued a circular-letter to all his subjects, ad- vising them to follow his example and become Christians. Though pagans were allowed the free exercise of their religion, Christianity became, in an important sense, the religion of the Empire. The first general Council of Christian bishops was convened by Constantine at Nice, in Bithynia, A. D. 325. 268. On the ruins of old Byzantium, Constantine built a new capital of the world, which he called New Rome, but which bears in history his own name — Constantinople, the city of Constantine. The last trace of the republican forms, so carefully cherished by Augustus, had now van- ished; and Constantine's court was a gorgeous assemblage of officials, whose ceremonious behavior rivaled the homage paid to Xerxes or Darius. He created three new ranks of nobles throughout the Empire, to whom the nobility of modern Europe may trace their titles. 269. A standing army of 645,000 men was now con- stantly maintained (see § 244) ; but, as Roman citizens were no longer of the same stuff with the followers of Decius and Fabius, great numbers of barbarians were received into the pay of the emperor. Nothing could so have shown the weakness of Rome as thus to arm her late enemies and future conquerors. Beside multitudes of Franks in the imperial armies, 300,000 Sarmatians were received as vas- sals of the Empire, and settled in Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy. • JULIAN THE APOSTATE. 119 270. Upon the death of Constantine, A. D. 337, his three sons divided the empire between them and put to death all their relatives, excepting two cousins. Within a few years, Con'stans and Constantine II. were slain in war, and Constan'tius II., the " ^^°' surviving brother, reigned over the whole Roman world. He had a long and calamitous war with the Persians, who defeated the Roman armies in nine pitched battles, and extended their raids westward to the Mediterranean. 271. His cousin Ju'lian was, meanwhile, commanding, with great ability, near the Rhine, where he gained im- portant victories over the Germans. Constantius, jealous of his fame, ordered the greater part of Julian's army to the East. The soldiers in Gaul mutinied at this unjust command, and proclaimed their beloved general Emperor. The Senates of Athens and Rome confirmed their choice. Before the two cousins could meet in arms, Constantius died, A. D. 361, and Julian was every-where received with joyful acclamations. 272. He reduced the luxury of the court, and declared himself the "Servant of the Republic." But Julian was a pagan, chiefly, perhaps, because the kinsmen who had murdered all his family, called themselves Christians. He publicly renounced Christianity, placing himself and his dominions under the protection of the "immortal gods." After sixteen months' reign he died in war with the Per- sians, and his successor, Jovian, restored Christian worship and universal tolerance, A. D. 363. Trace, upon Map 5, the wars of Septimius Severus. Point out the four capitals of Diocletian's empire. The new capital of Constantine. Gibbon's "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire" is the great authority from the time of the Antonines. For a very interesting account of the Nicene Council, read Stanley's "Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church." CHAPTER XVIII. THE NORTHERN BARBARIANS. D URING these last years of the Roman Empire in the West, the main interest centers upon the swarms of free warriors who were pressing down upon it from the plains of central and northern Europe. Though rude in their ways of living, these people — with the ex- ception of one tribe, soon to be mentioned — belonged to the same Indo-Germanic race (§ 6) with the Greeks and Romans; they had much of the same capacity for art, science, literature, and gov- Captives in War. emment ; and they were able to appreciate and admire in the Roman cities the proofs of a civilization far beyond what they had yet been able to create. One of their great chiefs declared that he would rather renew and perpetuate the fame of Rome by Gothic strength, than found a new Gothic Empire of which he himself should be the Caesar Augustus. 274. With such feelings many Germans had enlisted in the Roman armies, even in the first days of the Empire; and, after the time of Constantine, the ''barbarians" con- stituted the great body of the legions. These gigantic warriors were far braver and hardier than the people of (120) THE GOTHS AND THE HUNS. I2I the south ; and their virtues often put Romans to shame. As soldiers they were faithful to the emperors who em- ployed them ; but this did not prevent their free country- men from being the terror of the declining Empire. The principal German tribes were the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, Saxons, and Burgundians. 275. As early as the reign of Valerian (§ 261), the Franks and Alemanni had overrun Gaul, Italy, and Spain, and had crossed the straits into Africa. The Goths had built fleets from the woods near the Danube, with which they sailed along the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, plundering and burning many cities, among others Ephesus, Corinth, and Athens. Western Europe was, meanwhile, afflicted by swarms of Saxon pirates, while Roman Britain was ravaged by the Picts and Scots. The emperor Val- entin'ian — the successor of Jovian — and his great general, Theodo'sius, gained important victories over the western marauders. 276. The Gothic kingdom of Her'manric now extended from the Danube and Euxine to the Baltic; but, under the reigns of Valentinian in the west, and his brother Va'lens in the east, the Huns, a new race of savages — more fierce, hideous, and terrible than had yet been seen — appeared from Asia and conquered the Ostro- goths, north of the Black Sea. Their brethren, the Western Goths, or Visigoths, begged the protection of the Roman emperor in the East. Valens gave them lands; and a million of men, women, and children crossed the Danube. But the Roman officers, appointed to receive and feed this hungry crowd, were so false to their trust that the Goths were driven to revolt. In a great battle near Hadrianople, Valens and two-thirds of his army were slain. 277. His successor, Theodosius, being called to interfere in western Europe in behalf of the sons of Valentinian, united the whole Roman dominion for the last time under Hist. -II. THE ANCIENT WORLD. one sovereign. This great emperor well deserved to be called '^Theodosius the Great." He made friends of the Goths by settling colonies of them in Thrace and Asia Minor. He put an end to pagan worship in every part of the Empire, demolishing the temples or turning them into Christian churches. Yet, by one act of needless cruelty he incurred the displeasure of the famous Arch- bishop Ambrose of Milan, and was forbidden to enter a church until he had publicly confessed his guilt. Theo- dosius submitted, and, after eight months, was restored to his standing as a Christian. 278. Upon his death, A. D. 395, the Empire was divided between his sons Arca'dius and Hono'rius ; and the East and the West were never again united except in name. Al'aric, king of the Visigoths, was placed at the head of the imperial armies in the East, and we can not tell whether it was as Gothic king or Roman general that he three times invaded the dominions of Honorius. The first time (A. D. 400-403), he was defeated and driven back by Stil'icho, the guardian and minister of the young emperor; five years later he advanced to Rome, and only withdrew on receiving an enormous ransom, after thousands of its citizens had died of famine or pestilence; the third time, the "eternal city" was actually taken and given up for six days to plunder and massacre. The spoils of Asia, brought home by Sulla, Pompey, and others, from their great campaigns, fell into the hands of the barbarians. Alaric died during his retreat from Rome. 279. His brother-in-law, Adol'phus, who succeeded him, founded the new kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain. Nearly at the same time the Vandals conquered Roman Africa; the Franks settled themselves in northern, and the Burgundians in eastern France. Britain was left to be con- quered by the Saxons and kindred tribes from Germany. FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 123 280. The Roman generals were called to fight with At'tila, king of the Huns, a monster so hideous and hith- erto so irresistible, that he was known to the terror-stricken world of his time as the Scourge of God. He had rapidly built up a kingdom extending from the Rhine to the Volga, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic; and a host of subject chiefs served in his army of 700,000 men. In a great battle at Chalons, he was completely over- thrown by the combined force of Romans and Goths. Within two years he had collected a fresh horde of barbarians, with which he ravaged northern Italy and threatened Rome; but a sudden death ended his career. 281. A series of crimes and quarrels at court, drew the Vandals into Italy. They plundered Rome fourteen days, and sailed away to Carthage laden with all the treasure which the Goths had left. They conquered the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, from which they could easily descend at any time upon the Italian coasts. After half a dozen insignificant emperors had been set up and put down by the German chiefs of the army, Rom'ulus Augus'tulus, a harmless boy, became the last of the Roman Emperors of the West. But the Goths wanted to be paid for their services by one-third of all the lands in Italy. Being refused, they deposed Augustulus, and conferred sovereign power upon their own chief, Odo'acer. 282. The Roman Senate now sent the purple robe and diadem, which had been worn by Augustulus, to Ze'no, emperor of the East, acknowledging that Constantinople was the seat of government for all the world, but requesting that Odoacer might fule Italy with the title of Patrician. Trace the boundaries of Hefmanric's kingdom ; of Attila's. Site of Attila's defeat. Settlements of Goths, Franks, Vandals, Bur- gundians, Saxons. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.— BOOK I. 1. How are men divided in their manner of living ? 2. What are the main divisions of History? 3. Describe the three great families of mankind and their earliest settlements. 4. The character and history of the Chaldceans. 5. Name the greatest Assyrian kings and their doings. 6. Describe Media and the Medes. 7. The Babylonians and their greatest king. 8. Phoenician commerce, government, and history. 9. Name four Syrian nations. 10. Give some account of the nations in Asia Minor. 11. Tell the story of the Israelites before Saul. 12. Describe the three kings of all Israel. 13. The two Hebrew kingdoms after their separation. 14. The Jews under Persian rule. 15. The characters of the Medes and Persians. 41 16. The career of Cyrus. 17. Of Cambyses and his successor. 18. The history and dominion of Darius I. 19. The career of Xerxes. 20. Sketch the History of Persia under his successors. 21. Describe the fall of the Persian Empire. 22. Africa and the Nile. 23. Who settled Egypt? 24. Describe Egyptian arts and religion. 67, 73-75 25. The different castes or ranks. 26. Sketch their history. 27. The history of Carthage ; its government, etc. 28. Of what race and character were the Greeks ? 29. Name some of the heroes and their doings. 30. Describe the manners and religion of the early Greeks. 31. Their migrations and changes of govei'nment. (124) Section I, 2 6, 7 7, 8 9-15 16 17-21 22-25 26 27-29 30-32 33-35 36-38 39, 40 62-64 42-45 45-47 48-52 53-55 56-59 59-61 65 7, 66 79, 80 76-78 68-72 81-84 85-88 90-92 93-99 100, lOI QUESTIONS— BOOK I. 1 25 32. What bonds of union among the Greeks ? 2,Z- Describe Spartan character and customs. 34. Name some early wars of Sparta. 35. Describe the Athenians and their first two lawgivers. 36. The Tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons. 37. How were future tyrannies guarded against? 38. Describe the Persian invasions of Greece. 52-55, 39. Tell something of Pausanias, Cimon, Themistocles. 40. The story of Pericles. 41. Of Alcibiades and the fall of Athens. 42. What can you tell of Socrates ? 43. How was the Corinthian War ended > 44. Describe the rise and fall of Theban supremacy. 45. How did Greece become subject to Macedon ? 46. Why was the poetry of Greece older than its prose? 47. What can you tell of Homer? 94, 48. Of Hesiod and his works? 49. Name some great lyric poets. 50. Describe the theatre at Athens, and name four masters of dramatic writing. 51. The greatest Greek historians. 52. Describe three schools of Greek philosophy. 53. What can you tell of Plato and Aristotle? 54. What can you say of Greek architecture and sculpture? 55. Name some of the most celebrated works. 56. Tell the story of Alexander. 57. How was his empire divided after his death ? 58. Describe the Syrian kingdom, and some of its kings. 59. What new dominions arose in the East? 60. Who were the Maccabees ? 61. Describe Ptolemy I, and his successors. 62. What became of Macedonia and Greece? 63. Who and what were the Romans? 64. Name the Roman kings. 65. Describe the government of the Republic. 66. The religion of the Romans. 67. The patrician and plebeian contests. 191 -194 68. The Gallic invasion. 69. The Samnites. 70. Tell two stories of the Latin War. 71. Describe the Samnite Wars. 102- 104 106- 108 109 110- - 112 "3 114 115- -117 119- - 122 123- -127 130- -133 134, 154 135 136, 137 138, 140 142, 143 100, 144 145 146, 147 148, 149 150, 151 152, 153 154, 155 > 156 157- -159 160- -166 167 168, 169 169 171 172- -174 176- -178 179, 180 181 182- -185 186- -189 196, 197 195 198 199, 200 201, 202 126 Q UES TIONS.—B O OK I. 'J2. What was done with lands conquered from the ^tqui 73. Tell the story of Pyrrhus. 74. Describe Roman colonies and provinces. 205, 75. How did Rome become a maritime power? 76. Describe the career of Hannibal. 77. The last Punic War. 78. What was done with Greece and Spain ? 79. Describe the dangers of Rome, and the efforts of the Gracchi. 80. Tell the history of Marius and Sulla. 81. Describe the Gladiator's War. 82. The Conspiracy of Catiline. ^T). The history of Pompey. 84. Of Julius Caesar. 85. Of Crassus. 86. Of Caesar Octavianus. 87. What change of government did he make? 88. Describe his three successors. 89. The character and reign of Nero. 90. Vespasian and his sons. 91. Describe the reigns of the "Five Good Emperors." 92. The state of the empire under Commodus. 93. "What were the Praetorian Guards? 94. Tell the history of Septimius Severus and liis sons. 95. What contrast between Elagabalus and his successor? 96. What calamities mark the reign of Valerian ? 97. Describe his successors. 98. What changes were made by Diocletian ? 99. Tell the history of Constantine. 100. Of his sons and nephew. loi. What emperors persecuted Christians ? 250, 254, 102. Name and describe the chief German tribes. 103. Describe Attila and his Huns. 104. Theodosius the Great, and the divisions of the Empire. 105. The Goths and Vandals in Italy. 106. Who settled in England ; in France ; in Spain ; in northern Africa? 107. What disposal was made of the Western Roman Empire ? 203 204 209, 244 206 - 208 210-214 215 216 217-219 220-226 227 229 228-235 230-238 231, 232 238-245 241-244 246 - 249 250, 251 252 253. 254 255 244, 256 256, 257 258, 259 261 262 263 - 266 266 - 269 270-272 260, 265 273-275 276, 280 277, 278 278, 281 279 282 BOOK II.— MEDIEVAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 283. When the empire of the Caesars was falling into the hands of barbarians, and Rome itself — the Eternal City — was plundered by Goths and Vandals, most people thought the end of the world had come. The old world had, indeed, passed away: the magnificence of Persia, the learning of Egypt, the brilliancy of Greece, the majesty of Rome were all in the past; but out of the northern forests had come the founders of new nations, who now possess Europe and America, India and Australia, and many islands of which Rome never dreamed. 284. Mediaeval history covers the thousand years from the time when the barbarian Odoacer became king of Italy to the time when the present system of European nations was established. It is to be studied in two parts : the first six hundred years, when the destructive passions of men were in ascendency, are called the Dark Ages; the last four hundred, when the tendencies to order and civilization had gained strength, are called the Middle Ages. 285. Even in the Dark Ages some powerful civilizing agencies were at work. Most of the barbarians in south- ern Europe were Christians, and held the clergy in great respect. They also admired the Roman slAl in govern- ment, and gladly availed themselves of the services of Roman officials. So it came to pass that most of the (127) 1 2 8 INTR OD UC TION. cities in Gaul, Spain, and Italy kept their Greek or Roman charters, with their bishops for chief magistrates ; and that life in these cities was, for a time, as orderly and secure as it had been in the days of the Empire. Learning had almost wholly disappeared from among the laity; the clergy alone could read and write, and pos- sessed the universal Latin language which was used in dealings between the several nations. They framed laws, negotiated treaties, kept the records of public events, and executed missions to foreign kings. The education of young chiefs was entrusted to them; and their influence did not cease when their pupils had grown to manhood. Thus the power of the Church rose rapidly upon the ruins of imperial Rome. It was, indeed, the only power which could hold in check the proud and passionate con- querors; and the "Dark Ages" would have been darker still, but for the lights of reason and piety which the churches kept alive. Many men of superior talents with- drew from the turmoil of public life into monasteries, where they gave themselves to study and devotion. All that was left of the treasures of ancient learning was gathered within these convent walls, and the industry of the monks multiplied copies of the old manuscripts, which afford our only means of knowing the thoughts of the Greek and Roman writers. PART I.— The Dark Ages. CHAPTER SETTLEMENTS OF THE NORTHERN TRIBES. T the end of the fifth century from the birth of Christ, the western European nations may already be traced in their rude beginnings. The heathen Angles and Saxons were crowd- ing the Celtic Britons into the mountain-region of Wales, and giving its present name to Eng- land. They learned Christian doctrines a hundred years later from Roman missionaries, and taught them to their heathen brethren on the continent. The A Prankish Warrior. continental SaxOHS OCCUpied most of the land between the lower Rhine and the Baltic. 287. The Alema72m possessed southern Germany and part of Switzerland, while the Biirgimdians had the valley of the Rhone and the Swiss lakes. The Frajiks held the country between the Loire and the Rhine. Chlodwig or Clo'vis, their chief, gained many victories over the Ale- manni, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths, and made himself king of nearly all France. His wife, Clotil'da, was a Christian; and Clovis, though a pagan, was so {129) 130 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. impressed by her faith that he called upon "Clotilda's God," at the turning point of a battle. He gained the victory, A. D. 496, and, with thousands of his warriors, was immediately baptized. The Eastern emperor sent him the purple robe and diadem of a consul, making him a lieutenant of the Empire. The descendants of Clovis, though often divided by fierce contentions, ruled the countries which are now Belgium, Western Germany, and a great part of France, for more than two hundred years. 288. One powerful Gothic kingdom occupied Spain (§279) and south-western Gaul; another, under Theod'- oric, king of the Ostrogoths, embraced Italy and the lands between the Adriatic and the Danube. This great chief had been a hostage at Constantinople during his youth; and the education which he there received added the quick intelligence of the Greek to the rude energy of the Goth. He learned, also, a profound respect for the imperial system of laws, and his firm rule of thirty-three years was a happy time for Italy. Two . 493-52 . consuls, one chosen by himself and one by the emperor of the East, kept up the ancient forms of government. All religions were protected, and, though the Goths held one-third of the lands and formed a kind of military aristocracy, they paid an equal share of the taxes, and respected all the rights of their Italian neigh- bors. Theodoric was the greatest German monarch of his time; the chiefs of the other nations referred their differ- ences to him and regarded him as their head. 289. In the confusion that followed Theodoric's death, the Eastern emperor interfered, and, in spite of a long and brave resistance from the Goths, made Italy a subject- province. But a new German race, the Lombards, or Long-Beards, soon appeared and overran the whole penin- sula, which was afterwards divided among their thirty THE LOMBARDS. 131 dukes. Rome, Ravenna, Naples, and some other cities still remained subject to the Empire, while the Lombards ruled the rest with Pavia for their capital. The great northern plain of Italy still bears their name. The Lom- bards were a fierce and cruel race, never mingling in a friendly manner with the Italians, as the Goths had done. Still, they became educated, in the course of years, by contact with wiser and better people than themselves; so that the system of laws published by their king, Rotharis, in 643 A. D., was the best of all the barbarian codes. It was founded upon the ancient customs of the German tribes, but it borrowed some of its best features from the Roman laws, and especially from the Bible. 290. All the tribes hitherto described were Germans: west of them was a narrow border of Celts in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and north-western France; while eastward were the Slavonians, far more numerous, though less warlike, than the Germans — fathers of the modern Poles, Bohemians, Bulgarians, Illyrians, and a very large proportion of the Russians. Point out, on Map 4, the settlements of the German tribes. The Lombard capital of Italy. The Italian cities which belonged to the Eastern Empire. The dominions of the Slavonians and Celts. Read Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Parke Godwin's History of France ; and Hallam's Middle Ages. CHAPTER II. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. Byzantine Priest. HOUGH the emperor at Constan- tinople still called himself lord of all the countries which Augustus or Trajan had ruled, and though the German chiefs acknowledged him their superior (§ 281), his actual dominion was but little more extensive than that of the modern Turks. 292. During the sixth century the great- est emperor was Justin'ian, ' ^^'' ^ ^' the grandson of a Gothic farmer. He had fierce and costly wars with Persia, and obtained peace at last only by paying tribute to the Sassanidae (§ 259). His military glory is all due to his great generals, Belisa'rius and Nar'ses. The former conquered northern Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica from the Vandals (§279); Sicily and all Italy from the Goths (§ 288). Theodoric's king- dom fell, sixty years from its foundation. Italy, Africa, and the islands were then governed by exaixhs, or lieuten- ants of the Empire, one having his seat at Carthage and one at Ravenna. Narses, who had an important part in the conquest of the Goths, was exarch of Ravenna four- teen years. 293. Justinian is noted for the splendid buildings with which he adorned his capital, among which the Church of Santa Sophia was said to surpass the Temple of Solo- mon. But his best title to fame is in the legislative work (132) LAWS OF JUSTINIAN. 133 which afforded a model of civil law for all the nations of Europe. The ablest jurists, under his direction, compared the decisions of all the best judges since the preparation of the Twelve Tables (§ 194). These, when edited, formed the Pandects. The Code was an abridgment of the acts of all the emperors since Hadrian. The Institutes set forth the elementary principles of law, and afforded a text-book to the great law-schools of Rome, Athens, Beirut, and Constantinople. 294. By the wars of Herac'lius, one of the greatest of Justinian's successors (A. D. 610-641), the Persian Empire was overthrown, but the same emperor saw the rise of a new and greater power in the East, which will be described in the next chapter. Leo III. is called the second founder of the Eastern Empire. His brilliant defense of the cap- ital against the Saracens, saved it from destruction, while his firm and wise government gave it a new era of security. His subjects were the most prosperous people of that age. The commerce of Europe with ' " ^^^ ''^^' Asia had its center at Constantinople, and the cities of central and eastern Asia were then far more flourishing than now. Leo's attempt to put down the worship of images led to a violent contest, both in the East and in Italy, and was a chief cause of the separation between the Greek and Roman churches. 295. The Macedonian Dynasty, of which Basil I. was the founder, governed the Empire nearly 200 years, and, in 867 A. D., raised- it to its highest military fame by wars with the Saracens, Russians, and Bulgarians. Basil II. was the greatest of the imperial generals. Trace, on Map 5, the conquests of Belisarius. Point out the capitals of the two Exarchates (§ 292). Justinian's capital. Read Gibbon, and Finlay^s "History of the Byzantine Empire.'' CHAPTER III. Saracens. THE SARACENS. ROM the sandy deserts of Arabia a power had now arisen, which threatened to subdue and govern the whole extent of the Roman dominion. Moham'med, an Ara- bian camel-driver, in his journeys from Mecca to Damascus, met travelers from all nations. He had the wit to perceive that all the old religions were dead, while the Christian church was weakened and divided by the war against images; and he conceived the bold idea of replacing all the creeds by the worship of One God, of whom he himself was to be the prophet. 297. His own tribe, however, were so angry at his pre- tensions, that they vowed to kill the self-appointed prophet. He fled to Medina, where he soon had a pow- erful party; and from this flight (Hegira) his followers still date their history. Within seven years, all Arabia submitted to be not only taught, but governed by Mohammed. He claimed to have received from the Arch- angel Gabriel a volume containing the decrees of God. These he made known only in fragments to his disciples, who wrote them on palm-leaves or on bits of bone. After his death they were collected and published in the Koran. 298. He now commenced a wonderful career of con- quest, A. D. 629. All who would not believe in his (134) A. D. 622. SARACENS IN THE WEST. 135 mission were subjected to tribute or death. The bravery of his followers was sharpened by reHgious zeal. They were told that the moment of every man's death is written in the Book of Fate. At that moment he will fall dead, wherever he may be; until it comes, he is safe in the fiercest storm of battle. 299. In less than a hundred years the successors of Mo- hammed had conquered Persia, Syria, Egypt, northern Africa, and Spain. Alexandria was twice re-taken by the Greek armies and fleets, after it had submitted to the Moslem force, but it was twice re-captured, and its library, containing inestimable treasures of ancient literature, was destroyed. Constantinople was more fortunate. It was twice besieged by the Moslem, once for seven years (A. D. 668-675), ^"^ again for thirteen months; but it was saved by Greek Fire, an explosive liquid, whose com- position — of naphtha, sulphur, and pitch — was then known only to the Byzantines. 300. The great battle that gave Spain to the Saracens, was fought at Xeres, on the Guadalete, A. D. 711. It lasted seven days; but at length King Rod'erick was put to flight, and the Mohammedans, in a few months, over- ran the whole peninsula. Prince Pelay'o, with a few brave Goths, retreated to the mountains of Asturias, and kept alive the Christian power, which grew, in time, to be the kingdom of Spain. Multitudes of Moslems, from Syria and Arabia, flocked into the country. Their victorious forces crossed the Pyrenees, and conquered a great part of south- ern France. They meant to subdue the northern shores of the Mediterranean as they had the southern, and make the Saracen Empire as extensive as that of Augustus or Trajan. 301. But a great power had now arisen in France. The descendants of Clovis (§ 287) had lost character and energy, so that for a hundred years they had no better 136 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. name in history than that of do-notJiings and idiots. Their authority was in the hands of the Mayors of the Palace, a succession of able officers who ruled both kingdom and king. Charles Martel, one of the greatest of these mayors, mustered all the German tribes to meet the Moslem hosts who were advancing for the conquest of France. 302. The decisive battle was fought, for several days, on a plain between Tours and Poitiers. The ' '^^^' Saracens had better armor, and the confidence derived from a century of almost uninterrupted victories. The Germans had greater personal strength, and they were fighting for home and faith. At length the Arab ranks were broken, their general was slain, and they stole away in the night, leaving their camp, rich with the plunder of southern Europe, to reward the Franks. 303. Within a few years, the Saracen Empire was divided among three families : The Onwii'adcs, who had hitherto ruled the whole, lost all but Spain ; the descendants of A'li, the son-in-law and first convert of Mohammed, ob- tained Persia, Egypt, and Mauretania; while the Abbas' sides, descendants of the Prophet's uncle, ruled the rest of the Saracen dominion, from their capital, Bagdad, on the Tigris. The Abbasside sovereign was called the caliph, or successor of Mohammed; and was the religious head of Islam, as well as the ruler of the empire. 304. The first rude era of conquest was succeeded by a brilliant period of intellectual progress. The Arabs be- came the teachers of Europe in botany, chemistry, and medicine. From Samarcand to Cordova, the capital of Spain, their great cities were enriched by libraries and colleges, and adorned with Moorish architecture. Ha'roun al Rasch'id and his successor Alma'mun, A. D. 786-833. .... . - ,, mvited learned men from all nations to their magnificent court at Bagdad, and, by their orders, the writings of the Greek philosophers were translated into SARACEN PIRATES. 137 Arabic. Western Europe was now sunk in comparative ignorance, and the few great scholars had to seek instruc- tion at the schools of the Saracens. 305. But the Saracens were not all learned or refined. Mohammedan freebooters conquered Sicily and Crete, and made the latter their slave-market, where captives from all the Mediterranean countries were bought and sold. All the Sicilian ports were nests of pirates, who preyed upon Italy, and even twice attacked Rome. The gold and silver in the churches were carried 11- 111 A. D. 846, 847. away, but the city was saved by the energy of its Pope, Leo IV. In honor of him, the quarter of Rome where the popes live, has ever since been called the Leonine City. Thessalonica, the second city of the Eastern Empire, was taken by the Saracens; and, after most of its people had been massacred, 22,000 of its youth were sold into slavery, A. D. 904. On Maps 5 and 7, point out Arabia, Mecca, Medina, Xeres, Tours. Trace the Saracen conquests, actual and intended. Point out the three Saracen kingdoms. Bagdad. Samarcand. Cordova. Thessa- lonica. Read Irving's "Mahomet and his Successors," Finlay's ** History of the Byzantine Empire," and Gibbon's "Decline and Fall." Hist. CHAPTER IV. THE WESTERN EMPIRE RESTORED. Priest and Paladin. ^ESIDE preventing a Saracen conquest of Europe, the victory of Charles Martel, at Tours, had another result almost equally important. It caused the Frankish chief to be regarded as the champion of western Chris- tendom, and the natural ally of the Pope. While the exarchate of Africa was falling into the , hands of the Saracens, that of Ravenna was losing most of its power in Italy. During the war for the Images (§294), the Ro- mans declared themselves a re- public, with the Pope at their head, and destroyed the fleet which the Emperor of the East sent to compel their submission. But the Lombards (§289) were now masters of a great part of Italy, and threatened Rome. Pope Greg'ory III. sent an urgent appeal for help to the great mayor, Charles Martel, who, by conquering Burgundy, Provence, and Aquitaine, had extended his power over all modern France. 307. Charles died too soon to fulfill the wishes of Greg- ory; but his son Pe'pin twice invaded Italy with great armies, and conquered 22 cities from the Lombard king, who, moreover, had to resign one third of all his treasures to the Pope. Pepin was already crowned King of the Franks; he now received the tide of ''patrician,'' with (138) CHARLES THE GREAT. 139 almost the power of the ancient consuls at Rome. Money was coined and justice administered in his name, and the election of the popes, by the clergy of their diocese, was subject to his approval. 308. Pepin's son Charles was one of the greatest charac- ters in history, whether considered as sovereign, lawmaker, or military chief By the Pope's invitation he, too, crossed the Alps and made war with the Lombards. Pavia, their capital, was taken after fifteen months' siege ; their king and his family were imprisoned for the rest of their lives; and Charles received the iron crown, which made him King of Italy. He also extended his protection to the Gothic Christians in Spain, and added the land between the Pyrenees and the Ebro to his dominion. 309. In pursuance of his plan for civilizing and Chris- tianizing all Europe, he waged war for -iyZ years with the heathen Saxons and Slavonians ' ' ^^^ °^' in the north and east. At this time there v/as not a city in northern Germany. Many towns were founded by Charles, as centers not only of trade but of intelligence and Christianity. Every town had its bishop, and every bishopric and monastery maintained a college. Libraries were founded, and copies of the great writings of antiquity were distributed among them. The old ballads which told of the brave deeds of German heroes were now first col- lected by Charles' order. 310. Before the Saxons were thoroughly reduced co sub- mission, the Bavarians revolted against the Prankish power, and called the Avars to their aid. These were a Tartar tribe, of the same race with Attila's Huns (§280), and had been encamped more than 200 years in what is now known as Hungary. Not only was Bavaria subdued, but, after a long and fierce contest, the Avars also sub- mitted to Charles. The spoils of Europe and Asia, which had been laid up for centuries in their fortified camp. I40 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. went to enrich their conquerors. The long eastern frontier of the Frankish dominion, extending from the Adriatic to the Baltic, was now guarded by chiefs who were thence known as margraves, or Counts of the Border. 311. On Christmas day, A. D. 800, as Charles was pray- ing in the church of St. Peter, at Rome, the Pope placed upon his head the crown of the Caesars, saluting him as "Charles Augustus, crowned of God, great and peace- giving Emperor of the Romans." The throne of Constan- tinople had lately been usurped by Irene, a most unnatural mother, who had put out her son's eyes to unfit him for reigning, and had then thrust herself into his place. It was now thought that Old Rome might take back the importance which Constantine had given to the New (§268), and, as Constantine VI., the blinded emperor, was sixty-seventh in order from the first Augustus, Charles was numbered sixty-eighth as his successor. 312. Charles the Great was recognized as the head of Christendom, not only by Goths and Saxons in the West, but by the caliph Haroun al Raschid (§304), who sent him, among other gifts, the keys of the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem. It was, in fact, the great aim of Charles' life to give to his whole dominion that security and peace which the Roman world had enjoyed under the best of the emperors. Instead of the armed assemblies, which had transacted the affairs of the German tribes at the March- and May-fields, diets were now instituted, in which the bishops had an important part; and the discussions were in Latin, so that members from all nations might understand. 313. Charles delighted in the conversation of learned men, and continued his own studies all his life, with their advice. Wherever he might be, in court or camp, in the ancient cities, or in the wildernesses of northern Europe, he was surrounded by his learned friends; and THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 141 his house or tent was a school for younger princes, who sought his instruction in the arts of war and government. With the majesty of the Caesar, he combined the simple habits of the Frankish chief. His long and r\ ^- • c r . r ^- ^- 768-814. mcessantly active reign of 46 years went far to transform the Dark Ages into order and enlightenment; but, unhappily, his imperial genius did not descend to his sons, and the succeeding ages were darker than ever. 314. Louis the Mild, or the Pious, was the only surviving son of Charlemagne, and was already crowned as emperor at his father's death, A. D. 814. He shared the imperial dignity with his eldest son Lothaire', giving kingdoms to his other sons; but they, dissatisfied with their portions, made war against each other, and even against their father. After Louis' death, a terrible battle between the brothers at Fontenaye was followed by the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the dominions of ' ^^' Charles the Great among his three grandsons. The emperor Lothaire had Italy, and a long, narrow territory reaching from the Mediterranean to the German Ocean, including the two capitals, Rome and Aix.* Louis, henceforth called the German^ had the countries north and east of the Rhine, while Latin France, west of the Rhone and Saone, was allotted to Charles the Bald. 315. For more than a hundred years the Empire could scarcely be said to exist, though its titles were worn, in turn, by all three branches of Charlemagne's family. The real power rested in the great dukes and margraves, or *The "Middle Kingdom" of Lothaire fell apart, under his sons, into its three natural divisions: Italy, Burgundy, and Lorraine. The latter was soon divided : Lower Lorraine including the Nether- lands south of the Rhine, while Upper Lorraine continued to be a great duchy on the borders of France and Germany. Burgundy was likewise divided into two kingdoms, Upper and Lower, the latter having a new name, Provence. 142 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. marquises, who were the defenders of Europe against a host of enemies. The Magyars, a new race of Huns, were over-running the continent from the north-east; the Med- iterranean swarmed with Saracen pirates (§305), and the Northmen, wild sea-rovers from beyond the Baltic, were ravaging all the Atlantic coasts. During these calamities, those who were bravest and ablest naturally rose into power. Thus the counts of Anjou and Paris on the west, the dukes of Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, Bavaria, and Suabia on the east, the marquises of Friuli, Spoleto, and Tuscany in Italy, were really greater princes than those whom they acknowledged as their lor(^s. 316. The Feudal System was now in force through- out the Western Empire; /. e., knights and nobles held their lands on condition of military service and homage to the chief who had granted them. "Great vassals" held directly from the king or emperor; but they had vassals under them, until the whole land was parceled out in ''knight's fees," some of them barely large enough to hold a castle. When a king made war, he summoned his vassals, who in turn summoned theirs; and, when all met at the appointed place, the great army was made up of a cluster of little armies. The great lords vied with each other in the multitude of their retainers; the knights, in their costly armor and skillful horsemanship, and all in their bravery in the fight. When there was no real war, mock combats, called tilts and tourneys, were often held, to cultivate and display their skill. 317. The ceremony by which feudal obligation was ac- knowledged, was called homage, because the vassal, kneel- ing before his king or lord, vowed to be his man in life and limb. In return, the chief was bound to protect his vassal against injustice or violence, and to punish any who injured him. The poor people who cultivated the lands, and were given away with them, had no rights except THE HOLY ROMAN ExMPIRE. 143 what humanity would concede — that of being protected with their famihes in time of danger. 318. A king sometimes did homage to another king for lands within his dominion; the kings of the Franks even did homage to the abbot of St. Denis for their county of Paris. The kings of Naples, as we shall see, held their whole realm as a "fief of St. Peter;" and some of the popes insisted that all kingdoms ought to be so held. 319. The "feudal tenure," as it is called, gradually took the place of all other holdings. Absolute owners of land were glad to put themselves under the protection of some powerful lord, especially of the the great abbots, whose lands were more secure and better tilled than any others. So it came to pass that the Church owned half the territories of western Europe. 320. After the descendants of Charlemagne had proved unfit to reign, several great chiefs in Italy and Provence fought for the imperial crown until the Pope called an- other king out of Germany to end their disputes. This was O'tho the Great, who was crowned at Rome, A. D. 962. His father, Henry the Fowler, had been duke of Saxony, and was elected king of the Germans. In many fierce battles he had subdued the pagan Wends and the Magyars, and had planted in the eastern wilderness many towns, to be centers of orderly life and strongholds against the barbarians. 321. The crown of the ^^ Holy Roman Empire,''^ as it now began to be called, was bestowed, for more than 800 years upon the kings chosen by the German princes. They were first crowned at Aix as Emperors-Elect, but could not bear the titles of Caesar and Augustus until they had received the imperial diadem from the hands of the Pope. They also assumed the iron crown of Italy at Milan, and some of the emperors wore that of Burgundy at Aries (§314 note). 144 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. '>^ii. One third part of Italy still obeyed the emperors of the East, whose forces Otho and his son vainly attempted to expel. Otho II. married a Greek princess; and their son, Otho III., who was crowned emperor at * ^^ ■ sixteen, was the "wonder of the world" for his brilliant genius and his high aims in governing. But he died in the very dawn of his manhood, and the bright promise passed away. The choice of the German princes now fell upon Henry II., duke of Bavaria, and, after his death, upon Con'rad I., chief of the Franconian line. 323. Under Henry III., son of Conrad, the power of the empire reached its height. He rescued • 104 -105 . j^^^^^g ixom. the disgrace of several unworthy popes, who had used their high office for selfish and corrupt purposes. Setting aside three who laid claim to the dignity, he appointed a better man than any of them; and the emperors thenceforth claimed the right to nominate the popes. 324. Henry III. died suddenly, A. D. 1056, when his only son was but a child. While the little prince was growing to manhood, Hil'debrand, a Tuscan monk, gained great power in the Church, and became almost as important a figure in the panorama of those Dark Ages as Charlemagne himself. He, too, had a plan for bringing order out of the misery and confusion of the times — to subject all ranks and classes to the absolute authority of the popes. As the vicegerents of God upon earth, he taught that they had the right to crown or depose kings at their pleasure. 325. About the time that Henry IV. attained his majority, A. D. 1073, Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VII. Then began a violent contest between the two rulers of Christen- dom. The emperor summoned a Diet at Worms, which deposed the pope; and the pope convened a Council at Rome, which dethroned and excommunicated the emperor. These great revolutions, it will be understood, were only HENRY IV. AT CANOSSA. 1 45 accomplished on parchment; but the war of words soon became an affair of hard blows. Henry was a man of proud and passionate nature; the pope was equally bold and resolute, and on his side were enlisted nearly all the intellect and learning of the time, as well as the sympathy of the common people, in whose rank he had been born. At his command the German bishops and abbots declared against Henry; and the Saxons, who were angry at the passing of the crown from their ducal line to the Franconian (§322), broke out into revolt. In this desperate case, Henry crossed the Alps in winter and stood barefoot in the snow for three days at the gates of the Castle of Canossa before he was admitted to kiss the feet of Gregory and humbly confess his faults. Even this did not save him; a rival emperor was chosen; and though Henry defeated him, and outlived Pope Gregory by twenty years, yet all his life was embittered by the malice of his enemies. His sons rebelled against him, with the aid of the popes, and at last he died of a broken heart, in poverty and humiliation. Trace, on Map 7, the conquests of Charles Martel. Of Charle- magne. The divisions made by the Treaty of Verdun. Of Lothaire's Middle Kingdom. The great fiefs mentioned in ^315. Point out Aix-la-Chapelle, Aries. Milan, Rome. Read Book IV of Parke Godwin's History of France; Bryce's "Holy Roman Empire;" and a chapter on the Feudal System in Hallam's " Middle Ages." Hist. CHAPTER V. THE NORTHMEN. c^joa>;s.v^ Danish Pirates HE last of the northern nations who con- quered a place in southern and western Europe were the natives of Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula; but these were found superior to all the rest, excepting, perhaps, the Goths, in vigor of mind and body, and ni their aptitude for civilized life. Their native land being too poor to support them all, multitudes of young Northmen sought their fortunes abroad. As early as the eighth century a large body of them passed overland to Constantinople, and enlisted in the guards of the emperor of the East. Successive bands of their countrymen, moving in the same direction, conquered the Slavic king- doms of Novgorod and Kiev, and became founders of the Russian Empire. Ru'ric was the first Norman ruler of Russia. Christianity was introduced by (146) 327- A. D. 862. NORMAN SETTLEMENTS, 147 Greek missionaries, and, in A. D. 955, Queen Ol'ga was baptized at Constantinople. Vlad'imir the Great increased his empire by conquest, ' ' ^ °"^°^5' and civiHzed it by many churches and schools. Yar'oslav was a still greater benefactor, for he procured the transla- tion of the Holy Scriptures and many other books into the Slavonic language, and made the first Russian code of laws. 328. Greater numbers of the Northmen became sea- rovers, the terror of all western Europe. Wherever they landed, the smoking ruins of houses, churches, and mon- asteries marked their track. At first they only ravaged the coasts; then, as they grew bolder and more numerous, they established fortified camps near the mouths of the rivers, whence they pursued their depredations over a wide extent of country. At length their numbers and powers were so great that they settled themselves on extensive tracts of land, the inhabitants of which they had expelled or destroyed. Thus a great part of eastern England and north-western France became their permanent abode, and they now proved that extraordinary genius for order and good government which no one certainly would have expected of the terrible sea-robbers. 329. One condition exacted by King Alfred, ^-^ in Eng- land, from Gu'thrun, the Danish chief, and by King Charles, in France, from Rollo, was that both, with their principal followers, should become Christians. This they did with apparent good faith. The English Danes could not, however, prevent their pagan countrymen over the sea from trying their good fortune ; and, under the weak reign of Eth'elred II., they gained such power that Eng- * Alfred, the West Saxon, A. D. 871 -901, was the best of the early English kings. By many years hard fighting, he reclaimed his king- dom from the Danes, and then civilized it by wise laws, schools, and books, which he either translated, or caused to be translated, from Greek and Latin. He is truly called Alfred THE Great. 148 MEDIALVAL HISTORY. land was added, for a time, to the Scandinavian Empire of Knut. 330. The duchy of Normandy had, meanwhile, become the richest and best governed part of France. A succes- sion of able rulers was descended from Rollo, and many beautiful cathedrals and abbey-churches expressed their zeal for the religion which they had so lately adopted. Their restless spirits and their new faith were equally indulged by pilgrimages, which, indeed, many western Christians undertook, but of which the Normans were especially fond. On their way to the tomb of our Lord, or the shrines of His saints and aposdes, the Norman knights had their eyes wide open for any warHke adventures that might offer. 331. In passing through southern Italy, they did not fail to remark the weakness and wealth of the Greek cities, which, though belonging to the Eastern Empire, were always exposed to the attacks of Saracens or Lombards. By taking sides with one party or the other, the Normans gained great power for themselves, and, at length, became masters of twelve cities, which they formed into a military republic. After a victory over the Pope's forces at Civ- itella, they declared themselves vassals of the ■ '°^^' Church, and so gained his favor and protec- tion (§317). Under Robert Guiscard, their duke, they gradually drove out the Greek magistrates of the cities and conquered from the Lombards their last possession, thus making the Norman power supreme in southern Italy. At the same time Roger Guiscard was conquering Sicily ^^ from ••'■Of the Normans in Sicily, an English historian says: "No con- queror ever deserved better of the conquered. The noble island of Sicily, so lonj; the battle-field of Europe and Africa, became, under Norman kings, the one example of really equal and tolerant govern- ment which the world could then show. Under the Norman scepter, the two most civilized races of the world, Greeks and Saracens, could live together in peace, and enrich their common country with results of skill and industry such as no northern realm could rival." NORMANS IN ENGLAND. 149 the Saracens, and held it as a fief from his brother. Thus arose the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies. 332. A still more important Norman conquest was that of England. Duke William, the sixth from Rollo, was a cousin of Edward the Confessor, the last English king of the family of Alfred. William declared that Edward, hav- ing no children, had promised him the English crown. This weakest of claims was, however, supported by strong arguments, in the favor of the Pope and the arms of 60,000 warriors. He landed, with a great army, in the south of England; Harold, the Saxon king chosen by the people, was slain in the Battle of Hastings; and the whole country submitted, in time, to "W^illiam the Conqueror." 333. He divided the land in fiefs among his barons, and gave all the chief places in church and government to foreigners. The Saxon nobles descended to the rank of thanes, or country gentlemen. William was the ablest prince of his age, and he usually aimed to be just; but he was terribly cruel and obstinate when his will was crossed. Among his most tyrannical acts was the devastation of a belt of land, 60 miles wide, in northern England, by which 100,000 people were made homeless, and thousands perished of hunger and cold. This was done to guard against invasions from Scotland and Norway. There was even less excuse for the burning of 60 villages, in Hamp- shire, to provide the "New Forest" for the king's favorite sport of hunting. 334. William Rufus (A. D. 1087 -i 100), the second son and successor of the Conqueror, was an able but wicked king, caring more for his own wild pleasures than for the dearest interests of his people. He was killed by an arrow, while hunting in the "New Forest." His brother, Henry I, had been carefully educated for his duties as an English sovereign, and in many ways pleased the 150 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, people, especially by marrying the heiress of their Saxon kings. But he unjustly deprived his eldest brother, Robert, of his Norman inheritance, and kept him shut up in Car- diff Castle for the last twenty-eight years of his life. 335. Henry's only son, William, was drowned in the Channel, and the king attempted to secure the English crown to his daughter Matil'da. Some of the barons would have sustained her claim; but her haughty spirit offended them, and, after ten years of distracting civil war, Matilda fled to the continent, while her cousin, Stephen, was acknowledged as king. The . 1135 1154. pgQpjg suffered infinite miseries as a con- sequence of .these royal disputes. The land was left un- cultivated; for the poor people had no encouragement to sow or plant, when the fruits of their toil were sure to be swept away by knightly robbers whose castles com- manded the whole country. Famine created solitudes, where once had been villages full of happy homes. The dispute was settled in A. D. 1153, by the death of Ste- phen's only son. He then consented to acknowledge Matilda's son, Henry, as his heir. 336. France During the Dark Ages. — It has been seen how the feeble successors of Clovis gave way to the family of Pepin, and how the dominions of Charlemagne were divided among his grandsons (§ 314). The western part of those dominions remained longer under Carlo- vingian rule, than did either Italy or Germany, and kept exclusively the name of France. The descendants of Charlemagne had but little of his genius for war and gov- ernment; and the defense of the country against Saxon and Norman pirates was left to the great nobles, espe- cially to Robert the Strong, Count of Anjou and Orleans. Three times Paris was besieged by the Northmen, twice it was taken by storm, and the banks of the Seine were whitened with the bones of its murdered people. Charles HOUSE OF CAPET IN FRANCE. 151 II., called the Fat, who, for a little while, reunited the whole empire of Charlemagne, only bribed , . J rr 1 1 , . A. D. 885, 886. the pirates and suffered them to carry their ravages farther inland, while he spent his strength in fighting the members of his own family. 337. Count Robert was killed in battle, but his son, Eu'des, bravely defended Paris, and was called to the throne from which Charles had been deposed for his cow- ardice, A. D. 887. But a small party crowned Charles the Simple, who reigned north of the Seine while Eudes lived, and afterwards over all France. He gave up a large region, in north-western France, to Rollo the Dane, on condition of his followers becoming Christian and civ- ilized. To do them justice, the wild sea-rovers soon ex- celled their masters in the arts of orderly living (§ 330). 338. Under the descendants of Charles IV., the real power rested with Hugh the Great, Duke of France and Count of Paris, who, for thirty-three years, set up and put down princes at his pleasure. His son, Hugh Capet, was chosen king by the nobles, A. D. 987, and his family continued to rule France more than eight centuries. His actual power was less, however, than that of some of his vassals. When he tried to compel the obedience of one by demandhig, "Who made you a count?" the reply was, "Who made you a king?" Continental Europe was then divided into great fiefs, and royalty was little more than a shadow. The dukes of Normandy, Bur- gundy, and Aquitaine, the counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Toulouse, were sovereign in their own dominions, paying little respect and still less obedience to the king. 339. The reigns of Hugh and his son, Robert the Pious, were among the darkest periods of history. Under a deluded notion that the ' ' ^ ^ '°^^' year 1000 was to be the end of the world, the terror- 152 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. stricken people refused to cultivate the ground. Famine and pestilence ensued, and some of the starved peasantry even fed on human flesh. A terrified crowd filled the churches; many princes and rich nobles bestowed their wealth upon the monks, and set off on pilgrimages to the Holy Land, where it was believed Christ would soon appear. When the fatal year had passed, the western world breathed again; but it was long before the injury springing from this delusion was repaired. Another and long prevailing source of misery was found in the private wars of the barons. No one dreamed of mercy or even common justice toward the peasants, whose fields were laid waste and their families reduced to starva- tion by the quarrels of their masters. Under Henry I. (1031-1060), the French clergy succeeded in establishing what was called the "Truce of God," and, in some degree, abated these calamities. All fighting was for- bidden between Wednesday evening and Monday morning, as well as on all holy days. Trace, on Map No. 7, the conquests and settlements of the Northmen. Read Freeman's ** Norman Conquest;" Palgrave's "Normandy and England ; " Green's " Short History of the English People ; " Hume's or Knight's *' History of England ; " Michelet's '* History of France." PART II.— The Middle Ages. CHAPTER VI. THE CRUSADES. »HE Saracen Empire in Asia was now in decline, and all its real power had fallen into the hands of the Turks, a fierce Tartar tribe, whose dominion, under Malek Shah, extended from Arabia to the borders of China. In A. D. 1073 t^^y conquered Jerusalem, and put an end to the indulgence which Christian pilgrims had en- joyed under the caliphs. Multi- tudes, returning to Europe, told stories of cruel outrages inflicted by the barbarians; and the rage and grief excited by these stories came to their height when Peter the Hermit, a French monk, who had been in the East, traveled through Italy and France, with the approval of Pope Urban II., setting forth his plan for wresting the holy places from the infidel. All Europe was ablaze with zeal. Thousands of every rank and age put the red cross on their shoulders, which declared their purpose to die, if need were, for the deliverance of the Holy Land. Hence the wars which followed are called Crusades, or wars of the Cross. (153) Crusader. A. D. 1096. 154 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 341. Not only soldiers, but old men, women, and chil- dren — some say to the number of six millions — took part in the First Crusade. An unnumbered host of these, without order, officers, or plan, set out in the spring of 1096 A. D. In their ignorance, they expected to be fed by miracle, and to arrive at Jerusalem in a few days. Disappointed in both hopes, they either perished miserably of starvation and fatigue, or were killed in battle by the people whose corn-fields and granaries they attempted to rob. The few who advanced as far as Asia Minor, were slain by the Turks near Nice, and a pyramid of their bones was the only monument of this vanguard of the crusading hosts. 342. The .regular army of Crusaders moved in the au- tumn, by four different routes, toward their rendezvous at Constantinople. The most northerly division was led by God'frey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lor- " ^°^ ' raine; the next, by Ray'mond of Toulouse, the greatest lord in southern France; the third, by Bo'emond of Taranto, son of Robert Guiscard (§331); and the last, by four princes, of whom one was Robert of Normandy, eldest son of the king of England. 343. The emperor Alex'is, who had before been in terror of the Turks, was now equally alarmed by the numbers and power of his allies. The free and haughty bearing of the Franks — as all western Christians were, and are still, called at Constantinople — shocked his ceremonious court; and he was glad to "speed the parting guest" across the Bosporus. He was rewarded for his somewhat grudging hospitality by the town and fortress of Nice, which the Crusaders wrested from the Turks and restored to the Eastern Empire. 344. Another great victory was gained over the Turks at Dorylffi'um; but much had yet to be suffered before the Christian host arrived at Antioch, the capital of Syria CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM. 155 (§168). The Turks had laid waste the country, and filled or poisoned the wells; so that multitudes died on the march, of hunger and thirst. Antioch withstood a siege of seven months; and when it was taken, the Christians were besieged in turn by a fresh army of 200,000 Turks, while a violent plague carried off 100,000 of their own forces. Nevertheless, a victory was " • ^°9 • gained, which opened the way to Jerusalem; but it was a pitiful remnant of the gallant armies, which, three years before, had assumed the Cross, that now arrived, with tears and shouts of joy, before the Holy City. 345. This was again in the possession of the Saracens from Egypt, who had wrested it from the Turks; but a forty days' siege — during which the assailants suffered agonies of thirst in the midsummer ' • '°9 • heat — ended in its capture by the Christians. By the votes of his brave comrades, Duke Godfrey was chosen to be the first Christian king of Jerusalem. He refused to wear a golden crown in the city where his Master had worn the crown of thorns; but he consented to be styled Guardian of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher. Godfrey survived his consecration to this office only one year, and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin. 346. By successive conquests, the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem was extended eastward to the Euphrates, and southward to the borders of Egypt. The French language, customs, and laws prevailed throughout the lands once ruled by David and Solomon, which were parceled out into four great feudal baronies. The first of the three famous Orders of Chivalry, which added monkish vows to those of the knight, had its origin in the First Crusade. This was the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, or the ''Knights Hospitallers." They were soon followed by the "Templars," who undertook the defense of pilgrims, and later by the "Teutonic" Order. 156 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 347. The Second Crusade was preached by St. Bernard', abbot of Clair vaux — the greatest mind in Christendom in his time — and was led by two great mon- . . 114 -1149. ^j^^i^g^ ^j^g emperor Conrad III. and king Louis VII. of France. Nevertheless, it ended in nothing but disaster and disgrace. 348. Sal'adin, the prince of Moslem warriors for valor, courtesy, and gentleness of soul, now became sultan of Syria and Egypt. In a great battle near Lake Tiberias he broke the power of the Christians, and A. D. 1187. captured their king, Guy of Lusignan, with the grandmaster of the Templars, and many other nobles. Most of the important towns in Syria — and, last of all, Jerusalem — fell into his hands. This calamity aroused all Europe. The great emperor, Frederic Barbaros'sa, with his son and eighty-eight German princes, assumed the Cross, and so did the kings Philip Augustus of France and Richard the Lion-Hearted of England. 349. The emperor never saw Jerusalem, for he was drowned in a little river in Asia Minor. All the Christian forces in Syria were mustered for the siege of Acre, when the arrival of the French and English kings ■ "^^' effected its capture. The prodigious strength and valor of Richard were the admiration of the Christians, and the terror of the Saracens. But Philip was jealous, and, feigning illness, he returned home. Richard took and re-fortified Jaffa, Ascalon, and Gaza, and, fighting every step of the way, advanced within sight of Jerusalem. But his allies refused to join him in besieging it, and he withdrew in grief and shame, covering his face with his shield. 350. News now came that King Philip was plotting with Richard's brother John for a partition of his dominions. John was to have England, while Philip seized all the fiefs in France for which Richard was his vassal (§318). These FOURTH AND FIFTH CRUSADES. 157 were the two great duchies of Normandy and Aciuitaine, with the counties of Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Touraine. After making an honorable peace with Saladin, Richard embarked for home; but he was shipwrecked in the Adri- atic, and landing at Zara, tried to make the journey across Europe in the disguise of a merchant. He was recognized, seized, and imprisoned, by his bitterest enemy, the duke of Austria, whom he had insulted after the capture of Gaza. At length, being summoned to plead his cause before the Diet of the Western Empire (§312), Richard was permitted to be ransomed and restored to his kingdom. 351. A Fourth Crusade was proclaimed, A. D. 1200, by Pope Innocent III. The overland route had now been found too dangerous, and the French barons made a treaty with the Venetian Republic, then the greatest maritime power in Europe, to transport their armies, by sea, to the Holy Land. But first they undertook the cause of Isaac Angelus, emperor of the East, who had been dethroned, imprisoned, and deprived of his sight by an unnatural brother. By two attacks they captured Constantinople, and restored the blind old emperor to his throne; but a quarrel afterward broke out between the Greeks and the Franks, which ended in a second capture of the city, and the foundation of the Latin Empire of the East. Most of the crusaders never reached the Holy Land at all. 352. The Fifth Crusade was marked by the siege and capture of Damietta in Egypt, though the Christian forces were afterwards overwhelmed with calamities by an over- flow of the Nile. The emperor Frederic II. was now engaged in a fierce contention with the Pope, who had first excommunicated him for delaying to join the Crusade, and again, for presuming to go while under cen- sure. His presence in the Holy Land, A. D. 1229, how- ever, secured the surrender of Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethlehem, 158 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. and Nazareth to the Christians, and he assumed the crown of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. 353. The Sixth Crusade was led by the king of Navarre, and by the English Prince Richard, a nephew of the Lion-hearted. By peaceful agreement, the greater part of Palestine was surrendered to the Christians, and the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt. Christians and Saracens were now compelled to join their forces against a i)agan horde of Tartars, who had been expelled from Korasmia by Genghis Khan, and who, sweeping over Pales- * "'*'*' tine, captured Jerusalem, and murdered a vast multitude of its people. A two days' battle ended in the almost complete extermination of the Syrian hosts. But Bar'bacan, the Tartar chief, was soon slain, and western Asia breathed again. 354. The Seventh Crusade was led by the good king Louis IX. of France. He captured Damietta, ■ '^"^ ■ but afterwards, overwhelmed with disasters and himself a prisoner, he had to surrender it for his ransom. He then spent four years in the Holy Land, where he repaired the fortifications of Acre, and ransomed many thousands of Christian captives. 355. The Eighth Crusade was accasioned by the fall of Antioch; 17,000 of its people being slain, and 100,000 carried away as slaves, by an army of Mamelukes from Egypt. King Louis heartily engaged in it, but he died of the plague, in Tunis, before he could reach Palestine. Prince Edward, the future king of England, ' '^^^' gained a victory over the Turks, and secured a favorable truce of ten years. 356. The last general effort for the deliverance of the Holy Land is not even numbered by most historians among the Crusades, though the emperors of the East and West were enrolled in it. Acre was the only remain- ing possession of the Christians in the East, and it was RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 159 besieged by a great army of 200,000 Mamelukes. The defense was long and obstinate, but at last the city fell, and all Palestine was overrun by the Turks. 357. Although the Crusaders had failed of the end they sought, they had gained others of far more value. Their minds were enlarged by contact with customs different from, and usually superior to, their own. Compared with the art, learning, and refined society of Constantinople, the Franks were barbarians. Even from the Saracens, whom they had pictured as inhuman monsters, they had much to learn. They were amazed to find the "infidel dogs" better behaved than themselves ; but they could not fail to admire the delicate generosity of Saladin, who sent snow from Lebanon to Richard in sickness, and presented him with two beautiful Arabian horses when Richard's own had been killed in battle. 358. Several peculiar products of Asia — sugar, for ex- ample — were first brought into Europe by Crusaders, and a brisk trade now sprang up between the East and the West. Venetian merchants visited the great cities of China, and it is probable that they found there two inventions, gunpowder and printing, which were to change the whole current of European life. 359. The immediate results in the West were not less great. Europe was divided, as we have seen, into a multi- tude of duchies and counties, whose holders w^ere perpetu- ally making war upon each other. Now it was good for those quarrelsome chiefs to be moved for once by a com- mon feeling, the only feeling that could move kings and vassals, priests and peasants alike. It is true that their quarrels were not always hushed even at the tomb of Christ; and that the Holy Wars were disgraced by many unholy passions; still the combatants had sometimes the grace to be ashamed of the impiety. The lands which knights and barons had sold to pay the expenses of their i6o MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. crusades, were bought in many cases by the Church, but in others by thrifty citizens, and thus a middle class sprang up between nobles and peasants. 360. The three Orders of Chivalry, which had arisen from the Crusades, were now rich and powerful. The Temjilars, having no fit use either for their vast wealth or their knightly energies, became haughty, luxurious, and dangerous to the governments under which they lived. Their order was dissolved about 40 years after the last Crusade, and their lands were given to the Knights of St. John. 361. These, in their successive stations at Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta, kept up a rigorous discipline, and bravely defended southern Europe from the Turks. The Teutonic Knights had yet harder work to do. The Prus- sians, and several other tribes near the Baltic, were still heathen, and a century and a half of fierce conflict pre- ceded the establishment of Christianity in the northern wilds. The industry of the brotherhood meanwhile turned the salt marshes into fertile fields by means of dykes and drainage; and Marienburg, their fortress and capital, be- came a center of civilizing influences for all that pagan region. Trace, on Maps 4 and 8, the general course of Crusaders in 1096 A. D. Point out their first conquest ; Antioch, Jerusalem, Acre, Jaffa, Ascalon, Gaza, Damietta. Lake Tiberias. Boundaries of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. Stations of the Knights of St. John. Territory of the Teutonic Knights. Read Hallam's "Middle Ages," Ch. I, Part I, and Ch. VI; Mill's History of the Crusades; Michelet's History of France. Rev. James White's History of France, in one volume, will be found very useful by those who lack time or opportunity to consult larger works. CHAPTER VII. GUELFS AND GHIIJELLINES. RISE OF ITALIAN AND GERMAN CITIES. Venetian Nobleman. %HE two great powers of Europe, during the Middle Ages, were the Church and the Empire, and these, as we have seen, were often at deadly strife (§ 325). The emperor was the civil head of Christendom, as the pope was the spiritual head; and they often differed as to the boundaries of their respective juris- dictions. This rivalry probably had one advantage, in preventing either from becoming absolute. The haughty will of the Ccesar could bow to none but the vicegerent of God; while the ambition of the Pope could only be curbed by a power which, like his own, was held to be of divine appointment. The Church had done good service in main- taining order during the Dark Ages; and, if it did not enlighten the people, it guarded the treasures of ancient learning for the benefit of later times. 363. The Guelfs and the Hohenstaufen, two powerful German families, contended for the imperial crown. The latter obtained it, A. D. 1138; and the name Ghibelline, taken from one of their castles, was adopted, by the ad- herents of the emperors, to distinguish them from the Pope's party, who more commonly sided with the Guelfs. The cities of Italy, most of them independent republics, declared themselves either Guelf or Ghibelline; and as Hist.— 14. (161) 1 62 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. they were almost constantly at war, either among them- selves or against the emperor, these battle-cries rang through the peninsula for centuries. 364. The great city of Milan, once an imperial capital (§263), led the opposition to Frederic L, the greatest of the Hohenstaufen. Twice it was besieged and taken, and after the second capture its stately walls were leveled with the ground. Even its enemies and rivals now joined it in a ''Lombard League," which gained a great victory over Frederic at Legnano, A. D. 11 76. Seven years later the Peace of Constance established the independence of all the Lombard cities. 365. By marrying the heiress of the last Norman king (§ 334) J Frederic's son, Henry VL, obtained the crown of the Two Sicilies, in addition to that of the Empire. His son, Frederic IL, was called Stupor Mundi . 1212-1250. ^^^^^ Amazement of the World), by reason of his brilliant talents. He enriched his native Italy by improved laws, and by his liberal patronage of art, liter- ature, and commerce. Nevertheless, he was continually at war with the popes, who, at length, deposed him and offered all his crowns (§ 324) to other princes. His death was followed by 23 years of confusion, several rival em- perors being acknowledged by different parties. The im- perial crown was given, at last, to Rudolph of Hapsburg, who had the good sense to leave Italy to itself, and use his power against the turbulent princes and robber-knights who were destroying the peace of Germany. He demol- ished 70 castles, the strongholds of these marauders. 366. Italy became almost wholly Guelf. The Two Sic- ilies were bestowed upon Charles of Anjou, a French prince, who, moreover, ruled Provence in right of his wife, and exerted imperial power in Rome and several northern cities. But his harshness drove the Sicilians to revolt, and 8,000 French were massacred, A. D. 1282. The island RIENZI AT ROME. 163 became a separate kingdom, ruled for a century and a half by Arragonese princes. The "Two Sicilies" were reunited in 1435, under Alfon'so of Arragon. 367. The cities of Lombardy soon lost their freedom and submitted to podestas, or tyrants, of whom the greatest were the Visconti of Milan. Rome was filled with murder and robbery, especially after Pope Clem'ent V. had re- moved the "Chair of St. Peter" to Avignon, in southern France. The 72 years absence of the popes , . - , , A. D. 1305-1377. was known to writers of that day as a "Babylonish Captivity." During this time the Roman tribune, Rienzi, succeeded, for a few months, in restor- ing order and dignity to his native city. Turbulent nobles submitted to his authority; not only Italian cities, but foreign kings, recognized the new " ' ^^^^' Republic; robbery ceased, and prosperity revived. But Rienzi's head was turned by his success; he was exj^elled; and when, after six years' exile and imprisonment, he returned with the support of the pope, he was slain in a popular riot. 368. In 1377, Pope Gregory XI. came back to Rome; but his death was followed by the Great Schism (§ 419), during which two, and even three, popes were obeyed at once by different nations. In spite of these troubles, Italy was by far the richest and most civilized portion of Europe. The merchant-princes of Genoa and Venice lived in palaces surpassing those of kings, or even emperors, north of the Alps. Their commerce embraced all Europe, with south- ern and central Asia; and, handling the money of all nations, they were the first modern bankers. The Bank of Venice dates from 1171 A. D. While the Eastern Empire was falling to pieces through its own weakness and the attacks of the Turks, Venice became sovereign of the Morea, with Cyprus, Crete, and many of the Greek islands. Her great rival was Genoa, which monopolized 1 64 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. the commerce of the Black Sea, and this rivalry occasioned many wars. 369. Florence is most celebrated of all the Italian re- publics for the freedom of her government and the genius of her people. The wealth of her great bankers, traders, and manufacturers of wool made many princes their debt- ors. After 1343 A. D., magistrates could be chosen only from the ''Arts," or trades-unions, and thus the indus- trial classes had supreme control of the government. Dan'te, the greatest poet of the Middle Ages, was a Flor- entine, but he spent most of his manhood in exile, owing to the deadly strife of Guelfs and Ghibellines. 370. The chief power in Florence fell, during the fifteenth century, into the hands of the Med'ici, a family of wealthy citizens. Cosmo de Medici was the first who assumed to nominate candidates for public ofiice. His grandson, Loren'zo the Magnificent, pro- moted the revival of learning and the arts. He collected ancient gems and statues, which stimulated the genius of the young artists whom his liberal patron- age drew about him. His ascendency marks the most brilliant period of Florentine history. 371. Meanwhile the German cities had also risen to great importance. Each was governed by a Council of its own choosing; and, free from the jealousies which often ruined the Italian cities, they formed leagues for the common defense. Their chief enemies were the knights and nobles, who lived by plunder, and liked nothing so well as to rob a merchant of his costly wares. The idea that a mere tradesman could have rights which they were bound to respect never occurred to these noble high- waymen. 372. The League of the Rhine, A. D. 1255, numbered 60 cities: that of Suabia, in 1376, was still larger. Several free cities of Upper Germany — now Switzerland — joined THE HAN SEA TIC LEAGUE. 165 the Forest Cantons in a league, which at length secured the independence of the Swiss republics. Equally remark- able was the union of the Hanse towns of northern Germany, for the protection of their trade from pirates at sea and robbers on land. This league of merchants be- came so powerful that its fleets controlled the northern seas, and kings were proud of its alliance. Among its foreign factories were London and Bruges, where the Ger- man and Italian merchants met to exchange the gems, silks, and finer fabrics of Asia and the south for the fish, hemp, and timber of the north; for, to the slow navigation of those days, the voyage from the Mediterranean to the Baltic was too long to be made in a single summer. 373. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the common people were gaining power in almost every country in Europe. Before this time, society, outside of the Church, had been chiefly made up of nobles, with their vassals and serfs. But the cities of Italy, Spain, and southern France had always kept something of the free- dom which they had enjoyed under the Romans; and, in Germany, England, and the Low Countries, the wealth of artisans and merchants was now so great as to make them important to the sovereigns, who were always in want of money. Accordingly, representatives of the cities began to be called to a share in the government of all these countries. Point out, on Map No. 9, Genoa. Venice, and her dominions. Florence. Milan. Avignon. Lubec. Hamburg. Bruges. London. Read Sismondi's History of tlie Italian Republics; Campbell's Life of Petrarch; Dante's ** Vita Nuova," translated by Norton; Longfellow's "Dante," with the Notes; Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici. CHAPTER VIII. THE TARTAR CONQUESTS. URING the last Crusades, Asia and Eastern Europe suffered the most terrible devastations from the nomadic races (§ 2) which history records. The Turks, a brutal race of Tartars, had been, first, the hired soldiers and then the conquerors of the caliphs (§303). Their domin- ion, during the last half of the eleventh century, extended over the greater part of central and western Mongol Warrior. Asia. Another Tartar family con- quered India, and plundered its temples of an untold wealth of gold and jewels. 375. But the greatest of these Scythian hordes were the Mongols, led by Tem'ujin, whose irresistible power gained for him the name of Gen'ghis Khan, or Universal Lord. Followed by an immense army, lie first undertook the con- quest of China. The Great Wall, built fourteen centuries before, to keep out the ancestors of the Mongols, proved to be no sufficient barrier; nor could the artificial thunders and lightnings, which were launched from the walls of Pekin — for the Chinese had long known the A. D. 1215. uses of gunpowder — prevent the capture of that capital and the conquest of northern China. Subse- quent wars made Genghis master of all central Asia, from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, a country which was then richer and more civilized than now. Hundreds of (166) MONGOLS AND TURKS. 167 populous cities, stored with the treasures of art, learning, and industry, were destroyed; and five millions of human lives are said to have been sacrificed to this monster's thirst for dominion. 376. The descendants of Genghis overthrew the feeble remnant of the Abbasside Empire at Bagdad, and extended their raids to the Adriatic, the borders of Germany, and the Polar Sea. Russia paid tribute to them for more than two hundred years ; and the ' '^^^ ''^ '' Mongol dominion was the most extensive that the world has ever seen. Ku'blai Khan, a grandson of Temujin, conquered southern China, and ruled all Asia, except Hindustan, Arabia, and Syria. He invited Christian mis- sionaries to his court at Pekin; and kept the famous Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, many years in his service. 377. During the next century the Mongol Empire fell to pieces; but, about 1365 A. D., Ti'mour, or Tam'erlane, a descendant of Genghis, set out on a career of conquest which nearly reunited all his ancestor's dommions, with the addition of Hindustan. Pyramids of human heads marked the fields of his victories, and 100,000 captives were mur- dered at one time in cold blood, lest they should hinder his march ! In a battle with the Ottoman Turks, at Angora, in Asia Minor, Timour de- * ^'*°^* feated and captured Bajazet, their chief, whom he kept the rest of his life in an iron cage. Not only the Otto- mans, but the Roman Empire of the East, paid tribute to the conqueror. Ba'ber, a descendant of Timour, founded the great Mogul Empire in India. Its seat was at Delhi, and its magnificence has probably never been surpassed. 378. The Ottoman Empire was founded, A. D. 1288- 1326, by Oth'man, who fixed his capital at Brusa. One by one the provinces of the Eastern Empire, both in Asia and Europe, fell into his hands, until only Constanti- nople remained to the Caesars; and even within its walls 1 68 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. the Turks had a colony. The first regular standing army in Europe was formed by Am'urath I. from Christian cap- tives taken in childhood, whom he trained . 13 o 13 9. ^^.^^^ ^^^ greatest strictness to be soldiers and Mohammedans. These Janizaries were the best sol- diery the world then knew, and were perfectly devoted to their sultan. 379. The chief defenders of Europe were the Hungari- ans, but their king, Sig'ismund, was twice defeated by the Turks, and, at Nicopolis, his army of 100,000, ' ^■'^ numbering the bravest knights in Christendom, was routed, or destroyed, by Bajazet (§ 377). Constanti- nople was four times besieged without effect, but at length, in 1453, Mohammed II. encamped, with an irresistible force, about its walls. His cannon soon effected a breach, the Janizaries rushed in, and, on the fifty-third day of the siege, the imperial city fell. Constantine XII., the last of the eastern Csesars, was slain in its defense. 380. This great event filled all Europe with terror. The ''Turks' Bell" rang at noon from every spire, calling all Christians to pray for the defeat of the infidel. The Hun- garians kept up a brave resistance; and their leader, Hunia'des, by a victory over Mohammed II., rescued the important fortress of Belgrade, commanding the Danube. The Pope's attempt to unite all the powers of Europe in a crusade failed. Venice carried on war fifteen years with the intruders on her own account; but at " ^'^^^' length made peace, and even entered upon a disgraceful traffic with the Turks for Christian slaves. Trace, on Maps No. 4 and 7, the conquests of Genghis Khan and his descendants. The progress of the Ottoman Turks. Point out Bagdad. Belgrade. The last chapters of Gibbon, and the first of Dyer's History of Modern Europe, are the best authorities. Read, also, Finlay's History of the Byzantine and Greek empires. CHAPTER IX. PLANTAGENETS IN ENGLAND. HE violence and misery of Stephen's reign (§ 335) were exchanged for comparative order and peace under the strong hand of Henry H., one of the greatest monarchs of his age. He was the first of the Engh'sh Plantagenets,-!^ a family who wore the crown 331 years. By inheritance and by marriage, he was lord of more than half of France; and, though he did homage (§ 317, 350) to Louis VII. for his two great duchies Insurgent Peasants. and foUr COUnticS, llis pOAVer greatly exceeded that of his suzerain. 382. Ireland was conquered by the arms of his brave barons, aided by the quarrels of its native chiefs; but for centuries it brought little more than a new title, with endless vexations to the English king. Henry had a seven years' contention with his former friend, Thomas a Becket, whom he had made Archbishop of Canterbury. It ended with the murder of Becket, at the altar of his own cathedral; but King Henry afterwards made a peni- tential pilgrimage to the tomb at Canterbury, where he humbly begged the monks to scourge him *'for the good *■ From planta gencs/a, a sprig of broom-corn, his father's badge. Hist.— 15. (169) lyo MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. of his soul." The same day, his armies defeated and captured the king of the Scots, and Henry joyfully accepted the victory as a token of St. Thomas' forgiveness. 383. Henry's son, Richard I. (A. D. 1 189- 1 199), is best known to us as a crusader (§§340, 353)? for l^e paid little attention to his kingdom. His brother John (A. D. .1199-1216) lost all his French dominions through his crimes and cowardice; and the English barons, taking the defense of the kingdom into their own hands, forced him to grant the Great Charter {Magna C/iaiia), which secured ' ^^'^' the foundations of justice and freedom. Pope Innocent HI. called upon all Christian princes to join in a crusade to detlirone John, and his late feudal chief, the king of France, gladly obeyed the summons. But John's sudden death put an end to the French invasion; for the barons who had opposed him bravely defended the rights of his son Henry, who was only nine years old. 384. During the weak reign of Henry HI. (A. D. 12 16 -1272), the barons had to assume the government again, and their great leader. Earl Simon de Montfort, summoned the first parliament in which citizens had part as well as nobles and bishops. In Avar with the barons. King Henry and his son were made prisoners; but A. D. 1265. . ' T- 1 ... , ^ ■, , the next year Earl Simon was defeated and slain at Evesham. 385. Edward I. (A. D. 1272 -1307), was recalled from his crusade (§355) to assume the crown. He put an end to the bold robberies, and other disorders, which his father's weakness had encouraged; conquered Wales, and might have subdued Scotland, but for the brave resistance of Wallace and Bruce. While marching to meet the latter, who had been crowned as King Robert I., Edward died. He was an able and generous king, loving his people, and seeking their welfare by wise laws and a firm execu- tion of justice. THE BLACK PRINCE. 171 386. Edward II. (A. D. 1307 -1327), was the exact opposite of his father — weak, coAvardly, and vicious. His defeat by Bruce, at Bannockburn, ' '"'''*■ secured the independence of Scotland. His fondness for worthless favorites offended the barons, who joined his French queen, Isabella, in dethroning him. He was after- wards murdered by the (jueen's orders. 387. His son, Edward III. (A. D. 1327-1377), was a warlike and powerful king. The very slight claim, which he had inherited from his mother, to the crown of France, tempted him to invade that country; and he gained a decisive victory over king Philip VI. at Cre'cy. His eldest son, a youth of 16 years, greatly distinguished himself in the battle. Finding among the slain the body of the blind old king of Bohemia, Prince Edward adopted his motto, "I serve," and the black armor, from which he became known as the "Black Prince." 388. King Edward followed up his victory by the siege and capture of Calais, which remained for 200 years an English port, valuable for purposes of trade, and as an ever open door to France. It is said that when Calais had been starved into surrender, King Edward demanded the lives of six chief citizens as a ransom for the rest. Freely offering themselves, six of the principal men repaired to his camp, with ropes around their necks, bearing the keys of the city, and were ordered to execution. But Queen Philip'pa had just arrived from England to render account of her own successful manage- ment of the war with the Scots. She fell on her knees and begged, as her reward, the lives of these brave men. The king could not refuse her ; and, after entertaining them most generously, she sent them back to their families loaded with gifts. 389. In a subsequent war. King John was defeated and made prisoner, at Poitiers, A. D. 1356, by a far inferior 172 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. force under the Black Prince. By the Treaty of Bretigny he engaged to pay an immense sum of money for his ransom; but the king of England at the same time renounced his claims to the French crown, with all the fiefs of William and Geoffrey (§350). He kept Aquitaine, which was made an almost independent sovereignty for Prince Edward. 390. The Black Prince died a year before his father; and his son, Richard II., became king in 1377. The wars had brought intolerable suffering to the poor people of both countries; and peasant insurrections, called in France the Jacquerie^ in England, Wat Tyler's rebellion, alarmed the rulincj classes. One hundred thousand armed A 1) i^Si. insurgents marched upon London, plundering and murdering those who opposed them. Richard met the mob with great coolness, and disarmed their rage by promising all they asked. He did, indeed, try to secure freedom for the serfs; but, in so doing, he offended the nobles, without gaining any thing for the people. Richard was unable to restrain the ambition of his three uncles, who quarreled for the chief power; and he made an enemy of his cousin, Henry of Lancaster. Returning from exile upon his father's death, Henry was joined by a great army, including most of the royal forces. With consent of parliament he assumed the crown, and put Richard in prison, where he died, A. D. 1399. 391. During this reign, Wic'liffe preached against the abuses which had crept into the church. Though among the most learned of Oxford doctors, he spoke and wrote a language which the poor people could understand. His greatest work was a translation of the Bible into their common tongue. He was bitterly opposed, but he had a powerful friend in John of Gaunt, the father of Henry of Lancaster. After his death, his bones were burned as those of a heretic, and his ashes were thrown into the Avon; but his teachings were already the property of the world. THE MAID OF ORLEANS. 173 392. The House of Lancaster. — Henry IV. (A. D. 1399- 1413), tried to please the clergy by persecuting the Lollards y or followers of Wicliffe; but the insecurity of his title was shown by three formidable insurrections. His son, Henry V. (A. D. 1413-1422), was more popular. Already as prince he had contributed much to the victory at Shrewsbury, by which the rebellion of the Percies was overthrown; but in times of peace he seemed wholly given up to gay and dissolute company. Some have thought that this was merely an artifice to disarm his father's suspicion; for Henry IV. was haunted by the fear that his son might treat him as he himself had treated Richard. 393- Upon the king's death, however, Henry V. dis- missed all his wild companions, called about him his father's best counselors, and bestowed especial favor upon one who had been honest enough to rebuke his own misconduct. He soon afterwards prepared for war with France, whose wretched condition, under a crazy king, a Avicked queen, and recklessly selfish nobles, made conquest seem an easy matter. At the field of iVgincourt, A. D. 1415- Henry's brave yeomanry gained a victory over four times their number of French. The treaty of Troyes made Henry regent of France during the life of Charles VI., whose daughter he was to marry, and upon whose death he was to succeed to the crown. Two years later, Henry V. and his infant son entered Paris in triumph. But the triumph did not last long. The two kings died in one year, and the crowns of France and England rested upon the baby brow of Henry VI., who during his life-time of 50 years never became, in intellect, more than a feeble child. 394. For six years the English ruled France, the heir to the crown having only a few cities south of the Loire. In 1428 came a wonderful change of fortune. Jo'an of Arc, a simple peasant girl, believed herself inspired of 174 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. heaven to rescue France. With her consecrated banner she appeared at the head of the dauphin's army, and excited such hopes in the French, or such terror in the Enghsh, that the latter broke up their camp and withdrew from Orleans, which they had nearly taken. She then conducted the dauphin to Rheims, where he A. D. 1429. ^^^^ crowned; and this event did much to turn the hearts of the French toward their native king. To the disgrace of Charles VII. and the English chiefs, the "Maid of Orleans," having been taken prisoner, was con- demned and burnt as a witch. 395. From amidst the smoke and flame of her execution, Joan declared that God's vengeance would pursue the English into their own land. Her prophecy was fulfilled. Step by step they were driven from all their conquests in France; while the incapacity of their king and the quarrels of his ministers left England a prey to the worst disorders. Henry married Margaret of Anjou, a brave and accom- plished princess, but her haughty spirit offended a pow- erful party among the English nobles. 396. The Duke of York now remembered that he was descended from Edward III. by an elder line than the king (see Table, p. 329). Thence arose the "Wars of the Roses," so called because the Yorkists wore a white rose, and the Lancastrians a red one as their badge. The Duke of York was slain in the battle of Wakefield; but his claim to the crown was inherited by his eldest son, who, in 1 46 1, was acknowledged as King Edward IV. Henry VI. found a more peaceful abode in the Tower. 397. House of York. — Among the foremost figures of that time is the Earl of Warwick, who was called the "Kingmaker." His estates covered many miles of territory; his armed followers were a mighty host; and victory leaned to either side where he declared himself. He aided largely in the elevation of the House of York, but, being griev- THE WARS OF THE ROSES. ' 175 oiisly offended by Edward IV., he transferred his allegiance to Henry VI., whom he released from prison, while Edward fled beyond the sea. But Edward IV. returned, and the great earl was slain at Barnet. Young Edward of Lan- caster was defeated and basely murdered at Tewkesbury, and his unhappy father died a ' ' ''*^'' few days later in prison. The reign of Edward IV. (A. D. 1461 -1483) is signalized by the introduction of printing into England by William Caxton. 398. Edward V. was but thirteen years old at his father's death. His uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, having gained possession of the young king and his brother, caused them to be murdered in the Tower, and made himself King Richard III. Richard was, undoubtedly, the ablest of his family; and though he had "waded through slaughter to a throne," he ruled • ^4 o m s- wisely and well. But the nobles were horrified by his crimes, and called for Henry Tu'dor, a descendant of the House of Lancaster, who had been living in exile (see Table p. 329). 399. Henry landed in England with a small army, which was joined by half of Richard's forces, and, in the Batde of Bosworth, gained a complete victory. King Richard was slain; his crown, found upon a thorn-bush, was placed on the head of the conqueror, who was hailed with the cry, "God save King Henry the Seventh!" The Wars of the Roses had lasted 30 years. By exter- minating many noble families, they had undermined the feudal system, which, in England, may be said to have ended with the Plantagenets. With the accession of the Tudors, modern history begins. Read Green's "Short History," Chapter v, and Chapter vi, Sec- tions 1-3. For illustration, read Shakes^^eare's Henry IV., V., VI., and Richaid HI.; and Bulwer's "Last of the Barons." CHAPTER X. HOUSE OF CAPET IN FRANCE. Louis XI. and his Barber. GUIS VI. (A. D. 1108-1137) gave the first communal privi- leges to French towns — in this and other ways lessening the power of his great vassals and raising up a class of industri- ous citizens between nobles and serfs. His son, Louis VII. (1137 — 1180), granted many more of these charters, and founded new cities for the re- ception of serfs who escaped from their masters. By marry- ing the heiress of Aquitaine, Louis annexed that great terri- tory to the crown (see Map 4), but the misconduct of the queen led him to part with her and her lands, which were soon afterward transferred to Henry II. of England (§381). A life-long rivalry grew from this. Louis not only sheltered the exiled archbishop Becket (J5 382), but even aided Queen El'eanor and her sons in their rebellion against Henry. 401. Philip II. Augustus (A. D. 1 180- 1223) curbed the great nobles by his wise management. In his reign Pope Innocent III. declared a crusade against Ray'mond, Count of Toulouse, for having sheltered his own subjects, the Albigenses, whose religious belief differed from that of the Roman Church. Even their enemies admitted that (176) REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS. 177 their religion made them obedient to all just laws, and that they were the most industrious, orderly, and valuable members of any community. The king took little notice of the contest; but many of his vassals, foremost of whom was Simon de Montfort, father of the great English earl (§ 384), hastened to join the crusade. 402. The war raged more than twenty years. Towns, villages, and fertile fields — the most prosperous region in Europe — were laid waste; the songs of the troubadours (^^427) ceased; and their very language was smitten with decay. The war went on, through the short reign of Louis VIII. (1223- 1226), and ended in that of his son, by the addition of all Count Raymond's dominions, either by direct surrender or by marriage, to the royal family. France thus became a greater maritime power; for before this it had not reached the Mediterranean. 403. The crusades of the good King Louis IX. (A. D. 1226- 1270) have been mentioned (§§ 354, 355). His reign in France was marked by a cessation of feudal vio- lence; the nobles no longer had power of life and death over their serfs; but uniform laws were enforced through- out the kingdom. On certain days all men might bring their complaints to the king, who sat under a tree in the forest of Vincennes, ready to do justice and redress wrongs, without the delay incident to the best of courts. Not content with doing justly himself, Louis restored all lands that had been wrongfully seized by his father and grandfather. Even foreign princes sometimes referred their causes to him; in England he helped to reconcile Henry HI. with his barons (§ 384). 404. Philip III. inherited a great tract of land, now in the south of France, which brought him in contact with the neighboring princes of Spain and Italy. It happened that his uncle, Charles of Anjou, was engaged in a fierce rivalry with the king of Aragon for the possession of 178 MEDLI'lVAL HlSrORV. Sicily; and this led to the first long foreign war in which France was ever engaged. It was during this war that the Sicihan Vespers occurred (^ 366). Philip IV. (A. D. 1285- 1314) is called t/ie Fair, but the term applies to his person, and not to his conduct. His ambitious schemes made him always in want of money, which he extorted in turn from Jews, abbots, Flemish merchants, and, finally, from the Knights Templars (§360). Pope Clement V., having removed his court from Rome to Avignon, was Philip's obedient tool. By their joint orders the Grand Master, Jacques de Mo'lay, was burnt to death. The order of Templars was dissolved in France, and, though their lands and fortresses were given to the Knights of St. John, their immense wealth in gold went into the coffers of the king. 405. Philip's three sons, Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV., all succeeded him within fourteen years, A. D. 13 14- 1328. The infant son of Louis died when only four days old. His brothers left only daughters. The ancient custom of the Franks had lately been made a law, excluding women from the throne. The crown, therefore, passed to Philip of Valois (A. D. 1328- 1350), a grandson of Philip III. 406. House of Valois. — The rival claims of Edward HI., the battles of Crecy and Poitiers, and the fall of Calais have already been described (§§387-389). The wars w^ere interrupted by the Black Death, ■ ^^^ ^^^'" a frightful pestilence, which, sweeping over Europe, destroyed, in three years, nearly half the popu- lation. The truce gave leisure to thousands of hireling soldiers, who roamed over the country, robbing and mur- dering at their will. Even the pope had to ransom him- self with 40,000 crowns. The poor peasants, driven to desperation by famine, pestilence, and manifold oppres- sions, turned upon their masters and, in some instances, FRANCE UNDER CHARLES VI . 1 79 demolished castles and massacred their inhabitants. Their ignorant warfare was, of course, speedily i)ut down, and they were hunted to death like wild beasts. 407. King John (A. D. 1350- 1364) was four years a prisoner, while, in addition to other miseries, Charles the Bad of Navarre, another claimant to the French crown, made much mischief in the kingdom. Charles V. (1364- 1380) was called the ]Vis€\—\\\^ wisdom had been learned in a hard school. Both as regent during his father's captivity, and afterwards as king, he managed so wisely that, though he seldom took the field in person, his great captains drove the English from all their conquests. 408. The kingdoms of England and France were placed, after his death, in very similar circumstances: Richard II., in the one (§390), and Charles VI. (A. D. 1380-1422), in the other, were minors — each at the mercy of three powerful uncles, who used the public treasures to help their own ambidon. In Naples, the House of Anjou (g 404) had ended in Queen Toan'na, who, havim; no A. D i-'Si children, adopted Louis, uncle of Charles VI., as her heir. This adoption cost France more than a hun- dred years of war. The Duke of Anjou, seizing all the gold he could lay his hands on, marched into Italy, where he and most of his army died of the plague. 409. The princes who stayed at home, made still more trouble. The Duke of Burgundy married the heiress of Flanders, and thus became richer than any sovereign prince in Europe. His son murdered his cousin, the duke of Orleans, and, a few years later, was himself murdered by a servant of his victim. Believing that the dauphin, who saw the crime, had planned, or at least permitted it, the new duke of Burgundy joined the English who had invaded the country (§393). The king had now become a hopeless maniac. Henry V., of England, married his daughter, and was proclaimed regent of France. But the i8o MEDIEVAL HISTORY. crazy king and his son-in-law died within eight weeks of each other, A. D. 1422. 410. The infant son of Henry and Catherine of France was crowned at Paris, while the true heir to the crown was so poor that he is said to have been arrested by a shoemaker, whose bill he could not pay. His fortunes were retrieved by the interposition of Joan of Arc (§ 394). Dissensions among the English saved France. In spite of his own indolence, Charles VH. (A. D. 1422-1461) regained all that himself and his father had lost, and only Calais remained to the English of all their conquests in France. 411. Louis XI. (A. D. 1461-1483), son of Charles VIL, was a far abler man than his father, but his fals- ity of character made him one of the most contemptible figures in history. While dauphin, having incurred his father's displeasure, he took refuge with Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, who received him with great gener- osity. Louis proved his gratitude by poisoning the mind of the duke's only son with unfilial suspicions, and tam- pering with his servants. He and Charles of Burgundy were ever afterwards enemies and rivals. 412. The great effort of Louis' reign, was to exalt the power of the crown by weakening the Church and the nobles. His great vassals joined against him in a "League of the Public Weal," which had, at one time, 100,000 men on foot. Louis dissolved this force more by gold than steel. He stirred up rebellions in the Flemish cities, and once was caught in the trap which he had set, being imprisoned, by Charles, in the tower of Peronne. 413. Charles the Bold, as he is called, having made himself master of all the Netherlands, by purchase or inheritance, wished to revive the "Middle Kingdom" of Lothaire (see Map No. 7, and § 314, note). The em- peror, Frederic HI., promised to crown him at Treves, LAST DA YS OF LOUIS XL i8i but, changing his mind, stole away in the night, leaving Charles with his imconsecrated crown. Louis stirred the Swiss to attack Charles, who was defeated by them at Granson and Morat, and shortly after- wards slain at Nancy, in a battle wdth the duke of Lor- raine. The king of France seized his duchy of Burgundy; but the rich inheritance of the Netherlands passed, with the hand of the young duchess Mary, to Maximil'ian of Austria. 414. Louis suffered the natural consequences of a life of fraud in the wretched suspicions which haunted his last years. He shut himself in a lonely castle and ordered his archers to shoot at every living thing that approached. Even his own children were excluded; his constant com- panions were Oliver le Daim, barber and hangman, and James Coettier, astrologer and physician. The latter gov- erned Louis through his superstition by declaring that his own death would shortly precede that of the king. Never was man's health more cared for than that of this wily doctor. But at length the wretched king died, leaving his only son, at the age of fourteen, deformed in body and feeble in mind. The reign of Charles VIIL (A. D. 1483 -1498) belongs, properly, to modern history. Point out, on Maps No, 7 and ii, Granson, Morat, Crecy, Poitiers, Calais. The duchy of Burgundy. The Netherlands (named, §512, note ) . Read Michelet's History of France, Kirk's Chsrles the Bold, and Scott's Quentin Durward. CHAPTER XI. THE EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH. ,HE history of Germany during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is a story of turbu- lence and misrule (see § 363). A quarrel, over the choice of an emperor, occasioned a dis- tracting civil war, A. D. 13 14- 1328. Most of the nobles chose PYederic of Austria; but the primate and the people of the great towns preferred Louis of Bavaria, who at length took his rival prisoner at the battle of M till 1 dor f, and reigned, though not in peace, until 1347. 416. His successor, Charles IV., settled the rank and privileges of the seven Electors, whose duty it was to choose the emperors and assist at their coronation. They were the three archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, and four lay-princes: the king of Bohemia, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, and the count- palatine of the Rhine. Until he was crowned at Rome, the chosen prince bore only the title of Emperor-<"/2^. Name and describe the oldest universities. 426 84. Wliat changes occurred in European languages? 427, 428 85. What led to the revival of Learning? 429 86. What important inventions toward the end of the Middle Ages? 430, 43I 87. How were several western nations consolidated ? 432, 433 88. Describe the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 434, 435 89. The Portuguese voyages of discovery. 435 90. Tell the story of Columbus. 436, 437 91. Describe the New World and its inhaljitants. 438 92. Name other discovei'ers and their enterprises. 436-439 BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. THE FRENCH IN ITALY. W French Troops Entering an Italian City. E have seen that the invention of gunpowder (§430) destroyed the miHtary supremacy of knights and nobles, but at first it seemed hkely to aggrandize the kings more than it elevated the people. Instead of the feudal levies, which served, at most, only forty days at a term, and were always crumbling away when most needed, a king could now have a regular standing army at his command ; and long foreign wars became possible. 441. The first of these modern expeditions was the madcap invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France (§ 414). The pretext was in the claim of his house to the crown of Naples (§408), but an imme- (197) 198 MODERN HISTORY. diate reason was that Lu'dovi'ro Sfor'za wanted to poison his nephew, the duke of Milan, and thought that the pres- ence of a French king as his ally might prevent the pun- ishment of his crime. 442. Alexander VI. (A. D. 1492 -1503) was the worst pope that ever disgraced the throne of St. Peter, and all Italy was filled with corruption and violence. At Flor- ence the eloquent sermons of Savon'aro'la, a Dominican monk, effected a partial reformation of morals. He de- clared that the French were ministers of divine wrath against the wickedness of the times; and welcomed their king to Florence; but, when Charles proposed to tax the city and recall the Medici (i§ 370) who had just been ex- pelled, the Florentines flew to arms, and he was forced to retire. 443. Charles passed through Rome to Naples. The Aragonese king (^ 366) abdicated, his son was expelled from the capital, and the whole kingdom was gained by the French almost without a blow. But Charles' foolish vanity and arrogance roused the indignation of the Neapol- itans; and by this time all Italy had recovered from its first shock of alarm, and had united in a league against him. He quitted Naples for the north, and the kingdom was lost as speedily as it had been won. 444. This foolish war kindled a thirst for conquest in the kings of France, for which Italy suffered long. At the same time it led to better acquaintance among the na- tions, which resulted in some important alliances. Philip, heir of the Netherlands, married Joan'na, daughter of Fer- dinand and Isabella of Spain; while her younger sister, Cath'erine, became the wife of Arthur of England, and, upon his death, of his brother Henry, the heir of the English crown. These two marriages may be said to have shaped the history of the sixteenth century. Charles, son of Philip and Joanna, inherited Spain and the Indies, IVA/^S IN ITALY. 199 southern Italy and the Netherlands, and was elected to the imperial crown, A. D. 15 19, which made him the foremost figure in that eventful age, 445. Charles VI 1 1, of France left no son, and, upon his early death, the crown went to his cousin Louis, duke of Orleans. To the royal claim ' ^'*'^^' upon Naples, Louis XII. added a title of his own to the duchy of Milan, and soon sent an army to enforce it. All Lombardy was annexed without a blow, and the king- dom of Naples was almost as easily reconquered. But Ferdinand of Aragon — the craftiest monarch of his age — though an ally of Louis, gained possession of the Neapol- itan fortresses by trickery, and drove out all the French. And, though Louis doomed thousands of brave men to die of pestilence in the marshes of southern Italy, he never succeeded either in regaining the kingdom or in punishing the fraud. 446. The League of Cam])ray united the emperor, the pope, and the kings of France and Spain against the Venetian Republic. It was the first close alliance of great European powers since the crusades; and, oddly enough, its manifesto declared their main object to be a war against the ''Infidel," after having first put an end to the ambition and greed of Venice. This republic was, in fact, the only effective opponent of the Turks, and had just ended a war which deprived them of important dominions in the Levant. 447. The war of die League was carried on with fright- ful brutality. In one instance 6,000 men, women, and children w^z smothered in a cave near Padua, the French soldiers ng deliberately kindled a fire at its entrance. The po] 'lius II., suddenly turned the balance by quit- ting his cv. lind forming a "Holy League," with Spain .. \ Venice, against the French. Untamed by o ) age or his peaceful profession, he con- 200 MODERN HISTORY. stantly appeared on horseback at the head of his troops, enduring all the hardships of a severe winter. Gaston de Foix, the French commander, was called the " Thunder- bolt of Italy" on account of his swift, decisive movements. He gained many victories, but he was killed in the great battle of Ravenna, A. D. 15 12, and a few weeks later only three towns and three fortresses remained to the French of all their conquests in Italy. 448. The warlike Pope Julius was succeeded, in 15 13, by the Cardinal de' Medici, who took the name of Leo X. He resembled his father, Lorenzo (§370) in the perfec- tion of his tastes in art and literature, and in his liberal and courteous manners. But he was a pagan in faith and a libertine in morals; and he used his great power chiefly to enrich his family, who were again supreme in Florence. Louis XII. died in 15 15, and his rival, Ferdinand, in 1 5 16, Ferdinand was the most successful monarch of his age, but his character is stained by falsehood, ingratitude, and base injustice. 449. Francis I. (A. D. 15 15 -1547), succeeding his cousin as king of France, lost no time in renewing the war in Italy. His generals conducted an army of 64,000 men across the Alps by paths trodden hitherto only by mountain goats, and surprised the enemy by a sudden appearance upon the Lombard plain. The battle of Ma- rignano regained the Milanese duchy for Francis. 450. The emperor Maximilian died in 15 19, and the seven electors bestowed the crown upon Charles of Spain. In his envy and disappointment, Francis sought the alli- ance of Henry VIII. of England against the nev" emperor, and had with him, near Calais, a is inter- view, known as the Field of the (^ of Gold, from the brilliant display of trappings on ei' side. But the emperor was, at the same time, courti ^ lUe friendship of Henry and his great minister Wolse^ , promising his FRAXCIS I. A PRISONER. 201 influence to make the latter pope at the next vacancy. Henry tried to make peace between his two great allies ; but the causes of enmity were too deeply seated, and the contests for Burgundy, Milan, and Naples broadened into an almost continuous war of two hundred years between France and the House of Austria. 451. In 152 1, Francis lost the duchy of Milan, and Pope Leo X. is said to have died of joy at the news. He was succeeded, in the papal chair, by Adrian, tutor of Charles V. — an honest man, who purified the Roman court during the few months of his reign. Francis was just ready for a new invasion of Italy, when he was de- serted by his kinsman and most powerful subject, the Duke de Bourbon. Having been injured and bitterly in- sulted by the king's mother, Bourbon went over to the emperor, and agreed with him and the English king, upon a triple partition of France. Henry VIII. actually advanced within thirty-three miles of Paris; but his allies failed to support him, and France was not divided. 452. In 1524, Francis marched into Italy with every prospect of victory. He was defeated, however, by Bour- bon, in a great battle before Pavia, and was made a pris- oner. For a year he was held a captive in Spain, and finally released only upon his promise to restore Burgundy (§413) to Charles. As soon as he was free, Francis broke his royal word, and hostilities were renewed. He gained little, although Pavia was taken and given up to pillage in revenge for his disaster before its walls. A truce was agreed upon in the treaty of Cambray — known as the Ladies' Peace, because it was negotiated by the emperor's aunt and the king's mother, A. D. 1529. Trace the march of Charles VIII, through Italy. Point out Ravenna. Padua, Pavia. Milan. Venice. The dominions of Charles V,, ^444. Read Villari's Life of Savonarola; Ranke's History of the Popes: Dyer's History of Modern Europe, Vol. I. CHAPTER 11. CHARLES V. AND THE REFORMATION — THE TURKS. HE separation of most of the northern nations of Europe from the Roman Church was the greatest event of the sixteenth century. Its causes liad been at work ever since the time of the Crusades. Wealth and undisputed power had brought abuses into the church ; and the more men learned to think for themselves, the less they were able to believe that such popes as Alexander VI. were the true representatives of Christ upon earth. 454. The principal leader of the Reformation was Martin Luther, a German miner's son. In his youth he was a charity scholar, earning his bread by singing hymns from house to house. The sudden death of a friend aroused his religious feelings, and, (putting the study of the law, he became a monk. Visiting Rome, he saw evidences of the corruption of the clergy, which filled him with horror. 455. About this time the sale of ''Indulgences," by the priests, became common. At first, money had been paid merely as a commutation for the temporal penalties which the church was accustomed to inflict; but the change was not very great from the pardon of past to indulgence for future offenses. Tet'zel, a Dominican monk, but a man of (202) A German Nobleman. MARTIN LUTHER. 203 infamous life, was the agent in Germany. A gay young knight, who saw here a chance for sport, bought permis- sion to beat and pknider a man for whom he said he had a thorough contempt. The paper being duly signed, and a liberal price paid, he fell upon Tetzel himself in a wood, with a band of armed retainers, and robbed him of the chest of gold which he had gained by the sale of his wares. 456. Lu'ther, now a famous professor at Wittenberg, preached boldly against this traffic, and the good sense of the German people sustained him, even when he nailed to the church door his 95 theses, declaring that remission of sins is from God alone. He was summoned to Rome to be tried for heresy, but his sovereign, the elector of Saxony, forbade him to go. The pope excommunicated him, and the emperor cited him to appear before the diet at Worms. Here he firmly refused to retract any of his teachings unless they could be refuted from the Bible. Many urged the emperor to imprison him for his boldness; but Charles respected his own word, which was pledged for Luther's safety, and replied, "No, I will not blush like Sigismund at Constance" (§419). The reformer was, however, declared an outlaw, together with all who .should shelter him, or print, buy, sell, or read his books. Seeing his danger, the elector Frederic ordered him to be shut up in the Wartburg, where he spent a year in making a German translation of the Scriptures. 457. Luther was called from his retreat by news of disorderly movements among the people, who hoped that the "new religion" was going to right all their wrongs at once. Some of them even expected an ecpial distribution of property, and began to i)lunder churches, convents, and castles. While urging the princes and nobles to do justice, and provide for the education of the peojile, Luther advised the latter to submit to their lawful rulers. Order was not restored without the loss of 100,000 lives. 204 MODERN HISTORY. 458. While the pope himself was a prisoner in the hands of the emperor (§461), and the Turks were threatening all Christendom alike, Charles was compelled to favor the reformers, who united themselves in the league of Torgau, 1526. Three years later, the diet at Spires decreed that no changes from the worship and doctrine of the old church should be allowed. Nine German princes and fifteen free cities protested against this decree; whence the reforming party took the name of Protestants. 459- I^y ^^li^ time, Denmark and Sweden, as well as a great part of Germany, had accepted the doctrines of Luther. A similar reformation had been going on in Switzerland under Zwing'li, who persuaded the Council of Z.urich to declare the Scriptures to be the only standard of faith. In PYench Switzerland, Farel' and Cal'vin con- tinued the work which Zwingli had begun; while in France itself, a numerous party, including the king's sister. Queen Margaret of Navarre, believed in the reformed doctrines. 460. In the meantime, all Europe trembled at the prog- ress of Sol'yman the Magnificent, the ablest of the Turkish monarchs. Three great fortresses of Hungary were taken by him in the summer of 1521; - posed to favor his Flemish subjects, to the great discontent of the Spaniards. But he constantly violated the chartered rights of the provinces which he had sworn to maintain. By eleven successive edicts, and by the establishment of the Inquisition, Charles tried to stop the Reformation in the Netherlands, and many of his best subjects sealed their faith with their blood. 514. Philip II. (^470) was a still more cruel bigot. He declared that he would lose a hundred thousand lives • rather than see any of his dominions severed from the ancient church. On his departure for Spain, Philip entrusted the regency of the Netherlands * '^^^ to his half-sister, the Duches^ of Parma. Among her councilors was William, Prince of Orange, then chiefly renowned for his vast wealth and illustrious descent, but soon to win a nobler fame by his self-denying patriotism. 515. Philip's stern order of "death to heretics,' led many thousands to seek safety in other lands ( >i 506 ). The Prince of Orange, as governor of Holland and Zea- land, refused to permit the burning of his countrymen, and many nobles and citizens leagued themselves to demand a retraction of the hated edicts. The duchess was alarmed, but her council branded the petitioners as a "pack of beggars." The name was adopted by the nobles them- selves at a banquet, with shouts of merriment and cries of "Long live the Beggars I' 516. Thousands of the people now began to meet in excited crowds, which broke into cathedrals, shattered the beautiful stained glass of their windows, and dashed the images to the ground. In a batde near Ant- werp, 1800 "Beggars" were slain. Philip now ' ' ^^ ^' sent the Duke of Alva, a pitiless monster, to put down resistance with fire and sword. Defying all the laws, he organized a "Council of Blood" in his own house, and 2 26 MODERN HISTORY. summoned before it the chief opponents of the edicts. The Prince of Orange, now in Germany, refused to appear. Counts Egmont and Horn were tried and beheaded in the great square at Brussels, A. D. 1568. A decree of the Inquisition condemned the entire population of the Nether- lands, with a few special exceptions, to death ! Of course this was not literally executed, but it removed the protec- tion of law from all; and Alva boasted of 18,000 lives destroyed during his regency. 517. Industry ceased; towns were deserted; all the Avealthy who could leave fled beyond the sea; many bold spirits took to privateering, and made the name of "Sea Beggars" a terror to Spanish sailors. Their prizes were at first carried into English ports; but, after four years. Queen Elizabeth forbade this for fear of involving herself in a war with Spain. The- Sea Beggars then seized Briel, the capital of Zealand, and made it the beginning of a new Republic. The four provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht declared the Prince Tulv I^ 1^72, of Orange their lawful "stadtholder," or lieu- tenant, during the absence of Philip II. In 1573, Alva was succeeded by Requesens, a just man, who at least put a stop to indiscriminate murders. But the war still went on. 518. The prince lost several Lattles, and, in 1574, his brother, Louis of Nassau, was slain near Nimeguen. But the spirit of the whole people was aroused, and their constancy was proved by th^ir heroic defense of Haarlem, Alkmaar, and Leyden, against the besieging forces of the Spaniards. Leyden was relieved only by cutting the dykes and letting the sea overflow the surrounding ^^^''' country, that the fleet of the prince might approach its walls. At last the starving citizens were fed, and then all went in procession to the cathedral to thank God for His great deliverance. THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 227 519. The death of Reqiiescns, in 1576, was followed by new horrors; for his unpaid soldiery were set loose upon the cities, plundering, destroying, and murdering at their will. In Antwerp alone 1,000 houses were burned, and 8,000 people were killed. Under this distress, the Prince of Orange persuaded all the provinces to unite themselves in the Pacification of Ghent, and afterwards in the still closer Union of Brussels. But, unhappily, the different parties could not agree; the union was dissolved, and the seventeen provinces were never reunited until 18 14. The prince, however, secured a permanent union of the seven northern states, under the name of the United Netherlands. Holland far excelled the others in power and wealth, and the whole confederation is commonly called the Dutch Republic. 520. John of Austria, the hero of Lepanto (§561), was now intrusted, by Philip, with the government of the Netherlands. He gained a great victory at Gemblours, which almost annihilated the army of the States; but he died two years later, and was succeeded by Alexander of Parma, son of the former regent, and the geatest general of his time. In 1581, the thirteen Flemish and northern provinces formally cast off their allegiance to Philip II., and conferred their sovereignty upon the Duke of Anjou, brother of the French king, who solemnly swore to defend and maintain their liberties according to the charters. But he was a traitor at heart, and, upon his giving up Antwerp to be plundered by his soldiers, he was driven into France. 521. In 1584, the Prince of Orange was murdered in his own house by a hired agent of Philip of Spain. This foul crime seemed a death-blow to the liberties of the Netherlands; for the wisdom, firmness, and incorruptible fidelity of the prince had been their only sure dependence amid dissensions within and dano;ers from without. But 228 MODERN HISTORY. the blow aroused the States to the necessity of united action; and, on the very day of the murder, the represent- atives of Holland declared their resolution "to maintain the good cause, with God's help, to the uttefmost, without sparing gold or blood." 522. The year following the prince's death was sadly marked by the fall of Antwerp. It had bravely withstood thirteen months' siege by Alexander of Parma; when it was taken, the ruined homes of its citizens supplied materials for a new fortress, while grass grew and cattle fed in streets which had been crowded with traders from all parts of the world. Antwerp had succeeded Florence (§369) as the banking center of Europe; this distinction now passed to London, whither great numbers of its bankers and merchants removed. 523. In 1596, both England and France became allies of the States against Spain. Cadiz was taken and plun- dered, and many treasure-laden vessels from the Spanish colonies became the prizes of the Sea Beggars. The war was ended by the Peace of Vervins in May, 1598. A few days later, the ten southern provinces of the Netherlands were settled upon Philip's daughter Isabella and her hus- band; and, for fear that either should exceed the other in rank, both were styled '■'■ the Archduke s.^^ 524. The eldest son of the Prince of Orange was a prisoner in Spain. The second son, Maurice of Nassau, succeeded to the command of the States' forces, and, as he grew to manhood, developed extraordinary talents for war. He gained the battle of Turnhout by the then novel device of arming his cavalry with pistols. At length, in 1609, an honorable truce closed forty years' war with Spain, and secured to the Dutch Republic not only its undisputed territory at home, but the Spice Islands, and freedom of trade with both Indies. Not until forty years later, however, did Spain acknowledge its independence. DEATH OF PHILIP //. 229 525. In 1598, Philip died. His 42 years' reign had begun in unexampled prosperity, and ended in disgrace. In 1580 he had conquered Portugal and added all her rich possessions in Asia and America (§§435, 436) to his own dominions, which now included one third of all the land on the globe. But he had ruined his realms by his stupid tyranny; and, with all the gold and diamonds of the New World at his disposal, he died a bankrupt. His son, Philip III., was a dull bigot, and though his dominion was still the greatest in Europe, it ceased to have a con- trolling part in the world's affairs. The United Netherlands were already the chief maritime nation in the world. Their sailors were the boldest and most skillful, their ships the best modeled; and a Dutch Indiaman would sail round the globe while a Spaniard or Portuguese was making only the outward passage to Asia. Naturally, therefore, the rich commerce with the Indies fell into the hands of the Dutch. They had a thousand vessels engaged in the Baltic trade, and nearly as many more in fisheries. Meanwhile the industry of farmers and manufacturers had made the Seven States the most pros- perous and productive portion of the European continent. Point out, on Map No. 11, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Leyden, Amsterdam. The seven (northern) United Netherlands. The ten (southern) Spanish Netherlands. Read Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic" and "History of the United Netherlands." CHAPTER VI. THE STUARTS IN ENGLAND. Engli sh Costumes, XVII Century. PON the death of EHzabeth (§ 510) the crowns of England and Scot- land were united in James Stuart, a great grandson of Henry VII. 1^ (see Table, p. 223), though the two countries had still their sepa- rate parliaments. James I. (A. D. 1603- 1625) brought a new idea of royalty into England, namely, that of his "divine right" as the "Lord's Anointed" to overrule all laws. He told the House of Com- mons that it existed by the gracious permission of his ancestors, and would continue to exist only so long as it suited him. The king's slovenly, slouching person and un- dignified manners made a curious contrast to these high pretensions. 527. James hated the Puritans, now a large party in the English Church, who desired some further reforms in the ritual; and he offended them by his "Book of Sports," in which he recommended public amusements on the Lord's day. Finding that they could expect no favor, nor even justice at home, several congregations, now deciding to (230) REIGN OF JAMES I. 231 quit the established Church, took refuge in Holland. We owe to King James, however, our present authorized version of the Bible, which was made by a commission of learned men at his command. 528. Several conspiracies disturbed the early years of this reign. One was the " Gunpowder Plot" of the dis- contented Papists, to blow up the Parliament houses, when all the members were assembled to hear the king's speech. It was detected in time, and Guy Fawkes, a paid agent of the conspirators, was put to death. In another and less atrocious plot, Sir Walter Raleigh was accused of having part. He was thrown into the Tower, where he beguiled twelve gloomy years of imprisonment by writing his His- tory of the World. Then, without removing his sentence, the king sent him to lead a perilous attack upon Guiana, Avhere Raleigh lost his son and all his fortune, and re- turned only to lay his head upon the block. ""Tis a sharp medicine," said he, with a smile, as he passed his finger along the executioner's axe, "but it is a cure for all ills." 529. The reign of James is more honorably noted as an era of colonization. Thousands of Scottish settlers estab- lished their linen-making and other industries in the north of Ireland, which had been laid waste by Tyrone's Rebel- lion. The East India Company, w^hich had received its first charter from Elizabeth, set up a factory at Surat, in Hindustan. The earliest English town within the present limits of the United States bore the kini^'s A. D. 1607. name. At first idle adventurers flocked to Jamestown, expecting to find gold without labor, and they were nearly cut off by famine; but the energy and good sense of Captain John Smith brought about a better state of affairs. A different sort of adventurers landed, in 1620, on the rock-bound coast of Plymouth Bay. They were the refugees from Holland (§ 527), who had now resolved 232 MODERN HISTORY. to found a new state, where they could bring up their children in the language and customs of their native land, while enjoying a freedom of worship which England would not afford. 530. Europe was now trembling with the first shock of the Thirty Years' War. Frederic, elector-palatine, had married the English princess, Elizabeth, and looked to her father for aid in his resistance to the Austrian power (§§ 5^4» 566). But James seemed not even to understand the policy of his great predecessor, which made England the head of Protestant interests in Europe. He allowed Frederic to be driven, not only from his new kingdom of Bohemia, but from the home of his fathers; and Elizabeth, with her children, had to beg for shelter at foreign courts. James, meanwhile, was sacrificing his own dignity and the interests of his people for the sake of a Spanish marriage for his son, which, after all, was refused him. Charles married a Bourbon princess, Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis Xni. 531. Charles I. (A. D. 1625- 1649) began his reign, without money, on the eve of war with Spain. The Com- mons distrusted him, and would grant supplies only for a year at a time. Charles thereupon dismissed them, and tried to raise money by forced loans and arbitrary taxes; but these unlawful proceedings offended the people more than they helped the king. His war resulted in failure; but he was soon led by his favorite Buckingham to aid the Huguenots of Rochelle against the armies of Louis XHL This, too, failed, and Buckingham was assassinated while preparing for a new attempt. 532. In his domestic relations, Charles was worthy of all respect; but, in his acts as a king, he added his father's arbitrary temper to that falsity of character which had cost his grandmother her crown and her life (§ 505). The Parliament of 1628 demanded his assent to a Petition of THE LONG PARLIAMENT. 233 Rights, before it would take up the question of supplies. The king signed this ''second great charter of English Freedom" (§ Z^z)^ ^'-it he violated it almost as soon as the Parliament had dispersed, by levying ''ship-money" on his own authority. 533. John Hampden, a wealthy gentleman who had been twice a member of Parliament, refused to pay this tax, that he might bring the matter to a test before the courts. Seven of the twelve judges decided against him, because they dared not displease the king; but his bold resistance was q,n example and encouragement to the nation. 534. Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, who had at first resisted the king's demands, deserted the cause of the people and became a chief agent in oppression. Arch- bishop Laud carried the same spirit into matters of relig- ion, by restoring some Romish usages in worship which the mass of the nation regarded as idolatrous. The king wished to impose the same ritual upon Scotland, but here he met a sturdy resistance. The famous Cove- nant, signed partly with the blood of the writers, • ^ 3 • bound the whole Scottish people to oppose all "errors and corruptions" contrary to the reformed faith. 535. In 1640, an army of the "Covenanters" invaded England, and threatened York, where the king was resid- ing. Charles was now compelled to summon the "Long Parliament," so called because it continued its sessions thirteen years. Before it would grant money, it impeached Strafford and Laud, abolished the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission, which had become infamously cor- rupt, and ordered to trial all the tools of the king's oppres- sions. Strafford was beheaded; and Laud, after four years' imprisonment, suffered the same fate. 536. A fierce rebellion broke out in Ireland, in October, 1 64 1. The Scotch colonists (§ 529) were massacred or Hist.— 20. 234 MODERN HISTORY. driven from their homes, and only Dubhn remained subject to the EngHsh. A rash attempt of the king to arrest five members of ParHament now plunged England into civil war. London and the great cities, with the Puritans, were generally on the side of Parliament; while the nobles and clergy and all the young cavaliers, who loved a gay life and hated Puritan strictness, took part with the king. 537. Charles' cavalry was led by his nephew, Prince Rupert, son of that German elector who had tried to be king of Bohemia. In 1644, Parliament allied itself with the Scots, who sent an army to besiege York. In g. furi- ous battle on Marston Moor, Prince Rupert and the royal forces were defeated, and the next year Fairfax and Crom- well, the parliamentary generals, gained a still more de- cisive victory over the king's army at Naseby. 538. Charles at length took refuge with the Scots, but he refused to sign the Covenant, and was therefore sur- rendered to the English Parliament. He was treated with respect, but all attempts at agreement came to naught. Charles would abate nothing of his "divine rights," while his opponents stood firmly for the liberties of the people. At length a court of one hundred and fifty judges was appointed to try Charles Stuart for treason in having levied war against the Parliament. He was condemned, and, notwithstanding the protest of the Scots, was beheaded at Whitehall, January 30, 1649. 539. The Commonwealth. — The English Commons proceeded to abolish monarchy and all titles of nobility, and to proclaim the Commonwealth (A. D. 1649- 1660). The Scots crowned Charles the Second as their king, upon his signing the Covenant and declaring himself humbled and grieved in spirit for the sins of his father. Charles afterwards exacted a bitter revenge for the hypocrisy he had been made to practice. Cromwell and his "Ironsides" first subdued the Irish rebellion (§ 536), then gained a CROMWELL, PROTECTOR. 235 great victory over the Scots at Dunbar and captured Edin- burgh and Leith. Charles seized the opportunity to slip into England, hoping that many royalists would join him, but he was disappointed, and so thoroughly de- feated at Worcester that he had to take refuge beyond the sea; while Scotland, Ireland, and the American colonies submitted to the Commonwealth. 540. Parliament soon provoked a war with the neigh- boring republic of Holland, England's maritime rival. The English admiral Blake and the Dutch Van Tromp fought many obstinate battles, after one of which Van Tromp tied a broom to his masthead and sailed triumph- antly up and down the channel, showing his determina- tion to sweep the English from the seas. The war closed, however, with reverses to the Dutch, who consented to lower their flags whenever they met an English vessel. 541. The Long Parliament had now become an in- sufferable despotism, but there was no power that could legally dissolve it. Cromwell undertook to do this by military force. Repairing to Westminster with a guard of soldiers, he reproached the members with their tyranny, ambition, and robbery of the people, and ended by crying out: "For shame! Get you gone! Give place to hon- ester men ! You are no longer a parliament ! " His sol- diers cleared the hall and locked the doors. He then summoned a new Parliament, in which, for the first time, the representatives of Scotland and Ireland sat with those of England. This Parliament con- ferred sovereign power upon Cromwell, with the title of Eord Protector for life. 542. England now regained the respect which she had lost under the vacillating rule of the Stuarts. Cromwell demanded justice for the persecuted Vaudois as a condi- tion of his alliance with France against Spain. From the latter he wrested the rich island of Jamaica, and the im- 236 MODERN HISTORY. portant harbor and fortress of Dunkirk. But Cromwell bitterly felt that his power was usurped and despotic. Some of his acts were more arbitrary than those for which Charles was beheaded. He, too, had levied taxes without consent of Parliament, and had imprisoned lawyers who appeared in defense of the victims. 543. Assassins, paid by Charles II., constantly dogged his steps; the reproaches of his conscience, deepened, it is said, by those of his dying daughter, harassed his mind. A slow fever consumed him, and he died, on the anni- versary of his great victories of Dunbar and Worcester, September 3, 1658. His son Richard, though acknowl- edged as Protector, found himself unequal to the office, and resigned his place. No one was great enough, though several men were quite willing, to be intrusted with the government, and the dread of anarchy led the nation to welcome Charles II. as their king. 544. The Restoration. — Charles II. (A. D. 1660- 1685) entered London amid the clang of bells, the blaze of bonfires, and the shouts of a rejoicing people. He began his reign with amnesty to all political offenders, except a few who had been actively concerned in his father's death. The church was restored to the authority it had enjoyed under James I., and 2,000 dissenting min- isters were expelled from their parishes. Greater severi- ties were inflicted upon the Scots, who chose to meet for worship in lonely recesses of mountain and moor, rather than be false to their covenant. These congregations were often ridden down by the king's troopers, and men, women, and children were put to the sword. 545. In 1664, a new war broke out with the Dutch, who lost their American province between the Hudson and Delaware rivers. It was conferred on the king's brother, James, duke of York, and the northern part has ever since borne his title. During this war two great REIGN OF CHARLES IT. 237 calamities visited London — the Plague, which destroyed 100,000 lives, and the Great Fire, which consumed 13,000 dwellings and 90 churches. 546. Charles, by this time, had disgusted his best friends by the shameful licentiousness of his court He dismissed his faithful chancellor. Lord Clarendon, who reproved his vices, and allowed his government to fall into the hands of unscrupulous politicians. He married a Portuguese prin- cess, Catharine of Braganza; but he treated her with rude neglect, and even allowed her to be insulted by his court- iers. He sold Dunkirk to the French to raise money for his idle pleasures, and actually accepted a pension from Louis XIV., to betray the religion and the independence of England. He was, however, compelled by Parliament to join in the Triple Alliance (§ 622) to restrain the aggres- sions of his too-powerful cousin. 547. The duke of York, about this time, declared him- self a Romanist, and the king was, secretly, of the same mind, so far as he had any religion at all. The people, recalling the dangers of a hundred years before (§§ 505- 508), were ready to believe the false stories of one Titus Oates, who told of a "popish plot" to kill the king and all Protestants, burn London, and crown the duke of York. The excitement became so great, and such rewards were offered for further evidence, that every day brought forth a swarm of new stories, each more atro- cious than the last. But, when the aged and estimable Lord Stafford was actually beheaded for supposed com- plicity in the "plot," remorse and grief took the place of credulity, and Oates was at last punished as he deserved. 548. The "Rye-House Plot," A. D. 1683, was a real scheme to kill the king and his brother on their way to the Newmarket races. Its authors were common ruffians, who were easily detected and punished. Six nobles and gentle- men were at the same time planning some change in the 238 MODERN IirSTORY. government, though their designs did not probably include either treason or murder. One was the duke of Mon- mouth, a son of the king and a low-born woman; another was Algernon Sidney, a noble-minded republican by theory, who had opposed the absolute power of Cromwell as well as that of Charles. Monmouth ran away, but was after- wards pardoned and received at court; Sidney and Lord Russell were tried, condemned, and beheaded on unproven charges of having had part in the Rye-House Plot. 549. The names of "Whig" and "Tory" now first appeared in England, the former applied to the party which stood for the rights of the people; the latter, to that which accepted the Stuart notion of the absolute authority of kings. To the Whigs we owe the full estab- lishment of the Habeas Corpus Act, entitling ■ ' ^^' every prisoner to a speedy trial, and thus pre- venting arbitrary imprisonments. This guarantee of per- sonal freedom is found in every nation which has derived its ideas of law and justice from England. 550. The reign of Charles II. was a great era in science. Newton discovered the law of gravitation ; Boyle investigated the properties of the atmosphere; Hobbes and Locke discoursed of the human mind, its laws and rela- tions to matter. Meanwhile, Milton, in blindness and pov- erty, was composing the greatest epic poem in the language — Paradise Lost. He had been secretary to Cromwell, and devoted his splendid talents to the service of the Commonwealth. He was treated with contemptuous neg- lect by the courtiers of Charles, but later ages know better how to appreciate him. John Bunyan, tinker and preacher, during his twelve years' imprisonment in Bedford jail, wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress," which has probably had more readers than any other English book. 551. Charles left no son entitled to succeed him, and his brother James (A. D. 1685-1688) accordingly became DETHRONEMENT OF JAMES II. 239 king upon his death. Taking advantage of the popular fear of popery, the duke of Monmouth made a rash attempt to seize his uncle's crown. With his little army he met the king's forces at Sedgemoor, where he was defeated, made a prisoner, and condemned to the scaffold. A brutal revenge for this insurrection was taken by Kirke wMth his dragoons, and afterwards by Jeffreys, the drunken chief justice, who condemned innocent and guilty alike. 552. The king soon took steps for the restoration of popery, and thrust into the Tower seven venerable bishops, who had ventured to remonstrate. The people had been patiently waiting for the king to die, that his daughter, \\\\o had married the Prince of Orange — great grandson of the liberator of the Netherlands (§§ 514-521) — might come to the throne. The birth of an English prince, in 1688, disappointed this hope and hastened the Revolution. 553. William of Orange was the leader of Protestant Europe against Louis XIV., as Elizabeth had been against Philip of Spain. The best men in England now joined in inviting him to come and deliver them from misrule. In November, 1688, he appeared with a fleet on the English coast, and both parties declared for him. The queen and her baby-son escaped to France, where the king soon joined them. Louis received them with kindness, main- tained a court for them and their needy followers, and sup- plied fleets and armies to enforce their claims in Ireland. 554. Parliament conferred the crown upon William and Mary as joint sovereigns, and they set their seal to a new Bill of Rights, which established just relations between the people and the throne. The Scotch Parliament also acknowledged William and Mary, but in Ireland an immense majority held out for James, and there the deposed king landed w^ith a French force, and besieged Londonderry. The citizens bravely endured a three months' siege, though hundreds died in the streets 240 MODERN HISTORY. from hunger and disease, and at length James had to withdraw. The last decisive battle was on the River Boyne, where both kings were present in person, and William was completely victorious. The last of James' ad- herents, in the highlands of Scodand, were destroyed in the Massacre of Glencoe — a wicked and needless act, for it occurred after their submission. 555- Queen Mary II. died in 1694, and William III. reigned eight years as sole monarch of the three king- doms. England was drawn into his wars on the continent, which, for the first time, burdened her with a national debt. By the peace of Ryswick, 1697, the king of France recognized William as a rightful sovereign, and promised to give no more aid to the exiled Stuarts. He violated this engagement, however, and, on the death of James II., proclaimed his son as "King James III. of England, Scotland, and Ireland." The English nation felt itself insulted, and, in voting supplies for the war of the Spanish Succession (§ 628), Parliament begged the king never to make peace until Louis had atoned for this act. While preparing for the war, William suddenly died, March, 1702. 556. Anne, second daughter of James II., was crowned at Westminster, April 23, and joined the emperor and the Dutch republic in a grand alliance against France and Spain, of which her great general, the duke of Marl- borough, was the moving spirit. The details of the war will be found in the chapter on France. In 1707, Eng- land and Scotland became one kingdom, under the name of Great Britain. Ireland kept her separate parliament until 1800, when the three kingdoms were united. 557. Queen Anne's heart was, doubtless, better than her head, and she was easily controlled by those who were about her. The duchess of Marlborough ruled her for years with the tyranny which a strong mind sometimes exercises over a weak one, scolding the poor queen un- MAP No. XII. ilAP Ob' ERA OF QUEEN ANNE. 241 mercifully for some little domestic arrangement, whicli the humblest woman might be allowed to make in her own house, but which the liaughty duchess chose to manage herself. At last she was dismissed from court, and her place in the queen's favor was taken by a Mrs. Masham. The duke was too justly accused of prolonging the war in order to make himself rich with army contracts. He was removed from command, and soon afterward the treaty of Utrecht restored peace to Europe. 558. Queen Anne left no children, and, by a special act of Parliament, the House of Stuart was succeeded by that of Hanover. Perhaps it would have consoled the Electress Elizabeth (§ 530) in her poverty and exile, if she could have foreseen that her grandson would sit upon the throne of Great Britain. The prevalence of French taste may be clearly marked in the writers of Queen Anne's time, who are distinguished for neatness and polish of style, rather than for great thoughts or energetic feel- ing. Pope translated Homer's Iliad, and wrote his own moral Essays and Epistles, m the same stiff measure and artificial rhymes. Addison and Steele, two charming prose- writers, produced the Tatlcr and afterwards the Spectator — forerunners of our literary weeklies and monthlies. Read Green's Short History, Chs. VIII and IX. HOUSES OF STUART AND HANOVER. James I. Charles I. filizaiDeth m Elector-Palati Charles II. James II. Maty m. Pr. of Orailge. Sophia }n. Elector of Hanover. L I I Mary. Anne James Francis [\ 55^). WilLiam til. George I. Notice that the mother, as well as the wife, of Willliam III. was an English princess, and tliat he was himself the third in the line of succession to the crown. Hist.— 21. CHAPTER VII. THE HOUSE OP' AUSTRIA AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. .^(liP^^J^ PON the abdication of Charles v., the Hapsburgs ^vere sepa- rated into a Spanish and a German branch — his brother Ferdinand becoming duke of Austria and emperor, while Philip reigned over Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands. Still the two branches usually acted in concert, and together continued to be the leading power in Europe. 560. The main interest of Ferdinand's reign (A. D. 1558 -1564), and that of his son, centers about the wars with the Turks, who now exacted a yearly tribute from the em- peror, and were fighting for the control of the Mediter- ranean. In 1565, Solyman (§§460-467) besieged Malta with an immense fleet and army; but the Knights of St. John defended it so bravely that he abandoned the enterprise and sailed away to Con- stantinople in a rage. Five years later, the whole island of Cyprus, for eighty years a possession of Venice, was conquered by the Turks, and all Europe was alarmed. (242) An Arquebusier. BATTLE OF LEPAXTO. 243 561. A fleet of 300 Spanish and Venetian vessels were soon- assembled under the command of John of Austria, a half-brother of the king of Spain, and met the Turkish armament in the Gulf of Lepanto (see Map 4). The ensuing combat was perhaps the most im- portant naval battle of modern times; for it was the point where the Ottoman Empire, having reached its greatest power, began steadily to decline. The Turks lost 224 ships, and 30,000 men. The great Solyman had died in 1566, and his son Se'lim, who reigned till 1574, was weak and self-indulgent. • 562. Ferdinand's son and successor, Maximil'ian II. (A. D. 1564- 1576), was one of the best monarchs of the ac;e. He ^rave relitiious libertv to his own dominions of Hungary and Bohemia, and steadily opposed the Jesuits, though his wife, a sister of Philip II. of Spain, was willingly ruled by them. His son. Ru'dolph II. (A. I). 1576-1612), on the contrary, expelled all Lutherans from his hereditary states. The laws of the empire did not permit persecution in Germany, but the bigotry of Rudolph prepared the way for the most terrible war of religion on record. He was a weak-minded and superstitious man; but his belief in the magical influences of the stars was of some use, for it led him to endow an observatory at Prague, where the great astronomers, Kepler and Tycho Brahe, pursued their studies of the heavens. 563. Europe was again alarmed by the progress of the Turks under Moham'med III., a monster who had secured his possession of the throne by murdering his nineteen brothers. In a three days' battle at Keresztes, fifty thousand Christians were slain; but the war resulted unfavorably to the Turks, and the treaty which ended it dispensed with any further tribute from the em- perors, who were now named by their proper titles instead of beinc: called '-Kinos of Vienna" as before. 244 MODERN HISTORY. 564. The long weak reign of Rudolph ended in 16 12, and his brother Matthi'as became emperor; but the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia were soon resigned to Ferdinand of Styria, their cousin. The Bohemians revolted against Ferdinand, threw his council out of the window of the castle at Prague, and ultimately chose Frederic, the elector- palatine, a son-in-law of James I. of England, to be their king. This was the first act in the Thirty Years' War, in which almost every nation in Europe was engaged, though Germany was the chief sufferer. 565. The old enmity between the reigning houses of France and Austria led the former to take an important, though at first a secret, part in the war. Richelieu's shrewd management strengthened the Protestant cause, and aided the king of Sweden, who soon appeared as its champion. Wal'lenstein, the imperial general, was the most singular character of his time. He believed that a great destiny was written for him in the stars; and his soldiers followed him with the blindest obedience and confidence, as if all the forces of heaven and earth were on his side. The magic of his name drew about him 50,000 volunteers, whom he maintained, without expense to the emperor, by turning them loose upon the unhappy people, whose homes and fields they ravaged. 566. King Frederic was not only driven from Bohemia by Ferdinand's troops, but lost his dominion on the Rhine, and ended his life in exile and poverty. Ferdinand, on the death of his cousin Matthias in 1619, received the imperial crown. The first years of the war favored the imperialists. Wallenstein and his freebooters swept over the Protestant states, leaving a broad track of misery and desolation be- hind them. The king of Denmark, who came to the aid of the Protestants, was driven back even to his islands in the Baltic — his dominions on the mainland being occupied by the emperor's forces. With the aid of the king of GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 245 Sweden, he was able, however, to relieve the fortress of StralsLind, before whose walls Wallenstein lost nearly half his army. Soon afterward the Diet insisted upon the dis- missal of Wallenstein for his brutal tyrannies and extor- tions, and Count Tilly was appointed as his successor. 567. In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, in- vaded Germany. His army, unlike that of Wallenstein, respected all the rights of the people, paying honestly for whatever food it required. One by one all the fortresses of Pomerania and Mecklenburg were either taken, or will- ingly surrendered to the Swedish king. The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, descendants of the great leaders of the Reformation, were neither al)le to fill their place at the head of Protestant Germany, nor willing that any other should fill it. Angry because the people looked to Gus- tavus as their great deliverer, they refused him their aid, and even resisted his progress, so that he was compelled to leave the ancient city of Magdeburg to the vengeance of Count Tilly and his brutal Croats and Walloons. Thirty thousand citizens were massacred, and the ' ' ^ ^'' entire city, excepting the cathedral, was consumed by fire. 568. Tilly then ravaged and plundered Saxony; and the smoke of two hundred burning villages at length made the Elector willing to join his forces to those of the king of Sweden. The great victory of Leipsig was the result, in which the imperial army was wholly dispersed or de- stroyed. All Germany lay open to Gustavus; he might, apparendy, have marched to Vienna, captured the emperor, and received for himself the crown of the Coesars. The Austrian courtiers no longer laughed at the "Snow-King," who, at his head-quarters in Mentz, on the Rhine, was surrounded by a brilliant array of ambassadors and princes. Ferdinand was reluctantly compelled to recall AVallenstein, who, with haughty insolence, accepted command only on the condition that the entire military power of the empire 246 MODERN HISTORY. should he ]>laccd in liis liands, and that neither the em])eror nor any of his family should come near the army. 569. The last victory of Oustavus was at I.utzen, where Wallenstein and his troojis were defeated, but ' ' ^^' the great king was slain. 'J'he Sjjanish and Austrian governments ordered public rejoicings for his death, as a victory to their cause; but the rest of the world mourned the loss of the noblest character of the time. Tiie Protestant states of Germany chose the Swed- ish chancellor Ox'enstiern to succeed his master as the protector of their interests, while Duke Bernhard of Weimar became their military chief. 570. It was soon evident that Wallenstein meant to make himself king of Bohemia. Instead of bringing him to a just and open trial for this treason, the emperor ordered a secret assassination, and the foul deed was performed by some of Wallenstein's own officers. King Ferdinand of Bohemia, the emperor's eldest son, assumed chief command of the army, and, in the summer of 1634, inflicted a ruinous defeat upon the Swedes at Nordlingen. The elector of Saxony, and most of the other j)rinces, soon made peace with Ferdinand; and the imijerial armies invaded I'>ance, though with little success. 571. In 1637 the emperor died, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III., a more liberal and peace-loving prince. Yet the war went on, and its last years were more hideously brutal than even its beginning. The Swedes had lost the perfect discii)line of Gustavus Adoljjhus, while the German soldiers lived wholly by plundering the wretched ]>eople. Hunger was the great weapon constantly em- ployed, each army destroying all the food it could not eat, for the purj^ose of starving its oj)ponents; and, of course, women, children, and helpless men suffered more than the soldiers. In Bohemia alone more than a thou- sand castles and villages were burned. TREATY OF WESTPHALIA. 247 572. At last all i)arties were sufficiently worn out to unite in an earnest effort for peace. Two congresses were ojjened at Miinster and Osnabruck, one for the Catholic and one for the Protestant powers; and, after five years' labor of embassadors from nearly all nations of Europe, the treaty of Westphalia was signed. Spain recognized the United Netherlands after eighty ^' ' "''^' years' struggle as an indejiendent republic. The son of r'rederic V. was restored to his elecl(;rate (^^566). Relig- ious freedom was guaranteed to all the (ierman states. Many imperial powers were now bestowed ujjon the Diet, which was hereafter to meet, at stated inlerxals, at l''rank- fort, instead of attending the emperor whenever and where- ever he chose to call it. 573. The Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist, excei)t in name; and 300 sovereign and sejjarate states, each with its distinct coinage, constitution, and laws, existed between the Alps and the Ijallic. One could hardly travel a day, even in the slow coaches of that jjcriod, without paying duties at several custom-houses, which marked the bound- aries of as many governments. The peace of Westi)halia was an imj^ortant turning point in the history of Europe — ending 130 years of religious strife, and marking the decline of the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. A few years later saw an immense increase in the i)ower of France. Find the silos of all the sieges and battles mentioned in this chapter. Wliere is Westphalia? Saxony? Brandenburg? Mecklen- burg? Tonierania? iJoheniia? Point out the separate dominions of the two branches of the Ilapslnu-gs. Read Schiller's "Thirty Years' War;" Dyer's History of Modern Europe; and, for illustration of tlie times, Schiller's three-fold (bania of Wallenstein, translated by Coleridge. CHAPTER VIIT. EUROPEAN COLONIES. HE bold explorers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were followed by a more patient and plodding set of men, who founded permanent settlements in the newly discovered lands. The Hindu peninsula was already the seat of a great empire (§ 377), and of a swarming population far more skillful and industrious than their European visitors. Here, then, was no room for colonization; the Portuguese, and, after them, the Dutch, French, and English, had to con- tent themselves with a few trading factories guarded by forts. (24S) SPAA'/ARDS IN AMERICA. 249 575. Jesuit missionaries opened the way for Portuguese traders into China and Japan. Macao Avas given them by the Chinese emperor, and continued in their possession until it became a free port, in 1846. The Japanese seem to have been less favorably impressed by their first ac- quaintance with Europeans, for, in 1637, the government ordered a general massacre of native Christians and the expulsion of all foreigners, while natives were forbidden to leave the country. For more than two centuries Japan shut herself up from all the world; but in our day she has suddenly opened her doors and welcomed not only trade, but the most familiar intercourse with the western nations. 576. The great rich domain of Brazil, in South America, was divided, by the king of Portugal, into extensive fiefs, called captaincies. By their subjection to Spain (§ 525), the Portuguese lost their whole eastern dominion, and, for a time, that of Brazil; but the latter was regained and at length became an independent empire, ruled by a branch of the royal family of Portugal. 577. Spain treated her colonists in the New World in the most selfish and despotic manner. They were forbid- den to make their own clothes, furniture, tools, or even some necessary articles of food; for all these things must be bought of the mother-country. They were not per- mitted to build ships, nor to trade with the colonies of other nations. Once a year a merchant fleet from Spain brought whatever they were supposed to need, in exchange for American products; and the colonists must pay what- ever their masters chose to ask, or lose all opportunity to dispose of their merchandise. Their governors were natives of Spain, who had no interest in the colonies ex- cept to enrich themselves as soon as possible. Under such bondage, it is needless to say that the Spanish col- onies did not flourish ; and, though they have now 250 MODERN IIIS70RY. secured their independence, the people are still lacking in enterprise. 578. Doubtless, this stupid tyranny was fortunate for the European Protestants of the sixteenth century : for ^a wise and liberal system of government would have drawn enormous wealth from these vast and rich domains, and Charles V. and Philip 11. might, indeed, have been lords of the world (§§ 444, 525). But, then, if Spain had been either wise or liberal, she would not have chosen to crush the Reformation, to ruin the Netherlands, or to deprive herself of the industry of the Moors and Jews (§ 434). 579. The false theory that gold and silver only consti- tuted wealth led to a compcirative neglect of the fertile soil of the colonies, and to stringent edicts against export- ing the precious metals from Spain ; while the decay of industry left the Spaniards very little to buy at home; and so their gold would have been nearly useless if the edicts had not been disobeyed. It must be confessed that the Dutch and English shared the same erroneous ideas. Their colonies were supposed to exist only for the benefit of the parent state, and were narrowly watched lest they should grow too prosperous. 580. Though the whole western continent, with the ex- ception of Brazil, had been given to Spain by Pope Alex- ander VI., France and England made good their claim to a large share of North America. The beautiful meadows of Acadia, now Nova Scotia, were settled by French [peas- ants about 1604; Quebec was founded in 1608, and Mon- treal in 1640. The French policy was to treat the Indians like friends and brothers, and so secure their aid. They slept in the wigwams of the savages, ate of their loath- some food, and fought their battles with the terrible fire- arms which were sure to give victory over those who encountered them for the first time. 581. In this way, with an Algonquin war-party, Samuel FOUNDING OF NEW YORK. 2$ I Champlain, in 1609, explored the beautiful lake which now bears his name, and encountered the Iroquois of central New York. At another time he penetrated the Canadian wilderness to the headwaters of the Ottawa and to Lake Huron, gaining a host of savage allies. La Salle explored the Mississippi River from its source to the Gulf of Mexico; and caused a loud-voiced herald to proclaim that the "most high, mighty, invincible, and victorious prince, Louis the Great, king of France and Navarre," was lord of all the country from which the great river drew its waters. His attempt to colonize "Louisi- ana" — so the whole vast region was called in honor of Louis XIV. — resulted in a sad failure. 582. The first settlement within the present limits of the United States was made by French Protestants, in 1564, under the patronage of Coligny (§ 480). It was exterminated by Spaniards from St. Augustine ; but the recollection of the attempt led many exiled Huguenots to seek homes in the Carolinas, when, in 1685, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes deprived them of safety at home. 583. Early in the seventeenth century, Henry Hudson, in the service of the Dutch RepubHc, while looking for a north-west passage to India, discovered the river which now bears his name. The Dutch West India Company undertook to colonize the "New Netherlands," including, under that name, the whole tract between Chesapeake Bay and Connecticut River, which Hudson had explored. A fort and a few huts were built on Manhattan Island, for purposes of trade with the Indians, and hence grew, in time, the greatest city of the western hemisphere. A settlement of Swedes on the Delaware was conquered and absorbed into New Netherlands ; but soon afterwards the whole Dutch territory was ceded to the English (§ 545), who divided it into the colonies of New York and New Jersey. 252 MODERN HISTORY. 584. The English colonies in America were founded, mainly, by private enterprise, and owed nothing to the home government except the land which they occupied. They covered only a strijD of Atlantic coast from the St. John's River to the Penobscot; but, though far less extensive than the French settlements, they were, at the close of the seventeenth century, more populous and flour- ishing. Each of the thirteen colonies had its House of Assembly chosen by the people, like the "Commons" at home; while the royal power was represented by a gov- ernor appointed by the king. The oldest colony was Virginia, so named in honor of Queen Elizabeth, though it was not permanently founded until the reign of her successor. Its capital city, as well as the river by which it stood, bore the name of James I. Among the earliest adventurers in Virginia were many young cavaliers, who had ruined their fortunes by a self- indulgent life, and hoped to find gold and jewels enough in the New World to make them rich again. These hopes were, of course, doomed to disappointment, and the colony was nearly destroyed by famine and the hostility of the natives; but, as soon as industry and good sense took the place of idle speculation, Jamestown began to flourish. The New England colonies were founded in no expec- tation of sudden wealth. The first pilgrims willingly ac- cepted lives of toil, hardship, and peril for the sake of "freedom to worship God" in a manner which their con- sciences approved. It must be confessed that they some- times denied to others the religious freedom which they had taken such pains to require for themselves. But relig- ious liberty grew by all these trials. The colony of Rhode Island was founded by an exile from Massachusetts. Rhode Island has the honor of the first distinct enactment that no man should be disturbed, or in any way called in question, on account of his religion ; and Maryland was not long in following the good example. In his colony EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 253 on the Delaware, the Quaker, William Penn, put in prac- tice the just and peaceable principles of his sect. He dealt with the Indians as if they had been Christians like himself; and so well did the savages appreciate his confi- dence that no Quaker settlement ever suffered from their attacks. SYNOPSIS OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS BEFORE A. D. 1700. Pofiugucse : — Madeira, 142 1 ; the Azores, 1432; Malabar Coast, 1498; Cochin, 1503; Goa, 1510; Ormuz, 1515; Macao, 1517; Bombay, 1530; Gold Coast (Africa), 1610; Brazil, 1501-1530; Capital at Bahia, 1549. Spanish: — Canaries, 1405; Hayti, 1495; New Grenada, 1510; Cuba, 1511; Venezuela, 1520; Mexico, 1521 ; Nicaragua, 1522; Peru, 1532; Quito, Guayaquil, and Buenos Ayres, 1535; Santiago de Chili, 1540; Philippine Islands, 1566; Porto Bello, 1584. French: — Nova Scotia, 1604; Quebec, 1608; Montreal, 1640; Guiana, 1604; Senegal, 1637; Pondicherry, 1674. Dutch: — Guiana, 1580; Spice Islands, 1607; Java, 1612; Gold Coast, 161 1; New Amsterdam, 1614; Curasao, 1634; Mauritius, 1644; Cape of Good Hope, 1650. British: — Surat, 1612; Madras, 1639; Bombay, 1662; Guiana, 1630; Gold Coast, 1661 ; Virginia, 1607 ; Massachu- setts, 1620, New Hampshire, 1623; Connecticut, 1635; Rhode Island, 1636; North Carolina, 1653; South Carolina, 1670; Pennsylvania, 1683. Read Robertson's "America;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World;" and Bancroft's "History of the United States," Vols. I, II, and III. CHAPTER IX. THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS. D i^EXMARK, Sweden, and Norway were in 1397 united under one queen, Margaret Waldemar. Her successor was less fortunate; he lost all three king- doms, and ended his days as a pirate. Christian of Oldenburg reunited Marga- ret's dominions, and his family continued to rule Denmark more than 400 years; but the barbarous tyranny of his grandson occasioned a revolt in Sweden, and the rise of a new royal race, with Gustavus Vasa as its founder. This young noble- man had suffered grievous wrongs from Frederic the Great. ^^^ ^^Xero of the North" — his father hav- ing been beheaded for no crime, and himself imprisoned. He escaped, and, putting on the coarse garments of an ox- driver, hid himself among the peasantry until he could raise an army of volunteers, with which he defeated the Danes, captured Upsala, and restored the independence of Sweden. The Diet then declared him king, and made the crown hereditary in his family. 586. His great grandson was the hero of the Thirty Years" War (JiJ^ 564-569). The early death of Gustavus Adolphus, upon the field of Lutzen. left the crown to his little daughter, Christina, then only six years old. As she grew up, Christina displayed wonderful talents and accomphshments, but no steadiness of purpose. She was (254) IVAN THE TERRIBLE. 255 soon tired of governing; and, bestowing her kingdom upon her cousin, Charles X., spent the rest of her life in aim- less wanderings. 587. The vast but ill-governed realm of Poland held discordant elements enough to keep not only itself but all its neighbors in a perpetual stir. The kings were elected, and had little power compared with the nobles. These were entitled to levy armies and make war whenever any proceeding of king or diet failed to please them; and, naturally, war went on almost all the time. The powerful neighbors of Poland — Sweden, Denmark, Brandenburg, Russia, and Austria — found many occasions to interfere in her affairs at the invitation of one or another ])arty; and at length, as we shall see, the last three named divided her whole territory among them. 588. Russia, after a hundred years' fighting, was made free from her Mongol oppressors (§376), about A. D. 1481, by I'van III. Still she was only an inland grand duchy, less powerful than Poland or Bohemia — very different from that mighty empire which now occupies nearly half of Europe and all northern Asia, while her victorious armies have almost reached the borders of India. The Black Sea was still surrounded by the dominion of Turkey, the Baltic and its gulfs by that of Sweden; and it was a hundred years later that an entrance for English traders into Russia was effected through the Arctic Ocean, by the new port of Archangel. 589. Under Ivan the Terrible, the first "Czar of Mus- covy" (A. D. 1538-1584), Kazan and Astrachan were taken from the Tartars; and the vast frozen plains of Siberia, extending eastward to the Pacific, were added to the Russian dominion. Ivan's son, Fe''odor, was last of the line of Ruric (§327), and his death was followed by years of civil war. In A. 1). 1613, Michael Ro'manoff, ancestor of the present Czar, came to. the throne. 256 MODERN HISTORY. 590. His grandson, Feodor II., having no children, and passing over his incompetent brother Ivan, bequeathed his crown to his half-brother Peter, a bright but obstinate boy of ten years. Though Ivan was too feeble to protest, his sister Sophia interfered in his behalf, and managed to have the two crowned as joint sovereigns, with herself as regent. Even in boyhood I^eter perceived the needs of his empire, and resolved to redeem it from barbarism, and give it a high rank among the European states. He studied dili- gently, and practiced himself in all that he wished his people to know. He drilled in the ranks of a new com- pany of soldiers, with which he meant to replace the Strelitz, or imperial guard, which had become too powerful; and he attended so closely to all the details of his little navy, that he became "the best carpenter, the best pilot, and the best admiral in the North." 591. Still further to educate himself, he resolved to visit the western nations. Traveling as a servant in one of his own embassies, he arrived in Holland, and engaged as a ship-builder in one of the dock-yards of Am- ' ^^^''' sterdam. Here he toiled, in rough clothes, among the other workmen, obeyed orders, and received his weekly wages like the rest. In England he took less pains to disguise his imperial rank, and was treated with friendly attention by William III. (§555). 592. On his homeward journey he heard of a new revolt planned by his sister, and hastened to put it down with cruel severity. Sophia was immured in a convent, the Strelitzes were disbanded, and Peter's new regiments took their jjlace. Then came a struggle for reform, in which the Czar had need for all his ol)stinacy, to overcome the superstitions and fixed notions of his people. The long robes and bushy beards of the men were cut short by im- perial decree; for, in small things as in great, Peter meant that his own will should control all the millions who called PETER THE GREAT. 257 him lord. In essential matters, he met less resistance; colleges, foundries, factories, and frigates were soon created, and one great war-vessel was built by the Czar himself. Having thus taken measures to civilize his empire, Peter thought the time had come to give it an outlet to the Baltic. 593. Charles XII. was now king of Sweden — an am- bitious youth, whose favorite hero and model was Alexander the Great (§§160-164). His accession, in 1697, when only fifteen years old, tempted three powerful neighbors to increase their dominions at his expense. The Czar besieged Narva with 80,000 men while Charles was engaged in a war with Denmark. But this ' '^°*'' war ended sooner than Peter had expected, and Charles, with only 8,000 men, came to the relief of his beleaguered town. The Russian troops were mostly barbarians, clothed in skins of wild beasts, and armed with arrows and clubs. The Czar's magnificent train of artillery was useless, for want of gunners. He suffered a ruinous defeat, his entire army being killed or captured. 594. Peter had that rare wisdom which can learn of an enemy, and draw strength even from disaster: "The Swedes will defeat us for a time," said he, "but in the end they will teach us how to conquer them." Charles turned aside to conquer Augustus of Saxony, who was king of Poland, but whom he succeeded in dethroning. Peter seized the land he wanted near the Gulf of Finland, trans- l)orted thither 300,000 peasants from all parts of his empire, and, among the marshes formed by the Neva, laid the foundations of his splendid new capital, St. Petersburg. 595. Having disposed of Poland, Charles invaded Russia with a great army. Here cold, hunger, and the fatigues of marching through forests and bogs made sad havoc with his troops; and at Pultawa he met his first defeat (A. D. 1709). Jioth sovereigns were i)resenl. ('harles was Hist —22. 258 MODERN HISTORY. carried on a litter, being disabled by a wound; but when the battle was lost, he mounted a horse and made his retreat into Turkey. He soon persuaded the Sultan to join in war against the Czar, whose ambition he had reason to fear. Peter, march- ing to meet the immense Turkish force, was disappointed by his allies, and found himself in almost as dangerous a case as was Charles at Pultawa, surrounded by superior numbers, cut off from supplies, and unable to advance or retreat. He was saved by the adroitness of his wife, the Empress Cath- erine, who, presenting all her jewels to the Grand Vizier, managed to secure a peace favorable to the Czar. 596. Charles remained more than five years in Turkey, a troublesome and unwelcome guest, while his kingdom, sur- rounded by many enemies, was going to ruin for want of its head. At last he was forced to depart, and made the whole journey on horseback in sixteen days. Arriving ' '^''^' at Stralsund, he ordered war to be prosecuted more fiercely than ever. But his good fortune was now exhausted; he lost all his territories east and south of the Baltic, and met his death while besieging a town in Norway. 597. Peter's untiring perseverance wrought immense benefits to his country, and justified his new title. Emperor of all the Russias; while all subsequent times have agreed with his own in styling him Peter the Great. Before his death he bestowed the crown upon his wife, who reigned two years alone as the Empress Catherine I., (A. D. 1725 -1727). This remarkable woman had been a Swedish peasant, and was one of the many prisoners taken by the Russians at the capture of Marienburg. She became a servant in the house of Prince Menschikoff — himself once a baker-boy — where the Czar saw her, and soon recognized a quickness and firmness of mind equal to his own. She aided him in all his plans, while her even temper was able to soothe the violent fits of anger to Avhich he too often gave way. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 259 5q8. Prussia was conquered by the Teutonic Knights (§361) about A. D. 1231-1243. They redeemed it from a wilderness of marshes and thickets, and gradually civilized its pagan and half savage inhabitants. After a long series of wars with Poland, a large part of its territories were absorbed into that kingdom, while the Grand Master had to do homage for the rest; but, in 1526, Prussia became an independent duchy, and, in 16 18, it was annexed to Brandenburg. 599. After the Thirty Years' War had passed by, like a desolating storm, the able management of the ''Great Elector," Frederic William (A. D. 1640- 1688), restored prosperity to the country. He gave lands and homes to 20,000 French refugees from the persecutions of Louis XIV. (§626), and their industry converted the sandy wastes about Berlin into gardens and orchards. Many of the exiles, too, were learned and accomplished people, whose language, literature, and manners brought refinement hith- erto unknown into Prussian society. 600. The son of the Great Elector was made King Frederic I. of Prtissia by the Emperor Leopold, who wanted his help in the War of the Spanish Succession. Prussia was already a great military power, and it became still greater under Frederic William L, its second king (A. D. 1 7 13 -1 740). He was a morose and insufferable tyrant — so penurious that his children went away hungry from his table, and so violent of temper that he threw the plates at their heads if they dared to complain. He flogged his son, the crown-prince, when eighteen years old, before the eyes of his future subjects; and when the prince attempted to escape to foreign parts, he was imprisoned as a deserter, and would probably have been shot if the emperor had not interfered. 601. One of the king's whims was to have a brigade of the tallest grenadiers in Europe, and he took the greatest 26o MODERN HISTORY. pains to collect them from all the northern countries. Every man was more than six feet high, and some even approached eight feet. If any king wanted to please Frederic William, he sent him a present of the tallest man he could find. His recruiting agents were always on' the watch, and once they made a serious mistake Vjy kidnap- ping the imperial embassador ! The most humble apologies were made, for the only being on earth that the king stood in awe of was the "Caesar." For all this, Frederic William was an honest, shrewd, and generally well-meaning man; and he left his kingdom in much better condition than he found it 602. Frederic II., the Great, was the most noted general of his times; and his wars began the long contest between Austria and Prussia, which has lately ended in making the latter supreme in Germany. He came to the throne in May, 1740, and the next autumn the direct male line of the House of Hapsburg ended with the emperor Charles VI. Having no son, Charles had tried to secure his hereditary dominions to his daughter, and the imperial crown to her husband, Francis of Lorraine. The daughters of his elder brother had a better right; but, during his lifetime, Charles obtained their consent, and that of most of the European sovereigns, to his "Pragmatic Sanction," which arranged the succession as he wished it. 603. No sooner was Charles dead than most of the powers forgot their promises. Frederic II. marched into Silesia, and soon made himself master of it; while the electors gave the imperial crown to Charles Albert of Bavaria, nephew of the late emperor. Maria Theresa was in a perilous position. Great Britain was her only ally, while Prussia, Poland, Sardinia, and the three Bourbon courts of France, Spain, and Naples were against her, beside many of the German states. Her cousin was in- stated as archduke of Austria and king of Bohemia. FREDERIC THE GREAT. 26] 604. Taking refuge in Hungary, Maria Theresa presente'd herself, with her infant son in her arms, before the assembly of nobles, and asked their aid in regaining her rights. Though they had many causes of complaint against her house, the brave princes were moved by the sight of their young sovereign in her beauty and distress. The great hall rang with their shout, "Let us die for our king^ Maria Theresa!" One hundred thousand men were soon under arms : not only were Austria and Bohemia recon(|uered, but Munich, the capital of Bavaria, was taken, and the emperor Charles VII. was expelled from his own heredi- tary dominions. 605. In 1745 he died, and Francis of Lorraine then received the crown of Charlemagne. The "War of the Austrian Succession" was ended three years later by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Though formally at peace, the empress-queen cherished a bitter resentment against Frederic of Prussia, who had .seized the moment of her distress to rob her of her province of Silesia; and she deeply laid her plans to combine all continental Europe against him. Russia, Sweden, Saxony, and France — the latter ultimately joined by the other Bourbon kingdoms (§603) — took sides with Austria. 606. Frederic struck the first blow by a sudden invasion of Saxony. I'he Austrians, coming to its relief, were defeated at Lowositz, and the entire Saxon army then surrendered to him, most of its common soldiers enlisting in his service. Pushing into Bohemia, Frederic gained a great victory over Prince Charles of Lorraine, the em- peror's brother. Still his affairs were so desperate — his whole dominion overrun by enemies eager for its destruc- tion — that he at one time almost decided to give up the single-handed contest, and end his days by poison. He took braver counsel, rallied his few remaining forces, and by his brilliant victories of Rossbach and Leuthen, A. I). 262 MODERX HISTORY. 1757, astonished the world. Mr. Pitt (§644), becoming premier in Great Britain, sent a liberal supply of the sinews of war; a wild horde of Russians, Cossacks and Calmuck Tartars, was defeated at Zorndorf. 607. Yet greater dangers and disasters were in store for Frederic. Three Austrian armies surrounded him in Silesia, while an overwhelming force of Russians occupied Berlin, destroyed its arsenals and foundries, and plundered its citizens. His genius and resolution did not fail. He de- feated the Austrian generals one by one; and Russia was soon changed from an enemy to a devoted friend. The Empress Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter HI. The young Czar had a romantic admiration for Frederic, and immediately stopped the operations of his armies in Prussia. The "Seven Years' War" was ended early in 1763, having cost nearly a million human lives, without making any change in the boundaries of the warring nations. Prussia kept Silesia, the original cause of dispute, and took her place among the great powers of Europe. 608. Peter III. had reigned scarcely six months, when his wife caused him to be deposed and assassinated, and herself assumed the crown as Catherine H. Though so wicked a woman, the Czarina had extraordinary talents for governing. She perfected many reforms which Peter the Great had only begun; made herself the leader of the northern nations: dismembered Poland; conquered the Tartars of the Crimea — the last of the Mongol hordes which had once enslaved Russia (§376); and established her power on the Black Sea. 609. Maria Theresa, the Austrian empress-queen, was still living, but her son, Joseph H., had succeeded his father as emperor of the West. Catherine's ambitious movements alarmed both him and Frederic the Great, lest Poland and Turkey were to be swallowed up by Russia. Austrian and PARTITIONS OF POLAND. 263 Prussian armies were marched into Poland, and the Czarii-^^, unable to seize the whole prize herself, signed a treaty by which a third part of the Polish territory was divided among the three powers. Maria Theresa resisted the un- just scheme as long as she could, and at last signed the treaty with the following protest: '''Placet, A. D. 177; because so many great and learned men will it; but when I am dead, the consequences will appear of this violation of all that has hitherto been held just and sacred." 610. After her death, two successive "partitions com- pleted the work of spoliation, and Poland, as a kingdom, ceased to exist. The Poles made heroic efforts to preserve their independence; their general, Kosciusko, after fighting many battles, was captured and immured in a Russian dungeon; the last king was compelled to abdicate, and the central part of the kingdom, with the capital, became a mere province of Russia. Catherine the Great died one year after the completion of this crime, of which the main guilt rests upon her. '''Literally, "It pleases me" — the form in which emperors and kings usually gave their consent to laws and treaties. Point out the dominions of Margaret Waldemar. Of Gustavus Adolphus. Of Peter the Great at his accession. Of the present Czar. The old and the new capital of Russia. The Polish capital. That of Sweden. Of Prussia. The dominions of Maria Theresa. The province conquered from her by Frederic the Great. Pultawa, Stralsund. Read Voltaire's "Peter the Great" and "Charles the Twelfth," Carlyle's "Frederic the Great," and Dyer's "Modern Europe." CHAPTER X. THE BOURBONS IN FRANCE. 'ENRY IV. (A. 1). 1589-T610) the first of the royal House of Bourbon, came to the throne in the midst of a civil war. Though the nearest heir to the monarchy, he was only eleventh cousin of the last king; and, as hereditary leader of the Hugue- nots, he encountered violent opposition from nearly all ad- herents of the old church. The League (§484) was strong in the support of Philip of Spain, wiio wanted the French crown for his daughter, and who had at his command the greatest general and the finest soldiery in the world. Nevertheless, Henry gained a brilliant victory over the forces of the League at Ivry, and his generous and gallant character drew many even of the Catholic nobles to his side. 6i2. Paris was besieged by the royal forces, but Henry would not let his people starve. Food was carried in, and the city was thus enabled to await the arrival of the Spanish army. In 1593, Henry reconciled himself with (264) Prince of Conde. HENRY IV, AND SULLY. 265 the Roman Church, and soon obtained by management what he had been unwiHing to gain by force. Being at length victorious over all his enemies, he pro- claimed universal toleration in the Edict of ' ^^^ ' Nantes, and thus ended the religious wars of a third of a century. 613. Aided by his great minister, Rosny, duke of Sully, Henry undertook to redeem France from the poverty and misery occasioned by so many years of misrule. Under their careful management, tillage, trade, and fine manu- factures soon began to flourish, and the people enjoyed a prosperity such as neither they nor their fathers could remember. A favorite scheme with Henry was the hum- bling of the House of Austria; and to this end he wished to league all Europe in a great Christian commonwealth, in which each power should have only its due share of importance, and disputes should be settled by reason rather than by arms. As a first contribution toward this balance of power, he resigned the French claims upon Italy, which had been the cause of so many wars (§§404, 408, 445). 614. But on the eve of his departure for the Nether- lands, the great king was assassinated by a frantic Jesuit. His queen, Marie de Medici, became regent for her son Louis Xni. (A. D. 1610-1643), who was then only nine years old. Herself an Italian, and ruled by Italian favorites, the queen wholly changed the policy of the government. She made a close alliance with Spain, marrying her son to the Spanish infanta, and her daughter to the crown- prince, afterwards Philip IV. The treasures, which Henry's good management had collected, were squandered upon her worthless favorites, while Sully retired from the council. When he was sixteen years of age, Louis took the govern- ment into his own hands, caused Concini, his mother's chief tool, to be put to death, and called some of his father's old councilors about him. Hist. —23. 266 MODERN HISTORY. 615. The great Cardinal-minister, Richelieu, was now rising into power. Like Henry IV. and Sully, he aimed to abate the proud ascendency of the Hapsburgs; and to this end he constantly aided the Protestants of England, Holland, and Germany, though, for political reasons, he made war against those of France. We have seen that the great Huguenot chiefs had made themselves almost independent during the wars of the League (§484)- They coined money and executed justice like sovereign princes; indeed, the inefficiency of the last of the Valois had made it quite necessary that some strong hand should repress the robbery and violence that everywhere prevailed. France had almost fallen apart into the great duchies and counties that held its territories in the time of Hugh the Great (§338). 616. Richelieu was far more a Frenchman than a Roman cardinal. He put down the feudal chiefs, but he had no disposition to persecute the Huguenots. He besieged and captured Rochelle, their stronghold, but he ' ^ ^^ ^ ^ ' confirmed the people in the free exercise of their religion, and renewed the Edict of Nantes. Other Huguenot towns submitted, and all fortresses not needed for the defense of the country against foreign enemies were ordered to be leveled with the ground. 617. Not satisfied with ruling France, Richelieu took a leading part in the affairs of Europe. In the Thirty Years' War, France was an important actor, though secretly at first, through money and counsel supplied in equal measure to the Swedish king; and by the peace of Westphalia she was confirmed in the possession of Lorraine and Alsace, with several fortresses on the upper Rhine. But before this, in 1643, Richelieu and his king had both died, and Louis XIV., at the age of five years, had come to the throne, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria, and her chief minister. Cardinal Maz'arin. THE FRONDE. 267 618. We come, now, to the greatest era of the French monarchy — a reign of seventy-two years (A. D. 1643- 17 15), during which France became the leader of the world in art, literature, and social refinement; while her king's ambition seemed almost to threaten his a])solute and universal dominion. At its beginning, Conde was gaining brilliant victories over the Spanish forces in the Netherlands; but the expenses of war and a luxurious court soon drove the Parisians into a civil strife, called the Fronde, which raged for several years. 619. Conde thought his great services Avere slighted by the regent, and, after being driven from Paris, actually accepted a commission from the king of Spain to lead those armies which he had lately conquered. Mazarin, on the other hand, knew little, and cared less, concerning the laws of the land which he undertook to govern; while he disgusted the people by his greed for gold. He was several times dismissed, but soon recalled to office, while the young king and his mother, hiding in a suburb of Paris, often went cold and hungry, owing to the impossi- bility of collecting taxes. The Fronde was ended in 1652, and Mazarin was soon reinstated. 620. The war in the Netherlands favored France, and in the treaty of the Pyrenees, which closed it, r. . , , .. . - . , A. D. 1659. Spam gave up the proud preemnience Avhich she had held ever since the days of Ferdinand and Isa- bella. It was agreed that the French embassador should walk before the Spanish at every foreign court where both countries were represented — a precedence which Louis thought so important that he was ready to go to war upon its least infringement. 621. Upon the death of Mazarin, in i66is the king, who was now 23 years of age, announced to his council — "For the future, I shall be my own prime minister." He at once undertook the actual business of governing, 268 MODERN HISTORY. and, though fond of pleasure, he thenceforth devoted many hours every day to the routine of affairs. He detected the frauds of the finance-minister, Fouquet, and condemned him to a dungeon for Hfe, while he put the honest Colbert in the vacant place. Colbert was able to lighten the taxes, and yet keep the king's treasury full, by encouraging all useful industries and, thus, multiplying sources of wealth. 622. Louis had married a Spanish princess, and, upon her father's death, in 1665, he marched into the Nether- lands, declaring that the ten provinces, with Luxemburg and Franche Comte, belonged, of right, to her. This bold movement was checked by a triple alliance of En- gland, Holland, and Sweden, which forced Louis to sign the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. His wrath was chiefly ex- cited by the little republic of Holland, which had wrested her own freedom from the iron hand of Spain, and now was able to protect her late oppressor. 623. He first bribed England and Sweden to withdraw from the alliance; then, with his army of 200,000 men, he marched into the States, occupied Guelders, Utrecht, and Overyssel, and encamped within sight of Amsterdam. The Dutch stood alone against all the world, but the temper which had been proved in eighty years' war with Spain was not likely to yield to the groundless demands of France. The young Prince of Orange, now at the head of affairs, proposed that in the last extremity they should give back Holland to the sea, and, embarking with wives and children on their immense merchant fleet, seek new homes on the opposite side of the globe. 624. The dykes were cut near Amsterdam; the ocean flowed over the fertile fields, and the fleet was able to surround and defend the capital. Spain and the empire soon sent aid to the States, and the war became general. On the Rhine and in the Mediterranean, the French were still victorious; and when peace was finally made at LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 269 Nimeguen, A. D. 1678, the glory of the "Grand Monarch" was at its height. In contempt of his treaty, he went on "reuniting" territories, on the pretense that they had once belonged to the dominion of the Franks ! Among the rest, the free imperial city of Strasburg was thus appropriated, and the skill of Vauban, the famous military engineer, soon made it a fortress of surpassing strength. 625. After the death of his Spanish queen, I.ouis mar- ried Madame de Maintenon, a woman of good sense, who wrought a great reformation in the court. Uniiappily the king conceived the idea that he could atone for his sins by persecuting his Protestant subjects. The Huguenots, though no longer a political party (§§478, 615), numbered several millions, and were now the most useful and orderly class in France. Colbert had especially encouraged them on account of their skilled industries; but Colbert was now dead. The war-minister, Louvois, by the king's order, quartered troops of dragoons in all the provinces, who abused the defenseless people at their will. 626. This "dragonnade" was followed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (§612). The churches of the Huguenots were ordered to be demolished, their ministers exiled, their children deprived of all instruction save that of the parish priest. Those who resisted the decree were shot without mercy. Half a million of the persecuted people found means of escaping. Other countries, in Europe and America, gained what France lost, and most of them still bear marks of the improvements they owe to the exiled Huguenots. 627. Perceiving the French king's blunder, his great enemy, the Prince of Orange, who was now king of En- gland (§513), stirred up a grand alliance against him. It comprised the emperor and the chief German states, with England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, and Savoy. The war, which soon broke out, was conducted with the greatest 270 MODERN HISTORY. brutality by the French on the Rhine. Louis ordered his o-enerals to burn every village which they could not garri- son; and 100,000 people were thus made homeless in a few weeks. His own subjects were suffering no less cruelly from starvation, owing to the ruinous wastes of war. At length, ministers from all the European nations met at Ryswick, in Holland, and, in 1697, concluded a treaty of peace. 628. It was soon broken by the "War of the Spanish Succession," which for thirteen years taxed the energies of Europe,, and extended all around the globe. Charles n. of Spain died in 1700, leaving no children, but be- queathing all his dominions to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. Now it happened that the Emperor Leo- pold was just as nearly related to the Spanish family as was the King of France (see Table, p. 283). In alliance with England and Holland, he proclaimed his second son, the archduke Charles, king of Spain. The English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy gained splendid victories over the French at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. England became mistress of Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in the world, and of the island of Minorca, a second key to the Mediterranean. 629. ''Louis the Great" was at length completely hum- bled. His people were starving, while the wealth and life- blood of his kingdom were poured out on foreign battle- fields. Year after year he begged for peace, offering larger and larger concessions, but the allies did not trust him, and the war went on. At length, in 171 1, the emperor Joseph died, and his brother Charles was elected to suc- ceed him. The allies had gone to war to prevent Bourbon supremacy in Europe, but they had no mind to see the head of the Hapsburgs ruling Spain, Italy, and the empire, as in the days of Charles V. (§§424, 444). 630. Eighty embassadors of the several powers now met those of France at Utrecht, in Holland (A. D. 17 13), and. THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. 271 after more than a year's deliberation, articles of peace were signed. The next year, a conference at Rastadt settled the points in dispute between France and the empire. Philip V. was recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, but all the Spanish possessions in Italy and the Netherlands were ceded to Charles VI. 631. Louis XIV. died in 17 15, a weary old man, be- reaved of all his children and most of his grandchildren, and disappointed in that glory which had been the idol of his life. With his last breath he charged his great- grandson and successor to undo the mischiefs he himself had done, and be content with his rightful dominions. 632. The age of Louis XIV. was the most brilliant period in French literature. The tragedies of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Moliere, the "Letters" and "Thoughts" of Pascal, the fables of La Fontaine, the sermons of Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Fenelon, and Massillon, are unsurpassed in their different kinds of excellence. The good Fenelon was tutor to the younger dauphin, and wrote the story of Telem'achus for the benefit of his pupil. 633. Louis XV. (A. D. 1 7 15 -1774) was only five years old at his accession, and the regency was bestowed on the Duke of Orleans, a nephew of the late king. France was buried in debts, and the regent gladly consented to a scheme of Law, a Scotch banker, to pay the bondholders with paper money, representing shares in the "Mississippi Company." A fever for speculation now began to rage. The less people knew, the more they imagined concerning the wealth of the North American continent : lords, ladies, princes, and prelates crowded to buy shares, and the public debt vanished as by magic. But suddenly it was found that there was no real money to meet these paper promises to pay, and thousands of fancied millionaires awoke to beggary. During the excitement, a company of emigrants founded the city of New Orleans^ so 272 MODERN HISTORY. named in honor of the regent, and this was the only last- ing result of the "Mississippi Scheme." 634. Louis married Maria Leczinska, daughter of an exiled king of Poland, and, in 1733, undertook the "War of the Polish Succession," in a vain attempt to restore him to the throne. Still more important was the War of the Austrian Succession, in which all Europe was engaged, and which extended to the colonies in Asia and America. France gained nothing by it, while her already hopeless debt was increased by $250,000,000. Even the gay and thoughtless courtiers of Louis XV. felt that they were dancing on the edge of a precipice. The fair promise of the king's youth had been broken by selfish dissipation: the control of his kingdom rested now in the hands of the Marchioness de Pompadour, a bad though tolerably bright woman, who was persuaded by the flatteries of Maria Theresa to plunge that exhausted kingdom into a seven years' war with Prussia. The latter had England for an ally, while the three Bourbon kingdoms of France, Spain, and Naples united in a "Family Compact." 635. The war began in America. France claimed the entire basins of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and attempted to guard them by a chain of forts reaching from Quebec to New Orleans. The kings of England, on the other hand, had given charters for lands running west- ward from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and collisions soon occurred on the head-waters of the Ohio. In America the contest was known as the French and Indian War, because the savage allies of the French often attacked English settlements, burned their villages, and either dragged away mothers and children through the snow, or murdered all the settlers with their tomahawks. This horrid warfare was successful at first, but, in the end, the forts on the Ohio and St. Lawrence were taken by the English. In 1760, General Wolfe, with a small British force, scaled the LOUIS XVI. OF FRANCE. 273 rugged Heights of Abraham, and captured Quebec, the strongest natural fortress on the western continent. 636. The treaty of Paris, 1763, left all boundaries in Europe unchanged, but deprived France of her whole American dominion. The northern part became British America, while the Mississippi Valley was ceded to Spain, to pay for her losses by the Family Compact. 637. Louis XV. died in 1774, leaving a starving people and a treasury in hopeless ruin. His grandson, Louis XVL, was a young man of the best intentions, but of no great energy of mind or will. He had married the Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette, who, though beautiful and kind-hearted, was not a favorite with the people. She was known to share the despotic temper of the Hapsburgs, and to urge her husband to arbitrary measures. 638. Great sympathy was felt in France for the Ameri- cans in their struggle for independence (§§650-652), and the king was reluctantly compelled to declare war against Great Britain. It was a dangerous step, for, great as were the grievances of the Americans, the French, at home, had infinitely more to complain of, and naturally began to think of asserting their rights. 639. Several finance-ministers tried, in turn, to diminish the national debt, and relieve the general poverty; but abuses were too deeply rooted in the constitution of the state. The nobles and clergy, who owned two-thirds of all the land in France, paid no taxes; and so the whole burden of the government rested on those who had no voice in making or executing the laws. At length, A. D. 1789, the States-general were called, for the first time in 175 years, and with their meeting, at Versailles, the great French Revolution may be said to have begun. Read Dyer's Modern Europe; Martin's History of France. CHAPTER XI. GREAT BRITAIN UNDER THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. EORGE LEWIS, elector of Han- over,* became king of England, in 1 7 14, by an act of Parliament, which excluded all papists from the throne. He naturally favored the Whigs, to whom he owed his crown ; while the Tories, or Jaco- bites, as they were now called, in- clined to Prince James (§§552, 555), whom his sister. Queen Anne, would gladly have named as her successor. The prince invaded Scot- land, with a small French force, the next year, but without success; and, after the death of Louis XIV., the Regent (§633) made a close alli- ance with England, Holland, and the Empire, to keep the peace of Europe. The Stuarts, driven from France, kept up a cheerless show of royalty in their poverty-stricken court at Rome. A Grenadier. *See Table, p. 241. The electorate of Hanover was conferred, in 1692, on the father of George I., a duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who married a daughter of Frederic, elector-palatine, and the En- glish princess, Elizabeth. The House of Brunswick was one of the oldest and most powerful in Germany, being a branch of the Guelf family (§363), whose estates, in the twelfth century, extended from the Danube to the Baltic. (274) HANOVERIANS AND STUARTS. 275 641. George I. felt and acted more as a German prince than as a British king, much to the displeasure of his new subjects. His reign was marked by many wild specula- tions in finance, among them the "South Sea Bubble," which closely resembled the Mississippi scheme in France (§^33)- When the crash came, bringing poverty to a multitude of paper-millionaires, a strong reaction set in, and Robert Walpole, a sensible country squire, who had opposed the scheme from the first, was placed at the head of the government, a position which he held twenty-one years. 642. George I. died in Hanover, 1727, and his son, George H., became king. Under Walpole's thrifty ad- ministration, the country rapidly advanced in industry and wealth. In the "War of the Austrian Succession" (§§602-605), England was the steadfast friend of Maria Theresa. The king and his son were both present in the battle of Dettingen, 1743, by which the French were driven out of northern Germany. 643. The last attempt of the Stuarts to regain the Brit- ish throne was led by the "Young Pretender," Charles Edward, son of James Francis, who invaded Scotland in 1745. His brave and gallant bearing attracted many young Scots : Edinburgh was taken by surprise, and a grand ball was given at the palace in honor of King James the Eighth. A substantial victory, at Prestonpans, gave the Pretender the cannon which he needed ; the French government, now believing in his certain success, sent arms and money, and he boldly invaded England. But the English, however little they loved their dull German king, dearly loved the prosperity which they had begun to enjoy, and felt no obligation to risk all for the Stuarts. Few joined the prince, while the superior forces of the Hanoverians began to close around him, and he retreated to Scotland. He was finally defeated at Culloden, in 1746, and escaped beyond the seas. 276 MODERN HISTORY. 644. wSeveral colonies were founded during this reign. In honor of die king, Gen. Oglethorpe gave the name of Georgia to his settlement on the Savannah River, which he had planted chiefly to provide homes for orphans, and for refugees for conscience' sake. The efforts of the Ohio Company to setde lands west of the Alleghanies, led to a collision with the French. In an attempt to capture Fort Duquesne, Gen. Braddock and his British regulars were defeated by Indians, and only saved from utter destruc- tion by the cool bravery of Washington. The fort was subsequendy abandoned by the French, and the English renamed it Forf Pitt, in honor of the firm friend of America, AVilliam Pitt. The next year forts Niagara and Ticonderoga, and the yet more important fortress of Quebec, were also taken by the Bridsh. 645. These colonial contests were part of the Seven Years' War, to which — or rather to the energetic policy of Mr. Pitt — three great empires may trace their rise. British conquests from the French in Hindustan laid the foundations of the vast Indian Empire; the share taken by the thirteen American colonies in the war led to the independence of the United States ; and, by enabling Prussia at a most critical moment to withstand the hos- tility of all continental Europe, the rise of the present German Empire may have been rendered possible. 646. George III. (A. D. 1760- 1820) succeeded his grandfather while the Seven Years' War was in progress. It was closed by the treaty of Paris, 1763, in which France ceded to England all that is now British America, while Spain gave up Florida in exchange for Havana and the Philippine Islands, which had been taken by the English. 647. The early years of this reign were marked by a wonderful increase in the power of newspapers. John Wilkes, in his journal, the N'orth Briton, attacked the REIGN OF GEORGE I IT. 277 policy of the government ; and the king's favorite minister, the Earl of Bute, was compelled to resign. Wilkes was imprisoned for his boldness ; but this despotic action only brought more clearly to light the need of a free press for the security of a free government; and, thus, an important step in constitutional liberty was gained. The London Times was established January i, 1788. 648. The king, though well-meaning, was obstinate and narrow-minded; and his subjects, both at home and in the colonies, had to look well to their rights. The French and Indian War had added immensely to British posses- sions, but it had also added to the public debt; and it was now proposed to tax the three kingdoms and the colonies alike to meet the expense. This was quite right as far as the British people at home were concerned, for the tax was levied by their own representatives; but the colonists had no seats in Parliament; and as Englishmen they claimed their rights, conceded as long ago as the reign of Edward I., in refusing to pay a tax which they had no share in imposing. 649. Pitt, the Great Commoner, declared, in parliament, that the colonists were right ; but the king hated Pitt, whose ill-health, moreover, withdrew him, about this time, from public affairs, so that the Americans lost this pow- erful friend at court. Lord North's ministry repealed all taxes, excepting that of three pence a pound upon tea. But it was the principle, not the pence, that the colonists were contending for. Most of the tea-ships were sent back to England with their cargoes untouched ; while the Bostonians, in their excitement, dis- charged several shiploads into their harbor. 650. The American Revolution. — A British army was now sent over, and the war began with a skirmish at Lexington, Massachusetts, April, 1775, in which the '^red-coats" were put to flight. In the Battle of Bunker 278 MODERN HISTORY. Hill, on the other hand, the Americans were dislodged from their position ; but their valiant resistance had amazed their opponents, and commanded new respect for colonial character. A congress of all the colonies had now met in Philadelphia to take measures for the common defense; and George Washington became general-in-chief of the American forces. 651. The colonists had desired nothing more than their just rights as British subjects, but the king's harshness compelled them to go farther, and, in July, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed at Philadelphia. During that summer the British, under Lord Howe, cap- tured New York, which they kept until the end of the war. The next year Philadelphia, too, fell into their hands, though Washington earnestly tried to save it by the battle of the Brandywine. The winter which followed was the hardest period of all to the colonists; and the struggle of the weakest nation in the world against the strongest seemed utterly desperate. 652. Nevertheless, the tide had already turned in favor of American independence. Burgoyne, descending with a fresh army from Canada to join Lord Howe, was defeated near Saratoga and surrendered his whole October, 1777. vi -^ j ^ ^ r^ army with its cannon and treasures to Gen- eral Gates. France, Spain, and Holland soon made friendly treaties with the United States, and the fleets of all three nations attacked British ships and settlements in all parts of the globe. The main actions of the following years were in the southern states; and, in October, 1781, the war was virtually ended by the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, with his whole command, at Yorktown, in Virginia. In September, 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Versailles, by which George HI. acknowledged the independence of his late colonies, now the United States of America. 771 E PRINCE REGENT. 279 653. England took a leading part in the wars following the French Revolution, but these will be described in another connection (Ch. XIII). It is no wonder that the excitements and responsibilities of that eventful time over- came the mind of the king. After reigning fifty years he became insane, and the regency of the kingdom was committed to his son, who was after- wards King George the Fourth. 654. The wars of the French Revolution burdened Great Britain with a debt of four thousand millions of dollars, which pressed, most heavily, upon the working classes. At the same time the use of steam in manufac- tures threw thousands of worthy people out of employ- ment, while the price of food was raised by the Corn Laws, which prohibited the importation of grain. For many years the government had a difficult task in dealing with the popular discontent under these miseries, which it could not at once remove. 655. George III. died in 1820, and the Prince Regent became king. His only child, the Princess Charlotte, was already dead, and his ill-treated wife, Caroline of Bruns- wick, did not long survive his accession. George IV. was a selfish and profligate king, spending the money of his starving people on the most frivolous amusements. For- tunately, the government really rested in better hands than his. Some liberal measures were carried by his ministers; notably, that of "Catholic Emancipation," removing disabilities which had existed ever since the time of Charles II. (§544). There was no longer any danger of the Pope's ruling England; and it was seen to be wrong that millions of people in Ireland should be unrepresented in Parliament merely on account of their religious belief. 656. Many Englishmen, of whom Lord Byron was most distinguished, took part in the Greek revolution, which 28o MODERN HISTORY. delivered the land of Pericles and Plato, after four hun- dred years' degrading servitude to the Turks. The gov- ernment at last followed their lead, and, in alliance with France and Russia, defeated the Turkish fleet in the Bay of Navarino (§722). 657. In 1830, William IV. succeeded his brother. His seven years' reign is noted as the period of long-needed parliamentary reform. Since the apj^lication of steam to machinery, many towns had grown immensely in wealth and population, but had no voice in the government to pro- tect their rights; while some ancient boroughs, once im- portant, had lost all or nearly all their inhabitants, but, as they were entitled to representation, their seats in par- liament were filled by the appointment of some great landed proprietor, who thus had far more power than was just. In 1832, fifty-six of these '^ pocket-boroughs" were abolished, and one hundred and forty-three seats were distributed among the great towns, while the right to vote was extended to every man who owned property or paid rent to a certain small amount. 658. One of the first acts of the reformed Parliament abolished slavery in all the British colonies. Wilberforce and others had succeeded, in 1807, in putting an end to the slave trade. Improvement was also made in the Poor Laws, so that a laborer could seek employment beyond the limits of the parish in which he was born. 659. In 1837, the crown of Great Britain and Ireland passed to Victoria, daughter of the duke of Kent, while that of Hanover was inherited by her father's younger brother (see Table, p. 283). Many troubles beset the three kingdoms and their dependencies. Canada was in revolt, Jamaica nearly so, a commercial war was on the eve of breaking out with China, and the discontent as home was greater than ever, owing to scanty harvests and the high jjrice of food. Riotous meetings were held near the great THE CRIMEAN WAR. 281 towns, demanding a repeal of the Corn Laws, and some radical changes in the government. 660. The cold, wet summer of 1845 injured the grain crop all over Europe and blighted the potato in Ireland. A terrible famine was the consecjuence, carrying off thou- sands of the Irish peasantry and leaving whole parishes uninhabited. In 1846, parliament repealed all duties upon articles of food, and gradually the discontent died away in a better condition of the people. 661. In 1840, the queen married Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, a truly "blameless prince," who, seeking neither honors nor power for himself, devoted his rare talents to promoting the success and happiness of her reign. Among other enterprises which he aided, was the first "World's Fair," for which a "Crystal Palace" was erected in Hyde Park, London, A. D. 1851. 662. Her alliance with the new French Empire (§§738, 739) plunged England into the Crimean War, the object of which was to protect Turkey against the aggressions of the Czar Nicholas. The Turks had a prophecy that their dominion in Europe was to fall just four hundred years from the time of its establishment (§379). When that year of fate arrived, the Czar, who coveted Constantinople, proposed to the British gov- ernment to share the spoils by seizing Egypt and Crete. This was refused, and Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, English ambassador at Constantinople — whom the Czar spitefully called the "English Sultan" from his influence over the Turks — was warned to watch the Russian movements. 663. Nicholas soon marched an army to the lower Danube, and seized the provinces of Moldavia and Wal- lachia. The Sultan declared war, and his general, Omar Pasha, gained several brilliant victories over the invaders, forcing them at length to give up the disputed provinces. Hist.— 24. 282 MODERN HISTORY. To make it sure that the peace of Europe would not be disturbed again in the same way, the French and English fleets moved up the' Black Sea and besieged *^'' ' ^^" the fortress of Sevastopol in the Crimean pe- ninsula. For nearly a year its strong defenses resisted all attempts to reduce them, though the Russians were re- pulsed at Balaklava and signally defeated at Inkermann. The British soldiers suffered more from cold and hunger, owing to inefficient management, than from the necessary hardships of war; but the sick were kindly and skillfully cared for by Florence Nightingale and her noble band of volunteer nurses — ladies who had left the comfort of Eng- lish homes for a pilgrimage of charity to this Tartar wil- derness, and whose only reward was the happiness of relieving pain. 664. The Czar died in March, 1855; and his son, Alex- ander II., a prince of more moderate views, came to the throne. Lord Palmerston was now at the head of the British ministry, and new energy appeared in the move- ments of the allies. A fleet, cruising in the Sea of Azof, destroyed immense magazines of grain, which were to have fed the garrison of Sevastopol; while another, penetrating the Baltic, shut up the Russian ships in their harbor of Cronstadt. At last the Redan and the Malakoff, two great forts which guarded the south side of Sevastopol, were taken by storm. The Russians sunk their fleet in the harbor, set fire to the town, and retired to the north forts. 665. The Czar was now ready for peace, and in March, 1856, a treaty was signed at Paris. The Black Sea was thrown open to the commerce of all nations, but no war- ships, either Turkish or Russian, were permitted to enter it. The provinces in the lower Danube were united in the almost independent sovereignty of Roumania, free to regulate all matters of religion and law for themselves, and to choose their own prince with the formal consent DESCENDANTS OF GEORGE III. 283 of the Sultan, Christians in Turkey — who outnumbered the Mohammedans ahiiost six to one — were declared to be under the protection of the great Christian Powers. Point out Trafalgar. Navarino. Sevastopol. What seas were traversed by the allied fleets in 1854? Where is Cronstadt ? Koumania ? Read Chapter X of Green's "Short History;" Macaulay's History of England and Essays on Clive and Hastings; Bancroft's History of the United States, volumes relating to the French and Indian and Revolutionary wars. FAMILY OF GEORGE III. George III. I George IV. William IV. Edward, D. of Kent, Ernest Augustus, I died, 1820. K. of Hanover. Charlotte, died, 1817. | Victoria. THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. §628. Philip III. — g 525. Anne m. Louis XIII. PiiiLii' IV. m Eliz. Mary Anne m. FERDINAND III. I I of France. | Louis XIV. m. Maria Theresa. Charles II. Marg't. Theresa m. LEOPOLD I., I who m. Louis, Dauphin. 2d Mary Anne of Neuberg. I I Louis. Philip v.— g 630. JOSEPH I. CHARLES VI. A^ames of Emperors are in large capitals, Kings of Spain, in small capitals, and Kings of France, in italics. CHAPTER XII. BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST. Palanqain Bearers in India. OR a hundred years from its foundation, the English East India Company confined itself to trade — building a few forts and warehouses on lands given it by the Mogul emperors. After the time of Aurungzebe, who died in 1707, the empire founded by Baber (§377) rapidly de- clined; and, though a Great Mogul still reigned in his jeweled palace at Delhi, the tv\ent\--one native princes of the peninsula paid him little respect and still less obedi- ence, but spent their time in quarreling among themselves and oppressing their subjects. 667. By helping the weaker party in these disputes, the Company began to acquire power and wealth, which were often increased by buying the sovereignt)* of some bank- (284) CLIVE AND HASTINGS. 285 nipt nizam or rajah. Conquests from the French and their Hindu allies, during the Seven Years' War (§645), laid the foundation of the British Indian Empire. In 1756, Sura'jah Dovv'lah, the native viceroy of Bengal, cap- tured Calcutta, and thrust all the British residents into a loathsome dungeon called the Black Hole, where most of them died in agonies of thirst and suffocation in a single night. Robert Clive, formerly a poor clerk in the Com- pany's counting-house, now at the head of only 3,000 men, recovered Calcutta and gained a complete victory over the army of Dowlah, who soon afterwards lost his station and his life. Clive was made Governor of Calcutta, and Baron of Plassy, from the scene of his victory. 668. In 1773, the three Presidencies of Bombay, Mad- ras, and Bengal were united under Warren Hastings, who, as Governor-General, resided at Calcutta. He carried on a fierce conflict with Hyder Ali, the native sultan of Mysore in southern India, who was aided by the French during the war of American Independence (§652). He was conquered at last, but the struggle was renewed by his son, Tippoo Sahib, when the French Revolution had reawakened the hostilities in Europe between the French and the English. The whole kingdom of Mysore was at length absorbed into the British Empire. 669. The Company's servants usually made themselves rich at the expense of the Hindus, perhaps quieting their consciences with the assurance that no amount of extor- tion and oppression could equal the cruelties of the native rulers. But this excuse did not satisfy English feeling at home. In 1786, Hastings was accused, by Edmund Burke, before the bar of the House of Lords; and, though he was finally acquitted on the ground that the directors of the company were more guilty of extortion than he, effectual measures were taken to protect the helpless natives of India from future abuse. 286 MODERN HISTORY. 670. In 1833, the Indian trade was thrown freely open to all British subjects. The Chinese government was soon alarmed by the enormous quantities of opium brought into its markets from northern India. The Chinese people were only too fond of the ruinous drug ; their government made stringent laws to prevent its introduction; and, when these were violated, British merchants were shut up in their factory at Canton until they gave up all the opium in their possession. The English home-govern- . I 40-1 42. j^gj^j. ^ygj-j|. ^.Q ^y^j. fQj. \]^Q protection of its subjects. Canton and several other towns were taken by storm, and, at length, the Chinese officials signed a treaty ceding Hong Kong to the British, and opening several ports to foreign trade. 671. This was a great concession; for the oldest of em- pires had kept itself closed for ages against all the rest of the world. It soon afterwards made treaties with France and the United States. A new war was occasioned, in 1855, by some trifling encroachment on the part of the Chmese. Canton was again captured by a French and English force, and, by the treaty of Tientsin, more cordial relations were established. 672. A far more serious war soon threatened England with the loss of her whole Indian Empire. The native soldiers, called Sepoys, by means of whom this great peninsula was kept in subjection, numbered nearly a quarter of a million. Better fed, paid, and treated than they ever had been by their native rulers, the Sepoys obeyed their officers with childlike confidence. But they were a superstitious race, and any slight to their religion enraged them beyond endurance. The government held itself bound to respect their religion wherever it did not violate the universal principles of humanity — only inter- fering to prevent the burning of widows and the drowning of children as a sacrifice to the Ganges. THE SEPOY REBELLION. 287 673. In 1856, new rifles came out from England for the Sepoy regiments; and with them greased cartridges, which were supposed to contain beef-tallow. To bite off the ends of these would be pollution to a Hindu; and, feel- ing their ancient faith insulted, several regiments mutinied. Frightful massacres of the white residents occurred at Delhi, Meerut, and Cawnpore ; and Lucknow, capital of Oude, was besieged, all the summer of 1857, by thousands of infuriated rebels. Gen. Havelock brought a small force from Persia, and, after many battles with far greater num- bers of Sepoys, he was able to enter Lucknow and save it until relief could come from home. 674. At length Sir Colin Campbell, with a brigade of Highlanders, appeared, and the scene changed. Delhi, the rebel capital, was taken, and its king, the 'Mast of the Moguls," with his sons, was executed for mutiny. The rebellion was soon over. The government AD iSsS of India was taken from the company and vested in the crown. The queen — now called Empress of India — appoints a viceroy to represent her at Calcutta; and efforts have been made to extend even to the lowest orders of Hindus the benefits of enlightened and Christian govern- ment. The British rulers refrain, as before, from directly interfering with the native religion; but the liberal educa- tion provided for Hindu youth is rapidly relieving them from the bondage of ancient superstition. 675. The great continent of Australia was first colo- nized, by English convicts, in 1788. A thousand of these wretched creatures, from prisons at home, arrived in Sydney Cove with their officers, and began to clear the wilderness, make roads and bridges, and prepare the way for better colonists. Hard work proved its advantages; many reformed their lives, and became useful citizens and even magistrates. Australian wool became celebrated in European markets; and thousands of free settlers were 2 88 MODERN HISTORY. glad to follow where the convicts had prepared the way. The original colony of New South Wales was divided, Victoria being set oif on the south and Queensland on the north. In May, 1851, gold was discovered in Victoria, and a great immigration of adventurers followed. Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, has become a thriving city of nearly 200,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of a university, while Sydney, the first settlement founded, is hardly less impor- tant. Australia and the neighboring island of Tasmania are united by submarine telegraph with London, while the great inland wilderness is fast being turned into homes for civilized men. 676. The chiefs of New Zealand acknowledged Queen Victoria as their sovereign in 1840. Covering more space than the British Islands, New Zealand is said to be un- surpassed by any country in the world for richness of soil, healthfulness of climate, and grandeur of scenery. The native Maoris are a noble race, who have gladly accepted civilized and Christian teaching. Their skill in war has, however, made them dangerous enemies when- ever the settlers have provoked their hostilities. The Fiji islanders have lately put themselves under the protection and control of the British Queen, and have sent her the great war-club which, for hundreds of years, has been used as a scepter by their chiefs. Point out the Mogul capital of Hindustan. The present capital of British India. The three presidencies. Canton. Hong Kong. The provinces of Australia. Melbourne. Sydney. New Zealand. The Fijis. Read Mills' "British India;" Articles in Encyclopaedia Britannica on Hindustan, Australia, and New Zealand ; Macaulay's Essays on Clive and Warren Hastings. CHAPTER XIII. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. ANY changes were silently going on in Europe during the eighteenth century. A skeptical sort of phi- losophy had taken possession of the higher classes, while the newspapers and debating clubs excited every- where a spirit of inquiry among the common people. The oldest and most sacred things were questioned; and, in France especially, neither Church nor State were in a condi- tion to bear questioning. The na- tional religion had become merely a splendid cloak for wickedness; while the government seemed to exist only to provide gayety and luxury for the court, caring nothing for the intolerable miseries of the people. 678. Louis XVI. was a good, but rather dull, prince — earnestly wishing to reform the evils of his government, but knowing how as little as did that princess of his family, who, being told that thousands of peasants were starving to death, exclaimed "Poor things! If there is no bread, why do you not give them cake?" As a last resort, the States-general — /'. c. , the three "Estates," or orders of Nobles, Clergy, and Commons — were summoned to meet at Versailles, in May, 1789. Hist.- 25. ( 289 ) The "Sans Culottes." 290 MODERN HISTORY. 679. The Assembly numbered more than a thousand, and included some of the wisest and best men in France. They struck at the root of the prevailing misery by taxing clergy, nobles, and even the royal domains (§639), throw- ing the burdens of the state on those who derived most benefit from it. But the abuses of a thousand years could not be so easily cleared away, though a mania for change seemed suddenly to seize the Assembly. A duke and a viscount moved the abolition of all titles and privileges belonging to the nobles. Serfdom, too, was abolished; offices in the army and the state were thrown open to all ranks; and all religions were made equal before the law. A medal was struck, representing Louis XVI. as the restorer of French liberty; and a solemn Te Deiim was sung to celebrate the hopes of the nation. 680. Already, however, a dangerous and desperate class of men had become conscious of their power — men who thought that liberty meant the supremacy of their passions. A furious mob stormed and demolished the Bastile, a grim old fortress, which had been the scene of many cruel imprisonments, but which now contained only a garrison of invalid soldiers. Another riotous company, composed largely of women, took the road to Versailles, where the Assembly was sitting, and where the royal family was residing. They forced the palace, and would have murdered the queen but for the intervention of Lafayette, who commanded the National Guard. The king and queen, with their children, were escorted to Paris by the whole mob — the heads of their murdered guards being borne on pikes beside them. 681. Most of the nobles and princes of the blood now quitted France, leaving the king to his fate. His own attempt to escape with his family was in vain. They were arrested and brought back to a brutal imprisonment. The Assembly, having finished its work of making a new THE JACOBIN CLUB. 291 constitution for France, was dissolved, and was succeeded by a Legislative Assembly, composed wholly of different members. The Girondists, so called from the district whence most of them came, were the leaders. They desired a constitutional monarchy, like that of England, or, at most, a well-ordered republic, but they had to seek the favor of the mob by many unwise measures. 682. The Jacobin Club now possessed an immense power in France, and its journals and almanacs made it the terror of all Europe — advocating, as they did, the over- throw of all existing institutions, and a revolt against all authority, human and divine. Under their influence, the Reign of Terror began in Paris, with the September Massacres of 1792. A tiger-like thirst for blood seized the mob, who broke open asylums and prisons, and murdered all whom they could find — priests, women and children, paupers and lunatics. The king and his family were thrown into the gloomy prison of the Temple. Under its windows the guillotine was set up, and in its first victim the shuddering queen recognized her friend and late attend- ant, the beautiful Princess de Lamballe. Three thousand persons, suspected of favoring the king, were dragged from their beds by night, and hurried to the dungeon and the guillotine. 683. The Mountain — so the Jacobins were called from the high seats they occupied — became supreme in the Convention which succeeded the Legislative Assembly. "Louis Capet" was tried by the Convention, and found guilty of various crimes against his people. Some would have imprisoned or exiled him for life, but a majority, and among them his kinsman, Philip Egalite — so called since his title of Duke of Orleans had been abolished — voted for immediate execution. 684. On a frosty morning in January, 1793, Louis XVL was led out to die. A sea of silent faces surrounded the 292 MODERN HISTORY. guillotine. The king was about to address them, but his voice was drowned in the roll of drums. One faithful friend, the Abbe Edgeworth, stood beside him to the last. When his head had fallen beneath the fatal knife, some of the crowd, more brutal than the rest, dipped pikes and staves in the blood and marched away, shouting ' ' Long live the Republic ! " 685. The queen was guillotined the next October. Her little son, whom royalists called Louis XVIL, became idiotic through fright, hunger, and neglect, and is supposed to have died in his wretched dungeon. Some people believe a happier story: that he was secredy conveyed to a home among the American forests, where he grew up to be a humble missionary to the Indians, and learned of his high birth in his old age from a grandson of Philip Egalite. 686. The Girondists were the next to fall. Their leaders were guillotined, and with them Madame Roland, whose genius and spirit had done much to inspire the party. The three leaders of the Jacobins were Marat, Danton, and Robespierre. The first was a brutal wretch, whose ferocity would have better suited a bloodhound than a man. A noble-hearted woman, Charlotte Corday by name, devoted her life to the rescue of her country from this monster. From her home in Normandy she hastened to Paris, gained admission to the house of Marat, and stabbed him to the heart; then, with perfect calmness gave herself up to the guillotine. 687. But France could not be saved by such means. The storm of passion became wilder than ever. Christi- anity itself was abolished by law; and over the gates of cemeteries was written "Death is an eternal sleep." A *' goddess of Reason" was carried in pompous procession through the streets, and enthroned at Notre Dame. A more innocent sign of the general rage for destruction, was the abolition of old names for months and days of THE REIGN OF TERROR. 293 the week, and the substitution of new and fanciful ones. All events were now dated from the rise of the French Republic, September 22, 1792. 688. Danton at length wearied of the carnival of blood- shed, but his attempt to arrest it only carried him and his associates to the guillotine. Robespierre reigned for three months over the Revolutionary Tribunal, which placed the lives of the whole French nation at his disposal. With all his crimes this man was not an atheist, and he made the Convention pass a decree affirming the existence of God, and the immortality of the soul. But the butchery of the guillotine went on with more method and less interruption than ever before. At last some few found courage to conspire against him; he and eighty of his accomplices were brought to the scaffold, and as his head fell, a joyful shout arose from the multi- tude, declaring that the Reign of Terror was ended. 689. The Convention had declared itself the ''friend of all peoples, but the enemy of all governments." A grand Coalition of nearly all the powers of Europe was now in arms to put down so dangerous a neighbor, and its forces were increased by many of the emigrated princes and nobles (§681). The French seaport of Toulon revolted against the Republic, and received 16,000 soldiers of the CoaHtion into its forts. The Convention declared that it must be retaken, or the French general commanding the besiegers must be guillotined. At this point, a young Cdrsican captain of artillery showed how, by seizing a litde fort called the "Needle," the English position could be "turned inside out," and the place taken. Tlie old general was amazed at his subaltern's presumption; but any thing was better than the guillotine; the advice was followed. A "tiger-spring" by the Corsican and his followers secured the fort; the allies abandoned Toulon; and Napoleon Bona- parte had won his place in history. 294 MODERN HISTORY 690. The Revolution had now plunged France into greater poverty and misery than even Louis XIV. had done — the rich being exiled or massacred, the poor without employment. Paris was starving : the mass of the people had only two ounces of bread and a handful of rice dealt out daily to each by the government. The royalists of the western coast proclaimed Louis XVIIL as their king, and asked aid of the allies; and even the drowning of 15,000 people, at Nantes, by order of the Convention, did not put an end to this counter-revolution. 691. A new and better government was established at Paris in 1795, though not without a 'Svhiff of gunpowder" from the cannon of General Bonaparte, who had been called to the defense of the capital. A Directory of five persons was intrusted with the execution of laws, which were made by two Councils, resembling our Senate and House of Representatives. Something like order and pros- perity was now restored; the rule of the rabble ceased, and respectable people, who had fled from the Reign of Terror, returned. 692. Meanwhile the French armies had been victorious in the Netherlands, where, indeed, they met little resistance. The existing governments were exchanged for the Belgian and Batavian Republics, which allied themselves with France. In 1796, Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy astonished the world. Perhaps it astonished himself, by proving what tireless energy and an indomitable will can achieve; for he dated from his tremendous passage of the bridge at Lodi, swept by the Austrian cannon, that wonderful career which made him master of continental Europe. 693. All northern Italy was now subdued by his arms — including the Venetian Republic, which had stood for 1345 years — and, invading Austria from the southward, he ad- vanced within a few days' march of Vienna. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 295 By the peace of Campo Formio, the Emi)eror Francis II. received the Venetian territory in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands, which were now the Belgian Republic. 694. The Coalition being thus dissolved, England alone remained at war with France, and the Directory resolved to strike a blow at her possessions in the East. For this purpose Bonaparte sailed, with a great army, to Egypt, occupied Alexandria, and gained ' ' ^^^ " Cairo by a furious battle with the Mamelukes, on the plain of the Pyramids. The English admiral, Nelson, following with his fleet, destroyed almost all the French vessels in the Bay of Aboukir. He was rewarded by the title of ''Baron Nelson of the Nile." In spite of his losses, Bona- parte pushed on into Syria, and captured Gaza and Jaffa. Acre, however, withstood him, and, a plague breaking out, he returned to Egypt, where he gained a victory over the Turks, and then sailed for France. 695. Arriving at Paris, he overthrew the Directory, and made himself head of the republic, with the title of First Consul. A second Coalition of the European powers had now liberated Italy, but Bonaparte reconquered it in a swift campaign of five weeks, including his defeat of the Austrians at Marengo. General Moreau had almost as remarkable success in Germany; and his victory at Hohenlinden was followed by peace with Austria. The other powers — England the last of all, at Amiens — made peace with France. 696. Bonaparte now proved himself no less able in government than in war. A new and much needed code of laws was compiled by the best lawyers, with his advice and assistance; and so just were his conclusions, that France has kept the Code Napoleon under all the changes of government which she has undergone since it was made. The Roman Church was reestablished, though all sects and creeds were still equal before the laws. 150,000 296 MODERN HISTORY. emigrants returned, and their estates were restored to them as far as possible. 697. The Peace of Amiens was soon broken by Great Britain; and Mr. Pitt, second son of the Great Commoner (§649), stirred up a Third CoaHtion, of all the chief powers, against France. The exiled Bourbons kept a secret army of assassins about Bonaparte; and both sides felt that his death would ensure the restoration of the old monarchy. This made the French people willing to ex- change their consulate for an empire; and, in May, 1804, a decree of the Senate, confirmed by the Legislative Corps, made Napoleon I. emperor of the French, the throne being declared hereditary in his family. Pope Pius VII. came all the way from Rome to crown the new Charlemagne (§311). 698. Immense preparations were now made for an in- vasion of England; but, to the astonishment of the world, Napoleon suddenly marched his army into Germany, sur- prised General Mack at Ulm, and captured that general's entire command, with cannon and stores. He then pushed forward to Vienna, which he entered in triumph, while Francis II. made a hasty retreat. In the battle of Auster- litz, soon afterward, the three emperors of Russia, Austria, and the French were present with their armies: Napoleon gained one of the most thorough of all his victories, and the czar and kaiser threw up the game in despair. 699. By the treaty of Presburg, Francis II. resigned his last foothold in Italy, and the oldest territory of his house, including the castle and county of Hapsburg (§365). Soon afterward the ''Holy Roman Empire" was dissolved, and the 120th of the Caesars became merely Francis I., hereditary emperor of Austria, and king of Hungary and Bohemia. 700. Lord Nelson fought his last batde off Cape Trafal- gar, in Portugal, October, 1805; destroying the French and THE BERLIN DECREE. 297 Spanish fleets, and thus securing to England the supremacy of the seas. He was struck by a ball early in the action. Drawing his cloak over the decorations he wore, so that his men might not know him, he lay three hours in mortal agony while the battle raged about him. At last he was told that a signal victory had been gained, and died, ex- claiming "Thank God! I have done my duty!" 701. The King of Prussia's wxak and timid policy made him a mere dupe of Napoleon, who first forced him to accept Hanover, in order to plunge him into a war with England, and then took it away from him when another arrangement seemed more to the advantage of the con- queror. Frederic William HI. had lost the friendship of the other powers by seeking the favor of Napoleon, and he now had to stand almost alone against him. The French legions moved northward with their customary swiftness, and by the two victories of Jena and Auerstadt, which were gained on the same day, captured or destroyed almost the entire Prussian army. Several strong fortresses surrendered to the French; and, in less than a year from Napoleon's seizure of the Austrian capital, he was entering that of Prussia as a conqueror. The sword of Frederic the Great was sent to Paris as a trophy. s 702. At this point Napoleon published his famous "Berlin Decree," forbidding all commerce and intercourse with Great Britain. By attacking the source of England's wealth, he" hoped to destroy the opposition to his suprem- acy; for he well knew that the other nations could not long continue at war with him, but for the never-failing supply of British gold. His Continental System, however, did more harm to the continent than to England. George IH. replied to the Berlin Decree by an Order in Council, declaring a blockade of all ports in Europe from which the British flag was excluded, and directing his shipmasters 298 MODERN HISTORY. to seize and search all vessels which they found approach- ing those ports. 703. Russian armies soon came to the relief of the Prussians; and, in the terrible battle of Eylau, inflicted such losses upon the French, that Napoleon offered terms of peace. These were refused, and soon afterward he was decidedly victorious at Friedland, while the great fortress of Dantzic was taken by his troops. The czar now proposed peace, and met Napoleon on a raft, moored midway in the Niemen River, which separated his dominion from Prussia. Alexander was filled with admiration for the military genius of his late opponent, and for a time they were good friends. The poor king of Prussia was deprived of half his dominions, part of which went to make the new kingdom of Westphalia, for Jerome Bona- parte. Two other brothers of Napoleon were recognized by the czar as kings, the one of the Two Sicilies, and the other of Holland. 704. Portugal meanwhile disobeyed the Berlin Decree, and General Junot was ordered to put an end to her existence. It was done, and the Braganzas, quitting their European kingdom, established a vaster empire in Brazil. French troops, about the same time, marched into Rome, and overthrew the pope's temporal power. Spain was the next victim. Her Bourbon king, Charles IV., cared more for his lazy ease than for the duty he owed his people. He sold his kingdom to Napoleon for a castle and a pension; his sons, refusing to do likewise with their inher- itance, were imprisoned at Valenq:ay; and the crown of Spain was bestowed on Joseph Bonaparte. He resigned that of the Two Sicilies to his brother-in-law, Murat, and was crowned at Madrid, in January, 1809. 705. The Spaniards felt themselves wronged and insulted by this bargain. They organized a new government, at Seville, in the name of Ferdinand VII., the eldest son TREATY OF SCHONBRUNISf. 299 of Charles, and besought the help of England. Portugal followed their example; and Sir Arthur Wellesley, landing at Mondego Bay, defeated Junot so severely that he had to quit the country with all that remained of his army. The English were almost equally successful in Spain, until Napoleon came in person to his brother's relief. Then his imperious will, as usual, swept all before it, and the British army, under Sir John Moore, was driven from the peninsula. Before embarking, they defeated the French at Corunna, but with the loss of their brave leader. 706. The Austrian emperor, always bitterly enraged at the treaty of Presburg (^699), thought his time for re- venge had come while his great enemy was far away in Spain. Hastily collecting a force twice as numerous as the French, he pushed into Bavaria. But his movements were watched. Almost as swiftly as a thunderbolt Napo- leon traversed France, entered Germany, and by five battles, fought in five successive days, cleared his way to Vienna, which surrendered to him. May 12, 1809. The treaty of Schonbrunn, which followed, was more humili- ating to Austria than even that of Presburg had been. The next year Francis I. accepted his conqueror as a son-in-law. Napoleon, having dissolved his marriage with Josephine, espoused the archduchess Maria Louisa. In 181 1, a son was born to him, who received the title of King of Rome. 707. King Louis of Holland, having offended his brother by opposing the restrictions on trade which were ruining his people (§702), retired into Austria, and his kingdom was annexed to France. The czar was equally injured by the ''Continental System," and by many other acts of Napoleon. He now joined with Sweden — whose regent and crown-prince was Bernadotte, a former general of Napoleon — in resisting that oppressive system; and a new war broke out, on a grander scale than even those that 300 MODERN HISTORY. had preceded it. Austria and Prussia were now allies of France; Great Britain and Sweden, of Russia. Napoleon, while mustering his forces, summoned a throng of princes to meet him at Dresden, and indulged his pride by such a display of imperial grandeur as Europe had never seen before. 708. Then, with half a million of men, splendidly equip- ped, he marched into Russia. But the forces of nature seemed all arrayed against him. A terrible hurricane, followed by floods and excessive cold, swept away multi- tudes of horses and men. Space itself, which his swift, decisive movements had hitherto overcome, now mastered him. The Russians retreated, destroying all their harvests, and burning towns through which the French must pass; and when he arrived at Moscow, the ancient capital, it, too, was silent and deserted. The French took possession ; but in the night, fires, kindled by long trains, burst forth in every part of the city. 709. Conquered by frost and flame. Napoleon at length ordered a retreat. The track of his grand army was strewn with corpses like one long battle-field. In a single night, thousands of men and all the remaining horses were frozen to death. Troops of Cossacks harassed the march; and, arriving at the River Beresina, the French had to cross a bridge under furious fire from the Nov., 1812. ^ . ^^. 1 ,- I 1 Russian cannon. Nme-tenths of the grand army were left dead upon Russian plains, and the rest were frightfully maimed and shattered. 710. The enemies and unwilling allies of Napoleon took courage from his misfortunes; and the whole continent was engaged in the war of 18 13. Napoleon's extraordinary genius was never more manifest than in this season of tremendous difficulties. Wherever he commanded in per- son — at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden — great victories were won; but his generals were almost every-where defeated. THE HUNDRED DAYS. 301 At length, in a three days' battle at Leipsic, the allies were victorious, and Napoleon was compelled to retreat. 711. A crowd of deposed princes — among them Pope Pius VII. — now returned to their deserted thrones. Early in 1 8 14, the allies were ready to move from the north, east, and south upon Paris. Still Napoleon's movements were as firm and decisive as ever. Though immensely out- numbered by his enemies, he still acted upon his old principle of so massing his troops as to be always the strongest at the point of attack. In this way he drove back Blucher, the Prussian general, defeated the Aus- trians, and was even carrying the war into Germany, when he heard that the allies were marching directly upon Paris. 712. After a battle in the suburbs, the czar and the king of Prussia entered that city, followed by their vic- torious armies. Wellington was on his march from Spain, having completed the Peninsular War by the restoration of Ferdinand VII. A congress of the allies disposed of France and her chosen ruler at their will. Napoleon received the little island of Elba, and a pension, in ex- change for his empire. France was deprived of all her conquests since 1792, and was forced to accept Louis XVIII., a brother of the guillotined monarch (§684), as her king. 713. The next spring, Napoleon, quitting Elba, landed almost alone in the south of France. He was soon joined by many devoted adherents. The king's brother, sent with an army to oppose him, had to make an unprincely retreat; for, at sight of the familiar and idolized figure in the gray surtout, nearly his Avhole force broke into shouts of '-^Vive r Emperatr!'' and passed over to Napoleon's side. The Bourbons fled from Paris, and the emperor reigned a hundred days with greater energy than ever. Every nerve was strained to provide new armies for the defense 302 MODERN HISTORY. of the restored empire. The multitude of mere boys who thronged the recruiting offices, at once proved the devo- tion of the people, and showed how the strength of France had been exhausted by twenty years of almost perpetual war. The graves of their fathers were scattered the length of Europe, from Malaga to Moscow. The allies also mustered their forces, and in the great battle of Waterloo, Wellington, the British, and Blucher, the Prussian com- mander, gained a victory which overthrew the Empire of the French. Napoleon tried to secure the crown to his son, who was now four years old; but the Senate insisted upon his abdicating without conditions. The allies refused to make any treaty with France, until the emperor should be placed in their keeping. He then attempted to make his escape to America, but the coast was too well guarded by British cruisers, and he was forced to surrender himself to one of their officers. He was not permitted to touch the soil of England, but was conveyed, as a prisoner, to the rocky islet of St. Helena, where he died, less than six years later. May 5th, 1821. Trace, on Map 13, the campaigns of Napoleon. Read Carlyle's French Revolution, and Dyer's Modern Europe. CHAPTER XIV. ABSOLUTISTS AND LIBERALS IN EUROPE. HE wars of the French Revolution were now ended, and a grand congress of sovereigns, or their representatives, met at Vienna, to consult to- gether for the restoration of order. The ' ' bal- ance of power" which they then arranged, lasted more than forty years. 715. Prussia received back her lost territories and more; so that she now became one of the Five Great Powers. Austria was consoled for the loss of the Netherlands by all of northern Italy, except the kingdom of Sardinia. France, Spain, and Naples were again subjected to the Bourbons; and humiliated France had to maintain a foreign army of 150,000 men, who were quartered upon her frontier, to keep her from again disturbing the general peace. 716. Thirty-nine German sovereigns and free cities formed a new confederation, with its capital at Frankfort- (303) 304 MODERN HISTORY on-the-Main. Holland and Belgium were united in the kingdom of the Netherlands, with the Prince of Orange for their king. The Five Great Powers — Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia — held themselves responsible for maintaining the balance of power, by in- terfering in behalf of any state which might be injured and unable to defend itself. 717. The czar proposed to the other sovereigns a Holy Alliance, binding them to "remain united in true brotherly love ; to govern their subjects as parents, and to maintain religion, peace, and justice." This promised well, but it was soon found that the allied sovereigns meant to be very despotic "parents," by no means allow- ing their children to act or think for themselves. Hence arose a conflict between Absolutism and Liberalism, which led at last to the revolutions of 1848. 718. Spain, trying to throw off the stupid tyranny of Ferdinand VH. — who had restored the Inquisition and all the abuses of his ancestors — was subdued by a French army of 100,000 men, under the influence of the Alliance. The liberal constitution was overthrown, and absolute des- potism restored. In Italy multitudes of Liberals joined themselves in secret societies to resist the Hapsburgs in the north and the Bourbons in the south (§634). 719. That of the Carbonari (charcoal-men) numbered half a million. In 1820, they made an open attack upon the government at Naples in such force that the king granted all they asked — the Spanish "Constitution of 1812" and a Liberal ministry. The Holy Alliance again interfered, and an Austrian army restored despotism in Naples. The rule of the Hapsburgs, in northern Italy, was, if possible, more odious than that of the Bourbons. Persons who were only suspected of sympathy with the Carbonari, suddenly disappeared, and spent the rest of their lives in solitary dungeons. THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 305 720. Liberalism was kept alive, in Germany, by the youth in the Universities, whose high spirits doubtless taxed the patience of the paternal governments. Some outbreak of eloquence, on the third centennial of the Reformation, brought a reprimand from the Alliance. A half crazy student of Jena thereupon murdered Kotzebue, the Russian consul; and the sovereigns, fancying some wide-spread conspiracy, insisted upon taking away the freedom of the Universities. 721. The revolt of the Greeks against the cruel oppres- sions of the Turks was met in the same spirit; but that brave people persevered until their independence was won. Prince Ypsilanti, in 1821, publicly announced that the servitude of four hundred years was ended, and that Greece was determined to be free. Hundreds of Greek students hastened to enroll themselves in a Sacred Band, bearing upon their shields the Spartan motto, ''Either this or on this." The Turks tried to crush the movement by atrocious massacres; the Sacred Band was cut to pieces, and the beautiful isle of Scio was laid waste; forty thou- sand of its people perished, while the strongest and most beautiful youth were dragged away to the Turkish slave- markets. 722. The next year Marco Bozzaris and his Suliote band fell upon a Turkish camp by night and gained a complete victory, with the loss of his own life. Though governments might be indifferent or hostile, the people all over Europe were thrilled with sympathy for the Greeks; money, food and clothing were supplied, and many volunteers sought the honor of serving in their ranks (§656). At last the govern- ments of Great Britain, France and Russia were moved to interfere, and their combined fleets defeated the Turks in the Bay of Navarino. 723. The soul of the Holy Alliance departed when Alex- ander I. died, in 1825. His brother Nicholas, who succeeded Hist. — 26. 3o6 MODERN HISTORY. him, coveted the Turkish possessions on the Black Sea, and his movements in that direction forced the sultan to ac- knowledge the independence of the Greeks, Prince Otho of Bavaria was chosen to be their king, under the influence of the allied powers. 724. In 1830 the Liberal spirit became powerful enough to accomplish several peaceful revolutions. Charles X., who had succeeded his brother Louis XVIIL as king of France, offended the people by limiting the freedom of the press and of voting. He was forced to resign his crown and take refuge in Great Britain. The duke of Orleans, son of Egalite, was called to the throne as ''King of the French," with a liberal constitution, much like that of England. 725. Belgium at the same time separated from Holland and chose Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to be its king. The Poles made a brave but vain effort to throw off the harsh yoke of the Russians, which was made harder to them by the tyrannical temper of the viceroy, the grand-duke Constantine, brother of the czar. Their very nationality was now blotted out; 80,000 patriots were sent A. D. 1S32. . ., . , ^ m one year to toil m the frozen deserts of Siberia; and children were even separated from their parents to be trained in military colonies. 726. Under the reign of Louis Philippe, France enjoyed some years of peace and prosperity. Still, the "citizen- king " found it impossible to please all parties. Strict mon- archists thought that no one could rightfully reign over France excepting Henry V., the grandson of Charles X. ; Bonapartists longed for the military glories of the Empire; and a growing multitude of Liberals desired a French Re- public. A severe loss was felt in the death of the duke of Orleans, the heir to the crown, whom all men loved and trusted. 727. The king's interference in the Spanish marriage hastened his fall. Ferdinand VH. had died in 1833, REVOLUTION OF 1848. 307 leaving only two little daughters, the oldest of whom was three years old. His brother, Don Carlos, claimed the crown under the "Salic Law" (§405), but Louis Philippe and a strong party in Spain upheld the little queen, who afterward became the too noted Isabella IL The French king wished to increase his own power by choosing hus- bands for the queen and her sister. To the former he allotted the half-idiotic Francis of Assis, but for her sister, whom he thought likelier to live and reign, he destined his own son, the duke of Montpensier. The marriages both took place, but the Orleans Dynasty was less benefited by them than had been hoped. 728. The Liberals were now powerful in France; and at one of their great Reform Banquets in the open air, the usual toast to the king was omitted, while the "sovereignty of the people" was received with great applause. The government tried to suppress the next meeting of this kind, at which 100,000 people were expected to be present. The guns of the forts were pointed inward , . ^ . ,-.• J Feb., 1848. upon the city, and 60,000 soldiers were ready to fire upon the mob. This aroused the fury of the lowest class of the people, who, swarming together from their dens and cellars, barricaded the streets and raised the cry, "Long live the Republic!" 729. The king and his sons fled, but the widowed duchess of Orleans came with her little son into the revo- lutionary assembly, — calm and undaunted, though weapons were aimed at her heart. She reminded the deputies of her husband's exalted character, and promised that she would teach his son to be like him, true to the people. But a voice from the tribune cried, "Too late!" and a republic was proclaimed. 730. National workshops were now opened, where all who applied found employment and wages. But this plan, though it seemed benevolent, proved very dangerous; 3o8 MODERN HISTORY 100,000 workmen were soon massed together in the public shops, and any attempt to control them aroused their fury. The attempt to abate this peril by dismissing a great num- ber of men led to a terrible four days' batde in the streets of Paris. General Cavaignac by his cool, wise and prompt measures restored order. A new constitution was now adopted, and Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the emperor, became president of the French Republic. 731. The Liberals were every-where in arms, especially in Germany, Hungary and Italy, and the year 1848 was marked by revolutions all over Europe. In a riot at Vienna, the war-minister La Tour was beaten to death by the mob, and the Emperor Ferdinand fled, leaving his capital in their hands. He soon afterward resigned in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I. 732. The Hungarians revolted against the long-hated dominion of the Hapsburgs, and set up a republic with Louis Kossuth at its head. Many Poles, having no country of their own, became " soldiers of liberty" and rendered good service to the Hungarians, while the Czar Nicholas sent armies to the aid of his Austrian ally. The brave Hungarians were unable to hold out long against the com- bined forces of despotism. In May, 1849, ^^^ brutal field- marshal Haynau, who had crushed the revolution in northern Italy, was placed at the head of the Austrian armies, and by a great victory at Temesvar, overthrew the republic. Kossuth resigned, and Gorgei was made dictator ; but within two days Gorgei surrendered his whole army with its cannon and stores to the Russians. Kossuth and a few companions escaped into Turkey, where they were kindly received by the Sultan, the hereditary foe of the Czar; a few years later he visited America, where his eloquent speeches awakened great sympathy for his op- pressed countrymen. 733. The Italian insurgents were scarcely more successful JOSEPH GARIBALDI. 309 in their stroke for liberty; but one important step was gained in the acknowledged leadership of the House of Savoy, which, ten years later, secured the unity and inde- pendence of Italy. Pope Pius IX. had begun his reign in 1846 with liberal measures, which excited great hopes; but when the people demanded war against Austria in aid of the Lombard insurgents, he refused. His minister. Count Rossi, was murdered, and the pope's palace was assaulted, but he himself escaped to Gaeta. 734. Among the noted actors in the Italian revolution was Joseph Garibaldi, a defender of freedom, and a foe to despotism in every form. Garibaldi entered Rome with a band of volunteers; and an Assembly was called, which deposed the pope and proclaimed « • ^ 49- a republic with Mazzini at its head. The French president sent an army to the aid of Pope Pius; it was defeated by Garibaldi before the walls of Rome ; but after more troops arrived from France, the city was taken and the republic was overthrown, July 3, 1849. 735. In Germany a national parliament proposed to re- vive the Empire and to place the king of Prussia at its head. But Frederic William IV. refused the crown, and for some years the multitude of German states were less united than ever. Most of the petty sovereigns gave free constitutions to their people; /'. e., they conceded freedom of speech and of the press, and shared the law-making power with representatives chosen by ballot. Point out the dominions of the Hapsburgs in Hungary, Germany, and Italy. Of the Bourbons in Spain and Italy. See ^740. Note. — The kingdom of Naples had been conferred upon Charles VI. of Austria, by the treaty of Rastadt, in 1814 (see §630), but in 1734 it was conquered by the Spanish Bourbons, and i-eiinited with Sicily under a younger branch of that family. ^634. Read Dyer's modern Europe. CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE. A Prussian Soldier. HE French Republic, like that of half a century before, was soon exchanged for an imperial govern- ment. Having first placed at the head of the army men who were committed to his plans, President Bonaparte caused the principal generals and statesmen of France to be suddenly seized and impris- oned during the night following December i, 1851. An army was already massed in Paris, the news- paper offices were occupied by soldiers, and the morning editions suppressed, while the government printers were setting up placards which appeared before daylight on all the walls. 737. These declared the capital in a state of siege, the National Assembly dissolved, and called for a new election by universal suffrage. The telegraph told the remotest corners of France that the revolution was already accom- plished, and that Bonaparte was responsible head of the government for ten years. The deputies, protesting, were carted away to prison; and the Supreme Court was broken up by an armed force. The coup d'etat seemed to have succeeded without bloodshed, for the prosperous classes {310) UNIFICATION OF ITAIY. 311 liked any thing better than anarchy, or the reign of the mob; and all who remembered the First Empire felt sure of a strong and efficient government under a Bonaparte. 738. But, on December 4, the army in the streets began to fire, apparently without orders, upon a throng of peace- able citizens; multitudes more were massacred in prison, and 26,500 were transported to Cayenne on the African coast. Whatever resistance there might have been, was now crushed: the people conferred the whole executive power on Louis Napoleon Bonaparte for ten years ; and the next autumn, by a similar vote, he became "Napoleon III,* by the grace of God and the will of the people. Emperor of the French." 739. The war in the Crimea, in which France and England were the allies of the Turks against Russia, has been described (§§662-665). It was brought about mainly by Napoleon, who wished to please his army and nation by a taste of military glory, such as they associ- ated with his uncle's name. The war was ended by the treaty of Paris, 1856; and, soon afterward, France became the ally of Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia, in a war against Austria. 740. Brave men from all the states of Italy sought the camp of Victor Emanuel, and the contest which followed is called the War of Italian Nationality. The Austrian rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma fled from their mis- governed dominions, and their armies joined the allies, who gained decisive victories at Montebello, Palestro, and Magenta. To the latter. General McMahon • ^ 59- contributed by coming up with reserves at the right moment, and he was rewarded with the rank of Marshal of France and Duke of Magenta. ■•••His cousin, the King of Rome (^706), had died near Vienna, m 1852. 312 MODERN HISTORY. 741. A few days later Napoleon and Victor Emanuel entered Milan in triumph. The last great battle of the war was fought at Solferino, June 24 ; and, by the treaty of Villa- franca, Francis Joseph surrendered all his claims to Lom- bardy and the protection of the three duchies. The next year Sicily was conquered by Garibaldi and his volunteers, and the Bourbon king, Francis II. , fled from Naples. The Two Sicilies united of their own accord with the Kingdom of Italy, which now embraced the whole peninsula excepting the territories of Rome and Venice. French troops still oc- cupied Rome and protected the sovereignty of the poj^e. 742. Napoleon III. was now at the height of his power, and his history is inseparable from that of all Europe. In 1 86 1 he even interfered in American affairs, by assuming a protectorate of the ''Latin Race" on that continent. Mexico was in a state of revolution, and a French army, occupying its capital, secured a vote for an hereditary em- pire in place of the republic. The archduke Maximilian, brother of Francis Joseph, was chosen emperor under French influence; and entered the City of Mexico with the Empress Carlotta in June, 1864. President Juarez removed the seat of his government to Monterey, and war between the empire and the republic went on for three years with varying fortunes. In 1867, the French troops having been withdrawn, Maximilian was taken prisoner and w^as shot at Queretaro. The republic was reestablished. 743. Napoleon had now met a powerful opponent to his management of European affairs. This was Count von Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor, who had resolved to see his sovereign at the head of united Germany. Austria and Prussia had lately engaged together in the Schleswig-Holstein war, which ended in the separation of those duchies from Denmark; but, in the division of the spoils, a new war arose — a short but very decisive contest, which revolution- ized Germany. THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR. 313 744. The Prussian armies had been thoroughly reor- ganized; the infantry had the needle-gun, which, for swift- ness and accuracy in firing, had never been surpassed. The king of Italy made a close alliance with Prussia, and attacked the Austrians at Custozza with less good fortune than his northern friends. The main action of the ''Seven Weeks' War" was the batde of Sadowa, where the needle-gun won the day for the Prussians, while the white-coated Austrian cavalry, — hitherto considered the best and bravest in Europe, — was put to flight by the Uhlans. 745. By the treaty of Prague, Austria withdrew at once from Germany and Italy, ceding Venetia to Victor Eman- uel, and recognizing Prussia as the head of the North German Confederation, which succeeded to the arrangement of 1815 (§716). Thus shorn of his German and Italian dominions, Francis Joseph took the wise course of reforming his own hereditary states. A representative parliament was convened at Vienna, which in a single session swept away abuses of a thousand years, making all classes, religions, and races equal before the laws. The "Austro-Hungarian Mon- archy" is now as liberal as any in Europe. 746. The swift and surprising changes made by the Seven Weeks' War were little relished by Napoleon III., who had thought that his aid would be needed by Prussia. Several little diplomatic moves, — made in order to regain his lost importance, — were quietly checkmated by Bismarck, but at length a revolution in Spain afforded the desired cause of war. 747. Isabella II. had been compelled to quit her kingdom and take refuge in France, while the reign of the Spanish Bourbons was declared to be ended. Many candidates sought the vacant throne, — among them a new Don Carlos, grandson of the queen's uncle (§ 727). But Carlos Avas the representative of absolutism and priestcraft, and the Span- iards had no mind to crown another Philip II. They invited Hist. — 27. 314 MODERN HISTORY. Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of the king of Prussia, to be their sovereign. Napoleon chose to consider this as a Prussian aggression, though King William I. declared that he had nothing to do with the matter, and could not prevent Leopold's taking the crown if he chose it. Leopold himself refused to be a candidate, as soon as he heard of the excitement at Paris. 748. All was in vain. The French armies began their march to the Rhine on the day of Leopold's resignation. On July 19th, Napoleon declared war against Prussia, and, leaving the Empress Eugenie as regent during his absence, went to the frontier with his son. It was soon found that the French army was unfit for service. No regiment was full, and no supplies of food were provided. Thousands of men went starving into battle, and it is no wonder that the gallant army which left Paris so gayly for the *' march to Berlin" found itself unable even to defend France. 749. The Prussians were drilled, fed and equipped to the highest degree of efficiency, and, when joined by the South- German forces, had more than twice the numbers of the French. Napoleon gained a slight advantage at Saar- briicken, but it was almost the last of the French victories. Three German armies crossed the frontier into France. The Crown Prince threatened Paris ; while his cousin Frederic Charles three times severely defeated Bazaine, who was now at the head of the main French army, and finally shut him up in Metz with his whole command. 750. McMahon was meanwhile mustering a new force for the relief of Bazaine; but the Crown Prince contrived to crowd him back upon Sedan, where, after a tremendous battle, the fortress itself and the whole French army, includ- ing cannon, horses and 108,000 men, were surrendered to the Germans. The French emperor, who was with Mc- Mahon, surrendered himself, September 2d, 1870, and remained for a time a prisoner at Wilhelmshohe, an old THE SIEGE OF PARIS. 315 palace of his uncle, King Jerome. He died at Chiselhurst, in England, the 9th of January, 1873. 751. Paris was filled with terror; the Crown Prince and his victorious army were daily expected at her gates. The Legislative Assembly declared that the empire had ceased to exist. The Empress-Regent and her son took refuge in England, and a provisional republic was proclaimed with General Trochu at its head. A large party in France now desired peace. The king of Prussia had constantly declared that he had no quarrel with the French people, but only with their emperor who had insulted him ; but he now de- manded Alsace and Lorraine (§617), while the republic, though willing to pay a large amount of money, refused to cede an "inch of its land or a stone of its fortresses." For this cause the war went on. 752. On September 18, the Crown Prince took up his quarters at Versailles and his armies besieged Paris. Gam- betta, escaping in a balloon, joined some other members of the provisional government at Tours, which was for a time the French capital. Strasburg was taken by the Germans, September 28, after a fierce cannonade, which shattered her beautiful cathedral tower; and a month later Bazaine sur- rendered Metz, with his army of 180,000 men and officers and an immense number of cannon. 753. Germany gained its long-desired unity, while France was on the verge of ruin. All the German states joined in requesting the king of Prussia to assume the imperial crown. This time (§735) the offer was accepted, and the Emperor William L was crowned in the great hall at Versailles. Paris at last was starved into sub- mission. On the 28th of January, 1871, the sixteen forts which formed her outer circle of defense were surrendered. Three weeks' truce was allowed so that the French people might vote for a new government. A republic was pro- claimed, and Thiers was chosen as its president. The gov- 3i6 MODERN HISTORY ernment made peace with Germany, ceding Alsace and Lorraine and engaging to pay one thousand miUions of dollars as war indemnity to the conqueror. 754. A still greater calamity now befell Paris. That fierce, ignorant and lawless rabble, which had made the worst element in all previous revolutions, gained control of the city, while the rightful government was forced to retire to Versailles. Many battles were fought for the forts south of Paris. Strong parties in other great cities sympathized with the Commune, for it was suspected that Thiers' govern- ment favored a restoration of monarchy, while the towns were uniformly republican. 755. Victory at last remained with the Versailles forces; and the Communists, becoming desperate, fired Paris with trains of petroleum, destroying the Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville and other splendid buildings. The archbishop of Paris and many others were wantonly murdered, and the desola- tion wrought by the Commune far exceeded that of the German siege. 756. The French troops having meanwhile been with- drawn from Rome, that city was occupied by Victor Eman- uel, and the people of the States of the Church signified, by an almost unanimous vote, their desire to be *^ ■' ^ ^°" united with the Kingdom of Italy. Pope Pius IX. was recognized in all his dignities as head of the Roman Church; and princely revenues were secured to him, with undisturbed possession of the Leonine City (§305); but his temporal sovereignty ceased to exist. In 1873, Thiers having resigned. Marshal McMahon was chosen to be president, for seven years, of the French re- public. The unconquerable spirit of the people has been proved by the complete payment of the war-debt and the restoration of the finances to a healthy and prosperous state. 757. Spain, after a short-lived republic, and a two years' attempt at constitutional monarchy under Amadeo, son of THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 317 the king of Italy, has already restored her Bourbon line in the person of Alfonso XII., son of the ex-queen Isabella. The Carlist opposition has been put down, and its leader has quitted Spain. By marrying a daughter of the duke of Montpensier (§727) Alfonso has fulfilled a part, at least, of the scheme of Louis Philippe. What is of more consequence is, that he has guaranteed freedom of worship and some provision for popular instruction, so that it may be hoped that the great peninsula, so richly endowed by nature, will some time recover from the effects of ages of misrule. 758. It is long since the Turks, as conquerors (§§560, 563), threatened the peace of Europe; but the vast interests of England and Russia, in the East, render them jealous of any changes in the Turkish territories. Meanw^hile the Christian subjects of the Sultan have had to suffer intoler- able oppressions. In June, 1875, ^^ ^^^tle province of Herzegovina revolted, with the hearty sympathy of her neighbors. The next May, the French and German consuls at Salonica were murdered by a Turkish mob. Russia, Austria, and Germany then united in what is called the *' Berlin Memorandum," requiring Turkey to reform her government, and give security of life and property to Mussulmans and Christians alike. England refused to join in the demand; and within a month Bulgaria was the scene of horrid brutalities by the Turks. All Europe was enflamed with indignation; Servia and Montenegro declared war, with secret aid from Russia; the Sultan, Abd-el-Aziz, was deposed and probably murdered by his ministers; and in December, 1876, a conference of six great powers met at Constantinople. The Turkish government refusing to accede to their demands, the Czar declared war, and marched his armies to the Danube and into Armenia. Trace on Map 13, the campaign of Napoleon III. in Italy. Point out Sadowa (in Bohemia), Sedan, Metz, Strasburg. Schleswig, Hol- stein, Alsace, Lorraine. CHAPTER XVI. AMERICAN AFFAIRS. Crossing the Plains. T the close of the Revolution (§§211-213), United States were poor even to ruin, and hardly knew what to do with the freedom they had gained. Each state stood jealously for its own independence of all the rest; and the people who had fought against British taxation, were not always willing to pay heavier taxes at the demand of Congress. After four years of danger, the National Convention, at Philadelphia, prepared a federal constitu- tion which left each state sovereign in its own affairs, but intrusted the matters in which all were equally interested — postal service, coinage, and dealings with foreign nations — to a general government. 760. This constitution was agreed to by the several states, and, in 1789, George Washington was unanimously chosen to be the first president of the Union. His noble and steadfast character did much to establish order, con- fidence, and peace. After eight years' service in this highest office, Washington declined to be reelected, and was succeeded by John Adams, one of the signers of (318) THE WAR OF 1812. 319 the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson, the brilHant author of that document, was the next president. Under his administration, the whole Mississippi Valley was purchased from France. 761. The claim of the British to search American vessels for their runaway sailors, forced the United States into a war with the mother-country in 181 2. Beginning, almost without a navy, to contend with the greatest maritime power on the globe, the president gave commissions to a swarm of privateers, which preyed upon British commerce, and captured, in the course of the war, more than 1,500 vessels. Fleets were, however, built both on the ocean and the lakes, which gained many victories in regular battle. 762. Three invasions of Canada resulted in loss and failure to the Americans, and the whole territory of Michi- gan was at one time surrendered to the British ; but the brilliant victory of Commodore Perry, in Lake Erie, was followed by General Harrison's triumphant campaign in Canada, and the recovery of the lost ground. The Indians of the northwest, who were allies of the British, were sub- dued by the death of their chief, Tecumseh, and their confederacy was broken up. 763. The next year, the Americans gained decisive vic- tories at Chippewa, at Lundy's Lane near Niagara Falls, and at Plattsburgh, where an army of Wellington's veterans was defeated on land at the same time that Commodore McDonough was capturing the British fleet on the waters of Lake Champlain. The coasts of Virginia and Carolina were ravaged by a British force, which, landing in the Chesapeake, burned Washington with all its public build- ings; but a great victory of General Jackson, on the lower Mississippi, defeated a similar attempt upon New Orleans. News soon afterward arrived that peace had been con- cluded at Ghent. 320 MODERN HISTORY. 764. Our victorious navy won fresh laurels by Commodore Decatur's expedition against the pirates of the Barbary coast. They were compelled to liberate a multitude of American captives, to pay for property which they had destroyed, and to enter into a treaty which bound them to respect the flag of the United States in future. 765. The history of these States, from the treaty of Ghent to the Mexican War, is hinted at in the philosopher's saying: ''Happy is the people that has no annals." Every year more of the western prairies were converted into harvest-fields; and every year thousands of the European poor found homes in the New World, where their industry brought to light more of the untold wealth of the soil and the mines. Navigation by steam, first successfully accom- plished by Fulton, on the Hudson River, did much to bring the interior of the continent into communication with the coast and with Europe. 766. Taking courage from the success of the United States, the Spanish colonies in North and South America resolved to be free from the oppressive rule of Ferdinand VH. (§718). The moment was favorable when Spain was absorbed in the wars with Napoleon; and, in 1810, Mexico in the north, Chili and the great viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres on the south, declared themselves inde- pendent. The latter was divided into the republics of La Plata, Uruguay, Paraguay, and, ultimately, Bolivia. The five colonies of Central America, and the countries on the Caribbean sea were not long in following the example. 767. The great hero of the revolution was Simon Bolivar, a native of Caraccas. While a youth, studying in Europe, he learned all that was best in the principles of the French Revolution; and fired still more by the example of Wash- ington and Franklin, he vowed that he would become the liberator of his country. The three provinces of Quito, New Granada, and Venezuela united themselves in the THE MEXICAN WAR. 321 Republic of Colombia, with Bolivar as their president, in 1 819; and the Spanish Royalists were finally defeated at Carabobo, in 182 1. 768. Peru was the last of the South American countries to throw off the Spanish yoke; and Bolivar, with a Co- lombian army, marched to its assistance in 1822. The Spaniards were expelled, and Great Britain and the United States acknowledged the independence of Peru. Its more mountainous southern portion, formerly governed by the viceroy of Buenos Ayres, was formed into a separate re- public, named Bolivia, in honor of the "Liberator," who became its president. 769. Bolivar desired to unite all South America in a great Federal Republic, like the United States of the northern part of the continent; but mutual jealousies made this impossible. His last years were embittered by the ingratitude of his countrymen, to whose service he had devoted his whole life and fortune. 770. Mexico, after twelve years of revolution, accepted Iturbide, a military officer, as its emperor in 1822. But Iturbide had reigned less than a year when he found that both army and people were hopelessly disaffected toward his government. He consented to be exiled with an ample pension; but returning the next year he was shot as a traitor. A federal republic was then established. 771. The great territory of Texas was included in Mexico; but, upon the overthrow of the federal constitu- tion by Santa Anna, in 1833, Texas seceded, and sought admission into the United States. This was refused for several years; but, in 1844, President Polk was elected by a party favoring annexation, and Texas was duly admitted, the next year, by act of Congress. 772. War with Mexico followed. General Taylor, with a small United States army, invaded the northern prov- inces, which he conquered by his remarkable victories at 32 2 MODERN HISTORY. Monterey and Buena Vista. General Scott landed at Vera Cruz, and capturing, by hard fighting, many cities and castles, became master of the capital, which he entered September i6th, 1847. Meanwhile General Kearney had conquered New Mexico, and, with Fremont and Stockton, completed the conquest of California. These territories were ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Guada- lupe Hidalgo, which fixed the southern boundary of Texas at the Rio Grande. 773. Rich deposits of gold had already been discovered in California, and a tide of adventurers, from all parts of the world, immediately set toward the diggings. San Francisco, from an obscure Spanish "mission," soon be- came a thriving city, destined, doubtless, to become one of the greatest in the world. Its importance has been immensely increased by the completion of a railway across the continent, in 1869, and by the opening of a line of steamships to Japan and China. 774. In spite of some discords and dangers, the bond of Union, established in 1787 (§759), had been strong enough, so far, to keep the several states at peace with each other. But the great increase of territory, by the Mexican War, gave new force to the elements of discord between the north and the south. The former favored a strong central government, the latter the sovereignty of the several states. A subject of bitter controversy was negro slavery, which the north desired to exclude from the new states and territories. 775. Soon after the election of Abraham Lincoln, in i860, eleven southern states seceded from the Union, and chose Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, to be their president. War was begun in April, 1861, by an attack of the Con- federate forces upon Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor. The south had at first the advantage of better trained officers; and the north sustained a severe defeat at Bull THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 323 Run, July 21. The Federal Congress immediately voted half a million of men, and 500 millions of dollars, for a more vigorous prosecution of the war, 776. A large part of the Atlantic coast was regained, by the Union forces, in the autumn of 1861; and, during the next two years, several great victories reopened the Mississippi to federal commerce. So long as the southern states remained in the Union, their holding of slaves had not been interfered with by the general government. They were now beyond its pro- tection; and the president's proclamation of January ist, 1863, declared all negroes free, and invited them to enlist in the Federal fleets or armies. 777. The southern armies, under General Lee, made their farthest advance to the northward in an invasion of Pennsylvania, June, 1863; but they were defeated, at Gettysburg, during the first three days of July. This was the turning-point of the war, though much hard fighting was yet to be done on both sides. The next spring a general forward movement was made by the Union forces, from the Potomac to the James River, and from the Ten- nessee southeast to the Adantic. Richmond and Peters- burg, in Virginia, were besieged by the armies of Grant; Atlanta, Savannah, Charleston, and Columbia were taken by those of Sherman. 778. In the autumn of 1864, President Lincoln was reelected, and the south, now nearly exhausted, put forth her last resources. After three days' hard fighting, in Virginia, the Confederate government aban- doned Richmond, its capital, and Generals Lee and Johnston soon afterward surrendered their entire commands. The war being thus ended, the whole country observed the fourth anniversary of its beginning as a day of thanksgiving. Its joy was suddenly turned into grief and horror by news of the murder of the president. But 324 MODERN HISTORY. this crime did not break the peace which had been so happily restored. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, quietly succeeded to the highest office. The late Confed- erate States repealed their ordinances of secession, and consented to amendments of the Constitution, which put an end to slavery. 779. The United States emerged from the civil war with a debt of nearly $3,000,000,000. A million of lives had either been ended in battle or enfeebled by wounds and disease; industries were paralyzed, while an immense issue of paper money had tempted the people to unprece- dented extravagance; so that it may be long before the prosperity of the first half of the century is renewed. 780. In 1867, all the Russian possessions in America were purchased by the United States. Difficulties have occurred with the Indians of the western plains, who were either dissatisfied with the lands reserved to them or justly indignant at the frauds of agents and traders appointed by the government. The savages are fierce, cruel, and treacherous; and it may be feared that their intercourse with white men has not been of a nature to improve their characters. 781. The one hundredth anniversary of American inde- pendence was celebrated, in the summer of 1876, by a grand exposition, at Philadelphia, of the whole world's industries and arts. Dom Pedro II., the enlightened and energetic emperor of Brazil, was present and took a hearty interest in the opening ceremonies. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. — BOOK III. Section 1. How was kingly power affected by the introduction of gunpowder ? 440 2. Describe the condition of Italy, and the wars of Charles VIII. of France. 441-443 3. What were their results ? 444 4. Describe the wars of Louis XII. in Italy. 445-447 5. The character of Leo X. Of Ferdinand of Spain. 448 6. The character and reign of Francis I. 449-452, 465, 468, 474 7. What led to the Reformation? 453, 455 8. Tell the story of Luther. 454, 456, 457 9. Why were the reformers called Protestants? 458 10. What nations embraced their doctrines ? 459 11. Describe Turkish progress under Solyman. 460, 462-467 12. Tell the story of Pope Clement VII. 461, 492 13. What relation was Charles V. to Charles the Bold of Burgundy ? 413, 424, 444 14. Describe his reign and retirement. 450-471 15. Loyola and the Jesuits. 472 16. The reign of Louis XII. in France. 473 17. Henry II., and the Guises. 475-478 18. Catherine de Medici, her sons, the religious wars. 478-485 19. What was done in England during the reign of Henry VII. ? 486, 487 20. Describe the reign and character of Henry VIII. 488-497 21. Tell the story of Wolsey. 490-493 22. Of Edward VI., Somerset, and Northumberland. 497-500 23. Of Jane Grey and Mary Tudor. 499 - 502 24. Of Elizabeth. 503-511 25. Describe the Netherlands under Charles V. 512, 513 26. The policy and the agents of Philip II. 514-524 27. The character and measures of William the Silent. 514-521 {325) 326 QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 28. What became of the seven northern, and the ten southern provinces ? 517, 519, 523 29. Describe James I. of England, and the Puritans. 526, 527 30. Tell the story of Sir Walter Raleigh. 507, 528 31. What colonies were formed in James' reign? 529 32. What was his foreign policy ? 530 TyT^. Describe Charles I. and his dealings with parliament. 531, 532 34. Tell the stories of Hampden, Strafford, Laud. 533-535 35. Describe the two parties and the civil war. 536, 537 36. What became of Charles I. ? 538 37. What differences between Scotland and England fol- lowed his death ? 539 38. Describe the war with Holland. 540 39. Tell the story of the Long Parliament. 535, 541 40. Of Cromwell's Protectorate, and what followed. 542, 543 41. Describe the restoration and character of Charles H. 544-546 42. What plots, real or supposed, during his reign ? 547, 548 43. What parties arose? What do we owe to the Whigs? 549 44. Name some great men of the time. 550 45. Describe the reign of James H. 551, 552 46. Tell the history of William of Orange. 553-555 47. Of the last of the Stuarts. 556, 557 48. How were the Hapsburg dominions divided upon the death of Charles V. ? 559 49. Describe the wars with the Turks. 560-563 50. Maximilian H. and Rudolph H. 562 51. The beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 564 52. Wallenstein's character and career. 565-570 53. Gustavus Adolphus. 567-569 54. Describe the remaining years of the war. 570, 571 55. What was accomplished by the Treaty of Westphalia? 572, 573 56. Describe Portuguese settlements in the east and west. 574-576 57. The policy of Spain toward her colonies. 577-579 58. The French settlements in America. 580-582 59. The Dutch " " 583 60. The English " " 584 61. Tell the history of Sweden to Christina's abdication. 585, 586 62. Describe the constitution of Poland. 587 63. Tell the history of Russia from Ivan HL to Peter I. 588, 589 64. The story of Peter the Great. 590-597 65. Of Charles XIL of Sweden. 593 - 596 QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 327 66. The early history of Prussia. 598, 599 67. Describe its second king. 600, 601 68. Tell the story of Frederic the Great. 602, 603, 606, 607 69. Describe the War of the Austrian Succession. 602-605 70. Catherine the Great and the Partitions of Poland. 608-610 71. The first of the Bourbons and his reign in France. 61 1 -613 72. The regency of Marie de Medici. 614 73. Tell the history and policy of Richelieu. 615 -617 74. Describe the reign of Louis XIV., and the circum- stances of its beginning. 618-620 75. What followed Mazarin's death? 621 76. Describe Louis' wars in the Spanish Netherlands and Holland. 622-624 77. His persecutions of the Huguenots. 625, 626 78. His wars on the Rhine. 627 79. The causes and incidents of the War of the Spanish Succession. 628-630 80. Louis' death, and the writers of his age. 631, 632 81. What was done during the Regency? 633 82. In what wars did Louis XV. engage ? 634, 635 83. What possessions were lost by France? 636 84. Describe the first 15 years of the reign of Louis XVI. 637-639 85. The reign of George I. in England. 640-641 86. Of George II., and the invasion of the young Pretender. 642, 643 87. What part had England and her colonies in the Seven Years' War? 644-646 %%. Describe George III., aud his policy in England and America. 647-649 89. Tell the story of the American Revolution. 650-652 90. What were the consequences to England of the French Revolution ? 653, 654 91. Describe George IV., and his reign. 655, 656 92. The reign of William IV. 657, 658 93. The condition of Victoria's empire during the early years of her reign. 659-661 94. The war in the Crimea. 662 - 665 95. The rise of the British-Indian Empire. 666, 667 96. What was done by Warren Hastings? 668, 669 97. Describe the wars and dealings with China. 670, 671 98. The Sepoy Rebellion. 672-674 32^ QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 99. Tell the history of Australia. 675 100. What other dominions has England in the East? 676 loi. What causes led to the French Revolution? 677, 678 102. What was done by the National Assembly? 679 103. What, by the mob ? 680 104. Describe the Girondists, the Jacobins, and the Reign of Terror. 681-683 105. What became of the royal family? 684, 685 106. What, of the three leaders of the Jacobins? 686-688 107. Describe the Coalition. What was done at Toulon? 689 108. Effects of the Revolution in Paris. In the West. 690 109. What change was made by the Directory? 691 no. What was done in Holland, Belgium, and Italy? 692, 693 111. Describe Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign. 694 112. How was the Second Coalition broken up? 695 113. What successive titles had Napoleon? 695, 697 114. What changes did he make in Germany? 698, 699 115. Describe the death of Nelson, 700 116. What was done by Napoleon in the North? 701-703 117. In the south of Europe? 704-705 118. In Austria in 1809? 706 119. Describe the causes and incidents of Napoleon's war Math Russia. 707-709 120. The campaigns of 1813, and 181 4. 710-712 121. The second reign of Napoleon, and its close. 713 122. What was done by the Congress of Vienna? 714-716 123. Describe the Holy Alliance, and its dealings with Spain, Italy, and Germany. 717-720 124. Tell the story of the Greek Revolution. 721-723 125. Describe the Revolutions of 1830. 724, 725 126. The reign of Louis Philippe. 726-728 127. The Revolutions of 1848. 729-735 128. How did Napoleon III. become Emperor of the French? 736-738 129. Describe the War of Italian Nationality. 739-44I 130. The French interference in Mexico. 742 131. The Seven Weeks' War and its consequences in Austria. 743 - 745 132. The Spanish Revolution, and candidates for the crown, 747 133. The Franco-Prussian War. 74^-753 QUESTIONS.— BOOK HI. 329 134. 135- 136. 138. 139- 140. 141. 142. 143- 144. The War of the Commune. What recent changes in Italy, France, and Spain ? What has occurred in Turkey ? How did the United States become settled after the Revolution ? Describe the war with England. The following years. The Spanish American Revolutions. The annexation of Texas and its consequences. How has California gained importance. Describe the war between the States, its causes and results. Mention some recent events. 754, 755 756, 757 758 759, 760 761- -763 764, 765 766- -770 771, 772 773 774- -779 780, 781 DESCENT, FROM EDWARD IH., OF THE THREE ROYAL HOUSES OF LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR. Edvvakd III. I Edward, Wales, d Richard deposed, Pr. of 1376- II. 1399. Lionel, Duke of J. of Gaunt, m. 3 Cath. Swynford. Edmund, D. of Clarence, I Philippa in. Edm. Mortimer, Earl of March. I Rog. Mortimer, Eurl of March. Duke of Lan caster. I Henry IV. John Beaufort, E. of Somerset. iohn Beaufort, ). of Somerset. I Edm. Mo Earl of M d. 1424. rtimer, Anne Mortimer arch. m. Richard, E, of Cambridge. Henry V. m. Catherine of France, who m. 2 Owen Tudor. Henry VI. Edm. Tudor, I Earl of Edward, Pr. of Richmond, m. Margaret Wales, d. 1471. Beaufort. York. Richard, Earl of Cambridge, beheaded, 1415. I Richard, D. of York, died at Wakefield, 1460. Henry VII. Edward IV. George, D. of Clarence. Richard III. Elizabeth m. Henry VII. Edward V. d. 1483. Richard, Duke of York. I 1 Edward, E. of Margaret, Warwick, Countess of beheaded, 1499. Salisbury, beheaded, 1541. Hist. —28. INDEX. Find names of sovereigns under names of their respective countries. Where the list is continuous, only one date, that of accession, is added to each name. Figures refer to pages. Abbas^sides, 136, 167. Abelard (iib^u lar), 186. Abraham, 21. Ab^salom, 22. Aca^dia, 250. Acha^'ia, Province of,. 97. Achsean League, 80, 81. Achse'ans, 48, 52. AchiFles, 45. Acre (a^ker), 156, 158, 159, 295. Ac^tium, 107. Adams, J., 318. Addison, J., 241. AdoFphus, 122. Adoni^jah, 22. Adrian VI., Pope, 201, 204. Adriatic, 76, 140, 157, 167. ^ge^an Sea, 19, 80, 48, 58. ^^gos Pot^ami, 62. ^gi/sae, 94. ^o^lians, 48. M\n\, 91. ^s^chylus, 67-69. ^to^lian League, 80. Africa, 8, 17, 27, 34, 39, 40, 135, 206. Africa, Province of, 97, 102, 105, 121, 122, 132. Agamem^non, 45. Agesila^us, 62, 64. Agincourt (ii zhax koor'), 173. Agrarian Laws, 87, 89, 91, 99. Agrippi^na, 111. Aix (aks) in Provence, 101. Aix-la-Chapelle, 141, 143; Treaty of, 261, 268. AFaric, 122. Albert the Great, theologian, 186. " Prince of Saxe-Coburg, 281. Albigenses (al be zhoN^'sez), 176, 177. Alcibi^ades, 61, 62. Alck^maar, 226. Alc^man, 68. Aleman^ni, 121, 129. Alexander the Great. See Macedon. Alexander VL, Pope, 198, 250. Alexandria, 75, 78, 79, 107, 135, 295. Algon^quins, 250. Alleghany Mts., 276. Allia, K., 88. Alps, 88, 95, 200. AFsiice, 266. Alva, Duke of, 225, 226. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, 122. America, 8, 191-193, 208, 209, 229, 235, 249-253, 269-273. (331) Ame INDEX. Aus American Independence, Declar- A^res, God of war, 46. ation of, 278, 319; War of Aristi^des, 58. 273, 276-278, 285; Annivers- Aristoph^anes, 69. ary of, 324. Aristotle, 72, Amiens (a me JiN^), Treaty of, 295, Aryans, 10, 13, 16, 19, 25, 42, 43, 296. 120. Amsterdam, 256, 268. As^calon, 156. Anac^reon, 48. Asia, 7-33, 47, 133, 153, 159, 166, Anaxag^oras, 70. 167. Angles, 129. Asia Minor, 9, 19-21, 26, 43, 50, 58, AnjoLi (oN^zhoo) county, 142, 157. 74, 77, 78, 89, 121, 122, 154. Charles, Ct. of, 162, 177. Asia, Kom. Prov. of, 97, 102. Louis, D. of, 179. Assyria, Assyrians, 10-15, 23, 112. Francis, D. of, 227. " Kings of: Philip, D. of. See Philip Tiglathi-nin (B. C. 1250), 11. V. of Spain. Tiglath-pileser (1120-1100), Anne Boleyn (booFin), 217, 218. 11. " of Austria, 266, 267. Iva Lush IV. (810-781), 11. " of Brittany, 190. Tiglath-pileser II. (745-727), " of Cleves, 218. 12. Anthela, 50. Sargon (721), 12, 14, 18. Antioch, on the Orontes, 77, 154, Sennacherib (705), 12, 13 155, 158. Esarhaddon (681-667), 12. Antony, Mark, 79, 106, 107. Asshur-bani-pal (664-642), 12, Antwerp, 225, 227, 228. 13. Apennines, 88. As^trachan, 255. Aphrodi^te, 46. Astu^rias, 98, 135. Apis, 38. Athe^na, 46, 72. Apollo, 46-50, 60, 68, 84. Athens, Athenians, 30, 53-73, 80, Apulians, 91. 81, 121. Aquinas, Thos., 186. Athens, Senate of, 119. Aquitaine^ 138, 151, 157. 176. Atlantic Ocean, 39, 40, 142, 191. Ara^bia, Arabs, 12, 18, 135-137. At^tica, 44, 45, 56. Aral Sea, 26. At^tila, 123. Arau^sio (Orange), 101. Au^erstadt (ow^er stiit), 297. Arbe^a, 31, 32, 75. Augsburg (owgz^boorg). Confes- Arcadian League, 64. sion of, 205. Arcadians, 53. Augurs, 85, 87, 90. Archangel, 255. Aurungzebe, 284. Architecture, 10, 13, 39, 72, 73, Austra^lia, 287, 288. 109, 132, 148. Austria, Austrians, 255, 260, 261, Arctic Ocean, 255. 295. (332) Aus INDEX. Bla Austria, Dukes of, 157, 242. Barbarossa of Algiers, 206. " Maria Theresa, Arcli- Barnet, battle at, 175. duchess of, 260-263, 272. Bartholomew, St., massacre on Austria, Hereditary Emperors of: day of, 212, 213. Francis I. (1804), 296, 299. Basle (bill), Council at, 184. Ferdinand (1835), 308. Bastile (-tceK), destroyed, 290. Francis Joseph I. (1848), 308, Batavian Republic, 294, 313. Bavaria, Bavarians, 139, 142, 261. Austria, House of. See Hups- " Charles Albert, Elector hurgs. of, 260 (Charles VII., Em- Avars, 139. peror). Avignon (a ven yoN^), 163, 178. Beaujeu (bo^zhu), Anne of, 210. Avon, R., 172. Becket, Thomas a, 169, 170, 176. Bede, The Venerable, 186. Ba^al, 115. " Beggars," The, 225-228. Babel, 9. Belgian Republic, formed of Aus- Baber, 167. trian Netherlands. 294, 295. Babylon, 10-17, 23, 26, 75, 76. Belgium, Kingdom of, 130, 304, Babylonian Empire, 12-15, 32, 36. 306. " " Sovereigns of: Belgium, King of, Leopold I. (A. Nabonassar (B. C. 747), 14. D. 1830-1865), 306. Nabopolassar (625), 13-15. Belgrade, 168. Nebuchadnezzar (604-551), Belisa^rius, 132. 15, 18, 23, 24, 26. Ben^even^tum, 92. Nabonadius (555), 16. Bengal, 285. Belshazzar (539-538), 16, 26. Berlin^ 259, 262, 297, 298. Bacchan^tes, 47. Bernadotte, 299. Bacon, Francis, 223. Bernard of Clairvaux (-vo), 156. Roger, 186. Bethlehem, 109, 157. Bactria, 10, 26, 42, 77, 78. Bias of Prie^ne, 70. Bagdad, 136, 167. Bible, Hebrew, 24; trans, into Balakla^va, 282. Greek, 79; into Russ., 147; Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 192. into English, 172, 231; into Baltic Sea, 17, 160, 165, 247, 255, German, 203; source of Lom- 257, 282. bard laws, 131; printed, 190; Bankers, Italian, 163, 164. in Switzerland, 204. Ban^nockburn^, 171. Bismarck, 312, 313. Barbacan, 158. Bithyn^ia, 19, 118. Barbarians, 7, 8, 19, 28, 29, 101, Black Death, The, 178. 116-118, 120-123, 127. Black Sea, 19, 45, 62, 121, 164, Barbarians (so called by Greeks), 166, 255, 282, 306. 49, 64. Blake, Admiral, 235. (333) Ble INDEX. Caes Blenheim (-hime), 270. Brit^tany, Anne, Duchess of, 190. Boccaccio (bok kat^cho), 187. Bruce, Rob't, 170, 171. Boeo^tia, 60, 63, 67. Bru^ges, 165. Bo^emond of Taranto, 154. Bru^sa, 167. Bohemia, Bohemians, 131, 183, Brussels^ 226. 184, 205, 243-246, 261. Union of, 227. Bolivar, Simon, 820, 321. Bruttium, 96. Bolivia, 321. Buckingham, Geo., Duke of, 232. Bologna (bo lon^ya), 186. Buda, 205, 206. Bombay, 285. Buena Vista (bwa^na), battle of. Bonaparte, Jerome, 298. 322. Joseph, 298, 299. Buenos Ayres (bwa'nos i^res). Louis, 298, 299. 320, 321. Napoleon, 293- 296. Bulgarians, 131, 133. See France, Sovereigns of Bunker Hill, battle of, 277, 278. Bossuet (bos swa^), 271. Bunyan, John, 238. Boston, tea destroyed at, 277. Bur^goyne, Gen., 278. Bos worth, battle at, 175. Burgundj', Burgundians, 121, 129, Bothwell, Earl of, 221. 138, 141, note, 143, 151, 201, Boulogne (boo loN^, 207. 224. Bourbon (boor boN^), Duke of, Burgundy, Dukes of: 201. Philip the Bold (A. D. 1363), Bourbon, House of, 260, 264, 270, 179. 296, 304, 313. John the Fearless (1404), 179. Bourbon, Family Compact, 272, Philip the Good (1419), 179, 273. 180. Boyle, 238. Charles the Bold (1467), 180, Boyne R., battle at, 240. 181. Bozzil^ris (bot ziVris) Marco, 305. Duchess Mary of (1477-1482), Brad^dock, Gen., 276. 181, 185. Bragan^zas, 298. Burke, Edmund, 285. Bral/mins, 42. Bute, Earl of, 277. Bran^denburg, 245, 255, 259. Byron, Lord, 279. Bran^dywine, battle of, 278. Byzantium, 118. BraziF, 192, 249, 298. Pedro II., Emperor of. Cabot, S., 191. 324. Ca^diz, 228. Bretigny (bret een^'ye), Treaty of, Caesar, Julius, 104-106. 172. " Augustus (Octavianus), 107. Briel (breel), 226. See Rom. Etnpire. Britain, 17, 19, 104, 112, 114, 121, Caesar (title), 105, note, 116, 117, 122. 260, 296. (334) Cai INDEX. Cle Cairo (kl^ro), 295. Calah, 13. Calais (kji laO, 171, 180, 220. Calcutta, 285. California, 193, 322. Calvin, John, 204, 212. Cambray'', League of, 199. Treaty at, 201. Campa^nia, 104, 112. Campbell, Sir C, 287. Cam^po For^mio, Treaty of, 295. Canaanites, 17. Can^ada, 250, 251, 280, 319. Can^nie, 96. Canos'sa, 145. Canterbury, 169. Canton, 286. Capet (ka pt/), 151, 176, 291. Cappado^'cia, 19, 31. Carabo'bo, battle at, 321. Carac^cas, 320. Carbonii^ri, 304. Car^chemish, 19, 36. Caribbean Sea, 320. Carlos, bro. of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 307. Carlos, grandson of above, 313. Carlot^ta, Empress, 312. Carolina, U. S., 251. Caroline of Brunswick, 279, Car^rhc% 104. Car^thage, 18, 26, 27, 39-41, 93-97, 106, 123, 132. Carys^tus, 56. Cashmere, 15. Cassan^der, 77. Castes in Egypt, 38, 39. Castile (-teeK), 190. Catherine of Aragon, 198, 216. 217. Catherine Howard, 218. Parr, 218. Catiline, 103. Cato, 97. Caudine Forks, battle at, 90. Cawnpore^ 287. Caxton, Wm., 175. Cecil, 223. Celts, 129, 131. Ceylon^ 18. Chterone'a, 65. ChaldieX Chalda3^ans, 10, 13, 15. Chalons (shii Ion''), 123. Champagne (-pane''), 151. Champlain', Lake, 251, 319. Samuel, 251. Charlemagne. See Roman Em- pire Revived. Charles MarteF, 136, 138. " of Lorraine, 261. Charleston, U. S., 322, 323. Charlotte, Princess, 279. Charter, The Great (Magna Charta), 170. Charterhouse, Monks of, 218. Chau^cer, 188. Chesapeake Bay, 191, 319. Chi^lo of Sparta, 70. China, 8, 159, 166, 167, 189, 209, 249, 280, 286, 322. Christians, under Moslem rule, 139, 283. Christians, under Roman Empire, 111, 113, 116-119, 127. Cicero, 103, 107. Cilicia, 19. Cimbri, 101. Cimmerians, Crimeans, 19. Ci^mon, 58, 59. Cities, 7, 128, 164, 165, 176. Civil War, in England, 234. " " in America, 322-324. Clazom^ense, 63. Clement, Monk, 214. (335) Cle INDEX. Dam Clem^ent V., Pope, 163, 178. Clement VII., Pope, 204, 205, 217. CleoVulus, 70. Cleo^iiie, 49. Clients, Kom., 83, 87, 98. Cli^sthenes, 55, Clive, Piobt, 285. ClotiFda, 129. Clovis, 129, 130. " Successors of, 130, 135, 150. Cnidus (ni^dus), 48, 63. Colbert (-ber^), 268, 269. Colchis (koKkis), 45. Coligny (ko leen'ye), 212, 251. Colise^um, 112. Colom^bia, 321. Colonies, ancient, 40, 44, 70, 89, 92. Colonies, modern European, 248- 253, 276. Columbus, Christopher, 191, 192. Commerce, 15-18, 22, 40, 52, 78, 133, 159, 163-165, 189, 191, 221, 229, 284-286. Commonwealth, Eng., 234-236. Concini (-che'ne), 265. Conde^ Prince of, 267. Con^stance, Peace of, 162. Council of, 184, 185, 203. Constantine, Grand Duke, 306. Constantino^ple, 118, 123, 130, 132, 133, 135, 140, 146, 147, 154, 157, 159, 167, 168, 205, 281. Constantius, Caesar, 117. Consuls, Kom., 83, 94, 95, 103-105, 108, 130, 139. Corey 'ra, 61. Corday, Charlotte, 292. Cor^dova, 136. Corinth, 49, 81, 106, 121. " Congresses at, 65, 74. Corinthian War, 62, 63. Coriola^nus, 87, 88. Corneille (kor naK), 271. Cornelia, 100. Corn Laws, 279-281. Cornwallis, Lord, 278. Coronse^a, 60, 63. Cor^sica, 94, 95. Corun^na, 299. Cos, 48. Cos^sacks, 19, 262. " Covenanters," 233-235. Cranmer, 217-220. Crassus, 103, 104. Cre^cy (kra se), 171. Crete, 45, 137, 163. Crime'a, 76. Tartars of, 263. War in, 281, 282. Croats, 245. Crce'sus, 19, 48. Cromwell, O., 234-236, 238. R., 236. Cronstadt, 282. Croto''na, 71. Crusades, 153-160. Ctes''iphon, 114. Cuba, 192. Cullo^den, 275. Cunax^a, 31. Custozza (kus tod^za), 313. Cyc^lades, 50. Cynoceph^ala?, 80, 81. Cyprus, 26, 63, 160, 163. Cyre^ne, 79. Cyrus, the Younger, 30, 31, 70. Da^cia, 112. Damas^cus, 18, 134. Damiet^ta, 157, 158. (336) Dan INDEX. Eng Danes in England, 147, Dan^te, 164, 187. Danton, 202, 20.]. Dant'zic, 207. Dan^ibe, R.. 28, 101, 100, IIG, 121 1G8, 281, 282. Dark Ages, 127, 128, 141, 161. Darnley, Lord, 221. David, 15, 22. Dead Sea, 10. Decatur, Com,, 320. Decius, Consul, 00. Delaware, R., 251, 253. Delhi, 168, 284, 287. Deles, Isl., 40, 58. DeFphi, 47, 48, 50, 57. Deluge, The, 0, 13, 10. Deme''ter, 46, 47. Demos^thenes, 65, 80. Denmark, 146, 204, 244, 254, 255, 257, 312. Denmark, Sovereigns of: Margaret (A.^D. 1387-1412), 254. Christian I. (1457), 254. Det^tingen, battle, 275. Di^do, 30. Diets, of Empire, 140, 144, 157, 203, 247. Dionys^is, 47, 60. Directory, French, 204, 205. Dorians, 48-53. Dorylie'um, 154. Dowlah, Surajah, 283. Drawee, 53. Drake, Francis 221, 222. Dublin, 234. Dunbar, battle, 235. Dunkirk, 236. Du Quesne (kane), Ft., 276. Dutch, 227-220, 235, 236, 248. East India Co., 231, 284-287. Hist. 20. {3;}7) Ebro, R. (r/bro), 05, 130. Ecbat^ana, 25, 27. Edinburgh (-boro), 235, 275. Edward, Black Prince, 171, 172. Egmont, Count, 226. Egypt, Egyptians, 10-12, 21, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34-30, 74-80, 155- 157, 205. Eg3'pt, Greek Rulers of: Ptolemy I. (B. C. 323), 77, 78. Ptolemy II. (283), 70. Ptolemy III. (247-222), 70. Cleopatra (51-30), 70, 80, 107. Eleanor of Aquitaine, 176. Electors, German, 182. Elephan^tis, 34. Eleusinian Mysteries, 47, 61. Elis, 40. Elizabeth, Electress Palatine, 232, 241. England, 120, 147, 140, 150, 160- 175, 215-223, 230-241, 268- 270, 274-282. England, Sovereigns of: Alfred (A. D. 871-001), 147, 188. Ethelred II. (078-1016), 147. Edward the Confessor (1042), 140. Harold II. (1066), 140. NORMAN LINK. William I. (1066), 140. II. (1087), 149. Henry I. (1100), 149, 150. Stephen (1135), 150, 169. PLANTAGENETS. Henry 176. Richard 170. II. (1154), 160, 170, I. (1180), 156-159, Eng IiXDEX. Fis England (Plantagenets, contin'd) : John (1199), 156, 170. Henry III. (1216), 170, 177. Edward I. (1272), 158, 170, 277. Edward II. (1307), 171. " III. (1327), 171, 172. Kichard II. (1377), 172. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Henry IV. (1399), 172, 173. V. (1413), 173, 179, 180. Henry VI. (1422), 173-175, 180. HOUSE OF YORK. Edward IV. (1461), 174, 175. V. 1483), 175. Richard III. (1483), 175. Henry VII. (1485), 175, 191, 215. Henry VIII. (1509), 198, 200, 201, 207, 215-219. Edward VI. (1547), 218, 219. Mary I. (1553), 216, 219, 220. Elizabeth (1558), 212, 219- 223, 226, 252. James I. (1603), 230-232. Charles I. (1625-1648), 232- 234. Charles II. (1660), 234-238. James II. (1685), 238-240. r William III. (1688), 239, I 240, 256, 269. I Mary II. (1688-1694), 239, L 240. Anne (1702), 240, 241, 274. England, Sovereigns of (contin'd) : HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. George I. (1714), 274, 275. " II. (1727), 275, 276. " III. (1760), 276-279, 297. George IV. (1820), 279. William IV. (1830), 280. Victoria (1837), 280, 281, 288. English Language, 172, 188. Epaminondas, 64. Ephesus, 121. Ere^tria, 56. Erie, L., battle on, 319. Ethiopia, 11, 12. Etruscans, 82, 84-88, 91. Eubce^a, 56. Eudes, Count of Paris, 151. Eugenius IV., Pope, 184. Euphra^tes. 7, 10, 14, 15, 19, 22, 26, 109, 115, 116, 155. Eurip^ides, 69. Europe, 8, 22, 53, 76, 120-123, 127- 133, 139, etc. Eurybi^ades, 57. Euryin^edon, 58. Euxine. See Black Sea. Evesham, 170. Eylau (-/low), 298. Ez^ra, 24. Fa^bius, 96. Fair^fax, 234. FareK, 204. Fawkes, Guy, 231. Fen'elon, 271. Ferrii^ra, 184. Feudal System, 142, 143, 155, 159. Fiji Is., (VejeO' 288. Fire of London, 237. Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, 218. Fla INDEX. Fra Flanders, 151. France, Eulers of (continued): Flodden, battle, 21 G. House of Orleans. Florence, 104, 188, 198. Florida, 276. Louis XII. (1498), 199, 200, Foix (fwii) G. de, 200. 210. Fontenaye^ battle, 141. Francis I. (1515), 200, 200, Fouquet (foo ka') 208. 210, 211. France, French, 113, 122, 130 135, Henry II. (1547), 211. 130, 141, 147, 148, 150 -158, Francis II. (1559), 212. 173, 174, 170-181, 190, 207, Charles IX. (1500), 212. 210-214, 250, 251, 204 -273, Henry III. (1574), 213, 214. 289-316. France, Kulers of: Family or Bourbon. Hugh Capet (A. I). 987), Henry IV. (1589), 212, 214, 151. 204, 205. Robert, surnamed the Pious Louis XIII. (1010), 205, 200. (990), 151. " XIV. (1043), 239, 240, Henry I. (1031), 152. 251, 259, 200-271. Philip I. (1000). Louis XV. (1715), 271-273. Louis y I. (1108), 170. " XVL (1774-1793), 273, " VII. (1137), 156, 109 289-292. 170. Louis XVII. (king only in Philip II. (1180), 150, 170, name), 292. 176. National Convention (1792), Louis VIII. (1223), 177. 291-294. IX. (1226), 158, 177. Directory (1795), 294, 295. Philip in. (1270), 177. Consulate, Bonaparte First IV. (1285), 178. Consul, (1799), 295, 290. Louis X. (1314), 178. Philip V. (1316), 178. First French Empire. Charles IV. (1322), 178. Napoleon I. (1804-1814), 290- Family of Valois. 303. See Bonaparie. Philip VL (1328), 171, 1 78. Bourbons Restored. John (1350), 171, 172, 17 9. Charles V. (1364), 179. Louis XVIII. (1814), 294, " VI. (1380), 173, 1 79. 301, 306. " VII. (1422), 173, 174, Charles X. (1824), 301, 306. 179, 180. Louis XI. (1401), 180, 181. Second House of Orleans. Charles VIII. (1483), 181, Louis Philippe (1830-1848), 190, 197-199. 300, 307. (339^ Fra INDEX. Goo France, Kulers of (continued): Second Frexch Kepublic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, Pres., 308-310. Second French Empire. Napoleon III. (1852-1870), 311-315. Third French Republic. A. Thiers, Pres. (1871), 315, 31G. McMahon, Pres. (1873), 311, 314, 316, 317. Franche Comte^ (froNsh ko». tr/), 268. Franco^nia, 142. Frankfort, 207, 303. Franks, 118, 121, 122, 129, 130, 138-143, 178, 269. Franks, Kings of: Charles Martel, 136, 138. Pepin, 138, 139. Charlemagne, 139 (see Rom. Enip. of the Wesi^ Charle- magne to Charles III). Eudes, 151. Charles the Simple, 147, 151. Frederic, Elector-Palatine, 232, 244, 247. Fremont, Gen., 322. French Revolutions, 273, 285, 289- 295, 303, 306-308. Friesland (freez^-), 226. Friuli (fre oo^le), 142. Fronde, The, 267. Fulton, Rob't, 320. Gaeta (ga a^tii), 309. Games, Greek, 49, 67. Ganges R., 7, 286. Gardner, Bishop, 220. GaribaKdi (-de), 309, 312. Gates, Gen., 278. Gaul, Gauls, 88, 91, 95, 96, 104, 105, 121, 128. Ga^za, 156, 295. Gemblours (zhoN bloor^), 227. Genghis Khan, 158, 166, 167. Gen^oa, 163. Georgia, 276. German^icus, 110, Germany, Germans, 8, 104, 110, 113, 115, 119-123, 129-132, 136. Germany, Kings of, become Ro- man Emperors, 138-145, 161, 162, 182-185. Germany, Rise of cities in, 164, 165. Germany, Language and Litera- ture, 187, 188. Germany, Reformation and Wars of Religion in, 202-208, 243- 247. Germany, Wars of Austria and Prussia, 259-263, 313. Germany, Wars with Napoleon, 296-303. Germany, Revolutions of 1848, 308,"^ 309. Germany, Unification of, 312-316. " William I., Emperor of (1871), 315. Gettysburg, 323. Ghent, 225, 227, 319. Ghibellines, 161, 164. Gibraltar, 270. Giron^dists, 291, 292. Glencoe, 240. Godfrey of Bouillon (boo eel yox^, 154, 155. Good Hope, C. of, 40, 191. (310) Gor INDEX. Hil Gorgei (gur'gri), 308. Goths, IIG, 120-128, 127, 130-132, 13o, HO. Grac'clms, Tiberius, 99. Cains, 100. Grand Alliance, The, 240. Grani^cus, R., 31, 74. Granson, battle, 181. "Great Powers," Five, 283, 304. Greece, Greeks, 9, 13, 19, 28-32, 40-81, 97, 105, 121, 148, 279, 280, 305, 306. Greece, Kings of: Otho of Bavaria (1832), 306. George of Denmark (1863), Gregory III., Pope, 138. YIL, " 144, 145. XL, " 163. Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty at, 322. Guelders, 268. Guelfs, 161-164. Guia^na, 231. Guinea, 221. Guiscard^ Rob't, 148. Pvoger, 148, 149. Guise (geez). House of, 211-213. " Dukes of, 212-214. " Mary of, 211. Gunpowder, 159, 166, 189, 197. Gutenberg (goo^-), 190. Guthrun, 147. Haar^lem, 226. Hadriano^ple, 121. Halicarnas^sus, 48, 69. Hil^lys, R., 19. Ham, Hamites, 10, 34. Hamathites, 19, Ham^ilcar, 95. Hampden, John, 233. Han^nibal, 95-97. Handover, Electorate and King- dom, 275, 280, 297. Hanover, House of, in England, 241, 274. Hanseatic League, 165. Hapsburgs, 162, 185, 201, 224, 242- 247, 260-266, 270, 296, 304, 308, 313. Haroun al Raschid, 136, 140. Harrison, Gen., 319. Has^drubal, 95. Hastings, battle of, 149. " Warren, 285. Hava^na, 276. Hay.nau (hi'now), 308. Hebrews, 11, 12, 17-24, 36, 42, 47, 109, 191. Hebron, 22. Hecatae^is, 69. Hec^tor, 45. HeFicon, 67. He^liop^olis, 37, 38. Helle^nes, 43, 46, 48, See Greeks. Heriespont, 30, 31, 74, 79. Helots, 52, 59-61. Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. 232. Hephws^tus, 46. Hera, 46. Heracle^n, 91, Hercula'neum, 112. Her^cules, 44, Herman, 110, Her^manric, 121, Her^mes, 46. Herod^otus, 69. Heroes, Greek, 44, 45. Herzegovina (hert ze go ve^na), 317. Hesiod, 67, 68, Hes^tia, 46. HiFdebrand. See Gregory VII. (341) Hin INDEX. Jam Hindustan^ 2G, 167, 248, 270, 284- 287. Hippur^clms, 54. Hip''pias, 54. Hi^ram, 18. Hit^tites, 19. Ho^henlin^den, 295. Hohenstaufen (-stow^fen), 101, 102. Holland, 225-228, 235, 208-270, 278, 298, 299, 304, 300. Holland, William I., King of, 304. Holy Alliance, 304, 305. Holy Land. See Palestine. Homer, 45-49, 54, 00-08. Hong Kong, 286. Hor^ace, 109. Horn, Count., beheaded, 226. Horten^sius, 91. Hos^pitallers (Knights of St. John), 155, 100, 178, 204, 242. Howard, Lord, of Effingham, 222. Howe, Lord, 278. Hudson, Henry, 251. Eivcr, 236, 251, 320. Hugh the Great, 151. Huguenots, 212-214, 232, 251, 204- 200, 269. Hungary, Hungarians, 139, 204- 208, 243, 244, 201, 308. Huniii^des (-yii^daz), 108. Huns, 121, 123, 139, 142. Huron, Lake, 251. Huss (hooss), 183. Hy^der A^li, 285. Hyrea^nia, 20. Hyrca'nus, 103. IFiad, 45, 54, 241. Illyr^icum, Illyrians, 48, 105, 131. Images in churches, War for, 133, 134, 138. India, 8, 10, 11, 15, 18, 28, 42, 70, 100, 191, 255, 284-287. Indians, N. Am., 250, 270, 324. Indies, East and West, 191, 228, 229. Indus, Pv., 7, 15, 76. Innocent III., Pope, 157, 170, 176. Inquisition, Flemish, 225, 226. " Spanish, 192. lonians, 48-51, 67, 69. Ipsus, battle at, 77. Ireland, 169, 222, 231-235, 239, 240, 281. Iroquois (ir o kwii), 251. Isabella, "Archduke," 228. " of France, Queen of England, 171. Israel, Israelites. See Hehrev:s. ^' Jer^obo^am I., King of, 23. Issus, battle at, 31, 74. Italy, 19, 40, 43, 48, 82, 88-92, ^101, 105, 118, 123, 128, 130- 133, 137-144, 148, 161-164, 197-201, 210, 211, 242, 265, 271, 294, 295, 303, 304, 308- 313, 316. Italy, King of, Victor Enianuel I. (1861), 311-313. Ith^aca, 67. Iturbide (e toor be^da), 321. Ivry (e^vre), battle at, 264. Jackson, Gen., 319. Jac^obins, 291-293. Jacobites, 274. Jacquerie (zhak^a re), 172. Jaffa, 156, 157, 295. Jamaica, 235, 280. James, Duke of York, 236, 237. See England, Kings of, James II. (342) Jam INDEX. Les Jamestown, 281. Jane Grey, 211). Kepler, 243. KeresV.tes, battle at, 243. " Seymour, 218. Kiev, 146. Jan^izaries, 169. Kirke, Col., 239. Japan, 8, 209, 249, 322. Japhet, 9, 19. Jarrow, 186. Koran, 134. Kos^cius^ko, 263. Kossuth (kosh shoot'), Louis, 308. Jason, 45. Koster, Laurence, 190. Jefferson, Thomas, 319. Kot'zebue, 305. Jeffreys, Geo., 239. Kublai Khan, 167. Jena (yiVna), 297, 305. Jerome of Prague, 183. Laeedajmon, 44, 48. Jerusalem, 12, 18, 22, 24, 78, 103, •'Ladies' Peace," The, 201. 112, 140, 153-158. Lafayette^ 290. Jerusalem, Kings of: La Fontaine^ 271. Godfrey (1099), 154, 155. Baldwin I. (1100), 155. Guy of Lusignan (1186-1192), 156. Lancaster, House of, 173-175, Lii^res, 85. La Salle, 251. Las Castas, 192. 215. Frederic II., Emp. (1229), 158. Latimer, Bishop, 220. Latin Language, 128, 140, 186, 187. Jesuits, 208, 209, 243, 249, 265. La'tium, Latins, 82, 86, 89-92. Jews, 191. See Ilchrews. Laud, Archbishop, 233. Joan of Arc, 173, 174, 180. Law, John, 271. John of Austria, 243, 247. John of Gaunt, 172. Laws, Pvoman, 88, 131, 133, 187. League of French Nobles, 213, John XXIII., Pope, 183. Jonah, 11. 264, 266. Learning, 128, 136, 164, 186- -190. Juarez (wa'reth), 312. Leb'anon, 18. Judnea, Kingdom of, 78, 98. Legnano (len ya'no), battle at, Judah, Kingdom of, 12, 23. " Kings of: Josiah, Zedeldah, 23. 162. Leipsic (lipe^-), battles at, 301. 245, Judas Maccabae^us, 78. Leith, 235. Jugur^tha, 100, 101. Lem'nos Isl., 63. Julius II., Pope, 199, 200. Junot (zhu noO, 298, 299. Leo IV., Pope, 137. " X., " 200, 201. Jupiter, 84. Leon'idas, 29, 57. Leonine City, 137, 316. Karnak, 39. Kazan, 255. Lepan'to, 243. Lep'idus, 106, 107. Kearney (kar^-). Gen., 322. Les'bos Isl., 61. (343) Leu INDEX. Mar Leuc^tru, buttle at, 04. Leuthen (loi^ten), 201. Lexington, 277. Leyden (Li^dn), 220. Liberals in Europe, 304-307. Libraries, 12, 54, 78, 79, 139, 188. Lib^ya, 75. Licinian Laws, 89. Lincoln, Abraham, 322-324. Literature, 10, 12, 13, 60-70, 70, 79, 81, 109, 128, 187, 188, 223, 241, 267, 271. Liv^^ 109. Locke, John, 238. Lodi (lo^de), 294. Loire (Iwar), 129, 173. Lollards, 173. Lombardy, Lombards, 101, 180, 131, 138, 139, 148, 102, 103, 187, 199. London, 105, 219, 228, 234-237, 281. Londonder^ry, 239. Lorraine, 141, 206, 315, 310. Dukes of, 154, 211, 200. Louis of Nassau, 220. Louisiana, 251. Louvois (loo vwii^), 209. Low Countries. See Nciherlands. Lowositz, 201. Loyola, 208, 209. Luca^nians, 91. Lucknow, 287. Lusitii^nia, 98. Luther, M., 202, 203, 209. Lutherans, 243. Lutzen (loot^zen), battles at, 240, 254, 300. Luxemburg, 268. Luxor, 39. Lycur^'gus, 51-53. Lyd^ia, 19, 26, 30, 48. Lyons, 113. Lysim^achus, 77. Macaco, 249. Macedonia, Macedonians, 29, 82, 64, 65, 74-81, 96, 97, 102. Macedonia, Kings of: Philip II. (B. C. 859-336), 64, 65. Alexander (B. C. 336-323), 72, 74-76. Cassander (315-296), 77. Philip V. (220-178), 80, 8.1. Perseus, (178-107), 81. Madrid, 298. Magdeburg, 245. Magellan, 192. Magenta, 311. Magi, Magians, 25, 27, 28. Magnesia, 97. Magyars, 142, 143. Maine, County of, France, 157. Maintenon (niaNt noN), Mme.,209. Malek Shah, 153. Malian Gulf, 57. Malplaquet (-plii kf/), 270. Malta. 160, 242. Mamelukes, 158, 159, 295. Man^deville, Sir John, 188. Manlius, Titus, 90. Mantine^a, 04. Maoris, 288. Marat (ma nlO, 292. Mar'athon, 29, 50, 07. Marco Polo, 107. Mardo^nius, 30, 58. Maren^go, 295. Margaret of Anjou (ax zhoo^), 174. Margaret of Navarre, 204. Maria Leczinska, 272. Maria Louisa, Empress, 299. (344) Mar INDEX. Moo Marian Party, 102-104. Marie Antoinette^ 27P., 200-202. Marienburg (ma rO^en boorg^), IGO, 258. JMarignano (mil ren y;i''no), 200. Marius, Cains, 100-102. Marlborongh, John, Duke of, 240, 241. Marlborougb, Sarah, Duchess of, 240, 241. Mars, 84. Marseilles (-sal^/), 20G. Marston Moor, 234. Maryland, 254. Massachusetts, 252, 277. Massillon (ma seel yoN^), 271. Matilda of England, IBO. Maurice of Nassau, 228. Mazarin (mil za rax^), 25G, 257. Mazzini (mat se^ne), 309. Mecca, 134. Mecklenburg, 245. Media, Medes, 12, 13, 25, 50. Medici (med^e che), 198. " Catherine de', 211, 214. " Cosmo de', 1(34. " John de'. See Leo A'., Fojye. Medici, Lorenzo de', 104, 188. " Marie de', 205. Medina (ma de^na), 134. Mediterranean Sea, 10-12, 17, 22, 26, 75, 79, 103, 109, 135, 137, 1G5, 177, 20G, 207, 270. Meerut, 287. Melbourne, 288. Memphis, 34, 38. Mene-la^us, 45. Menschikoff, 258. Mentz, 245. Mesopota^mia, 112, 114. Messenia, Messenians, 48, 59, G4, G8. Messi^'ah born, 109. MetcKlus, Consul, 94. Metz, 211, 314, 315. Mexico, 102, 222, 312, 321, 322. " Maximilian, Emperor of, 312. Michigan, 310. Middle Ages, 8, 127. "Middle Kingdom," 141, 180. Milan, 117, 143, 102, 103, 198-201, 312, Mile^tus, 29, 70. Milti^ades, 50. Milton, John, 238. Minor^ca, 270. Mississippi K., 193, 251, 272, 273, 319, 323. Mississippi Scheme, 271, 272. Mityle^ne, 01, 70. Mode^na, 311. Mogul Empire, 107. Mohacz, 205. Mohammed, 134. Mohammedans, 134-137, 108. Molda''via. See Roumania. Moliere (mo le er^), 271. Mondego Bay, 299. Mongols, 100, 1G7, 255. Monmouth, Duke of, 238, 239. MontebeFlo, 311. Montene^gro, 317. Monterey ^ 312, 322. Montfort, Simon de, persecutes Albigenses, 177. Montfort, Simon de, son, leads English Barons, 170. Montpel^lier, 187. Montpensier (moN poN se a), Duke of, 307, 317. Montreal, 250. Moore, Sir John, 299. Moors, 34, 190, 192. (315) Mor INDEX. Ohi Morat (mo rii^), 181. New^foundland, 193. More, Sir Thomas, 218. New Jersey, 251. More^a, 1G3. New Mexico, 322. Moreau (mo ro^), 295. New Orleans, 271, 272. Moscow, 300. New South Wales, 288 Munich, 261. Newspapers, 270, 277. Miinster, 247. Newton, Sir I., 238. Munychia (mu nik^ia), 03. New York, 251, 278. Murat (mii ru^), 298. New Zealand, 288. Myc^ale, 58. Niagara, 270, 319. Nibelung-ei), 188. Nancy (noN^se), battle at, 181. Nice, in Bithynia, 118, 154. Nantes, Edict of, 251, 205, 200, 209. Nicome^dia, 117. " Executions at, 294. Nicop^olis, 108. Naples, 131, 143. Niemen (nee^men) K., 298. " Kiiigdomof,149, 179, 190, Nightingale, Florence, 282. 197-199, 272, 304. Nile, 7, 34, 38, 75, 76, 1 57, 295. Naples, Queen Joanna of, 179. Nimeguen (ne ma'gen) , 220, 208. Nar^ses, 132. Nineveh, 11, 13-15. Narva, Siege of, 257. Noah, 9. Naseby, battle at, 234. Nomads, 7, 29, 100. Navarino (-e^no), 280, 305. Nord^ling-en, 240. Navarre^ 158, 190. Normans, Normandy, 147-151, King Charles of, 179. 157, 292. " " Henry of. See Northmen, 142, 140, 14 7. France, King Henry IV. Northumberland, Duke of, 219. Necho, 30. Norway, 40, 254. Nehemi^ah, 24. Notre Dame (nOtr dilm 0, 292. Nelson, Admiral, 295-297. Nova Scotia, 250. Netherlands, 141, noie, 105, 180, Novgorod, 140. 181, 185, 190, 198, 199, 207, Numantia, 98. 208, 217, 221, 224-229, 242, Numidia, 100. 294. Netherlands, Spanish, 228, 207- Gates, Titus, 237. 271. Octa^vian. See Rom. Emperors, Netherhmds, Austrian, 271, 295, Aiifjusfn.'^: 303. Octa^vius, Tribune, 99. Netherlands, United, 220, 229, 247. Odo^acer, 123, 127. Kingdom of, 304, 300. Od^'ssey, 00. William I.,^King of (1815- (Eta (e^ta), Mt., 29, 57. 1830), 304. Oglethorpe, Gen., 270. Netherlands, New. See 'New York. Ohio R., 272. (346) Old INDEX, Per Oldenburg, House of, in Dcn- Palestine, 12, 15, 18, 21-24, 74, 75, mark, 254. 152-159. Olga, Queen of Kussia, 147. PamphyFia, 19. Olynipia, in Elis, 73. Paper invented, 189. Olympic Gaines, 49, G4, 69. Paphlagonians, 19. Olym'pus, Mt., 40. Paraguay, 320. Omar Pasha^ 281. Paris, city, 150, 151, 173, 186, 212- Ommi'ades, 136. 214, 264, 267, 273, 276, 290- Oracles, 47, 48, 57, 85. 295, 301, 307, 308, 310, 311, Orange, Princes of: 314, 315, 316. William the Silent, 225-228. Paris, Counts of, 142, 143. Maurice, 228. Parliament, Eng., 170, 230-241, William Henry, 239, 268 269. 274, 277-281. See England, Kings of, Wil- Parma, 311. liam III. " Margaret, Duchess of, 225. Orino'co Pv., 191. " Alexander, Duke of, 227, Orkneys, Is., 222. 228. Orleans, 174; Duke of, brc . of Parthia, Parthians, 26, 77, 78, 104, Charles VI., 179; Duke of. 106, 113-115. Regent of France, 271, 274; Parysa^tes, 30. Duke of, Ph. Egalite^ 291; Pascal, 271. Duke of, Louis Philippe ,306 Patricians, Rom., 83-89, 99. (see France, Kings of ) ; Duke Pausa^nias, 58. of, son of Louis Phil ippe, Pa^-ia, 131, 139, 201. 306; Duchess of, 307. Peasants, 142, 152, 172, 178, 179, Oron^tes Pv., 19, 77. 203. Osi^ris, 37, 38. Pekin, 166. Osnabruck, 247. Pelasgi, 43. Ostracism, 54, 55, 59. Pelay^, 135. Ostrogoths, 121, 130. Peloponnesian War, 60-62, 70. Othman, 167. Peloponne^sus, 44, 48, 51-53, 64. Ottawa Pv., 251. Penn, W^m., 253. Ottoman Empire, 167, 243. Pennsylvania, 252, 253, 323. Oude (owd), 287. Per^gamus, 98. Oudenarde, 270. Per^icles (-clees), 59, 60, 70, 72. Overys^sel, 268. Perry, Commodore, 319. Ovid, 109. Persep^olis, 75. Ox^enstiern^ 246. . Persia, Persians, 13, 24-33, 56-58, Oxford University, 172, 186. 76, 205. Persia, Kings of: Pacific 0., 166, 192. Cyrus fB. C. 558), 18, 24-26, Piid^ua, 187, 199. *70. (347) Per INDEX. Pru Persia, Kings of (continued): Cambyses (529), 20, 27, r,.3. The False Smerdis (522). Darius I. (521), 27-29, 50. Xerxes (480), 29, 57. Artaxerxes (405), 30. Darius II. (424), SO. Artaxerxes II. (405), 31, 02, 63. Artaxerxes III. (359), 31. Arses (338), 31. Darius III. (336), 31, 32, 74, 75. Persian Empire, New, 115, 110, 119. Persian Gulf, 15, 17. Peru, 192, 222, 321. Peter the Hermit, 153. Petition of Rights, Eng., 232, 233. Petrarch, 187, 188. Pha^raoh (title), 38. Phid^ias, 72, 73. Philadelphia, 278, 318, 324. Philip of Austria, 198. Philippa, Queen of England, 171. Philippine Is., 192, 276. Philistines, 12, 22. Philopoemen, 81. Philosophers, Greek, 70-72. Phocis, 49, 65. Phoenicia, Phoenicians, 10, 12, 15- 18, 26, 31, 36, 40, 44, 74. Phrygians, 19, 30. Phytic, 63. Pindar, 68. Pi-sis^tra-tus, 54, 73. Pit^tacus, 70. Pitt, Wm., Earl of Chatham, 262, 276, 277. Pitt, Wm., son, 296. Pius VII., 296, 301. « IX., 309, 316. Pizar^ro, 192. Plague in London, 237. Planta^genets, 169-175. Phissy, battle of, 285. Platffi^a, 30, 58. Plato, 71. Plattsburgh, 319. Plebe^ians, 84-89. Po, Pviv., 96. Poitiers (pwji te jV), 136, 171. Poitou (pwii too''), 157. Poland, Poles, 255, 257, 259, 262, 203, 272, 300, 308. Poland, Augustus II. King of, 257. Pole, Cardinal, 220. Polk, Pres., 321. Poly carp. Bishop, 113. Pomera^nia, 245. Pompadour, Mme. de, 272. Pompeii (-pa ye), destroyed, 112. Pompey, 103-105. Pontius, 91. Pontus, War with, 101-103. Pope, Alex., 241. Popes defend Rome, 137; plural- ity of. 183. Portugal, Portuguese, 98, 191, 229, 248, 249, 298, 299. Prague, 183, 184, 243, 244. Praxit^eles, 72. Priam, 45. Presburg, Treaty of, 296, 299. Printing, 159, 175, 189, 190. Provence (pro voNss^), 138, 141, note, 162. Provence, Language of, 187. Provinces, Roman, 95-98, 107, 109, 112. Prussia, Prussians, 160, 259-263, 272, 276, 300, 303, 312-315. Prussia, Kings of: Frederic I. (A. D. 1701), 259. (348) Pru INDEX. Rom Prussia, Kings of (continued): Frederic William I. (1713), 259, 260. Frederic II. the Great (1740- 1780), 200-262. Frederic William III. (1797), 297, 298, 301. Frederic AVilliam IV. (1840), 309. William I. (1801), 312-315. Pultii^va, 257. Punic Wars, 93-97. Pute^li, 102. Pydna, 81. Pyramids, 35, 295. Pyrenees, 95, 135, 139, 267. Pyrrhus, 91, 92. Quebec, 250, 272, 273, 276. Queretii^ro, 312. Quito, 320. Kacine (ril secn^), 271. Kaleigh, Sir W\, 221, 231. Ram''eses, 36. Ka^phia, 12. Kaven^na, 131, 132, 138, 200. Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 154, 176. Eed Sea, 17, 22. Reformation, The, 8,202-209,217, 218, 225. Reg'ulus, Consul, 94. Rehobo^am, 23. Req^iesens, 226, 227. Rheims (reemz), 174. Rhine, 109, 110, 119, 129, 164, 266, 270. Rhode Island, 252. Rhodes, 49, 100, 204. Rhone, 101, 129, 141, 206. Richard, Prince, of England, 158. Richelieu (reesh le u), Cardinal, 244, 246. Ridley, Bishop, 220. Rienzi (re en^ze), 163. Rio Gran^de, 322. Robert of Normandy, 150, 154. " the Strong, 150, 151. Robespierre, 292, 293. Rochelle, 232, 266. Roderick, last of the Goths, 135. Roland, Mn)e., 292. Rollo, 147, 148, 151. Roman Emperors: Augustus, 107- 110; Tiberius, 110; Caligula, 110, 111; Claudius, Nero, 111; Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan, 112; Hadrian, 112, 113; T. A. Antoninus, M. A. Antoninus, Commodus, 113; — Sept. Severus, 114; Car- acal la, 114, 115; Macrinus, Elagabalus, A. Severus, 115; Decius, Valerian, 116, 121; Aurelian, 116; Diocletian and Maximian, 116, 117; Con- stantino the Great, 117, 118; Constans, Constantine II., Constantius II., Julian, Jo- vian, 119; — Valentinian, Va- lens, 121; Theodosius, 121, 122. Roman Emperors of the East: Ar- cadius, 122; Zeno, 123; Justi- nian, 132, 133; Heraclius, Leo III., 133; Constantine VI., 140; Alexis, 154; Isaac An- gelus, 157; John Pala3olo^gus, 184; Constantine XII., 168. Roman Emperors of the West and Kings of Germany: Charlemagne (A. D. 800), 139- 141. (349) Rom INDEX. Rus Koman Emperors of the West and Kings of Germany (cont'd) : Louis the Mild (814), 141. Lothaire (840), 141. Louis II. (855). Charles II. (875). " III. (876-888), 151. Otho I. (962), 143. " IL (973), Otho 111.(983), 144, Henry II. (1002), Conrad II. (1024), 144. Henry III. (1039), 144. IV. (1056-1106), 144, 145. Conrad III. (1138), 156. Frederic I. (1152). 156, 162. Henry VL (1191), 162. Frederic II. (1212-1250), 157, 158, 162. Paidolph I. (1273-1292), 162. Louis V. (1314), 182. Charles IV. (1347), 182. Wenceslaus (1378), 182, 183. Kupert (1400), 183. Sigismund (1410), 183, 184, 203. Albert II. (1438), 185. Frederic III. (1440), 185. Maximilian I. (1493), 185, 200. Charles V. (1519), 198-209. Ferdinand I. (1558), 205, 208, 242, 243. Maximilian II. (1564), 243. Rudolph II. (1576), 243, 244. Matthias (1612), 244. Ferdinand II. (1619), 244- 24(). Ferdinand III. (1637), 246. Leopold I. (1658), 259, 270. Joseph I. (1705), 270. Charles VI. (1711), 260, 270. Roman Emperors of the West and Kings of Germany (cont'd) : Charles VII. (1742), 260, 261. Francis I, (1745), 261. Joseph II. (1765), 261, 262. Leopold II. (1790). Francis II. (1792-1806), 295, 296. See Austria, Fran- cis I. Roman Empire, 8, 104, 108-123, 127, 128. Roman Empire of the East, 122, 123, 130-133, 146, 148, 163, 167, 168. Roman Empire of the West: Honorius, 122; Augustulus, 123. Roman Empire of the West, Re- vived, 140-144, 161, 182-185, 247, 296. Rome, City, 34, 82-85, 88, 100, 102, 109, 111, 122, 123, 127, 137, 140, 141, 143, 162, 163, 202, 204, 274, 309, 316. Rome, Kingdom, 83. Kings: Ro- mulus, Numa, Tullus Hosti- lius, Ancus Martins, Tarquin I., Servius Tullius, Tarquin IL, 83. Rome, Republic, 40, 83-107; Re- vived, 138, 163, 309. Roses, Wars of, 174, 175, 190. Rosetta Stone, 80. RothJi^ris, 131. Rouma^nia, 281, 282. Rubicon, R., 105. Rupert, Prince, 234. Russell, Lord Wm., 238. Russia, Russians, 19, 131, 133, 146, 147, 167, 221, 255-258, 261- 263, 280-282, 298, 300, 304- 306, 317. (350) Rus INDEX. Sen Russia, Sovereigns of: Kiiric (A. I). 8G2-870), 140. Vladimir (980-1015), 147. Yaroslav (1019-1055), 147. Ivan III. (14G2-1505), 255. " IV. (1538), 255. Feodor I. (1584-1598), 255. Michael III. (1G10-1G45), 255. Feodor II. (1G7G), 25G. Ivan V. with Peter I. (1G82), 256. Peter I. (alone, 1G89), 25G- 258. Catherine I. (1725-1727), 258. Elizabeth (1741), 2G2. Peter III. (17G2), 2G2. Catherine II. (17G2-179G), 262, 263. Alexander I. (1801), 298-301, 304, 305. Nicholas I. (1825), 281, 305- 308. Alexander II. (1855), 282, 317. Paiy Diaz (de'ath) Cid, 187. Pvye-House Plot, 237. Rys^vick, Treaty of, 240, 270. Sahines, 91. Sacred War, Greek, 65. Sad^wa, battle of, 313. SaKadin, 156, 157, 159. Salanian^ca, University, 192. Salamis, battle of, 30, 57, 67. Salic Law, 178, 307. Salon ica (-ne^'ka), 317. Samarcand^ 136, 189. Samaria, 24. Sam^'mura^mit, 11. Samniiim, Samnites, 89-91. Samos, 69. San Francisco, 322. ( Sanhedrim, 79. Santa Sophia, Church of, 132. Saone (sone), 151. Sapor, 116. Sar^acens, 133-138, 148, 153, 155- 159, 207. Saratoga, battle at, 278. Sardinia, Isl., 94, 123, 132. " Kingdom, 303. " Victor Emanuel, King of, 311, 312. See lUdy. Sardis, 19, 29. Sassan^idie, 115, 132. Savannah R., 276. Savonarola, 198. Savoy, 269; House of, 309. Saxons, 121, 122, 129, 139, 140, 451. Saxony, Electors of: Frederic the Wise (1486- 1525), 203. John Frederic (1532), 207. Maurice (1548-1553), 207, 208. John George I. (1611), 245, 246. Saxony, Henry the Fowler, Duke of and King of Germany, 143. Schleswig-Holstein War, 312. Schliemann (shlee^-), 45. Schonbrunn, Treaty of, 299. Scio, 305. Scipio, 96, 97. Scotland, Scots, 121, 131, 170, 171, 230-236, 240, 274, 275. Scotland, Sovereigns of: James IV. (1488), 216. " V.(1513),211,216,218. Mary (1542), 211, 219-221. Scott, Gen., 322. Scythians, 7, 13, 23, 25, 28, 78. Seleucidio. Sec Syria, Kings of. Sedgemoor, battle at, 239. Senti^num, 91. i51) Sep INDEX. St. P Sepoy Rebellion, 280, 287. Servia, 317. Servile AVar, Rom., 101. Sevasto^pol, 282. Seven Weeks' War, 313. " Years' " 2G1, 2G2, 27G, 285. Sextiiis, L., 89. Slbrza (sfort'sa), L., 108. Shakespeare, 223. Sbip-nioney, 233. Shrewsbury, battle at, 173. Shem, Semites, 10, 16, 10. Siberia, 255, 306. Sicily, 40, 44, 61, 62, 82, 92-95, 101, 102, 123, 132, 137, 162, 163, 178, 298, 312. Sidney, Algernon, 238. " " Philip, 223. Sidon, 17, 18. Silesia (se If/si a), 260-262. Sinai, 35. Simon^ides, 68. Sirmium, 117. Slavonians, 131, 139. Smalcald, League of, 205, 208. Smyrna, 113. Social W^ar, Greek, 64. " Rom., 101. Socrates, 63, 70-72. Solferino (-e'no), 312. Solomon, 11, 18, 10, 22. Solon, 53-55, 70. Somerset, Duke of. 218, 219. Sophia of Russia, 256. Soph^ocles, 69. Soto, Ferdinand de, 103. Spain, Spaniards, 17, 95-98, 105, 121, 122, 128, 130, 135, 136, 139, 100-19.3, 198, 228, 229, 242, 243, 240, 250, 260-273, 298, 299, 303-307, 313-317. Spain, Kings and Queens of: Joanna (1516), 108. Charles I. (1516). See Rom. Emp. of Wesi, Charles V. Philip II. (1556), 208, 210- 222, 225-229, 242, 243, 264. Philip III. (1591), 229. " IV. (1621), 265. Charles II. (1665), 270. Philip Y. (1700-1746), 270, 271. Charles lY. (1788), 298, 290. Ferdinand YII. (1814), 208, 200, 301, 304, 306. Isabella II. (1833-1868), 307, 313. Amadeo I. (1870), 316. Alfonso (1873), 317. Spanish Succession, War of, 240, 270, 271. Sparta, Spartans, 29, 31, 44, 51-53, 57-64, 68. Spartacus, 102, 103, Spenser, Edm., 223. Spice Is., 228. Spires, Diet at, 204. Spole'to, 142. Spurs, battle of, 216. Stafiord, Lord, 237. Star Chamber, Eng. Court, 233. States General, French, 273, 279, 290. States General of Netherlands, 224. St. Denis, Abbots of, 143. Steele, Richard, 241. St. Helena, 302. St. John, Knights of. See Hos- pitallers. St. Lavrrence R., 272. Stoics, 113. St. Petersburg, 257. (352) Str INDEX. Tiro Strafford, Earl of, 233. Stralsund, 245, 258. Strasburg, 269, 315. Stratford de Redcliffe, Lord, 281. Stre^litz, 256. Stuart, House of, 230-241, 274, 275. " James Francis Edward, 239, 240, 274, 275. Stuart, Charles Edward, 275. Sulla, L. Cornelius, 100-102. Sully, Duke of, 257. Surat, 231. Susa, 75. Sweden, Swedes, 204, 246, 251, 254, 255, 299, 300. Sweden, Kings and Queens of: Margaret Waldemar, 254. Gustavus Vasa (1523), 254. Gustavus Adolphus (1611), 245, 246, 254. Christina (1632), 254, 255. Charles X. (1654), 255. Charles XII. (1697), 257, 258. Switzerland, 101, 129, 164, 165, 204. Sydney, 287, 288. Syracuse, 62, 96. Syria, Syrians, 12, 15, 18, 19, 31, 77, 103, 135, 154-156, 158. Syria, Kings of: Seleucus (B. C. 301-280), 77. Antiochus III., 78, 97. Tamerlane (Timour), 167. Tarentum, 91. Tartars, 153, 158, 166, 255, 262. Tasmania, 288. Taylor, Gen., 321. Temesvar, battle, 308. Templars, Knights, 155, 156, 160, 178. Tetzel, 202, 203. Hist. — 30. (.3;-) Teuto^nes, 101. Teutonic Knights, 155, 160, 259. Texas, 321, 322. Tha^les, 70. Thapsus, 105. Thebes, Egypt, 34, 37, 38. " Thebans, Greek, 57, 63- 65. Themis^tocles, 57, 72. Theod^ric the Great, 130, 132. Theodo^sius, Gen., 121. Therma^ic Gulf, 65. Therniop^yla% 29, 50, 57. The^seus (-use), 45. Thessaloni^ca, 105, 137. Thessaly, 30. Thiers (te er^, 315, 316. Thirty Years' War, 244-247, 259, 266. Thrace, Thracians, 19, 29, 77, 118, 122. Thrasyb^ulus, 63. Thucyd^ides, 69, 70. Thuringia, 142. Tiber R., 82. Tiberias, Lake, battle at, 156, Tientsin, Treaty of, 286. Tigris R., 10, 32, 114. Torgau (-gow). League of, 204. Tories, Eng., 238, 274. Toulon^ Siege of, 293. Toulouse, 151; Counts of, 154, 187. Tours, battle of, 136, 138, 315 Trafalgar, battle, 296. Trent, Council at, 207, 208. Tribunes, Roman, 87, 99, 100, 163. Triple Alliance, 268. Triumvirate, First, 104. Second, 106, 107. Trochu, Gen., 315. Troubadours, 187. 3) Tro INDEX. Wes Troy, Siege of, 45. V^uidois (vo dwaO, 207, 210, 235. " Truce of God," 152. Venezue^la, 320. Tudor, House of, 175, 215, 223. Venice, 157, 163, 168, 191, 199, 294, Tunis, 158, 206. 295, 313. Turkey, Turks, 153-155, 158-160, Vera Cruz, 322. 166-168, 199, 204-208, 255, VerceFlse, 101. 258, 281-283, 305, 306, 317. Verdun, Treaty of, 141. Turkey, Sultans of: Versailles, 273, 278, 315, 316. Othman (A. D. 1288-1326), Vervins (ver vax^). Treaty of, 167. 228. Amurath I. (1360), 168. Vesta, 85. Bajazet I. (1389-1403), 167, Vesuvius, Mt., 112; battle near, 90. 168. Victoria, Colony, 288. Mohammed II„ 168. Vienna, Austria, 113, 205, 294, Solyman I. (1520), 204-206, 296, 299, 303, 308, 313. 242. Vienne, France, 113. Selim II, (1566-1574), 243. Vincennes^, 177. Mohammed III. (1595-1618), Vinea, Peter de, 187. 243. Virgil, 109. Abdul Medjid (1840), 281. Virginia, 221, 252, 319, 323. Abd-cl-Aziz (1861-1876), 317. Visconti (-te), 163. Turnhout, battle of, 228. Visigoths, 121, 122, 129. Tuscany, 142, 311. Volga K., 123. " Twelve Tables," Laws of, 88. Volscians, 87, 88. Tyrtae^us; 68. Wakefield, battle, 174. Ulm (oolm), 296. Wales, 129, 131, 170. United States, 251, 276-278, 286, Wallace, 170. 318-324. Wallachia (val la^kia). See Rou- Universities, 174, 183, 186, 187, viania. 305. Wallenstein (-stine), 244-246. Upsria, 254. Walpole, Pvob't, 275. Urban II., Pope, 153. Walsingham, 223. Uruguay, 320. Walwick, Earl of, 174, 175. Utrecht, Province, 226, 268. Washington, 276, 278, 318. Treaty of, 241, 270. Waterloo, battle, 302. Wat Tyler's Rebellion, 172. Valois (val wii). House of, 178, 210, Weimar, Duke Bernhard of, 246. 214, 266. Wellington, Duke of, 299, 301, Vandals, 122, 123. 302. Van Tromp, Admiral, 235. Westphalia, Kingdom of, 298. Vauban (v6 boN^, 269. Treaty of, 247, 266. (354) Whi IXDEX. Zwi Whigs, Eng., 238, 274. York, Family of, in Eng., 174, Wicliffe, 172, 173, 188. 175, 215. Wilberforce, 280. York, James, Duke of. See Eng- Wilkes, J., 276, 277. land, King James II. Wolfe, Gen., 272. York, Eichard, Duke of, 174. Wolsey, Cardinal, 200, 216 21 7. " city, 114, 117, 233, 234. Worcester (woos^ter). battle at. Yorktown, Ya., 278. 235. Yuste (yoos'ta), 208. World's Fair, 281, 324. Ypsilanti (ip se lan'te), 305. Worms, Diet at, 203. Writing, Art of, 10, 18 35, 44, 66, Za^ma, battle at, 96. 80, 189. Zapolya, J., 205, 206. Zealand, 225, 226. Xanthip^pus, 94. Zend Avesta, 32. Xenoph^anes, 71, Zorndorf, 262. Xenophon, 31, 70. Zo^roas^ter, 25, 28, 32. Xeres (lia^res), battle of, 135. Zurich, 204. Xerxes, 29, 30, 57. Zwingli, Ulrich, 204. (355) THE ECLECTIC GEOGRAPHIES; COMPLETE SERIES IN THREE BOOKS Primary, Intermediate, and School Geography. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES: 1. Uneqiialed mechanical execution. 2. Treatment of the subject as a Science, and not as a mere collection of facts. 3. A Philosophic Plan faithfully carried out. 4. Prominence of Physical Gcogr-apJiy : the same being interwoven with local geography from the begin- ning. 5. Style of language adapted to each particular grade. 6. Not overcrowded with small details. 7. Illustrations new and interesting. 8. Complete and accurate statistics. 9. The best School Maps publish-^d in America. 10. Complete scientific treatise on map-drawing, with full directions for projecting, coloring, etc. TJie Eclectic Geographies present the study in accord- ance with the newest and most p7'actical methods. They have won the highest appi'oval of leading educators, and are no7v extensively used in many of the best schools of the country. Teachers and othcj's intei'ested in seciwing the best school text-books are invited to correspond with the publishers of the Eclectic Series. Libei'al terms offc7'ed on sample copies and supplies for first introduction. Address VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Cincinnati and New York. VENABLE'S UNITED STATES. A SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By W. H. Venarle. i2mo., 270 pp. Illustrated with Maps, Charts, and other engravings. " IVe are incHned fo pronounce it, on the tvholc^ the best of its class and size. . . . 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Discriminating use of dates, and devices for fixing important dates in the mind. Foot-notes referring to literary viatter relating to subjects discussed in the text. A method of staling questions cahulated- to avoid, conveying to the pupil information that should come froui him, and which stimulates the pupil to think. An original system of general questions, and directions for teacher and pupil. An original system of biographical rcvieics. Full-page maps, of a greater number than will be found in any other similar text-book, and unequaled for illustrative value, accuracy, and beauty. Portraits, very numerous and authentic, and executed by the best artists. A copious index of all important matters. VAN ANTWERP. BRAGG & CO.. Cincinnati and New ^ork. THALHEIMER^S ANCIENT HISTORY. MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY, from the earliest times to the fall of the Western Empire. By M. E. Thalheimer, formerly Teacher of History and Composition in Packer Collegiate Institute. 8vo, 378 pp. Handsomely ilhistrated with full-page engravings of Ancient Temples and other his- torical objects, charts of the principal cities, and accurate and finely executed double-page maps of the vaiious countries considered in the text. Complete index and ^pronouncing vocabulary. NOTICES OF THE PEESS. ** The most serviceable work of its class within the reach of onr schools. It has, indeed, no rival worth mentioning." — Tlie IVa« liou. ** Miss Thalheimer has certainly been too modest in her preface, for she has written the best American book of its kind. The volume contains several good maps and illustrations, and is published in a style of unusual mechanical excellence." — N. Y. 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VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Publishers, CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK. Eclectic Educational Series. BROWN'S Physiology and Hygiene. A Manual of Physiology and Hygiene. By Ryland T. Brown, M.D., Chemist-in-Chief in the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 12mo, cloth, tinted paper. Illustrated. 288 pp. Many text-books on the science of Physiology and Hygiene luive been presented to the schools and colleges of this country during the past few years. These are chiefly abridgments of the larger works used in medical colleges ; and as Physiology is taught in those schools with a direct reference to the cure of disease, these books retain more or less of this character. But the study of Physiology in other than medical schools should have direct reference to the preservation of health rather than to the cure of disease. It has been the leading purpose of the author to make Hygiene the prominent feature of this book, and all other studies introduced subordinate. 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