ORGANIZATPN MGVEMEN- Ni THE GRAMMAR GRADES OF INDIANA: PUBLIC SCHOOLS CH:ri..DS Class Book A_ 1 - ' Copyright N^ COPMRSGHT DEPOSm AN INVESTIGATION OF CERTAIN PHASES OF THE REORGANIZATION MOVEMENT IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES OF INDIANA PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY HUBERT GUY CHILDS, Ph.D. Published By FORT WAYNE PRINTING CO. FORT WAYNE. IND. 1918 COPYRIGHT. 1918. BY HUBERT GUY CHILDS aUN 10 1918 ©C1.A49768: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was undertaken under the direction of Professor T. H. Briggs of Teachers* College, Columbia University, to whom I am indebted for helpful criticism during the progress of the investigation. Numerous superintendents, principals, teachers, and school officials have cooperated with me in assembling the data pre- sented in the following pages, and I am glad to express my ob- ligation to them for their assistance, without which this study would have been impossible. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. page 1. Introductory statement 1 2. Statement of the aims of the investigation 4 3. Statement of the methods of the investigation and their limita- tions - 4 4. Location of schools reporting data 7 BODY. 1. Reorganization in Indiana schools 9 a. Extent as to numbers with date of organization 9 b. Aims, advantages, and standards of the reorganization move- ment (theory) 12 1. Plan of evaluating aims and factors of reorganization adopted in this study 12 c. Standards or features of reorganization actually in use in Indiana schools 20 1. Programs of study in Indiana junior high schools .... 20 2. Provision for individual differences in junior high schools . 41 3. Indications of revised methods 49 4. Guidance and social activities 60 5. Miscellaneous features 63 a. Grades included 69 b. Types of organization claimed 70 c. Housing 70 d. Time distribution as to length of year and recitation . . 71 e. Teacher training and experience 71 f. Number of men teachers 71 g. Salaries 72 h. Conditions of admission to junior high schools ... 73 d. Features of practice in departmental schools and their comparison with those of junior high schools 75 1. Programs of study 75 2. Provision for individual differences 83 3. Indications of revised methods 85 4. Guidance and social activities 87 5. Miscellaneous features 90 6. Comparison of junior and departmental schools ... 95 2. Measurement of claimed advantages and objections to junior high school organization 103 a. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision 103 b. Comparative measures of achievement in the eighth grades of several junior and non-junior type schools 121 1. Spelling 125 2. Reading, understanding of sentences 128 3. Vocabulary test or word recognition 131 Contents; List of Charts PAGE 4. Arithmetic, multiplication 134 c. Measurement of retention thru junior high school grades in both junior and non-junior type schools 137 1. General discussion 137 2. In terms of enrollments 140 3. In terms of the attendance and progress of definite sixth grade pupil groups thru higher grades 149 LIST OF CHARTS PAGE 1. Comparative scoring of junior and departmental schools 101 2. Per capita cost of instruction and supervision in junior and non- junior type schools 113 3. Retention in junior and departmental schools in terms of enroll- ments 143 4. Retention in junior and departmental schools in terms of half years of attendance beyond the high sixth grade 159 5. Per cent gain in attendance retention by boys in junior and depart- mental schools 159 LIST OF TABLES 1. Date of organization 11 2. Population of cities and towns by school groups 11 3. Features of junior high school organization as rated by twenty-five judges 14 4. Group ranking of factors in junior high school organization 17 5. Subject offerings in junior high schools 22 6. Provision for individual differences in junior high schools 41 7. Factors in method modification in junior high schools 55 8. Miscellaneous features of practice in junior high schools 67 9. Subject offerings in departmental schools 76 10. Provision for individual differences in departmental schools 83 11. Factors in method modification in departmental schools 85 12. Miscellaneous features of practice in departmental schools 90 13. Rating of junior high schools in special features of organization. ... 97 14. Rating of departmental schools in special features of organization . . 99 15. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in junior and depart- mental schools 105 16. Range of cost distribution 107 17. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in cities of 5,000 and more population 107 18. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in cities of less than 5,000 population 108 19. Cost per pupil for instruction and supervision in consolidated schools 108 20. Ayers' Spelling Test Results, County "A" 125 21. Ayers* Spelling Test Results, County "B" 126 22. Thorndike Reading Test Results, County "A" 128 23. Thorndike Reading Test Results, County "B" 128 24. Thorndike Visual Vocabulary Test Results, County "A" 131 25. Thorndike Visual Vocabulary Test Results, County "B" 132 26. Woody Multiplication Test Results, County "A" 134 27. Woody Multiplication Test Results, County "B" 135 28. Retention in junior high schools in terms of enrollments in cities of less than 5,000 population 141 29. Retention in junior high schools in terms of enrollments in cities of from 5,000 to 19,000 population 141 30. Retention in junior high schools in terms of enrollments in cities of 20,000 and more population 142 31. Retention in departmental schools in terms of enrollments in cities of less then 5,000 population 142 32. Retention in departmental schools in terms of enrollments in cities of from 5,000 to 19,000 population 143 vii viii List of Tables PAGE 33. Retention in departmental schools in terms of enrollments in cities of 20,000 and more population 144 34. Retention in non-departmental schools in terms of enrollments 144 35. Summary of tables 28 to 34 inclusive 145 36. High sixth grade enrollments in 1907-8 and 1912-13 151 37. Retention of pupils in junior high schools thru each number of half years beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 152 38. Retention of pupils in junior high schools thru each number of half years beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 154 39. Retention of pupils in departmental schools thru each number of half years beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 155 40. Retention of pupils in departmental schools thru each number of half years beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 156 41. Per cent of gain in retention in years of attendance between 1907-8 and 1912-13 groups in junior high schools 157 42. Per cent of gain in retention in years of attendance between 1907-8 and 1912-13 groups in departmental schools 157 43. Retention of pupils in junior high schools as measured by years of progress beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 162 44. Retention of pupils in junior high schools as measured by years of pogress beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 164 45. Retention of pupils in departmental schools as measured by years of progi'ess beyond the high sixth grade, 1912-13 group 165 46. Retention of pupils in departmental schools as measured by years of progress beyond the high sixth grade, 1907-8 group 166 47. Per cent of gain in retention in years of progress between the 1907-8 and 1912-13 groups in junior high schools 167 48. Per cent of gain in retention in years of progress between the 1907-8 and 1912-13 groups in departmental schools 167 49. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in junior high schools, 1912-13 group 170 50. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in junior high schools, 1907-8 group 170 51. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in departmental schools, 1912-13 group 171 52. Progress thru the seventh and eighth grades in departmental schools, 1907-8 group 171 A. INTRODUCTION. 1. Introductory Statement. The rapid economic expansion of the last half of the nine- teenth century resulted in a marked shifting of population from a rather primitive rural life to a complex city life, a high degree of specialization in labor and the removal of labor from the home, a lack of educative employment for city youth, an increase in wealth and leisure, and an increased demand upon the school for a longer and somewhat modified type of training. Like other institutions the school was conservative and re- sponded slowly to the increasing demand for a longer term and compulsory attendance, and still more slowly did the school and the public become conscious that the traditional school program needed radical reorganization to supply the elements taken from the life of the child by the changed social conditions and to enable him adequately to solve the new social problems arising out of these changed and changing conditions. The first demand for reorganization came chiefly from those interested in higher education from the point of view of economy of time in preparation for professional work. Naturally the proposal was in the form of an extension of the work of the secondary school into the grammar grades. In the report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Education^ such a down- ward extension of its work was urged by practically every aca- demic department group represented in the high school. In other words they favored a six year secondary school above a six year elementary school as best designed to accomplish the desired reform. While the committee held that the high school should minister to the needs of the vast majority of its pupils who are not going to college, yet the report leaves the impression that the committee considered that what was best for those going to college was best for all. The report says, "Ninety-eight teachers unanimously declare that every subject taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to « Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. 1893:14 and 15. 2 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be or at what point his education is to cease. "^ The Committee on the Economy of Time in Education' and the Committee on a Six Year Course of Study* favor either a shortening of the twelve year period of elementary and secondary education by the earlier introduction of high school subjects or the enrichment of the six year secondary work so that the period of collegiate and professional training may be shortened. While the recommendations for reorganization are broader in scope than those of the previous committee, yet these committees, like the Committee of Ten, appear to view the problem largely from the point of view of the high school and the college. Only within the last ten years, and chiefly within the last five, has the reorganization movement turned in part from a program of reform along purely academic lines to the inclusion of vocational activities of a broad and varied sort in both the high school and the grammar grades. This is, no doubt, due in considerable degree to the rapidly improving economic condi- tions among large elements of our population and to the conse- quent leisure among youth, making a longer period of education possible; to the lengthening of the time of school training and a more rigorous enforcement of compulsory attendance laws; to the increased popularity of the high school as a result of its offering some elective work; to the fact that a rapidly increasing grammar grade and high school enrollment represents every variety of occupational interest as compared with narrow interests in times past; to an increased realization among educators of the conditions of elimination in the upper grades and high school and of the significance of individual differences among children; and to an increasing social consciousness that the school is a social institution whose function is to produce socially efficient citizens thru providing an opportunity for the development of every variety of talent deemed socially desirable. The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa- tion,^-^ which has been at work since 1913 and which has issued as yet but few reports of the various sub-committees, advocates » Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. 1893:17. • Report of the Committee on the Economy of Time in Education. Bui. 38. 1913, U. S. Bureau of Ed. « Report of the Committee on a Six Year Course of Study. Proc. N. E. A. 1901 :498-S03. » Reorganization of Secondary Education. Bui. 41. 1913, U. S. Bur. of Ed. 'Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. Bui. 2. 191 7, U. S. Bur. of Ed. pp. 26-29. Introductory Statement 3 a six year high school organization and a greatly modified and enriched program and differentiated curricula in the junior high school grades as a means of meeting the problems of our complex and democratic society. Many objections have been raised against the eight-four plan or the usual grammar grade organization prevailing at the present time, among others the following:' over-crowded curriculum, duplication and waste, lack of correlation between subjects, unessential and impracticable topics, topics which have a legiti- mate place in no program, over-worked pupils, inflexible course of study, inadequate articulation of elementary and high school, little consideration for individual differences, promotion based on unsound principles, discipline unsuited to youth, improperly equipped teachers, pupil contact with too few personalities, unpedagogical methods of instruction, too late beginning of some secondary subjects, lack of vocational work, too much elimina- tion, insufficient attention to retarded and superior pupils, in- sufficient hand work, lack of specific trade training, and an over- mechanical system. The advantages stated for the reorganized school imply that the opposite of the above named objections are realized. The question may be raised whether most of the objections stated really have anything to do with an eight-four or a six- six type of organization; they relate rather to the spirit of the organization and not to its form, although the six-six plan will make the realization of some factors more probable. In the second place it appears that many of these objections are entirely over- drawn for the average school system of the present time. It may be that educational reformers, like other reformers, delight in setting up supposed conditions which are easy of attack. However, there is a spirit of dissatisfaction in the public mind that is demanding a change in school purposes and organization in line with current social and industrial ideals. Since 1910 the reorganization has progressed at an accelerated rate. In 1910 there were probably not to exceed a score of schools claiming junior high school or intermediate school organization; in 1914, Briggs^ reported data from 133 and estimated that at least 60 more had been reported thru other sources; in 1915 ' Davis. C. O. Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Education. Ch. iv of Johnston's High School Education. N. Y. 1912. 9 Briggs. T. H. The Junior High School. Report of the U. S. Com. of Ed. 1914:135-157. 4 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Bingaman'' estimated that there were 280 such schools in the country; and a conservative estimate at the present time would probably not place the number below 400. In spite of the numerous reports of National Education Association committees before 1913, and the numerous reports of school survey committees since that date recommending the reorganization program in grammar grades, and the reports of various investigations, and a voluminous- literature on the junior high school movement, there still appears to be the utmost con- fusion in practice as to standards appropriate to the new move- ment. Among Indiana so-called junior high schools almost every imaginable degree of variation appears to exist relative to every standard advocated for the reorganized school. 2. Statement of Purposes. This investigation has been undertaken: a. To ascertain the nature and extent of the reorganization of instruction and administration in the grammar grades in Indiana public schools: (1) as to its extent, as indicated by the number of schools claiming junior high school standing; (2) as to aims and standards considered desirable by Indiana schoolmen actively engaged in the move- ment; (3) as to standards of practice actually in vogue in these schools; (4) as to comparisons of so-called junior high schools with other schools. b. To measure specifically certain claimed advantages or objec- tions to junior high school organization. (1) The cost of instruction and supervision. (2) Comparative achievements of junior and non- junior schools in certain eighth grade subjects as measured by standard tests. (3) The retention of pupils in grammar grades and high school in junior and non-junior type schools. 3. Methods of Investigation and their Limitations. The nature of this investigation is such that no one clear cut method of investigation seems adequate. The movement is of • Bingaman, C. C. A Report on Intermediate or Junior High Schools of the United States Goldfield, la. 1915. Purposes and Methods 5 COO recent origin in Indiana to make the historic mode of treat- ment valuable, while the general reorganization movement of the past quarter century throughout the United States to 1914 has been well treated by Bunker.^" Certain phases of the prob- lem lend themselves to statistical treatment, as the measurement of school achievements and the retention of pupils in school, and in part the features of practice in the different schools in- vestigated. The comparative method has been freely used, but the experimental method has not been employed. Rather a variety of types of procedure have been utilized in this investi- gation. a. Theoretical junior high school standards for Indiana schools have been determined from published articles and from the ranking of a definitely formulated list of items by 25 super- intendents. b. Features of practice generally have been ascertained thru questionnaire returns, and include: (1) type of organiza- tion, (2) promotion, (3) housing, (4) enrollments, (5) provision for flexible advancement of individuals and groups, (6) teacher training, experience, and salaries, (7) features of method, (8) social organization, (9) time distribution, (10) cost of instruction and supervision, (11) overlapping of junior and senior high school instruc- tion, (12) program of studies. c. The measurement of achievement in certain school subjects by means of standard tests and the measurement of reten- tion among certain pupil groups by the examination of school record cards thru a series of years have constituted problems for special investigation. The use of the questionnaire method in this investigation is subject to the same limitations as the use of this method generally, namely, incomplete returns for some items, possibly hopes sub- stituted for facts in some cases, and impossibility of verifying the accuracy of the returns in considerable part. While practically all reports are lacking in some details, the total per cent of replies to the various items for each group of schools is sufficiently high to be considered representative of group tendencies. Also in large degree specific statistical and other fact items have been called for in the questionnaire and "> Bunker. F. A. Reorganization of the Public School System. Bui. 8. 1916. U. S. Bur. of Ed. 6 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools not subjective opinions. As a result the replies are as a rule not subject to emotional bias but are based upon tangible school records. So far as possible checks have been applied to verify the accuracy of significant data. Statements of subject offerings for the grades in question and the number of teachers giving junior high school instruction have been verified or corrected by reference to the school's schedule of work for the term for which the data were collected, from the state high school direc- tory, and by correspondence or conference with teachers other than the person filling out the original questionnaire blank. Teachers of English and history in all junior and departmental schools were asked for statements showing the nature and empha- sis of their work for grade eight as a basis for estimating the extent of the reform of traditional procedure. About one-half replied. Whereever enrollment data appeared to be of questionable value, the superintendent was asked to check again, and also in some cases the principal or some teacher was asked to submit enroll- ment data for the period or term involved. Data relative to the cost of instruction in the senior high school and to the over- lapping of the teaching staffs of high school and grammar grades have been in part verified by reference to data in my possession relative to cost of instruction in Indiana high schools, an in- vestigation made by the writer in 1915-16." Data for some schools relative to subject offerings in grade nine and to teacher training and experience have been verified by reference to North Central Association reports to which the writer has access. The writer has personally visited about one-third the schools reporting and has been able to note housing and general administrative conditions and programs of study as well as general conditions of instruction and the attitude towards the reorganization move- ment by teachers and patrons. In the measurement of achievement in school subjects standard tests were chosen and uniform directions for their administration were sent to each principal in charge. All papers were scored by the writer or immediately under his direction. The two county superintendents and the several high school principals entered into the giving of the tests with a good spirit, and the returns from no school indicate that directions were deviated from in any way. In the measurement of retention thru half years of attendance " Childs, H. G. Cost of Instruction in Indiana High Schools. Bui. of Third Conference on Educational Measurements. Ind. University, Feb. 1917:126-170. Schools Reporting 7 or progress it would be desirable to have more schools in each group for comparison, but only a very limited number of junior high schools have been organized sufificiently long to make these data of value. The limitation of enrollment data as a measure of retention is discussed specifically in connection with the sec- tion dealing with retention. A third measure of retention might have been used, namely, the per cent of resident children twelve to eighteen years of age and particularly the per cent fourteen and fifteen years of age who are actually enrolled in school and more specifically in the junior high school or departmental grades. While the State Department requires a statement of the number of fourteen and fifteen year old children enumerated, it requires no report as to the number of these actually in school, and these data, if obtainable from each school office, can be had only with a great expenditure of time. The writer has solicited such data from about seventy schools within the past three years and has not received one usable reply. To the extent that the schools supplying retention data are from cities which are representative of their junior or depart- mental groups, the data and the conclusions therefrom have validity. Very specific and clear directions were given for collecting the retention data, and the reports submitted indicate a careful compliance with the directions. There seems to be no reason to question their accuracy. Schools with imperfect records were candid in their statement of the fact and withdrew from participation in the investigation. It should also be noted that data which may have been entirely accurate in the autumn of 1916 may be completely in error a year later, so rapidly are schools overhauling their tradi- tional procedure. The writer believes that the inquiry forms were sent to repre- sentative schools and that the fifty per cent replying are entirely representative of reorganization conditions in Indiana public schools. 4. Location of Schools Reporting Data Included in this Investigation. a. Those claiming junior high school organization. Anderson, Battle Ground, Bloomington, Brazil, Buck Creek, Clark's Hill, Crawfordsville, Dayton, Dunkirk, East Chicago, Elkhart, Evansville, 8 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schooh Gary, Gas City, Gladden, Hartford City, Jackson Township, Monitor, Montmorenci, Mount Vernon, Muncie, New Albany, Oakland City, Princeton, Richmond, Romney, Rushville, Seymour, Stock- well, Vincennes, Washington, Wea, West La- fayette, West Point, Williamsport. b. Departmental non-junior schools. Bedford, Bluffton, Cayuga, Clinton, Columbia City, Connersville, Crown Point, Decatur, Frank- lin, Goshen, Huntington, Kendallville, Kokomo, La Porte, Madison, Marion, Michigan City, Mishawaka, New Castle, Noblesville, North Vernon, Orleans, Plymouth, Portland, Ridgeville, Rochester, Rockport, Royal Center, Salem, Sullivan, Thorntown, Wabash, Waveland, Wayne- town, Whiting. c. Non-departmental non-junior schools. Akron, Alamo, Angola, Arcadia, Argos, Auburn, Batesville, Bowers, Darlington, Fairmount, Farm- land, Greencastle, Ladoga, La Grange, Linden, Loogootee, Medora, Middletown, Montezuma, New Market, New Ross, Union City, Wingate. d. Schools contributing data on school achievements. Battle Ground, Buck Creek, Dayton, Gladden, Jackson Township, Montmorenci, Romney, Stock- well, Wea, West Point, Alamo, Bowers, Darling- ton, Ladoga, Linden, New Market, New Rich- mond, New Ross, Waveland, Waynetown, Win- gate. e. Schools contributing special data on retention. Bloomington, Bluffton, East Chicago, Hartford City, Huntington, Michigan City, New Albany, Princeton, Richmond, Wabash. Number Claiming Reorganization 9 B. BODY. 1 . Reorganization in Indiana Public Schools. a. Extent of the movement as to numbers concerned. (1) Representative character of the schools reached. During the spring, summer, and fall of 1916 questionnaire forms, with a request for cooperation, were sent to the superin- tendents of schools in all towns and cities in Indiana listed by the 1910 Federal census reports as having (a) 2,000 or more population (110 cities), (b) 1,000 to 1,099, 1,200 to 1,299, 1,500 to 1,599 population, (c) to a few other schools whose superintendents were personally known to the writer, to certain schools reported to have junior high schools in various published articles or known by me personally to claim such organization, and to 12 additional consolidated schools in one county. All schools in Indiana on the North Central Association accredited list for 1915-16 (78) are included in the list. In all 180 inquiry blanks were sent out to as many different schools. Replies, more or less usable, were received from 92 schools, 55 of these being from the 2,000 or more population class cities, and 37 from schools in smaller communities. The proportion of replies from each group is approximately fifty per cent of the inquires sent out. The replies represent schools in every part of the state and the writer is confident that every school having any serious claim to junior high school organization at the time the questionnaire was sent out has been reached. Thirteen other schools, mostly in the larger cities, indicated departmental teaching in grammar grades but gave no further data, and hence are not included in this study. (2) Numbers involved in varying degrees of reorganization, (a) Those claiming junior high school organization, (b) those claiming departmental organization only, (c) those hav- ing neither. To obtain a basis of classification for the schools, the follow- ing definition of a junior high school was submitted in the questionnaire: "Have you a special organization of grades 7 and 8 or 8 and 9 or 7, 8 and 9 to provide for greater differentiation of studies, easier transition to the high school, longer retention in school, earlier introduction to vocational work, etc. (commonly called a junior high school)?" 10 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools In a second paragraph on the type of organization the follow- ing was submitted, "Do you have departmental teaching (special teachers for each subject) in grammar grades? In what subjects?" Practically all schools indicate a greater or less degree of departmental teaching in domestic science, manual training, music, and art. The line between departmental and non-de- partmental schools has been drawn on the basis of departmental teaching in the usual common studies of the grammar grades, as arithmetic, reading, grammar, history, etc. Of the 92 schools making usable returns up to March 1917, 39 claimed some degree of junior high school organization, 30 claimed departmental teaching only, and 23 claimed neither form of organization. One of these schools entirely withdrew its claims to junior high school organization in reply to a second inquiry, a second stated that it really had inaugurated depart- mental teaching only but hoped to add other features later, and three others of the 39 have since disclaimed junior high school organization in reply to a searching questionnaire recently sent out by Doctor Briggs of Teachers' College, Columbia University. These five I have transferred to the departmental school list. One other school, not reporting fully to me directly, reports to Doctor Briggs that it has reorganized on the junior high school basis in January 1917. According to data in my possession in April, 1917 the 93 towns and cities included in this study are classified as follows on the basis of their own claims: 35 towns or cities have inter- mediate or junior high school organization, with a total of 38 such schools; 35 have departmental organization only; and 23 are non-departmental schools. Two schools reported by Doug- lass^ as junior high schools have withdrawn such claims in connec- tion with this investigation. (3) Supplementary information relative to junior high schools and departmental schools. • Douglass. A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of National Soc. for Study of Education. Part III, 1916:141. Date of Organization 11 TABLE 1. Date of Organization J. H. s. DEPARTMENT ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION JUNIOR SCHOOLS DEPT. SCHOOLS JUNIOR SCHOOLS Before 1900 2 1 1900 to 1904 3 4 1905 to 1909 8 12 3 1910tol914 4 13 6 1915 to 1917 (April) 18 2 25 Not stated 4 Total 35 35 35 ♦Median date 1915 1910 1915 ♦Medians computed from exact dates indicated in reports. TABLE 2. Population of Cities and Towns by School Type Groups POPULATION* JUNIOR GROUP DEPT. GROUP NON-DEPT. GROUP to 999 12 2 8 1,000 to 2,499 2 6 9 2,500to4,999 3 7 5 5,000 to 9,999 6 10 1 10,000 to 19,999 3 7 20,000 to 49,999 8 3 50,000to 1 Total 35 35 23 tMedian population 5,000 6,000 1,350 ♦ Estimated for 1916. t Exact medians computed from estimated population of each city. 1 2 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools b. Aims and advantages claimed for the reorganization movement, and standards of reorganization. To evaluate any movement it is fundamentally important to know the aims its promoters seek to attain. The method employed in this study of ascertaining aims, investigating practice, and determining standards of the re- organization movement in Indiana schools is as follows: first, a questionnaire was prepared on the basis of a summary of pre- vious investigations and junior high school literature generally; second, a list of eighteen features, often associated with junior high school organization, was sent to twenty-five Indiana school men actively engaged in the reorganization movement to be ranked on the basis of relative importance in junior high school organization; and third, the features of practice in Indiana schools have been tabulated and analyzed in light of these tenta- tive standards. The following is the list of factors submitted for ranking; with the request that other important features not listed be added if any such applied to the situation, and that any that were of little or nor value be crossed off. Directions were given to number the items in order of importance 1, 2, 3, etc. Items Submitted. (a) Close contact of grammar school grades with the senior high school with respect to housing and the use of laboratories and equipment. (b) A distinctive organization separate from the elementary grades and the senior high school. (c) The use of the same teachers as in the senior high school, both in academic and special subjects. (d) Opportunities for some pupils to take some subjects of the high school earlier, as foreign languages or algebra. (e) Opportunity for pupils to take more extensive offerings in prevocational subjects than the minimum state requirements. (f) Provision for greater differentiation of curricula than under the old conditions. (g) Provision for rapid advancement of bright groups, (h) Promotion by subject. (i) Departmental teaching. (j) Reorganized courses of study. Aims of the Reorganization Movement 13 (k) Reorganized methods of instruction. (1) Provision for supervised study. (m) Provision for educational and vocational information and guidance. (n) Better organization of pupil social activities. (o) Opportunity for over-age pupils regardless of their scholastic attainments. (p) Shortening the period of elementary and high school training by one year. (q) Opportunity to discover interests and capacities. (r) To provide specific training along lines of interest and ability. This list was checked by twenty-five superintendents and principals, some ranking the entire eighteen items and others but five or six or ten as the case might be, which they considered most important. No item received twenty-five rankings. 14 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools 0»OOOOOOOOOOOiOOO>r)iDO vOiOOO'^csrC'-'t^iO'-iOvOr^-^ooiocNJ^ lOOCNvOOfOOOOt^f'OiOtriiDioOiriiO r~00'^>0'— '^OioO^OfJi^'-''— ''— I"— '<^Ov < o o CN CN r^i o - ^ . o T-l (-<1 «-( tN H i^ .rH ^-H ra "-^ •-' '-I ^ ro ^^ r^ CN ^h VO '-I ^H .-H y-l ■^ ■^ r ■^ r-l -^ -^ ir> r-t tv),_icv)- •— I lO \0 fN Ov O ro t^ u-> — I ro '-' lO X (>| ^ rt rf r^-^T-tin ^ ^ ^ ^ vo ^^^f^ u o o z o " fN) »-i i-i rf .^ »-t r<> ,-1 vo CN CNJ .^ H ^ ^-1 »H r>j [2 »H rsi »H •^ po ^H fo ^ 00 ■*! ^^ »^ J 5 E ^ o ^ " Q4 n 0* Ph oi Q cn ■<;*<»-< t^ iS lo -H ^ r^ c_, ^ tJ< PD •fH Ov O n O fT U f^ 5 ^ ^ ^ z; OS H -H O Q ii g « -^^ -•> --I 2 S H H H . H (^ < 05 U Q CN 18 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools In general, table 4 is to be read as is table 3. The horizontal totals line represents the sum of the group items immediately above it, except that the median rank (Y) and the relative rank (Z) are computed exactly as were these ranks for each separate item in the previous table. Item (a) receives a ranking which gives it a value approxi- mately that of group C (revised methods). This item was no doubt given undue weight by many superintendents because this combination is both natural and necessary in the small school, although several of the larger cities also utilize a common school plant for junior and senior high schools. However, it see^ns reasonable to assume that common housing is not an absolute requirement of reorganization although necessary or desirable in certain cases. The remaining four detached items are ranked at the bottom of the list and are apparently deemed of relatively little importance as factors in reorganization. The relative ranks assigned to groups A, B, C, and D are the same whether we use the method adopted or average the orignal relative ranks. As most of these group and individual factors will be discussed in a later section, extensive comparisons will not be made at this point. However, I shall offer a probable explanation for the apparently low ranking given provision for exploration and guidance, which receives very prominent mention in statements of aims in the literature on reorganization. Probably the most fundamental provision for this is thru the enrichment of the courses of study which has already been provided for in group A. It is also provided for in a measure thru differentiated curricula and revised methods; hence, as a separate factor, it is properly assigned a place below other factors thru which it is realized. Recent educational literature emphasizes provision for the over-age child in the junior high school, but Indiana superin- tendents are apparently not in accord with this view in theory as we shall later see they are not in practice. Highly specialized training of the vocational type is not judged to be an important function of the junior high school. This is in agreement with Snedden^ who says that it is right and proper that this period from 12 to 14 should continue to be reserved for general educa- tion (cultural, physical, and social education) and that no specific ' Snedden, D. "Character and Extent of Desired Flexibility as to Courses of Instruction and Training for Youths of 12 to 14 Years of Age". Ed. Adm. & Sup., 2:233. Aims of the Reorganization Movement 19 vocational education should be offered in it. There is apparently little opinion in favor of shortening the period of school training except thru provision for accelerant groups. No doubt the opinion that the course should be enriched rather than shortened is the prevailing one. On the basis of these rankings, then, we shall consider revised courses of study, provision for individual differences, modified methods, and provision for exploration and guidance as of highest value in the order given in the examination of procedure and practice in Indiana schools. 20 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools c. Standards of practice in Indiana reorganized grammar grades, I have based my investigation of this phase of the study upon the work of the eighth grade as representing the one grade found in all types of junior high school grouping in Indiana schools, and as typifying the most characteristically transition grade between the elementary and the high school, and as representing the grade against which the chief charges have been made of useless repetition and formal, impractical, and uninteresting content. The traditional subjects of the eighth grade, now yielding to more or less marked modifications, are reading, grammar, spelling, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and physiology. The reading material too often consisted of numerous short selections, often over-difficult and ill adapted to the interests of youths twelve to fourteen years of age, and devoid of value for information or for literary enjoyment and appreciation. The grammar was usually of the technical sort with little or no appli- cation to written or oral composition. Spelling, to a large extent consisted of formal word lists, seldom used by adults and of unusual difficulty, and taught without regard to daily use in written work. Writing was a continued drill on form regardless of the need for improvement. In arithmetic much stress was placed on difficult, little used, and obsolete phases for the purpose of mental discipline. In both history and geography emphasis was generally placed on the memory-for-uninteresting-and detached facts type; while physiology was a memory exercise in anatomy with little regard to its functioning. As a rule each of these subjects was on the daily program of each pupil for a period of from fifteen to twenty-five minutes. The extent to which traditional subject matter and modes of treatment are still followed may be inferred in part by reference to the pro- motional examinations given by county superintendents to eighth grade pupils in March, April, and May of each year, and by reference to teachers' examinations in the common school subjects which may be found in the Educator Journal from month to month. (1) Programs of Study and Subjects of Study Modifications. I shall indicate the program of studies for the eighth grade for each school, noting required and elective subjects in the general Programs of Study 21 curriculum, with the time devoted to each subject weekly, also what subjects the superintendent says have been considerably modified as to content recently. In English the time given to the various elements will be indicated where data are available as a basis for judging the relative emphasis. The presence of civics as a separate course or as a distinct phase of the history course will be noted together with the reference or text books used for such civics work. In mathematics any indications of a ten- dency towards general methematics, a partial year's work in algebra, or other modification of the traditional course will be noted. Whereever general science is offered in the ninth grade, but not in the eighth, the fact will be stated. In the majority of these schools industrial and household arts and agriculture have been introduced since 1913, the date of the Indiana vocational education law, and not more than three or four schools have had such work in this grade to exceed ten years. General science is a new acquisition also, as is civics where it receives any marked consideration, at least if the emphasis is on the community civics type. Definite provision for physical training is also, generally, a new requirement. Music and drawing are comparatively new in several schools, while in others they have been represented on the program for twenty-five years or more. 22 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools '2t^ X X X x-^ .+ X X • in lo V i,< lO "^ "^ • • < K u < H U Q < tn ro tN <^ '-I "5 WWW — t^tNlO • lO •lO'-<^XXN tNr-lXial ■w "5 \CI\< ei < ,rj< (M CN # ■ T)< ■ rf TjH CN tN • rt ,M • Ttl u • o JtjW -WW Tt< CS * ,_,,_, ir> lo • lo WW -w • js a; >. S c:S I o iOc«^<4 . in -m -xx • -^-^xxx O >0 X X X m^fixn ■ • Tl* J, tH ts (M ^ ^ .«OiO .lOU^ CM ■ W ■ • (jj -WW -WW w < « o -ts p^j u WW be > WKjOt^^<4(V4 ,1^ • Tt Oir>«*5» W • -W • -WWW .2 rt rt >< be M a ca a H bo UJS B > ■u -c-o x: Ok- -r Z > « U CI o>. .Si 2- ■° •yxi <" S !; -^ t5 O C bo M e 0cn^<:. t •;: bo E -s J5 lU nj C O"^ Oj3 to 4) •" fl'" o _ -3 u nl o c « M ..a "> e _ o *J ^ U Q— . 1) S f" iJ Oi . *-• ^ ^ ^ * xW+nOo-S O ft -o —iz; ii " rt ■a 41 S 3 =•5 r.-?- •« ■B rt T3 ■" •" ■^ 10 5a ^^ m kM ft O.m o ^ 0^ 2 Programs of Study 25 Table 5 should be read, beginning with school number 1 and reading vertically down the column : in school No. 1 changes have been made in the English work which is given 5 periods a week; literature, 2 periods; grammar-composition, 3 periods; spelling incidental to various school subjects; writing not given at all; changes are indicated in arithmetic which is given daily for one-half year, with algebra daily for the second half year; changes are indicated in the history-civics work, but civics is not given as a separate course; geography and physiology- hygiene are each given daily for one-half year; general science is offered in grade nine; agriculture is not given; household and manual arts are each required 2 periods a week and are elective for 5 additional periods for some pupils; drawing, music, and physical training are each required for 1 period a week; and German, Latin, and commercial work are each elective 5 periods a week. Summary of Course of Study Conditions. New Subjects Household arts, manual arts or agriculture are required in every school at least two periods a week, the minimum require- ment of the State Board of Education. ^ In three schools as much as 7 periods a week may be taken along these lines by any pupil so electing to do. Agriculture is required in the eighth grade in 19 of the 35 schools. The average number of periods required a week in these practical arts subjects is 2.6, and 8 schools offer additional work as elective. General science is required in 15 schools in the eighth grade, and may be taken with the ninth grade in three others. Other data in my possession show that in still 10 other schools this subject is offered in the ninth grade, but not to eighth grade pupils. Thus general science is offered, either required or elective, in the eighth or ninth grades of 28 of the 35 schools of this group. In 30 of the 35 schools at least one subject usually taught in the high school is available to all or part of the pupils of the eighth grade, in 22 schools to the eighth grade pupils as class groups, and in the remaining schools to individual pupils with ninth grade classes. Algebra is required in 5 schools in grade 8A and is elective in 3 schools as a ninth grade subject, open to some » Uniform Course of Study for the El. Schools of Ind. 1915-16:214. 26 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools pupils of the eighth grade. Latin is an elective for eighth grade pupils in 12 schools. German is required in the seventh and eighth grades of 12 schools and is elective for eighth grade pupils (and in a majority of these for the seventh also) in 15 other schools. Thus German is available in 27 schools to some or all eighth grade pupils. The relatively large offering in German is, no doubt, to be accounted for by the fact that Indiana has a very large population of German descent, and this factor is especially prominent in Tippecanoe county where 12 of the junior high schools require German in grades seven and eight. So influential is this nationality factor in the state that legal provision is made for the compulsory introduction of German in the elementary grades on petition. The legal provision follows. " and whenever the parents or guardians of 25 or more children in attendance at any school of a township, town, or city shall so demand, it shall be the duty of the school trustee of said township, town, or city to procure efficient teachers and introduce the German language, as a branch of study, in such schools". ^ (The above stated pro- vision is given under 'branches taught' in the elementary schools.) Commercial work is elective in 6 schools for eighth grade pupils. In two of these schools it constitutes a part of the regular eighth grade vocational course, and in the other 4 schools ninth grade commercial work is elective to certain eighth grade pupils. Free-hand drawing is required or elective one or more periods a week (generally 1 or 2) in each of the 35 schools. Music is required in 34 of these schools and elective in one, the number of weekly periods being about evenly divided between one or two. Physical training is required in 10 schools and is elective in one. Two periods a week is the more common time devoted to it where offered. Old Subjects That Have Been Under-going More or Less Modification Recently. ENGLISH Twenty-seven of these schools indicate changes in the courses in English, especially in the type of literary selections read (for the most part conforming to the state course of study), in a decided shift of emphasis from formal grammar to composition ' Ind. School Law, 1911. p. 108. Also, Ind. Rev. Stat. 1908, art. 6582. Programs of Study 27 and grammar with spelling often attached to the composition, and in a greater unifying of the English work. The time distribu- tion for the English group of subjects indicates a marked reduc- tion in the total number of periods devoted to English as compared with the old order. It is to be noted, however, that in most of these schools the length of the recitation and study periods combined have been lengthened over the old recitation period, but that the actual time given to the recitation proper remains about the same. Twelve schools assign English 4 periods a week; 10, 5 periods (1 of these for one-half year only); 1, 6 periods; 3, 7 periods; 3, 8 periods; 3, 9 periods; 1, 11 periods; 1, 12 periods; and 1, 15 periods. The median time for the 35 schools is 5 periods a week and the average, 6.1 periods. Penmanship, which is properly no part of the English work, is included in this summary. If we omit this subject our distribution will be 12 schools, 4 periods a week; 9, 5 periods; 3, 6 periods; 5, 7 periods; 1, 8 periods; 2, 10 periods; 1, 12 periods; and 1 not indicated; a median of 5 periods and an average of 5.6 periods. The time distribution for literature alone is: 21 schools, 2 periods a week; 3, 3 periods; 1, 4 periods; 1, 5 periods; and in 9 the total time only is indicated with no distribution among all the subordinate elements. The median for the 26 reporting the detailed distribution is 2 periods with an average of 2.3 periods. In grammar-composition 13 schools assign 2 periods a week; 7, 3 periods; 3, 4 periods; 3, 5 periods; and 9 do not indicate the time distribution. The median for the 26 schools is 2.5 periods and the average 2.8 periods. This includes spelling in several schools where this is incidental in the composition work. The correct average should probably be about 2.5 periods to composi- tion-grammar alone. For spelling alone, 8 schools assign no periods; 1, }/2 period; 2, 1 period; 2, 1^ periods; 4, 2 periods; 2, 2}/^ periods; 14, a small amount of time in connection with composition; and 2 with spelling time undistributed. Assuming from .2 to .3 periods for the 14 which offer spelling in combination, the median time would be .25 period and the average .67 for the 33 schools. Writing shows 25 schools assigning no time; 3, 1 period; 1, 1/^ periods; 4, 2 periods; 1, 2}^ periods; and one without distribu- tion of writing time. The median for the 34 schools is periods and the average .5 periods a week. 28 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools HISTORY-CIVICS One school requires 7 periods a week in this group of subjects; 18, 5 periods; 15, 4 periods; and 1, 5 periods for a half year only In one of the 5 period schools geography is included but additional emphasis is given to history and civics work in the audi- torium periods. One school requires 3 periods a week in civics; 4, 5 periods for a half year; 1 ofifers industrial history as a ninth grade subject elective for many eighth grade pupils; 4 others indicate that civics is given the equivalent of 1 or 1^ periods; while 7 announce special attention to civics but do not indicate the time. If the state course of tudy is followed, some time is probably devoted to civics in every school, although the state course calls for a very formal type of constitutional dissec- tion. The fact that Dunn's Community and the Citizen or Nida's The City, State, and Nation is used as a text in several schools indicates a tendency to break away from the traditional type of social science commonly given in the past. The median time given to the social science studies (not including geography) is 5 periods a week with an average of 4.6 periods. MATHEMATICS In 19 schools mathematics is required 5 periods a week, and in the remaing 16, 4 periods a week. The median requirement is 5 periods and the average 4.6 periods. Four schools require algebra in grade 8A, while in 3 it is elective for many eighth grade pupils. A course in general mathematics (arithmetic, elementary algebra, and observational geometry) is reported by by school number 10. In school number 20 certain pupils may elect commercial arithmetic, and in school 35, bookkeeping. Nineteen other schools indicate more emphasis on fundamentals or other changes in the traditional course, and 3 are planning to introduce general mathematics soon. One school offers vocational arithmetic in its vocational course. One of these schools in its printed syllabus for grade SB announces ratio, proportion, partnership, powers, roots, mensuration, longitude and time, public lands, and the metric system as the topics for considera- tion, the very topics most often indicated for omission by the Committee on the Economy of Time' and other organizations attempting to bring about reorganization in grammar grade mathematics. ' Jessup, W. Economy of Time in Arithmetic. El. S. Teacher. 14:461, Programs of Study 29 GEOGRAPHY But 9 schools require geography in grade eight, although it is required by all in grade seven. Two schools require 5 periods a week for a half year ; 1 , 3 periods for a year, 1 , 3 periods for a half year; and 5 do not indicate the time. PHYSIOLOGY-HYGIENE Physiology-hygiene is required in 17 of the 35 schools in time varying from 1 to 5 periods weekly, the median for the 15 indicat- ing time being 23^^ periods, and the average 1.2 for the 33 schools reporting time or no time. Every school, except numbers 10, 12, and 27 requires some science work in the eighth grade, either physiology-hygiene, general science, or geography. In school 27 general science is elective for some eighth grade pupils. ELECTIVES Sixteen schools indicate some regular arrangement for elec- tives for certain groups of pupils, in all but four of these schools for bright pupils only. Where the grammar grades are housed with the high school, no doubt individual arrangement is also made by some of the other schools for bright pupils to carry an extra subject, but it is not announced as a regular provision. Agriculture is elective in the eighth grade in 1 school ; algebra n 3; commercial subjects in 6; drawing in 1 ; ninth grade English n 2 ; an additional special course in English in 1 ; general science n 3 ; German in 15 (in one school only for those who have studied t from the first grade); industrial history in 1; household arts n 6; Latin in 12; manual arts in 7; music in 1; and physical training in 1. As noted elsewhere in this study, 12 of the smallest of these schools have radically changed the eighth grade work by requiring general science and German each 4 periods weekly, but owing to the small size of classes it is not possible to make these courses elective. One of the larger schools, number 30, has made decided modifications in its program of work but offers no high school subjects nor electives to pupils below grade nine. Schools 11, 12, 21, and 22 are in cities having 25,000 or more population and could easily provide wel differentiated courses and elective studies. They all provide for accelerant and slow moving groups in a limited way. Slight modifications probably 30 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools have been made in the traditional subjects, but the time dis- tribution for 22 indicates 12 periods weekly for English. Num- ber 11 offers German for a limited number of bright pupils in grades seven and eight, but indicates no other marked plan of differentiation. School 12 offers German in grade eight to those who have had it for seven years, and also permits a few pupils to take physical training and music as elective work, otherwise offering no high school subjects and permitting no extra work. School 21 adjusts individual programs in exceptional cases, but has no definite system of differentiation or options. School 22 offers no options or electives, permits no extra subjects, and pro- vides no differentiated courses. Schools 24 and 31, being in cities of less than 10,000 population, can probably not afford any extensive offering of differentiated courses, but it would seem possible for them to offer more of the practical arts and possibly one high school subject by cutting down on the excessive require- ments in formal English. Several of these schools have apparently made no more changes in the traditional studies than the majority of Indiana schools not claiming junior high schools, and they have made no provision for individual differences thru electives or differentiated courses. They are apparently basing their junior high school claims almost exclusively on the fact that they have introduced departmental teaching. It should be added that at least two of these six are working on definite plans of reorganiza- tion at the present time. To summarize, the typical Indiana junior high school requires in the eighth grade the following program : English 5 periods a week (approximately 2 to literature and 3 to grammar-composi- tion combined); arithmetic 4 or 5 periods a week; history 4 or 5 periods a week (with definite work in civics in about one-half the schools and with an increasing tendency towards community civics) ; general science 4 or 5 periods a week or physiology- hygiene geography 2 or 3 periods ; household or industrial arts or agriculture 2.6 periods a week; drawing and music each 1.3 periods; and physical training somewhat less than 2 periods a week (in one- third the schools only). Elective subjects are: household or industrial arts and agriculture 2 to 5 periods a week (in 7 schools only), and foreign language 4 or 5 periods (most frequently German and required rather than elective in 12 of the 27 schools in which offered). Also it is to be noted that as a rule electives, outside the practical Programs of Study 31 arts, are open only to pupils above average in academic ability. In the report of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey, director Leonard^ refers to the plan of confining election in the practical arts work to pupils of inferior ability as a limitation of the present plan of organization in the junior high school in that city. Relative to elective subjects, he says: "Subjects offered as electives should be those which have appreciable identity with occupational activities or with lines of interest leading to well- defined courses to which they are fundamental." Data submitted by 28 of these same schools for the seventh grade program of studies show the following average program. Required: English 6.2 periods a week, arithmetic 4.5, history 4.2, geography 2.7, physiology-hygiene 2, agriculture or manual training 2.1, domestic science 2.3, drawing and music 1.5 each, German (in 12 schools) 4, and physical training (5 schools only) 2. Elective: German or Latin in 4 schools, additional work in manual or domestic arts 4 schools, commercial work 1 school, and agriculture 1 school (twice a week). Data submitted by 27 of the junior type schools show the following typical average program for the ninth grade. Re- quired: English 5 periods a week, algebra 5, foreign language (Latin or German) 5. Elective: science 5 periods a week, manual or domestic arts 5 double periods, drawing and music (in most of the schools) 1 or 2 periods, physical training (in less than one-third the schools) 2 periods, commercial work (in one- third the schools and chiefly commercial arithmetic or book- keeping) 5 periods, industrial vocational courses in 5 or 6 schools only, and ancient history in about one-sixth of the schools. Having ascertained the standards of practice among Indiana junior high schools relative to subjectsof study modifications and differentiation of courses, the question arises, to what extent are these standards in agreement with junior high school practice generally, and with current educational opinion? What subject modifications and what degree of differentiation are desirable in reorganized schools? Davis advises the following program of studies. "In the seventh and eighth grades each pupil's program should include: (1) English; (2) history, civics and geography; (3) ethics and sociology; (4) physiology and hygiene; (5) mathematics (includ- ing arithmetic, algebra and geometry); (6) elementary science; (7) manual training or household arts; (8) music and fine arts; * Leonard, R. J. Report of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey for Vocational Education. (Ind. State Board of Ed. 1916) pp. 513. 548. 32 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools (9) drawing; (10) voice culture, public speaking, and dramatics; (11) physical training; and in addition opportunity should be given for one or two or three elective studies."^ Francis^ recommends the following for the general course in the seventh and eighth grades: Required Subjects Elective Subjects 7th Grade English 5 periods Arithmetic 5 periods Geography-history 5 periods Physical training 1 period Music 2 periods Drawing 2 periods Penmanship 2 periods Practical arts 4 periods Foreign language 5 periods Bookkeeping or stenog- raphy 5 periods (select one) 8th Grade English 5 periods History -civics 5 periods Physical training 2 periods Oral English-music 2 periods Physiology-hygiene 2 periods Practical arts 4 periods Foreign Language 5 periods Bookkeeping 5 periods Stenography 5 periods Arithmetic-algebra 5 periods Drawing 5 periods (select two) The Butte Survey Committee' recommends the following subjects for the general course for grades seven and eight: Required Subjects Elective Subjects 7th Grade English 5 periods History 5 periods Geography 5 periods Arithmetic 5 periods Physical training 2 periods Drawing 2 periods Music 2 periods Practical arts 4 periods Foreign language 5 periods Bookkeeping and business arithmetic 5 periods (select one) 8th Grade English 5 periods History-civics 5 periods General science 3 periods Physiology-hygiene 2 periods Drawing 2 periods Music 2 periods Physical training 1 period Practical arts 4 periods ' Davis, C. O. Reorganization of Secondary Education Ch. IV. in Johnston's High School Education p. 97. New York, 1912. • Francis. J. H. The Portland, Ore.. Survey, 1913. p. 196. ' The Butte, Mont.. Survey, 1914. p. 65. Foreign language 5 periods Bookkeeping and business arithmetic 5 periods Mathematics (algebra and geometry) 5 periods (select two) Programs of Study 33 Leonard^ recommends the following junior high school courses in the light of the findings of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey: Required Subjects First Year, English 5 periods History 3 periods Geography 4 periods Arithmetic 4 periods Industrial arts 4 periods Household arts 4 periods Fine arts 2 periods Music 2 periods Physical education and hy- giene 2 periods Second Year, English 4 periods History-civics 3 periods Elementary science 4 periods Industrial arts 4 periods Household arts 4 periods Music or fine arts 2 periods Physical education 2 periods Study of vocations 1 period Elective Subjects 7th Grade Latin 4 periods French 4 periods Spanish 4 periods German 4 periods Commercial 4 periods Industrial arts 4 periods Household arts 4 periods Agriculture 4 periods 8th Grade Latin 4 periods French 4 periods Spanish 4 periods German 4 periods Industrial arts 4 or 8 periods Household arts 4 or 8 periods Agriculture 4 or 8 periods Commercial 4 or 8 periods Drawing and design. . . 4 or 8 periods Music 2 or 4 periods Mathematics 4 periods Third Year, 9th Grade English 4 periods History-civics 4 periods Geography or science 4 periods Physical education-hygiene. 2 periods Study of vocations 1 period Latin French Spanish German Commercial 4 or Industrial arts 4 or Household arts 4 or Agriculture 4 or Drawing and design. . . 4 or Music 2 or Mathematics Science 4 periods 4 periods 4 periods 4 periods 8 periods 8 periods 8 periods 8 periods 8 periods 4 periods 4 periods 4 periods (Six 50-minute periods are to constitute a day.) » See reference 4, just cited, p. 550. 34 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Snedden advocates a course of study having "a large range of elective or optional studies in addition to certain essentials in English language, English literature, American history, commu- nity civics, and geography."^ Elsewhere,^*' he specifically mentions as desirable optional subjects modern languages and practical arts, including manual training, commercial subjects, agriculture, and household arts, but not compulsory for all. Snedden^i also makes a clear distinction between doing or ex- pressive subjects and those whose chief function is the develop- ment of appreciation, and believes that the latter type of material should be utilized more largely in the school program. Bonser^^ recommends the following distribution of subjects and points for the junior high school consisting of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, 30 points constituting a year's work. Common subject matter for all, 54 points, are distributed thus; English 12, history 8, geography 8, elementary science 8, every day mathematics 8, civics and problems in industrial and voca- tional life 6, physical education 6, and music 3. He advises 36 points of optional matter to be chosen from any of the above named or to be distributed. His plan provides for a maximum of two-fifths optional work. Briggs,^^ who is an advocate of the exploratory function of adolescent education, advises extensive reading of many classics in literature for appreciation, oral and written composition rather than formal grammar, music and pictorial art for appreciation, general history and community civics, general mathematics (including arithmetic, algebra, and constructive geometry), general science, and varied projects in the industrial arts, and possibly one general elective. "Exploration" he says, "should give some knowledge of many fields to be treated more exhaustive- ly later." A committee of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools^^ recommends the following subjects or subject groups for the junior high school: (1) mathematics, (2) natural science, (3) social science, (4) language, (5) fine and practical arts ; and also physical training and medical inspection » Snedden, D. "Reorganization of Education for Children from 12 to 14 Years of Age.t Ed. Adm.& Sup. 2:425. '» Snedden, D. Problems of Secondary Education, p. 231. New York, 1917. " Snedden, D. "Character and Extent of Desirable Flexibility as to Courses of Instruction for Youths of 12 to 14 Years of Age." Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:219. "2 Bonser, F. G. "Democratizing Secondary Education by the 6-3-3 Plan". Ed. Adm. & Sup. 1:567-576. " Briggs, T. H. "Possibilities of the Junior High School" Education. 37:279. " Proceedings of the N. C. A. of Colleges & Secondary Schools, 1916. Programs of Study 35 without reference to graduation credit. The report further says that a stereotyped line of work for all is to be avoided, and advises continuity in three of the five lines, and an opportunity for a wide distribution of electives. The Committee on the Economy of Time in Education** recommends the inclusion of the two last elementary grades with the high school, and the beginning of foreign languages, ele- mentary algebra, constructive geometry, elementary science, and history two years earlier. It also recommends that subject matter be selected on the basis of relative values and that only the more important be included, and that methods be differen- tiated for formal and content material. The introduction of the prevocational arts is favored from the age of twelve. Douglass reports the following as typical curricula for the junior high school: "7th grade; English 6 periods a week, with reading, writing, grammar, spelling and penmanship taught separately or in rather poor coordination under the general heading; social science (5), presented as history and geography mathematics (5), meaning arithmetic ; physiology and hygiene (3) or physical training (2); drawing (2); and, perhaps, music (2) manual training (2) or domestic science (2). 8th grade, English (5); history (5) or civics (5); arithmetic (5); physiology and hygiene (3) or physical training (2); music (2) or drawing (2); and an option between Latin or German (5) and manual training or domestic science (2). Real differentiation is under way in the ninth grade. Here the only required subject is English, and options are allowed, under supervision, to the extent that the pupil practically selects his own work. He may choose among Latin, German, history, algebra, general sciences, music and drawing, manual or industrial arts and domestic science, and certain commercial subjects."*^ Educators are in rather general agreement as to the subjects that ought to have a place in the reorganized school, that mod- ifications ought to be made in the old subjects looking to a more socialized content, and that certain high school subjects as foreign languages should be introduced, but there is far less agreement as to the specific content of each of these subjects and the methods by which they are to be taught, the time allotment of some of them, and the extent of options. In foreign language, for example, 1' Report of Com. on Economy of Time in Education. U. S. Bur. Ed. Bui. 38, 1913. " Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. X Vth Year Book of Nat. Soc. for the Study of Ed. part III. 1916. p. 82. 36 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools there are those who would transfer the grammar-translation method of the traditional ninth grade bodily to the seventh grade, while others, as Davis,*' Briggs,** and the Committee on Foreign Languages*^ of the Commission on the Reorganiza- tion of Education suggest a beginning course "about" foreign language to give a knowledge of the people, customs, institutions, and geography of the country whose language is being studied, with a smaller amount of time given to the more formal elements of the language itself, for the purpose of giving immediate value and of stimulating interest to want more. The first two of the above named authorities with Breslich,^'' Taylor,^* and others advise a modified program of mathematics for the eighth or ninth grades to include the mastery of the simpler parts of commercial arithmetic, with much practice on computing and checking, the elements of algebra, a well articulated body of geometric knowledge concrete, observational, and constructive, including not only rules for areas and volumes but also the simpler properties of geometric figures and graphic representa- tions of space. The actual practice in Indiana schools does not indicate that these recommendations are receiving much con- sideration. Arithmetic in the eighth grade and algebra in the ninth are practically universal even in the schools claiming junior high school organization. Foreign language is generally recommended as an option for grades seven and eight in theory and this seems to be followed to a considerable extent in practice, although in many schools the number permitted to take this work is very limited, and not a few schools still ofifer no language work below grade nine, pre- ferring to provide a richer program in social and natural sciences and prevocational arts as being fundamentally more valuable as a training for citizenship. The Ettinger plan,^^ or similar plan, for short unit exploratory courses in the industrial arts in the seventh and eighth grades is employed in the schools of Los Angeles, California, Kansas City, Kansas, Rochester, N. Y., and other cities, and is recommended by Briggs,^^ Leonard ,2^ Snedden^^ and others. This plan provides " Davis, C. O. A Survey of the Secondary Schools of Grand Rapids, Mich. pp. 231-242. 18 Briggs. T. H. "Possibilities of the Junior High School." Ed. 37:279. '» Report of Com. on Reorganization of Education Bui. 41, 1913, U. S. Bur. Ed. '" Breslich, E. R. "Forward Movements in Secondary Mathematics." Sch. Rev. 24:283. "Taylor, E. H. "Course in Mathematics in the Junior High School" Ed. Adm. &Sup. 2:460. 22 Ettinger, W. L. A Report on the Organization and Extension of Prevocational Training in Elementary Schools. Dept. of Ed. N. Y. City, 1915. 2' See reference 18. '* Leonard, R. J. Report of the Richmond, Ind., Survey for Voc. Ed. p. 553. ** Snedden, D. Reorganization of Education for Children, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:425. Programs of Study 37 for participation in all typical lines of industrial work, as wood, metal, clay, electrical, concrete, printing, gardening, and other forms, each from four to nine weeks rather than spend an entire term or year in one field as is the usual practice. The idea is to discover interests and aptitudes as a basis for guidance. As an illustration of the types of programs of studies that are used in Indiana reorganized schools, in junior high school grades, the following courses of study, representing six city and twelve village and rural high schools in one county, are submitted. Typical Courses of Study 1. Anderson, Indiana. ^^ General course (vocational and commercial courses are also given in which the special work displaces geography-history). Required Subjects Elective Subjects 7th Grade Literature 2 periods Latin 5 periods Current events 1 period German 5 periods Grammar 1 period Cooking or sewing 5 periods Spelling and composition . . 1 period Printing 5 periods Arithmetic 5 periods Commercial 5 periods History-civics 5 periods (elect one) Geography 5 periods Household arts or wood work 1 period Drawing 2 periods Music 1 period Physical training 1 period 8th Grade English (as in 7th) 5 periods Latin 5 periods Arithmetic (3^ year) 5 periods German 5 periods Algebra (J4 year) 5 periods Cooking or sewing 5 periods History-civics 5 periods Manual training 5 periods Geography (^ year) 5 periods Commercial training 5 periods Physiology-hygiene (3^2) •• -5 periods Printing 5 periods Household or manual arts. .2 periods (elect one) Drawing 1 period Music 1 period Physical training 1 period '• Course of Study for Junior High Schools, Anderson, Ind. 1917. 38 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools 9th Grade English literature 4 periods Latin 5 periods Current events 1 period German 5 periods Algebra 5 periods Cooking 2^ periods Sewing 2}/^ periods Household chemistry 5 periods Wood work 3 periods Mechanical drawing 2 periods Mechanical drawing 5 periods Botany 5 periods General science 5 periods Ancient history 5 periods Printing 5 periods Music 1 period Physical training 1 period Drawing (free hand) 2 periods (elect three) 2, East Chicago, Indiana.'^'' College preparatory course. (Non-college preparatory and commercial courses are also offered, which are the same as the college preparatory course in grade seven except in special cases, and which substitute practical arts for foreign languages in grades eight and nine.) Grade 7, required subjects: arithmetic 5 periods a week, geography (one-half year) 5, grammar 5, U. S. history 5, physiol- ogy (one-half year) 5, music 13^, drawing 2, writing l}^, spelling (one-half year) 23^, and gymnasium 2^^. No electives. Grade 8, required subjects: preparatory mathematics 5, civics (one-half year) 5, English (one-half year) 5, Latin or Ger- man 5, manual training, printing, or domestic science 5, gym- nasium 23^, Elective subjects: music 13/2» drawing 1. Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra (one-half year) 5, geometry (one-half year) 5, Latin or German 5, general science or household science 5, Elective subjects: music 13^, drawing 1, gymnasium 23^. All periods are 60 minute periods. 3. Hartford City, Indiana, ^^ Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, history 5, geography 5, manual training or domestic science 2, drawing 2, music 2, physical training 2. No electives. " Report of Supt. of Public Instruction, Indiana. 1915-16:595. " Program of Studies in the Hartford City Schools. 1916. Program s of Study 39 Grade 8, required subjects: general science 5, English 5, arithmetic {Yz year) 5, history Q/o, year) 5, manual training or domestic science 2, drawing 2, music 2, physical training 2. Electives: Latin 5, German 5, algebra 5. Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5, Latin or German 5, physical training 2. Elective subjects: general science, general geography, manual training or domestic science 4, drawing 3, music 3. 4. Richmond, IndianaP Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, history 5, music 2, drawing 2, woodwork or sewing 2, hygiene 2, physical training 2. Elective subjects (choose one): Latin 5, German 5, English composition 5, industrial work (boys and girls) 5. Grade 8, required subjects: geography daily in 8B, civics in place of history, and cooking in place of sewing, otherwise the same as in grade 7, both required and elective. Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, physical training \. Elective subjects: algebra 5, Latin 5, German 5, botany 5, physiography 5, domestic art 5, domestic science 5, printing 5, bench work and mechanical drawing 5, free-hand drawing 2, chorus practice 1, orchestra 2}^, penmanship (3/^ year) 5, com- mercial arithmetic (3^ year) 5. 5. Seymour, Indiana. "^^ Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, geog- raphy {}/2 year) 5, history 5, physiology-hygiene 2, sewing or woodwork 2, drawing 2, music 2. Elective subjects: Latin or German 5, agriculture 2. Grade 8, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic (J/^ year) 5, algebra (3^ year) 5, history (>^ year) 5, civics (3^ year) 5, physiology-h>^iene 2, cooking or woodwork 2, drawing 2, music 2. Elective subjects: Latin or German 5, agriculture 2. Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5, Latin or German 5. Elective subjects: drawing 4, domestic science 4, manual arts 4, agriculture 5 (double), botany 7, general science 7, physical geography 5, ancient history 5, music 2. 2» Program of Studies of the Richmond, Ind., High School. 1916. '» Courses of Study and Circular of Information of the Shields High School, Seymour, Ind. 1914. 40 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools 6. Tippecanoe County, Indiana}^ Grade 7, required subjects : English 4, arithmetic 4, history 4, geography (}4 year) 4, physiology {}/2 year) 4, agriculture 2, sewing 2, German 4, music 1, drawing 1. No electives. Grade 8, required subjects: English 4, arithmetic 4, history 4, general science 4, agriculture 2, sewing 2, German 4, music 1, drawing 1. No electives. Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5, German 5, agriculture or wood work 5, cooking 5, music 1, drawing 1. No electives. All periods are 40 minute periods. 7. Vincennes, Indiana. ^^ Grade 7, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, social science (history, geography, nature study) 5, industrial arts, sewing, manual training) 5, music and physical training 5. No electives. Grade 8, required subjects: English 5, arithmetic 5, history and civics 5, industrial arts (cooking, printing, manual training) 5, music and physical training 5. No electives. Grade 9, required subjects: English 5, algebra 5. Elective subjects: Latin 5, German 5, general science 5, cooking or sewing 5, manual training 5, music and physical education 5. " Report of the Public Schools of Tippecanoe Co. 1916-17. " Course of Study, Senior and Junior High Schools, Vincennes, Ind. 1916-17. Provision for Individual Differences 41 (2) Provision for Individual Differences. TABLE 6. Provision for Individual Difference CURRICULA FREQUENCY METHOD OF PROGRESS PROVISION FOR SCHOOL OFFERED+ OF PROMOTION PROMOTION GROUPS f INDIVIDUALS* 1 a, i, d, c J^yr. subject a&s ex, c, w, p 2 a 1 yr. subject no none 3 a /^ yr. subj. in part a&s ex, fr, ir 4 a J4 yr. ^rade no ex, ir, o, fr, c 5 a 1 yr. subject no ex 6 a 1 y- subject no fr, sp, ir 7 a J^ yr. sub. in part no ex.ir, o,fr, p, c 8 a 1 yr. subject no ex, c 9 a /^ yr. subject no ex, ir, c, o 10 a, i, d, c }/2 yr. subject a&s ex, ir, w, fr, P,c 11 a 3^ yr. subject a&s ex 12 a H yr. subject a&s ex 13 a, i, d J^yr. subject a&s ex, fr, p, v, o 14 a ]/i yr. sub. in part no ex, fr 15 a 1 yr. subject no 16 a J^ yr. subject no ex, c, ir, o 17 a 1 yr. subject no ex, min 18 a 1 yr. subject no 19 a 1 yr. subject no ex, fr, c 20 a 1/2 yr. subject a&s ex 21a }/2 yr. subject a&s ex, fr, p 22 a ]/2 yr. grade a&s 23 a }/2 yr. subject no ex, fr, o 24 a }/2 yr. subject a&s 25 a, i, d J^ yr. subject a&s ex, ir, p 26 a 1 yr. subject no ex, c 27 a /^ yr. subject a&s ex, fr, c, o 28 a Y2 yr. subject a&s ex, fr, c, w, o 29 a 1 yr. subject no 30 a ^2 yr. subject a&s 31a 3^ yr. grade no 32 a lyr. subject no o 33 a 3^ yr. subject no 34 a 1 yr. subject no ex, c 35 a, c 1 yr. subject no ex, fr, p Under provision for individual differences are included those features of organization which attempt to secure adjustment to the varying capacities and subject interests of pupils, and to provide for individual or homogenous group advancement as contrasted with uniform progress by entire grades or classes. The features here considered are differentiation of curricula, method of promotion (by grade or by subject), frequency of promotion, homogenous progress groups, and means of individual advancement. + a, i, d, c mean academic, industrial, domestic science, and commercial curricula. t a&s means accelerant and slow moving groups. * ex, c, w, p, fr, o, ir, sp, v, min, respectively, mean extra subject, coaching, weighted credit, prevocational program, fewer subjects, credit for outside work, irregular promotion, special help, vacation work, minimum requirement. 42 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Table 6 should be read: school No. 1 offers academic, in- dustrial, domestics arts, and commercial curricula in the grammar grades; promotes pupils half yearly; promotes by subject; has provision for rapid and slow moving groups (as well as normal) ; and provides individual help thru extra subjects, coaching, weighted credits, and prevocational programs for special pupils. Differentiation. Two schools, 1 and 10, indicate clearly differentiated curricula in their published outlines for the junior high school. School 13, Gary, which has a nation wide reputation for flexibility in fitting its program to individual needs, should be credited with adequate provision in this respect, and school 25 also has definite provision for each pupil in the seventh and eighth grades to choose approx- imately one-sixth his work from foreign languages, or practical arts, or a special course in English. Several other schools indicate three courses each, academic, household arts, and manual arts, but they appear to have but one standard course for all pupils, except that every girl takes 2 periods a week of domestic science and every boy 2 periods of manual training weekly, which condi- tion is true of practically every school in the state. Schools 4, 16 and 23 begin commercial work, as do many of the others, in grade nine. All four of the schools having well differentiated curricula are in cities of 25,000 to 50,000 population. Five other cities are of the 20,000 and more population class and could pro- vide well differentiated curricula, withoii^t doubt; five cities are between 8,000 and 12,000 population and could, no doubt, pro- vide more definite differentiation than at present their programs show; while four other cities in the 5,000 to 8,000 class offer ex- tensive electives in some high school subjects, it would seem desirable and quite possible for them to increase their offerings to seventh and eighth grade pupils in practical arts, especially as these grades are housed with the high school in each case and have the use of the high school shops and laboratories. With the remaining schools curriculum differentiation, save in household arts and manual training in limited degree, is clearly out of the question, but even here it would seem possible to plan a single curriculum with some design as some of them have done and are doing, and which according to Johnston''^ is the chief mark of the Molinston, C. H. What is Curriculum Differentiation? Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:49. Provision for Individual Differences 43 junior high school. Thru provision for carrying an extra subject in many of these schools opportunity is afforded for a limited kind and amount of differentiation. Omitting the ninth grade, we may say that 31 of these 35 schools make no extensive pro- vision for curriculum differentiation. Evidently these schools are not realizing in practice what their superintendents desire in theory, for they rated curriculum differentiation as third in importance of the 18 items submitted for ranking. At the present time differentiation constitutes the storm center in junior high school discussion, and we find every possible variation both in theory and in practice. The recommendations relative to courses and subjects of study have a bearing on this point but the above mentioned writers and others have much to say more specifically to this point. Johnston^^ has rendered a positive service in helping to clarify the meaning of the term differentiation. He points out that differentiated curricula should include many of the same courses in common, that differentiation may be thru courses for boys and for girls, for fast and slow moving groups, for prevocational and academic groups, and by having the same subject with different content adjusted to different group interests, and that every act of individual pupil help or variation in assignment is differentia- tion. More recently he writes: "curriculum differentiation is the crucial issue. "^* Davis^^ advises the organization of differentiated curricula, some freedom of choice by pupils of subject matter to be studied, and differentiation of work among different classes in the same subject. Again, he says,^ that this differentiation may come (q,nd in small schools it must come) in the regular classroom work itself. Briggs" says that differentiation may be on the basis of mental ability, interests, sex, etc., and should follow the decision of the pupil, parent, and teacher after exploration reveals facts about the child and the vocations. Snedden^^ recommends differentiation on both psychological and social grounds, because of innate differences in human nature and capacities, and because of interests of a specific vocational kind. He urges uniform elements for the education " Johnston, C. H. The Junior High School. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:413. 35 Davis, C. O. A Survey of the Secondary Schools of Grand Rapids, Michigan, p. 230. 1916. " Davis, C. O. in Johnston's High School Education, p. 97. " Briggs, T. H. Possibilities of the Junior High School. Education, 37:279. «8 Sn'edden. D. Reorganization of Education of Children 12 to 14. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:425. 44 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools of all where the purpose is training for civic life and assimilation into the broader social group. He advises partial group differ- entiation as early as the age of twelve, but he assumes that no highly specialized vocational training, as such, will be given in the junior high school. Bagley,^^ while recommending the six-six plan as an adminis- trative device for securing many desirable educational reforms, is opposed to the junior high school as an expression of marked differentiation. He argues that in a democracy in this age of extreme specialization there is urgent need for the development of a like-minded social consciousness, or as he puts it, a "social solidarity," and for this purpose the school (up to the age of fourteen) must place great emphasis on uniform and common elements tending to produce that end. Bagley protests against putting individual interests before the social, and fears that extreme differentiation will result in class stratification. He also argues that marked differentiation, unless common in all schools, both rural and urban in grades seven and eight, will seriously handicap pupils moving from one school to another. And he also states that the necessary differentiation to suit the needs of individual differences can be secured thru variation in method in classroom procedure. Judd^" points out the marked psychological changes of early adolescence and bases the need for differentiation on the demands of individual differences, and urges the abandoning of the eight- four plan with its elementary school methods for the upper two grades and the useless repetition of subject matter of the old organization. Bonser^^ advocates partial differentiation on the grounds of the intrinsic nature of the child and his vocational destiny. The committee of the North Central Association^^ advises that no first course in the junior high school should be modified as to purpose or content with reference to any group of high school pupils. These authorities indicate that the trend of educational opinion has greatly changed since the time of the report of the Committee of Ten'*' in 1893, whose opinion was quoted in the introduction to the effect that every subject in the high school »« Bagley, W. C. The Six-Six Plan. School & Home Ed. 34:3-5 & 79. 80. «»Judd, C.H. The Junior High School. Sch. Rev. 24:249-260. " Bonser, F. G. Democratizing Education, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 1 :567. « Report of Com. on Definition of a Unit. Proc. N. C. A. 1916. « Report of Com. of Ten of N. E. A. 1893. p. 17. Provision for Individual Differences 45 should be taught to every pupil in the same way and to the same extent regardless of his probable career. The extent of the change of opinion is realized when we consider that the Committee of Ten advocated no differentiation in the senior high school, much less in the junior high school. Apparently all the writers are agreed that individual dif- ferences are rather marked at the junior high school age and demand some measure of recognition. They are also, no doubt, agreed that many elements of common training are desirable for a common citizenship, but they disagree as to the means and the amount of differentiation desirable. The chief objection to extreme differentiation in subject matter seems to be founded upon a fear of industrial exploitation. Dewey ,^^ as well as Bagley, views this possibility with concern. However much extreme subject differentiation may be ob- jectionable in theory, neither Douglass' investigation nor my own indicate a degree of differentiation of the sort that has assumed alarming proportions. An option of a foreign language 4 or 5 times a week or of prevocational arts (in Indiana required) 2 or 3 times a week in the eighth grade seems to be the more general practice among so-called junior high schools. It is to be noted, however, that the majority of schools in this study are of the small school type. Apparently other means of differentiation, as fast and slow moving groups, permission to carry extra or fewer subjects, variation in classroom methods to suit individual needs, sex segregation in prevocational arts, and certain modi- fications in subject matter for all are relied upon as the chief provisions for individual differences. Neither a wide range in options nor varying rates of progress by groups are available for the small school. But 4 of the 35 Indiana schools have any marked variations in curricula, and in no one of these has the pupil an option of more than one-fifth his work during the seventh and eighth grades. Bonser** recommends about two-fifths the time in the eighth grade for optional or differentiated work; Snedden,^® that at least one-fifth the program be differentiated or optional; and Bagley^^ argues against the elective principle below grade nine. About " Dewey, J. "A Policy of Industrial Education. School & Soc. 2:11. «• Bonser, F. G. Democratizing Education, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 1 :567. «« Snedden, D. Character & Extent of Desired Flexibility, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:233. " Bagley, W. C. The Six-Six Plan. S. & H. Ed. 34:3-5 and Justification of a Certain Measure of Uniformity. 111. Univ. School of Ed. bulletin 13. 1914:12-21. 46 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools one-half the Indiana junior type schools offer no electives, al- though in 13 of these the former program of studies has been radically changed in grades seven and eight with limited options in the ninth. The writer desires to advance objections to current argu- ments for extreme differentiation on the grounds, first, that our psychology of individual differences indicates that original nature is selective and that differing natures will react to common stimuli differently and produce differing individualities;^^ and, second, the principal already advanced by Briggs that interests and aptitudes do not precede experience, should furnish a basic principle for required exploratory courses. While we must give due weight to environmental influences, it would seem that the principle first stated should receive consideration. Another point much stressed in the educational literature on the junior high school is the variation of subject matter in a given course to fit the demands of different curricula settings. Just why should a boy taking the general curriculum in the seventh or eighth grades have a different brand of civics from that of a boy taking a commercial or industrial course? I wonder if we have not dragged a Munich continuation school idea, properly applicable to youthful workers sixteen or eighteen years of age, who have both vocational experience and vocational interests, into our grammar grades and attempted to apply it to twelve year-olds who have neither vocational experience nor vocational interests of any very definite sort. The recommendation of the North Central Association Committee, already referred to, that no first course in the junior high school should be varied in content for different curricula groups, seems to be based upon sound ped- agogic principles. In conclusion, all writers are agreed that subject matter modifications and some degree of differentiation are indispensible features of the junior high school. In practice, junior high school claims are all too often based upon mere administrative changes in externals, as the grouping of certain grades or the utilization of certain housing facilities. Relative to this Snedden says: "Proposals for the junior high school type of school organization are chiefly, as yet, proposals for administrative readjustments. I hear very little regarding pedagogical changes. "^^ Judd, in a <« Thorndike, E. T . Educational Psychology. Vol. III. pp. 305-310. " Snedden, D. Reorganization of Education, etc. Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:425. Provision for Individual Differences 47 recent summary of current educational writings, expresses a similar opinion. He says: "Nor can one avoid a feeling of appre- hension that the movement in the direction of changes in ad- ministrative form will outrun the changes in organization of materials and methods of instruction which are essential to the ultimate success of the junior high school."^" Promotions. Of the 35 schools, 22 have promotion half-yearly and 13 yearly. Here the determining factor is clearly that of the size of the school. All the schools having yearly promotions are in towns of 1,600 population or less. It is clear that two sets of standards must apply here, one for the larger and another for smaller schools. Frequency of promotion is desirable so that failed pupils may not lose overmuch time in repeating, but the small school with its smaller classes and its possibility for more intimate contact between teacher and pupil and for individual help should be able to prevent failures in greater degree and thus overcome this objection in part. Various investigations indicate that promotion by subject is a well nigh universal practice with junior high schools. Without it there can be but little flexibility in providing for individual advancement. Promotion by subject or by related groups of subjects seems to be a standard feature of practice with Indiana junior high schools as well as of theory. Thirty-two schools in- dicate promotion by subject in whole or in part. Of the three reporting promotion by grades, one is just inaugurating its re- formed organization and states that subject promotion is to be introduced soon. The remaining two schools, 22 and 31, having promotion by grades are among the cities of the 8,000 and larger population class and have claimed junior high school organiza- tion for several years. Their practice with respect to this stand- ard is clearly not in line with either the best opinion or practice. Accelerant and Slow- Moving Groups. Fourteen schools report fast and slow moving classes as definite features of their organization, while 21 schools say they do not have such organization. School 4 says this will be added next year. Of the remaining 20 schools, not having such groups, '" Judd. C. H. In School Rev. May, 191 7. p. 375. 48 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools 17 are in towns of 4,000 or less population where such provision is clearly impi"acticable on account of the limited number of class groups in any one school grade. School 16 has probably too small a population to warrant the introduction of this feature, but other schools of the size of 7 and 31 (8,000 to 12,000) are using it successfully which would appear to warrant its being tried out in these two schools. Plans for Individual Advancement. Eight schools made no report to this part of the questionnaire. But one school, number 2, states that it has no provision for pupil advancement other than moving with the class group. Twenty-four schools indicate that extra subjects are available for pupils of good ability in academic work; 13 indicate that some pupils may take fewer subjects; 13, coaching or special help; 7, more pre vocational work in place of some of the academic work; 9, credit for outside work; 8, irregular promotion; 3, weight- ed credits; 1, vacation work as an opportunity to make up work; and 1, minimum requirement in each subject for certain pupils. My replies indicate that more adequate provision is made for the brighter pupils, but if the opposite case had been submitted as clearly, we should, no doubt, find that coaching and special help for slow pupils are even more common than provision for the advancement of bright pupils. In evaluating the standards of the school these factors should be considered in connection with accelerant and slow-moving groups, supervised study, and the size of the school. Where the school is too small to provide fast and slow progress groups, it is evident that some definite provision should be made for supervised study or other means above enumerated for advancing each pupil with the greatest benefit to himself. To summarize, clearly differentiated curricula is not a stand- ard feature of practice even among the larger Indiana junior high schools. In cities of 2,000 or more population half-yearly promotion is the universal practice as is yearly promotion in the smaller communities. Promotion by subject in whole or part is practiced in nearly every junior high school, 32 of the 35, and may be accepted as a standard. As every school in cities of 10,000 or more population, except one, has or is to have soon, accelerant, slow, and normal progress classes, we may accept such practice as standard for cities of this class, and as Revised Methods 49 but two cities smaller than this have such groups, we may assume that this is not a reasonable standard for junior schools in these smaller towns. The facts of table 6, last column, would seem to warrant the expectation that every school should provide one or more means, each, for helping unusually bright or slow pupils to make the best possible adjustments in school progress as means of adjustment to individual differences. These conclusions refer only to present standards of practice in these 35 Indiana schools claiming junior high school organiza- tion, and may not be adequate standards for junior high schools generally, as indicated by their form of organization and ad- ministration. Comparative data are limited. Briggs'^' data show 31 schools promoting by subject to 19 not so promoting, and 32 schools promoting half-yearly to 13 yearly. Data relative to other features named in table 6 are not avail- able for comparison. (3) Revised Methods. The two most prominent factors in the reorganization move- ment are the demand for changes (1) that shall bring the pupil into better adjustment with the social demands (economic, political and industrial) of his time, and (2) that shall give due consideration to individual differences in interests and capacities. To realize these new aims, more or less extensive changes are proposed in the program of studies thru the revision of the con- tent of old subjects and the introduction of new ones. But valuable as these revisions are, the desired aims will not be realized unless the methods, by which the new content is to be made a part of the pupil's experience, are revised and adapted to the new aims. The new socialized content cannot be made effective thru the old drill methods. Method must conform to subject matter. Relative to this Dewey says: "Method means that arrangement of subject matter which makes it most effective in use. Never is method something outside the material." Again: "The better methods of teaching engage his activities." — "The method is derived from observation of what actually happens with a view to seeing that it happens better next time."^^ Again, as touching the topic of interest, he says: "The problem of instruction is thus that of finding material which will engage " Briggs, T. H. "The Junior High School." Report of U. S. Com. of Ed. 1914. Vol. I. pp. 135-157. " Dewey, J. Democracy and Education, p. 194. New York, 1916. 50 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools a person in specific activities having an aim or purpose, of moment or interest to him."^^ Elsewhere^^ Dewey advocates a type of method, the psychological, based on the experiences, interests, and abilities of the learner in contrast with the more usual and formal methods based upon the logic of the subject matter as viewed by the one who has mastered it. And again^^ he speaks of the abuse of linguistic methods in education Eliot advocates similar revisions in content and methods to replace the old formal program. He says: "We Americans, like the Chinese, have dwelt in our schools too much on two faculties — discrimination between shades of meaning of different words and phrases, and memory for words, phrases, narrative, description, and even argument. Memory training has predominated over training in observation and the acquisition of skills. "^^ He advocates more acquisition of skill by pupils, more sense training, more contact with real objects, practice in the use of machines, a larger place for laboratory work, wider opportunities for sport, and an extension of the playground movement. Continuing, he says: "We must not imagine that this better preparation of children to earn their livelihood is going to diminish the intel- lectual value of the school training." Other writers have criticised traditional methods of instruc- tion in the grammar grades. Davis says: "Individual tastes and capacities are not rightly considered,^ — discipline is unsuited to the stage of development of the pupils, — methods of in- struction are unpedagogical, — there is not sufficient hand work — the whole system is over-mechanized.""^ Speaking of the psychology of the adolescent period, he says: "Individuality begins to play and demands a larger circle in which to assert and express itself. — To keep him (the adolescent) under the re- strictive and arbitrary discipline of the ordinary elementary school is to sin against nature and to commit an offense against the laws of social well-being. To employ with him the methods of instruction and training of the elementary school is to pro- voke him to truancy, encourage him to evade school work, and impel him to forsake school duties altogether." He advocates discovery and development of individual aptitudes, the sub- " Dewey, J. ibid. p. 155. " Dewey, J. How We Think, ch. v. New York, 1910. M ibid. p. 176. ^' Eliot, C. W. Tlie Concrete and Practical in Modern Education, pp. 14-39. Boston, 1913. " Davis, C. O. Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Education, in Johnston's High Scliool Education, ch. iv. New York, 1912. Revised Methods 51 stitution of useful content for formal methods, departmental instruction, a more vitalized classroom procedure, and self- activity. Hall,^^ than whom no one has written more extensively on the psychology and pedagogy of adolescence, offers many sug- gestions relative to methods of discipline and instruction during adolescent years. Pertaining to discipline, he says: "The period of habituating morality and making it habitual is ceasing; and the passion to realize freedom, to act on personal experience, and to keep a private conscience is in order. — The attempt to treat a child at adolescence as you would treat an inferior is instantly fatal to good discipline — guidance by command may now safely give way to that by ideals — the one unpardonable thing for the adolescent is dullness, stupidity, lack of life, interest, and enthu- siasm in school or teachers, perhaps above all, too great stringen- cy. Least of all, at this stage, can the curriculum or school be an ossuary." He urges emphasis upon interest rather than drill; upon appreciation instead of expression ; upon great wholes rather than upon over-accuracy and 'morselization' ; upon more oral and objective work. He denounces the excessive amount of writing demanded of pupils, and characterizes the daily theme as an 'infection'. Speaking of the pubescent reading passion, he says: "It is the age of skipping and sampling, of pressing the keys lightly." Snedden^* advocates a change from the traditional methods of drill and memory and formal analysis, by which external bits of information are acquired, to natural methods, based on the nature of the learning process. He would have methods grow out of educational experimentation in all the varied school activities. He advocates that methods be in keeping with the new and variable types of subject matter to be introduced into the junior high school, methods capable of adaptation to in- dividual differences, methods that shall reveal to the pupil his capacities and develop power in expression, departmental teach- ing or the Gary plan of allied groups, short unit courses in the practical arts with the project method. He states that the work of these years (12 to 15) has too much of repetition and memory drills, and lacks vitality. s' Hall, G. S. Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene, ch. 9, 10. New York, 1907. " Snedden, D. Problems of Educational Readjustment, ch. 2, 5, 6. Boston, 1913. 52 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Definite suggestions relative to reorganized content and methods in English,^" community civics,^^ and the social sciences^^ have been recently published by the Commission on the Reor- ganization of Secondary Education in a series of bulletins issued by the United States Bureau of Education. Social motive and pupil activity receive marked emphasis. The project method has been strongly advocated for practical arts, and more recently for elementary science in the junior high school, and its principles are being utilized in increasing degree even in such subjects as history and literature. Concerning this method the Committee on General Science of the National Education Association says: "The most effective method of science teaching yet devised, in which all three ele- ments of the scientific spirit receive due recognition, is called the method of teaching by projects. — Every project is characterized by three equally important elements of the scientific spirit; namely, (1) a desire on the part of the pupil to understand better the meaning and use of some fact, phenomenon, or experience. This leads the pupil to ask questions. (2) A firm faith that it is worth while and possible to secure a better understanding of the thing in question. This causes the pupil to go to work with enthusiasm. (3) The gathering from experience, books, and experiments of the needed information, and the application of this information to answer the question in hand. This settles the question temporarily at least."^ Relative to this method Twiss says: "The method of starting a project or problem and giving the pupils time to think and study on it, and to work it out for themselves with the assistance of the teacher and their classmates, puts them in a position where they have a strong immediate motive for getting all the information they can that bears on the solution of the problem or the accomplishment of the project. "^^ These points of view of method in instruction indicate the need of marked changes from the traditional procedure and imply conditions that ideally should obtain in laboratory, shop, excursion, individual and home projects, sports and athletics and supervised study procedure, which types of method are commonly being advocated for the junior high school. This is «» Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bui. 2, 1917. " Teaching of Community Civics. U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bui. 23, 1915. «2 Social studies in Secondary Education, U. S. Bur. of Ed. Bui. 28, 1916. " Preliminary Report of Com. on General Science of N. E. A. 1916. " Twiss, G. R. Science Teaching, ch. 23. New York, 1917. Revised Methods 53 quite in opposition to the disciplinary conception, the result of which Dewey characterizes by a quotation: "It makes no difference what you teach a boy so long as he doesn't like it"; or to the view as formulated by the Committee of Ten,^^ that subjects of study are of equal educational value if they are thoroughly taught, which statement seems to imply that method is the prime factor and separate from subject matter. Modification of methods was ranked as third in importance of the seven group factors in reorganization by Indiana superin- tendents. The determination of methods of instruction and discipline in the junior high school, as contrasted with other school units, constitutes an important problem in the reorganization move- ment. A limited number of inquiries, sent to certain schools relative to the organization of important subjects in the program and details of teaching method, failed to secure responses that would have value in an analytical treatment, and as the writer was unable, personally to visit any large number of the schools investigated during the period of investigation, direct observa- tion and record of methods were impossible. In the absence, then, of these direct evidences of revised methods, certain in- direct evidences have been selected which, in a measure, are indicative of the nature of methods of organization, teaching, and study procedure. One of the chief arguments for grammar grade reorganization, advanced by some has been to introduce high school methods earlier into our schools. Departmentalized instruction has been defended largely on the ground that it meets this need. The degree, then, to which departmental instruction has been em- ployed should be indicative of the break with the traditional elementary school procedure of one teacher for a class for all subjects. If high school methods of organization, instruction, and dis- cipline, or methods more nearly approximating the high school type are desired, as. many writers on the six-six plan advocate, then we may expect that the employment of teachers with high school teaching experience, especially if they are also teaching some high school classes at the same time, will favor the introduc- tion of high school methods in these grammar grades. •» Report of the Com. of Ten on Sec. Ed. 1893. p. S3. 54 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Supervised study is an important means for securing more attention to the needs of the individual pupil as contrasted with mass instruction and should lead to improved teaching methods. That it has not accomplished all that is hoped or claimed for it goes without saying, but its introduction is indicative of desire to improve thru experimentation. The use of the individual project plan in prevocational sub- jects has been singled out as a fourth index of revised methodology This plan, while often advocated for all natural and social sciences has not generally been employed in the older subjects of the course of study, and hence I have confined my inquiry to its use in the practical arts subjects, where it is coming into most ex- tensive use. The employment of this method in this line of work is strongly advocated by the Indiana State Department of Public Instruction'^'' and by the Massachusetts State Board of Education.^^ Table 7 sets forth certain factors that are more or less indica- tive of method modifications. The table should be read : in school 1, 66.7% of junior high school teachers teach one subject only; 16.7%, 2 subjects; 16.6%, 3 or more subjects; no report was made as to the number of teachers per pupil in grades seven and eight; 30 minutes of each class period (60 minutes in this school) are devoted to supervised study in each study subject; the pro- ject method is used in prevocational work; a part of the junior high school vocational work is taught by senior high school teachers; and 75% of all junior high school teachers have had high school teaching experience. «« Uniform Course of study for the Elem. Schools of Ind. 1915-16. pp. 228.238. " "Agricultural Project Study." "Project Study Outlines for Vegetable Growing." (Bul- letins of the Mass. State Board of Ed.) Revised Methods 55 Xm -w "^OOO^OOa^OOOfO -OOOOnCJOOioOOnO-^vOOcncnO -'"l^OCNOOOOCNOCO^ -OOOOOOOtMO 00-*5 ,/'"« ca u > J< ■M u -i-" • Ui < g,rtO Q.'rt' O 1- s H a OO +-> 9 w 0^ 0) (0 . >> a >. >^ > > >> > > > o3 c^cy oy c^ oy *: ^ >, ^■ — ct c tti t: t ti ^ UcflcOrtUvJ(artrtUca«caHCn3C &l> CcaCi.a.cCtU^aJO.caO. c « B o a]0(i> -ajOojiuajOO -oj .qjojojOiu .oooooioiooo«DO ojuoiDu^o "-^t; w s a. tf! o o (I, H P J5 > « « ,y - o o Q w • 0\ »0 • • t^ • lO O >0 ■<* vO • • l~- • • ■ ID lO t^ fO 1^5 • • • iC • • ^O • lO Oa.°°-- ... S s §B M M J W 3 1, •.-. • ■._ '._ • , B >; •0"C «0'~.. ... ..... ...... o z H 3 u (J w T}0»-itNt*5rJiio>Ot^OOOvO>-(CSf*5Tj*iOvOI^OOO\0'- c o a> c oSooccccooo; c OQ o o w o W « O p 1:4 o Eh O « o P E-c 12; (^ P • ■ •0000 ■ On r^ O "^ • 00«>- 00 On • O 10 00 • r-j O • 10 NO >0 fN • (T) "* O • NO CS -t^t-^OOO • NOt--00 • t^ t^ ■ NO "0 NO o\ 2^1 «r> O 10 T}< O O On O O 00 fO ^H (s o fO P^ O • O O 10 oor- r^ CN ro tJi -^Jt 10 Tt< . 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II ii 2 «; a rt2 4, 3 Ol 3 > a u h s rt fi H HI f s & St 'T' 4) O C 92 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Table 12 should be read, departmental school No. 1 is housed in a building separate from the high school and the elementary school, but is very near the high school building and has a few lower grade pupils in the same building; has a 36 week school year and a 40 minute class period; its teachers have on the average 2 years of training beyond the high school course and 10 years of teaching experience, none of its teachers are college graduates, 93% are women and 7% men teachers, the average annual salary is $675; and very limited provision is made for the admission of over-age pupils regardless of previous scholastic attainments. In 7 cities or towns the seventh and eighth grades are housed in the high school building, but in 6 of these not in the high school assembly room. In school No. 6 the eighth grade occupies the high school assembly and recitation rooms, has several teachers in common with the high school, and has opportunity to take several high school subjects as electives. In 5 other cities or towns grades 1 to 12 are in the same building; in 6, the seventh and eighth grades occupy a separate building; in 4, mainly separate but in a building having some lower grade pupils; and in 13 they are housed with the first six grades, though often occupying an entire floor of such building. In 23 schools the seventh and eighth grades are separate from the high school, and in 12 they are in the same building. These proportions are the reverse of those among junior high schools where 25 are housed with the high school and 10 are separate from it. One schools has a term of 40 weeks; 1, 38; 27, 36; 1, 34; and 5, 32. The median term is 36 weeks and the average 35.5, which is .8 week longer than in the junior high school group. Two schools report class periods of 60 minutes (including supervised study); 5, 50 minutes; 7, 40 minutes; 3, 35 minutes; 10, 30 minutes; 5, 25 minutes; 2, 22 minutes; and 1, 20 minutes. The median is 30 minutes and the average, 35.5. For the junior high school group the median is 40 minutes and the average, 41.4 minutes, or the class periods average 8.9 minutes shorter in the departmental schools, although the recitation time is probably about the same, the difference representing additional time given to supervised study in the junior type school. Thirty-four schools reported data relative to teacher training. In 2 of these schools the average number of years of teacher training beyond the high school is 3 but less than 4 years; in 19, Departmental School Organization 93 2 but less than 3 years; and in 13, 1 but less than 2 years. The median by schools is 2.37 years and the average 2.06 years. The median is .59 year less than in the junior group schools, and the average .65 year less. But one-ninth the junior schools have teachers with an average training of less than 2 years, while more than one-third the departmental schools are below this standard. Of the 34 schools reporting data relative to the term of teaching experience, in 7 the average is 15 or more years; in 12 10 but less than 15 years; in 12, 5 but less than 10 years; and in 3, less than 5 years. The median is 10 years and the average 10.4 years. This is approximately 2 years more than in the junior type schools. Data from 32 schools relative to the per cent of college grad- uates among seventh and eighth grade teachers show that 20 schools have none; 3, more than 5% but less than 25%; 7, 25% but less than 50%; 2, 50% but less than 75%; and none more than 75%. The median by schools is 0% and the average, 12%. This is decidedly less than for the junior type schools where the median is 41.5% and the average, 43.1%. Seven-eights of the junior type schools have 25% or more of their teachers college graduates, while but one-fourth the departmental schools equal this standard. Thirty-two schools reported data relative to the number of men and women teachers having any classes in any seventh and eighth grade work. None of these have less than 50% women teachers; 4, 50% but less than 60%; 8, 60% but less than 70%; 6, 70% but less than 80%; 11, 80% but less than 90%; and 3, 90% but less than 100%. The median by schools is 75% and the average 74.5%, For men the corresponding figures are 25% and 25.5%. The per cent of women teachers in departmental seventh and eighth grades is materially greater than in the junior type schools, where the corresponding per cents are 60 and 64 for women, and 40 and 36 for men. This difTerence may be due in part to the large number of very small schools in the junior group, in which the per cent of men teachers is invariably higher than in the larger schools of the same group. Of the 32 schools reporting data relative to the average annual salaries of teachers, 1 pays less than $500; 3, $500 but less than $550; 4, $550 but less than $600; 6, $600 but less than $650; 8, $650 but less than $700; 7. $700 but less than $750; 3, $750 but 94 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools less than $800; and none over $800. The median is $667 and the average, $650. The corresponding figures for the junior type schools are $720 and $735, or the average annual salary paid in the junior type schools is 13% higher than in the departmental schools. Twelve of the 30 schools reporting on the conditions of admis- sion to the departmental grades, especially grade seven, indicate that promotion from the next lower grade is necessary, but 18 qualify this statement by saying that they are very liberal in promoting over-age pupils who are weak in some subjects, or that the general rule is not adhered to strictly in exceptional cases. However, the number of pupils advanced irregularly with- out regular promotion seems to be insignificant. In response to the question, "Do you enroll here over-age pupils who have not completed the work of the previous grade because of the greater benefit you think they will receive from this arrangement?" 10 answer "no" and 20 indicate that a few (usually none or very few) pupils are so advanced. Apparently such pupils are advanced from the next lower grade only and are given a conditional pro- motion even though very weak in their previous work. It is not apparent that the conditions of admission are greatly different from those in the junior type schools. Aside from 4 city schools of the junior type, very, very limited provision is made for the admission of over-age pupils to the seventh grade when deficient in regular academic work, and when so admitted they are general- ly compelled to carry the regular work of the seventh grade in- stead of having a special program consisting largely of prevoca- tional work. Summary of Comparisons. In the seventh and eighth grades the schools of the junior group offer on the average but little more work in the practical arts than do the departmental schools. By state requirement the schools of all types must offer such work 2 periods a week. Many of the departmental schools, however, assign but 30 minute periods to such work, while schools of the junior type have from 40 to 60 minute periods. The junior schools have made marked changes in the time assignment for English and have probably unified the course more and made it somewhat less formal. General science is required or elective in five-sixths the junior high school eighth or ninth grades, while it is offered Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 95 to a much more limited extent in departmental schools. The latter schools have introduced special work in community civics more widely than have the junior schools, but such courses have not become the general rule in either type of school as yet. Junior schools offer wider opportunities for eighth grade pupils to elect or carry subjects ordinarily given in the high school than do departmental schools; they also offer additional work in the practical arts more frequently, and they offer work in physical training more often although neither group has made adequate provision for physical education. Promotion by subject is almost the universal practice in the junior group schools, but not even a majority of the departmental schools have yet adopted the practice. Frequency of promotion, organization of progress groups, provision for individual advancement, the degree of department- alization, and the use of the project plan in prevocational work are not peculiarly typical for either group, but supervised study and the employment of teachers in grammar grades with high school teaching experience are far more common in the junior schools. Differences relative to teacher adviser plans and social organization are not marked between schools of the two groups. The junior type schools have more commonly teachers of longer training, more men teachers, and pay somewhat higher salaries. (6) Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools; Thru the Application of Reorganization Standards. As measured by the most vital standards of the reorganiza- tion movement, namely, subject modification, promotion by subject and other provision for individual differences, supervised study and other features of improved method, provision for social organization, and superior training and qualifications for teachers, the junior high school group, as a whole, has advanced farther from traditional practice than has the departmental group. However, it is apparent that some schools claiming junior high school organization are inferior in reorganization to some of the departmental schools. To ascertain the extent to which departmental schools have adopted the reorganization program and may reasonably be classed with the junior type schools, although not claiming the name, I shall arbitrarily apply certain standards that have met very general acceptance among 96 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools the so-called junior high schools, and shall attempt a tentative weighting of the different factors employed in order to secure results capable of quantitative measurement. This weighting is. in part, based upon the relative ranking of certain factors by the twenty-five superintendents and, in part, represents merely the opinion of the writer. The standards and their weighting, as I shall subsequently use them, are as follows: 1. Subjects of study modifications for grade eight (total 10). a. English (literature, composition, grammar) 5 periods or less per week, 2 points; 6 to 8 periods inclusive, 1 point. b. Civics, separate course, 2 points; special emphasis as part of the history course, 1 point. c. General science, 2 points. d. One or more high school electives or subjects open to eighth grade pupils, 2 points. e. Practical arts in addition to the state requirement, 1 point. f. Physical training, 1 point. 2. Provision for difTerent rates of advancement (4 to 7 points). g. Promotion by subject, 3 points; in part, 2 points, h. Provision for individual advancement, 1 point. i. Homogenous groups (cities of 6,000 and more), 1 point. j. Differentiated curricula (cities of 20,000 and more), 2 points. 3. Factors influencing method (3 points). k. Supervised study, 1 point. 1. Project plan in prevocational work, 1 point ; in part, H point. m. Twenty-five per cent or more of teachers with high school ex- perience, 1 point. 4 Social and advisory organizations (3 points). n. Teacher adviser, 1 point. o. Two or more extra-class organizations, 1 point. p. Definite plan of educational or vocational guidance, 1 point. 5. Miscellaneous features (6 points). q. Term of 36 weeks or more, 1 point. r. Teacher training 2.5 years or more beyond high school, 2 points; 2 years, 1 point. s. Forty per cent or more men teachers, 1 point; 20%, 3^ point. t. Salary of $700 or more, 1 point; $600, }4 point. u. Definite provision for over-age pupils, 1 point; limited, 3^ point. The grand total of all points is from 26 to 29. Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 97 tf 0^ CN\0»-iTtiDOO\OOt^fOiOi'>iO«i^OiCOOO>'500«'5iOOOOOO n >-l\OOr^OlDvO"^^lO'*^0"^^^f5"*0'0'-'OOli^O^^^O^O^«0•^00'-^■* (_;r^,— i»-c»H>— irH»— i»-i,— ic^i,— 1^— icvi»-H>— ic^T-i»-i.-- .-H \^0 '^N^OVP'O O O ^^\^\^0 O ^H O O "^O r/j V?l-^ O ^ '-< — I ^'^ ^ N^ON^"^'-' NP>— " »-l fV. »-l ^^N^O »H O '-< ■^ -H \^»^ fl^r>-. CNr-ICNICNCS'-'i-v-rccvj.-irt. cscS'-itNCNr^fSCNCNOC-lO'-i'^r-JCN^-i Q^O— '»-lOO»HOOrH^^^-I^HOO'-<000'rH>-(^HO'-l'HO^^O p^,-irt. o»-in-. <-<-. Oi-v. 00'-i0'-i0'^-0ri-r>-. fv. r>-.,-(00'-iOOOO'^ s u H o J ,-< ,-( \^,-i T-i r<- \^0 «-ir>-.^-iO'-'»-<«-^'-i'^-'-i.-(«-iO'-ir->-. OOO 1-) CN tNOOfN OO ■ ■ C^ .... «^ -^O ■ -O ■ -^^-c^^ . .o • ■ .^.^^ .^^ .^^ • Ik r-HO^OOOOOO«-iO'H'.-iOO''-<0000'^000'-iOO'^0 [d .—lO— i^OO-^0«-|'^0'>-|'-iOOOOOOO<-<^'-iO-hOOOO Q tNtNCSOtNrqCNC-)POr^00O\ g ^ ^ ^ ^ ,_l ^H ^H «H <-l vH CN CN (N r-l (N rvl CVI CN rM CM 98 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools ^ •*Ol~-O00<^t~<>»O ui r^ IT) '-' rt* •»*' O < CS CN CN «N CS «N ^ OlOOOO»0 Q CM^ 'ti 00 t^ t-- £_, r-H NMr^, r^ «-H T-l Oi CN ©(^ f^ CS CN a I g' u pa < I ^-H O *-H O ' lOOOn- . I »-i r>- »-c O ' i^^O^^ W -1 ^. ^ ^ ^ o ro O f*5 ro PO "n T-<00^00 t-^OO'HO^ O O <^ c-J CN O O O fN O CN O ^ '-H O T^ o o p^^ O fN cs rs CN 0« J3 01 k4 01 o J5 u H m JJ >. ■*-> 0. OJ a > d *j 5i o c a S S _3 "o •o O •o V n) a T3X1 c >> cd x> tfi •o •a 01 c-o rt > rt •5 a o 8 _^ "rt "S ■*j > o H (LI S^ ■2x) :■= v> rt o o o o ^a> Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 99 ^^ClO^000<^^00li^O>r)^O00f^<^OOO0^^-<^^OOC0r^<^0Tl*t^i^fr)'OiOrOC^>O"0CNrO"0Tt<'l<-*'*CN'*^f^'^'»"^"' H g < OOiOOOOOOOiiTOiniOOOOOOOO"0iO»r>«O>OOOOO S Ovdc^r^■Tt^T-;o;rl-d^;:^C^Vt-sO^-:c^^O-HCM^.^OOOOvO^OOOr2 ^ (_ ^N^O ^ -^^ ;^'rH ^-H ^ X^^ ^ N^--- -H ^O -^ O O x^-- O O <-- ^^ P^ ,H'^0<~^tN<~^f^O'-li^f^ •^■^OOC^l^'-iOOr'JOOOCNOrS'-'O B < a u d, fc oO-hOOO-ho-hOOOt-iOOOOOO-^OOOOOOOOO lO^^ in I ,— I (->-. ("^ o »-< ■ iO<'*-'~''~'000*^''^'0'"*-*'^'^ W w J 5 8 CD •< W H J ^ O O T-i \?*\?'\?''^ .. O •• O O •;;;;;;;;;; : o •■^^OO'^OO ■ ■—< ; ; ; ; O roOOC^^O^ors^OrOf^OO<^rcOOfOO^OOOOOOOO<^00 i-l O - O M If) ffi .J < -H • ■ -^ -o S (, ooooo-.oo-ho^ooooo-"-^oooo-hoooooo H Q c^cNOOfMC^OOOOtNOc^oiOOOlcsr^Or^Or^lOOOr^OO (J oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo'--000000'-t000CN O ^^r^^to^Ot^OO^O^^^^'OOr^OOOsO^^ro^uoOt^.OOON cN<^^c^^c^^c^cN<^^cN')^~''5(S O O O lO O lO ^-< tJ< r-~ ir> o vO ^3 O N^r>- rw O r^ H \piO NpiO "^ \?< c« '-' O O \?J\pir>_ « O O ■^ --^ r^ tN a ^^^O-iO 0. OOOf^- Or>- 3 c o U k s H n rt ^ ^ f^. O rt- r fv, rv- r>-. »-i »-( .-1 ►J w O O "^ ON^O H-. >-i • O ■ O ■ jjj r^. r%-. O O r^ ■« (J o oo o o o (I, -H^OOOO Q CN O O O O O (J oo o ooo PQ «-l O O -H i-H O < CN OCN O O O a 00 SB ^O •O o tm CO « CO ■O at §8 OQ B »- > 2 j; B«s • (4 «.a "C 2:!: Comparison of Junior and Departmental Schools 101 CHART 1. Scoring of junior and departmental schools, based on tables 13 and 14. Upper graph, junior schools, lower graph, departmental schools. Numbers on left margin, score. Numbers above graph lines, schools as given in tables. Tables 13 and 14 represent the results of the scoring of the 35 junior high schools and the 35 departmental schools on the basis of the above named factors. Four of the junior type schools score 80% or more; 7, 70% to 79%; 19, 60% to 69%; 2, 50% to 59%; and 3 below 40%. Tentatively it will be assumed that any school scoring below 60% should not be classed as meeting junior high school standards. By the same standards no departmental school scores 80% or more; 1, 70% to 79%; 2, 60% to 69%; 7, 50% to 59%; 8, 40% to 49% and 17, below 40%. From this comparison it appears that but 3 of the depart- mental schools (all in cities of 5,000 or more population) surpass the lowest 5 of the junior type schools in the features of organiza- tion just enumerated, although 3 other schools are close to the arbitrarily chosen border line, and with slight modifications in their present organization could qualify by these standards. Twenty-seven of the junior schools surpass all but one of the departmental schools, and 32, all but 6, The amount of over- lapping of the two types of schools is not as great as is generally assumed, which seems to indicate that the adoption of the junior high school name carries with it certain standards of reorganiza- tion which other departmental schools are unconscious of, or at least, are not attaining. The fact that the junior high school group have a "Q" of but 4.2 as compared with 11.5 for the departmental schools, indicates a much closer grouping of the junior high schools about their 102 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools central tendency than is the case in the departmental schools. The contrast is still more marked when each "Q" is divided by its median to obtain the per cent of variability. The variability for the junior type schools is .063 while that for departmental schools is .29, or the departmental schools are nearly five times as variable among themselves as are the junior schools with respect to the features upon which the rating is based. This entire comparison is based on the assumption that my standards and the weighting I have given them are valid. Also this method of scoring leaves out of account fundamental features of all school organization and considers only those features stressed in reorganization. Thus the score given is not to be considered as a total efificiency score, but as a sum to be added to a common fundamental score for achieving superior excellence along certain desirable lines. My choice of 60% as a dividing line between junior and departmental schools is based on the distribution of schools of the junior type, there being ap- proximately as many of these below 60% as above 80%, and I have assumed that the number of schools possessing a decidedly inferior organization should be approximately equal to the num- ber possessing a superior organization, above 80%. Many conscientious objectors to the junior high school name and program raise the question, "Why adopt a new name and make such ado about nothing when departmental schools every- where are achieving the same results?" Are they achieving the same results? The foregoing comparisons do not indicate that they are. The value, then, of the new name lies in the new spirit created whereby the administrator can more easily secure the introduction of new subjects, new and better equipment, better teachers, new features of method and social organization under the new than under the old name and organization. An enthusiasm and interest is created among pupils, teachers and patrons under the new name that is largely impossible under the old. The situation has in it many of the elements making for success in new resolutions, conversions, and fads generally; tra- dition having been broken with, new types of activity and ad- ministration can much more easily be introduced and supported. Johnston^ has happily characterized the situation in his state- ment, "It (the junior high school) has somehow fired our educa- tional imagination," which statement seems to explain much of the force and success of the new and rapidly growing reorganiza- tion movement. > Johnston. C. H. "The Junior High School." Ed. Adm. & Sup. 2:424. Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 103 2. Specific Measurement of Certain Claimed Advantages OR Objections to Junior High School Organization. a. Junior High School Costs. One of the chief objections that has been advanced against the reorganization movement has been its greater cost. At the present time common opinion seems to take higher costs for granted in the junior type school than in the traditional grammar grades. Francis* states that the junior high school cost should be about midway between that of the first six grades and of the senior high school. Phillips and Barnes^ state that replies to their inquiry indicate that a six year high school organization may be expected to cost from 10% to 15% more than the usual two year grammar grades plus a four year high school plan. Briggs^ had only 30 out of 157 schools reply relative to costs, but 17 stated that the junior high school cost more than in the first six grades, 6 about the same, and the remaining 7 gave qualified answers. Rundlett^ gives the cost under the old organiza- tion in 1909-10 as $33.14 per pupil in grammar grades and as $29.28 and $28.09, respectively in 1910-11 and 1911-12 under the new organization. He also indicates that the average of class scholarship marks was raised under the new plan and that 33% more work was covered in Latin, history, and mathematics in junior high school grades. Bachman,* in the New York City Survey, shows that in 1911-12 the intermediate school organiza- tion of seventh and eighth grades in New York City was costing less than the regular grammar grade organization, largely due to a more economic use of rooms and equipment under the former type of organization. But it is to be noted that the New York intermediate schools were not offering the widely enriched and differentiated curricula which are associated with this type of school in our larger cities, nor were they employing teachers approximating high school standards of training. A recent investigation by Briggs,^ not yet published, shows some schools paying less per capita for maintenance and operation in the junior high school than in the first six grades and in other cities the costs are more than for the senior high school. » Francis. J. H. "Needed Reorganizations." The Portland, Ore., School Survey, p. 191. * Phillips, E. M. and Barnes. C. H. The Junior High School Problem. Bulletin No. 59, 1916 Minn. Department of Public Instruction. ' Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School. Report U. S. Commissioner of Ed. 1914, vol. I. p. 135-157. * Rundlett, Concord. N. H., School Reports. 1909 to 1912. » Bachman. F. P. Report of Com. on School Inquiry, N. V. City. Vol. I. pp. 146-148. 1913. * Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School (an investigation inaugurated in 1917 and not yet published). ^V 104 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools This great variation in costs may be due to several causes, many of which are discussed later in this section. Costs will be low where teachers are employed with qualifications for ele- mentary school teaching only, where the traditional type of principal is employed who does no supervising, where large classes are the rule, where traditional rather than laboratory and shop subjects and methods prevail, where meager equipment is used, and where cheaply constructed buildings are utilized. In a few instances the junior high school costs were more than in the senior high school because of new and more costly and better equipped buildings, and because of the introduction of more shop and laboratory work with special teachers in the junior high school, while maintaining largely the traditional text book courses in the senior high school. In all the investigations the cost data have been very meager, chiefly because school ofificials do not keep their financial records in such form that they can easily determine cost factors. Cost Data for Indiana Schools What do junior high school organizations cost in Indiana as compared with the usual eight-four type? A preliminary inquiry revealed the fact that L should be unable to secure data from most schools relative to detailed analyses of' maintenance and operation other than the cost of instruction and supervision which could be rather easily checked from the salary list. Accordingly I have limited my cost statistics to this phase of the problem. My inquiry forms called for the total annual salary account for teachers, principals and supervisors for grades 1 to 6, 7 and 8, and 9 to 12, separately, the salary of each individual to be dis- tributed among these three groups according to the time spent by the teacher or supervisor in each of these grade groups. As the majority of schools failed to report their average attendance, I have used the total enrollment up to and including March for the second semester as the base for computing the cost per pupil. While the data will not be readily comparable with those of other investigations, the method seems to be a valid one for comparing schools within this study. The cost per pupil for grades 1 to 6 means the total salary account for teaching and supervision charged against all these grades divided by the total enrollment for these grades. Per capita costs for the grammar grade and high school units are similarly computed. Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 105 oo -ooooooo '-H vO • On '-I o rC) O 0\ Ov On r^ O 0> Ov ■ooooooooo 00 CS • 00 O r- l^ ■<* ^^ On tN lO • lO tJ< PO ro CN ■^ ro •NOiOONl^''Htvj.,-(O00 ■rf>0\fOPOTttOMO'«*'r<5 oOr^iiOroONt— OnO OOOOOOOOO ONfOrJtoOvOCNOO'*!-! ^"■DCNOvr^iDuoOvO ■oooooooo •r^OOvOOio-OiO a; o « \ 0> C/) O O ;« K < '^u z ;* ^«? o H o go'- u H -J Z u (n Q < « '« H o » M a. ds H 2 Tl O O O U K Q O -l •ooooo • O '— I On T-i <>l ^^^iS^^uO-^OiOvO -T^t'osLONOOO <^ 1-1 CN CN , .^ r (C o ^ a rt o ^ o o OT3 j: c o a UJ XI > *-» oix ■« to >1 M 0) J3 a; ■p i T3 H J3 C 01 >o a v> >, . ij C "^ -^ x: <^axj^ Z'^'^ Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 107 TABLE 16. Range OF Cost Distribution Jr. High School Dept. School Non-Dep. School Cost Grade Grade Grade Limits 1-6 7-8 9-12 1-6 7-8 9-12 1-6 7-8 9-12 6 to 10 1 1 11 to 15 9 1 8 1 11 2 16 to 20 5 4 10 5 4 4 21 to 25 2 3 2 9 1 2 4 26 to 30 1 3 2 2 10 3 6 1 31 to 35 . 2 1 4 3 5 2 36 to 40 1 3 2 8 41 to 45 4 6 1 5 2 46 to 50 1 2 6 1 1 51 to 55 4 2 2 56 to 60 1 2 1 Over 60 1 2 3 No. cases . 19 24 21 23 29 24 18 19 18 TABLE 17. Cost Per Pupil for Instruction and Supervision in Cities of 5,000 and More Population.* City 3 4 7 10 16 20 21 22 24 25 30 31 Junior High Schools Grade 1-6 7-8 9-12 16.70 15.40 22.90 27.90 15.70 14.60 32.40 14^10 13'l0 13.60 18, 29 23 53 28 21 36 57 17 52 13 27 00 70 60 70 10 50 90 00 10 80 10 00 34.20 35.00 43.60 78.60 28.10 33.80 36.90 37.10 37^40 28.30 City 1 2 4 6 9 11 12 13 14 15 17 19 20 24 32 Departmental Grade 1-6 7-8 34.90 19.20 26.60 24.50 26.10 24.00 19.10 25.90 26.10 28.20 33.70 21.10 28.80 14.50 25.90 Schools 9-12 14.70 15.70 17.00 22.80 18.60 14.20 20.90 24.70 1K40 17.60 14^96 34.30 43.50 38.10 43.40 48.20 24.30 57.50 30.90 33^70 35.10 48" 10 No Average Median. Q High... Low. . . * Note table 15. 10 18.64 15.55 5.77 32.40 13.10 12 31.54 27.55 17.40 57.00 13.10 10 39.30 35.95 4.73 78.60 28.10 11 17.50 17.60 3.39 24.70 11.40 15 25.24 25.90 3.86 34.90 14.50 11 39.74 38.10 7.56 57.50 24.30 All non-departmental schools are in cities of less than 5,000 population. See 108 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools TABLE 18. Cost of Instruction and Supervision Per Pupil in Cities of Less than 5,000 Population. City 2 5 14 15 17 19 23 33 34 35 Junior High Schools Grade 7-8 1-6 19.00 21.80 18.30 11.50 14.90 31.00 17.60 12.20 20.60 41.50 52.60 49.40 43.20 31.90 65.50 53.10 42.20 19.60 21.10 41.00 20.00 9-12 41.50 52.60 49.40 43.20 45.50 65.50 53.10 42.20 32.10 48.70 41.00 City 3 5 7 8 21 23 25 26 27 28 29 31 33 35 Departmental Grade 1-6 7-8 29.20 25.20 30.90 25.50 17.60 23.50 41.60 31.90 18.30 20.50 30.00 22.10 29.00 29.10 20.80 20.20 17.40 16.90 16.90 11.10 15.10 12.30 20.50 7.20 Schools 9-12 42.20 48.60 46.50 28.00 29.10 35.00 37.20 41.60 46.80 42.10 27.90 34.80 28.40 46.00 56.10 No Average . Median. . Q High.... Low. . . . 9 18.43 18.30 4.31 31.00 11.50 12 40.09 41.85 15.75 65.50 19.60 11 46.80 45.50 5.72 65.50 32.10 12 17.96 17.15 4.25 29.10 7.20 14 26.74 27.75 4.58 41.60 17.60 13 41.02 42.10 5.94 56.10 27.90 Note: For non-departmental schools see table 15. TABLE 19. Cost of [nstruction and Supervision Per Pupil in Consolidated Schools J UNIOR High S CHOOLS NON-J UNIOR Schools City Grade City Grade 1-6 7-8 9-12 1-6 7-8 9-12 2 19.00 41.50 41.50 2 14.30 27.30 52.60 5 21.80 52.60 52.60 8 14.60 19.20 124.00 6 49.40 49.40 9 12.50 17.30 41.90 8 18.30 43.20 43.20 15 15.90 33.30 95.20 15 14.90 65.50 65.50 20 23.80 35.80 51.40 17 31.00 53.10 53.10 21 15.70 30.40 40.00 19 17.60 42.20 42.20 33* 28.00 29.00 46.00 34 41.00 41.00 35* 29.10 29.10 56.10 No 7 8 8 8 8 8 Average 17.51 48.56 48.56 19.24 27.68 63.40 Median. 19.00 46.30 46.30 15.80 29.05 52.00 Q 3.66 5.80 5.80 6.85 7.05 26.65 High... 31.00 65.50 65.50 29.10 35.80 124.00 Low. . . 14.90 41.00 41.00 12.50 17.30 40.00 ♦Note These two schools are from the depa rtmenta I list; the re maining sii are from the non-departmental list. Tables 17, 18, and 19 are to be read the same as table 15. Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 109 Tables 15 to 19 set forth the data for the cost of instruction and supervision for such schools as reported both cost and enroll- ment data, about two-thirds the whole number participating in the investigation. The schools have been divided into three groups for comparison, junior high schools, departmental schools, and non-departmental schools, all the latter having, however, a measure of departmental teaching in special subjects. Table 15 should be read: Instruction and supervision costs school number 2 of the junior high school group $19 per pupil in the first six grades, $41.50 in the seventh and eighth grades, and $41.50 in grades nine to twelve inclusive (a 6-6 school with grades 7 to 12 under the same teaching staff). School number 2 of the departmental group makes no report for the first six grades or grades nine to twelve, but has a per capita cost of $19.20 in grades seven and eight, etc. Because of the wide variation of a few schools the median cost would seem to be a better measure of central tendency in this instance than the average, although I have computed the latter also. The median will be used in the following discussions unless otherwise indicated. From table 15 it appears that the median cost per pupil for the first six grades is for the junior high school group $16.70; for the departmental group, $17.00; and for the non-departmental group, $15.15 a year. For grades seven and eight the corre- sponding costs are $34.40, $25.90 and $24.90 respectively ; while for grades nine to twelve they are $41.50, $41.85, and $40.55 respectively. The only marked variation between the three groups is in grades seven and eight where the junior high school type costs 33% more than in the departmental schools. The ratio between high and low for any one grade group varies from two and one-third to one for the high school costs of the departmental schools to five to one for the seventh and eighth grade costs in the junior high school group. A "Q" of 15.75, or nearly one-half its median, for costs in grades seven and eight of the junior high schools indicates a uniformly wide deviation from the central tendency for these schools. "Q" represents the difference between the first and third quartile points of the dis- tribution divided by two, or it is approximately the distance we must go either side the central tendency to include the middle 50% of our distribution. 110 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Table 16 represents a distribution of the number of schools of each group for each $5 unit of cost from $5 up to $60 and more, and should be read: In the junior high school group in the first six grades nine schools have a cost per pupil of $1 1 to $15 inclusive ; 5 schools, $16 to $20 inclusive, etc. Table 15 does not enable us to get at a close analysis of the cost conditions, for we have here represented schools in cities of 35,000 population and others located at a country cross-roads three miles from any village, and the costs due to different causes, as size of school or differentiated curricula, combine so as to give unsatisfactory comparisons due to the non-homogenous grouping of the schools to be compared. To make these com- parisons more significant I have retabulated the data of table 15, showing in table 17 costs in schools in cities of 5,000 or more population, and in table 18 costs in schools in towns and villages of less than 5,000 population. This should yield more satisfactory comparisons, for schools relatively alike in size and other conditions are grouped together. Table 17, median results, shows that for schools in cities of 5,000 and more population the pupil cost is higher in both the first six grades and in the high school in the departmental group, $17.60 and $38.10 respectively as compared with $15.55 and $35.95 in the junior type schools, and that the difference in costs for grades seven and eight is $1.65 per pupil, or 6% higher for the junior group. The deviation or "Q*' for grades seven and eight of the junior type schools is very high, 17.4, which indicates lack of standardization in costs here as compared with costs in the grammar grades of other type schools. So far as concerns instruction and supervision only the junior type school does not appear to add very materially to the cost per pupil of the usual departmental school for cities of this size, and the added cost per pupil in grades seven and eight is more than offset by the lower high school costs in the junior type schools. Table 18 shows a slightly higher cost for the junior high school type in both the first six grades and in the high school, and a decidedly higher cost, 50.8% higher, in grades seven and eight in the schools of less than 5,000 population, as measured by group medians. This is no doubt to be explained by the fact that in the seventh and eighth grades of the junior type schools all the teachers from grades seven to twelve are regular high school teachers and receive high school salaries, and that prin- Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 111 cipals and special teachers devote more time to these grades in this type of school, and especially that these small junior high schools are the smallest schools on my list, far too small for eco- nomic class grouping. If average costs be compared the relative standing of the two types of schools remains unchanged. Again the variability or deviation in the grammar grade costs of the junior type schools is high, amounting to approximately 40% of the average cost. The cost for the various grade groups in the non-departmental schools (table 15) is slightly lower in each case than for the corresponding unit in the departmental schools (table 18). As eight of the small schools of the junior high school group are of the consolidated rural type, I have selected for comparison eight other consolidated schools, all I have data on, from the departmental and non-departmental groups. Table 19 shows the costs for these schools. The seventh and eighth grade costs are, for the junior schools, $46.30 and, for the non-junior schools $29.05. Again the junior type school costs more in the first six grades, $19 as compared with $15.80 in non-junior schools (due to very small enrollments), 59% more in grades seven and eight (partly due to small enrollments in these junior type schools) , but 11% less in the senior high school grades, in spite of the fact that these junior type schools have a much smaller average enrollment than have the others. If averages be used the non- junior type schools have still higher costs in grades nine to twelve inclusive. This suggests that these results are not to be taken at their face value in ascertaining the real cost conditions, but rather there should be an investigation of the costs covering the entire six upper grades in both groups of schools. It is the total cost of the school system that the taxpayer is concerned with, and any plan of grouping whereby one department may be made to have a low per capita cost does not relieve the situation if some other department is thereby made more expensive. It may be that our high cost in grades seven and eight in the junior type schools is fully counterbalanced by lower costs in the senior high school, due to a more economic use of the staff in the six- six type school. Eight schools of the six-six type and eight of the eight-four type, indicated in table 19, reported complete cost and enrollment data for grades seven to twelve inclusive. The average enrollment 112 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools for grades seven to twelve in the junior type schools is 70, and the average annual cost of instruction, $3250. For the eight non-junior schools of the consolidated group the corresponding figures are, average enrollment, 96, and average annual cost $4180. From this we get a per capita cost for grades seven to twelve of $46.43 for the junior type schools and $43.54 for the same grades in the non-junior schools. The 6% higher cost in the junior type schools is probably more than accounted for by their smaller enrollment, which is far below the economic effi- ciency point, and they also have as advantages for the extra outlay a teaching force with a higher average amount of training and a somewhat richer curriculum offering. From these facts it appears that a junior high school type of organization can be maintained in the small consolidated school at approximately the same cost as is required for the eight-four plan ; that high costs are not primarily due to the "junior" feature of the organization but rather to the "small" factor. From data in my possession I have estimated that these eight junior high schools of the consolidated type could return to the eight-four plan by dismissing one high school teacher and em- ploying an additional elementary school teacher at a saving of $160 a year for the entire six upper grades, and that the seventh and eighth grade costs would then be $18.33 per pupil per year and the high school costs $63.50 per pupil. If we consider grades seven and eight only our present cost of $46.30 per pupil is 153% more than it would be under the stated conditions of the eight- four plan with a seventh and eighth grade cost of $18.33. This seems to be an enormous difference, but if we include the high school with the seventh and eighth grades the present total cost of $3250 is only 5% more than it would be after effecting a saving of $160. The apparently great saving in grades seven and eight would be nearly offest by the increased cost in grades nine to twelve, due to a less economic utilization of the high school teach- ing staff with a smaller number of pupils. Under the non-junior plan seventh and eighth grade pupils in rural consolidated schools are receiving these advantages: non-departmental teaching for the most part, promotion by grade, no supervised study, no men teachers or a man teacher two periods a week in manual training or agriculture only, an elementary school type of discipline, little or no participation in high school athletics and social activities, teachers with from Junior High School Cost^ and Compatisons 113 one to two years of normal or college training, a course of study and methods based largely upon a deadening repetition of what has already been explored (arithmetic 5 periods a week, history 5, geography-physiology 5 or more periods, formal English 10 to 15, manual or household arts or agriculture 2, drawing l,and music 1), and a non-stimulating elementary school atmosphere. Under their present junior type of organization they have these advantages : departmental teaching, promotion by subject supervised study, 40% men teachers in certain subjects, both vocational and academic, a high school type of discipline, partic- ipation in high school athletics and social activities, teachers with an average of more than three years of college and normal training, a course of study designed for a wider exploration of pupil interests and fields of knowledge (arithmetic 4 periods a week, history 4, general science 4, revised English 4, German 4, household or manual arts or agriculture 2, drawing 1, music 1), and the spirit and stimulus of a high school atmosphere. CHART 2. Per capita cost ofi nstruction and supervision, based on tables 17, 18 and 19. "a" schools in cities of 5,000 and more. 'b" schools in cities less than 5,000. "c" consolidated rural schools. Numbers in left margin, cost in dollars. junior schools. - - - - departmental or non- junior schools. Upper pair of lines, high school costs. Middle pair of lines, 7th and 8th grade costs. Lower pair of lines, costs in grades 1 to 6. 1 14 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools The present junior-senior type of organization in consolidated schools costs $2.29 per pupil more than it would for the same grades under the old eight-four plan (a saving of $160 divided by 70, the number of pupils in the average six year high school). The question for the school authorities to decide is, is it worth the increased outlay to secure these advantages? From the fore- going analyses it appears that in both the larger city and the smal- ler consolidated schools, considered separately, the junior- senior high school cost does not exceed the eight-four plan cost for the upper six grades by more than 6%, and it is probable that the compensating advantages more than offset the additional outlay. For village and small city junior schools the per capita cost for the upper six grades is approximately 15% to 20% more than for departmental schools. FURTHER ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS. 1. Factors Which Tend to Increase Costs. a. Teacher Conditions. (1) The reorganized school has teachers of superior training. Even in those schools where teachers of high school qualifications are not employed in the junior high school, the best of the elementary teachers are chosen. Data presented in another section of this study show that on the average junior high school teachers have had approximately six-tenths of a year more training than teachers in grades seven and eight in non-junior high schools, and that 43% of them on the average are college graduates as compared with 12% for the seventh and eighth grades in the usual grammar school of the departmental type. Necessarily this superior training will result in higher salaries. My data show that junior high school teachers receive on the average $85 more a year than do teachers in the grammar grades of departmental schools. (2) The junior high school has more men teachers. Our data relative to teachers show that in the median school 40% of junior high school teachers are men as compared with 25% in the grammar grades of the non-junior type school. The average salary of men teachers in Indiana high schools is at least $100 a year more than that of women teachers, and the use of more men teachers in grammar grade instruction will increase costs pro- portionately. Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 115 (3) The junior high school, especially in the larger schools, has more teachers and supervisors of special subjects, which in large part constitute the differentiated curricula. Well trained teachers in vocational and special subjects command higher salaries as a rule than do teachers of academic high school subjects, and especially do these special teachers, who are members of the high school teaching staff, except in a very few of our Indiana schools, receive salaries decidedly in advance of the salaries paid to grammar grade teachers of read- ing, arithmetic and the like. b. Conditions arising out of varied and enriched subjects of study and differentiated curricula. (1) Any increase in the number of subjects taught in the school will call for an enlarged teaching staff and an increased salary budget. A comparison of the number of teachers in the small Indiana high schools now and ten years ago will reveal the fact that four or six teachers are now employed where formerly there were two and three only, and this in schools having not to exceed an enroll- ment of 50 or 60 pupils. The number of subjects has been in- creased and the ratio of teachers to pupils has markedly in- creased, thus adding to the cost per pupil. (2) Every differentiation tends to divide the student popu- lation into more groups, and this, except in the larger schools, will result in decreasing the size of classes and in increasing the- per capita costs. For example, a small school may have 30 pupils in the eighth grade. In arithmetic and the other common subjects they con- stitute one class group, but in the practical arts they divide into two groups and inevitably the cost is increased. To make my point clearer, I shall cite an illustration from a previous study I have made relative to high school costs.^ In each of two different schools the drawing teacher receives an annual salary of $810, but in school "a" the average class size in drawing is 9.5 pupils and in school "b" 35 pupils, with equal credit allowed per hourof work and with equal teaching time for the two teachers. The cost per credit in school "a" is $10.65 while in "b" it is but $2.88. All conditions except class size are the same. Funda- ' Childs, H. G. "Cost of Instruction in Indiana High Schools." Bui. of Third Annaul Conference on Educational Measurements. Indiana University, 1917. p. 133. 116 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools mentally, class size is the most important factor in cost produc- tion in instruction. In the larger schools having several sections for each grade, the boys and girls from two ordinary sections can be grouped for work in practical arts and thus keep all classes of approximately standard size, but this is impossible in the small school and is seldom done in the larger. (3) The practical arts subjects, which are being much stressed in junior high schools, are commonly assigned double the time of the academic subjects for the same credit. This is universal in high school practice. With double time given to such class groups teachers can teach but half as many different classes during the day as in academic subjects, and hence the cost of instruction is increased. My study of instructional costs, just referred to, shows (page 137) that in the median size high schools manual and household arts instruction cost $7.10 and $7.23 respectively per credit, while history and mathematics cost but $3.15 and $3.51 respec- tively. As the salaries of the two groups of teachers were about the same, the double costs are clearly due to a combination of smaller classes and double time for the practical arts group. (4) It is customary to have smaller class groups in special and vocational subjects than in academic subjects, even in the larger schools, and this still further adds to the cost. Reference to my study just cited (page 147) shows for cities of 20,000 and more population a class size of 10.2, 14.8, 13.9, 22.1, 20.9, 20.6 respectively in drawing, household arts, manual arts, English, mathematics, and science. In practically all cases the academic subject groups are from 50% to 100% larger. (5) The increase in the number of classes referred to above, together with demands for rooms for varied types of work, calls for an increase in the total number of class rooms, which in turn demands an increased outlay for buildings. (6) The introduction of practical arts and vocational courses in the junior high school, or any other school, calls for large expenditures for laboratory and shop equipment. In those schools which utilize a common building and common equipment for the junior and senior high schools, the expense may not be greatly increased by the junior organization, but rather such combination favors a better utilization of facilities already provided for the high school. All schools in Indiana, whether they adopt the junior high school name and habits or not, must require manual Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 117 and dmoestic arts or agriculture in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Hence the cost for the junior type school need be little different from that of other schools, except where wide differentia- tion and numerous courses are provided. (7) It is claimed that the introduction of enriched and vocational subjects in the junior high school will and does in- crease interest among pupils in school work and result in the longer retention of pupils for a longer period of years in school. This is given as one of the chief of the junior high school aims, and, except in the small schools, costs will increase to the extent that it is realized. Data that I give in another section of this investigation show that certain Indiana schools, during the past five years have increased by as much as 18% the number of pupils who are retined thru the seventh and eighth grades. In the large school this added retained list will add to the total cost for the system by necessitating more classes but not to the per capita cost, but in the small schools, whose class groups are below an economic standard size, the total cost will remain the same while the per capita cost will be actually decreased. If a trained citizenship is the measure of educational values, then high retention and adequate training are to be sought; if, however, low money cost is the objective, the best school will be the one which eliminates all its pupils earliest. c. Conditions arising out of miscellaneous administrative practices. (1) In the junior high school the tendency is to lengthen all class periods to approximate high school standards. This, while valuable for the pupil, reduces the number of classes taught by each teacher in a day and hence adds to the cost of instruction. My data show that the usual eight-four type of grammar school has a class period of 25 to 30 minutes in length, while those of the junior type have from 40 to 60 minute periods. The average difference is about 10 minutes. The total length of the school day in the two types of schools is about the same. (2) Supervised study appears to be an almost universal feature of practice in Indiana junior high schools. This is one of the chief contributing factors for the lengthened class period just mentioned. The old type grammar school had and has ten or 118 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools eleven 30 minute periods without directed class study. The usual high school period is 40 minutes. With the introduction of the junior type school the tendency is to divide the day into six 60 minute periods. This practice, while enhancing the value of the instruction, necessarily costs more. (3) As the junior school approximates the high school standards there has been a marked tendency to reduce the size of classes in academic subjects from 30 or more to 20 or 25 pupils. This is no doubt in keeping with the ideals of a more adequate adaptation of work to pupil needs, but it necessarily results in added costs. (4) The departmental type of instruction, which is an almost universal feature of junior high school organization, will result in a poor coordination of teaching effort by the various teachers unless the work is unified thru close and thorough supervision of a type not demanded under the older organization. In the small school system the change will probably call for no additional expense, and in the larger system the centralization of the upper grades may result in a saving even with improved supervision, if the supervisory expense of the ward buildings containing the first six grades is reduced ; if not, then the concentration will call for additional supervision of a more expensive quality. (5) Retardation and repetition of work are prolific sources of increased costs. The junior school, however, with its greater attention to the individual and its provision for varied types of work seeks to reduce this repetition, and to the extent to which it is successful it will reduce rather than increase costs. Strayer^ estimates that 10% of all seventh grade pupils and 8% of all eighth grade pupils are repeating work previously taken. This would give an average of at least 9% for the two grades. Ayers^ states that in the average city elementary school the average number of years to reach the point where pupils are is 111% of the normal time that should be required without failure and repetition. Or, he says, that the cost is 11% greater than the per capita cost should be. An examination of certain data in this study relative to retention will show that in some schools the per cent of progress thru grades seven and eight is not more than 80% of what it 8 Strayer, G. D. Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges. U. S. Bur. Ed. bulletin No. 5, 1911. p. 136. • Ayers, L. P. Money Cost of Repeating vs. Money Saving thru Acceleration. Am. Sch. Board Jr. Jan. 1912. pp. 13, 14. Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 1 19 normally should be, and the showing would probably be much worse if pupils did not stop the repeating process by leaving school as soon as permitted by law. The Butte Survey Report^" shows an eighth grade non-promotion of 10.3% and an elimina- tion of 11.3%. In a previous study^' on the per cent of failures in high school subjects, I have shown that certain Indiana high schools are failing as high as 59% of all boys taking first year German and 41% of all boys in first year Latin and 39% of all boys in first term English. Specifically, the above facts on failure and repeating mean this, that failure of promotion leads to retardation or elimination ; if the pupil leaves he is not receiving the training the community intended him to have ; and if he repeats, either classes will be over- crowded or new classes must be organized. In the latter case the school budget must be enlarged to provide more building room and a larger teaching staff. In the small school with its small classes and possibility of much attention to individuals, retardation and failure should be prevented in the maximum degree. Also a small amount of repetition here would not increase costs because the class size permits of the repeater being carried without additional sections being organized. 2. Factors Which Tend to Reduce Costs. The junior high school program is not one of retrenchment but rather one of expansion and enrichment. Such a policy in- variably calls for added rather than lessened expense. However, there are certain features of administration where the junior type of organization may effect certain economies. (a) Thru centralization of seventh and eighth grades at cen- tral buildings, not only can greater variety and differentiation be provided, but at the same time a standard class size may be maintained which shall make for economy. (1) Where these grades are scattered in outlying buildings there will necessarily result many small classes and some over- crowded ones, which may be eliminated at a central plant with a saving in the total teaching force, other conditions remaining the same. "> Report of the Survey of the School System of Butte, Mont. p. 27. " Childs, H. G. "Per Cent of Failures in High Schools." Bulletin of the Third Con- ference on Educational Measurements, Indiana University, 1917. pp. 188-191. 120 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools (2) It has been advocated that such centralization makes possible a saving in supervisory costs, but as I have previously stated, it appears to me that such centralization will tend to increase such cost by providing a better type of supervision. (3) Without doubt such centralization will reduce enormous- ly the cost of shop and laboratory equipment over what would be the case if such facilities were provided for every elementary school building and then only partially utilized. (4) To the extent that centralization prevents idle equip- ment and unused rooms for much of the time, it reduces costs by requiring fewer total rooms and even buildings. And to the extent that there may be a saving in the number of rooms and buildings, there will be a saving in heating, lighting, and janitor service and other factors in up-keep. (b) A constantly maintained policy of elimination will ulti- mately result in a saving in the grammar grades and high school costs, because the main factor making for increased costs, the pupil, will have been removed. Such a policy would result in fewer buildings, fewer teachers, less equipment and all the various factors that make up the modern school. As I have previously indicated, however, the junior high school is seeking to prevent elimination and to increase retention. (c) Prevention of failure, repetition and retardation will reduce costs as compared with present conditions. Summary. Opinion seems to be varied relative to junior high school costs, apparently due to lack of accurate cost data and to variable aims and organization, some officials having cost saving as their dominant purpose, while others are seeking an enriched educa- tional program regardless of cost. The data for the Indiana junior high schools indicate that such organization costs about 6% more for the seventh and eighth grades in the larger schools and 6% more for the upper six grades combined in small consolidated schools than does the ordinary grammar grade-high school organization for the same size of school, and from 15% to 20% more in small city junior high schools in the upper six grades than in non-junior schools in cities of corresponding size. Reference to programs of study in schools of the various types indicates that the junior high school Junior High School Costs and Comparisons 121 group, on the average, are providing a more varied type of educational program and have a teaching force which has had a superior training to teachers in grammar grades in other types of organization. A summary of other factors relative to junior high school costs indicates that on the whole we may expect them to be greater because of teachers with superior training, more men teachers, more teachers of special and vocational subjects, a more varied and enriched program of studies, differentiated curricula and smaller class groups, more shop and laboratory work with half credit value per unit of time, lengthened class periods and supervised study, better supervision, longer reten- tion of pupils in school, demand for more room to accommo- date the new types of work, and demands for more elaborate and expensive equipment. The chief economies of this type of organization will come thru concentration of seventh and eighth grades at a central plant, utilization of a common teaching staff for grades seven to twelve in many schools, and a reduction in failure, retardation, and repetition of work. The junior high school movement seeks to raise grammar grade work to the high school level by departmentalized methods of instruction, smaller classes, teachers with superior training and experience, superior facilities and equipment, and, most important of all, by enriched and differentiated courses of study and curricula. This must necessarily cost more than the tra- ditional school training. To establish a junior high schools calls for the consideration of relative values. One of my correspon- dents writes: "The junior high school costs more, but that is no objection, for it is worth more." 122 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools h. Comparative Measures of School Achievement. One argument frequently urged against the junior high school is that if the new studies and activities advocated are put into practice many elements of the present seventh and eighth grade work, long considered of fundamental importance in training for a common citizenship and daily utility, will have to be slighted or omitted altogether. Such arguments have been leveled especially against the introduction of differentiated courses in industrial arts, foreign language and the like. Both Bagley and Coffman argue against any considerable differentiation in the grammar grades. Bagley^ says that ele- mentary education should provide "a basis of common feeling and comm.on thought and common aspiration which is absolutely essential to an effective democracy." He says that if we must have differentiation to prevent elimination, then have it; but he ascribes elimination to other preventable causes. Coffman'' urges "a curriculum consisting of minimum essentials — a curri- culum consisting of those great facts and principles, which all should be expected to acquire within the limits of their respective capacities." With Bagley he argues for a uniform curriculum but differentiated methods to suit the individual child or group. In the light of these and other similar objections I have attempted to ascertain to what extent certain schools that have radically modified their programs of study for the seventh and eighth grades are able to show a comparatively creditable achieve- ment in certain subjects, notably English and mathematics, which are generally classed among the necessary common elements re- ferred to as compared with another group of schools whose pro- grams show them to be devoting their time chiefly to these saving elements. For this purpose certain standard tests were administered in the eighth grades of twenty-one, out of a possible twenty-four consolidated rural and village high schools in two counties, which I shall designate as "A" and "B". These schools are in every- thing, except their programs of study, apparently much alike. Both counties are strictly agricultural, no one of these schools is in a town of over 1,200 population, and the school systems of both counties are considered to be among the best in Indiana. > Bagley, W. C. The Six-six Plan. School & Home Education. 34:3-5. 2 Coffman, L. D. Minimum Essentials vs. Differentiated Courses of Study in Seventh and Eighth Grades. N. E. A. Proc. 1916. p. 953. Measures of School Achievement 123 Comparison of Conditions in Schools "A" and "B" (Grade 8). Items of comparison Co. "^". Program of studies (periods a week): Reading or literature 2 . Grammar 1 . Composition 1 . Spelling incidental Writing 0. Arithmetic 4 . History 4. Geography, physiology, hygiene . General science 4 . German 4 . Agricultcre or manual training 2 . Domestic science 2 . Drawing 1 . Music 1. Time distribution in minutes: Length of recitation periods 25 . Length of supervised study periods 15. Weekly time to forma' reading recitation. . 50. Weekly time to grammar-composition... 50. Weekly time to spelling incidental Weekly time to arithmetic 100 . Per cent of total time to reading 8.3 Per cent of total time to spelling . Per cent of total time to arithmetic. ... 16.7 Per cent of time to foreign languages 16.7 Per cent of time to new or special subjects. . 50 . Co. "B" 5. 4. 1. 2.5 2.5 5. 5. 7. 0. 0. 2. 2. 1.5 1.5 25. 0. 125. 125. 62.5 125. 13.5 6.7t 13.5 0. 13.5 County "A" schools have been working on this schedule for two years so that present eighth grades have not had the tradi- tional amount of time for English but have substituted German for one-half the time usually given to the vernacular. Probably all will agree that English language and literature and arithmetic are fundamentally important subjects of study containing essential elements to be incorporated in the education of all children, and that pupils ought to acquire a reasonable proficiency in them. "A" schools have transferred much time from English to German, and if common elements are neglected, the field of English should be conspicuous for low achievement. 124 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools The tests given were the Woody Arithmetic Series B, Multi- plication Scale ;' Ayers Spelling Scale^ (first 25 words column T) ; Thorndike Reading Scale, Alpha 2, part 11;^ and the Thorndike Visual Vocabulary Scale, A 2 x.® The cooperation of the county superintendents and the school principals was hearty and cordial, and uniform directions for the administration of the tests were sent with the tests'. These tests were given in the various schools on March 13th and 14th, 1917, and all the test papers were forwarded to me at once by the principals. All scoring on the reading and vocabulary tests was done by the writer, and that of the arithmetic and spelling directly under my supervision, and has been rechecked to make sure of accuracy and uniformity in scoring. ' Woody, C. The Measurement of Some Achievements in Arithmetic. Teachers' College Contributions to Education, No. 80. 1916. * Ayers, L. P. Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Sage Foundation. New York, N. V. ' Thorndike, E. L. An Improved Scale for Measuring Ability in Reading. Teachers' College Record, Nov. 1915. p. 31. • Thorndike, E. L. Measurement of Achievement in Reading, Word Knowledge. Teachers' College Record, Nov. 1916. p. 430. Measures of School Achievement 125 H o » CO z; IS o D ■-I O W U ►J *^ PQ to < H tJ* O^ O '-' 00 ^ -H^ »-i es O ^ •-^O 126 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools m H Is D o u H H V0 00 0o0»0rj<0 00'* O CM 5 0! ^^ t^ •^00^0-*roO-*-*0 00 o\ w o t^t-~t^OO0OO0t-^OOt^t^OO t^ t^ u O td If < « tJ4 (^ lO "-) O tN ■<*< •^ ir>t^ «— 1 lo-'too B! W U 0>000\'^0^00000000 OvcCOv ^"^ "^ ^H ^H fS tN CM ^-1 f^l ^-c ^^ CM '"' ui - io<^fO-<*«oesp>»^^ -- 00 CM ■* PC Tf CN CM ro ^H CM^Tt ^-H CN •«*< (M •* rO tS •«*f/) »-l CO CM c^ •rt •>* tN PO '-H CM m Ov "-I ;:; ■^ro fOri* ^ ^ o o o a ^-H j= u.^ Pvl .-1 CN »H .-1 tH 00 j"^ >, a. 2 -H '- - - Tt* 0-. be T-l »-( '^ ^- '"' '^C §2 - CN »H CN ^o C6 ^ ^^^ ■* m goo ^ '^ »-l •»-( CM -o -H - tr> »-l 1-1 ■* »-l y-i fO M - O §2 ^<2 ^_j •>*0<^'OfSlTt<000»0'* t^ »-( rZ 33 50 6.70 9 8 13 33 29 35 6.84 10 15 28 60 45 68 6.67 Total . 123 170 439 369 524 7.01 School average . . . 7 04 Q .25 TABLE 23. Thorndike Reading Test Results, County "B". No. of No. OF Errors for Each Di fficultv Score for 80% School Pupils 7 8 ^% 9 Correct Result 1 11 9 47 25 29 7.52 2 13 18 51 41 58 7.01 3 31 46 118 84 139 6.94 4 14 13 40 44 53 7.40 5 25 18 78 72 104 7.39 6 22 33 63 61 89 6.88 7 23 28 98 73 103 7.14 8 10 8 29 24 37 7.40 9 18 3 53 50 69 7.25 10 23 37 62 73 88 6.85 11 15 8 34 47 62 7.60 Total . 205 221 673 594 831 7.26 School average . . . 7.22 Q .25 Measures of School Achievement 129 Tables 22 and 23 show the comparative results, and should be read: in school No. 1 of group "A", 15 pupils were tested in reading; they made 22 errors in difficulty 7 ; 54 errors in difficulty 8; 46, in difficulty 8^; 66, in difficulty 9; and they could read ma- terial of 6.95 difficulty with 80% efficiency. The method of determining the difficulty at which 80% correct results are achieved is that described by Thorndike in the reference given above. The degree of difficulty at which 80% correct responses were given by the pupils is, for schools of county "A" (school average) 7.04 and for county "B" 7.22. The "A" schools are therefore about 2^% less efficient than "B" schools, that is, they can read with 80% correctness material that is about 2^% less difficult. Thorndike estimates that eighth grade pupils should make a score of approximately 7.5 and seventh grade pupils, 7. The average score for 18 Indiana schools in grade eight is 9? Our results show "A" schools slightly inferior to "B" schools in ability to read and interpret the material of the Thorndike tests. Are we warranted in assuming that the superiority of the "B" schools is due to the extra time they give to formal reading over that of the "A" schools? There seem to be four important factors to be taken into consideration; first, do these tests ade- quately measure reading ability? Second, granting that addi- tional time given to formal reading will improve the results in this case, will the slight improvement necessary to equalize the results in these two groups of schools warrant the outlay of 70 minutes additional time weekly? Third, if additional time were given, are we sure the results would improve? And fourth, where do pupils acquire their ability to read silently and to interpret what they read? No doubt the formal reading develops this ability somewhat, but their reading in various other school sub- jects and miscellaneous reading is probably far more extensive than the special work of the reading period, and the accuracy of reading and interpretation will depend upon the excellence of teaching in all subjects, upon the degree to which teachers compel their pupils to read carefully and thoughtfully the lessons assigned. The schools of both counties are considerably below eighth grade standards and should probably stress somewhat more the power to read and interpret the printed page, but it is not apparent that adding time to the formal reading period will achieve the desired results. ' Haggerty, M. E. The Ability to Read. Ind. University Studies. No. 34. 1917. p. 14. 130 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Assuming that important aims of reading are to produce ability in recognizing the words read and in interpreting their meaning, and assuming that this alpha test adequately measures such ability, the data of tables 22 and 23 show conclusively that the eighth grades in "A" schools achieve more than 97% of the efficiency of the eighth grades in "B" schools with an expenditure of 40% of the time given by "B" schools to formal reading. Or stated differently, "A" schools have lost practically nothing in silent reading efficiency by giving one-half or more of the usual English time to foreign language. In both groups of schools the time limit for the test was fixed at 30 minutes and this may have been rather too short a period for this test. If so the results in both groups would tend to drop below the Thorndike norm if we consider all responses given, but by the Thorndike method of scoring, that difficulty is taken as the score at which the pupil makes 20% errors, and as this invariably fell for these schools in difficulties 7 or 8, the length of the time would hardly affect the result as all pupils had time to go beyond difficulty 8. In fact, most pupils seem to have at- tempted practically all the exercises of the tests, which would indicate sufficient time. Then, too, it is comparative scores we are seeking, and not necessarily high scores compared with other schools at another time and place. A "Q" of .25 means that in 50% of these schools the variation from the central tendency is less than 33^% of the central ten- dency. This shows uniform results in all school of each group as measured by this test. This close grouping of the scores for both groups of schools, in spite of the wide time variation between the two groups assigned to formal reading, indicates that the cause of the uniformity must lie outside the time element. (3) Visual Vocabulary Test. According to Thorndike, "the obvious purpose of these scales is to measure how hard words a pupil can read in the sense of understanding their meaning well enough to classify them under the proper heading, as an animal, a flower, something about time," etc.^ The ability to recognize printed words and to have meaning for them in sentences constitutes the essence of reading. If extra time, over that of the "A" schools, given to formal reading, will improve silent reading ability markedly, it should be apparent in the results of either the previous test or this one or both as applied to the "B" schools. ' Thorndike, E. L. "The Measurement of Achievement in Reading, Word Knowledge." Teachers' College Record. Nov. 1916. p. 430. Measures of School Achievement 131 3 Pi o m Q K ■^ J'O c Poo o t E H b z ^3 «o o b 00 u O Pi g H £ «vO 00iO'O'^t^^OiO»-iiO>O W ^ ' P OfC^'O'O^OCKr^T-i ^ I— -.^ ' rOO'^OOCSOOTttJ^ S ii-sO\t^00fOCNr^'-it^vO Op 2; ft, o ^ fSrO'iloOOt^oOi^O On a> r»5 «N > ^c)^a 132 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools OQ H pa < o o > Q § n H vOvOOOOt^t^l>.>Ot~t-~00 §12 I0'<*i0io'^'*<^00OOM»CN-«*<0000 OOtSr-itS^-iOPOfCi-iO 2 i-ICVlP0'<*'OvOt^00O\O'^ o > Co +-> o H Measures of School Achievement 133 Tables 24 and 25 show the comparative results of the vocabu- lary tests, and should be read: in school No. 1 of county "A" 15 pupils were tested, 3 errors were made in difficulty 4; 7, in difficulty 4.5 ; 10, in difficulty 5 ; etc. ; and the average difficulty at which these pupils had 20% errors or 80% efficiency is 7.2. For "A" schools the average for all pupils is 6.9 and for "B" schools 7.1. "B" schools have a superiority as measured by this test of slightly less than 3%. The small values for Q indicate a close grouping of the schools about their central group tendencies, that is, 50% of the schools vary from the median by less than than 6% of its amount for the junior or "A" schools. When the papers are scored by the Thorndike method of line averages, the average for "A" schools is 7.9 and for "B" schools, 8.2. As in the previous test the close grouping of the scores about a common central tendency (7) indicates that the uniformity is due to some other factor than the time distribution for English in the two groups of schools, for this is 2J^ times as much in the "B" schools as in the "A" schools. The superiority in the "B" score is about two words on the list of 130 words in the whole test series. Even this small difference may be due, in part, to differences in time allotment to formal English, but we should be hardly warranted in advising a 150% increase in reading time to secure a 3% im- proved in efficiency as measured by this test. 134 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Eh CQ H o I— I H < >^ >^ EM HH H P .-^ ,/5 tN.,-l,_l,_l,^.,H,-(CN,-irO ■J'^'-IifHPO (S^-lT-ltN'.-l >< H §=: v, > & ;=< o tco u in" ?! \o fi CN H w ^ o J en &HC10 pa < § H H tn n U H b^ Z o H < U O T-iCNrOTfiOVOI^OOONO Ttt lO 00 i:; 5f c a; 3:S CO 1-1 o o ma t)5 Ji ■3& ^1 -c>5a S° J30 * c Measures of School Achievement 135 C'JCSOOvO^'-ivO'OOn'OOv ^ lO^iOiOiOt— fOiOTjirOTl* M w CQ Hcs >" «« H 0! S^ O » Urt o Q" u H hJ (fl P S'* in M Pi5 n o H b •^ »H re ro c^ »-• »-i fS f) O fO t1< lO ^-H ^-1 rH ro CO es cs '*' «-i po i-H lo »-i po ••-1 fS 1-4 ro lO CN i-H »-• O CS »0 t1< ,-H lO fN »-l CS VO <-4 '<^ »-H CO t1< CO CS 1-1 »-l »-l P^l 1-1 (M >0 CO »H CN »-< 1-1 l/> 1-1 fN CO CS fO i-i«N i-ICS«S 1-1 -^ t>l 1-t (M Zft^ i-iCSf0^'O'Ot^000\Oi-t > :< o H 136 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Tables 26 and 27 show the comparative results for the multi- plication test, and should be read: in county "A" 13 pupils of school No. 1 wrote the test, of whom 1 solved 13 problems cor- rectly; 2, 15; 1, 16; 2, 17; 1, 18; 5, 19; and 1, 20 ; with an average of 17.4. The average of all individual scores in county "A" is 15.4 and in "B", 15.2. The average of the school averages is 15.1. The Q in each group is small and indicates a uniform dis- tribution near the central tendency of achievement in all the schools of each group. The differences in these two sets of scores are slight and show a slight superiority in the "A" schools. The differences in the amount of time given to class work in arith- metic in the various schools of the two counties are also not great, being in "A" schools from 100 to 120 minutes a week and in "B" schools 125 minutes. Neither group of schools equals the Woody standard score of 18 for the eighth grade. The fact that most of these pupils are unaccustomed to taking tests of this sort may have been responsible, in part, for the low scores, or it may be that neither system is emphasizing drills in funda- mental processes in the grammar grades, and that pupils do not acquire and keep up a high standard of proficiency in them. It would probably be best for these schools to assume that they are devoting sufficient time to arithmetic and to experiment with a better distribution of the time within the subject and to formu- late more definitely just what objectives they are working for before allotting more time to the subject. Haggerty^ found that there was little correlation between excellence in arithmetic scores by the Courtis standard tests and the time devoted to arithmetic in the various schools. As a result of this test we conclude that the marked change in program emphasis by the schools of county "A" has not caused any deterioration in arithmetic achievement as compared with the schools of county "B" which still give their major emphasis to the traditional subjects. Summary. To summarize briefly, the schools of county "A" show approx- imately the same quality of achievement in arithmetic, reading for understanding of sentences, and in visual vocabulary recogni- tion as do the schools of county "B". In spelling, which is more dependent on formal drill for its results than is reading, they » Haggerty, M. E. Arithmetic. Indiana University Studies. No. 27. 1914. Retention of Pupils in School 137 are decidedly inferior, and probably need to devote more time specifically to securing spelling efficiency. Contrast with the "B" schools, which give more than double the "A" time to read- ing and other phases of formal English, does not give convincing proof that an increase in time for formal English in the "A" schools would be spent with profit. They are probably receiving other values of various kinds thru the study of German that more than counterbalance any that have been lost. The limited evidences of all these comparative tests do not offer any con- vincing proof that, even when one-half to three-fifths the usual time is taken from the chief of our "common elements", there has been any marked deterioration in the quality of achievement as compared with other schools devoting much more time to this work and less to new subjects. In the above evaluation, "as measured by these tests," should be understood. c. The Measurement of Retention Thru Grammar Grades and High School. (1) General Discussion. One of the chief advantages claimed for the junior high school type of organization is that it retains pupils longer in school than do other forms of grammar grade organization. For fifteen years the claim has been made by practically every advocate of re- organization, but the statistical evidence supporting the claim has not been of a convincing sort, and for the most part there has been no evidence offered other than mere opinion. Without doubt principals and superintendents who have introduced the junior high school type of organization have assumed that the increasing grammar grade and high school en- rollments of the past few years have been due to this new organiza- tion, without considering the fact that other schools on the old eight-four plan of organization and that schools without even departmental organization have had equally great increases in enrollments. In the report of his investigation in 1914, Briggs^ states that 107 principals of junior high schools declare that junior high school organization retains pupils better than the old organiza- tion; 2, that it does not; and 3 say they don't know. » Briggs. T. H. The Junior High School. Report of U. S. Com'r of Ed. 1914. Vol. I. pp. 142andff. 138 Reorganization Mgvement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools In response to his inquiry relative to the longer retention in school of pupils in the junior high school, Bingaman^ received 91 affirmative replies, 4 negative, and 7 indicating doubt. A Los Angeles report^ for 1913-14 indicates that the average enrollment in grades seven to nine from 1897 to 1903 was 13.7% of the total school enrollment; 17.2% in 1904 to 1911 ; and 20.1%, 1912 to 1914. The junior high school organization went into effect in 1911. As the increase in the enrollments was as great in the period immediately preceding 1911 as in the one following it, these figures do not seem to warrant the conclusion that the junior high school organization was responsible for the improve- ment. Moreover the data cited by Briggs from the Berkley schools to the effect that under the junior high school organization 94.73% of those completing the eighth grade enter the ninth proves nothing unless we know what the conditions were very shortly before the introduction of the reorganization movement. Fifteen years ago the writer was connected with a school that regularly carried from 95% to 100% of its eighth grade pupils into the ninth grade, and that with non-departmental teaching, promotion by grade, and with no manual training, domestic science or the other prevocational arts which are common sub- jects in the junior high school of the present time. This school still maintains a high record of retention in the grammar grades and between the elementary and high schools, and it has intro- duced manual training, domestic science, agriculture, promotion by subject, and various other features of the reorganized program. If the present superintendent has not consulted past retention records he may be harboring the delusion that a 95% retention between the eighth and ninth grades is entirely due to his intro- duction of the practical arts or to the assuming of the junior high school name. The data cited by Briggs from Grand Rapids, which indicate a 10% higher ninth grade enrollment from eighth grade junior high school pupils than from eighth grade grammar school pupils appears to be significant; but if eighth grade graduates had to attend high school farther from home than the grammar school and also change to an unfamiliar environment while eighth grade graduates of the junior high school continued at the same building 2 Bingaman, C. C. A Report on Intermediate or Junior High Schools of the U. S. 1915. (Goldfield, la.) ' The Intermediate Schools of Los Angeles. El. Sch. Jr. 15:361-377. Retention of Pupils in School 139 this 10% increase in favor of the junior high school may easily be due to "distance to travel" rather than to "junior high school." The gain of 28% reported in the per cent of eighth grade grad- uates entering the ninth at Evansville, Indiana, between 1912 and 1914, reported by Briggs in the reference just cited, must be considered in the light of facts submitted in January, 1917, by the present superintendent who, in a personal letter, says, relative to the retention of pupils, that the object of placing eighth grade pupils with the senior high school was to prevent their dropping out of school when they finished the eighth grade. He further states that it accomplished this to a large degree ; that the pupils did not drop out after completing the eighth grade, but rather after finishing the seventh. Later he adds: "The sum of the pupils enrolled in the eighth and ninth grades in 1916 was exactly the same as that enrolled in the same grades in 1909 before the building of the present junior high school and the inauguration of our present scheme." It should also be noted that the city has had a very considerable growth during the past ten years. The data submitted by Douglass* relative to elimination and retardation are very inconclusive. Corresponding data should have been collected from a large number of non-junior high schools at the same time and have been presented for comparison. Douglass' comparisons between his own data on elimination, col- lected in 1916, and that of Thorndike, published in 1907, are valueless for the purpose as vast changes have occurred during the nine year interval in both enrollments and elimination. Numerous opinions of superintendents and principals of junior high schools are quoted which are not substantiated by any statistical evidence. His figures relative to enrollments do not take into account population changes, nor do they take into account the fact that schools in large and small cities operate under vastly different conditions relative to attracting and hold- ing pupils and that their data should be tabulated separately if they are to reveal significant facts. Furthermore his data relative to retardation in junior high schools do not take inco account the fact that the conditions, good or bad, of over-ageness in the junior or senior high school may be, and probably are, largely due to conditions in grades 1 to 6 rather than in the junior high school. Information relative to the rate of progress thru the junior high school is what is desired rather than a * Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Booli of National Society for Study of Ed. 1916. part III. pp. 101-113. 140 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools statement of retardation or acceleration without regard to what unit of the school system is responsible. Also comparisons of junior and senior high school enrollments are of less significance as measures of retention than are comparisons of both with the enrollment in grades 1 to 6 combined, which represents for the most part the school population of compulsory age. (2) Data From Indiana Schools Relative to the Reten- tion Problem. a. Retention as measured by enrollments. In order to ascertain the facts relative to retention in Indiana schools data of two types have been collected and tabulated. I shall first present enrollment data for grades 1 to 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 to 12 from the majority of schools included in this investiga- tion of each of the junior high school, departmental, and non- departmental groups, classified according to the population of the cities in which located. These data are based on enrollments for the first semester of the year 1915-16 and were reported by the superintendent as the official enrollments for the term indica- ted. Data were reported from 28 junior, 33 departmental, and 23 non-departmental schools. The purpose of the collection and tabulation of these data is to ascertain for each type of school and for each population group the per cent of enrollments in the junior and senior high schools grades as compared with enrollments in the first six grades. More specifically the purpose is to compare junior and senior high school percentile enrollments in school of the junior type with the corresponding percentile enrollments in schools of the departmental and non-departmental types. Enrollments in grades 1 to 6 have been taken as basal because attendance in these grades is, with few exceptions, compulsory, and this group of pupils has a more constant and uniform ratio to population than that of any other school group. From the comparisons indicated above it is hoped that some conclusions may be warranted relative to the retaining power of the junior and non-junior type schools. Retention of Pupils in School 141 TABLE 28. Retention in Junior High Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities OF LESS than 5,000 Population, With a Median Population of Less Than 1,000. % Enrollment is of Enrollment % Enrollment of Grades 1 to 6 En. School Grade ( Srade 10-12 IS 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 7 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 2 108 16 13 24 41 14.8 12.0 22.2 49.0 38.0 54.1 5 55 15 9 10 23 27.3 16.4 18.2 61.9 41.8 67.6 6 21 16 9 24 52.2 8 120 17 18 12 34 14.2 15.6 io.b 39!4 28.3 72.4 9 356 48 27 40 60 13.5 7.6 11.2 32.3 16.9 52.2 14 442 48 32 19 37 10.9 7.2 4.3 22.4 7.4 37.4 15 67 9 9 7 4 13.4 13.4 10.4 37.2 6.0 16.0 17 102 11 14 15 18 10.8 13.1 14.1 38.0 17.6 45.0 19 101 16 15 17 38 15.9 14.9 16.9 47.7 37.8 79.1 23 300 40 35 50 75 13.3 11.7 16.7 41.7 25.0 60.0 33 356 65 49 63 103 18.2 13.8 17.7 49.7 28.9 58.2 34 20 20 17 29 50.9 35 170 24 22 25 60 14!i i2!9 'U.7 41 '.7 35.3 84.5 No 11 11 11 11 11 13 Average . 15.1 12.5 14.2 41.9 25.7 56.1 Median . . 14.1 13.1 14.7 41.7 28.3 54.1 TABLE 29. Retention in Junior High Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities AND Towns of From 5,000 to 19,000 Population, with a Median Population of 8,500. Enrollment OF Grades 1 TO 6 En. School Grade ( Srade 10-12 IS 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 7 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 3 1 ,491 225 143 172 292 15.1 9.6 11.5 36.2 19.6 54.1 4 1 ,297 147 138 173 290 11.3 10.6 13.3 35.2 22.3 63.3 7 1 ,079 160 127 104 259 15.0 11.8 9.7 36.5 24.0 66.2 16 870 118 68 93 205 13.6 7.8 10.7 32.1 23.6 73.1 20 748 99 71 82 173 13.2 9.5 10.9 33.6 23.1 68.6 24 902 112 89 68 182 12.4 9.9 7.5 29.8 20.2 67.6 27 856 75 46 56 137 8.8 5.4 6.8 21.0 16.0 77.4 28 890 89 65 101 158 10.0 7.3 11.3 28.6 17.7 61.9 31 1 ,100 100 85 100 253 9.1 7.7 9.1 25.9 23.0 88.8 No 9 9 9 9 9 9 Average . 12.1 8.8 10.1 31.0 21.1 69.0 Median. . 12.4 9.5 10.7 32.1 22.3 67.6 142 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools TABLE 30. Retention in Junior High Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities OF 20,000 AND More Population, with a Median Population of 28,000. % Enrollment IS of Enrollment % Enrollmeni OF Grades 1 TO 6 En. School Grade G RADE 10-12 IS 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 7 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 10 2, ,717 223 129 110 126 8.2 4.7 4.0 16.9 4.6 27.3 11 2, ,191 343 264 210 364 15.7 12.0 9.6 37.3 16.6 44.6 12 8, ,133 818 500 318 612 10.1 6.1 3.9 20.1 7.5 37.4 21 2. ,591 429 298 233 359 16.6 11.5 8.9 39.0 13.8 37.4 25 2. ,664 296 235 267 436 11.1 8.8 10.0 29.9 16.3 54.6 30 2 ,591 224 181 150 315 8.6 7.0 5.8 21.4 12.2 56.8 No.... 6 6 6 6 6 6 Average. 11.7 8.3 7.0 27.4 11.8 43.0 Median 10.6 7.9 7.3 25.6 13.0 41.0 TABLE 31. Retention in Departmental Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities AND Towns of Less Than 5,000 Population, With a Median Popula- tion OF 2,800. Enrollment OF Grades 1 TO 6 En. SCOOOL Grade ( Grade 10-12 IS 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 7 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 3 21 15 25 47 77.0 5 444 57 57 63 127 12^8 12^8 i4'2 39!8 28^6 71.8 7 328 33 25 34 80 10.1 7.6 10.4 28.1 24.4 87.0 8 541 80 59 55 121 14.8 10.9 10.2 35.9 22.4 62.4 21 356 52 31 37 77 14.6 8.7 10.4 33.7 21.6 64.2 22 348 53 31 44 90 15.2 8.9 12.6 36.7 25.9 70.3 23 492 72 57 79 136 14.6 11.6 16.0 42.2 27.6 65.4 25 180 22 12 14 35 12.2 6.7 7.8 26.7 19.4 72.9 26 463 73 54 77 158 15.8 11.7 16.6 44.1 34.1 77.8 27 316 52 37 48 85 16.5 11.7 15.3 43.5 26.9 62.0 28 151 27 19 24 52 17.9 12.6 15.9 46.4 34.4 74.3 29 347 55 46 63 127 15.8 13.2 18.1 47.1 36.3 77.4 31 24 23 40 59 67.8 33 168 21 19 31 69 i2'.5 11.3 18.4 42^2 41.1 97.2 35 200 25 26 30 63 12.5 13.0 15.0 40.5 31.5 77.8 No 13 13 13 13 13 15 Average . 14.3 10.8 13.8 38.9 28.7 73.7 Median., 14.6 11.6 15.0 40.5 27.6 72.9 Retention of Pupils in School 143 TABLE 32. Retention in Departmental Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities OF from 5,000 to 19,000 Population, With a Median Population of 8,800. % Enrollment is of Enrollment % Enrollment OF Grades 1 TO 6 En. School Grade Grade 1 10-12 IS 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 7 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 1 ,343 132 122 127 166 9.8 9.1 9.5 28.4 12.3 43.6 2 723 90 67 80 158 12.4 9.3 11.1 32.8 21.8 62.4 4 ,347 120 67 87 161 8.9 5.0 6.5 20.4 11.9 58.7 6 883 103 69 110 160 11.6 7.8 12.4 31.8 18.1 56.7 9 524 64 51 72 177 12.2 9.7 13.7 35.6 33.8 94.7 10 ,216 116 122 84 171 9.5 10.0 6.9 26.4 14.1 53.1 11 ,148 170 139 115 296 14.8 12.1 10.0 36.9 25.8 69.8 12 523 89 61 70 132 17.0 11.6 13.4 42.0 25.2 60.0 14 ,195 114 85 116 171 9.6 7.1 9.7 26.4 14.3 54.3 15 874 92 69 74 120 10.5 7.9 8.4 26.8 13.7 51.1 18 ,455 158 105 98 161 10.8 7.2 6.7 24.7 11.1 44.6 19 ,546 130 167 90 161 8.4 10.8 5.8 25.0 10.4 41.6 20 658 88 75 97 120 13.4 11.4 14.7 39.5 18.2 46.1 24 852 82 64 68 120 9.6 7.5 8.0 25.1 14.1 56.1 30 770 100 80 13.0 10.4 32 1 ,205 156 128 102 171 12.9 10.6 's.'s 32^0 'U.2 44;3 No.... 16 16 15 15 15 15 Average. 11.5 9.2 9.7 30.2 17.3 55.8 Median 11.2 9.5 9.5 28.4 14.2 54.3 V5- CHART 3. Retention in terms of enroll- ments, based on tables 28 to 33, inclusive. _ "a" schools in cities of 5,000 — 0-J ~ "b" schools in cities of 5,000 to 19,000. "c" schools in cities of 20,000 and +. Numbers at left represent 30- per cent enrollments are of enrollments in grades 1 to 6. \ junior schools. — departmental schools. Upper pair of lines, grades _ .- 7 to 9. Z-i Lower pair of lines, grades 10 to 12. /o 144 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools TABLE 33. Retention in Departmental Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities OF 20,000 AND More Population, With a Median Population of 22,000. Enrollment School Grade 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 13 2,387 250 221 201 454 16 2,748 323 229 184 381 % Enrollment is of Enrollment % OF Grades 1 to 6 En. Grade 10-12 is 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 7 10.4 11.7 9.3 8.3 8.4 6.7 28.1 26.7 10-12 19.0 67.5 13.8 51.8 17 1,746 199 156 161 160 11.4 8.9 9.2 29.5 9.2 38.4 No 3 Average 11.2 Median 11.4 8.9 3 8.1 8.4 3 28.1 28.1 3 14.0 13.8 3 52.6 51.8 TABLE 34. Retention in Non- Departmental Schools in Terms of Enrollments in Cities and Towns With a Median Population of 1,350. % Enrollment is of Enrollment % Enrollment OF Grades 1 ro 6 En. School Grade Grade 10-12 is 1-6 7 8 9 10-12 7 8 9 7-9 10-12 OF 7-9 1 181 28 30 35 88 15.9 16.9 19.3 52.1 48.6 94.6 2 84 11 11 8 30 13.1 13.1 9.5 35.7 35.7 100.0 3 340 41 45 44 100 12.1 13.2 12.9 38.2 29.4 76.9 4 150 31 23 32 63 20.7 15.3 21.3 57.3 42.0 73.0 5 190 31 16 32 64 16.3 9.0 16.8 42.1 33.7 81.0 6 379 65 72 57 122 11.2 12.4 9.8 33.4 21.1 62.9 7 193 13 20 28 39 6.7 10.3 14.5 31.5 20.2 63.9 8 91 12 14 7 28 13.2 15.4 7.7 36.3 30.8 84.8 9 175 20 32 20 54 11.4 18.3 11.4 41.1 30.8 75.0 10 270 35 31 25 45 13.0 11.5 9.2 33.7 16.7 49.4 11 124 12 12 16 24 9.6 9.6 12.9 32.1 19.3 60.0 12 483 68 62 68 162 14.1 12.8 14.1 41.0 33.5 81.8 13 155 24 14 30 48 15.5 9.0 19.3 43.8 31.0 70.6 14 197 26 38 34 93 13.2 19.3 17.2 49.7 47.2 94.9 IS 152 10 26 10 32 6.6 17.1 6.6 30.3 21.1 69.5 16 18 20 23 50 82.0 17 160 13 12 20 36 's^i '7.5 n.s 28!i 22^5 80.0 18 224 29 39 30 49 12.9 17.4 13.4 43.7 21.8 50.0 19 300 32 28 14 17 10.7 9.3 4.7 24.7 5.7 23.0 20 124 14 22 25 48 11.3 17.7 20.1 49.1 38.7 78.7 21 79 13 10 10 30 16.4 12.6 12.6 41.6 37.9 90.9 22 322 50 42 43 93 15.5 13.0 13.3 41.8 28.9 68.9 23 137 22 15 21 26 16.0 10.9 15.3 32.2 19.0 44.8 No 22 22 22 22 22 23 Average . 12.9 13.3 13.1 39.5 28.9 72.0 Median . 13.1 12.9 13.1 41.1 30.1 75.0 Retention of Pupils in School 145 TABLE 35. Summary of Tables 28 to 34 Inclusive. (a) average per cents. (b) median per cents. % Enrollment is of Enrollment % Enrollment 10-12 Population in Grades 1 to 6 is of Enrollment Group Grades 7 to 9 Grades 10-12 7 to 9 (a) Junior Dep'tl Non-dp. Junior Dep'il Non-dp. Jr. Dep'tl Non-dp. 5,000- 41.9 38.9 39.5 25.7 28.7 28.9 56.1 73.7 72.0 5,000-19,000... 31.0 30.2 .... 21.1 17.3 .... 69.0 55.8 .... 20,000& + 27.4 28.1 .... 11.8 14.0 .... 43.0 52.6 .... Total 58.3 63.9 72.0 (b) as above.... 41.7 40.5 41.1 28.3 27.6 30.1 54.1 72.9 75.0 32.1 28.4 .... 22.3 14.2 .... 67.6 54.3 .... 25.6 28.1 .... 13.0 13.8 .... 41.0 51.8 .... •. .... 57.5 62.4 75.0 Tables 28 to 35 show the per cent the 7th, 8th, 9th, 7th to 9th, and the 10th to 12th grade enrollments, respectively are of en- rollments in grades 1 to 6 combined, for junior high schools, departmental schools, and non-departmental schools, and the per cent the enrollment in grades 10 to 12 is of the enrollment in grades 7 to 9. Table 28 should be read: school No. 2 of the junior high school group has enrollments of 108, 16, 13, 24 and 41, respec- tively, in grades 7, 8, 9, 7 to 9, and 10 to 12; and the enrollments in grades 7, 8, 9, 7 to 9, and 10 to 12 are respectively 14.8 12.0, 22,2, 49.0, and 38.0 per cent of the enrollments in grades 1 to 6 combined; and the enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 54.1 per cent of the enrollments in grades 7 to 9. Tables 29 to 34 inclusive are to be read in a similar manner. Averages are computed by schools and not on the number of pupils in all schools combined as the latter gives undue weight to the relatively large school. It is comparative results we are seeking. All non-departmental schools are in cities and towns of 5,000 population or less. A comparison of average results from the three types of schools when classified according to the size of the towns or cities in which located shows that in cities of less than 5,000 population the per cents of enrollments in grades 7, 8, or 9 are variable within narrow limits for the three types, no one type maintaining the lead for all three grades. The enrollments for grades 7, 8 and 9 combined are 41.9%, 38.9%, and 39.5% of enrollments in grades 1 to 6 respectively for junior, departmental, and non-department- al schools. The advantage seems to be with the junior schools. The differences are small but have more significance when we 146 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools consider that reorganization has taken place very recently in these schools. If medians be considered the corresponding per cents are 41.7, 40.5, and 41.1, the advantage still being with the junior group. The per cents of enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 25.7, 28.7, and 28.9 of enrollments in grades 1 to 6 respectively for the three types of schools in order as above, the junior group being below the others by about the same amount as it was above in grades 7 to 9. The corresponding per cents for medians are 28.3, 27.6, and 30.1 respectively. The low average for the senior high school enrollments in the junior type schools is due to the fact that one school, No. 15, is just establishing a four year course and had at the time data were collected but 6% as many pupils enrolled in grades 10 to 12 as in grades 1 to 6. This lowers the average of the entire group by 3%. The median would seem to be the more reliable index of conditions in this case, and if this is used the junior group schools are superior to depart- mental schools in retention thru the senior high school in cities of this class. The fact that junior organization is of so recent date in practically all these schools may easily account for no marked superiority of these schools over departmental schools in retention in the senior high school. In cities of this class the junior type schools have a lower ratio of enrollments in grades 10 to 12 to enrollments in grades 7 to 9 than have either of the other groups. The per cents for the junior, departmental, and non-departmental groups are respectively 56.1, 73.7, and 72.0. The use of this ratio as a meas- ure of retention as is done by Douglass and others may be very misleading, especially in schools where the reorganization is just beginning to be felt. Naturally this influence will be apparent first in the junior high school grades and the greater the in- fluence here the lower will be the ratio of senior to junior high school enrollments until the influence has had time to work itself fully thru the entire high school. On the other hand some high schools receive into the eleventh and twelfth grades many pupils from neighboring 1, 2 or 3 year, or from 4 year certified schools, in which case the ratio of senior to junior enrollments is high as compared with that in other schools where the normal conditions of retention are really better. For cities of from 5,000 to 19,000 population the per cents the enrollments in grades 7 to 9 are of enrollments in grades 1 to 6 Retention of Pupils in School 147 are 31.1 and 30.2 respectively for junior and departmental schools ; and the enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 21.1% and 17.3% of the enrollments in grades 1 to 6 respectively for the same school groups; and enrollments in grades 10 to 12 are 69% and 55.8% of the enrollments in grades 7 to 9 of the same schools. In this group of cities the junior type schools have a clear advantage over departmental schools in all three comparisons for measuring retention. If median results be used the junior schools maintain their advantage in all comparisons, the per cents corresponding to the averages above being, 32.1, 28.4, 22. 3, 14.2, 67.6, and 54.3, respectively. For cities of the 20,000 and more population class the depart- mental schools have a slightly higher per cent of enrollments in grades 7 to 9 and in 10 to 12 than the junior type schools, and also a higher ratio of enrollments in grades 10 to 12 as compared with grades 7 to 9. The per cents in order as for the last com- parison are, 27.4, 28.1, 11.8, 14.0, 43.0, and 52.6 for junior and departmental schools. The median results are 25.6, 28.1, 13.0, 13.8, 41.0, and 51.8, respectively. The best results would naturally be anticipated for the junior type schools in the larger cities where differentiated opportunities can best be provided, but it is here that the departmental schools excel most the junior schools. The above data show that the junior type schools are superior to departmental schools in power of retention as measured by the per cent of enrollments in junior and senior school grades as compared with enrollments in grades 1 to 6 in schools in cities of less than 20,000 population and slightly inferior in cities of 20,000 and more population. Other facts that are apparent from these tables are that the per cent the enrollments in both junior and senior high school grades is of enrollments in grades 1 to 6 decreases as we pass from the smaller towns and cities to the larger, and that in both junior and departmental schools in cities of less than 20,000 9th grade enrollments are greater than in grade eight. Both of these conditions are to be accounted for, probably, by the fact that the smaller school corporation draws many pupils from surround- ing rural areas in the upper grammar grades and especially in the high school. In cities of 20,000 and more population 9th grade enrollments are less than in the 8th in both junior and de- partmental schools. 148 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Douglass^ reports for 34 junior type schools an enrollment of 59 in the senior high school for every 100 in the junior high school (grades 7 to 9 inclusive). Table 35 (a) shows that for the 28 junior type schools included in this table, under the last column head- ing, there are 58.3 pupils enrolled in grades 10 to 12 for every 100 in grades 7 to 9, but when the enrollments are averaged for the 33 departmental schools for the same grades there are 63.9 pupils enrolled in grades 10 to 12 for every 100 in grades 7 to 9. The limitations of this method of measuring retention have been noted above. The measurement of retention in terms of enrollments is open to the objection that it conceals increases or decreases in school enrollments due to increasing or declining city population. Thus a school in a rapidly growing community may have a large lower grade enrollment and a small enrollment in the grammar grades and high school, which causes it to appear to have a very low retentive power, while as a matter of fact the reverse may be true. Also, as previously noted, certain schools may have un- usually high enrollments in upper high school grades because of transfer from two and three year high schools in the surrounding territory. However where we are comparing several schools of one type and class with several of another type but of the same city class, as we are in this investigation, the objection noted above is largely removed as we are measuring group tendencies rather than individual schools. We have already disposed of another objection by dividing our schools according to the size of the cities in which they are located. It would be desirable to have enrollments by sex to note what type of organization, junior or departmental, makes the stronger appeal to one sex or the other. As many of the schools reported total enrollments only and not boys and girls separately, total enrollment data only have been used in this section of my report. Schools were asked to report enrollment data for 1911 also that changes in enrollments and retention over a period of years might be ascer- tained and its relation to any particular type of organization noted, but very few schools submitted data relative to this item, so few that the data are valueless for comparative purposes. ' Douglass, A. A. The Junior High School. XVth Year Book of National Society for the Study of Education. 1916, part III. p. 104. Retention of Pupils in School 149 b. Retention Measured in Terms of High Sixth Grade Pupils Retained in the School System Thru Half Years of Attendance. In view of the limitations indicated above for measuring retention in terms of present enrollments, other data were collected which, it was thought, would afford a better index of retention than the method previously used. For this purpose data have been collected from several schools showing the high sixth grade enrollments for the second semester of the school years 1907-8 and 1912-13, boys and girls being listed separately. The data collected show exactly how many of the pupils enrolled in each of these groups were retained in the school system 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 half years; also how many of each of the originally enrolled pupils made a school advancement of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 half years for each date group. From these data the per cent of retention thru each number of half years from 1 to 6 has been computed for junior and departmental schools separately for each date and for boys, girls and totals. Junior and departmental schools are then compared as to attendance retention (half years in school) and progress retention (half years of advancement) for boys, girls, and totals and for both dates; and also as to the increase in the per cent of retention during the five year interval between the 1907-8 and the 1912-13 groups. Is is assumed that age-grade conditions and the extent of moving away from the school system are approximately the same at the two dates, 1907-8 and 1912-13, for any given school. As conditions necessarily vary somewhat from school to school making for high or low retention at both dates, the in- crease in the per cent of retention between the two dates is perhaps a better index of improvement than is the actual per cent of retention at either date. A clear advantage of this method of measuring retention is that it follows the records of certain definite pupils enrolled in a given system thru a certain number of years. Accordingly it determines the holding power of the school for these certain pupils regardless of whether the city is growing rapidly or slowly in pop- ulation. Obvious limitations of this method of investigation are: first, that pupils moving away from the school system in which they were enrolled as high sixth grade pupils are checked against this system on the negative account even though the child 150 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools leaves thru no dislike of school and frequently attends school in another system into whose jurisdiction he moves. Second, pupils moving into a district after passing the high sixth grade level and attending school there, frequently for several years, are not counted on the positive retention account of this school. In case the number of schools considered is sufficiently great the marked differences in individual schools, in the respects noted above, will be neutralized in the general tendencies of the group of schools, and it is essentially group tendencies with which we are concerned. The most obvious limitation of this phase of the investigation is the small number of schools from which data were secured. Ten of the schools claiming junior high school organization date their junior organization from September 1914 or earlier. It is apparent that data from schools organized since that date would have little or no value for this comparison as the reorgani- zation influence could not have influenced retention in grades 7, 8 and 9 from the second semester of 1912-13. If reorganiza- tion influences retention it should be apparent to some degree in schools reorganized before 1914, especially in view of the fact that the spirit of such a movement usually precedes its formal accomplishment by two or three years. Data were solicited from these ten schools and twenty de- partmental schools of approximately similar size. Five of the ten junior type schools contributed the desired data as did also four of the departmental schools. A fifth departmental school supplied data for the 1912-13 group of pupils but its results are omitted from comparative averages and medians because growth in retention between the two dates cannot be determined for this school. Inability to trace pupil records thru the years indicated was the chief cause of non-cooperation by all the schools of which the request was made. The data were collected during the months of April, May and June, 1917, and were compiled from the school records in the superintendent's office in each case by the superintendent or by his clerk under his direction. The data were collected in accordance with the directions indicated below, and no further checking has been attempted to verify their accuracy than to note whether the data sent in seemed within the bounds of reason. Retention of Pupils in School 151 Directions for Tabulating or Checking Retention Data. "Indicate the name of the city and by whom the data were checked. Divide the tabulation sheet into five columns. In column 1 write a complete list of all boys enrolled in the high sixth grade of your schools during the second semester of the school year 1912-13. In column 2, opposite the name of each pupil in column 1, indicate the number of half years each pupil attended your schools below grade 9 after the date given in column 1. In column 3 indicate the number of half years of advancement each of these pupils received in your schools below grade 9 after the date indicated in column 1. In column 4 indicate the number of half years each of these pupils attended grades 9-12 inclusive after the date indicated in column 1. In column 5 indicate the number of high school credits completed by each of these pupils in grades 9-12 inclusive after the date indicated in column 1. If a pupil has withdrawn from school during the term without completing the work of the term count his attendance as one-half of a year for the term in question. A high school credit is to be given for a subject satisfactorily completed which has daily recitations for a half year. Four credits constitute a normal half year's work. Indicate fractional credits on a proportional basis. Be sure to check over your high sixth grade list for the semester following the date given in column 1 to include any pupil who may not have been pro- moted to grade seven at the end of the semester for which the list was prepared. Prepare similar lists for girls of the high sixth grade for the second semester of 1912-13 and also separate list for boys and girls for the second semester of the year 1907-8 for the same grade as above. Compute the data for the 1912-13 groups to the end of the first semester la January, 1917." Tables 37 to 40 show the retention of high sixth grade pupils thru each half year of attendance from 1 to 6 for junior and departmental schools for the dates of 1912-13 and 1907-8, and tables 41 and 42 show the gain or loss in the per cent of retention during the five year interval between these two date groups. Table 36 shows the enrollments in the high sixth grade for boys and girls separately and for both 1907-8 and 1912-13. TABLE 36. High Sixth Grade Enrollments. In Junior : High Schools In Departmental Schools School 1912-: 13 1907-8 School 1912-13 1907-8 B G T B G T B G T B G T 3 42 37 79 31 17 48 2 21 22 43 21 22 43 10 42 24 66 32 24 56 11 39 32 71 40 32 72 22 78 62 140 77 90 167 16j 38 38 76 20 18 38 24 22 19 41 37 20 57 17 54 47 101 49 53 102 25 57 62 119 64 70 134 32 72 69 141 Note: In this and following tables B. G, T, means boys, girls, and totals respectively. This table is the base for computing per cents in the following tables. Table 36 should be read: School 3 of the junior high school group had 42 boys, 37 girls, and a total of 79 pupils enrolled in the high sixth grade during the second semester of the year 1912-13, and 31 boys, 17 girls and a total of 48 pupils for the same semester in 1907-8. 152 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools o H H CN 00 O fO rf< U-) t-~ r^ \0 vO fj ^ »0 rC Tt* t^ ^ 00 cs On 00 t^ tJh vo vC vO O t^ CO lO (N Os 00 lO CN lO t^ CN CO O «-i ro •OOOt^ i-H Ov I 00 ■■-H lO 00 •* 1:^ OOt^ l^ 00 t^ O ro O "-I >0 lO 0\ Os t^ t^ t^ Ot^ 00 rOOvrO^O ^ o 'I ^. "1 '='. "^. Kg i-i ro t^ 0\ to ^^ 00 00 00 t^ ON fC»OOfOt^ o^ 00 On 0\ t^ 0\ lOOOlOCN fO rh O O •^ lo On ^ COCNIO»-(10 CO CO t^ ,-( lO •^ O 00 00 U lO ■* O ^H CM O lO CN NO Tfl t}< lO 00 '-H 00 ra ko (N O CO On CO *^ lO rj< lO ii-3 -^ OC^ OOOO p ^ lO lO t^ lO ■^ O t^ O vo o tJi •<* On NO '-I > b PQ , CN l^ On CO IT) H (^ CO NO l~~ 00 O ^ lO NO NO NO O in CO fo ■^ ov „ CO Tt< "-I tN On fji? •(^ .ph CO 00 t^ " NO t^ *^ NO lO , CM ^ KO 00 (N H rjl Tj< 0\ CN t>- CN CO "5 "-I ^ foco 2 O cs Retention of Pupils in School 153 Table 37 should be read: School 3 of the junior group had 35 boys, 30 girls, and a total of 65 pupils retained from the high sixth grade of the second semester of 1912-13 for one-half year. Reduced to per cents there were 83.3% boys, 81.1% girls and a total of 82.3% of all pupils retained one-half year or more. 52.4% boys, 27% girls and 40.5% of all combined were retained thru 6 half years of attendance. On the average 79.8% of all high sixth grade pupils were retained 1 year; 63.3%, 2 years; and 46.4%, 3 years. Tables 38, 39 and 40 are to be read in a similar manner. 154 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools < u >^ ^ (i< o ei M n IS 2; w w d == <; w I-) o o n (J o i-H ro th \0 0\ (J OOiT) ro O ■* tJi vo ■«+i •^ CO , in o tM o lo t-i CN ro "-I CO On l-* ^— I 1— I lO '— I lO 00 CN 1-1 CN ro 00 O O O VO CN 0\ ^ tN t^ ►H >* 00 0\ \0 Os CS 00 >0 CO O t^ pg CN ro 'O MD ON ^ riH .rt On t^ vO -^ t^ 00 00 NO 0\ . fOt~- ro ■^ Ov t^ ro -^ >0 ■* CN n o ■^ "*i o t^ 1-1 <>4 00 "-I >o PQ ro NO OS ''^ cs CN CS NO CN VO NO NO TjHNO NO NO lo o On r<3 00 00 lO NO "-) 1-1 00 so t^ 00 fO r-1 Ti< o^ CO •<* O oo-* -^ ■^ "* 1-11*^1* Retention of Pupils in School 155 o VI >^ H n iz; w w H fcO ■<*< ■<*i uo lO 'pH " i^ t--. t^ »^ r- O O ro O Tf fC vQ ro »H vo CN P0 00 t~~ t^ \o n t^ CS t^ 00 O vo lO Ov fO t^ O tf^ 00 >o t-- 1— 00 CN ff> t^ O '-I j_, ro lO lOt-^ O , l^ Oi fO 0 0\'<-i 00 PO so lO <*5 so CS rOfSt^ 0\ £0 OsOtNO»-^ * so so £;§ so 00 •<* OS 00 t— T+l Tj< (M •^ 3 r_ 00 '-I t— »-< CS •^ CN rtt rOTf SO ,h «s rsj O lO t— S-) ^-H fS CN Cv) CS ^-H 00 so iC »-i lO re fO -H PO tN o o~^ so OOt— J^ so t— lO lO 00 '-H '^ 00sOsO>OsO OO^fOiOOs W ^H (N CN ro •^ so • *"^ oo-H 2.5° 9 3 C soso iiSo • • a «"" ■ ■ S^M • ■ "^o-s • • (^2 5 . . StS o an . 4) N ca ^ c Q i^ 156 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools o (A < < at M pq & Z . n o o ■* •< w" (A o n CL, o iz; H T-l »-( O^ 0\ (-4 • • • • !$ tN 00 l^ •* t^ t^ vO lO lO l-H »-l 00t~ (/) a z H Pi < M Q O '-• fS "-I ro kO ^H t^ P^ fO ^5^ r^ nn r^ r^i 00O\ On t^ W »H fO i-( C<7 cs '-I 'O t^ c o u i U^Tt<0>«0 kO f«5 T*< VO VO ro t^ do ^ IT) ir> 00 Ti* ■^ f- CQ 0\ O O I'S < S < \0 VO «0-<*< Z vO T-l lO lO &^ vO lO lO ■* ■* 000\ •rt UO >0 00 Retention of Pupils in School 157 u K H !z; H w o ^§ < u H H < H u Oh OOO lO o ■* ■"-I lO 0\ \0 O CS CS O f^ lO O -^ fS •^ 0 rj< 00 O 00 "0 vO O-* CN 00 ,-1 \0 O On O i« ^~^;i, >^ NO O CS PO o NO On NO ro lO lO 00 00 fN '-H ■<-H IT) 0^ J^ »0 NO »— t^ «0 -^ SO O O'O ro PC < I O ror^ »-< 00 •* § ra 00*^00 NO lo t^ NO vo Ov O '^ On OOCS Tj* O On O t^ lO »0 O \doorri ^ 00 00 ^H l-H t^ W NO (VJ Tjl ID CN lO O fO CN CN ^ POTt< CS NO^ fO CS CS O lO o r CN OO On ■* >D 00 CN CN O ^H 00 CN »>• »0 T-4 CO OOO 00^ CNi-lfO On CO '-H CN CO>OIOOn NO On T}< r> 1 ^ NO NO ro NO ■*'* 00 lo Tt lO t^ 0\ 1 ^ , ^ lOiO u v a lOTt* a »0 CN On VO ^o\ rtHNO-«lr)co " 1 -H cod OiO NO ID 3 a a H CN f-< no"!-. i CN l^ CO •* OO-* '-HON 158 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Table 41 should be read: in school 3 there is a gain in reten- tion thru one-half year of 9.1% for boys, 22.3% for girls and 13.5% for all pupils of the high sixth grade during the interval between the 1907-8 and the 1912-13 classes. On the average for the five schools there is a gain for all pupils of 7.3% thru 1 year (2 half years), 10.5% thru 2 years, and 9.1% thru 3 years. Table 42 is to be read in like manner. Retention oj Pupils in School 159 CHART 4. Retention in terms of attendance beyond the high sixth grade, based on tables 37 to 40 nclusive. . . • . Numbers at top represent half years; and numbers at the left, the per cent of high sixth pupils retained. and junior schools. and departmental schools. Upper pair of lines, 1912-13 groups. Lower pair of lines, 1907-8 groups. CHART 5. Gain in attendance retention by boys be- tween the dates 1907- 8 and 1912-13, based on tables 41 and 42. Numbers at top represent half years. Numbers at left represent per cent of gain. junior schools. departmental schools. / /s- /o- 1 60 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Table 37 shows that for the 1912-13 group in junior high schools on the average 4.2% more boys than girls were retained thru 1 year beyond the high sixth grade, that 8.7% more boys than girls were retained thru 2 years, and 7.8% more boys than girls were retained thru 3 years. Table 38 shows that 5 years earlier in these same schools 1.4% more boys than girls were retained thru 1 year, 2.2% more girls than boys were retained thru 2 years, and 3.9% more girls than boys were retained thru 3 years beyond the high sixth grade. In the junior schools the boys made marked gains as compared with the girls during the 5 year interval indicated in table 41. Tables 39, 40 and 42 show corresponding data for the de- partmental schools. Table 39 shows that for the 1912-13 group 3.9% more boys than girls were retained thru 1 year, 4.7% more girls than boys were retained thru 2 years, and 7.6% more girls than boys were retained thru 3 years beyond the high sixth grade. Table 40 shows that for the 1907-8 group 6.2% more boys than girls were retained thru 1 year, 10% more boys than girls thru 2 years, and 10.5% more boys than girls were retained thru 3 years beyond the high sixth grade. Table 42 shows that there was a decided increase in retention in departmental schools during the 5 year interval but that the marked increase was with the girls who surpass the boys in retention at the latter date. This condition is directly contrary to the tendency in the junior type schools where the boys have the higher retention at the latter date although starting with the lower record 5 years before. A comparison of the averages of tables 37 and 39 shows that for all pupils of the 1912-13 group the departmental schools have a 3% higher retention than the junior schools thru 1 year (82.8% to 79.8%), a 7% higher retention thru 2 years (70% to 63.3%), and a 7% higher retention thru 3 years (53% to 46.4%). When these tables are compared for the per cent of boys retained we find the departmental schools 3% higher thru 1 year, 1% higher thru 2 years, and both equal thru 3 years beyond the high sixth grade. Comparison of the averages of tables 41 and 42 for all pupils shows the junior type schools to have a 3% greater increase in retention than the departmental schools thru 1 year (7.3% to 4.6%), a 1% smaller increase thru 2 years (10.5% to 11.8%), and a 4% smaller increase thru 3 years (9.1% to 12.7%). Retention of Pupils in School 161 When tables 41 and 42 are compared for boys only the junior schools have a 5% greater increase in retention than the depart- mental schools thru 1 year (8.5% to 3.7%), a 10% greater in- crease thru 2 years (15.2% to 5.6%), and a 10% greater increase thru 3 years (13.8% to 3.9%). As measured in terms of attendance retention of all pupils (boys and girls) of the 1912-13 group the departmental schools are superior to the junior schools, but as measured in terms of gain in retention by boys during the 5 year interval the junior schools have a distinct superiority. The 1907-8 data in my possession show retention thru the senior high school also, but as the 1912-13 pupils have not yet reached the upper high school grades these data have no com- parative value for this study, and so are omitted. The fact that 2 of the junior and 1 of the departmental schools computed their data to June 1917 instead of January 1917 as directed has no effect on the data submitted in the preceding tables as more than three years, the period for which the tables were designed, had elapsed at either of the dates, January or June. The foregoing tables exhibit data relative to retention in terms of half years of attendance. The material collected from these schools enables us to compare junior and departmental schools as to retention in terms of half years of progress thru the school system. Tables 43 to 46 indicate retention thru half years of progress for both junior and departmental schools for the 1907-8 and the 1912-13 groups, and tables 47 and 48 show the gain or loss per cent in progress retention during the 5 year inter- val. 162 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Q O n H o ►< td CQ O O M < U) >< dt 3 K,^- u |xr< J «tN < s <§ H sO ID 00 (M 00 fO o^ lO \0 t^ >0 ^ VO f^ >ood (h 0\ CO »-^ ^ *^ o^ fc5 looovoooo Tjt lO o o So pj mooove^*-* OS CN sO TjJ PO ^ 00 »-i 00 00 •^lO'THOO^ IPO fO «N lO OsOt^OiO OPO >0(N (M 8 oi :^ « OO^fO'-lfO kP r-4 lO CS 0\ PO ° 00 1^ 00 t^ Os OIOONPCO , "^tVOOOCN^ H VO >0»H PO ^H OOOO'^IOOO JO ■^00t-t>iPO T»<0 O CO J~- On CO ^jj ITS C^ lO -tt CN 00 OJ 0\ OS '-^ tOt^CSOvOO 00 PO Ov so CS sOiOiO-^O •o cu tOOPO»-«'-i 8 ^ "to sOO-<*rOsO ^ OOCS sO-*PO fc5 »>• ^ o> 00 ^H fj «0 to so so pj OsT»<00P>lOs fcS '-l<^^^00^-■ sO «o«-» so lO ■*Os 2 Retention of Pupils in School 163 Table 43 should be read: in school 3 of the junior group 34 boys and 30 girls of those who were enrolled in the high sixth grade during the second semester of 1912-13 remained in school to complete another half year of work. On the average for the five schools 75.3% of all pupils who were enrolled in the high sixth grade made 1 year of advancement in school thereafter; 59.6%, 2 years; and 34.2%, 3 years. Tables 44 , 45, and 46 should be read in like manner. 164 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools a Q < Cti O m H cqoo M O H a H lOt^ fO o t— fcS t^ 00 , 00tJ< 0> O ■<* H »-*rO OfOOO •-< fO f<^ t1< 1-1 OOt- Ov O O > o rl< IT) O "D ^H 5 H 00-* oot^o t^ O OOO <^ CN 00t^O\t^ ca . o tJ< 00 »0 ■<* m „e^ t— vo 00 >o o\ •<* o»ooo\o f_ fO Tfc Ti< ro CN »H O PO^OO ' (^ rsoooo ■* fc? »H o o o »^ •^ ooooc^O 1-1 CN CS re ■<* s , ro tJ< O CS to H 'T-i ^ t)< (^j O •'JO t^ ^5 .,-1 ID lo o «o •>* O) ro lO ^ 03 ID •^ ID 00 <^ S§ cv| 1* (>» *^ ID 5 tS ro f*5 fO Ti* >* O »^ \0 fS O CM «-i 00-<* O rt< «N O On 0> CM 00^ O -H ro O ^H Ti< ^H Tit Retention of Pupils in School 165 H T^ CM •rt -^ ^ fe^ rf fO r-~ "* tT) t-- J-- vO O O O O orO^p^^O ONO H X o" ro r^ '-1 00 00 -HO^ <5 00 t^ O lO t^ NO 0 >0 'O 00 H O 'Z o rt< vO t^ fN O »-i C^l (M re Tt< H CQ tn CQ OO ^ rf rO O- z o ^ <>) tM CO-* O O H Id H 1^ 1^ t^ ro On On O Cu c-" ^ ^ -HOv "+ O NO 00 tL, cc; 00 00 vO t^ 00 I^ t-~ o H in < z (J) t~. lO t^ "0 00 »-l ,-1 U &^ CN t- ro •* NO t^-^ W oi t^ OOt^J^ t^ t^ t-~ >^ a, -o Ut oa loovoo^t^ 00 lO « <; 03 O 0>0 O ^ CQ < ^ (T) CN Tj< O t« K i-i lb o o o Pi f-i O ■«-l CS CN O ■*vO n en Id CO 6^ vo o o lo f) UO lO 00 0\ 00 00 00 00 00 < z (_5 CO \0 NO t^ (i< On 00 t^ 00 00 00 00 U — Q , (^ -^ .^ NO t- 1^ ro NO NO 00 •^ 2; ^-H hH d CL. O t^ On C-I O ■^ ^-H (N ro •* ir> b. O CQ O lO On NO rD S; CN ro CN Tt< NO O HH H Z J H Pi c .^ + § * ^'NO't^CN u < H OOCN^NOO O (N ro t^ ro On ■rt CN .^ (>) ,_, m NO On ■* ro ^ m ^:^^r-i ■* ■* o to t^ NO re 00 00 o ro i-H to ro 00 NO 00 NO NO to ko ro i-H to ro 00 o^ if^ f^\ 1^*1 11^ .^^ t^ to ro ■<-H re CM O O NO t^ re lO ■<* to 00 •* NO lO o o Q »-i CM rg re •^ * I-I NO t^ CN CN '-I ^H .^ re r B — ;;; a t-* o S ^ O u C bflOO S.5 ° am 4) O (U > i-i.S o 4> C C ♦ — .T^ 166 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools CQ < H Q < o « PQ 1-1 H H '<« ■t Q o H iz; a H bl OS t-~ lO lO •<* (h r^ ^j ■'-' •^ ^ OOO^fO ca fN lo o '-< t^ so lO lO w ,-( ,-( ,-( CS »-i «— I POt^ 00 3 O 0- ^1 >. o ^"- 00 1^ d\ ^ f_ fOlOfOt- es '-H vor- :t3 H • • • • >sO r/5000 0v ° »0 rfi (M rH vOO COCO lO lO t~ t^ O ■ • • • kO "^ t~ O O e^ •^ ro '-I (N ^-t »-t dos' ^ OMi^O-* t--. fo b5 »H (M O 00 coOv-iO ret— 00 Ov tot— oj lo 0. H K^ ,u l_l CN -^ -^ W T-l T-l •rH S H \o o >ooo O • • • • vp <^ o »o «o o^ vo lO ") rO m tJhiOOOO '*l>? »H (N lO 00 ° t— vO lO ro 1-4 CS tH 1-1 ta r^ -H >ot— CN OO 1-1 CM Retention of Pupils in School 167 n H H CQ en h4 O O n £:2 <«2 PS O H u Oh voO ^o > H -*o /^ OU *^ '^-J >*-' ' ^«o (nO ^-H CO -^ ^5 l^ o«» m H Q < 1 -" 1 CN CS t^ t1< 10 vo 00 u^OO t~ 00 lO 4 ro 1 00 Ti< ^H sO 00 10 1 ^ 1 Ti4Ov00»Ot^ 10 0\ »H CS fO »-l 1 -"-^ 10 CN (4 NO «0 ^ fO 10 CO H ONCSOor^-* 1 ' OOTtiOOfOtN On 00 tn fO 00 »-i ro ood 1-1 n T-<00«/0CNO P<1 T-l ►J CO 'too OS ^ro rO'*CM'*'-i 10 •* OvOO«OfO 1 ^-^ 1 J^ T(< On CO t^ 1000 CN On Q . .2 18.2 29, .0 7.5 2. .8 6.8 19, .4 16.3 22 .4 1.2 1 ID OS o>o dt- 06 '* W (X) < tn t« en (jj go (HON r-lO 0 On O ^ I I 00 t^ CN -^ t-« 000 fOO »-t 00 00 so o o H a U P4 M NO NO t^ CN '"' ■-H t- -< ^111 >- H ^ I I O "l J^ CN !>. ro CO 00 PO O CO CO ^r^O CO 10 CN •<* "* CO CN CO On NO d'rt NO CO t^ Tj ^ On NO <00'-i ■* I JNOCK") < oo^>. ■^ I ^ 4 CN t~ 00 fi CN CO CO 00-* NO O ^— I On Tj< C>-J O <>4 I CN 00 NO CN <6di -41 y-l r^ On S CN rHNOt^ OnO CO t— C0«0 ONTt< CO NO t-O (M CS| i-HO TttOO '■V. ^ 168 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Table 47 should be read : in school 3 there is a gain in reten- tion thru one-half year of 6.8% for boys, 16.4%forgirlsand 10.2% for all pupils during the five year interval between the 1907-8 and 1912-13 groups. On the average for the five schools there is a gain for all pupils of 9.6% thru 1 year, 11.2% thru 2 years, and 2.0% thru 3 years, etc. Table 48 is to be read in like manner. A comparison of averages of tables 43 and 45 shows that for all pupils the departmental schools have a 1% higher progress retention than junior schools thru 1 year (76.9% to 75.3%), a 5% higher retention thru 2 years (64.8% to 59.8%), and an 8% higher retention thru 3 years (42.4% to 34.2%). The depart- mental schools have a superior retention thru all three years be- yond the high sixth grade. When these tables are compared with respect to the per cent of boys retained we find the departmental schools 1% higher thru 1 year, equal thru 2 years, and 7% higher thru 3 years. A comparison of averages of tables 47 and 48 for all pupils shows a 4% greater gain in retention for junior than for depart- mental schools thru 1 year (9.6% to 5.3%), a 1% greater gain thru 2 years (11.2% to 10.6%), and a 5%, smaller gain thru 3 years (2% to 6.8%). When comparisons are made for boys only from tables 47 and 48 (averages) the junior schools have an 8% greater gain than departmental schools thru 1 year (10.9% to 2,.3%), a 9% greater gain thru 2 years (15.2% to 6.1%), and a 4% greater gain thru 3 years (4.4% to .7%). As measured in terms of retention of all pupils of the 1912-13 group the departmental schools are superior, but measured in terms of gain in retention of boys during the 5 year interval the junior high schools have a distinct advantage, as they also have in terms of gain in retention of all pupils thru 1 and 2 years. The fact that 2 junior and 1 departmental school computed the 1912-13 group data to June 1917 instead of to January 1917 as directed may have a slight effect upon the results for the sixth half year as a few retarded pupils may have passed the sixth half year of work during the extra half year included by these schools. The fact that these errors were in both types of schools tends to neutralize the error as relates to group comparisons. From the number of retarded pupils who might affect the results as indi- cated, I estimate that the per cent of error for any school for the Retention of Pupils in School 169 sixth half year is not greater than 5 per cent and that any error in the group averages for the sixth half year is less than 2 per cent. Tables 49, 50, 51 and 52 show the per cent of possible progress, the per cent acceleration, and the per cent retardation for junior and departmental schools for the high sixth grade groups of 1907- 8 and 1912-13. 170 Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools Z 5 fCfoes «-! o n H n o W o < a H u u n H n H ■* tS CN 00 OO Ov O* t-i r0>0000 z gH ^^do'io 2o W g OCNOOOO g«'-' d ■* d d Tf* o < fe§s ts O (« u (^iS c/) n °8 H O « « u u !a s •<1* —I o 2 H «^ "-^ ^ f^*^ ll) <-> >2 3 Z fOO\0\vO'*< < wo 0*0 0v »0 0\ Ki: '- - -^ \0 o\ «o »OtO n po ■^ vo >ot>» rH tH tN '-I OOO too •nd OQOv O n H H Q •< (4 o w n > u M n H n H VOOM^OOO 2 ©O «o— <«odfo III < a'^ 0^ »H eS Tff »-< ^^-. Z U i2 Sgo Id u o; 65. ooooo ooooo ddddd ooooo 00t~>OOvO\ Tttoooopo '-I t^ tN »H O ■^ .-( oofocs lo V) H 0\ fO to r*5 0\ to «,. 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