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 fe[[ HE need of a reliable History of the World has long been felt by all classes 
 of our people. This want led the author several years ago to undertake 
 the preparation of this volume, in which he has endeavored to give in a 
 concise and compact form all the principal events in the world's history. 
 
 One of the most gratifying evidences of the intellectual progress of the Ameri- 
 can people is the increasing interest that is manifested by them in historical 
 studies. Nor is this the case in our own land only. In the old world men 
 are giving more attention to the events of the past, and trying to learn from 
 them lessons of wisdom for the future. This has led to most important results. 
 So many discoveries have been made in the domain of ancient history, so many 
 of the old ideas and traditions have been exploded and shown to be mere 
 myths and legends, that the subject may be said to be almost entirely new, and 
 he who was well informed in history twenty years ago will find himself unable to 
 discourse intelligibly upon it now, unless he has kept up with the advance of 
 historical knowledge. The labors and researches of Champollion, Niebuhr, 
 Mariette, Bunsen, Arnold, Rawlinson, Mommsen, Curtius, and others have thrown 
 a flood of light upon the history of the ancient world, and the inscriptions discovered 
 and deciphered by these diligent and gifted workers enable us to read the deeds of 
 the great personages of ancient times in their own words, and have given to this 
 department of history an authority which it never before possessed. Thus, for 
 instance, in Egypt — a country the early records of which were once believed to be 
 lost, or at the best to rest upon the doubtful testimony of a foreign writer — the 
 kings and heroes speak to us from the walls of their palaces and tombs, in the 
 inscriptions which have defied the defacing hand of time. 
 
 So also in Assyria, Babylonia, Greece, and Rome, modern discovery and criticism 
 have swept away the ancient myths, and have placed the history of these countries 
 upon a substantial and enduring basis. "At the present d>a.y," says Le Normant, 
 "one cannot, without unpardonable ignorance, adhere to such a history as has 
 been written by good old Rollin." 
 
 So too in the domain of mediaeval and modern history. The great fact that the 
 civilization of Europe did not perish with the Roman empire, but was taken up 
 and carried out on a more perfect and glorious scale by the great Teutonic race, 
 has received the attention it merits only from comparatively recent writers. In 
 many things it may be said that the world's history after the disruption of the 
 Roman empire has not been fully or properly understood until our own times. 
 Nor ha\jp we had until recently any reliable knowledge of the history of China 
 and Japan, which have heretofore been as sealed books to the rest of the world. 
 
 (3) 
 
 /d 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 These discoveries have not been made known to the general public. They are 
 only to be found in voluminous and very costly works which are inaccessible to the 
 great mass of the people. There is therefore a real necessity for a work which 
 shall embody in a single volume the very latest results of historical research, and 
 shall be accurate and comprehensive in statement and popular in style. 
 
 In the arrangement of this volume the history of each country is given separately. 
 This seemed best to the author, as it admitted of a continuous and detailed narra- 
 tive. The work being contained in a single volume, it is of course easy for the 
 reader to make the comparisons and references necessary to give him a clear idea of 
 the general course of history. In order to avoid repetition, the events relating to 
 several nations in common are narrated at length in the history of the country which 
 they principally concern, and in other portions of the work where they occur the 
 attention of the reader is directed, by references, to the main narrative. Thus the 
 wars of Napoleon I. are related at length in the History of France. In the History 
 of England this period is treated in less detail, reference being made to the French 
 history. In this way the reader is kept fully informed of the events of the history 
 of each country, and is not wearied with needless repetition. The history of those 
 nations that have played the chief part in the world's career is given at greater 
 length than that of those which have been less prominent, but at the same time the 
 history of the most unimportant country is related with sufficient fulness to give the 
 reader a clear and comprehensive idea of it. While great prominence is given to 
 ancient history, the author has endeavored to direct the reader's attention especially 
 to the events of the middle ages and of modern history. 
 
 It has been the earnest aim of the author to embody in these pages the 
 latest conclusions of the most eminent authorities in the various departments 
 of history. He has tried to make the narrative not a mere dry statement of 
 facts, but to present a picture of the life and manners of every nation of which 
 the work treats; to point out the real causes of the growth, prosperity, and 
 decay of the empires of the ancient and modern world ; and to bring before his 
 readers the various great men— the sages, warriors, poets, and orators— of the past, 
 as they appeared in life ; to show the secret motives of their actions, and to point 
 out the lessons which their lives teach us. It is only by knowing and pondering 
 upon the lessons of the past that we can properly shape our conduct in the future. 
 All down the long " avenues of time" the voices of the great departed are calling to 
 us, warning us to avoid the errors which wrecked the mighty empires and kingdoms 
 of the past. How shall we do this if we are ignorant of their history? The author 
 trusts that this work may be fruitful in presenting these lessons. 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., 
 
 February 26th, 1878. 
 
RETREAT OF THE FRENCH FROM MOSCOW. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 The Creation — A<1am and Eve — Murder of Abel 
 — Seth — Noah — The Deluge — The Descen- 
 dants of Noah— The Tower of Babel— The 
 Confusion of Tongues— The Call of Abraham 
 — His Entrance into Palestine — His Victory 
 over Chedorlaomer — The Covenant — Birth of 
 Ishniael — Destruction of the Cities of the 
 Plain — Birth of Isaac — Expulsion of Ishmael 
 — Trial of Abraham's Faith — Marriage of 
 Isaac — Birth of Esau and Jacob — Their Char- 
 acters — Esau Sells His Birthright — Jacob Ob- 
 tains the Blessing — Flight of Jacob — His So- 
 journ with Laban — His Wives and Children 
 — His Return to Palestine — Trouble with his 
 Children— Joseph and his Brethren — Sale of 
 Joseph — His Captivity in Egy])t — Is Made 
 Yiceroj' — The Famine — Descent of Jacob and 
 his Family into Egypt — Death of Jacob 33 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 Growth of the Israelitish Nation in Egypt — 
 Their Condition in Goshen — Expulsion of the 
 Hyksos — Rise of the Nineteenth Dynasty — 
 — Severe Oppression of the Hebrews — Birth 
 of Moses — He is Educated as an Egyptian 
 Prince — His Flight from Egypt — His Life at 
 Mount Sinai- -The Burning Bush — Moses 
 Called to the Leadership of his People — He 
 Seeks the Court of Pharaoh— His Demand 
 Refused — The Plagues of Egypt — Institution 
 of the Passover — The Exodus — The Passage 
 of the Red Sea— The March to Sinai— The 
 Giving of the Law — The Nation Organized — 
 The March Resumed — Return of the Spies^ 
 Rebellion of the Israelites — Their Defeat by 
 the Canaanites — The Wanderings in the Wil- 
 derness — Death of Aaron — The Advance to 
 the Promised Land — Conquest of the Country 
 East of the Jordan— Defeat of the Moabites 
 — Death of Moses 51 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN — THE JUDGES. 
 
 Joshua Succeeds Moses — Passage of the Jordan 
 — Occupants of the Promised Land at the 
 Time of the Conquest — Description of Pales- 
 tine — Captui'e of Jericho, Ai, and Shechem — 
 Defeat of the Five Canaanitish Kings — Divi- 
 
 sion of Canaan among the Tribes— Death of 
 Joshua— Evils which Followed his Death — 
 A Period of Anarchy— The Judges— Charac- 
 ter of the Office of Judge— Exploits of Ehud 
 — Barak Defeats Sisera— Gideon's Victory — 
 Eli, High Priest — Wickedness of his Sons — 
 Birth of Samson — His Exploits and Death 
 — Birth of Samuel — His Call to the Prophetic 
 Office — Defeat of Israel by the Philistines — 
 Capture of the Ark— Death of Eli— Samuel 
 Judge of Israel — His Authority — The Israel- 
 ites Demand a King— Samuel's Warning — 
 Saul Chosen King of Israel 67 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SINGLE MONARCHY. 
 
 Character of Saul — Discontent of the Tribes — 
 Rescue of Gilead — Saul Acknowledged by the 
 Nation — Saul Usurps the Sacerdotal Power — 
 His Quarrel with Samuel — Wars with the 
 Philistines and other Nations — Extermination 
 of the Amalekites — Samuel Slays Agag — 
 Curses Saul — Saul's Madness — David Anoint- 
 ed to be King — Saul's Fondness for David — 
 Death of Goliath — Saul Seeks to Kill David 
 — Flight of David — His Adventures — Saul 
 Massacres the Priests — Battle of Mount Gilboa 
 — Death of Saul and Jonathan — David Be- 
 comes King of Judah — Civil War — David 
 King of all Israel — Capture of Jerusalem — 
 David's Conquests — Extent of his Empire — 
 His Civil Administration — His Sins— Rebel- 
 lions of his Sons — Death of David — Accession 
 of Solomon — Splendor of his Court — Com- 
 merce of the Hebrews — Personal Qualities of 
 the King — His Oppressive System — The Tem- 
 ple — Decline of Solomon's Power — His Sins — 
 His Death — Is Succeeded by Rehoboam — Re- 
 volt of the Northern Tribes 81 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE NORTHERN KINGDOM. 
 
 Character of the Kingdom of Israel— Reign of 
 Jeroboam— The Separation Complete— Reign 
 of Baasha — War with Damascus— Omri King 
 —He Builds the City of Samaria— Ahab and 
 Jezebel— Reigns of Ahaziah and Jehoram— 
 Death of Jezebel— Jehu King— Israel Subject 
 to Syria— Jeroboam II.— The Greatest King 
 of Israel— Shallum King— Invades Assyria- 
 Is Conquered and Made Tributary to Assyria 
 — Conquest of the Trans-Jordanic Country by 
 Assyria— Shalmanezer IV. Invades Israel- 
 Captures Samaria— Transports the Israelites 
 to Assyria — End of the Kingdom of Israel- 
 Settlement of the Country by the Assyrian 
 
 King 90 
 
 5 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
 
 Advantages of the Southern Kingdom over its 
 Northern Rival — Reigns of Rehoboam and 
 Abijah — Asa's Good Reign — Defeats the 
 Egyptians — The Levites Join Judah — Alli- 
 ance with Damascus — Wars with Israel — 
 Reign of Jehoshaphat — AlJiance with Israel 
 — Athaliah — Joash Proclaimed King — His 
 Reign — Amaziah King — Conquest of Edom — 
 Uzziah'sSin — Reign of Ahaz — Judah becomes 
 Tributary to Assyria — Hezekiah King — De- 
 struction of Sennacherib's Army — Manasseh's 
 AVicked Reign — His Captivity and Repent- 
 ance — Reign of Ammon — Judah Tributary 
 to Babylon — Reign of Josiah — His Death — 
 Judah Subject to Egypt — Passes under the 
 Sway of Babylon — Revolts — Nebuchadnezzar 
 Captures Jerusalem — The Babylonish Cap- 
 tivity 93 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO 
 THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Jews in Babylon — Fall of the Babylonian 
 Empire— Cyrus — His Interest in the Jews — 
 Grants them Leave to Return to Palestine— 
 The Return— The Temple Rebuilt— Darius I. 
 Grants the Jews Permission to Rebuild Jeru- 
 salem — Ezra — Conquests of Alexander the 
 Great — J udsea becomes an Egyptian Province 
 — The Septuagint — Judaea Transfers its Alle- 
 giance to Syria — Revolt of the Maccabees — 
 Exploits of JudasMaccabaeus — The War with 
 Syria — The Asmonsean Kingdom — The Ro- 
 mans in the East — They Intervene in the Af- 
 fairs of Judaea — Crassus Plunders the Temple 
 — End of the Asmonaean Monarchy — Herod 
 the Great — Birth of the Lord Jesus Christ — 
 Judaea a Roman Province — The War for In- 
 dependence — Capture of Jerusalem by Titus — 
 The Saracens Conquer Palestine — The Cru- 
 sades — Subsequent History of Palestine 99 
 
 BOOK II, 
 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE MON- 
 ARCHY TO THE TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY. 
 
 Description of Egypt — The Valley of the Nile 
 —The Delta— The Overflow— Population of 
 Ancient Egypt — The Character of the Egyp- 
 tians — Religion of the Egyptians — The Gods 
 of Egypt — Belief in a Future State — Em- 
 balming the Dead — Classes of Egyptians — • 
 Tije King— The Priests— Mode of Writing— 
 The Laws of the Egyptians — Establishment 
 of the Kingdom by Menes — Contemporary 
 Dynasties — The Fourth Dynasty — Evidences 
 of its Greatness — The Pyramids — Advance of 
 Civilization during this Dynasty — Conquests 
 — Growth of the Supremacy of Thebes — The 
 Invasion of the Hyksos — Lower and Middle 
 Esypt Overrun— The Twelfth Dynasty of 
 Thebes — Its Greatness — Upper Egypt Con- 
 quered by the Hyksos — Destruction of the 
 Monuments — Expulsion of the Hyksos from 
 
 Egypt— The Eighteenth Dynasty— The Great- 
 ness of Egypt under the Nineteenth Dy- 
 nasty — Rameses III. — Decay of the Monarchy 
 —The Priest-Kings 112 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY TO 
 THE END OF THE PERSIAN DOMINION. 
 
 The Twenty-second Dynasty — Revival of the 
 Monarchy — Bubastis the Capital — The 
 Twenty-third Dynasty Remove the Capital to 
 Sais — Egypt and Assyria at War — Battle of 
 Raphia — Sargon Subdues the Delta — Egypt 
 Throws oflf the Assyrian Supremacy, but is 
 again Subdued — Decline of the National 
 Spirit — Psammetichus I. Re-establishes the 
 Independence of Egypt — Defection of the 
 Jlilitary Class — Nechoh makes War upon 
 Babylon, but is Defeated by Nebuchadnezzar 
 — Growth of Egyptian Commerce — Egypt 
 Conquered by Babylon — Amasis Re-estao- 
 lishes the Independence of his Kingdom — His 
 Conquests — Egypt Conquered by Cambysses 
 — His Cruelties — Egypt a Persian Province 
 — Rebels against Persia — Ochus Punishes 
 the Rebels 123 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE GREEK KINGDOM. 
 
 Alexander the Great Conquers Egypt — Alex- 
 andria Founded and Made the Capital — Greek 
 Civilization in Egypt — Death of Alexander 
 — Ptolemy Lagi Takes Possession of Egypt — 
 Reign of Ptolemy I. — Character of his King- 
 dom — Ptolemy Philadelphus — Intellectual 
 Greatness of Egypt — The Libraries of Alex- 
 andria — The Septuagint — Events of this 
 Reign — Commercial Prosperity of Egypt — 
 Vices of the King — Ptolemy III. — His Con- 
 quests — His Relations with Rome — Cruelties 
 of Ptolemy IV. — Decline of the ilonarchy 
 under Ptolemy V. — The Romans in Egypt — 
 The Monarchy Sinks still Lower — The Ro- 
 mans the Real Arbiters of the Destiny of 
 Egypt — Reignsof the Other Ptolemies — Rapid 
 Decline of Egypt— Cleopatra Queen — Julius 
 Caesar in Egypt — Mark Antony — The Ro- 
 man Conquer JEgypt — It becomes a Province 
 of the Empire 127 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE 
 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Egypt as a Roman Province — Literary Splendor 
 of Alexandria — Christianity in Egypt — De- 
 cline of Upper Egypt — Zenobia becomes 
 Queen of Egypt — Is Conquered by the Romans 
 — Rebellions of the Egyptians against Rome 
 — They are Unsuccessful — Diocletian Takes 
 Alexandria — Egypt a Ruined Country — The 
 Greek Element Dies Out — Rise of the Copts 
 — Persecutions of the Egyptian Christians — 
 The Establishment of Christianity under Con- 
 stantine — The Arian Controversy — The Coun- 
 cil of Nicsea — The Arians Persecuted — The 
 Pagan Temples Destroyed— Efl'ects of Pagan- 
 ism upon Christianity — Cyril — Murder of 
 Hypatia — Desolation of Upper Egypt — Con- 
 quest of Egypt by the Persians — Rise of the 
 Coptic Church — Rise of the Mohammedans — 
 Conquest of Egypt by Amru — Alexandria 
 Taken — Egypt a Saracen Province — Spread 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 of Islaraism — Ilise of the Fatimite Khalifs 
 — They Conquer Egypt — Division in the Mo- 
 hammedan Churcli — Al-Hakem — End of the 
 Fatimite Line — Saladin — Saladin Conquers 
 Palestine and Syria — The ilamelukes — They 
 Seize the Egyptian Kingdom — Egypt Con- 
 quered by tlie Ottoman Turks — IJecomes a 
 Turkish Province — Is Conquered by Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte — Mehemet Aii — Massacre of 
 the Mamelukes — His Efforts to Make Egyjjt 
 Independent — The Greek Pvevolution — Egyj)t 
 Rebels against Turkey — Ibraliira Pasha's 
 Victories — Syria Conquered — Intervention of 
 the European Powers — Egypt Reduced to its 
 Proper Limits — Abbas Pasha — The First Rail- 
 road in Egypt — The Suez Canal Begun — Is- 
 mail Pasha — Rapid Advance of Egypt under 
 its Present Ruler 133 
 
 BOOK III. 
 THE HISTORY OF CHALDiEA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF THE CHALDJEAN MON- 
 ARCHY. 
 
 Chaldrea the most Ancient Asiatic Jfonarchy — 
 Extent of the Country — Its Geographical 
 Position — Physical Characteristics — The Ti- 
 gris and the Euphrates — Climate — Fertility 
 of Chaldaea— Vegetable Products — Animals — 
 Foundation of the Chaldsean Monarchy by 
 Nimrod — Character of Nirarod — Ilis Succes- 
 sors — The Fourth and Fifth Dynasties — Rela- 
 tions with Assyria — Chaldaea Conquered by 
 Assyria— The Civilization of Chaldsea — Its 
 Cities — Temples — Commerce — Influence of 
 Chaldsea upon the Ancient World — Religion 
 — Food and Habits of the People 14S 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 HISTORY OF ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY — 
 
 THE EARLY KINGS. 
 
 Description of Assyria — Its Geographical Posi- 
 tion and Area — Eastern and Western Assyria 
 — The ^lountainous Region — Cities of Assyria 
 — Climate— Fertility of the Country — Mineral 
 Wealth — Animals — Character of the People 
 — Foundation of the Assyrian Kingdom — 
 Asshur — Relations with Chaldaja — Early 
 Kings — Babylon Conquered — Conquests of 
 Tiglath-Pileser I.— Character of the Civiliza- 
 tion of Assyria— Use of Letters— Mode of 
 Preserving Official Records— Assyrian Art — 
 Sargon's Palace— The Bas-Reliefs— The Assy- 
 rian Military System— The Royal Dignity- 
 Musical Instruments — Dress of the People — 
 Religion of the Assyrians 153 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM Tllrl REION OF ASSHUR BTL-KALA 
 TO THE FALL OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Uncertain Period of Assyrian History — Reign 
 of Asshur-izir-pal — Rapid Advance of Assyria 
 Under him— His Conquests- Growth of Civ- 
 
 ilization — Shalmaneser II. Conquers Syria 
 and Compels Israel to Pay Tribute— Shamas- 
 Vul II. Extends the Boundaries of the Empire 
 —Semiramis— Obscure Period in Assyrian 
 History— Tiglath-Pileser II. Founds the New 
 Assyrian Empire— Extent of his Dominions— 
 Shalmaneser iV. Invades Phoenicia and Israel 
 —Sargon's Successful Rebellion— His Bril- 
 liant Reign— He Conquers Egypt- Senna- 
 cherib King— He Conquers Babylon— Com- 
 pels J udah to Become Tributary— Destruction 
 of his Army by Visitation of God— Later Wars 
 of Sennacherib— His Elamitic Expedition— 
 The Babylonians Rebel and are Subdued- 
 Conquest of Cilicia— Tarsus Founded— Mur- 
 der of Sennacherib— Esar-haddon King— His 
 Conquests— His Arabian Expedition— Con- 
 quers Egypt— Asshur-bani-pal Succeeds to 
 the Throne— Crushes the Egj-ptian Revolt- 
 Brilliant Reign of Asshur-bani-pal — His 
 Closing Years — War with Media — Assyria 
 Overrun by the Scythians— The Country De- 
 vastated—The Foundations of the Empire 
 Undermined— Saracus King — Media Renews 
 the War — Treachery of Nabopolassar, who 
 Makes himself King of Babylon and Joins 
 the Medes— Death of Saracus— Capture of 
 Nineveli— Fall of the Assyrian Empire 162 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF BABYLONIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PwISE AND FALL OF THE BABYLONIAN 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 Geographical Position of Babylonia — Almost 
 Identical with Chaldcea — Babylon under 
 Assyrian Rule — Frequent Revolts — Saracus 
 Places Nabopolassar over Babylon — The Lat- 
 ter Revolts and JIakes himself King of Baby- 
 lonia— The Median Alliance — Fall of Assyria 
 — The Babylonian Empire Formed — Reign of 
 Nabopolassar— War with Egypt— Nebuchad- 
 nezzar Defeats Nechoh at Carchemish— Neb- 
 uchadnezzar King — Phajnicia and Judah 
 Subdued— Jerusalem Taken and Destroyed — 
 Conquest of Egypt- Brilliant Reign of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar — His Great Works — The Hanging 
 Gardens — The AValls of Babylon — Commer- 
 cial Wealth— Character of the King — His 
 JIadness — His Recovery and Closing Years — 
 His Successors — Nabonadius King — Associ- 
 ates his Son with him — The War with Persia 
 — Belshazzar's Feast — Cyrus Captures Baby- 
 lon — Fall of the Babylonian Empire — Baby- 
 lon becomes the Second Capital of the Per- 
 sian Empire 173 
 
 BOOK VI. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PHCENICIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIJIES TO THE CON- 
 QUEST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 Description of Pha;n'cia— Its Cities— Origin of 
 tiie Pha-nician People— Sidon, the Oldest 
 City— Its Colonies— Tyre — The Old and New 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Cities — First Commercial Ventnres of the 
 Phoenicians— The Tin Trade— Dangers of the 
 Land Traffic— The Phoenicians Take to the 
 Sea — Extent and Character of their Com- 
 merce — The Phoenician Colonies — The Art of 
 Dyeing — Glass-blowing — Pottery — Bronze 
 Work — Agriculture — The Phoenician Alpha- 
 bet and their Use of Letters — Language of 
 the Phoenicians — Their Literary Works — 
 Architecture — Art — Religion of the Phoeni- 
 cians — Character of the People — Rise of Tyre 
 — Hiram King — His Alliance with David and 
 Solomon of Israel — Organization of the Phoe- 
 nician Confederacy — Hiram's Successors — 
 Pygmalion King— Flight of Dido and the 
 Aristocratic Party — Carthage Founded — Phoe- 
 nicia Tributary to Assyria — Siege of Tyre — 
 Sennacherib takes Tyre — End of the Tyrian 
 Supremacy — Esar-haddon Destroys Sidon — 
 Capture of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar — Phoe- 
 nicia becomes a Persian Province — Conquered 
 by Alexander the Great— Its Subsequent 
 History 180 
 
 BOOK VII. 
 
 THE KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE RISE AND FALL OF PHRYGIA, CILI- 
 CIA, AND LYDIA. 
 
 Natural Formation of Asia Minor— The Reason 
 why it never became the Seat of a Great Em- 
 pire—History of Phrygia— Origin of the 
 Phrygians— Their Character— Phrygia Con- 
 quered by Lydia— History of Cilicia— Trib- 
 utary to Assyria— Tarsus Founded— Becomes 
 a Persian Province — History of Lydia — 
 Wealth and Refinement of the Nation— Char- 
 acter of the Lydians— Wars of the Ileraclidce 
 and Mermnadae— Gyges King— Conquers the 
 Asiatic Greeks— Invasion of the Cimmerians 
 —War with Media and Babylonia— Crcesus 
 becomes King of Lydia— His Wealth— Visit 
 of Solon— The Sage's Answer— Lydia Con- 
 quered by Cyrus— He Spares the Life of 
 Croesus — Lydia a Persian Province 188 
 
 BOOK VIII. 
 THE KINGDOM OF MEDIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL 
 OF THE KINGDOM. 
 
 Description of Media— Geographical Position 
 — Physical Characteristics — Mountainous 
 Character — The Climate — Vegetable Pro- 
 ducts—Mineral Wealth — Animals — Origin of 
 the Medes— Personal Appearance and Charac- 
 ter of the People— Polygamv— Religion of the 
 Medes— The Primitive Faith— Appearance 
 and Gradual Growth of Magism— True Char- 
 acter of ^Sfagism— Worship of the Elements 
 —Primitive History of Media Unknown- 
 Tribal Organization of the People— Phraortes 
 
 Founds the Median Kingdom — Makes War 
 upon Assyria — Is Defeated and Slain — Cy- 
 axeres King — Invades Assyria — Media Con- 
 quered by the Scythians — The Banquet of 
 Cyaxeres — Median Independence Restored — 
 The War with Assyria Renewed — Alliance 
 with Babylonia — Fall of the Assyrian Em- 
 pire — Media Receives a Part of the Assyrian 
 Territories — Wars and Conquests of Cyaxeres 
 — Peace with Lydia — Astyages King — Grad- 
 ual Decline of the Median Monarchy — Media 
 Succumbs to Persia and becomes a Province 
 of that Empire 191 
 
 BOOK IX. 
 
 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 Description of Persia — Geographical Position 
 — The Mountain Region — Climate — Products 
 — ^Minerals — Character of the Persian People 
 — Their Loyalty to their Sovereigns — Reli- 
 gion tf the Persians — The Persian Monarchy 
 Founded — Persia Tributary to Media — Resi- 
 dence of Cyrus at the Median Court — His 
 Escape — Raises the Standard of Revolt — 
 Overthrows the Median Kingdom — Estab- 
 lishes the Persian Empire — His Conquests — 
 Captures Babylon — Median Civilization 
 Adopted — Death of Cyrus the Great 200 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT 
 TO THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Accession of Cambysses — His Character — Con- 
 quers Egypt — Cruel Treatment of that Coun- 
 try — His Failures — The False Snierdis — 
 Death of Cambysses — Darius I. Becomes 
 King of Persia— He Reorganizes the Empire 
 — His System — Conquers a Part of India — 
 His Scythian Expedition — Beginning of the 
 War with Greece — Failure of the Expedition 
 of Mardonius — Defeat of the Persians at Mara- 
 thon — Xerxes I. King of Persia — His Expe- 
 dition into Greece — Battles of Thermopylae 
 and Salamis — Failure of the Expedition — Re- 
 turn of Xerxes to Persia — Gives himself up 
 to Luxury — Defeat of Mardonius at Platsea 
 — Artaxerxes I. King of Persia — Revolt of 
 Egy])t — The Peace of Calias— Xerxes II. — 
 His Murder — Darius II. King — His Weak 
 Reign — Rapid Decline of Persia — Artaxerxes 
 II. — Revolt of Cyrus — Battle of Cunaxa — 
 Retreat of the Ten Thousand — Wars with the 
 Greek States — Rapid Disintegration of the 
 Empire — Plans of Artaxerxes for the Con- 
 quest of Greece— Internal Troubles of the Em- 
 pire — Ochus — His Vigorous Reign — Is Assas- 
 sinated—Darius III.— The Macedonian War 
 —Alexander the Great Enters Asia— Battle of 
 the Granicu.?- Loss of Asia Minor— Battle of 
 Issus— Capture of the Royal Family— Alex- 
 ander Conquers the Mediterranean Provinces 
 of Persia— Battle of A rbela— Flight and 
 Death of Darius — Fall of the "Persian 
 Empire 204 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK X. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF CARTHAGE TO 
 THE WARS WITH ROME. 
 
 Carthage Founded by Dido — Situation of the 
 City — Early History Uncertain — Gradual 
 Growth of Carthage — Extent of its Territory 
 — Its Authority Extended over the African 
 Tribes — Defects in the Carthaginian System 
 — Carthaginian Colonies — The Military and 
 Naval Forces of the Republic-rThe Eevenue 
 — Commerce — Character of the Republic — 
 The System of Government — Religion — 
 Efforts to Conquer Sicily — Wars in Africa — 
 Renewed Attempt to Conquer Sicily — Wars 
 with Syracuse — The Syracusans Invade the 
 Carthaginian Home Territory — Appearance 
 of Rome in Carthaginian Affairs 217 
 
 BOOK XI. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 Situation of Greece — Description of the Coun- 
 try — Its Physical Characteristics — Mountain- 
 ous Character — Influence of this upon the 
 Greeks — The Political Divisions of Greece — 
 The Greek Islands — Early History of Greece 
 Uncertain — The Primitive Inhabitants — The 
 Pelasgi — The Heroic Age — The Three Great- 
 est Heroes of this Period — The Cities — Intro- 
 duction of Letters into Greece — The Trojan 
 War — Dr. Schlieman's Discoveries — Social 
 and Political Constitution of Greece during 
 the Heroic Age — Migrations of the Greek 
 Tribes — The Return of the Heraclidfe — Colo- 
 nization of the Islands of the JLgean and 
 the Shores of Asia Minor — Religion of the 
 Greeks— A Brief Account of their System — 
 The Eleusinian Mysteries— The Oracles — 
 Gradual Growth of the New Civilization of 
 Greece— Growth and Political Character of 
 the City — The Greek Love of Independence — 
 Its Consequences — Common Ties of the Greek 
 States 221 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 EARLY HISTORY — TO THE FIRST OLYM- 
 PIAD. 
 
 Growth of Argos— The Dorian Colonization- 
 Rise of Sparta— War with Amyclie— Early 
 History of Athens— The Death of Codrus— 
 Royalty Abolished— The Rule of Archons 
 Established — The Annual Archons — The 
 First Certain Date in Athenian History- 
 Steady Growth of Sparta— Division of the 
 People into Classes— The Helots— The Laws 
 of Lycurgus— Training of a Spartan Citizen 
 —Voluntary Exile of Lycurgus— The Poet 
 Homer— His Influence upon Grecian History 
 —Prosperity of Argos— The First Messenian 
 War— The Olympic Games Revived— Their 
 Character— The First Olympiad 229 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD TO THE PER- 
 SIAN WARS. 
 
 The Second Messenian War — Exploits of Aristo- 
 menes — Destruction of the Messenian State — 
 Character of the Athenian Government — The 
 Power of the State in the Hands of the Nobles 
 —Code of Draco— Cylon Attempts to Seize the 
 Government— The Sacrilege of Megacles — 
 Expulsion of the A Icmseonidfe— Sparta Con- 
 quers Tegea— Becomes Supreme in the Pelo- 
 ponnesus—Assumes the Right to Interfere la 
 the Affairs of the Greek States— The Plague 
 at Athens— The Purification of Epimenides 
 —Political Troubles at Athens— The Laws of 
 Solon— The Seven Wise Men of Greece— So- 
 lon's Reforms not altogether Acceptable, but 
 are Adopted by the Athenians— He Secures 
 them a Trial— Quarrels of the Athenian Fac- 
 tions—Death of Solon— Pisistratus Dictator — 
 Is Driven from Athens— Is Recalled— Quarrel 
 with Megacles— Is Driven Away a Second 
 Time and Regains his Throne— His Liberality 
 — Causes Homer's Poems to be Collected — His 
 Death— The Two Tyrants— Reign of Hippias 
 —Is Expelled from Athens— Return of the 
 Alcmseonidse — Clisthenes in Power — His 
 Changes in the Athenian System— He Offends 
 the Nobles— Is Expelled and Shortly Recalled 
 —Quarrels between Athens and Sparta— Con- 
 quest of Euboja — Athens Assists the Ionian 
 Greeks in their Revolt against Persia 234 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 Greece Incurs the Wrath of Persia — Efforts to 
 Bring about a Union of the Greek States for 
 their Common Defence— Expedition of Mar- 
 donius— Its Failure— Darius Demands the 
 Submission of the Greek States— Datis In- 
 vades Greece— Eretria Taken by the Persians 
 — The Persians Land at Marathon— Miltiades 
 in Command of the Greeks— The Battle of 
 Marathon— Importance of the Victory— Datis 
 Attempts to Surprise Athens— Fails— Sails for 
 Asia— Subsequent Career of Miltiades— Ban- 
 ishment of Aristides— Themistocles Supreme 
 at Athens — War with iEgina— Foresight of 
 Themistocles — He Induces the Athenians to 
 Provide a Navy— Character of Themistocles 
 — Xerxes Invades Greece— Battle of Ther- 
 mopylae — Athens Deserted by its Citizens — 
 Occupied by the Persians^They Burn the 
 City — Battle of Salamis — Victory of the 
 Greeks — Xerxes Abandons the Attempt to 
 Conquer Greece — Returns to Asia — Mardonius 
 Renews the Attempt to Conquer Greece — 
 Battle of Platsea — Destruction of the Persian 
 Army — Naval Victory of Mycale — Other Suc- 
 cesses of the Greeks 240 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 
 
 The Persian War really Beneficial to Athens — 
 The City Rebuilt up"on a Better Plan— It is 
 Fortified — Jealousy of Sparta — Themistocles 
 Baffles the Spartans — Importance of Athens 
 in Greek Affairs — Pausanias Removed from 
 the Command of the Greek Fleet — An Athen- 
 ian Admiral Appointed — Formation of the 
 Confederacy of Delos, with Athens at its Head 
 
10 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 — Scyros made Tributary io Athens — Athens 
 the Leading State of Greece — Treason of Pau- 
 sanias — His Death — Downfall of Themistocles 
 — Death of Aristides — Cinioo — Chani-es in the 
 Confederacy of Deios — Successes of Cimon — 
 Revolt of the Helots — Sparta asks Aid of 
 Athens — Insults the Athenian Army — Fall of 
 Cimon — Rise of the Democratic Party at 
 Athens — Pericles in Power— His Measures 
 against Sparta — The War with Persia Con- 
 tinued—Victories of Athens over Corinth, 
 Epilaiirus. and ^gina — The Long Walls of 
 Athens Constructed — Eflforts of Sparta against 
 Athens — Patriotism of Cimon — He is Re- 
 called to Athens — Battle of CEnophyta — 
 Sparta Humbled — Quarrel About the Del- 
 ])hian Oracle — War with Sparta Renewed — 
 Athens Loses Boeotia — Greatness of Athens 
 under Pericles — He Beautifies the City — The 
 Parthenon Built — The Intellectual Suprem- 
 acy of Athens Established — Disaffection of 
 tie Members of the Confederacy of Delos — 
 Rebellion of Samos — It is Crushed 245 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PELOPOMNESIAN WAR. 
 
 Corcyra Rebels aeainst Corinth — Athens Assists 
 Corcyra — Sparta's Demands — Athens Pre- 
 pares for War — Commencement of the Pclo- 
 ponnesian War — The Ten Years' War — The 
 Spartans Invade Attica — Athens Over- 
 crowded — Wisdom of Pericles — Attacks upon 
 him — Cleon the Tanner — The Plague at Ath- 
 ens — Pericles Vindicated — Death of Pericles 
 — Grief of the Athenians — Destruction of 
 Platsa— Revolt of Mitylene — Cleon Causes 
 the Inhabitants tr> be Sentenced to Deatli — ■ 
 Reversal of the Decree — Progress of the War 
 — Victory of the Athenian Fleet at Pylos — 
 Sparta Sues for Peace — Cleon Prevents a Set- 
 tlement — The Tanner's Good Luck — He De- 
 feats the Spartans at Sphactcria — Reverses of 
 Alliens — Negotiations for Peace — Death of 
 Cleon and Brasidas — The Peace of Nicias — • 
 Alcibiades — Argos Submits to Sparta — The 
 Sicilian Expedition— The Siege of Syracuse 
 — Loss of the Athenian Army and Fleet — 
 Consternation at Athens — The Decelian War 
 — Treachery of Alcibiades— The Athenians 
 Rise Superior to their Reverses — Fidelity of 
 Samos — Successes of Athens in the East — 
 Alcibiades Seeks to Return to Athens — Aids 
 his Countrymen — Vigorous Efforts of Athens 
 — Persian Policy towards the Greeks — Battle 
 ofCynossema — Return of Alcibiades to Ath- 
 ens — Persia Gives more Active Aid to Sparta 
 — Lysander — Downfall of Alcibiades — Battle 
 of A rginusLB — Battle of ^gospotamai — The 
 Athenian Supremacy Destroyed — Athens 
 Surrenders to the Spartans — The Thirty 
 Tyrants — A Reign of Terror — Murder of Al- 
 cibiades — Reaction Against the Thirty — Re- 
 turn of the Exiles under Thrasybulus — Fall 
 of the Thirty — Law and Order Restored at 
 Athens 253 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 
 
 Conservative Reaction at Athens — Socrates 
 Condemned to Death — His Character — War 
 between Sparta and Persia — Agesilaus — 
 Sparta and Thebes at War — The League 
 against Sparta — Conou Secures Persian Aid 
 
 for Athens— The Long Walls Rebuilt— The 
 Peace of Antalcidas — Persia the Arbiter of 
 Grecian Affairs — Sparta Supreme in Greece 
 — Sparta Seizes the Cadmeia — The Thebans 
 Recover the Cadmeia — Epaminondas — Battle 
 of Leuctra — Danger of Sparta — Else of Thebes 
 to Power — Decline of the Spartan Supremacy 
 — Jason — His Death — The Arcadian Confed- 
 eration — Mantinea Rebuilt — Epaminondas 
 Restores the Messenian State — His Triumphs 
 in the Peloponnesus — The "Tearless Battle" 
 — Persia Upholds the Supremacy of Thebe3 
 — The Violation of the Sanctity of the Olym- 
 pian Games by the Arcadians — Results of this 
 Act — Battle of Mantinea — Death of Epami- 
 nondas — Agesilaus goes to Egypt — His Recep- 
 tion there — His Revenge and Death — Wars 
 of Athens and Pherse— The Social War— The 
 Sacred War — End of the Theban Supremacy. 265 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 
 
 Description of Macedon — Origin of the Nation 
 — Foundation of the Macedonian Monarchy — 
 Tributary to Persia — Recovers its Independ- 
 ence — Early History of Macedon — Philip II. 
 — He Conquers the Illyrians — Plans the Sub- 
 jugation of Greece — His Vigorous Measures 
 at Home — Encroachments upon the Athenian 
 Possessions — Intervenes in the Affairs of 
 Greece — Thebes asks Aid of Philip — He 
 Makes Himself Master of Greece — Demos- 
 thenes — His Philippics — Philip Destroys the 
 Olynthian Confederacy — The Second Sacred 
 War— Battle of Chteronea — Philip Supreme 
 in Greece — He Induces the Greek States to 
 Declare War Against Persia — Humiliation of 
 Sparta — Death of Philip — Alexander the 
 Great Becomes King of Macedon — His Early 
 Training — Vigorous Measures of Alexander — 
 He is Appointed to Command the Persian 
 Expedition — Wars with the Barbarian Tribes 
 — Revolt of Thebes — Alexander Takes the 
 City and Destroys it — Alexander Crosses the 
 Hellespont and Begins the Persian War — 
 Battle of the Granicus — Conquest of Asia 
 Minor — Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot — 
 Battle of Issus — Conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, 
 and Egypt — Alexandria Founded — Battle of 
 Arbela— Fall of the Persian Empire— Death 
 of Darius — Capture of Babylon and Susa — 
 Conquests of Alexander in the East — Excesses 
 of the Conqueror — Murder of his Generals — 
 Alexander Pushes his Conquests into India 
 — Conquers Porus — Reaches the Hyphasis — 
 His Troops Refuse to Advance Further — His 
 Return to Susa — A Terrible March — Alexan- 
 der Shares the Hardships of his Men — Orien- 
 talization of the Court of Alexander — His 
 Wives — His Plans — His True Claim to Great- 
 ness — Preparations for the Conquest of Arabia 
 — Last Illness and Death of Alexander 271 
 
 CHAPTER IX: 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE 
 GREAT TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 Consequences of the Death of Alexander — Ar- 
 rangements of his Generals — Philip Arrhi- 
 daeus made King — Division of Alexander's 
 Dominions among his Generals — Birth of the 
 Son of Alexander — Quarrels of Alexander's 
 Successors — Their Wars — Battle of Ipsus — 
 Final Division of Alexander's Dominions — 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 a 
 
 Matters in Greece— Final Conquest of Athens 
 by Maceilon— Hliilip IV. of Rhicedoii — Deme- 
 trius Becomes King of Macedon and Greece — 
 Goes to War witii Syria — Loses Macedon — 
 Iklacedoii Subject to Tlirace — Seleucus Master 
 of Alexander's Einjjire — Ptolemy Ceraunus 
 King of Macedon — His Cruel Reign — Irrup- 
 tion°of the Gauls into Greece — Antigonus 
 Gonatus King of Macedon— Wars with Pyrr- 
 h„s_Death of Pyrrhus — Antigonus Master 
 of the Whole of Greece — The Achrean League 
 — It Frees the Peloponnesus from Macedon — 
 Demetrius II. is Succeeded by Philip V. — 
 Failure of the Effort to Revive the Power of 
 Sparta — Philip Makes War upon the ^tolians 
 — Allies himself with Carthage — Attacks the 
 Roman Possessions — Is Defeated and Com- 
 pelled to Make Peace — Renews the War — Is 
 Defeateil and Comi)elled to Retire to Mace- 
 donia — The Achfeaii and ^tolian Leagues — 
 Further Humiliation of Philip — His Death — 
 Perseus King of Macedon — Rome Declares 
 AVar against Macedon — Conquest of Greece 
 by the Romans 27D 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FROM KOMAN CONQUEST TO PRESENT 
 TIME — MODERN KINGDOM OF GREECE. 
 
 Greece under the Romans — Sufferings During 
 the Civil Wars — Efforts to Regain its Freedom 
 — Well Treated by the Emperors — Invasions 
 of the Goths — Athens Plundered — Spread of 
 Christianity in Greece — Its Establishment by 
 Constantine — Constantinople Founded — 
 Greece under t'le Eastern Em])ire — The Latin 
 States of Greece — The Venetian Dominion — 
 Capture of Constantinople by the Turks — 
 Wars between the Venetians and the Turks 
 
 . fi)r the Possession of Greece — Sufferings of 
 the Greeks — Destruction of the Parthenon- 
 Greece unler Turkish Rule — A Remarkable 
 System of Government — How the Greek Na- 
 tion was Preserved — The Mountaineers Un- 
 conqfiered — Revolts of the Greeks — The 
 Revolution of 1S21 — Uprising of the Greeks 
 — Tiieir First Successes — A Revolutionary 
 Government Organized — Greece Declared 
 Independent — Massacre of Scio — Miaulis 
 Drive-i back the Turkish Fleet — Siege of 
 Missolonghi — ^larca Bozzaris — Death of Lord 
 Byron — Ibrahim Pasha Conquers Crete — 
 Invades Peloponnesus — Ibrahim Desolates 
 Peloponnesus — Intervention of the Enroi)ean 
 Powers — Ibrahim Evacuates Peloponnesus — 
 Treaty of Ailrianople — Organization of the 
 Kingdom of Greece— Otho Chosen King — 
 Revolution of 1802 — Otho Expelled — George 
 of Deu;uark Kiug — Subsequent History 2SS 
 
 BOOK XII. 
 THE GREEK KINGDOM OF SYRIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KING- 
 DOM TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 Division of Alexander's Empire— Seleucus Re- 
 ceives Syria — Establishment of the Kingdom 
 — Its Early Prosperity — Autioch Founded — 
 
 Reign of Antiochus I. — His Wars — Antiochxis 
 H. — His Successors — Reign of Antiochus the 
 Great — War with Egypt — Reverses of Anti- 
 ociius — He Invailes Parthia — Wars with 
 Rome — Is Defeated — Antiochus IV. — Drives 
 the Jews into Rebellion — Weak Reign of 
 Antiochus V. — Demetrius I. — Comes in Con- 
 flict with Rome — Alexander Balas — Deme- 
 trius II. — Made Prisoner by the Parthians — 
 His Captivity — Reign of Antiochus VII. — 
 Decline of the Syrian Kingdom — Civil Wars 
 — Syria Becomes Subject to Armenia — Con- 
 quered by Pompey — Made a Roman Province. 
 
 299 
 
 BOOK XIII. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE SMALLER 
 GREEK KINGDOMS OF ASIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORY OP TERGAMUS, BITHYNIA, PAPH- 
 LAGONIA, PONTUS, CAPPADOCIA, ARME- 
 NIA, AND BACTRIA. 
 
 Rise of the Kingdom of Pergamus — Eumenes 
 I. — Reign of Attains I.- — Takes the Royal 
 Title — His Alliance with Rome — Eumenes II. 
 — Is Rewarded by the Romans — Intellectual 
 Splendor of Pergamus — Reign of Attalus III. 
 — Leaves his Kingdom to the Romans — Per- 
 gamus a Roman Province — Growth of the 
 Kingdom of Bithynia— Prussias I. — His Wars 
 — Death of Hannibal — Reign of Nicomedes 
 II. — Nicomedes III. Bequeaths the Kingdom 
 to Rome — Rise and Fall of the Paphlagoniau 
 Kingdom — Growth of the Kingdom of Pontus 
 — Mithridates III. — His Conquests — Takes 
 Sinope — Mithridates IV, — Aids Rome in her 
 Wars — Mithridates the Great King — His Con- 
 quests — His Struggle with Rome — His Defeat 
 and Death — Pontus Becomes a Roman Prov 
 ince — History of the Capjiadocian Monarchy 
 — The Rise and Fall of the Armenian King- 
 doms — The Greek Kingdom of Bactria 
 Founded — Its History — It is Absorbed by 
 Parthia 307 
 
 BOOK XIV. 
 THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I, 
 
 THE RISE AND FALL OF THE PARTHIAN 
 MONARCHY. 
 
 Description of Parthia — Characteristics of the 
 Parthians — Rise of the Parthian Kingdom — 
 The Early Kings — Wars with Syria — Invasion 
 of Antiochus the Great — Alliance between 
 Parthia and Rome— Rome Makes War upon 
 Parthia — Defeat of Crassus — Rome Resolves 
 upon theConquestof Parthia— Wars between 
 Parthia and the Roman Republic — Rei,i;n of 
 Arsaces XXV.— Is Defeated by the Emperor 
 Trajan — War between Vologeses III. and 
 Marcus Aurelius— Other Wars with Rome — 
 Arsaces XXX. Kins:- Rebellion of the Per- 
 sians—Sudden Fall of the Parthian Kingdom. 317 
 
12 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK XV. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 EARLY HISTORY — THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 Position of Italy — Description of the Country 
 — The Alps — The Apennines — Northern and 
 Southern Italy — The Rivers — Ancient Fer- 
 tility of the Country — The Ancient Political 
 Divisions of Italy — The Original Inhabitants 
 — Settlement of the Italians — The Etruscans 
 — The Romans — Legendary History of Rome 
 — Story of Romulus and Remus — Rome 
 Founded — Seizure of the Sabine Women — 
 War with the Latins and Sabines — Peace Re- 
 stored by the Women — Translation of Ro- 
 mulus — Numa Pom})ilius — His Laws — End of 
 the Legendary Period — The True Story of the 
 Founding of Rome — Tullus Hostilius King 
 — His Constitutions — Conquers Alba Longa — 
 Ancus Martins — Wars with the Latins — Ori- 
 gin of the Plebs — Rapid Growth of Rome — 
 Tarquinius Priscus Increases the Roman 
 Territory and Improves the City — His 
 Changes in the Constitution — Religion of the 
 Romans — Their Gods — Religious Festivals — 
 The Sibylline Books— The Sacred Colleges— 
 The Priests — Servius Tullius King — His 
 Laws — The Military Organization — New 
 Tribes Instituted— The Walls of Rome— Tar- 
 quinius Superbus King — Sets Aside the Ser- 
 vian Constitution — His Tyranny — Lucretia 
 Outraged by Sextus Tarquin — Revolt of the 
 Romans — The Tarquins Driven out — Royalty 
 Abolished and the Republic Established 321 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RE- 
 PUBLIC TO THE WAR WITH THE VEIL 
 
 The First Consuls — Republican Institutions In- 
 troduced — Rome Loses Prestige by the Estab- 
 lishment of the Republic — Wars with the 
 ■Latins and Etruscans — Perfidy of the Pa- 
 tricians — They Oppress the Common People 
 — Imprisonments for Debt — Secession of the 
 Plebeians — Mons Sacer Occupied by them — 
 Concessions to them — They Return to Rome 
 — Spurius Cassius Consul — The First Agra- 
 rian Law — It is Nullified by the Patricians — 
 The Plebeians Excluded from the Consulship 
 — Revenge of the Plebs — The Fabii— Murder 
 of Genucius — Volero Publilius Chosen Tri- 
 bune—The Publilian Law— Wars with Oscans 
 and Etruscans — Struggle of the Commons for 
 their Rights— Cincinnatus — Is made Dictator 
 and Defeats the Mqm — The First Decemvirs 
 — The Laws of the Twelve Tables — Appius 
 Claudius — He Seizes Virginia, a Roman 
 Maiden— She is Slain by her Father — Revolt 
 of the Romans— Fall of Appius Claudius- 
 Second Secession of the Plebeians— The De- 
 cemvirate Abolished— The Plebs Return to 
 Rome— Measures of Reform— Defeat of the 
 Sabines— The People Accord the Consuls a 
 Triumph in Spite of the Opposition of the Sen- 
 ate— Short-sighted Policy of the Patricians- 
 Third Secession of the Plebeians — Concessions 
 to them— Their Return— Appointment of 
 Censors and Military Tribunes— The Census. 331 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE WAR WITH THE VEII TO THE 
 EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 
 
 Commencement of the War with the Veii — 
 Capture of Veii by Camillus — Discontents of 
 the Romans — Irruption of the Gauls into Italy 
 — Capture and Destruction of Rome — The 
 Capitol Besieged — " Rome Saved by a Goose " 
 —The City Ransomed— Withdrawal of the 
 Gauls— Successes of Camillus — Rome Rebuilt 
 — Errors of the Romans — Hard Terms of the 
 Government — Sufferings of the People— The 
 Licinian Laws— Second Invasion of the Gauls 
 Defeated by Camillus— The First Samnite 
 War— The Army Marches upon Rome and 
 Demands Redress for the Plebeians— Conces- 
 sions by the Government— The Latins Con- 
 quered—The Second Samnite War— Defeat 
 of the Romans at the Caudine Forks — Re- 
 verses of Rome — She Recovers from them — 
 The Samnites Conquered — Rome Supreme in 
 Italy— The Latins Conciliated— The ^qui 
 Subdued— The Third Samnite War— Self- 
 Sacrifice of the Consul Decius — Final Con- 
 quest of the Samnites and Sabines — Distress 
 of the Common People of Rome — Curius Den- 
 tatus Proposes the Second Agrarian Law — 
 Fourth Secession of the Plebeians — The Pa- 
 tricians Yield— The Hortensian Laws— The 
 War with Tarentum — Pyrrhus in Italy — 
 First Conflict between the Romans and the 
 Greeks — The Tarentines find a Master in 
 Pyrrhus — His Early Successes— Fails to In- 
 duce the Latins and Romans to Join him — 
 Rome Refuses to Treat with him — Events of 
 the War — Pyrrhus becomes Disheartened — 
 Goes to Sicily — His Successes there — Returns 
 to Italy — His Disasters — Abandons Italy and 
 Returns to Greece — Conquest of Southern 
 Italy by the Romans— It is Settled with Ro- 
 man Colonies — Roman Roads — The Appian 
 Way— The Roman Colonial System— The 
 Plebeians Admitted to Political "Equality at 
 Rome 336 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE, 
 
 The Wealth of the Romans Increased by their 
 Wars — The Republic Adopts War as a Means 
 of Acquiring Riches and Territory — The 
 Conquest of Carthage Resolved upon — A Pre- 
 text for War Found — The First Punic War 
 begun — The Carthaginians Defeated in Sicily 
 — Roman Expedition to Africa — The Home 
 Territory of Carthage Ravaged— Defeat and 
 Capture of Regulus — Loss of the Roman Fleet 
 — Roman Pi,everses in Sicily — The Cartha- 
 ginian Fleet Harasses the Italian Coast — The 
 People of Rome Build a Fleet— Battle of 
 ^gusa— Sicily and the Neighboring Islands 
 Conquered by the Romans — Humiliation of 
 Carthage — Close of the War — Rome a great 
 Naval Power — The Romans Seize Sardinia — 
 The Illyrian Pirates Exterminated — Conquest 
 and Annexation of Cisalpine Gaul by Rome — 
 The Roman Territory Extended Northward 
 to the Alps — The Carthaginians in Spain — 
 Their Wise Policy — Hannibal — He Succeeds 
 to the Command in Spain — The Second Punic 
 War — Hannibal Resolves to Invade Italy — 
 Crosses the Alps — Defeats the Romans at the 
 Trebia and at Lake Trasimene — Fabius in 
 Command of the Roman Army — His Wise 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 13 
 
 Policy — Battle of Canna? — Hannibal Master 
 of Southern Italy — Firmness of Rome — Han- 
 nibal Winters at Capua — Victories of the 
 Scipios in Spain — Marcellus takes Syracuse 
 — Defeat and Death of the Scipios in Spain — 
 The Younger Scijiio Succeeds thera — He De- 
 feats Hasdrubal — Hasdrubal Ordered to Italy 
 — Crosses the Alps and Enters Northern Italy 
 — His Error — Hannibal Moves to Canusiura 
 and awaits the Arrival of his Brother — Has- 
 drubal Defeated and Slain by the Romans — 
 His Head thrown into Hannibal's Camp — 
 Retreat of Hannibal — Scipio Conquers Spain 
 — Sails to Africa and Attacks Carthage — Bat- 
 tle of Zama — Carthage Conquered and made 
 Tributary to Rome — Wars of Rome in Greece 
 and Asia Minor — Conquest of Sardinia- 
 Greece Conquered by Rome — The Third Punic 
 War — Final Conquest and Destruction of 
 Carthage 346 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE 
 
 TO THE DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 Final Conquest of Greece — It becomes a Ro- 
 man Province — Wars in the Spanish Penin- 
 sula — Lusitania Subdued and made a Roman 
 Province — The Numantines Conquered — The 
 Romans Gain Pergamus and become Supreme 
 in Asia Minor — Rapid Increase of the Popu- 
 lation of Rome — Proportionate Growth of 
 Pauperism — Reasons for it — Political Cor- 
 ruption — The First Servile War — Efforts to 
 RameJy the Political and Social Troubles at 
 Rome — Tiberius Gracchus— He Proposes an 
 Agrarian Law — His Measures Carried — Op- 
 position to the Law— Murder of Tiberius Grac- 
 chus — Scipio ^milianus Murdered — Discon- 
 tents of the Latins and Italians — Caius 
 Gracchus — Is made Tribune — His Measures to 
 Improve the Condition of the People — The 
 " Sempronian Granaries " — The Pauper Popu- 
 lation of Rome Increased — Unpopularity of 
 the Proposal to Extend the Roman Citizen- 
 ship to all the Italians — Downfall of Gracchus 
 — His Murder — The Plebs take a Lesson in 
 Violence from the Aristocracy — The War 
 with Jugurtha — Rise of Caius Marius — Brings 
 the Jugurthine War to a Close — Is Re-elected 
 Consul — Invasion of Gaul by the Cimbrians 
 and Teutons — They Defeat the Roman Armies 
 — Marius is sent Against thera and Defeats 
 them — The Cimbri Enter Italy, and are Ex- 
 terminated by Marius — Ambition of Marius 
 — His Opportunities and his Hesitation — The 
 Second Servile War — Murder of Drusus — The 
 Social War — Concessions of Rome to the 
 Italians— Rivalry of Marius and Sulla— The 
 Final Rupture between them — The First Civil 
 War— Triumph of Sulla and Flight of Marius 
 — Cinna Driven from Rome — Return of 
 Marius— He Captures Rome— The Marian 
 Massacre— Seventh Consulship and Death of 
 Marius— Sertorius Slaughters the Marian 
 Assassins 355 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF MARIUS TO THE 
 ESTABLISHMENT OP THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Cinna in Power at Rome— Threats of Sulla— 
 The First Mithridatic War— Return of Sulla 
 —The Second Civil War— Triumph of Sulla 
 —Captures Rome— Dictatorship of Sulla— 
 
 The Proscription — Measures of Sulla — His 
 Retirement and Death — Revolt of Sertorius 
 in Spain — His Murder — Pompey Puts Down 
 the Revolt — Gladiatorial War — Spartacus — 
 Crassus and Pompey Consuls — They Change 
 their Politics — Their Reform Measures — 
 Cicero — Pompey Subdues the Cilician Pirates 
 — Pompey Sent into Asia — He Conquers 
 Mithridates and Tigranes and Adds Syria and 
 Pontus to the Roman Dominions — Returns to 
 Rome — Catiline's Conspiracy — Pompey Dis- 
 trusted by thQ Senate — His Moderation — Is 
 Driven into Hostility to the Senate — Julius 
 Caesar — His Career and Services— Character 
 of Caesar — The First Triumvirate — Banish- 
 ment of Cicero — Cato Sent to Cyprus — Con- 
 quest of Gaul by Caesar — Invades Germany — 
 The War with Parthia — Defeat and Death of 
 Crassus — Quarrel of Caesar and Pompey — 
 The Senate Sides with Pompey — Caesar 
 Driven into Hostile Measures by the Senate 
 — His Position — Appeals to his 'Troops to Aid 
 him — Crosses the Rubicon — Pompey's Troops 
 Desert to Caesar — Pompey Retires into Greece 
 — Caesar Master of Italy — His Moderation — 
 Establishes his Authority in Italy — Subdues 
 Spain — Follows Pompey to Greece — Battle of 
 Pharsalia — Flight of Pompey — He Reaches 
 Egypt — His Murder — Caesar in Egypt — Estab- 
 lishes his Authority in that Country, Asia 
 Minor, and Africa — Returns to Rome — Is 
 Made Dictator for Life — Great Designs of 
 Ctesar — What he Accomplished— Conspiracy 
 Against him — His Murder — Its Effect upon 
 Rome — Mark Antony Secures the Power — 
 Arrival of Octavius Caesar — Claims his Inher- 
 itance — Antony Repairs to Gaul — Rapid Rise 
 of Octavius to Power — Forms with Antony 
 and Lepidus the Second Triumvirate — Battles 
 of Phillippi — Division of the Roman Do- 
 minions Between the Triumvirs — Octavian 
 Triumphs Over Lepidus and Secures the Un- 
 divided Rule of Rome — Antony's Failure in 
 the East — His Debauchery — Octavian Makes 
 War upon him — Battle of Actium — Flight of 
 Antony with Cleopatra — Octavian Conquers 
 Egypt — Death of Antony and Cleopatra — 
 Egypt Made a Roman Province — Return of 
 Octavian to Rome — He Establishes the Ro- 
 man Empire on the Ruins of the Republic... 366 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE EMPIRE — FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAQA- 
 BALUS. 
 
 Rome the Mistress of the World — Reign of Au- 
 gustus — Wars with the Germans — Successes 
 of Drusus and Tiberius — Defeat of Varus — 
 Grief of Augustus — Improvement of Rome — 
 Glories of the Reign of Augustus — Tiberius 
 Emperor — First Years of his Reign — Jealous 
 of Germanicus — Cruelties of Tiberius — 
 Sejanus — His Crimes — Tiberius Retires to 
 Capreae — Fall of Sejanus — Ty^'^nny of the 
 Emperor — Growth of Christianity — Caligula 
 Emperor — His Cruel and Shameful Reign — 
 Reign of Claudius — Conquest of Britain by 
 the Romans — Nero Emperor — His Profligacy 
 and Cruelty — The Burning of Rome — Perse- 
 cution of the Christians — Revolt of the Pro- 
 vinces — Death of Nero — Rome Rebuilt — 
 Reigns of Galba. Otho, and Vitellius — The 
 Jewish War — Vespasian Emperor — Revolt of 
 the Germans — Jerusalem Taken — Titus Em- 
 peror — His Reign — Destruction of Hercula- 
 neum and Pompeii — Cruel Reign of Domitian 
 
14 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 — Nerva's Good Reign — Trajan Emperor — 
 Spread of the Christian Religion— Vigorous 
 Measures of Trajan— His Reforms— Subdues 
 Dacia— The Parthiau War— His Death- 
 Hadrian Emperor— His Peaceful Reign— His 
 Journeys — His Cruelties— His Wish for 
 Death- Reign of Antoninus Pius— Marcus 
 Aurelius— His Wars— Persecutes the Chris- 
 tians— Commodus Emperor— His Disgraceful 
 Reign— Decline of the Empire— Pertinax 
 Emperor— The Praetorians Sell the Imperial 
 Dignity to Didius Julianus— Severus made 
 Emperor— He Destroys the Power of the 
 Praetorians— His Wars in Parthia and Britain 
 — Caracalla Emperor — His Cruelties — Is 
 Murdered — Macrinus Succeeds to the Throne 
 — Is Defeated by the Parthians— His Murder 
 — Elagabalus made Emperor — His Shameful 
 and Dissolute Reign— His Murder 381 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OP ALEXANDER SEV- 
 ERUS TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander Severus Made Emperor — His Good 
 Reign — Fall of Parthia and Rise of the Mod- 
 ern Kingdom of Persia — Wars between Rome 
 and Persia — The Germans in Gaul — Maximin 
 Emperor — His Cruelties — Gordian Emperor — 
 Reigns of Philip and Decius — Gallus and 
 iEmilian — Valerian Emperor — Wars with the 
 Barbarians — The Persian War — Valerian De- 
 feated and Made Prisoner — Gallienus — The 
 Kingdom of Palmyra — Claudius — Aurelian 
 Emperor — His Vigorous Reign — Captures 
 Palmyra — Zenobia — Murder of Aurelian — 
 Tacitus Emperor — Reigns of Florian and 
 Cams — Diocletian Emperor — His Vigorous 
 Measures — Destroys the Power of the Legions 
 — Divides the Imperial Authority — A Great 
 Change — Carausius and Constantius — Max- 
 imian Africa — Diocletian Subdues the Egyp- 
 tian Revolt — War with Persia — Persecution 
 of the Christians — Diocletian Retires from the 
 Throne — Constantine the Great — lie Estab- 
 lishes his Authority Over the AVhole Empire 
 — Makes Christianity the Religion of the Em- 
 pire — The Council of Nicaea — Founds Con- 
 stantinople — Reorganization of the Empire — 
 His Wars with the Barbarians — Constans — 
 Constantius — ITis War with Persia — Julian 
 the Apostate — Failure of his ElTort to Destroy 
 Christianity — His Death — Jovian Emperor — 
 Valentinian — Events of his Reign — Valens 
 — Movements of the Barbarian Tribes — 
 Gratian and Valentinian II. — Theodosius the 
 Great — He Suppresses Paganism — The Em- 
 peror and St. Ambrose — The Empire Divided 
 —Revolt of the Goths— The Goths in Italy- 
 Defeated by Stilicho — Gladiatorial Combats 
 Forbidden — The Vandals Invade Italy — They 
 Settle in Western Europe — New Invasion of 
 the Goths — Alaric Captures Rome — Plunders 
 it— Death of Alaric — The Goths in Spain — 
 Reign of Valentinian III. — The Iluns in Italy 
 — Attila — Battle of Chalons — Defeat of the 
 Huns — The Vandals Plunder Rome — Ricimer 
 — The Mock Emperors — Rapid Decline of the 
 Western Empire — Augustulus Emperor — Fall 
 of the Western Empire — Establishment of 
 the Kingdom of Italy — Establishment of the 
 Teutonic Nations at the Fall of the Em- 
 pire 397 
 
 BOOK XVI. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE EASTERN 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 
 TO THE TURKISH CONQUEST OF CON- 
 STANTINOPLE. 
 
 Establishment of the Eastern Empire— Its Ex- 
 tent and Character — Reign of Arcadius — 
 Theodosius II. — Invasion of the Huns — 
 Reigns of Marcian and Leo the Thracian — 
 Anastasius I. — Justin — Reign of Justinian — 
 The Empress Theodora — Riots at Constan- 
 tinople — Conquest of the Vandal Kingdom of 
 Africa — Belisarius Conquers Italy — His Un- 
 just Treatment by the Emperor — Public 
 Works of Justinian — His Code of Laws — 
 Troubles with the Barbarian Tribes — Reigns 
 of Justin II., Tiberius, and Maurice — Wars 
 with Persia — Heraclius Emperor — Successes 
 of the Persians — Heraclius Wins Back His 
 Lost Territories — The Clergy as Creditors of 
 the State — Conquests of the Saracens — Con- 
 stantinople Besieged — Justinian II. — Leo III. 
 — Restores the Vigor of the Empire — The 
 Question of Image Worship — The Iconoclastic 
 War Begun — Constantine V. — Image Wor- 
 ship Forbidden — The Council of Constantino- 
 ple — Leo IV. — Reign of the Empress Irene — 
 Nicephorus Emperor — His Treaty with 
 Charlemagne — Leo V. — Wars with the Bul- 
 garians — They are Converted to Christianity 
 — Michael II. Emperor — Commercial Prcs- 
 perity of Constantinople — The Close of the 
 Iconoclastic War — Reigns of Michael III. and 
 Basil I.— The Basilica— The Sarncens Wrest 
 Southern Italy from the Greek Eniperorr — 
 Leo VI. — Constantine VII. — Reigns of Ro- 
 manus II. and Constantine IX. — John 
 Zimisces — Wars with the Russians — Reign cf 
 Basil II.— RomanusIV.— Rise of the Turkish 
 Power — Manuel I. Emperor— His Vigorous 
 Reign — His Death — Capture of Constantino- 
 ple by the Latin Crusaders — The Latin States 
 —The Wreck of the Empire— The Nicrcan 
 Emperors — " The Great Company " — Anc'ro- 
 nicus II. Em]ieror — Reign of John V. — 
 Quarrels of the Genoese Venetians and Pisars 
 — The Turks in Europe — They Overrun tl:e 
 Territories of the Empire — Capti'.-.; of Adri- 
 anople by them— The Sultan Bajazet Besieges 
 Constantinople — The Empire Asks Aid of 
 Western Europe — Constantine XIII. Emperor 
 — Siege and Capture of Constantinople by the 
 Sultan Amurath II. — Fall of the Eastern 
 Empire 413 
 
 BOOK XVII. 
 THE HISTORY OF ITALY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 
 TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 The Gothic Kingdom of Italy Founded by Odo- 
 acer — Theodoric Conquers Italy — Becomes 
 King — His Excellent Reign — His Last Years 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 15 
 
 — Athalaric King — Belisarius in Italy — His 
 Conquests — Destruction of Milan by the Bur- 
 gundians — Belisarius Captures Eavenna — 
 Justinian Jealous of Belisarius — Conquests 
 of Narses — Italy Subject to the Eastern Em- 
 pire — The Exarchate of Ravenna — Settlement 
 of the Lombards in Italv — The Iron Crown 
 — The Lombard Kingdom — Condition of 
 Rome During this Period — Dependent Posi- 
 tion of the Pope — He Becomes a Civil Ruler 
 — Gregory the Great — His Vigorous Measures 
 — Decline of Civilization in Italy — St. Ben- 
 edict — Founds the Monastic System — Benefits 
 Conferred on the Country by the Monasteries 
 — Improvement of Agriculture — Ignorance of 
 the Clergy — The Pope Takes the Monks 
 under his Protection — The Iconoclastic War 
 — Last Efforts of the Emperor to Regain his 
 Power — War Between the Pope and the Lom- 
 bards — The Pope Asks Aid of the Franks — 
 Pepin in Italy — He Conquers the Franks — 
 Bestows the States of the Church on the 
 Holy See — Charlemagne Defends the Pope 
 Against the Lombards — Is Crowned Emperor 
 —His Power in Italy 434 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO 
 THE DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VII. 
 
 Italy Tranquil During the Reign of Charle- 
 magne — Lothaire Becomes Emperor — Con- 
 quests of the Saracens in Southern Italy — 
 They Besiege Rome — Are Defeated by Pope 
 Leo IV.— The "Leonine City" — Wars with 
 the Saracens — The Pope Pays Tribute to the 
 Infidel — Wars in the North of Italy — Charles 
 the Fat Emperor — Fall of the Empire of 
 Charlemagne — Italy Ravaged by the Hungar- 
 ians and Northmen — Disorders in Italy — The 
 Emperor Otto Deprives the Romans of their 
 Independence — Revolt of Crescentius — Pope 
 Sylvester II. — Efforts of the Italian Cities to 
 Preserve their Independence — Municipal 
 Governments — Rise of the Italian Republics 
 — Growth of the Venetian State — Pisa — Genoa 
 — The Normans Drive the Saracens from 
 Sicily — Their Conquests in Southern Italy — 
 They Capture the Pope and Become his 
 Champions — Destruction of the Commerce of 
 Southern Italy — Great Corruption of the 
 Church — Simony — Hildebrand — Becomes 
 Pope as Gregory VII. — His Reforms — En- 
 forces Celibacy Upon the Clergy — The Prac- 
 tice of Investitures — Gregory puts a Stop to it 
 — His Haughty Treatment of the Sovereigns 
 of Europe — Quarrels with the German Em- 
 peror Henry IV. — Excommunicates him — 
 Humiliation of Henry — His Visit to the Pope 
 — Shameful Treatment of the Emperor — 
 Henry Renews the War — Sets up an Anti- 
 pope — Clement IIL — Gregory Rescued by the 
 Normans — Death of Gregory VII 442 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. TO 
 THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 
 
 Arrogant Claim of the Pope — Henry V. Defeats 
 Pope Paschal II. — Is Crowned Emperor — 
 Death of the Countess Matilda — Her Bequest 
 to the Pope — Settlement of the Question of 
 Investitures — Gains for the Germans — The 
 Independence of the Papacv Secured — Quar- 
 rels of the Italian Cities— The Guelfs aud the 
 
 Ghibellines — Arnold of Brescia — Barbarossa 
 Emperor — Puts Down the Revolt in Northern 
 Italy — Milan Submits — Renewal of the War 
 — The Lombard League — Defeat of the Em- 
 peror at Alexandria — Treaty of Constance — 
 Gains of the Lombard Cities — Their Increase 
 in Political Importance — Establishment of the 
 Venetian Influence in the East — War Between 
 the Pope and Otto II. — Henry II. Emperor — 
 His Quarrel with Pope Gregory IX.— Ex- 
 communication of the Emperor — His Crusade 
 — War with the Pope — Blasphemous Claim of 
 Innocent IV. — Alarms the Sovereigns of Eu- 
 rope — The Pope Refuses to be Reconciled to 
 the Emperor — Death of Frederick II. — De- 
 cline of the Imperial Power in Italy — Charles 
 of Anjou Made King of Sicily by the Pope — 
 Defeats Manfred — Gregory X. — The French 
 in Sicily — Their Tyranny — Revolt of the 
 People — The Sicilian Vespers — Massacre of 
 the French — Establishment of the Inquisition. 451 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GROWTH OP THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 Henry VII. in Italy — Rise of the Italian Re- 
 publics — Growth of Venice — Its Government 
 — The Council of Ten — Prosperity of Genoa 
 — Wars with Venice — The Genoese Fleet at 
 Chioggia is Forced to Surrender — Losses of 
 Venice — Genoa Places herself under French 
 Protection — Rise of Florence — State of Affairs 
 under the Florentine Re))ublic — Emploj'ment 
 of Mercenary Troops — The Golden Age of 
 Florence— Affairs in the South of Italy — Rob- 
 ert of Sicily — Troubles at Naples — The Ju- 
 bilee of Pope Boniface VIII. — His Quarrel 
 with Philip the Fair— His Death — Clement 
 V. Pope — Removes from Rome to Avignon — 
 Loss of Power by the Pope — Troubles at Rome 
 — llienzi — Becomes Tribune — His Fall and 
 Death — Gregory XI. Returns to Rome — Elec- 
 tion of Urban VL— Clement VII.— The Great 
 Schism — The Plague of Florence— Anarchy 
 in Northern Italy — Sicily Becomes a Spanish 
 Possession — Queen Joanna — Alfonso of Ara- 
 gon Becomes King of Naples — Rise of the 
 ^Medici at Florence — Political Divisions of 
 Italy at the Middle of the Fifteenth Century 
 — The Council of Constance — Martin V. 
 Made Pope — The Council of Basle — Nicolas 
 V. Pope — Defends the Independence of the 
 Papacy — St. Peter's Founded — The Turks in 
 Italy — The French Expelled from Genoa — 
 Cosmo de' Medici — Lorenzo the Magnificent 
 — Ludovico Sforza Becomes Duke of Milan — 
 Plots the Assassination of Lorenzo de' Medici 
 , — Failure of the Attempt — The Pope Excom- 
 municates the Florentines — Troubles at Na- 
 ples — Prosperity of the Italian Republics — 
 Death of Lorenzo de' Medici — .'\lexander VI. 
 Pope — His Infamous Character — Caesar and 
 Lucrezia Borgia — The Pope Invites the 
 French to Conquer Naples 460 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES 
 TO THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 
 
 Preparations to Meet the French Invasion of 
 Italy— The Army of Charles VIII.— The War 
 Commenced in Italy — The French Army 
 Crosses the Alps — Charles VIII. and the 
 Duchess of Milan — Ludovico Sforza Becomes 
 Duke of Milan — The French at Florence — 
 
re 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Charles Occupies Rome — Enters Naples — 
 League of the Italian States Against the 
 French — Charles Returns to France — Failure 
 of the French Campaign — Louis XII. Revives 
 the French Claim to Naples — Enters Italy 
 — Captures Ludovico Sforza — Takes Naples — 
 Driven from the Kingdom by the Spaniards 
 — The Papal Forces Conquer the Romagna — 
 Caesar Borgia Made Dulse — Death of Pope 
 Alexander VI. — Florence Subdues Pisa — Posi- 
 tion of Venice in the Italian Quarrels — Her 
 Power — The League of Cambray — War Be- 
 tween the League and Venice — The Pope 
 Changes Sides — The Holy League Formed — 
 Battle of Ravenna — Death of Gaston de Foix 
 — The French Driven from Italy — Leo X. 
 Pope — His Selfish Schemes — Louis XII. Tries 
 to Recover Milan — His Death — Francis I. Re- 
 news the French Claim to Milan — Invades 
 Italy — Battle of Marignano — Francis Con- 
 quers Lombardy — His Contemptuous Treat- 
 ment of Venice — Is Cheated by the Pope — 
 Charles V. Becomes Emperor — Helps the 
 Pope to Drive the French from Milan — Power 
 of the Spaniards in Italy — War Between 
 Charles and Francis — Reverses of the French 
 — Francis Enters Italy — Battle of Pavia — 
 Francis Made Prisoner — Charles Master of 
 Northern Italy — He Oppresses the People — 
 The League Against Charles — Rome Captured 
 and Plundered — Treaty Between the Pope 
 and the Spaniards — Rome Taken and Sacked 
 by the Spaniards — Escape of the Pope — Genoa 
 Declares for the French — Revival of the 
 Holy League — Treaty of Cambray — Charles 
 Crowned Emperor by the Pope — His Power in 
 Italy — Florence Compelled to Submit to the 
 Pope — Destruction of the Florentine Republic 
 — Reiga of Pope Paul III. — War Between 
 France and Spain — Fall of Siena — Abdica- 
 tion of Charles V. — Treaty of Cateau Cam- 
 bresis — The Reformation in Italy — The Coun- 
 cil of Trent — Foundation of the Society of 
 Jesus — Work of the Jesuits — The Inquisition 
 — Wars With the Turks — Battle of Lepanto 
 — Position of Savoy 475 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO TO THE 
 FALL OP NAPOLEON I. 
 
 Increase of the Temporal Power of the Pope — 
 He Gains Ferrara and Urbino — Policy of the 
 Papal Government — Venice and Pope Paul V, 
 — Decline of the Power of Venice — Loses Her 
 Eastern Possessions — Decline of the Spanish 
 Power in Italy — Rebellion of Masaniello at * 
 Naples— The Outbreak Crushed— The Out- 
 break in Sicily — Italy During the Eighteenth 
 Century — The War of the Spanish Succession 
 — The Peace of Utrecht — Rise of the Austrian 
 Influence in Italy — The Duke of Savoy Be- 
 comes King of Sicily — The Succession to 
 Parma — The King of Sicily Becomes King of 
 Sardinia — The War of the Polish Succession 
 — Re-establishment of the Spanish Influence 
 in Southern Italy — War of the Austrian Suc- 
 cession — The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Leaves 
 the Bourbons Supreme in Italy — Loss of 
 Power by the Popes — The French Revolu- 
 tion — ^The French Republican Invasion of 
 Italy — Bonay>arte's Victories — Treaty of 
 Campo Formio — The Italian Republics — Na- 
 poleon King of Italy 491 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON I. TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Treaty of Vienna — Austrian Influence All- 
 Powerful in Italy — The Italians Kept in 
 Slavery — Reorganization of the Italian 
 States— Restoration of the Jesuits — Rise of 
 the Secret Societies — The Carbonari — Insur- 
 rection at Naples — Victor Emmanuel I. of 
 Sardinia Abdicates — The Revolution of 1830 
 — It is Crushed by the Austrians — Reign of 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia — Joseph Mazzini 
 — " Young Italy " — Troubles in Sardinia — 
 Efforts for Constitutional Government — The 
 Liberal Italian Writers — Massimo d'Azeglio 
 — Manzoni — Pius IX. Becomes Pope — His 
 Liberal Principles — Revolution of 1848 — Up- 
 risings in Italy — War Between Sardinia and 
 Austria — Garibaldi— The Pope Deserts the 
 Cause of the People and Sides with Austria — 
 His Flight from Rome — The Roman Republic 
 — Sardinia Forced to Make Peace with Aus- 
 tria — The French Put Down the Roman Re- 
 public — Return of the Pope — Rome Gar- 
 risoned by the French — Victor Emmanuel II. 
 Becomes King of Sardinia — His Able and 
 Liberal Measures — Count Cavour— Sardinia 
 Joins France, England and Turkey in the 
 War Against Russia — Success of Cavour's 
 Policy— The War of 1859 with Austria— The 
 Peace of Villafranca — Gains of Sardinia — • 
 The Italian Revolutions — Annexation of the 
 Italian Duchies to Sardinia — Garibaldi Frees 
 Sicily and Southern Italy — The Kingdom of 
 Italy Formed — Death of Cavour — Difficulties 
 of the Italian Government — Garibddi's 
 Efforts Against the Papal Territory — The 
 Aspromonte Affair — The September Conven- 
 tion — Florence Made the Capital of Italy — 
 The Austro-Prussian War — Italy the Ally of 
 Prussia — ^Defeatof the Italians at Custozaand 
 Lissa — Italy Gains Venetia — Garibaldi Again 
 Invades the Papal Territory — Action of the 
 Italian Government — Garibaldi Defeated by 
 the French at Mentenna — ^Fall of the French 
 Empire — The September Convention Abro- 
 gated — Rome Occupied by the Italian Forces 
 — Is Made the Capital of the Kingdom — 
 Subsequent History of Italy 497 
 
 BOOK XVIII. 
 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REIGN 
 OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Geographical Position of Germany — The Ger- 
 man Race — Tacitus the Principal Authority 
 Concerning the Primitive Germans — Organi- 
 zation and Characteristics of the Germanic- 
 Tribes— Family Ties — The Wergeld— Ancient 
 Germany — Political Constitution — Religion — 
 Ariovistus — Efforts of Rome to Conquer the 
 Germans— Defeat of Varus by Arminius — 
 Migrations of the German Tribes— The Franks 
 —The Salian Franks — Their Kingdom— 
 Clovis— Conquers Syagrius— Battle of Tolbiac 
 — Clovis Embraces Christianity — Conquest of 
 the Burgundians— The Visigothic Kmgdom 
 Subdued— Relations of Clovis with the Em- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 17 
 
 pire — His Death — Division of his Kingdom 
 among his Sons — Quarrels of the Descendants 
 of Clovis— Brunehaut — The "Do-Nothing 
 Kings " — The Mayors of the Palace — Pepin 
 of Heristal — Spread of Christianity among 
 the Germans — St. Willibrord — Charles Martel 
 — Defeats the Saracens — The Pope Entreats 
 him to Defend the Holy See— Fall of the 
 Merovingian Dynasty — Pepin the Short Be- 
 comes King of the Franks — Protects the Pope 
 against the Lombards— Drives the Saracens 
 from France — Death of Pepin 510 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Significance of the Accession of Pepin to the 
 Prankish Throne — Charlemagne King — 
 Wars with the Saxons — Cruelty of Charle- 
 magne — The Pope Appeals to the Frankish 
 King for Aid against the Lombards — Charle- 
 magne Crosses the Alps and Subdues North- 
 ern Italy — Enters Spain — Battle of Ronces- 
 valles — Death of Roland— Charlemagne Sub- 
 dues Bavaria — Conquers the Huns — Goes to 
 Italy — Is Crowned Emperor by the Pope — 
 Character of Charlemagne's Empire — Treaty 
 with the Eastern Emperor — Power of Charle- 
 magne — His Government and Laws — His 
 Policy towards the Church — His Protection 
 and Encouragement of Learning — Alcuin — 
 The Schools — Personal Appearance and 
 Characteristics of Charlemagne — His Death 
 — Louis the Gentle becomes Emperor — Divi- 
 sion of Charlemagne's Dominions among his 
 Sons — Death of Louis — T^othaire Emperor — 
 The Treaty of Verdun — Rise of the German 
 and French Kingdoms — The Feudal System — 
 Its Characteristic Features 517 
 
 CHAPTER ill. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE 
 ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HOHEN- 
 STAUFEN. 
 
 Reign of Louis the German — Contests with the 
 Northmen — Hamburg Taken by them — Rise 
 of the Archbishopric of Bremen — Charles the 
 Fat, Emperor — His Dominions — Arnulf King 
 of Germany — Becomes Master of Italy and 
 is Crowned Emperor — Louis the Child — Ger- 
 many Ravaged by the Hungarians — Henry 
 the Fowler Becomes the German King — Buys 
 a Peace of the Hungarians — The War Re- 
 newed — Henry Defeats the Hungarians — 
 Conquers the Wend.s — Reorganizes the Ger- 
 man Army — Fortifies the Towns — Rapid 
 Growth of the Towns in Population and Im- 
 portance — Otto I. King — His Coronation — 
 Rebellion of Prince Henry — Wars of Otto — 
 The Mark of Schleswig — Spread of Christi- 
 anity in North Germany — Marriage of Otto 
 and Queen Adelaide of Lombardy — Otto Con- 
 quers Lombardy — Destroys the Power of the 
 Hungarians — Otto Crowned Emperor — The 
 Holy Roman Empire — Otto II. Emperor — 
 Subdues the Revolts of his Vassals — Otto III. 
 — His Character — Makes Gerbert Pope — 
 Henry of Bavaria Made King — Is Succeeded 
 by Conrad of Franconia— Conrad's Able Reign 
 — His Wars— Makes the Fiefs of the Empire 
 Hereditary— Henry III.— Henry IV. Becomes 
 King— Troubles of the Regency— Henry of 
 age— Oppresses the Saxons— Revolt of the 
 Saxons — It is Subdued — Quarrel of Henry 
 
 2 
 
 with Gregory VII. — The War of Investitures 
 Begun — Henry E.xcommunicated — His Re- 
 verses — Henry's Visit to Canossa — His Hu- 
 miliation by the Pope — Rudoli)h of Suabia a 
 Rival Emperor — Henry Sets up an Antipope 
 — Is Crowned Emperor — Death of Gregory 
 and Rudoly)h — Rebellion of Prince Henry — 
 Death of Henry IV. — Henry V. is Crowned 
 Emperor 525 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO THE 
 ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Lothaire King — Revolt of the Nobles — Conrad 
 of Suabia Made King — His Quarrel with the 
 Duke of Saxony — Establishment of the Mar- 
 gravate of Brandenburg — Berlin Founded — 
 Conrad takes Weinsberg — Devotion of the 
 Women — The Guelfs and Ghibellines — The 
 Crusades — Conrad Joins the Second Crusade 
 — His Death — Frederick Barbarossa — Settles 
 the Afifairsof Germany — The Duchy of Austria 
 Established — Frederick Goes to Italy — Is 
 Crowned Emperor — His Great Reign — Revolt 
 of Henry the Lion — He is Conquered and 
 Deprived of his Dominions — Asks Pardon of 
 the Emperor and is Forgiven — Barbarossa 
 Joins the Crusade — His Death — The Legend 
 Concerning him — Reigns of Henry VI. and 
 Otto IV. — Frederick II. Becomes German 
 King — Frederick II. — Evils Caused by his 
 Absence from Germany — He Puts a Stop to 
 Private Wars — The Moguls — Quarrel of Fred- 
 erick with the Pope — Anarchy in Germany — 
 William of Holland — The Interregnum — 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg Chosen Emperor — Re- 
 stores the Royal Authority — Albert of Austria 
 King — Christiauization of Prussia — Con- 
 quests of the Teutonic Knights and Knightsof 
 the Sword — Konigsberg Founded — Loss of 
 Power by the German Kings — The Choice of 
 Emperor Confided to Electors — Growth of the 
 Towns — The Free Towns — The Femgerichte 
 — Progress of Germany in the Arts — The 
 Iilinnesanger — Albert I. Murdered — Henry 
 VII. — His Reign and Character — Reign of 
 Louis IV. — His Quarrel with the Pope — His 
 Errors — Revolt of his Subjects— Death of 
 Louis — Rise of the Swiss Cantons — The Oath 
 of Riitli — Victory of the Swiss over the Aus- 
 trians at Morgarten — Reign of Charles IV. — 
 Persecutions of the Jews — The Golden Bull 
 — Reign of Wenceslaus — An Era of Disorder 
 — Austria Renews her Eflforts to Conquer 
 the Swiss — Battle of Sempach — Siegmund 
 Emperor — Council of Constance— The Refor- 
 mation in Bohemia — John Huss — His Mar- 
 tyrdom — The Religious War — The Elector of 
 Brandenburg — Reigns of Albert II. and Fred- 
 erick III. — Rapid Decline of the Royal Power 
 — Victories of the Swiss over the Burgundians 
 — Maximilian I. Marries Mary of Burgundy 
 — The " Imperial Chamber" — Wars with the 
 Swiss — Germany Divided into Circles — The 
 Aulic Council 534 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 the reformation and the thirty 
 
 years' war. 
 
 Charles I. of Spain Becomes Emperor of Ger- 
 many — Rise and Growth of the Reformation 
 in Germany — The Sale of Indulgences — Mar- 
 tin Luther — His Early Life — Opposes the 
 
158 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Sale of Indulgences — Luther Before Cardinal 
 Cajetanus — Burns the Pope's Bull — Luther at 
 the Diet at Worms — Action of the Diet— The 
 Emperor's Hostility to the Reformation — The 
 Reformation in Switzerland — Luther's Bible 
 — Outbreaks in Germany — Marriage of Luther 
 — Spread of the Reformation in Germany — 
 The Diet at Spires— The Protestants— Albert 
 of Brandenburg Founds the Duchy of Prussia 
 — The Archduke of Austria Becomes King of 
 Hungary and Bohemia — Return of the Em- 
 peror Charles to Germany— The Diet at Augs- 
 burg -The Augsburg Confession — Action of 
 the Diet— The League of Smalcald — The 
 "Religious Peace" ^ North Germany Be- 
 comes Protestant — The Council of Trent- 
 Alliance Betweea the Emperor and the Pope 
 — The Emperor Makes War upon the Lu- 
 therans — Death of Luther— The Smalcaldic 
 War — Triumph of the Emperor — The Interim 
 — Rebelliouof the Elector of Saxony — Henry 
 II. of France Seizes Lorraine — Fliarht of the 
 Emperor — The Treaty of Passau — The Relig- 
 ious Peace of Augsburg — Abdication and 
 Death of Charles V. — Ferdinand I. Emperor 
 — Tries to Cr>nciliate the Protestants — His 
 Death— Maximilian II. Emperor— Spread of 
 Protestantism in Germany — Rudolph II. Em- 
 peror — His Weakness — Persecutes the Protes- 
 tants — The Protestant Union and the Catholic 
 League — The Letter of Majesty — Matthias 
 Emperor — Ferdinand of Styria Made his 
 Coadjutor — Tyranny of Ferdinand — Distur- 
 bances in Bohemia — Commencement of the 
 Thirty Years' War — Death of Matthias — 
 Frederick V., Elector Palatine, Chosen King 
 of Bohemia — Ferdinand II. Emperor — Fred- 
 erick Driven from Bohemia — Ferdinand Ex- 
 terminates the Bohemian Protestants — The 
 Peasants' War — ^The Palatinate Ravaged — 
 Heidelberg Destroyed — The War Renewed — 
 Wallenstein in Command of the Imperial 
 Army — His Victories — The Edict of Restitu- 
 tion — Wallenstein Dismissed — Gustavus 
 Adolphus Enters Germany to Aid the Protes- 
 tants — Defeats Tilly Twice — Occupies Munich 
 — Wallenstein Recalled — Battle of Lutzen — 
 Death of Gustavus — Congress of Heilbronn 
 — Murder of Wallenstein — Progress of the 
 War — Battle of Nordlingen — Treaty Between 
 Richelieu and Oxenstiern — Death of Ferdi- 
 nand II. — The War Goes on — Victories of the 
 Swedes — The Peace of Westphalia — Results of 
 the War — Suflferings of Germany During the 
 Struggle .; 551 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHAI-,IA TO THE 
 
 DEATH OP FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 Reign of Ferdinand III. — Leopold T. — Louis 
 XIV. of France Seeks the Imperial Dignity 
 — Growth of Prussia — Frederick William the 
 Great, Elector — Joins the Alliance against 
 Louis XIV. — Defeats the Swedes at Fehr- 
 bellin — Louis XIV. Seizes Strasburg — Leo- 
 pold Oppresses the Hungarian Protestants — 
 They Ask and Receive Aid from the Turks — 
 Siege of Vienna — New War with France — 
 Brutality of the French Soldiers — The Peace 
 ofRyswick — The Elector of Brandenburg Be- 
 comes King of Prussia — The War of the 
 Spanish Succession — The Electors of Bavaria 
 and Cologne Join France — Marlborough and 
 Prince Eugene — Battle of Blenheim — Joseph 
 I. Emperor — His Vigorous Measures — Prince 
 
 Eugene in Italy — His Victories — Joins Marl- 
 borough in the Netherlands — Battles of Ou- 
 denarde and Malplaquet — Charles VI. Em- 
 peror — The Peace of Utrecht — Close of the 
 War by the Treaty of Rastadt— The Prag- 
 matic Sanction — War with the Turks — Lor- 
 raine given up to Stanislaus Leszczynski — 
 Maria Theresa — Efforts to Strip her of her 
 Dominions — Rapid Growth of Prussia — Fred- 
 erick William I.— A Brutal King— The To- 
 bacco College — Harsh Treatment of the 
 Crown Prince — Frederick the Great Becomes 
 Kitig — His Government — Claims Silesia— In- 
 vades that Country — The War of the Austrian 
 Succession — Desperate Situation of Maria 
 Theresa — Her Appeal to the Nobles of Hun- 
 gary — Progress of the War — Peace with 
 Prussia — Successes of the Forces of Maria 
 Theresa — The Second Silesian War — Death of 
 Charles VII. — Peace Between Bavaria, Prus- 
 sia, Saxony, and Austria — Treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle — Francis I. Emperor — Home Gov- 
 ernment of Frederick the Great — Maria The- 
 resa Determines to Regain Silesia — Frederick 
 Forms an Alliance with England — The 
 League Against Prussia — Frederick Invades 
 Saxony and Begins the Seven Years' War — 
 Battle of Losowitz — Victory of Frederick near 
 Prague — He is Defeated at Kolin — Invasioa 
 of Prussia by the Allies — Desperate Situation 
 of Frederick — His Firmness — Battles of Ross- 
 bach and Leuthen — Frederick Receives Aid 
 from England — Beats the Russians at Zorn- 
 doff — Is Defeated at Hochkirchen — Fred- 
 erick's Cause Seems Hopeless — His Heroism 
 — Is Defeated at Kunersdorf— His Great Vic- 
 tory at Leignitz — Berlin Occupied by the Aus- 
 trians and Russians — Movements of Prince 
 Henry and Frederick in 1761 — Change in the 
 Policy of Russia — Battles of Buckersdorf and 
 Freiberg — Peace of Hubertsberg — Results of 
 the Seven Years' War — Death of Francis I. — 
 Partition of Poland — Death of Maria Theresa 
 — Joseph II. Emperor — Death of Frederick 
 the Great. 670 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF FREDERICK THE 
 
 GREAT TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON I, 
 
 War Between Joseph II. and the Sultan — His 
 Misfortunes and Death — Leopold II. — The 
 French Revolution — Its Effect upon Germany 
 — Francis II. Emperor — War Between Austria 
 and France — Prussia Joins Austria — Battles 
 of Valmy and Jemappes — Russia and Prussia 
 Seize a Part of the Polish Territory — Revolt of 
 the Poles— The Third Partition of Poland— 
 The Wars of the French Revolution — The 
 Treaty of Campo Formio — Changes in the Em- 
 pire — Austria Renews the War with France 
 — Coalition against Napoleon — Battle of Aus- 
 terlitz — The Peace of Pressburg — The Confed- 
 eration of the Rhine — Napoleon's Power in 
 Germany — Fall of the Holy Roman Empire 
 — The Austrian Empire — War Between Prus- 
 sia and France — Battle of Jena — Prussia 
 Crushed by Napoleon— Battle of Friedland — 
 The Treaty of Tilsit— The Kingdom of West- 
 phalia and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw Set 
 up by Napoleon — Austria Renews the War — 
 Battle of Eokmiihl — Ratisbon Taken by the 
 French — Napoleon Occupies Vienna a Second 
 Time — Battles of Aspern and Wagram — Peace 
 of Schonbrunn — Losses of Austria — Revolt 
 of the Tyrol—Execution of Hofer — Wise Meas- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 19 
 
 urea of Prussia— Retreat of the French from 
 Russia — Germany in Arms against Napoleon 
 
 The French Driven over the Rhine — Ger-' 
 
 many Free— Fall of Napoleon — Congress of 
 Vienna — Return of Napoleon — Battle of Wa- 
 terloo — Treaty of Vienna 584 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 The GermanConfederation— Failure of the Ger- 
 man Princes to Redeem their Promises of 
 Constitutional Government — Desire for a Uni- 
 ted Germany — The French Revolution of 
 1830— Uprisings in Germany— The Customs 
 Union — Death of Francis I. of Austria — 
 Tyranny of the King of Hanover— Death of 
 Frederick William III. of Prussia — Frederick 
 William IV. — His First Measures— French 
 Revolution of 1848— Its Effect upon Germany 
 — Provisional Parliament at Frankfort — It is 
 Recognized by the Diet— The Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein Question— War Between the German 
 Confederation and Denmark— An Armistice 
 Concluded — The Prussian Assembly— A New- 
 Parliament Summoned — A Constitution 
 Adopted— The King of Prussia Urged to Ac- 
 cept the Title of Emperor of Germany— He 
 Refuses— Failure of the Frankfort Assembly 
 — Troubles in Austria — Revolution in Hun- 
 gary—It is Crushed by Russia — Francis Jo- 
 seph Emperor of Austria — Efforts to Unite 
 Germany under the Leadership of Prussia— 
 The Austrian Party — Peace with Denmark 
 —The Italian War of 1859— William I. Be- 
 comes King of Prussia — First Years of his 
 Reign — Count Bismarck — Jealousy Between 
 Prussia and Austria — The Danish War — 
 Denmark Gives up the Duchies— Quarrel Be- 
 tween Prussia and Austria — Prussia Makes an 
 Alliance with Italy— The Seven Weeks' War 
 — ^Battle of Koniggratz — Austria Humbled — 
 Prussia Supreme in Germany — Austria Ex- 
 pelled from Germany — Wise Measures of the 
 Austrian Government — The North German 
 Confederation — France Jealous of Prussia — 
 France Makes War upon Prussia — Germany 
 United in Opposition to the French — The 
 War Begun— Battle of Sedan— Surrender of 
 Napoleon III.— Paris Invested by the German 
 Army — Surrender of Metz— Siege of Paris — 
 Progress of the War — Victories of the Ger- 
 mans—Formation of the German Empire— 
 The King of Prussia Chosen Emperor— Capit- 
 ulation of Paris— Close of the War— The Ger- 
 mans Enter Paris— Meeting of the Imperial 
 Diet— Organization of the Empire — Hostility 
 of the Roman Catholic Church to the Empire 
 — Firm Measures of the Government — The 
 Catholic Clergy Refuse to Obey the Laws and 
 are Punished — Expulsion of the Jesuits — 
 Friendly Relations with Austria 592 
 
 BOOK XIX. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 
 TREATY OF VERDUN. 
 
 Geographical Position of France — Ancient 
 Gaul- The Cimri— The Belgse— The Phoeni- 
 cian Colonies— The Greek Towns— The Gauls 
 
 Cross the Alps — Destruction of Rome — Gallia 
 . Cisalpina — The Romans in Gaul — Aix 
 Founded — Narbonne — Quarrel Between the 
 JSdui and Sequani — Ariovistus Seizes a Part 
 of Gaul — Julius Caesar Made Proconsul of 
 Gaul — He Defeats Ariovistus — Conquers Gaul 
 — Revolt of the Belgse— It is Suppressed by 
 Cfesar — Uprising of the Gauls— Vercingetorix 
 — He is Beaten by Caesar and Surrenders — 
 Gaul Tranquillized by Caesar — Lyons Made 
 the Capital— Gaul Under the Romans— The 
 Institutions of Primitive Gaul — The Druids 
 — Claudius Drives the Druids from Gaul — 
 Revolt of Civilis — Sabinus — Introduction of 
 Christianity into Gaul — Persecutions of the 
 Christians— St. Denis— St. Hillary— State of 
 Gaul During the Decline of the Roman Em- 
 pire — Constantine Protects the Christians — 
 The Germans Invited into Gaul — Julian Con- 
 quers them — The Great German Invasion — 
 The Visigothic Kingdom — The Burgundiana 
 — The Franks — Kingdom of Aetius — Invasion 
 of the Huns— Battle of Chalons— St. Gene- 
 vigve— Childeric—Situation of Gaul at the Fall 
 of the Roman Empire — The Franks — Clovis 
 Becomes King of the Franks — Reasons for 
 Transferring the Narrative to the History of 
 Germany— Gaul a German State 618 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE 
 DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 
 
 The Treaty of Verdun Assigns France to 
 Charles the Bald — He Establishes his Author- 
 ity — Ravages of the Northmen — Charles 
 Seizes a Partof Burgundy— Becomes Emperor 
 — The Successors of Charles — Charles the Fat 
 — Paris Besieged by the Normans — Charles 
 the Simple — The Northmen are Given Nor- 
 mandy as the Price of a Peace — Rollo — Nor- 
 mandy Organized — Weakness of Charles — 
 Louis d'Outremer — Hugh Capet Founds the 
 French Monarchy — Robert the Pious — Is Sep- 
 arated from his Wife by the Church — Intro- 
 duction of Southern Civilization into France 
 — Religious Awakening — Erection of 
 Churches — Persecution of the Jews — Henry I. 
 — Famine in France — The Truce of God — 
 William of Normandy — Establishes his Au- 
 thority over his Duchy— Philip I.— William 
 of Normandy Conquers England— War Be- 
 tween Normandy and France — Philip's Quar- 
 rel with the Church — The Crusades — Louia 
 VI. — Extent of the French Dominions — En- 
 franchisement of the Communes— Different 
 Constitutions of the Boroughs in the North 
 and South of France— Growth of the Royal 
 Power — Wars of Louis with Henry I. of Eng- 
 land— Louis VII. — Sets Out on the Second 
 Crusade— Its Failure — Divorce of Queen Ele- 
 anora — She Marries Henry Plantagenet — 
 Henry Becomes King of England— Origin of 
 the Enmity Between France and England-- 
 Philip Augustus — Marries Isabella of Hai- 
 nault— His Policy— War with England- 
 Philip and Henrv Agree to Join the Crusade 
 —Philip Aids the" Rebel I ion of Richard Coeur 
 de Lion— The Third Crusade— Philip's Jeal- 
 ousy of Richard— Returns to France— Leagues 
 with John Against Richard— .-\gnes de Meran 
 —War Between Philip and John— Gains of 
 Philip— The Albigensian War— Prince Louis' 
 Expedition to England— The War in Langue- 
 doc— Death of Philip— Louis VIII.— Louis 
 
ao 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 IX. — His Good Reign — War with England — 
 Louis J oins the Crusade — His Death — Is 
 Canonized 627 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE 
 DEATH OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Cession of Toulouse to the French Crown — 
 France also Gains Navarre — War of the 
 Houses of Aragon and Anjou in Sicily — The 
 Sicilian Vespers — Philip Invades Aragon — 
 His Death — Philip the Fair — Results of his 
 Reign — Brings the War with Aragon to a Close 
 — War with Edward I. of England — Flanders 
 Annexed to the French Crown — Revolt of the 
 Flemings — Battle of Courtrai — Peace with 
 Flanders — Philip's Quarrel with the Pope — 
 Seizure of the Pontiii' — Death of Pope Boni- 
 face VIII. — Philip Procures the Election of 
 Clement V. — The Infamous Compact — De- 
 struction of the Templars — Martyrdom of 
 Jacques du Molay — Death of Clement and 
 Philip — Character of the King — Louis X. — 
 Philip v.— The Salic Law— Charles IV.— 
 Troubles in England — Queen Isabella — Philip 
 VI. — Navarre and France Separated — Ex- 
 pedition of Philip to Flanders — Quarrel with 
 Edward III. of England — Robert of Artois — 
 War Between France and England — The 
 Flemings Embrace the English Cause — The 
 English Defeat the French Fleet off Helvoet- 
 sluys — Truce Between France and England — 
 Disputed Succession in Brittany — The 
 Countess de Montfort — Murder of the Barons 
 of Brittany — Edward Invades France — Battle 
 of Crecy — Siege of Calais — Truce with Eng- 
 land — Death of Philip — Dauphine Annexed 
 to France — The Dauphin — John the Good — 
 Arrests Charles the Bad of Normandy — War 
 Breaks Out in Aquitaine — Battle of Poitiers 
 — Surrender of King John — His Captivity — 
 The Dauphin Charles Becomes Regent — In- 
 surrection in Paris under Etienne Marcel — 
 Meeting of the States General — Insurrection 
 of the Jacquerie— The Peace of Bretigny — 
 Release of King John — The Second Duchy of 
 Burgundy Founded — Charles V. — War with 
 Pedro the Cruel of Castile— The War with 
 England Renewed — Successes of the French 
 — Death of the Black Prince — Annexation of 
 Brittany — Revolt of the Britons — Death of 
 Du Guesclin and Charles V 642 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO 
 
 THE DEATH OF LOUIS XII. 
 
 Charles VI.— The Regency— Philip, Duke of 
 Burgundy — Preparations for the Invasion of 
 England — Charles Assumes the Government 
 — His Illness and Insanity — The Duke of Bur- 
 gundy the Ruler of France — Peace with Eng- 
 land — Hostility Between the Dukes of Bur- 
 gundy and Orleans — Murder of the Duke of 
 Orleans — The Armagnacs — Civil War — 
 Henry V. of England Invades France — Battle 
 of Agincourt — Alliance Between the Queen 
 and the Duke of Burgundy — Massacre of the 
 Armagnacs — Murder of the Duke of Burgundy 
 — His Son Joins the English— Treaty of Troyes 
 — Marriage of Henry V. with the Princess 
 Catharine — Death of Henry V. and Charles 
 VI. — The Duke of Bedford Regent for Henry 
 VI. — Charles VII. — Jacqueline, Countess of 
 
 Holland — Coolness Between the Dukes of 
 Bedford and Burgundy — Siege of Orleans — 
 Jeanne Dare, the Maid of Orleans — Her Suc- 
 cess — Charles Vll. C'rowned at Rheims — Cap- 
 ture and Death of Jeanne Dare — Reverses of 
 the English in France — Reconciliation of the 
 Duke of Burgundy with the French King — 
 The English Driven out of Paris — The States 
 General at Orleans — A Standing Army 
 Formed — Treasonable Conduct of the Dau- 
 phin—Death of Charles VII.— Louis XL Be- 
 comes King — His Character — Revokes the 
 Pragmatic Sanction — Increases the Royal 
 Territories — League of the Public Good — 
 Treaty of Conflans — Louis Regains Normandy 
 — Charles the Bold Becomes Duke of Bur- 
 gundy—Enmity Between Louis and Charles 
 — Visit of Louis to Peronne — Hard Terms Im- 
 posed L'pon the King — He Evades them — 
 Intervenes in the Affairs of England — Death 
 of the Duke of Guienne — War Between 
 France and Burgundy — Defeat of Charles the 
 Bold by the Swiss — Death of Charles — Louis 
 Seizes Burgundy and Picardy — War with 
 Maximilian — Death of Louis — Charles VIII. 
 — The Regency — Anne of Brittany — Marries 
 Charles — Peace of Senlis — Expedition of 
 Charles to Italy — Louis XII. Marries Queen 
 Anne — Renews the Italian War — Failure of 
 the War— Death of Louis XII 655 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO 
 
 THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 
 
 Francis I. Becomes King — Invades the Duchy 
 of Milan — Battle of Marignano — Treaty with 
 the Swiss — Francis Declines an Alliance with 
 Venice — His Error — Charles VI. Becomes 
 King of Spain — Treaty of Noyon — Charles 
 Chosen Emperor — Alliance of Charles with 
 Henry VIII. of England — The Field of the 
 Cloth of Gold — War Between France and 
 Spain — The French Driven from Milan — Re- 
 volt of the Duke of Bourbon — He Defeats the 
 French in Italy — Battle of Pavia — Francis 
 Taken Prisoner — His Captivity — Treaty of 
 Madrid— Francis Evades the Treaty — Renewal 
 of the War — Reverses of the French in Italy 
 — The Peace of Cambray — Francis Persecutes 
 the French Protestants — War Breaks Out Be- 
 tween France and Spain — Charles Invades 
 Provence, but is Forced to Retreat — Death of 
 the Dauphin — Peace with the Emperor — 
 Charles in France — Francis Becomes the Ally 
 of the Sultan — Progress of the War — Treaty 
 of Crespy — Persecutions of the French Prot- 
 estants — Death of Francis — Henry II. — In- 
 fluence of the Guises — The Scotch Alliance — 
 Marriage of the Dauphin to Mary of Scotland 
 — War Between France and Spain— Capture 
 of Calais by the French — The Peace of Catteau 
 Cambresis — Death of Henrv — The Reforma- 
 tion in France — Reign of Francis II. — Con- 
 spiracy of Amboise — Charles IX. — Catharine 
 de' Medici Regent — Struggle Between the 
 Catholics and the Huguenots — The Civil War 
 — Treaty of St. Germains — Marriage of Henry 
 of Navarre to Marguerite of Valois — Massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew — The Civil War Renewed 
 — Siege of Rochelle— Death of Charles IX. — 
 Henry III. — Successes of the Huguenots — 
 The Catholic League — The Duke of Anjou in 
 the Netherlands — His Death — Alliance Be- 
 tween Spain and the Duke of Guise — Wars 
 Against the League — Murder of the Duke of 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 21 
 
 Guise— Insurrection Against the King — His 
 Reconciliation withi Henry of Navarre— Tliey 
 Besiege Paris — Assassination of Henry III.-^ 
 Henry IV. Succeeds to tiie French Crown — 
 His Early Difficulties — Battle of Ivry — Its 
 Results — Recantation of Henry— He is Ac- 
 knowledged Throughout the Kingdom — His 
 Wise Policy — The Edict of Nantes — France 
 under Henry IV.— His Plan for the Readjust- 
 ment of Europe — He is Assassinated — Louis 
 XIII. — Marie de' Medici Regent — Retirement 
 of Sully — Meeting of the States General — 
 Marriage of the King — Rise of Richelieu — 
 Death of Marshal D'Ancre and his Wife — 
 Richelieu Reconciles the King with his 
 Mother — Death of De Luynes — Richelieu 
 Made a Cardinal — Becomes Prime Minister — 
 His Vigorous Policy — Takes La Rochelle — 
 War in Italy— Treaty of Cherasco — The " Day 
 of Dupes" — Richelieu Foils the Conspiracies 
 Against France — The Thirty Years' War — 
 Richelieu Aids the German Protestants — Con- 
 spiracy of Cinq Mars — Death of Richelieu — 
 Death of Louis XHI 670 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 Regency of Anne of Austria — Mazarin Prime 
 Minister — Battle of Rocroi — Capture of Dun- 
 kirk — The Prince of Conde at Lerida — Peace 
 of Westphalia — Close of the Thirty Years' 
 War — Position of France — Financial Troubles 
 — The War of the Fronde Begun — Turenne 
 Quits France — Arrest of the Prince de Conde 
 and his Brothers — Revolt of Guienne — Ma- 
 zarin Obliged to Leave France — Revolt of 
 Conde — Turenne Returns to France — Battle 
 of the Faubourg St. Antoine — Conde Joins the 
 Spaniards — Close of the War of the Fronde — 
 War with Spain — Peace of the Pyrenees — 
 Marriage of Louis XIV. to the Spanish Infanta 
 — Death of Mazarin — Louis Takes the Govern- 
 ment into his own Hands — His Character — 
 Colbert Made Minister of Finance — Alliance 
 ■with Holland — War with England — The 
 Treaty of Breda — Louis Claims the Spanish 
 Netherlands — Invades Flanders — The Triple 
 Alliance — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — Louis 
 Makes War upon the Dutch Republic — Treaty 
 with England — The French Cross the Rhine 
 — Their Successes — William of Orange Made 
 Stadtholder — His Successful Defence of Hol- 
 land — England Withdraws from the War — 
 Turenne's Campaign in Alsace — Death of 
 Turenne — Retirement of the Great Conde — 
 Naval Victories of the French — Peace of 
 Nimvvegen — Louis at the Height of his Power 
 — Seizes Strasburg — Private Life of Louis — 
 Madame de Maintenon — Persecution of the 
 Huguenots — Madame de Maintenon and the 
 Jesuits Attempt the King's Conversion — The 
 Dragonnades — Marriage of the King to Ma- 
 dame de Maintenon — Revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes — French Industry Nearly Ruined 
 by the King's Bigotry — Savage Persecution 
 of the Huguenots — Flight of the Protestants 
 from France — The League of Augsburg — 
 The Prince of Orange Becomes King of Eng- 
 land — James II. in France — Louis Declares 
 War — The Palatinate Ravaged by the French 
 — The Coalition against France— Failure of 
 the French Expedition to Ireland — Battle of 
 Fleurus— Death of Luvois— The French Fleet 
 Destroyed in the Channel — Capture of Mons 
 — Battles of Steinkirk and Neerwindeu — The 
 
 Duke of Savoy Abandons the Coalition — The 
 Peace of Ryswick — The War of the Spanish 
 Succession — The Second Grand Alliance — 
 Marlborough — Prince Eugene — The Cam- 
 paign of 1702 — Marshal Villars' Campaign in 
 Germany — Battle of Hochstadt— The Duke 
 of Savoy Joins the Alliance — Revolt of the 
 Protestants of the Cevennes — Battle of Blen- 
 heim — Spain Loses Gibraltar — Campaign of 
 1706 — Reverses of the French — Events of the 
 Year 1707— Battle of Oudenarde— Famine in 
 France — Progress of the War — Domestic 
 Affli»tions of Louis — The Peace of Utrecht — 
 Consequences of the War to France — Death 
 of Louis— The "Age of Louis XIV." 698 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO THE 
 
 MEETING OF THE STATES GENERAL. 
 
 Louis XV. — Regency of the Duke of Orleans — 
 The Most Corrupt Period of French History 
 — The Abbe Dubois — The Quadruple Alliance 
 — Coldness Between France and Spain — Con- 
 spiracy of Celleniare — War with Spain — John 
 Law — The Mississippi Scheme — Its Failure 
 — Louis Assumes the Government — Marriage 
 of Louis to Maria Leszczynski — Resentment 
 of Spain — The Pragmatic Sanction — Disgrace 
 oftheDukeof Bourbon — Cardinal Fleury — 
 His Able Measures — The War of the Polish 
 Succession — The Treaty of Vienna — The War 
 of the Austrian Succession — Death of Cardinal 
 Fleury — Battle of Dettingen — Louis Joins his 
 Army — His Illness at Metz-^Death of the Em- 
 peror Charles VII. — Battle of Fontenoy — 
 Marshal Sa.xe Conquers Belgium — The Peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle — Madame de Pompadour — 
 Financial Troubles — Attempt on the King's 
 Life — The Seven Years' War — France Joins 
 the Alliance Against Prxissia — Success of the 
 French — The Convention of Kloster-Seven — 
 Choiseul Minister — ^Treaty of Paris — France 
 Loses her American Possessions — The Jesuits 
 Expelled — Death of Madame de Pompadour 
 and the Dauphin — Madame du Barry — France 
 Secures Corsica — Fall of Choiseul — Reckless 
 Tyranny of Louis — Popular Discontents — The 
 Encyclopedia — Death of Louis XV. — Louis 
 XVI. King — His Character — Marie Antoi- 
 nette — Turgot's Financial Measures— Necker 
 — France Aids the American Colonies — War 
 with England — Spain Assists France — Battle 
 of Cape St. Vincent — The "Armed Neu- 
 trality " — France Gives More Active Aid to the 
 United States of America — Surrender of Corn- 
 wallis at Yorktown — Defeat of the French 
 Fleet in the West Indies — Siege of Gibraltar 
 —The Peace of Versailles— Financial Troubles 
 — Necker Resigns — Failure of M. de Calonne 
 — Extravagance of the Court — Growing Dis- 
 content of the People — The Assembly of 
 Notables — Dismissal of Calonne — The Car- 
 dinal de Brienne Imposes New Taxes — They 
 are Resisted — Demand for the Meeting of the 
 States General — Riots in Paris and the Prov- 
 inces — Weak Conduct of Louis — The King 
 Summons the States General — Necker Re- 
 called—The Winter of 1788-89 720 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Meeting of the States General— The National 
 Assembly Organized — The " Oath of the Ten- 
 nis Court" — The Royal Sitting — Fusion of 
 
22 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 the Three Orders — The Assembly Warns the 
 King — Troops Concentrated at Paris — Cap- 
 ture and Destruction of the Bastile — Louis 
 at the Hotel de Ville — Murder of Foulon — 
 Relinquishment of Privileges — Banquet at 
 Versailles — The Mob of Paris at Versailles — 
 Attack on the Palace — The Royal Family- 
 Forced to Remove to Paris — The National 
 Assembly at Paris — Measures of the Assem- 
 bly — Confiscation of the Church Property — 
 The Assignats— Emigration of the Nobility — 
 Fete of the Federation — Death of Mirabeau — 
 Flight of the Royal Family — They are Cap- 
 tured at Varennes and Forced to Return to 
 Paris — The New Constitution — The Legisla- 
 tive Assembly — The Parties in it — Decrees 
 Against the Emigrants — Petion Mayor of Paris 
 — Error of the Court — France Declares War 
 Against Austria — Insurrection of the 20th of 
 June — The Country Declared in Danger — 
 March of the Federates to Paris — Proclama- 
 tion of the Duke of Brunswick — Th» 10th of 
 August — Capture of the Tuileries by the Mob 
 — The King Deposed — The Royal Family 
 Committed to the Temple — Defection of La- 
 fayette — The Prussians Invade France — Cap- 
 ture of Longwy and Verdun — Massacres of 
 September — Battles of Valmy and Jemappes 
 — Belgium Conquered — The National Con- 
 vention — Trial of the King — His Condemna- 
 tion and Execution — League of the European 
 Powers against France — Treason of Dumou- 
 \riez — Fall of the Girondins — Insurrection in 
 La Vendee — Execution of the Queen, the 
 Duke of Orleans, and the Girondists — The 
 Reign of Terror — ^all and Death of Robes- 
 
 Eierre — The Convention Suppresses the Jaco- 
 in Outbreaks — Success of the Republican 
 Armies in Belgium and Italy — The Austrians 
 Driven Across the Rhine — Conquest of 
 Holland— Peace with Prussia and Spain — 
 Death of Louis XVII. — Release of the Princess 
 Royal — Insurrection in La Vendee Suppressed 
 — The Directory — Revolt of the Sections — It 
 is put Down by Najjoleon Bonaparte — Finan- 
 cial Troubles — Bonaparte in Command of the 
 Army of Italy — His Campaign in Piedmont 
 — Peace with Sardinia — Battle of Lodi — 
 Milan Occupied — Siege of Mantua — Battles of 
 Castiglione, Roveredo, and Bassano — Opera- 
 tions of Jourdan and Moreau in Bavaria — 
 Battles of Arcole and Rivoli — Fall of Mantua 
 — End of the Venetian Republic — Dissensions 
 in France — The Coup d'Etat of the 4th of 
 September, 1797 — Treaty of Campo Formio — 
 The French Seize the Papal Territories — The 
 French in Switzerland — The Expedition to 
 Egypt — Battle of the Pj^ramids — Napoleon in 
 Syria— Siege of Acre — Return of Napoleon to 
 France — Coalition Against France — Congress 
 of Rastadt — Assassination of the French 
 Envoys — The French Conquests in Italy Lost. 734 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 Intrigues Against the Directory — Coalition of 
 Sieyes and Bonaparte — Revolution of the 9th 
 of November — Overthrow of the Directory — 
 Sieygs, Bonaparte, and Roger Ducos Ap- 
 pointed Consuls — "Constitution of the Year 
 VIII." — Napoleon Bonaparte Elected First 
 Consul — Endeavors to Make Peace with Eng- 
 land — Campaign of 1800 — Napoleon Crosses 
 the Alps — Battle of Marengo — Moreau in Ba- 
 varia — Battle of Hohenlinden — Peace of 
 
 Lun^ville — The French Expelled from Egypt 
 — Peace of Amiens — Internal Administration 
 of the First Consul — The " Code Napoleon" 
 — The Concordat — Attempts to Kill Napoleon 
 — He is Chosen Consul for Life — His Ambi- 
 tion — Revolution in St. Domingo — War with 
 England — Seizure of Hanover — Conspiracy of 
 Georges Cadoudal and Pichegru — Arrest and 
 Execution of the Dukeof Enghien — Napoleon 
 Proclaimed Emperor of the French — His Cor- 
 onation — Is Crowned King of Italy — His Let- 
 ter to George III. — Coalition of England, Aus- 
 tria, and Russia Against France — Napoleon 
 Takes the Field Against Austria — Capitula- 
 tion of Ulm — Napoleon Enters Vienna — Bat- 
 tle of Trafalgar — Battle of Austerlitz — Treaty 
 of Pressburg — The Bourbon Kingdom of Na- 
 ples Overturned — The Crown Given to Joseph 
 Bonaparte — The Confederation of the Rhine 
 Established — War with Prussia— Battle of 
 Jena — Napoleon Occupies Berlin — Prussia 
 Crushed — The Berlin Decrees — The Conti- 
 nental System — Battles of Eylau and Fried- 
 land — Peace of Tilsit — Domestic Measures of 
 Napoleon — The Censorship of the Press — In- 
 terference of Napoleon in the Affairs of Spain 
 and Portugal — Portugal Occupied by the 
 French — Dissensions in the Royal Family of 
 Spain — Napoleon Forces the Spanish King to 
 Surrender his Crown — Makes Joseph Bona- 
 parte King of Spain — Insurrection of the 
 Spaniards — British Expedition to Portugal — 
 Battle of Vimiera — Napoleon Enters Spain — 
 Occupies Madrid — Battle of Corunna — Second 
 War with Austria — Battle of Eckmiihl — Vi- 
 enna Again Occupied — Revolt of the Tyrolese 
 — Execution o fHofer — Battles of Essling and 
 Aspern — Battle of Wagram — Treaty of Schon- 
 brunn — The Papal States Annexed to France 
 — The Pope a Prisoner — The War in Spain — 
 Battle of Talavera — Divorce of Josephine — 
 Marriage of the Emperor to Maria Louisa — 
 Birth of the King of Rome — Bernadotte Made 
 Crown Prince of Sweden — The Peninsular 
 War — Battles of Busaco and Salamanca — The 
 English Occupy Madrid — Lord Wellington 
 Retires from Burgos — War Between France 
 and Russia — Napoleon Invades Russia — Bat- 
 tle of Borodino — Destruction of Moscow — Re- 
 treat of the French — A Terrible March — Pas- 
 sage of the Beresina — Napoleon Hastens to 
 Paris — Vigorous Measures of the Emperor — 
 Prussia Declares War Against France — Bat- 
 tles of Lutzen and Bautzen — Austria Joins 
 the Allies — Battle of Dresden — Defeat of Na- 
 poleon at Leipzig — The Retreat to the Rhine 
 — Reverses of the French in Spain — The Cam- 
 paign of 1814 in France — Brilliant Efforts of 
 Napoleon — Surrender of Paris to the Allies — 
 Abdication of Napoleon — Close of the War in 
 Spain — Napoleon at Elba — Treaty Between 
 Louis XVIII. and the Allies — The Congress 
 of Vienna — Return of Napoleon from Elba — 
 " The Hundred Days "—Battle of Waterloo- 
 Napoleon sent to St. Helena 760 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Second Treaty of Paris — Execution of Mar- 
 shal Ney — Treaty of Vienna — The Holy Al- 
 liance — Dissolution of the Chamber — Assassi- 
 nation of the Duke of Berry — Birth of the 
 Duke of Bordeaux — Death of Napoleon — 
 Insurrections in Spain and Naples — A French 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Army Restores the Rule of the Bourbons in 
 Spain— Death of Louis XVIII.— Charles X. 
 King — Reactionary Measures — The National 
 Guard Disbanded — Success of the Liberal 
 Party in the Elections — Capture of Algiers — 
 The Polignac Ministry — The Ordonnances of 
 the 25th of July— The Revolution of 1830— 
 Capture of the Tuileries— Flight of Charles X. 
 — The Duke of Orleans Becomes King as 
 Louis Philippe I. — The Constitutional Mon- 
 archy—The Revolution in Belgium — The Bel- 
 gian Kingdom Established — Attempt to 
 Assassinate Louis Philippe— MM. Thiers and 
 Guizot — Prince Louis Napoleon at Strasburg 
 — France Intervenes Between Turkey and 
 Egypt— The Quadruple Treaty — Fortification 
 of'Paris — Removal of the Remains of Napo- 
 leon I. to France— The Spanish Marriages — 
 Death of the Duke of Orleans — Conquest of 
 Algeria — The Session of 1847 — Revolution of 
 1848— The Republic Proclaimed— Flight of 
 the Royal Family to England— The Provi- 
 sional Government — Its Troubles with the 
 Socialists — Insurrection of June, 184S — It ia 
 Suppressed— Cavaignac Dictator— The New 
 Constitution — Louis Napoleon Elected Pres- 
 ident of the Republic— The French Expedi- 
 tion to Rome — Dissensions in the National 
 Assembly — The Coup d'Etat of December, 
 1851 — Establishment of the Second Empire — 
 Napoleon III. Emperor — His Marriage — > 
 Birth of the Prince Imperial — Alliance with 
 England — The Crimean War — Capture of 
 Sevastopol — Napoleon III. Espouses the 
 Cause of Italy— The Italian War of 1859— 
 Battles of Magenta and Solferino — Peace of 
 Villafranca — France Acquires Savoy and Nice 
 — The Mexican War — Failure of the French 
 — Death of Maximilian— The Plebiscite — The 
 Quarrel with Prussia — The War with Ger- 
 many — Disasters of the French — Battle of 
 Sedan — Napoleon III. a Prisoner — Revolu- 
 tion in Paris — Fall of the Empire — Invest- 
 ment of Paris — Mission ofM. Thiers — Siege of 
 Paris— Close of the War — The Republic — M. 
 Thiers President — The Revolt of the Com- 
 mune — Second Siege and Capture of Paris — 
 Treaty of Frankfort 784 
 
 BOOK XX. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 TROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REIGN 
 OF ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 Geograpnical Situation of Great Britain — 
 Britain Known to the Phoenicians — Landing 
 of Julius Caesar — His Account of the Britons 
 — Claudius Begins the Conquest of Britain — 
 Caractacus — Southern Britain Organized as a 
 Roman Province— Rise and Growth of Lon- 
 don — Capture of Anglesey and Destruction of 
 the Druids — Revolt of Boadicea — London De- 
 stroyed — Agricola's Conquests — Begins the 
 Civilization of Britain — The Roman Walls — 
 Conquests of Severus — Carausius — With- 
 drawal of the Roman Troops — Inroads of the 
 Picts and Scots — The Introduction of Christi- 
 anity — The German Invasion — The Angles 
 and the Saxons — Foundation of tlie Teutonic 
 Kingdoms in England — The Heptarchy — 
 King .\rthur — St. Augustine Lands in Kent — 
 
 Conversion of the Saxons to Christianity — 
 Reign of King Offa — Growth of Wessex — 
 Egbert Becomes King of all England — Wars 
 with the Danes — Alfred Becomes King 807 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OP ALFRED THE 
 GREAT TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 England Overrun by the Danes — Guthrum — 
 Alfred Becomes a Fugitive — His Adventures 
 — Alfred Resumes the War — Defeats the 
 Danes at Edington — They Embrace Christi- 
 anity — Settlement with the Danes — Alfred 
 Rebuilds London — Establishes a Militia Force 
 — Character of Alfred — His Code — Origin of 
 the Common Law — His Wise Measures — 
 Founds the University of Oxford — His For- 
 eign Relations — Death of Alfred — Reigns of 
 his Descendants — Introduction of the Mo- 
 nastic System into England — St. Dunstan — 
 Edwy and Elgiva — Edgar King — " Edward 
 the Martyr "—" Ethelred the Unready"— 
 The Danes Conquer England — Reigns of 
 Sweyu and Canute — Hardicanute — Reign of 
 Edward the Confessor— Harold King — De- 
 feats the Danes — William of Normandy In- 
 vades England — Battle of Hastings — Death of 
 Harold 812 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO 
 EDWARD I. 
 
 William the Conqueror King of England — 
 Introduction of the Feudal System into Eng- 
 land—Revolt of the English— It is Put Down 
 by William — Northern England Conquered 
 — Subjection of the English Church — Domes- 
 day Book— Character of William the Con- 
 queror — His Death — William Rufus King — 
 His Tyrannical Reign— His Death — Henry I. 
 Seizes the Kingdom — The Charter of Liberties 
 — His Able Reign— Settles a Colony of Flem- 
 ings in Wales — Death of Henry— The Em- 
 press Matilda — Stephen of Blois Seizes the 
 English Crown— War with Scotland— Settle- 
 ment of the Quarrel between Stephen and 
 Matilda— Henry II. King— His Power — Re- 
 stores Order to the Kingdom — His Domestic 
 Troubles — The Constitutions of Clarendon — 
 Murder of Thomas d Becket— The English 
 Conquer Ireland — Rebellions of Henry's Sons 
 — Henry Does Penance at the Shrine of 
 Thomas's Becket— ConquersScotland — Death 
 of Henry— Richard Cceur de Lion King — 
 Joins the Crusade — Is Made Prisoner by 
 Austria on his Return Home — Prince John — 
 Richard Regains his Freedom— His Death — 
 John Becomes King — His Quarrel with 
 France — Murder of Prince Arthur — England 
 Loses Normandy — John Quarrels with the 
 Pope— Stephen Langton— John Excommuni- 
 cated — Submits to the Pope— Makes England 
 a Fief of the Holy See— Wars with the Barons 
 — Magna Chartii — The French Invasion — 
 Death of John— Henry III. King— His Reign 
 —The Provisions of "Oxford— Settlement of 
 the Quarrel between the King and the Barons 
 — The Earl of Leicester Summons a Parlia- 
 ment — Rise of the House of Commons — 
 Prince Edward Defeats Leicester at Eversham 
 —Death of Henry III 818 
 
24 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO 
 THE DEATH OF HENKY VII. 
 
 Edward I. King — His Character — Suppresses 
 the Welsh Rebellion— Birth of the First 
 Princeof Wales— Edward Makes John Balliol 
 King of Scotland — Puts Down the Revolt of 
 the Scots and Carries Away their Crown — Sir 
 William Wallace Heads an Uprising of the 
 Scots — His Capture and Execution — Robert 
 Bruce — Becomes King — Death of Edward I. 
 — Edward II. — The Confirmation of the 
 Charters — Sir Piers Gaveston — Marriage of 
 Edward — The Barons Administer the Gov- 
 ernmeut^Battle of Bannockburn — Edward 
 Bruce in Ireland — Sir Hugh le Despenser — 
 Rebellion of the Barons — Intrigues of Queen 
 Isabella Against her Husband — Murder of the 
 King — Edward III. — Roger Mortimer and 
 Queen Isabella Obtain the Regency — Edward 
 Seizes the Government — Execution of Mor- 
 timer — Edward Claims the French Crown — ■ 
 War with Scotland — The Hundred Years' 
 War Begun — Naval Victory of Sluys — Battle 
 of Crecy — Surrender of Calais — The Black 
 Death — Battle of Poitiers — The Black Prince 
 — Capture of King John of France — Death o^ 
 the Black Prince and King Edward — Richard 
 II. — Wat Tyler's Rebellion — Weak Reign of 
 Richard — Death of Queen Anne — The King 
 Marries a French Princess — Rebellion of 
 Henry of Bolingbroke — He Becomes King 
 as Henry IV. — The Statute of Prcemunire — 
 John Wycliffe— The First English Bible- 
 Dawn of the Reformation — Death of Richard 
 II. — Resistance of the Nobles to the King — 
 Troubles with the Welsh — Defeat of the Scots 
 — Hotspur's Rebellion — Death of Henry — Per- 
 secution of the Lollards — The First English 
 Martyr— Henry V. King — Martyrdom of Lord 
 Cobham — Henry Renews the War with 
 France — Ca.)ture of Harfleur — Battle of Agiu- 
 court — Heury Becomes Regent of France — 
 His Death — Expulsion of the English from 
 France— Henry VI. — The Regency — Mar- 
 riage of the King — Murder of the Duke of 
 Suffolk— Jack Cade's Rebellion— The Wars of 
 the Roses — Capture of the King — The Duke 
 of York Ascends the Throne as Edward IV. 
 — Battle of Towton — Marriaije of the King — 
 The Woodevilles— Rebellion of the Earl of 
 Warwick — Murder of Prince Edward — Death 
 of Henrv VI. — Failure of the Invasion of 
 France— Death of Edward IV.— The Duke of 
 Gloucester Murders the Sons of Edward IV. 
 and Makes Himself Kinsr as Richard III. — 
 The Earl of Richmond Claims the Crown — 
 Defeats Richard at Bosworth — Henry VII. 
 King — His Marriage— His Extortions— The 
 French Expedition — Perkin Warbeck— 
 Death of the Prince of Wales — Empson and 
 Dudley — Death of the King 831 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO 
 THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH THE REF- 
 ORMATION, 
 
 Henry VIII. King — Punishes Empson and 
 Dudley— War with France— Battle of the 
 Spurs— Defeat of James IV. of Scotland at 
 Flooden — Henry Visits Francis I. of France 
 —The Field of the Cloth of Gold -Henry 
 becomes the Ally of the Emperor Charles V. — 
 
 Cardinal Wolsey — The Emperor Deceives him 
 — Henry's Scruples as to his Marriage with 
 Catharine — Becomes Enamored of Anne 
 Boleyn — Applies to the Pope for a Divorce — 
 Trial of Queen Catharine — Fall of Wolsey — 
 Henry is Compelled to Favor the Reformers 
 — Cranmer — His Advice to the King — Heury 
 Submits the Question of his Marriage to the 
 Universities — Cromwell made Prime Minister 
 — The King Marries Anne Boleyn — Is Ex- 
 communicated — The Nun of Kent — Execution 
 of Sir Thomas More — Henry's Connection 
 with the Reformation — He Orders the Bible 
 to be Translated into English — Execution of 
 Queen Anne — Henry Marries Jane Seymour 
 — Birth of Edward VI. — Reconciliation of the 
 King and the Princess Mary — The Pilgrimage 
 of Grace — Henry Suppresses the Monasteries 
 — Seizes the Treasures of the Shrines — Rage 
 of the Pope — The Six Articles — Henry Mar- 
 ries Anne of Cleves — Puts her Away — Fall of 
 Cromwell — The King Marries Catharine 
 Howard — Sends her to the Block — Reaction- 
 ary Measures — Henry ^tarries Catharine Parr 
 — Protects Cranmer — War with Scotland — 
 De^th of Henrj' — Wales Incorporated with 
 England — Edward VI. King — Somerset Re- 
 gent — Progress of the Reformation — Rapacity 
 of Somei'set — His Fall — Northumberland Re- 
 gent — Persuades the King to Alter the Succes- 
 sion—Death of Edward VI. — Northumber- 
 land Proclaims Lady Jane Grey Queen — The 
 People Support the Princess Mary — Lady 
 Jane Grey made a Prisoner — Mary Ascends 
 the Throne — Execution of Northumberland — 
 Wyatt's Rebellion — Execution of Lady Jane 
 Grey — Mary Marries Philip of Spain — His 
 Unpoi)ularity — The Roman Catholic Religion 
 Restored — Persecution of the Protestants — 
 The Martyrs — Cranmer Burned — Phili]) goes 
 Back to Spain — Loss of Calais — Death of 
 ^lary — Elizabeth Proclaimed Queen — The 
 Work of the Reformation Resumed — The 
 Puritans— Character of Elizabeth — Peace with 
 France — Mary of Scotland — A Dangerous 
 Rival to Elizabeth — The French Driven from 
 Scotland — Mary Returns to Scotland — Marries 
 Darnley — Murder of Darnley— Civil War in 
 Scotland— Mary takes Refuge in England — 
 Is Made a Prisoner — Plots of the Catholics — 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew — Elizabeth Aids 
 the Protestants of the Continent — Babbing- 
 ton's Conspiracy — Execution of Mary — The 
 Spanish Armada — Its Defeat and Destruction 
 — The Earl of Essex — His Rebellion and Ex- 
 ecution — Death of Elizabeth 849: 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I,. 
 
 James VI. of Scotland Becomes King of Eng- 
 land as James I. — His Character— Discards 
 Presbyterianism for Episcopacy — His Views 
 as to the Royal Authority — Imprisonment of 
 Sir Walter Raleigh — James Refuses the De- 
 mands of the Puritans — Translation of the 
 Bible — Contest between the King and the 
 House of Commons — Hostility of the Cath- 
 olics to James — The Gunpowder Plot — The 
 King's Favorites — .Tames Refuses to Aid his^ 
 Son-in-Law, the Elector Palatine — His In- 
 fatuation for Spain — Execution of Raleigh — 
 Failure of the King's Contemptible Policy — 
 The Duke of Buckingham— Tyranny of the^ 
 King — Sir Edward Coke — Quarrels of the 
 King with Parliament — Troubles in Ireland 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 25 
 
 — Settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts 
 —Death of the King— Charles I.— His Char- 
 acter — Marries Henrietta Maria of France — 
 Imprudence of the Queen's Religious Atten- 
 dants — Charles Quarrels with Parliament — 
 Forced Loans— War with France — Failure of 
 the Attempt to Relieve Rochelle— The Peti- 
 tion of Right — Murder of Buckingham — Ton- 
 nage and Poundage— The King Tries to Gov- 
 ern Without a Parliament — Strafford and 
 Laud— Strafford in Ireland— Arbitrary Meas- 
 ures of the King — Ship-Money — John Hamp- 
 den Resists the Tax — Efforts of the King to 
 Force a Liturgy on the Scots — The Solemn 
 League and Covenant — Rebellion of the Scots 
 — Meeting of the Long Parliament — Execu- 
 tion of Strafford— The King Violates the Privi- 
 leges of the House of Commons — Firmness of 
 the Commons — Flight of the King — Com- 
 mencement of the Civil War — The Committee 
 of Public Safety— Battle of Edgehill— Hesita- 
 tion of Charles — Death of Hampden — Alliance 
 of the Parliament with the Scots — Oliver 
 Cromwell — Battles of Marston Moor and 
 Naseby — Surrender of the King to the Scots, 
 who Deliver him to the Parliament — The 
 King's Person Seized by the Army — Escape 
 and Recapture of Charles — Battle of Preston 
 —Trial of the King— His Execution 870 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO THE 
 
 ACCESSION OP GEORGE III, 
 
 Charles II. Proclaimed King in Ireland— The 
 Marquis of Ormoud — Cromwell Subdues Ire- 
 land — Charles II. is Accepted by the Scots as 
 King— Battle of Dunbar— Escape of Charles 
 —Scotland Compelled to Submit — War with 
 Holland — Cromwell Dissolves the Long Par- 
 liament and Seizes the Government — Is Made 
 Lord Protector — The Commonwealth — Crom- 
 well's Vigorous Rule— His Death — Richard 
 Cromwell — General Monk Becomes Master of 
 England— Restores Charles II. — Arrival of 
 the King — First Measures of Charles — Lord 
 Clarendon — The Plague in London — The 
 Great Fire — Contemptible Character of the 
 King — His Weak Reign — The Rye-House 
 Plot — Death of Charles — James II. King — 
 His Efforts to Restore the Roman Catholic 
 Religion — Opposition of the Nation to him — 
 Birth of the Prince of Wales — The Revolution 
 — Lauding of the Prince of Orange — Flight of 
 James — William and Mary Ascend the 
 Throne— The Jacobites — Rebellion of the 
 Irish — Battle of the Boyne — Ireland Subdued 
 — Death of Queen Mary — William III. — 
 Events of his Reign — His Death — Queen 
 Anne — Marlborough — His Character — Be- 
 comes the Real Ruler of England — His Vic- 
 tories — Capture of Gibraltar — Unjon of Eng- 
 land and Scotland — Fall of Marlborough — 
 The Jacobite Plots — Death of Queen Anne — 
 George I. King— The Whigs in Power — Im- 
 peachment of the Ministers — The Riot Act — 
 The Pretender — He Attempts to Seize the 
 Tiirone— Is Defeated— Growth of the Power 
 of the House of Commons — The South Sea 
 Scheme — ^Sir Robert Walpole — Death of the 
 King — George II. — Death of Queen Caroline 
 — War with Spain — Walpole Retires from the 
 Ministry — William Pitt— Battles of Dettingen 
 and Foiitenoye — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — 
 Battle of Culloden— The Seven Years' War — 
 England Sustains Frederick the Great — Will- 
 iam Pitt Prime Minister — The Methodists 882 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Death of George II. — George III. King — His 
 Character — His Marriage — Resignation of 
 Pitt — England Abandons Frederick the Great 
 — War with Spain — Efforts of the King to 
 Monopolize all the Powers of the State — 
 Character of the House of Commons — The 
 Freedom of the Press Secured — The American 
 Revolution — England Loses her Colonies — 
 War with Europe — Heroism of the English 
 People — Battle of Cape St. Vincent — England 
 Recognizes the Independence of the United 
 States— End of the War— William Pitt the 
 Younger becomes Prime Minister — Success 
 of his Policy — Rapid Growth of England in 
 Prosperity — Insanity of the King — The 
 French Revolution — War with the French Re- 
 public — Defeat of the Spanish Fleet off Cape 
 St. Vincent — The Dutch Fleet Destroyed — 
 Battle of the Nile— The English in India- 
 History of their Conquest of India — England 
 Supreme in the Mediterranean — Attack on 
 Copenhagen — The Peace of Amiens — Renewal 
 of the War— Pitt Recalled— Battle of Cape 
 Trafalgar — Death of Lord Nelson — Battle of 
 Austerlitz — Death of Pitt — Fox Prime Minis- 
 ter — The Orders in Council — The Berlin and 
 Milan Decrees — Abolition of the Slave Trade 
 — Progress of the War with France — The Pen- 
 insular War — Victories of Lord Wellington — 
 Madness of George III. — The Prince of Wales 
 made Regent — Battle of Waterloo — Condition 
 of England at the Close of the War — Death 
 of the King — Union of Ireland with Great 
 Britain — George IV. — Harsh Treatment of 
 Queen Caroline — England Abandons the Holy 
 Alliance — Intervenes in Behalf of Greece — 
 Ministry of the Duke of Wellington — The 
 Catholic Emancipation — Daniel O'Connell — 
 Death of George IV.— William IV. King- 
 Passage of the Reform Bill — Abolition of 
 Slavery — Other Reform Measures — The First 
 Railroad — Death of William IV. — The 
 Princess Victoria becomes Queen — Separation 
 of England and Hanover — Marriage of the 
 Queen — The Quadruple Alliance — The Cri- 
 mean War — The Palmerston Ministry — The 
 Gladstone ^Ministry — Disraeli Premier — The 
 War with China — ^The Indian Mutiny — India 
 Made Subject to the British Crown — The Ab- 
 yssinian War — The Ashantee War — Capture 
 of Coomassie — The Famine in India — Visit of 
 the Prince of Wales to India — Queen Victoria 
 Proclaimed Empress of India 906 
 
 BOOK XXI. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER i. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH 
 OF ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 Geographical Position of Scotland — Natural 
 Divisions — The Earliest Inhabitants— Inva- 
 sion of the Romans— The Walls— Invasion of 
 the Angles— Settlement of the Scots— Intro- 
 duction of Christianity— St. Colomba— Reign 
 of Kenneth I.— His Successors — Macbeth — 
 Reign of Malcolm Canmore— Does Homage 
 to William I. of England— Reign of Edgar— 
 
26 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The Danish Raids — Alexander I. — His Able 
 Reign — David I. King — Takes Part in the 
 English Civil Wars— Battle of the Standard- 
 Wise Measures of David— William the Lion 
 — The Long Reign — Re-establishes the Inde- 
 pendence of Scotland — Alexander II. — Rela- 
 tions with England — Alexander III. — Ed- 
 ward I. Demands Homage of the Scottish 
 King— Death of Alexander— Progress of Scot- 
 land—Margaret, the Maiden of Norway— Her 
 Death— John Balliol King— He Does Homage 
 to Edward I. of England for his Crown- 
 English Interference in Scottish Affairs — 
 War with England — Edward Subdues Scot- 
 land — John Deposed — Scotland Held by the 
 English — Revolt of William Wallace— His 
 Successes— Battle of Stirling— Wallace Made 
 Guardian of Scotland — Battle of Falkirk — 
 Death of Wallace— Robert Bruce — Stabs John 
 Comyn — Raises the Standard of Revolt — Is 
 Crowned King of Scotland — His Struggles — 
 Bruce and the Spider — Battle of Bannockburn 
 — The Independence of Scotland Re-estab- 
 lished — The Treaty of Northampton — Acts 
 of the Scottish Parliament — Rise of the Third 
 Estate— Death of King Robert 938 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM DAVID II. TO JAMES VI. 
 
 David II. King — The Regency — Revolt of the 
 Nobles — Edward Balliol Made King — Robert 
 the Steward Drives out the English — David 
 Regains the Throne — Invades England — Is 
 Defeated and Captured — His Release and 
 Death— Robert II.— The Stuarts— War with 
 England — Battle of Otterburn — Robert III. — 
 Anarchy in Scotland — James I. Proclaimed 
 King — Regency of the Duke of Albany — 
 James Released by the English — Mounts the 
 Throne — His Vigorous Measures — Attempts 
 to Break the Power of the Highlanders — 
 Murder of the King — Reforms of this Reign 
 — James II. — Fall of the Black Douglases — 
 James Takes Part in the English Civil Wars 
 — James III. — His Efforts to Curb the Power 
 of the Nobles — The Affair of the Bridge of 
 Lauder — Murder of the King — James IV. — 
 Efforts to Strengthen the Authority of the 
 Crown — Relations with England — Conquers 
 the Lord of the Isles — War with England — 
 Battle of Flooden — Death of James — Advance 
 of Civilization in Scotland — James V. — The 
 Regency — Feuds Between the Nobles — The 
 "Erection of the King"— Fall of the Red 
 Douglases — James Puts Down the Borderers 
 — The Reformation Begun — Death of James 
 — Mary Proclaimed Queen — The Earl of 
 Arran Regent — War with England — The 
 Queen Sent to France — The English Driven 
 from Scotland — Spread of the Reformation — 
 Murder of Cardinal Beaton — The Queen- 
 Mother Becomes Regent — The French In- 
 fluence Obnoxious to the Scots — Rapid In- 
 crease of the Power of the Reformers — The 
 First Covenant— The Lords of the Congre- 
 gation — They Demand of the Regent a Re- 
 form in Matters of Religion — Treacherous 
 Conduct of the Regent — Religious Riots — The 
 Regent Deposed — England Aids the Re- 
 formers—Treaty of Edinburgh — Death of the 
 Regent — The Roman Catholic Religion Over- 
 thrown — Presbyterianism Established — Re- 
 turn of Queen Mary — John Knox — His Treat- 
 ment of the Queen — Arrogance of the Re- 
 formed Clergy — Revolt of the Earl of Huntly 
 
 — The Queen Marries Darnley— Murder of 
 Rizzio — Birth of James VI. — Bothwell Se- 
 cures the Queen's Favor — Murder of Darnley 
 — Marriage of the Queen to Bothwell — Civil 
 War — The Queen a Prisoner — Abdicates her 
 Throne 949 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO 
 
 THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 
 
 James VI. Crowned King — Murray Regent — 
 Escape of Queen Mary — Battle of Langside 
 — Flight of Mary to England — Her Captivity 
 there — Her Party in Scotland — Murder of 
 Murray — The Earl of Lennox made Regent — 
 Surrender of Dumbarton Castle^Death of 
 Lennox — The Earl of Mar Regent— Is Suc- 
 ceeded by Morton— James Assumes the Gov- 
 ernment — Fall of Morton — The Ruthven 
 Lords — The King a Prisoner— He Escapes — 
 Execution of Mary — Conduct of James — Mar- 
 riage of the King to Anne of Denmark — 
 Episcopacy Abolished — Submission of the 
 Earl of Huntly — Troubles of James with the 
 Reformed Ministers — James Becomes King of 
 England — The Union of the Crowns — James 
 Becomes an Episcopalian — Episcopacy Re- 
 established in Scotland — The Bishops— The 
 Five Articles — Charles I. — His Attempts 
 Against the Liberties of the Scottish Church 
 — Visits Scotland — Archbishop Laud — At- 
 tempt to Use the Liturgy — Riots — The Sol- 
 emn League and Covenant — Charles Sum- 
 mons an Assembly — It Deposes the Bishops 
 — The King Defied — Montrose Subdues the 
 North for the Covenant — Pacification of Ber- 
 wick — The War Breaks Out Again— Success 
 of the Scots — The King Yields to the Nation 
 —The Civil War in England— The Scots Side 
 with the Parliament — Montrose Espouses the 
 King's Cause— His Successes — Charles Sur- 
 renders to the Scottish Army — He is Sold to 
 the English Parliament — Efforts in his Be- 
 half — The Westminster Confession Adopted 
 by the Scots — Execution of the King— Charles 
 it. Proclaimed in Scotland — Cromwell Con- 
 quers Scotland — The Restoration — Efforts to 
 Re-establish Episcopacy — Persecution of the 
 Covenanters — Murder of Archbishop Sharp — 
 Claverhouse — Battle of Bothwell Bridge — 
 James VII. King — The Persecutirn Becomes 
 More Severe — The Scottish Martyrs — The 
 Indulgences — Overthrow of James — William 
 and Mary — Presbyterianism Re-established 
 in Scotland — The .lacobites — Revolt of Dun- 
 dee — Battle of Killiecrankie — Death of Dun- 
 dee — Massacre of Glencoe — Queen Anne — 
 Union of Scotland with England 960 
 
 BOOK XXII. 
 THE HISTORY OF THE SARACENS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM MOHAMMED TO THE TURKISH DO- 
 MINION. 
 
 Birth of Mohammed— His Early Life— His Me- 
 ditations—His Marriage— Proclaims Himself 
 a Prophet— Character of his Revelation — 
 Hostility to him— His First Converts — Flies 
 from Mecca — Medina Embraces his Cause — 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 27 
 
 His Conquests-Death of the Prophet-Suc- 
 cessors of Mohammed-Omar-Conquest of 
 lyrTaand Palestine-Persia and Western Asia 
 Overrun-The Saracens Attack Constanti- 
 ^""le-Conquest of Egypt-Northern Africa 
 4.ihdued — The Mohammedan Conquest ot 
 S ain-Efforts to Conquer Southern Europe 
 -Defeat of the Saracens at Tours-Divisuou 
 of the Khalifate-Growth of Mohammedaa 
 Sects -Haroun al Raschid-His Brilliant 
 Reign-State of Knowledge among the bara- 
 cens-Crete Conquered-Naval Warfare of 
 the Saracens-Scientific P'-ogress-Dechne of 
 the Khalifate of Bagdad-Rise of the Turks 
 -Weakness of the Khalif- Reign of Malek 
 Shah-His E.npire-Zingis Khan-The iar- 
 tar Dominion -Kublai Khan-Russia Con- 
 quered by the Tartars-Rise of the Turkish 
 Empire 
 
 970 
 
 BOOK XXIII. 
 THE HISTORY OF THE CRUSADES. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 General BBVnf in the Approaching ^J"^^*" *^® 
 W)rld — lisli^ious Awakening ot the i'eople 
 -Rj^ults of this Feeling-Pilgrimages to the 
 H)lv Lmd— Profanation of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre bv the Khalif Hakem— Capture of Jeru- 
 salem "by the Turks — Outrages upon the 
 Cliristians — Indignation of Europe — Peter 
 the Hirmit— Preaches the Crusade— Enthu- 
 siasm of the People-Tlie First Crusade- 
 Ad^reatures of the Crusaders-Walter the 
 Peinilesi-G^lfrev of Bouillon— The Cru- 
 salirs at Cinstantinople— They Enter Asia- 
 Q larrels of the Leaaers-Tancred— Capture 
 of Autioch- Jerusalem Taken — The Latin 
 Kinglim-GvUrev MaJe King-The Hospi- 
 tallers and Tempiars-The Second Crusade 
 —Its Disastrous Termination— Saladin Ma,ster 
 of E'vpt and Svria-Defeats the Christians 
 —Jerusalem Taken— Fall of the Latin King- 
 dom -The Third Crusade— Richard Clceur rie 
 Lion-The Fourth Crusade-It Fails in its 
 Obiect-The Children's Crusade-The Fifth 
 Crusade-Frederick II.— The Sixth and Sev- 
 enth Crusades -Louis IX. of France - Is 
 Made Prisoner-His Release— The Eighth 
 Crusade-Fall of Acre-The Institution of 
 Chivalry— Its Effects 9'^ 
 
 BOOK XXIV. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE TURKISH 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE 
 TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Death of Kublai Khan— Orthogrul Establishes 
 the Empire of the Ottoman Turks— Bithynia 
 Conquered bv the Turks— Orchan Aids the 
 Greek Emp -Vor Cantecuzene — The Turks 
 Gain a Fo.nhold in Europe— They Take Pos- 
 
 session of Thrace — Amurath I. — Makes 
 Adrianople his Capital— The Janizaries— 
 Bajazet I. Assumes the Title of Sultan— At- 
 tempts the Conquest of Hungary— Besieges 
 Constantinople— Tamerlane— His Conquests 
 —Defeats Bajazet— His Empire— Mohammed 
 I. Becomes Sultan— Mohammed II. Captures 
 Constantinople- Makes it the Capital of the 
 Empire — Conquers Greece — Selim I.— His 
 Conquests — Solyman I. Takes Belgrade- 
 Capture of Rhodes— Wars with Venice— Bat- 
 tle of Lepanto— Destruction of the Turkish 
 Naval Power in the Mediterranean— Wars 
 with the German Emperors— Vienna Besieged 
 —It is Relieved by John Sobieski— Peace of 
 Carlowitz— Azov Ceded to Russia— It is Re- 
 gained—The Peace of Passarowitz — Wars 
 with Russia— Catharine the Great— Russia 
 Gains the Crimea— Successful Revolt of Ser- 
 via— Decline of Turkey— The Greek B^volu- 
 tion— Greek Independence Secured— Revolt 
 of Egypt— Its Settlement— The Crimean War 
 —The Cretan Revolt— The Sultan Visits Pans 
 and London— Abrogation of the Treaty of 
 Paris— Revolt in Herzegovina— Turkey in- 
 solvent—Abdul Hamid II.— The Herzegovi- 
 nian War— Efforts of the European Powers 
 to Secure Peace and Reform— The Bulgarian 
 Massacres— Servia and Montenegro Declare 
 War against Turkey— Intervention of Russia 
 —The Conference— The Turkish Constitution 
 —Failure of the Conference— Obstinacy of 
 Turkey— Peace with Servia — The Protocol- 
 Turkey Rejects it— For History of the late 
 War see History of Russia ^^^ 
 
 BOOK XXV. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. . 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE 
 GREAT. 
 
 Geographical Position of Russia— Early History 
 Uncertain-The Slavs-Novgorod and Kiev 
 Founded— Rurik Founds the Russian Empire 
 -Successors of Rurik -Oleg- His Great 
 Reiffu- leor— Olga Embraces Christianity— 
 Rein of Iviatosfaf-Vladimir I.-His Char- 
 acter— Christianization of Russia— Eflorts ot 
 Vladimir in behalf of Civilization— His Death 
 -Usurpation of Sviatopolk-Reign of \iir- 
 oslav— Translation of the Bible into the Rus- 
 sian Langnage-The First Code of Laws- 
 Death of Yaroslav-Decline ot the Russian 
 Po^yer-The Petty States-Reign ot Andrew 
 of Suzdal— Moscow Founded-Conquest ot 
 Russia by the Tartars-The Tartar Suprem- 
 acy-Humiliation of the Grand Pri. ces of 
 Russia— Alexander Nevski-Ivan I- — H's 
 Excellent Reign-Dimitri II. Refuses to Pay 
 Tribute to the Tartars-His AVars with them 
 -Vassili IIT.-Ivan the Great-Decline of 
 Novgorod-Ivan Marries a Greek Princess- 
 Assumes the Title of Autocrat-Rapid Re- 
 covery of the Russian Empire-Reign of \ as- 
 sili V.-Ivan the Terrible-His Childhood- 
 His Tyrannical Reign-The Strelitz-Con- 
 qnests of Ivan-Madness of Ivan— A Reign 
 of Terror— Successors of Ivan— Boris G(^unot 
 —The False Dimitri— His Success and lall— 
 The Shuiski— Vassili VI.— Another Fa'se 
 Dimitri— The Polish Supremacy— A Period 
 
28 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 of Anarchy — Michael RoraanofF Chosen Czar 
 of E.ussia — His Excellent Reign — Alexis — 
 The Cossacks of the Don become Subject to 
 Russia — Reign of Feodor III 1005 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT 
 TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Sons of Feodor III.— The Princess Sophia 
 — Makes Herself Regent — Accession of Peter 
 the Great — Determines to Make Russia a 
 Great European Power — Conquers Azov — 
 Visits the Countries of Western Europe to 
 Learn the Arts of Civilization — Returns to 
 Russia — Suppresses a Mutiny of the Strelitz 
 — Measures of Peter for the Improvement of 
 his Country — Wars with Sweden — Seizes In- 
 gria and Carelia — St. Petersburg Founded — 
 Wars with Turkey — Loss of Azov — Rapid Ad- 
 vance of Russia under Peter — His Death — 
 Catharine I. — Peter II. Becomes Czar — The 
 Empress Anna — War with Turkey — Azov 
 Reconquered — Elizabeth Becomes Empress — 
 The Seven Years' War — Russia Becomes the 
 Ally of Austria — Death of Elizabeth — Peter 
 III." Favors Prussia— Catharine the Great — 
 Her Rei^n — Relations with Sweden — Russia 
 Intervenes in Polish Affairs — Wars with Tur- 
 key — The First Partition of Poland — Russia's 
 Share — Successes Over the Turks — Suwaroff 
 — Capture of Ismail — Treaty of Jassy— Death 
 of Catharine the Great — Paul I. — Russia 
 Takes Part in the Wars of the French Rev- 
 olution — Murder of Paul — Alexander I. — 
 His Wars with Napoleon — Treaty of Tilsit — 
 Friendship of Alexander for Napoleon — 
 The War Renewed— French Invasion of Rus- 
 sia — Its Disastrous End — Last Years of Al- 
 exander — His Death — Nicholas— War with 
 Turkey — Polish Revolution of 1830— It is 
 Crushed — The Crimean War — Death of Nicho- 
 las — Alexander II. — Abolition of Serfdom — 
 Alexander's Treatment of Poland — The Insur- 
 rection of 1863 — It is Put Down — Poland 
 Absorbed in the Empire — Sale of the Russian 
 American Possessions — Abrogation of the 
 Treaty of Paris — Advance of Russia in the 
 East — The Conquest of Khiva — Insurrection 
 in the Turkish Provinces in 1875 — Russia 
 Resolves to Intervene in Behalf of the Greek 
 Christians — The Bulafurian Massacres — Ex- 
 citement in Russia — Efforts for a Settlement 
 —Russia Prepares for War — The Army Or- 
 dered to Take the Field — Russia Declares 
 War Against Turkey — Events of the Cam- 
 paign in Armenia — Fall of Kars — Events of 
 the War in Bulgaria 1021 
 
 BOOK XXVI. 
 THE HISTORY OF SPAIN. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Situation of Spain— ^Original In- 
 habitants — The Carthaginian Conquest — The 
 Second Punic War — The Roman Dominion — 
 The German Invasion — The Gothic Kingdom 
 — The Early Kings — Theodoric I. — Euric 
 Founds the Kingdom of Spain — Theodoric 
 
 II. — His Successors — Reign of Leovigild — 
 Wamba's Wise Rule — Reign of Roderic — 
 Count Julian— Conquest of Spain by the Sara- 
 cens — The Christians Driven to the North — 
 The Viceroys — Abderahman Founds the 
 Kingdom of Cordova — Spain Under the Moors 
 —The Western Khalifate- Fall of the King- * 
 dom of Cordova — Rise of the Smaller Moorish 
 States — The Kingdom of Granada Founded — 
 The Christian Kingdom of Asturias — Pelayo 
 and his Successors — Rise of Leon, Castile, 
 Aragon, and Navarre — Wars with the Moors 
 — The Cid — The Portuguese Monarchy 
 Founded — The Moors Driven Southward — 
 Battle of the Navas de Tolosa — Rapid 
 Advance of the Christian Kingdoms — Pedro 
 the Cruel — Ferdinand and Isabella — The 
 Modern Kingdom of Spain Established — The 
 Inquisition — Conquest of Granada — Discov- 
 ery of America — Charles I. — Death of Car- 
 dinal Ximenes — Charles Elected Emperor — 
 Strengthens the Arbitrary Power of the 
 Spanish Crown — Persecution of the Moors — 
 Charles Punishes the Revolt of the Flemings 
 — Abdication of Charles — Philip II. — War 
 with France — Wealth of Spain — Philip 
 Crushes the Reformation in Spain — The 
 Moors Exterminated — Spain Loses her Dutch 
 Provinces — Philip Seizes Portugal — The In- 
 vincible Armada — Its Fate — Death of Philip 
 — Philip III. King — The Jews Driven from 
 Spain — Philip IV. — War with France — 
 Peace of the Pyrenees — Revolt of Portugal — 
 Spain Acknowledges the Independence of the 
 Dutch Republic — Charles II. — War of the 
 Spanish Succession — Losses of Spain — Her 
 Great Wealth — Philip V. — Wars of the 
 Polish and Austrian Succession — Wars with 
 England — Spain Supports the Independence 
 of the United States of America — Charles IV. 
 — War with the French Republic — Treaty of 
 San Ildefonso — The Struggle with Napoleon — 
 Ferdinand VII. — Spain Loses her American 
 Colonies — Revolution of 1820 — Death of Fer- 
 dinand — Isabella II. — The Carlist War— 
 ^Marriage of the Queen — Revolution of 1868 — 
 The Provisional Government — Amadeo King 
 — Cnrlist Insurrection — Abdication of Amadeo 
 — Alfonso XII. Proclaimed King — The Cuban 
 Insurrection 1059 
 
 BOOK XXVII. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE EARLIEST TIMES 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 Geographical Position of Portugal — Earliest 
 Inhabitants— Subdued by the Romans — The 
 Saracen Conquest — Recovered by the Chris- 
 tians — Erected into a County — Origin of the 
 Name Portugal — Sancho I. Makes Portugal 
 a Kingdom — Reigns of Alfonso II. and Dinis 
 I. — Alfonso IV. — Murder of liies de Castro — 
 Fury of Dom Pedro— Reign of Pedro I. — Fer- 
 nando I. — Reign of Joam I. — His Conquests 
 in Africa — Maritime Enterprises and Discov- 
 eries of the Portuguese — Reign of Alfonso V. 
 — Dom Pedro Driven into Rebellion — Joam 
 II. — His Great Reign — His Reforms — Failure 
 of the Plots Against him — Prosperity of Por- 
 tugal — The Cape of Good Hope Doubled — 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 29 
 
 Manuel — The Portuguese in India— Their 
 Possessions and Influence in the East — Dis- 
 covery of Brazil — Joani III.— Brazil Colon- 
 ized — Sebastian — Invades Africa — Is De- 
 feated and Slain— Reign of Dom Henry- 
 Philip II. of Spain Seizes Portugal — The 
 Kingdom Declines under Spanish Rule — 
 Revolution of 1640— The Duke of Braganza 
 Made King— War with Spain— Alfonso VI.— 
 Battle of Villaviciosa— Alliance with Eng- 
 land—Reigns of Pedro II. and Joam V. — 
 Reign of Maria — Dom .loam Regent — De- 
 clares War Against the French Republic- 
 Napoleon Attacks Portugal— Flight of the 
 Court to Brazil— The Peninsular War— Joam 
 VI. — Revolution of 1820 — Return of the 
 King — Maria da Gloria — Brazil Becomes In- 
 dependent — Reigns of Pedro V. and Luiz I. ..1080 
 
 BOOK XXVIII. 
 HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 BOOK XXIX. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF BELGIUM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geogranhical Position of Holland — Formation 
 of the Country — Primitive Inhabitants — The 
 Netherlands Under the Romans and the 
 Franks — Reclaiming the Lands — Growth of 
 the Towns — Rise of Flanders — Character of 
 the People — Their Industry — Love of Free- 
 dom — Revolt of the Flemings — Battle of 
 Courtrai — James Van Artevelde — Philip the 
 Bold — Mary of Burgundy — Charles Becomes 
 Ruler of the Netherlands — His Treatment of 
 them — Philip II. of Spain— His Policy in the 
 Netherlands — Prosperity of the Country at 
 the Accession of Philip — Margaret of Parma 
 Appointeil Regent — Persecution of the Prot- 
 estants Begun — The Duke of Alva sent to 
 the Netherlands — His Cruelties — Return of 
 the Prince of Orange — Revolt of the Nether- 
 lands — The War for Independence — The 
 Dutch Republic Established — Siege of Haar- 
 lem — Don Louis de Requesens — Extremity of 
 Leyden— The Dikes Cut — Leyden Relieved — • 
 Outrages of the Spaniards — The Pacification 
 of Ghent — Prince of Parma made Regent — 
 The Flemings Choose Charles of Anjou as 
 their Leader — Murder of William the Silent — 
 Antwerp Taken — Belgium Ruined — Prince 
 Maurice — Internal Dissensions — Execution of 
 Barneveldt— The Thirty Years' War— Spain 
 -Recognizes the Independence of the Dutch 
 Republic — War with England — William of 
 Orange— Becomes Stadthoider — Is Made King 
 ■of England — Holland Shelters the French 
 Protestant Refugees — Wars with France — 
 The Seven Years' War — Holland Recognizes 
 the Independence of the United States of 
 America — War with England — Internal 
 Troubles — Conquest of Holland by the 
 French Republican Forces— The Treaty of 
 Vienna— The Kingdom of the Netherlands 
 Organized — Revolt of the Belgians — Separa- 
 tion of Belgium from Holland — Subsequent 
 History '. 1088 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM 
 TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Situation of Belgium — Population 
 — Belgium Retained by Spain After the Dutch 
 "War of Independence — Becomes a Possession 
 of Austria — Its History Under Austrian Rule 
 — Conquered by the French Republic — Be- 
 comes a Part of France — Is Made by the 
 Treaty of Vienna a Part of the Kingdom of 
 the Netherlands — Dissatisfaction of the Bel- 
 gians — Revolution of 1<«30 — The Petition to 
 the King — It is Unheeded — Prince Frederick 
 at Brussels— The Revolt Spreads — The Dutch 
 Troops Driven from Brussels — General Chasse 
 Opens Fire Upon Antwerp — A Provisional 
 Government Established by the Patriots — 
 The National Congress — The Independent 
 Kingdom of Belgium Proclaimed — Interven- 
 tion of the Great Powers — Belgian Independ- 
 ence Sustained — Leopold of Saxe-Coburg 
 Chosen King— Holland Renews the War — 
 France Aids Belgium- Siege and Surrender 
 of Antwerp— Subsequent History of Belgium.llOl 
 
 BOOK XXX. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF DENMARK. 
 
 CHAPTER I, 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Denmark— Early His- 
 tory Mythical— Origin of the Name— Gorm 
 the Old— Queen Thyra— Builds the Danne- 
 Yirke— Harald Blue Tooth — Svend— Conquers 
 a Part of England— Canute the Great— Abol- 
 ishes Paganism — Conversion of the Danes to 
 Christianity — Denmark Joined to Norway — 
 Magnus the Good — Division of the Kingdoms 
 —Reign of Svend II.— His Successors — Val- 
 demar I. — Valdemar II.— Converts the Estho- 
 nians— His Captivity- His Successors— Rise 
 of the Commons— Christopher I.— Decline of 
 the Royal Power — War with Schleswig— 
 Valdemar III.— Olaf— Margaret— Her Good 
 Reign— Her Successors— Christian of Olden- 
 burg Becomes King— Christian II. — Loses 
 Sweden — Is Deposed — Frederick I. — Den- 
 mark Becomes Protestant— The Wars of the 
 Seventeenth Century— Christian VII.— War 
 with England— Defeat of the Danish Fleet 
 by Lord Nelson— Bombardment of Copen- 
 hagen — Denmark Joins the Coalition Against 
 Napoleon — Loses Norway — Frederick VII. 
 —The Schleswig-Holstein Wars — Denmark 
 Loses the Duchies — The Millennial Celebra- 
 tion of Iceland 1106 
 
30 
 
 CONTENTd. 
 
 BOOK XXXI. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SWEDEN AND 
 NORWAY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Norway— Primitive 
 Inhabitants — The Northmen Occupy the 
 Country — Harald Harfager — Hako the Good 
 — The First Code of Laws — Hako's Successors 
 —The Death of King Olaf I.— Saint Olaf— 
 Norway Converted to Christianity — Magnus 
 I. — Magnus Barefoot's Conquests-Sigurd I. 
 — Sverre — His Successors — Erik the Priest- 
 hater — Margaret — Norway United to Den- 
 mark — The Union of Calmar — Decline of Nor- 
 way — Margaret's Successors — Christian IV. 
 — His Good Reign — Norway Becomes Merely 
 a Danish Province — Frederick VI. — Norway 
 Detached from Denmark and Given to Swe- 
 den — Conditions of the Union — Geographical 
 Position of Sweden — Primitive Inhabitants 
 — Arrival of Odin and the Swedes — The Suc- 
 cessors of Odin— Olaf the Lap-King — Intro- 
 duction of Christianity — St. Erik — His Suc- 
 cessors — Valdemar I. — Magnus Barnlock — 
 Margaret — The Union of Calmar — Margaret's 
 Successors — Christian II. — Revolt of the 
 Swedes Under Gustavus Vasa — Reigns of Sig- 
 ismund and Charles IX. — Gustavus Adolphus 
 — His Wars — Christina Abdicates — Charles 
 X. — His Wars with the Northern States of 
 Europe — Charles XI. — Charles XII. — His 
 Wars with Russia — His Flight into Turkey 
 — Destruction of the Supremacy of Sweden in 
 the North — Sweden Loses Her Provinces — 
 Sweden During the Eighteenth Century — 
 Gustavus III. — Wars with France — Charles 
 XIII. — Bernadotte — Sweden is Given Nor- 
 wav by the Allies — The Union — Subsequent 
 History 1113 
 
 BOOK XXXII. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED 
 STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT 
 TO THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Maritime Enterprises in the Fifteenth Century 
 — Discoveries of the Portuguese — Christopher 
 Columbus — His Scheme for Finding a Pas- 
 sage by Sea to India — Is Employed by Spain 
 — His Voyage — Discovers America — His Sub- 
 sequent Voyages and Death — The New World 
 Named America — Efforts of Spain to Conquer 
 and Settle America — Conquest of Mexico and 
 Peru — Expedition of De Soto — His Death — 
 The French in America — Unsuccessful At- 
 tempt to Settle Florida — The English Enter- 
 prises in America — Sir Humphrey Gilbert — 
 Sir Walter Raleigh Plants a Colony on Roan- 
 cake Island — Its Fate — The Spanish Colonies 
 — The Portuguese Settle Brazil — The London 
 Company — Settlement of Virginia — Captain 
 John Smith — The Jamestown Colony — The 
 First Legislative Assembly in America — The 
 
 Pilgrim Fathers — Settlement of Plymouth — 
 Massachusetts Bay Settled — Maine Settled — 
 Connecticut and Rhode Island Colonized — 
 The Dutch Found New York— Settlement of 
 New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania and 
 Maryland— The Carolinas Settled— The Col- 
 ony of Georgia Founded — Character of the Set- 
 tlers in the New World — African Slavery In- 
 troduced—Establishment of Free Schools — 
 Wars with the Indians — Settlement of Canada 
 by the French — The Jesuit Missionaries — 
 The French and English Come to Blows — 
 King William's War — Queen Anne's War — 
 The Indians Aid the French — King George's 
 War — Capture of Louisburg — The French on 
 the Ohio— Washington's Mission to Fort Du- 
 quesne — Beginning of Hostilities — The Old 
 French War — Defeat of General Braddock — 
 Exileof the Acadians — Battle of Lake George 
 — The Marquis de Montcalm — Capture of 
 Fort William Henry by the French — William 
 Pitt in Power — Capture of Louisburg — Fort 
 Duquesne Taken — Failure of the Attack upon 
 Ticonderoga — Capture of Quebec — Death of 
 Wolfe and Montcalm — Great Britain Acquires 
 Canada — Close of the War — Pontiac's Re- 
 bellion 1123 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Services of the Colonists in *he French and In- 
 dian Wars — Great Britain Jealous of her Col- 
 onies — Harsh Laws — The " Writs of Assist- 
 ance" — They are Resisted — Great Britain 
 Proposes to Tax the Colonies — The Stamp Act 
 — Resistance of the Colonies to it. — Measures 
 for Protection — The First Colonial Congress 
 — Repeal of the Stamp Act — New Duties Im- 
 posed — Riot in Boston— The Town Occupied 
 by British Troops — The King Maintains his 
 Right to Tax the Colonies — Destruction of 
 Tea at Boston— The Boston Port Bill— Meet- 
 ing of the Continental Congress — Measures 
 of that Body — The Colonies Arm — Battles 
 of Lexington and Concord — The Revolution 
 Begun — Boston Besieged — Capture of Crown 
 Point and Ticonderoga — Battle of Bunker Hill 
 — The Second Continental Congress Assembles 
 at Philadelphia — Washington in Command 
 of the Army — The British Evacuate Boston — 
 Invasion of Canada — Attack on Fort Moultrie 
 — Declaration of Independence — Articles of 
 Confederation — Battle of Long Island — Wash- 
 ington Retreats Across the Delaware — Battle 
 of Trenton — Washington Eludes Cornwallis 
 — Battle of Princeton — Effect of these Vic- 
 tories — Battle of the Brandywine — The Brit- 
 ish Occupy Philadelphia — Battle of German- 
 town — Surrender of Burgoyne — Alliance with 
 France— The Winter at the Valley Forge — 
 The British Evacuate Philadelphia — Battle of 
 Monmouth — Arrival of the French Fleet — 
 The War in the South — Capture of Savannah 
 — Georgia Overrun — Spain Joins the Alliance 
 — Exploits of Paul Jones — Attack on New- 
 port — Surrender of Charleston — Exploits of 
 Marion and Sumter — Battles of Camden and 
 King's Mountain — Greene in Command in the 
 South — Arrival of the French Army — Ar- 
 nold's Treason — Battles of the Cowpens and 
 Eutaw Springs — Cornwallis in Virginia — 
 Washington Moves South — Siege of York- 
 town — Surrender of Cornwallis' Army — Close 
 of the War — Great Britain Recognizes the In- 
 dependence of the United States 1137 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 31 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL 
 WAR. 
 
 Besults of the War — Adoption of the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States — Washington 
 Elected President — Is Re-elected — Washing- 
 ton Retires to Private Life — John Adama 
 President. — War with France — The Alien and 
 Sedition Laws — Thomas Jefferson Elected 
 President — Purchase of Louisiana — Jefferson 
 Re-elected — Troubles with England — The 
 "Chesapeake" and "Leopard" — The Em- 
 bargo — James Madison Chosen President — 
 War with England —Invasion of Canada — 
 Failure of the Campaign — Naval Victories — 
 The " Constitution " and the " Guerriere " — 
 The Second Invasion of Canada — Perry's 
 Victory on Lake Erie — Battle of the Thames 
 — Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane — 
 Attack on Plattsburgh — Battle of Lake Cham- 
 
 Elain — Capture of Washington — Attack on 
 altiinore Repulsed — Battle of New Orleans 
 — Close of the War — The Hartford Conven- 
 tion — James Monroe Chosen President — The 
 Bank of the United States — The Missouri 
 Compromise — John Quincy Adams President 
 — The Tariff— Andrew Jackson Elected Presi- 
 dent — The Nullification Troubles — Jackson 
 Removes the Deposits — The National Debt 
 Paid — The Seminole War — Martin Van Buren 
 President — William Henry Harrison Presi- 
 dent — His Death — John Tyler Becomes Presi- 
 dent — Vetoes the Bank Bill — Annexation of 
 Texas — James K. Polk President — The Mexi- 
 can War — Capture of the City of Mexico — 
 Close of the War — Its Results — The Oregon 
 Question — Zachary Taylor President — Discov- 
 ery of Gold in California — Compromise of 
 1850— Death of General Taylor— Millard Fill- 
 more Becomes President — Franklin Pierce 
 President — The Kansas-Nebraska Bill — 
 James Buchanan President — The Kansas 
 Troubles — The Mormon Rebellion — The John 
 Brown Raid 1149 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln Elected President — Secession 
 of the Cotton States — Anderson Occupies Fort 
 Sumter — Course of Mr. Buchanan — The Peace 
 Congress — The Confederate States —Jefferson 
 Davis Chosen President — Inauguration of 
 President Lincoln — Fall of Fort Sumter — 
 Secession of the Border States— The Battles of 
 Rich Mountain and Bethel Church — Battle of 
 Bull Run— Battle of Wilson's Creek — Cap- 
 ture of Fort Hatteras and Port Royal — Mason 
 and Slidell — Battle of Mill Spring — Capture 
 of Forts Henry and Donelson — Battle of 
 Shiloh — Bragg's Kentucky Campaign — Bat- 
 tles of Murfreesboro' and Stone River — Cam- 
 paign in North Mississippi — The War in Ar- 
 kansas — Capture of Roanoake Island — Fall 
 of NewOrleaus — The War in Virginia— Siege 
 of Yorktown — The Seven Days' Battles— De- 
 feat of General Pope's Army — Lee Invades 
 Maryland— Capture of Harper's Ferry— Bat- 
 tles of South Mountain and Antietam — 
 McClellan Removed from Command— Battle 
 of Fredericksburg— Battle of Chancellorsville 
 — Invasion of Pennsylvania — Battle of Gettvs- 
 burg— Capture of V'icksburg— Battle of Chic- 
 kamauga— The Chattanooga Campaign- The 
 
 Siege of Knoxville — Siege of Charleston — The 
 Emancipation Proclamation — The Red River 
 Expedition — The War in Virginia — Battles of 
 the Wilderness and Spottsylvania Court- 
 House — Second Battle of Cold Harbor — Siege 
 of Petersburg — The Valley Campaign — The 
 War in Georgia — The Atlanta Campaign — 
 Johnston Removed — Fall of Atlanta — Hood 
 Attacks Nashville — Sherman's March to the 
 Sea — Battle of Mobile Bay — Destruction of the 
 " Alabama " — Re-election of Lincoln — The 
 Hampton Roads Conference — Capture of Fort 
 Fisher — Sherman Marches Through the Caro- 
 linas — Battles of Ben tonville and Averasboro' 
 — Battle of Five Forks — Evacuation of Rich- 
 mond and Petersburg — Surrender of General 
 Lee — The Other Confederate Armies Surren- 
 der — Assassination of President Lincoln 1165 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Andrew Johnson President — The Reconstruc- 
 tion Question — Impeachment of the President 
 — Amendments to the Constitution — The Pub- 
 lic Debt — The Atlantic Telegraph — Ulysses 
 S. Grant Elected President— The Pacific Rail- 
 way Completed — The Alabama Claims— The 
 Chicago and Boston Fires — Grant Re-elected 
 President — Death of Horace Greeley — The 
 Modoc War — The " Virginius " Outrage — The 
 Law for the Resumption of Specie Payments — 
 The Centennial Exhibition — Celebration ot 
 the 4th of July, 1876— The Sioux War— Mas- 
 sacre of General Custer and the Seventh 
 Cavalry — The Presidential Campaign of 1876 
 — ^The Result Disputed — The Florida and 
 Louisiana Returning Boards — Meeting of 
 Congress — Dispute between the two Houses — 
 Counting the Vote — Action of the Electoral 
 Commission — Hayes Declared President — He 
 Removes the Federal Troops from South Car- 
 olina and Louisiana 1182 
 
 BOOK xxxiir. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE DOMINION 
 
 OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF CANADA TO 
 THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Discoveries of Cartier — The St. Lawrence Dis- 
 covered and Named — Cartier at Montreal — 
 Colonies of Roberval and Cartier — Samuel 
 Champlain — Des Monts Settles Nova Scotia — 
 Quebec Founded— Death of Champlain — In- 
 tercourse with the Indians — Labors of the 
 Jesuit Missionaries — Wars with the English 
 Colonies — Canada Ceded to Great Britain — 
 Settlement of Nova Scotia bj-^ the French — 
 Port Royal Taken by them — Nova Scotia 
 Ceded to Great Britain — Expulsion of the Ac- 
 adians — Settlement of New Brunswick and 
 Prince Edward Island — The British Provinces 
 during the American Revolution — The War 
 of 1812-15 — Canada after the Peace — Re- 
 bellion of 1837 — Union of Upper and Lower 
 Canada — Ottawa Made the Capital — The 
 Dominion of Canada Established 1198 
 
32 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK XXXIV. 
 
 MODERN KINGDOM OF PERSIA. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE PARTHIAN EM- 
 PIRE TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Persians Throw OflF the Parthian Yoke and 
 Establish their Independence — Reign of Ar- 
 taxerxes — He Restores Magism — Reigus of 
 the Two Sapors — Khosru Nurshivan — The 
 Endless Peace — Conquests of the Persian 
 King^Khosru Parviz Wrests the Asiatic and 
 African Provinces from the Roman Empire — 
 Mohammed's Prediction — Last Years of 
 Khosru— Siroes Becomes King — The Arabian 
 Conquest — Magism Exterminated — Persia 
 Becomes Mohammedan — Restoration of the 
 Independence of Persia by Soffar — The Sel- 
 jukian Turks Conquer the Kingdom — Togrul 
 Beg— Reign of Malek Shah— The Tartar Con- 
 quest — Ismail Re-establishes the Native King- 
 dom — Reigu of Abbas — Persia Conquered by 
 the Afghans — Nadir Shah Drives them Out 
 and Restores the Kingdom — Aga Mohammed 
 Khan — Wars with Russia — Accession of 
 Nasr-ed-Din— War vrith England 1207 
 
 BOOK XXXV. 
 
 THE HISTORY^ OF CHINA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Early History — Yu the Great — Reign of "Wu- 
 Wang— The Tsin Dynasty— The Great Wall 
 of China — The Han Dynasty — Division of the 
 Empire— Inroads of the Tartars— They Con- 
 quer China — Kublai Khan — Rise of the Ming 
 Dynasty— The Tartars Driven Back — Rise of 
 the Mantchoo Dynasty — Reign of Kang-hi — 
 The Jesuits in China — The Bible Translated 
 into Chinese— The Opium War— Its Results — 
 Treaties of China with the Western Powers — 
 The Western Powers Compel China to Keep 
 Faith with them — Pekin Captured by the 
 French and English — Change in the Policy of 
 China — The Burlingame Embassy — The Mas- 
 sacre at Tien-tsin — Action of the Chinese Gov- 
 ernment , 1214 
 
 BOOK XXXVI. 
 THE HISTORY OF JAPAN. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Early History Fabulous— Establishment of the 
 Empire by Jimmu Tenno — His Successors — 
 The Empress Jingu-Kogo— Conquest of Corea 
 — Intnoduction of Buddhism into Japan — 
 Decline of the Imperial Power— The Shogun 
 —Origin of the Office— Relations of the Sho- 
 gun to the Mikado — Nobunaga — Reign of 
 Hideyoshi— lyeyasu Becomes Shogun— The 
 Policy of the Shoguns— Introduction of Chris- 
 
 tianity — Rapid Success of the Jesuits — Hide- 
 yoshi Resolves to Exterminate them — Perse- 
 cution of the Christians — Foreigners Expelled 
 — Japan Refuses to Trade with Europe — Re- 
 action Against the Shogun — The Mikado and 
 the People — Expedition of Commodore Perry 
 — The Shogun Enters into Treaties with the 
 United States and the European Powers — Ac- 
 tion of the Mikado's Party — The Western 
 Powers Compel Japan to Keep Faith — The 
 Revolution of 1868 — Downfall of the Shogun- 
 ate — The Mikado Restored to Power— Great 
 Change in the Policy and Civilization of 
 Japan — Growth of Western Ideas 1223 
 
 BOOK XXXVII. 
 THE HISTORY OF MEXICO. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Early History— The Toltecs— Rise of the Aztec 
 Kingdom — The Civilization and Customs of 
 the Aztecs — Reign of Montezuma II. — Arrival 
 of Cortes — The Conquest of Mexico — Efforts 
 of Cortes to iiltroduce European Civilization 
 — New Spain — Mexico under the "Viceroys — 
 Mistaken Policy of Spain — Revolt of Hidalgo 
 — The Revolution of 1820— Mexican Inde- 
 pendence Proclaimed — Iturbide Establishes 
 an Empire — It is Overturned — The Republic 
 Established — Santa Anna becomes Dictator — 
 The Texan War of Independence — War with 
 the United States — Fall of Santa Anna — Ju- 
 arez becomes President— Trouble with the 
 European Powers — War with France — Mex- 
 ico Conquered by the French — The Empire 
 Established — Withdrawal of the French — 
 Capture and Execution of Maximilian — Ihe 
 Republic Restored 1233 
 
 BOOK XXXVIII. 
 THE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE AND 
 SPANISH TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 History of Brazil — First Settlements — Brazil 
 made a Principality — The Kingdom of Brazil 
 Established — Revolution of 1521 — Brazil be- 
 comes an Independent Em))ire — Accession of 
 Pedro II. — History of Peru — The Kingdom of 
 the Incas — Conquest by Pizarro — Settlements 
 of the Spaniards — The Yiceroyalty — Peru be- 
 comes Independent of Spain — The Republic 
 — History of Chili — Conquests of the Span- 
 iards—Chili throws off the Spanish Yoke — 
 Prosperity of Chili — History ol Ecuador — Be- 
 comes Independent of Spain— The United 
 States of Colombia — Colonial History — Bol- 
 ivar wins the Independence of the Country — 
 History of the Republic— History of Venez- 
 uela — The Revolution — Independence Gained 
 —Subsequent History — History of Bolivia — 
 Becomes an Independent Repiiblic^ — The Ma- 
 deira and Mamore Railroad— The His:torv of 
 Uruguay— History of the Argentine RepuTblic 
 — History of Paraguay— The Republic— War 
 with Brazil 1245 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED 
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 — a - »X3 Si < B 
 
 BOOIC I. 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 The Creation — Adam and Eve — Murder of Abel — 
 Seth — Noah — The Deluge— The Descendants of 
 Noah— The Tower of Babel— The Confusion of 
 Tongues— The Call of Abraham— His Entrance 
 into Palestine — His Victory over Chedorlaomer 
 — The Covenant — Birth of Ishmael — Destruction 
 of the Cities of the Plain— Birth of Isaac — Ex- 
 pulsion of Ishmael— Trial of Abraham's Faith — 
 Marriage of Isaac — Birth of Esau and Jacob — 
 Their Characters— Esau Sells his Birthright- 
 Jacob Obtains the Blessing— Flight of Jacob— 
 His Sojourn with Laban— His Wives and Chil- 
 dren—His Return to Palestine— Trouble with his 
 Children— Joseph and his Brethren — Sale of Jo- 
 seph—His Captivity in Egy])t— Is Made Viceroy 
 — The Famine— Descent of Jacob and his Family 
 into Egypt — Death of Jacob. 
 
 ACRED History begins with an ac- 
 count of the creation of the world 
 and of man by Almighty God. 
 The Bible assigns no date for these 
 events ; neither has science been 
 able to fix them with certainty. 
 The various chronologies which have been 
 constructed for the earlier epochs of man's 
 existence are purely arbitrary, and have 
 no dogmatic authority. The Bible does 
 not attempt to furnish us with any system 
 of chronology. It teaches simply that the 
 world and man were created by Almighty 
 God, for a definite purpose, and that the 
 human race is descended from one original 
 pair — the first man and the first woman 
 created by God — the Adam and the Eve. 
 The human race is believed to have be- 
 3 
 
 gun its existence in Asia ; most probably 
 in some portion of the vast region lying 
 between the mountains in which the Amoo 
 and the Indus take their rise, on the east, 
 and the mountains in which rise the Eu- 
 phrates and the Tigris, on the west. It 
 was in this delightful and fertile land that 
 the great trial of man's obedience, and his 
 fatal surrender to evil, occurred. Driven 
 from Eden, Adam and Eve were con- 
 demned to painful and arduous labor, as 
 the condition of their existence. Hitherto 
 their labor had been pleasant. 
 
 Adam and Eve had two sons, Cain and 
 Abel. The first led an agricultural, and 
 -the latter a pastoral life — two modes , of 
 existence which are thus shown to be as 
 old as humanity. Becoming jealous of the 
 greater purity of Abel's life, Cain slew 
 him, and thus became the first murderer. 
 Upon hearing his sentence of punishment 
 from the lips of his Maker, he became an 
 exile with his family, and wandered into 
 the country to the east of Eden, where he 
 built the first city, which he called " Enoch," 
 after his first-born. Cain had a numerous 
 posterity, to whom the Bible attributes the 
 invention of the industrial arts and music. 
 
 A third son was born to Adam and Eve 
 after the death of Abel. They named him 
 Seth, and he was the patriarch from whom 
 the Hebrews traced their descent. Seth 
 had a numerous family, and lived to the 
 age of 912 years. It was through this 
 familv that the religious traditions of the 
 
 33 
 
r,4 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 primitive revelation were preserved faith- 
 fully down to the time of the Deluge. 
 
 The eif^hth in descent from Seth was 
 
 THE EAKTH AT THE CKEATION. 
 
 Noah, whose family retained the worship 
 <>f the true God. The Avorld had grown 
 desjierately wicked, and men had given 
 
 themselves over to vice of all kinds. So 
 terrible had the condition of the world be- 
 come, that we are told that "it repented 
 the Lord that he had made man on the 
 earth, and it grieved him at his heart." 
 To purge the world of its wickedness, the 
 Almighty resolved to destroy every living 
 thing upon it with the exception of a cer- 
 tain number of each kind which he designed 
 for the reproduction of their various species. 
 " Noah," we are told, *' was a just man, and 
 perfect in his generations, and Noah walked 
 with God." In consequence of this, he 
 was exempted from the general destruc- 
 tion, together with his family, and was or- 
 dered to prepare an ark, or floating house, 
 of gopher wood, according to a plan re- 
 vealed to him by God, who informed him 
 of his purpose to bring a flood upon the 
 world. When the ark was finished, Noah 
 \vas ordered to enter it with his family, and 
 to take w'ith him seven couples of every 
 clean and unclean animal, "two of every 
 sort" "of every living thing of all flesh." 
 He obeyed the Divine command, and they 
 " went in male and female of all flesh, as 
 God had commanded him ; and the Lord 
 shut him in." Then the Deluge com- 
 menced. " The fountains of the great deep 
 were broken up, and the windows of heaven 
 were opened. And the rain was upon the 
 earth forty days and forty nights. . . And 
 the waters increased, and bare up the ark, 
 and it was lifted up above the earth. And 
 the waters prevailed, and Avere increased 
 greatly upon the earth, and the ark went 
 upon the face of the waters. . . And all the 
 high hills, that were under the whole 
 iieaven, were covered. Fifteen cubits up- 
 ward did the waters prevail ; and the 
 mountains were covered. And all flesh 
 died that moved upon the earth, both of 
 fowl and of cattle, and of beast, and of 
 every creeping thing that creepeth upon 
 the earth, and every man ; all in whose 
 nostrils was the breath of life, of all that 
 was in the dry land, died. And every liv- 
 ing substance Avas destroyed which Avas 
 upon the face of the ground, both man and 
 cattle, and the creeping things, and the 
 foAvl of the heaven ; and they Avere de- 
 stroyed from the earth : and Noah only 
 remained alive, and they that were Avith 
 him in the ark. And the Avaters prevailed 
 upon the earth a hundred and fifty days." 
 
 At the end of five months the Avaters 
 Avent doAvn, and the ark rested " upon the 
 mountains of Ararat." "And the Avaters 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 35 
 
 decreased continually until the tenth month ; 
 in the tenth mouth, on the first day of the 
 mouth, were the tops of the raouutains seen. 
 And it came to pass at the end of forty 
 
 appears to be the mountain mass of Little 
 Bokhara and Western Thibet, where the 
 great rivers of Asia, the Indus, the Oxus, 
 aud the Jaxartes, take their rise. Some 
 
 days, that Noah opened the window of the generations later the descendants of Noah, 
 ark which he had made; and he sent forth who had increased with great rapidity, wau- 
 a raven, which went to and fro, uutil the dered westward, and fixed their dwellino-s 
 
 watei'S were dried up from off the earth. 
 And he sent forth a dove from him, to see 
 if the waters were abated off the face of the 
 ground. But the dove found no rest for the 
 sole of her foot, and she returned unto him 
 into the ark ; for the waters were on the 
 face of the whole earth. Then he put forth 
 his hand, aud took 
 her, aud pulled 
 her in unto him, 
 into the ark. Aud 
 he stayed yet other 
 seven days, and 
 again he sent forth 
 the dove out of 
 the ark. And the 
 dove came into 
 him in the even- 
 ing, and lo, in her 
 mouth was an 
 olive leaf plucked 
 off ; so Noah 
 knew that the 
 waters were 
 abated from ofFthc 
 earth. Aud In 
 stayed yet othei 
 seven days, and 
 sent forth the 
 dove, which re- 
 turned not again 
 unto him any 
 more." 
 
 The earth being 
 dry, Noah, h i s 
 family, and 
 creatures 
 were with 
 left the ark. 
 an altar and 
 who made 
 race 
 
 on the great plains watered by the Tigris 
 and the Euphrates, in the country origiually 
 called Shinar. Here their pride in their 
 numbers and strength led them to believe 
 that they could bafHe even God, and they 
 began the erection of a city, and of a tower 
 the top of Avhich was to reach to heaven, and 
 
 the 
 that 
 him, 
 
 Noah's first act Avas to build 
 olfl'r a sacrifice to the Lord, 
 a covenant Avith him and his 
 Noah, his wife, and his three sons, 
 Shem, Ham, and Japheth, then resumed 
 the cultivation of the earth. Noah lived 
 three hundred and fifty years after the 
 flood, and died at the age of niue hundred 
 aud fifty years. 
 
 From the three sons of Noah were de- 
 scended the races which repeopled the earth 
 after the deluge. The region in which the 
 sons of Noah settled after leavino: the ark 
 
 so enable them to escape any subsequent 
 deluge that might be sent upon the earth. 
 Up to this time all men spoke a common 
 tongue. God punished their insolence by 
 confusing their language. Unable to uudei-- 
 stand each other, they Avere compelled to 
 discontinue their work, and to disperse, 
 " each family, or group of families, carry- 
 ing Avith it the new language, from that 
 time to become its own, and Avhence the 
 idioms, science noAV attempts to classify 
 according to their analogies, are descended." 
 The unfinished tOAvcr Avas called Babel, or. 
 
36 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 " confusion," on account of the confusion 
 of languages which took pLice there. By 
 this dispersion the descen(Uints of Noah 
 were scattered over the world. 
 
 The descendants of Shem were : the Per- 
 sians, whose progenitor was Elam ; the 
 Assyrians, Avho were descended from As- 
 shur; the Hebrews and the Arabs, who 
 sprang from Arphaxad ; the Lydians, who 
 were the descendants of Lud ; and the 
 Assyrians, who were descended from Aram. 
 The descendants of Ham were : the Ethiop- 
 ians, who si)rang from Cush ; the Egyptians, 
 
 Minor; Tiras,the ancestor of the Thracians; 
 and Javan, the progenitor of the Ionian 
 Greeks. This enumeration, which is made 
 in accordance with the statements of Moses, 
 refers exclusively to the white race. For 
 some reason, Moses gives us no account of 
 the origin of the yellow, the red, and the 
 black races. The object of the sacred 
 writer was evidently to give the pedigree 
 of the Hebrews, and the mention of other 
 nations is purely incidental. 
 
 The tenth patriarch from Noah, in the 
 line of Shem, was Abram, the great ances- 
 
 THK TOWKIl OF LABEL. 
 
 Avho sprang from Misi-aim; the Libyans, 
 Avho sprang from Phut ; and the Phoenicians, 
 who sprang from Canaan. The children 
 of Japheth were : Gomer, from whom were 
 descended the Germans, Scandinavians and 
 Gauls, in Europe, and the Armenians in 
 Asia ; IMagog, from whom sprang the great 
 Turanian race, usually divided into the 
 Ugro-Finuish and the Dra vidian branches ; 
 IMadui, from whom w'ere descended the 
 Medes; Tubal, from Avhom sprang the in- 
 habitants of the valleys of the Caucasus ; 
 JToshech, the ancestor of the nations of Asia 
 
 tor of the Hebrews. His father was Terah, 
 who dwelt in " Ur of the Chaldees " with 
 his family and kindred. Some writers have 
 identified the ancient city of Ur with Or- 
 fah, in the highlands of Mesopotamia 
 (Aram\ which unite the ta))lcland of 
 Armenia to the valley of the Euphrates. 
 In later ages the city was called Edessa by 
 the Greeks. While living there, Abram 
 was called by God to leave his home and 
 go into a land which God would show him. 
 In consequence of this call the family of 
 Terah quitted Ur and removed to Ilarau, 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 37 
 
 or, as it is more properly called iu the New 
 Testament, Charrau, east of the Euphrates. 
 Here Terah died, after a residence of some 
 years, and here Nahor, his son, pleased with 
 the beauty and fertility of the country, took 
 up his permanent abode. 
 
 Meanwhile Abram, as soon as his father 
 was buried, and, it would seem, iu obe- 
 dience to a second call fi*om God, took 
 leave of his brother Nahor, and continued 
 his journey with Sarai, his wife, and his 
 nephew Lot. He went out in implicit re- 
 liance upon the divine promise, his future 
 home being merely described to him by the 
 
 Promised Land, making his first halt iu 
 the Valley of Sichem, or Shechem. Here 
 God ai)peared to him again aud renewed 
 his promise that this land should be the 
 home of the patriarch's descendants ; and 
 here Abram erected the first altar that was 
 set up to Jehovah in Palestine. ^ 
 
 The country at this time was occupied by 
 the Canaanites, who were the descendants 
 of Canaan, the fourth son of Ham. Abram 
 took up his abode in the mountain re- 
 gion, which though it protected him from 
 the Canaanites, who occupied the more fer- 
 tile plains below, gave him but scanty pas- 
 
 A fcUKl'lIEUD IN THE TIME OF ACKAHAM. 
 
 Almighty as " a land that I will show thee." 
 Crossing the Eu])hrates, he se]nirated him- 
 self entirely froui the land of his birth. 
 Hence the Canaanites called him the 
 " Hebrew," " the man who had crossed the 
 river," " the emigrant from Mesopotamia." 
 Passing through the Syrian desert, he seems 
 to have tarried a while at Damascus, which 
 was even then a city. Here he appears to 
 have met with his faithful servant Eliezer, 
 whom he made "steward of his house." 
 From Damascus he journeyed farther 
 south, crossed the Jordan and entered the 
 
 ture for his cattle. He continued to move 
 southward until the scarcity of food forced 
 him to enter Egypt. Fearing that the 
 Egyptian king w^ould be tempted by Sarai's 
 beauty to kill him in order to get possession 
 of her, Abram passed her oflE* as his sister. 
 Supposing her to be an unmarried woman, 
 the Egyptian monarch took her to his 
 harem, aud heaped wealth and honors u])on 
 Abram. The king was warned of his 
 mistake by plagues sent upon him and his 
 household, and he at once restored Sarai to 
 her husband, rebuked him for his deceit, 
 
38 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and sent him out of Egypt with the wealth 
 he had acMjuired. Abram moved back 
 through Palestiue to his old eueauipment 
 at Bethel, where he again established the 
 worship of Jehovah. Here he and Lot be- 
 came involved in (juarrels about their cattle, 
 and separated, Abram remaining in the 
 mountains, and Lot descending to the fer- 
 tile plain near Sodom. Abram then re- 
 moved southward to the " oaks of Mamre," 
 near Hebron. This place became from this 
 time his usual abode. 
 
 Shortly afterwards Cbedorlaomer, the 
 
 feated them, rescued Lot, and recovered all 
 the spoil that had been taken from the five 
 cities. 
 
 Some time after this, it pleased God to 
 make a solemn covenant with the patriarch, 
 and on this occasion the Almighty revealed 
 himself to his servant by his name Jkiio- 
 VAii, and renewed his promise to make 
 "Abram the father of a great nation." 
 " Lord God, what wilt thou give me, seeing 
 I go childless .... and .... one born 
 in my house is mine heir," said the patri- 
 arch. The divine answer was prompt: 
 
 
 THE VALLEY OF THE JORDAN. 
 
 king of Elam, and chief of a great empire 
 in Western Asia, invaded Southern Pales- 
 tine, and conquered the five cities of Sodom, 
 Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela 
 (afterwards called Zoar), which had re- 
 volted against him. In this war Lot and 
 all his cattle were captured and carried off 
 by the victors. As .soon as he heard of this, 
 Abram collected a band of 31?^ of his own 
 people and a force of his Amorite allies 
 and pursued the forces of Ghedorlaomer. 
 He overtook them near Damascus, and de- 
 
 " Look now towai-d heaven and tell the 
 stars if thou be able to number them ; and 
 he said unto him. So shall thy seed be." 
 The childless man believed the promise 
 of God, " and he counted it to him for 
 righteousness." 
 
 " The promise was as specific as it was 
 solemn. It included : I. The bondage of the 
 Hebrews in a strange laud for 400 years. II. 
 Their delivery, with great wealth, and amid 
 judgments on their oppressors. III. Their 
 return to the Promised Land in the fourth 
 
THE PATRIAnCIIAL PERIOD. 
 
 30 
 
 generation, when the iniquity of its inhabit- 
 ants should be fulL" Somewhat later, God 
 renewed his covenant with Abraham, and 
 added the sign of circumcision to it. 
 
 After a sojourn of ten years in the land 
 of Canaan, Sarai began to despair of be- 
 coming the mother of the patriarch's heir, 
 and advised Abram to take to wife her ser- 
 vant Hagar, au Egyptian woman, by whom 
 
 should be horn, Ishmael (which means, God 
 sJuill hear). He also foretold the character 
 of the child and his destiny, in the follow- 
 ing words, -which accurately describe the 
 Bedawin Arabs of the present day, whose 
 great progenitor the child became : " He 
 will be a wild man ; his hand will be against 
 every man, and every man's hand against 
 liim ; and he shall dwell in the face of all 
 
 CAPTUKE OF LOT AND HIS FAMILY. 
 
 he had a son. Before the child was born, 
 Hagar, puffed up by pride, became so inso- 
 lent to her mistress that Sarai punished her. 
 Hagar fled into the wilderness of Kadesh, 
 southeast of Abram's abode. Here the 
 angel of God appeared to her, and com- 
 manded her to return to her mistress ; 
 he encouraged her by promising that she 
 should be the mother of a great nation, and 
 commanded her to name her child, when it 
 
 his brethren." The lattc^r jirediction means 
 that the territory of Ishmacl's descendants 
 should be to the east of the country occupied 
 by the tribes descended from Abraham's 
 true heir. Hagar returned to her mistress, 
 and in due time Ishmael was born, Abram 
 Avas eighty-six years old when his son was 
 born. The patriarch regarded the child as 
 the heir God had promise<l him, and lavished 
 upon him all a father's love. 
 
40 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, 
 when Abram was ninety-nine years old, 
 God appeared to the patriarch by the name 
 of El-Shaddai (God Almighty), and re- 
 newed his covenant with him. The Al- 
 mighty now promised the patriarch that he 
 should be the father of many nations, and, 
 in consequence of this, changed his name 
 from Abram (exalted father) to Abraham 
 (father of a multitude). The Almighty 
 declared to the patriarch that he would be 
 his God, and the God of his descendants, 
 and as a sign of this renewed covenant insti- 
 tuted the rite of circumcision, which was 
 thenceforth to be performed ujion all the 
 males of Abraham's race. The uncircum- 
 cised was cut off from all the benefits of the 
 
 THE DEAD SEA, FROM THE CONVENT OF MAR SABA. 
 
 covenant, while even the stranger who re- 
 ceived circumcision was admitted to them. 
 It was made the duty of the head of every 
 family to extend this rite to his servants as 
 well as his children. It was to be performed 
 upon children on the eighth day after their 
 birth, and upon slaves immediately after 
 their purchase. The name of Sarai was 
 changed to Sarah (princess), in token of 
 her exalted dignity as the ancestress of a 
 great race. God also informed the patriarch 
 that at a certain time in the next year his 
 wife, Sarah, should bear him a son, who 
 should be his true heir. He was com- 
 manded to name the child Isaac, and was 
 informed that the promises of the covenant 
 should descend to Isaac and his seed for- 
 ever. In response to the patriarch's prayer 
 
 for Ishmael, God assured him that he 
 would shower temporal blessings upon Ish- 
 mael, and would make him the father of a 
 great nation. The higher, spiritual bless- 
 ings, however, were reserved to Isaac and 
 his posterity. Abraham immediately caused 
 himself to be circumcised, and performed 
 the rite upon Ishmael, who was now thir- 
 teen years old, and upon all the males of 
 his household. 
 
 Some time after this Abraham was sit- 
 ting one evening at the door of his tent, 
 when he saw three men approaching. With 
 true Eastern hospitality, he arose and wel- 
 comed them, and urged them to lodge with 
 him that night. They accepted his invi- 
 tation, and when they had partaken of the 
 meal he set before 
 them, revealed 
 themselves to him. 
 One was the an- 
 gel Jehovah, the 
 others two attend- 
 ant angels. They 
 renewed to him 
 the promise of 
 God that Sarah 
 should bear him a 
 son within a year. 
 Sarah, who was 
 within the tent, 
 heard them, and, 
 being ninety years 
 old, laughed at 
 the prediction. 
 The angel heard 
 her, rebuked her 
 unbelief, and as- 
 sured Abraham 
 that Gcd would 
 certainly keep his promise. They then 
 departed in the direction of Sodom, and 
 Abraham accompanied them a part of 
 the way. In consideration of the favor 
 with which the Almighty regarded him as 
 the progenitor of the chosen race, the an- 
 gels informed Abraham of the purpose of 
 God to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah 
 and the cities of the plain as a punish- 
 ment for their desperate wickedness, and 
 told him that they were on their way to 
 warn Lot and his family to flee from the 
 doomed cities. When the angels departed, 
 Abraham in vain interceded for the cities. 
 God i)romi:5ed, in response to the patriarch's 
 prayer, that if ten righteous men could be 
 found in the cities, he would spare them. 
 The requisite number could not be found, 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 41 
 
 however. Lot and his family obeyed the 
 divine warning, and fled from Sodom. His 
 wife disregarded the warning of the angels 
 not to look behind her, and was destroyed 
 for her disobedience. Lot and his daugh- 
 ters took refuge in Zoar, which was spared 
 in answer to his prayer. Then Sodom, Go- 
 morrah, Admah and Zeboiim were destroyed 
 by a terrific convulsion of nature, not a 
 soul of all their inhabitants escaping the 
 dreadful doom. Lot, fearing to remain in 
 Zoar, fled to the hill country, and took 
 
 in memory of the occurrence, Beersheba 
 (the Well of the Oath). While living at 
 Beersheba, his wife, Sarah, gave birth to 
 the long promised heir, who was circum- 
 cised and named Isaac, in accordance with 
 the divine command. The patriarch was 
 one hundred years old when his heir was 
 born. 
 
 When Isaac was weaned Abraham cele- 
 brated the occasion by a feast. During 
 the festival Sarah saw Ishmael mocking or 
 taunting her son, and her anger was 
 
 MEETING OF ISAAC AND REBEKAH, 
 
 rofuge in a cave east of the Dead sea. In 
 this place occurred the incestuous birth of 
 Moab and Amnion, from whom were de- 
 scended the Moabites and Ammonites, 
 whom Moses and Joshua found estaldished 
 in the country east of the Jordan and the 
 Dead sea. 
 
 Shortly after the destruction of the cities 
 of the plain, Abraham journeyed south- 
 ward and fixed his residence in the region 
 between Egypt and Palestine. He made a 
 treaty with the king of that country, named 
 Abimelech, beside a well, which he named, 
 
 aroused. She demanded of her husband 
 that Hagar and Ishmael should be sent 
 away, in order that Isaac might have no 
 one to dispute his position in his father's 
 house. The patriarch was tenderly at- 
 tached to Ishmael, and hesitated ; but God 
 appeared to him and commanded him to do 
 as Sarah had said, promising that he would 
 bless Ishmael and make him the father of 
 a great nation. The next morning Hagar 
 and her son were supplied by the patriarch 
 with provisions and were sent away. Wan- 
 dering in the wilderness of Beersheba, they 
 
42 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 were on the point of dying ^vith thirst, 
 when they were rescued by an augel. Ish- 
 nuiel grew up iu the wilderness and became 
 a skilful archer. His mother took him a 
 wife from among the Egyptians, her own 
 people, and he became the ancestor of the 
 Bedawin Arabs. The Koreish tribe, which 
 inhabited Mecca, traced their descent di- 
 rectly from Ishmael. The principal sanc- 
 tuary of this tribe was the Caabah, which 
 they believed was built by Ishmael and 
 
 ram, caught by its horns in the bushes, was 
 taken by the patriarch and ottered as a 
 sacrifice iu the place of his sou. As a 
 reward of this obedience, God renewed his 
 covenant with the patriarch and confirmed 
 it with an oath. 
 
 Some time after this Abraham re- 
 turned to his old home at Mamre, near 
 Hebron, and here Sarah died at the age of 
 one hundred and twenty-seven years. Abra- 
 ham purchased the cave of ^lachpelah 
 
 Abraham. From this tribe was descended from the Hittites, of Hebron, then called 
 Mohammed, the great jirophet of Islam. I Kirjath-Arba, and there buried Sarah. 
 * The cave became the place of 
 
 sepulchre of his family. 
 
 After the burial of Sarah, 
 Abraham appears to have re- 
 turned to Beersheba. He was 
 now old and felt his end ap- 
 proaching. He therefore re- 
 solved to secure a wife for his 
 son, Isaac, and in order that the 
 descendants of Isaac might be 
 children of a pure race, decided 
 to secure, as his son's bride, one 
 of his own kindred. He there- 
 fore sent his steward, Eliezer, to 
 ^lesopotamia, and bound him 
 by a solemn oath to choose for 
 Isaac a wife from among his own 
 family. Eliezer reached Harau, 
 and there encountered the family 
 of Bethuel. the son of Abraham's 
 brother, Nahor. His choice was 
 divinely directed to Rebekah, 
 the youngest and most beautiful 
 daughter of the house, who, upon 
 learning his mission, consented 
 to leave her own family and be- 
 come the wife of her cousin 
 Isaac. She accompanied Eliezer 
 back to Canaan, and was joy- 
 fully received by Isaac and his 
 fjitlier. Isaac was forty years old at the 
 time of his marriage. 
 
 After a union of twenty years, Rebekah 
 gave birth to twin sons. The firstborn was 
 named Esau, and also Edom (the Red), be- 
 cause of his ruddy color, and the second 
 received the name of Jacob (the Sup- 
 planter). 
 
 Abraham, after the marriage of Isaac, 
 took another wife, although he was one 
 hundred and forty years old. Her name 
 was Keturah, and by her Abraham had 
 six sons, one of whom was Midian, the 
 father of the ]Midianites, who occupied the 
 country between the Dead sea and the 
 
 ABRAHAM'S ENCAMPMENT. 
 
 Abraham apjiears to have dwelt many 
 years at Beersheba. While residing there, 
 occurred the great trial of his faith. He 
 was commanded by God to take his son, 
 Isaac, and otter him upas a burnt sacrifice to 
 God. Though his heart was nearly broken, 
 he unhesitatingly obeyed, and taking Isaac, 
 went with him to "the land of jNloriah," 
 which is believed to be the hill on which 
 the temple at Jerusalem afterwards stood. 
 There he built an altar and prepared to 
 offer up Isaac, when his hand was stayed 
 by God, who informed him that he had 
 meant only to try his faith, and was satis- 
 fied with this proof of his obedience. A 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 43 
 
 Elamitic gulf of the lied sea, to the east of 
 the Nabo3theaus. Abraham gave liberal 
 presents to these sous, but sent them out 
 of Palestine that they might not interfei'e 
 with the inheritance of Isaac. To Isaac 
 the patriarch bequeathed all of his immense 
 wealth, and died, it would seem, at Beer- 
 sheba, "in a good old age, and full of 
 years," being one hundred and seventy-five 
 years old. This event took place fifteen 
 years after the birth of Esau and Jacob. 
 
 chosen family. Jacob, on the other liand, 
 was a peaceful, politic man, ready to gain 
 by craft and diplomacy what Esau sought 
 to accomplish by violence. He was smooth- 
 skinned, and loved the peaceful pursuits of 
 the shepherd and the quiet and repose of 
 the tent. \Ig, was his mother's favorite. 
 
 Coming in one day, tired and hungry, 
 from the chase, Esau beheld Jacob prepar- 
 ing a savory mess of red lentils, and at once 
 asked for "some of that red." Jacob dr- 
 
 HAGAR SUSTAINED IN THE DESERT BY GOD. 
 
 His sons, Isaac and Ishmael, buried him in 
 the cave of IMachpclah. 
 
 After the death of Abraham, Isaac con- 
 tinued to dwell by the Avell of Lahai-roi, 
 in the extreme south of Palestine, and 
 there his sons grew to manhood. Esau was 
 a wild, reckless man, a skilful hunter, and 
 his father's favorite. He was rough and 
 hairy in appearance, and was a source of 
 great trouble to his parents. At the age 
 of forty he married two Hittite wives, in 
 opposition to the will of his lather, and 
 thus introduced heathen alliances into the 
 
 maudcd the birthright of Esau as the price 
 of the mess, and the hunter, intent only 
 upon satisfying the hunger of the moment, 
 consented to the bargain with a levity that 
 showed how little value he set upon his 
 birthright. For this, 8t. Paul " calls him ' a 
 profane person, who for one morsel of food 
 sold his bii'thright,' and marks him as the 
 pattern of those who sacrifice eternity for a 
 moment's sensual enjoyment. The justice 
 of this judgment appears from considering 
 what the birthright was, which he sold at 
 such a ])rice. Esau was, by right of birth, 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the head of the flimily, its prophet, priest 
 and king, and no man can renounce such 
 privileges except as a sacrifice required by 
 God, without despising God who gave them. 
 But more than this, he w^as the liead of tlie 
 chosen family ; on him devolved the bless- 
 ing of Abraham, that 'in his seed all the 
 families of the earth should be blessed ; ' 
 and, in despising his birthright, he put him- 
 solf out of the sacred family, and so became 
 a ' profane person.' " The cunning of Jacob 
 did not bring him gain alone ; it brought 
 with it a retribution, as Ave shall see in 
 considering his history. 
 
 At length the one hundredth year of 
 Isaac's life approached. The great age and 
 failing sight of the patriarch warned him 
 
 BURIAL OF ABKAHAM. 
 
 that the time had come when he must 
 solemnly transmit to his heir the blessing 
 of Abraham, the irrevocable gift of the 
 patriarchal power and authority. This 
 blessing he designed for Esau, who very 
 evidently had not confessed to his father 
 the sale of his birthright. As Jacob would 
 not dare to take advantage of his trick, the 
 father was most likely in ignoi'ance of the 
 transaction. Isaac informed Esau of his 
 intention, and bade him prepare a f3ast for 
 the occasion. Esau set out for the chase 
 to obtain venison, of which his father was 
 very fond, and during his absence Rebekah 
 revealed to Jacob the design of her hus- 
 band. With her aid the crafty Jacob suc- 
 ceeded in passing himself off upon his father 
 as Esau, and obtained the patriarchal bless- 
 ing, which made him the head of his 
 family, and which, once given, could not 
 be revoked. Esau now returned home and 
 
 discovered the fraud of which his brother 
 had been guilty. His indignation and 
 grief were very great. " He cried with a 
 great and exceeding bitter cry, and said 
 unto his father. Bless me, even me also, O my 
 father." The spiritual blessing had passed 
 to Jacob and could not be recalled, but 
 Isaac blessed his first-born in a manner 
 more in keeping with his son's character. 
 He promised him abundant worldly pros- 
 perity, qualified by submission to his 
 brother, whose yoke he should at length 
 break.* 
 
 Esau, from this time, resolved to kill 
 Jacob ; but, not wishing to grieve his father, 
 postponed his vengeance until after the 
 death of Isaac. Rebekah, becoming aware 
 of this, induced her husband to send 
 Jacob to her kindred for safety. Isaac 
 was all the more willing for this, as it 
 would enable Jacob to obtain a wife 
 of pure blood. With his staflf* in his 
 hand, the heir of the pi'oraises set out 
 for Mesopotamia, retracing the path 
 by which Abraham had entered Ca- 
 naan. Reaching Abraham's old en- 
 campment at Bethel, he passed the 
 night there, taking for his pillow^ a 
 stone — most proliably one of those 
 which had formed the altar of the 
 patriarch. In the visions of the night 
 he was visited by God, who showed 
 him a radiant stairway reaching from 
 the earth to the portals of heaven, 
 along which the angels were ascend- 
 ing and descending upon their errands 
 as ministering spirits upon earth, a 
 beautiful symbol of God's provident care 
 for his children. To crown the vision God 
 appeared to him in his dream, renewed 
 with him the covenant he had made with 
 Abraham, and gave him a special promise 
 of protection. Jacob awoke, and, in ac- 
 knowledgment of the presence of Jehovah, 
 erected an altar on the spot, which he 
 named Bethel (tlie House of God), and 
 solemnly dedicated himself and all that 
 God should give him to the service of his 
 Maker. This important event, the turning 
 l^oint in Jacob's religious life, occurred 
 when he was in his seventy -seventh year. 
 
 ■•■■■ "The prophecy was fulfilled in tlie prosperity 
 of the IdunuL'aus, their martial prowess, and tlieir 
 constant conllicts with the Israelites, by whoia 
 they were subdued under David, over whom 
 they triumphed at the Babylonian captivity, and 
 to whom they at last gave a king in the person of 
 Herod the Great." — Dr. William Smith. 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 45 
 
 Continuing his journey, Jacob reached 
 the home of his uncle Laban, his mother's 
 brother, at Padan-Aram. He was warmly 
 welcomed, and at once fell in love with his 
 beautiful cousin Rachel, the youngest 
 daughter of the house. He engaged to 
 serve his uncle as a shepherd for wages, 
 and demanded of Laban the hand of 
 Rachel, offering to serve him seven years 
 for her. Laban, who was more than Ja- 
 cob's equal in cunning, accepted the offer, 
 
 lun. Rachel bore one son, named Joseph. 
 Leah bore a daughter, named Dinah. Be- 
 sides these Jacob had four other sons by 
 two concubines. Billah, Rachel's hand- 
 maid, bore him Dan and Naphtali ; and 
 Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, bore him Gad 
 and Asher. 
 
 After the birth of Joseph, who was the 
 youngest of these children, Jacob was anx- 
 ious to return to his own country, but 
 Laban pors;uaded him to serve him still 
 
 ESATT GOING FOR VENISON. 
 
 but took advantage of the marriage customs 
 of the country to give his elder daughter, 
 Leah, who was afflicted with sore eyes, and 
 therefore hard to dispose of in marriage, to 
 his nephew. Jacob was indignant at the 
 fraud, but was obliged to submit ; and 
 agreed to serve Laban seven years more for 
 his beloved Rachel. During these seven 
 years eleven sons and a daughter were born 
 to Jacob. The sons of Leah Averc Reuben, 
 Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zebu- 
 
 longer for a portion of his flocks, Jacob's 
 share to be distinguished by certain marks. 
 Laban undertook to defeat this arrange- 
 ment by unfair means, but Jacob, Avho was 
 more expert at cattle-breeding, baffled him 
 and secured the greater part of the produce 
 of the flocks. At length he became very 
 rich in " cattle, and maidservants and man- 
 servants, and camels, and asses." 
 
 After a sojourn of twenty years with 
 Laban, Jacob was commanded by God to 
 
46 
 
 THE ILLl'STRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 return lo Caiiaau. Afraid 
 that Labau would seek to 
 detaiu him, he set out by 
 stealth, aud having crossed 
 the Euphrates, passed 
 through the desert by the 
 great fountain of Palm3-ra, 
 journeyed across the eastern 
 part of the plain of Da- 
 mascus and the plateau of 
 Bashan, aud entered tho 
 mountain region of Gilead 
 east of the Jordan, which 
 forms the frontier between 
 Palestine and the Assyrian 
 desert. Here he was over- 
 taken by Laban, with a 
 considerable force. Rachel 
 had carried oft' her father's 
 household gods, and now, 
 by an ingenious device, 
 succeeded in hiding them. 
 Laban, Avho had been 
 warned of God not to 
 harm Jacob, failing to find 
 
 ARABIAN CAMELS. 
 
 DAUGHTERS OF LABAN AT THE WELL. 
 
 his idols, made a treaty with 
 Jacob and set up a heap of 
 stones as a witness of it. Ja- 
 cob's eyes Avere now opened to 
 see a company of angels, " the 
 host of God," sent to jDrotect 
 him, forming a camp near his 
 own. 
 
 He now approached Mount 
 Seir, of Avhich his brother Esau 
 had become the powerful chief- 
 tain. He was seriously a- 
 larmed, for he feared that 
 Esau might now seek to avenge 
 the loss of his birthright by 
 killing him and seizing his 
 family and flocks. He sent 
 him a conciliatory message, 
 and Esau came to meet him at 
 the head of four hundred war- 
 riors. Jacob, now thoroughly 
 alarmed, prepared to meet the 
 danger which seemed to threat- 
 en him. He divided his people 
 and his flocks into two par- 
 ties, in order that the second 
 might escape if the first was 
 attacked. Then he turned to 
 God in prayer, after which he 
 sent forAvard presents to his 
 brother, and then rested for 
 the night. Rising before day 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 47 
 
 KACHEL'S TOMB, NEAR BETHLEHEM. 
 
 the next morning, he seat his wives and 
 cliildren over the Jahhok, and remained 
 behind to prepare himself by solitary 
 meditation for the 
 trial of the day. 
 Wiiile he tarrit'd 
 there "a mau" 
 appeared a n d 
 wrestled with him 
 until the day 
 l)roke. And wheu 
 " the man " saw 
 " that he pre- 
 vailed not against 
 him, he touched 
 the hollow of his 
 thigh ; and the 
 hollow of Jacob's 
 thigh was out of 
 joint as he wres- 
 tled with him. 
 And he said, Let 
 me go, for the day 
 breaketh. And he 
 said, I will not let 
 thee go, except 
 thou bless me. 
 And he said unto 
 him, What is thy 
 name '? And he 
 said, Jacob. And 
 he said. Thy name 
 shall be called no 
 more Jacol), but Israel ; for as a prince 
 hast thou power with God and with men, 
 and hast prevailed. And Jacob asked 
 
 I him and said. Tell mo, I pray thee, thy 
 name. And he said, AVherefore is it that 
 thou dost ask after my name? And 
 he blessed him there. And Jacob called 
 the name of the place Pen if) ; for I have 
 seen God face to face, and my life is pre- 
 served." 
 
 Jacob never recovered from the lameness 
 produced by the touch of the angel, and in 
 memory of this the Israelites, in after 
 years, Avould not eat of the sinew in the 
 hollow of the thigh. 
 
 Descending into the valley of the Jabbok, 
 Jacob encountered Esau, who greeted him 
 most affectionately. The rough soldier had 
 long ago forgiven his brother for defraud- 
 ing him of the spiritual blessing which he 
 did not value, and was contented with the 
 worldly prosperity that had fallen to his 
 lot. After a pleasant interview, Esau re- 
 turned to i\Iount Seir, and Jacob continued 
 his journey to the Jordan, which he crossed 
 at Succoth. Entering Canaan he went to 
 Shechem, now a considerable town of the 
 Amorites. From them he bought a piece 
 
 JACOB'S AVELL, AT SHECHEM. 
 
 of ground, the first possession of the chosen 
 family in the promised laud. There he 
 built an altar to the " God of Israel," and 
 
48 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF TTJE WORLD. 
 
 remainder of his 
 
 sons was aroused. 
 
 Joseph increased 
 
 ^ this feeling to a 
 
 y= positive hatred by 
 
 i playing the spy 
 
 ^ upon his brothers 
 
 a n d reporting 
 
 dieir misdeeds to 
 
 i h eir fath er. W h en 
 
 Init a mere lad he 
 
 dreamed several 
 
 very remarkable 
 
 dreams, w h i c h 
 
 seemed to him to 
 
 foreshadow future 
 
 greatness for him 
 
 at the expense of 
 
 his brethren, and 
 
 very unwisely 
 
 told them of 
 
 these dreams. This 
 
 filled the measure of his offences in their 
 
 eyes, and they determined to remove him 
 
 out of their wav. One dav Jacob sent 
 
 VIEW OF SHECUEJI AND MOUNT CJEKIZIM iKOM THE NOKTHWE.ST. 
 
 renewed his promise to serve him. He also 
 dug a well, which is still shown there. 
 
 Jacob now began to experience the 
 severest troubles of his life. Shechem, son 
 of Hamor, prince of the Shecheraites, car- 
 ried off and outraged his daughter, Dinah, 
 and though he afterwards demanded her in 
 marriage, the sons of Jacob determined to 
 avenge the wrouo- done to their sister. Thev 
 
 • 111" 
 
 consented to the marriage, and when the 
 Shechemites were thrown off their guard, 
 treacherously fell upon them, slew all the 
 males, pillaged the city, and carried off the 
 women and children, and the flocks and 
 herds. Jacob was very indignant at this 
 treacherous conduct, and, fearing that the 
 Canaauites would seek to avenge the 
 slaughter of their brethren, removed with 
 his family and possessions to Bethel, from 
 which he passed southward tow'ards Mamre, 
 where his father, Isaac, was still living. 
 In the vicinity of Bethlehem, his beloved 
 wife, Rachel, died in giving birth to Ben- 
 jamin, and was buried there. Her tomb 
 is still preserved. Jacob then went on to 
 Mamre and rejoined his father. Isaac 
 lived a number of years after this, and 
 died at the age of one hundred and eighty. 
 His sons, Esau and Jacob, buried him in 
 the cave of ^lachpelah. His death oc- 
 curred about thirteen years after the sale 
 of Josei)h by his brethren. 
 
 Joseph, the eldest son of Rachel, was his 
 father's favorite. Upon him Jacob lav- 
 ished such constant and conspicuous marks 
 of his affection, that the jealousy of the 
 
 JOSEPH INTERPRETS PHARAOH'S DREAM. 
 
 Joseph to visit his brethren, who were feed- 
 ing their flocks near Shechem. As they 
 saw him approaching alone, they resolved 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 
 
 49 
 
 to kill him. Reuben, the eldest sou, per- 
 suaded the others uot to kill their bi-other 
 outright, but to throw him into a dry well, 
 where he would die with hunger, meaning 
 to rescue him afterwards. His suggestion 
 was adopted, but during his temporary ab- 
 sence the other brothers sold Joseph to a 
 caravan of Midianitish merchants, who were 
 on their way to Egypt. They then returned 
 to their father and induced him to believe 
 that Joseph had been slain by a wild beast. 
 Joseph was taken by his purchasers to 
 Egyjjt, and was sold by them as a slave to 
 
 Among the prisoners were the chief of 
 the cupbearers and the chief of the cooks 
 of the king of Egypt, who had been put in 
 confinement in consequence of their com- 
 plicity in some conspiracy at the court of 
 the Pharaoh. These prisoners dreamed 
 each a dream, prophetic of their fate. 
 They related their dreams to Joseph, who 
 interpreted them. His interpretation was 
 verified in the pardon of the chief of the 
 cupbearers and his restoration to office, and 
 the execution of the chief of the cooks. 
 The fortunate man promised to intercede 
 
 JOSEPH MADE RULER OVKU IXiYi'T. 
 
 Potiphar, or Petephra, an officer of the army 
 of the king of Egypt, who is designated in 
 the Scriptures only by his title of Pharaoh. 
 Joseph quickly gained favor with his mas- 
 ter, who made him the superintendent of 
 his house. The wife of Potii^har conceived 
 an unlawful passion for Joseph, but was 
 repulsed by him. Thereupon she brought 
 an infamous charge against him, and he 
 was thrown into prison by his master. His 
 exemplary conduct soon gained him the 
 favor of the authorities of the prison, by 
 whbmhewasintrusted with important duties. 
 4 
 
 for Josepii, but forgot him until two years 
 later, when, the king having had two 
 dreams which troubled him greatly, and 
 which the wise men of Egypt were unable 
 to explain, the chief cupbearer remem- 
 bered Joseph and told the king of the 
 Hebrew's interpretation of his own dream 
 and its fulfilment. Pharaoh at once sent 
 for Joseph and related his dreams to him. 
 Josej)h informed him that his dreams were 
 prophetic, and were sent by God to warn 
 him that Egypt was about to be visited by 
 seven years of abundant harvests, which 
 
50 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 were to be succeeded by seven years of ter- 
 rible famine. He urged the king to pre- 
 pare for the famine by forming stores of 
 grain at certain points in Egypt during 
 the years of plenty. 
 
 Egypt at this time was divided into two 
 kingdoms. The upper kingdom, known as 
 the Thebaid, was ruled by native Egyj^tian 
 princes. Lower Egypt had been held for 
 many centuries by conquerors of Canaanitish 
 blood, known as the Hyksos, or shepherds. 
 These had adopted the Egyptian manners 
 and language. The king who sent for Jo- 
 seph was one of this dynasty, and was 
 
 EASTERN HOUSE, WITH A PAEArET. 
 
 known as Apophis, or Apepi. Being him- 
 self of foreign origin, he had not the native 
 Egyjitian dislike of strangers. He was 
 impressed with Joseph's interpretation of 
 his dreams and with the wisdom shown by 
 the captive, and at once declared that Jo- 
 seph was the best man in the kingdom to 
 make the provision against the famine he 
 had suggested. He made him his vice- 
 gerent over Egypt, and gave him his signet- 
 ring, the indisputable mark of royal power. 
 He was magnificently clothed, was given 
 the Egyptian name of Zaph-n-to, or 
 " Nourisher of the Country," and all peo- 
 
 ple were ordered to obey him implicitly. 
 He was also given a wife in the person of 
 Asenath, daughter of Petephra, the high 
 priest of Heliopolis, by whom he had two 
 sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. 
 
 Joseph collected in public granaries, 
 which he constructed for the purpose, im- 
 mense stores of grain from the superabun- 
 dant harvest. He accomplished this by 
 doubling the ordinary royal impost of one- 
 tenth of the grain. When the years of 
 famine set in he had stores enough to 
 supply the peoj^le of Egypt, and to sell to 
 the surrounding countries which were af- 
 
 fected by the 
 
 famine. He sold 
 to the Egyptians 
 on very hard terms, 
 requiring them to 
 surrender, in re- 
 turn for the food 
 which kept them 
 alive, the fee sim- 
 ple of their lands, 
 and to pay a quit 
 lent of one-fifth of 
 the ]3roduce for the 
 right of tenancy. 
 This arrangement 
 did not extend to 
 the priests, who 
 possessed the right 
 of drawing sup- 
 plies from the 
 public stores. 
 
 The famine hav- 
 ing extended to 
 that part of Pales- 
 tine in which Ja- 
 cob was living, he 
 sent his sous to 
 Egypt to buy 
 grain. They failed 
 to recognize Jo- 
 seph in the powerful Egyptian viceroy, but 
 he knew them at a glance. He subjected 
 them to a series of trials, partly to punish 
 them for their treatment of him, and partly 
 to test their affection for their father and their 
 brother Benjamin ; and then revealed him- 
 self to them, forgave them the wrongs they 
 had done him, and brought them and their 
 father down to Egypt, where he could pro- 
 vide for them. The king readily granted 
 them lands in the province of Goshen, 
 which lay between the Delta and the desert, 
 northeast of Memphis. In so doing the 
 king was simply carrying out a leading 
 
THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 51 
 
 policy of the shepherd dynasty, which was 
 to cultivate in their domiuious the growth 
 of a noii-Egy2)tian element, which might 
 sustain them against a revolt of the native 
 population. In the descent of the chosen 
 family into Egypt, a portion of God's 
 promise to Abraham was fulfilled. 
 
 Seventeen years later, Jacob died in 
 Egypt, at the age of one hundred and forty- 
 seven years. On his death-bed he blessed 
 his sons, and declared that the children of 
 Judah should inherit the divine promises to 
 Abraham and should constitute the head 
 of the chosen family — Reuben, Simeon, and 
 Levi, the three elder sons of Jacob, having 
 cut themselves off from the succession by 
 their crimes. Jacob's body was embalmed 
 in the Egyptian manner, and was carried in 
 great state by Joseph and his brethren, with 
 a powerful escort of Egyptian troops, back 
 to Palestine, and was buried in the tomb of 
 Abraham at Hebron. Joseph lived for fifty 
 years longer, enjoying his high honors, and 
 remaining the protector of his family. He 
 died at the age of one hundi'ed and ten 
 years, and on his death-bed exacted a solemn 
 oath of his brethren that his embalmed body 
 should be carried up into the land of Canaan 
 when the Israelites should leave Egypt. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 Growth of the Tsraelitish Nation in Egypt — Their 
 Condition in Goslien-^Expulsion of tlVe Hyk^os — 
 Rise of the Nineteenth Dynasty — Severe 0})])res- 
 sion of the Hebrews — Birth of Moses — He is Eihi- 
 cated as an Egyptian Prince^ His Fliglit from 
 Egypt — His Life at Moniit Sinai — TIie'Bnrning 
 Bush — Moses Called to the Leadersliip of his 
 People— He Seeks the Court of Pharaoh — His De- 
 mand Kefiised— Tlie Plagues of Iilgypt— Institu- 
 tion of tlie Passover — The Exodus— The Passage 
 of the Red Sea— The March to Sinai— The Giving 
 of the Law— The Nation Organized— The JIareh 
 Resumed— Return of the Spies — Rebellion of the 
 Israelites— Their Defeat by the Canaanites — The 
 Wanderings in the Wilderness —Death of Aaron 
 — The Advance to the Promised Land — Conquest 
 of the Country East of the Jordan— Defeat of the 
 Moabites — Death of Moses. 
 
 )HE real history of the Israelites as 
 a nation does not begin until their 
 departure from Egypt. Abraham 
 and his descendants were merely 
 nomads, wandering over the 
 Promised Land, but owning no 
 part of it. 
 
 The Israelites remained in the fertile 
 land of Goshen for a period of 215 years, 
 
 and there prospered in such a marked de- 
 gree that the family of seventy persons 
 which entered Egypt with Jacob grew to a 
 nation numbering nearly three millions of 
 people. They formed a nation quite apart 
 from the Egyptians, with their own lan- 
 guage, manners, religious worship, and patri- 
 archal government. It is true that they 
 did not preserve the worship of God in its 
 original purity, and had but a very vague 
 idea of the God of Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob, whom they worshipped, but they 
 never adopted the idolatrous rites or re- 
 ligion of the Egyptians. They were ruled 
 by their own proper chiefs, who were, in 
 their turn, directly responsible to the 
 Egyptian government for the collection 
 of the taxes imposed upon the Hebrew 
 colony. 
 
 During this period, the kings of the 
 Thebaid had succeeded in driving out the 
 shepherd dynasty and in extending their 
 rule over Lower Egypt, Avhich now became 
 one kingdom. This native dynasty was one 
 of the most glorious that ever reigned in 
 Egypt, and its kings appear to have favored 
 the Hebrew colony. 
 
 This policy was changed when the nine- 
 teenth Egyptian dynasty came into power. 
 These kings regarded the Hebrews as 
 dangerous because of their numbers and 
 location, and inflicted upon them a series 
 of cruel ])ersecutions, the object of which 
 was to reduce their power and destroy them 
 as a nation. The king who inaugurated 
 this policy was called Ramses, and was a 
 great warrior and a cruel despot. He over- 
 burdened the Israelites with work, and com- 
 pelled them to engage, under cruel task- 
 masters, in the labor of building cities. His 
 efforts were unsuccessful. In spite of their 
 heavy burdens, the Hebrews continued to 
 increase hi numbers. Enraged at this, the 
 king gave orders that all the male children 
 of the Hebrews should be put to death at 
 their birth. The females were spared, as 
 they would furnish wives for the Egyptians. 
 In this way the king hoped to entirely de- 
 stroy the race. 
 
 Amram, a man of the tribe of Levi, had 
 married Jochebed, a woman of the same 
 tribe. They had two children, a son named 
 Aaron, and a daughter named JNIiriam. 
 Soon after the cruel edict of the Pharaoh 
 was issued, Jochebed gave birth to a second 
 son, whom she hid for three months from 
 the officers of the king. Unable to conceal 
 him any longer, she laid him in a basket, 
 
52 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 or ark, covered with pitch, and })laced him 
 among the flags on tlie brink of the Nile. 
 Here he was discovered by the daughter of 
 
 THE FINDING OF MOSES BY PHAKAOH'S 
 DAUGHTER. 
 
 the king, who had gone down to the river 
 to bathe. The princess was touched with 
 
 ])ity, and liad the child brought to her. 
 iSlie gave it to Jochebed, who offei'ed her- 
 self as nurse, and commanded her to rear 
 the boy as " the sou of Pharaoh's daughter." 
 She named the child Moses, which means 
 " drawn out of the water." Wlien the boy 
 was grown his mother took him to the 
 l)rincess, who caused him to be educated as 
 one of the royal family, in consequence of 
 which he became learned " in all the wisdom 
 of the Egyptians," and was taught military 
 science. 
 
 There is a tradition that upon arriv- 
 ing at manhood he held a high command 
 in the Egyptian army in au expedition 
 against Ethiojjia. 
 
 In spite of his own fortunate lot, and of 
 the favor he enjoyed at court, JNIoses was 
 too truly a Hebrew not to feel keenly the 
 wrongs of his countrymen. He brooded 
 over their sufferings, and often Avent among 
 them to cheer them. One day he saw an 
 Egyptian cruelly beating a Hebrew ; his 
 indignation was aroused, and he killed the 
 Egyptian. This coming to the ears of the 
 king, Moses was obliged to fly for his life. 
 He took refuge in the Peninsula of Sinai. 
 One day he found himself in the territory 
 of a Midianitish tribe, whose chief and 
 priest was named Jethro. He was enabled 
 to render a service to the daughters of 
 Jethro by defending them from the violence 
 of some shepherds who sought to drive them 
 away from a well where they were watering 
 their flocks. Jethro, hearing of this, invited 
 Moses to his home, and urged him to re- 
 main with him. Moses consented to do so, 
 and Jethro gave him his daughter Zipporah 
 as a wife. Moses remained forty years 
 with Jethro, and during this time a new- 
 king mounted the throne of Egypt. He 
 pursued towards the Hebrews the iniquitous 
 system of his predecessor. In their sore 
 affliction the Hebrews besought the assist- 
 ance of the God of their fathers, and he 
 heard their prayers. 
 
 One day, when Moses had led his flock 
 to a remote part of Mount Horeb, he was 
 startled by seeing a bush burning with a 
 bright blaze, but without being consumed. 
 He approached it to ascertain the cause of 
 this strange sight, but was checked by a 
 voice from the midst of the bush, which 
 told him that he was standing in the presence 
 of God himself. The Almighty made him- 
 self known to Moses as the God of his 
 fathers, and informed him of his purpose to 
 brinff the bondage of the Hebrews to an 
 
THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 end, and to lead them into tlie land which 
 he had promised Abraham should he the 
 home of his descendants. He revealed to 
 Moses his purpose to make him the leader 
 and the divine mouthpiece in this great 
 movement. The timid nature of Moses 
 shrank from the position, but God reassured 
 him, and associated Avith him his brother 
 Aaron, who was to be his spokesman to the 
 Egyptian king and to the Hebrews. The 
 entire plan of the Almighty was made 
 known to Moses, who was commanded to 
 
 Egypt. On the way he met his brother 
 Aaron, who had been directed by God to 
 seek him. The two brothers returned to 
 Egypt, and summoning the elders of the 
 Israelites laid liefore them the message of 
 God. The people agreed to submit tliem- 
 selves to the divine will, and promised to 
 execute faithfully all the commands of the 
 God of their fathei's. 
 
 Having secured the adhesion of their 
 people, Moses and Aaron next sought the 
 presence of the Pharaoh, " to demand leave 
 
 MOSES AND THE BTJENING BUSH. 
 
 reveal it to the elders or chiefs of the 
 Israelites. God directed him to return to 
 Egypt, assemble the Hebrew elders, make 
 known his mission to them, and then, hav- 
 ing secured their obedience, to go before 
 Pharaoh and demand permission for the 
 Israelites to leave Egypt. God told him 
 that Pharaoh would not grant this demand, 
 but that he would show Ids power over 
 Egypt and avenge the wrongs of his people 
 by a series of punishments such as Egypt 
 had never known before. 
 
 Moses at once set out on his return to 
 
 in the name of Jehovah, the God of Israel, 
 for his people to hold a feast to him in the 
 wilderness. This Avas the extent of the first 
 demand, as it had been the extent of what 
 God had enjoined on Moses: 'Ye shall 
 sei've God in this mountain.' It was to 
 be a solemn festival, shared in by all the 
 people, who, as a nomad race, would of 
 course travel with their flocks and herds. 
 When they reached the sacred mount they 
 would be at the disposal of their God and 
 Father, to lead them back or forward as he 
 pleased ; and he cUiimed of Pharaoh that 
 
54 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 they sfhould be placed at his disposal, with- 
 out telliug him of their further destina- 
 tion, -which had been long since revealed 
 to Abraham, and lately made known to 
 Moses." 
 
 The demand of ]\Ioses and Aaron Avas 
 contemptuously refused by the Egyjitian 
 king, and the burdens of the Hebrews were 
 redoubled. In their sore distress the people 
 reproached Moses and Aaron for adding to 
 their hardships. Moses, greatly disheart- 
 
 but as a proof to the latter that Jehovah 
 was able to fulfil his promises to them, and 
 that their God was more powerful and 
 glorious than all the false deities of Egypt. 
 The Hebrews had been so long exposed to 
 contact with the religious system of the 
 Egyptians that such a disjilay of the power, 
 of God was necessary to convince them 
 that there was " no virtue in the idols of 
 the Nile." 
 
 Moses and Aaron renewed their demand 
 
 MOSES AND AAEOX EEFOKE PHARAOH. 
 
 eued, complained to God that his effort had 
 only brought sorrow upon his countrymen, 
 but was encouraged by the prediction that 
 though Pharaoh would steadily refuse for a 
 time, and steadily increase the hard tasks 
 of the Hebrews, yet God would break the 
 stubborn pride of the king, and compel him 
 to consent to the departure of the Israelites. 
 This contest between Pharaoh and the Al- 
 mighty Avas necessary, not only to ])unish 
 the kimi; for his treatment of the Hebrews, 
 
 upon the king repeatedly, and were as often 
 refused. God punished the refusals of the 
 king by sending upon the laud of Egypt 
 a series of terrible plagues, or afflictions. 
 What made these plagues miraculous 
 was their extraordinary violence, and the 
 promptness with which they made their ap- 
 pearance at the call of Moses. They were 
 ten in number, and are thus related in the 
 Bible: 1st. The waters of the Nile, the 
 sacred river of the Egyptians, and the chief 
 
THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 Oiy 
 
 source of their water supply, became red 
 like blood, and so putrid that they became 
 ofteusive. Uuable to use them, the Egyp- 
 tians were compelled to sink wells along the 
 shores of the river for water to drink. 2d. 
 Frogs, which are always numerous and 
 troublesome in Egypt, multiplied to such 
 an extent as to become a terrible pest to the 
 Egyptians. 3d. Swarms of lice covered the 
 land, causing severe suffering to both man 
 and beast. These insects were a terrible 
 annoyance to the scrupulously cleanly 
 
 " This plague," says Dr. Smith, " seems to 
 have been the black leprosy, a fearful kind 
 of elephantiasis, which was long remembered 
 as the ' blotch of Egypt.' It also rendered 
 the Egyptians religiously unclean." 7th. 
 A terrible hail storm, accompanied with 
 thunder and lightning, swept over the 
 country, destroying the crops and killing 
 men and beasts. 8th. Swarms of locusts 
 spread over the land, and devoured all that 
 the hail had left. 9th. An extraordinary 
 darkness enveloped the land of Egypt, and 
 
 PASSAGE OF THE KED SEA BY THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 Egyptians, and were also a religious defile- 
 ment. 4th. Clouds of flies, or beetles, most 
 probably of the great Egyptian beetle 
 {pcarabwus sacer), covered the countiy, 
 swarmed in the houses, and ate up the har- 
 vest and shrubbery. The beetle was an 
 object of worship to the Egyptians, who 
 were thus scourged through their own gods. 
 5th. An epizootic disease made its appear- 
 ance among the cattle, and carried otf vast 
 numbers of them. 6th. A grievous afflic- 
 tion of boils and blaius broke out on the 
 bodies of the Egyptians and their beasts. 
 
 for three days the gloom was so dense that 
 the people were uuable to see each other, 
 or to pursue any of their avocations. None 
 of these visitations extended to the land of 
 Goshen, in which the Hebrews dwelt. 
 Exempted from all these evils, they beheld 
 with awe the fulfilment of the divine prom- 
 ises in the sufferings of the Egyptians. 
 More than once Pharaoh, terrified and 
 humbled, sent for Moses and Aaron, and 
 besought them to obtain from God a cessa- 
 tion of the afflictions of his peoi)le ; but no 
 sooner did the plague cease, than the stub- 
 
56 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 boru pride of the king returned, and he 
 refused to let the Hebrews depart from 
 Egypt. 
 
 It now remained for God to bring the 
 extraordinary contest to an end by striking 
 the last terrible blow which sliould humble 
 Egypt in the dust. IMoses was commanded 
 to institute the Feast of the Passover, which, 
 as it marked the beginning of the national 
 history of the Hebrews, was made the com- 
 mencement of their year. Minute direc- 
 tions Avere given as to tlie manner of cele- 
 brating the feast, from which no deviatioa 
 
 nESTKUCTION OF PHARAOH'S AK.MY. 
 
 was permitted, and the feast was ordered to 
 be made an annual celebration, a perpetual 
 memorial of the deliverance of the nation 
 from Egyptian bondage. God made known 
 to Moses and Aaron his purpose to destroy 
 the first-born of the Egyptians, and com- 
 manded the Hebrews to mark their houses 
 by sprinkling the doorposts with the blood 
 of the animals slain for the paschal supper. 
 All houses so marked would be passed over 
 by the destroying angels. The Hebrews 
 were ordered to make ready for a hasty 
 departure, and to set out the moment the 
 
 command to march Avas given. All these 
 J) reparations were carried out in the clear 
 light of the land of Goshen, where there 
 was no darkness. 
 
 At sunset on the third day of the dark- 
 ness in Egypt the Hebrews began to pre- 
 pare the paschal supper, and having fin- 
 islied it, awaited in awful suspense the 
 commands of God. At midnight God slew 
 the first-born in every house in Egypt, from 
 the palace of the king to the humblest hut, 
 and the first-born of all the animals of the 
 country. " There was not a house where 
 there was not one 
 dead." Pharaoh 
 was completely 
 conquered by this 
 terrible blow. He 
 sent in haste for 
 Moses and Aaron 
 and urged them 
 to take their peo- 
 ple out of Egypt 
 without delay. By 
 the command of 
 Moses, the He- 
 brews asked the 
 Egyptians for jew- 
 els of silver and 
 gold and raiment, 
 and their demands 
 were instantly 
 complied with. 
 The Egyptians 
 were eager to get 
 the Hebrews out 
 of the country, as 
 they were fearful 
 that any delay 
 would result in 
 further suflfering 
 to them. 
 
 At the com- 
 mand of Moses 
 the Hebrews set 
 out upon their march, taking with them the 
 embalmed body of Joseph. They num- 
 bered 600,000 men on foot, besides the 
 women and children. These, with the 
 mixed multitude which followed them, and 
 which consisted doubtless of people of 
 Asiatic descent, nomadic in habit, who were 
 glad to take this opportunity of escaping 
 from Egypt, swelled the number of the 
 Hebrew host to nearly three millions of 
 people. They set out under the leadership 
 of Moses, but their route was chosen for 
 them by God, who guided them by a bright 
 
THE EXUDUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 01 
 
 cloud, which moved befoi-e the host by day, 
 and a " pillar," or cloud, of fire, which per- 
 formed the same office by night. 
 
 The march of such a large body was 
 necessarily slow, and the Israelites were 
 three days in reaching the head of the Red 
 Sea, or Gulf of Suez, which then extended 
 much farther northward than at present. 
 
 In the meantime Pharaoh had recovered 
 his courage, and, regretting the permission 
 he had given the Israelites to depart, deter- 
 mined to pursue them and compel them to 
 
 the Arabian shore by causing the waters to 
 recede in a miraculous manner. The Israel- 
 ites crossed over by the path thus opened. 
 The Egyptian army, detecting the move- 
 ment, at once gave pursuit. The sea in- 
 stantly flowed back at the command of 
 God and destroyed the Egyptian host. 
 The Bible does not tell us that the king was 
 drowned with his troops, nor do its asser- 
 tions justify such an inference. That part 
 of the army which made the pursuit, and 
 not the king, was drowned, and Egyptian 
 
 MOUNT SIXAI FROM THE PLAIN ER-RAHAH. 
 
 return to Egypt. He set out at the head 
 of a large army, and by a forced march 
 came up with them as they were encamped 
 near the Red Sea. Iti a military sense the 
 Israelitish position was a false one. In 
 front of them was the sea : on their right a 
 difficult mountain range; and on their left 
 and in their rear the king of Egypt dis- 
 posed his army so as to cut off their escape. 
 AVithout divine aid they were lost. In tliis 
 emergency God came to their assistance and 
 opened a passage for them across the sea to 
 
 history makes it certain tliat Merenphtah, 
 who was tlie Pharaoh of the Exodus, lived 
 many years after this event, and died from 
 disease.* 
 
 The received chronology gives B. c. 1491 
 as the date of the Exodus. 
 
 * The language of the Bible is as follows : "And 
 the Egyptians pursued, and went in after them to 
 the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh's liorsca, his 
 chariots, and '.lis horsemen. . . . And the waters re- 
 turneil, and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, 
 and ((// the hosts of Pharaoh that came into the sea 
 after them ; there remained not so much as one of 
 
58 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Having reached the o^iposite shore of the 
 Red Sea, the Israelites moved dowu the 
 Peninsula of Sinai towards the mountain 
 of that name. Had it been the design of 
 the Almighty to conduct them at once to 
 the Promised Land, he would have led 
 them by the direct route which lay along 
 
 have exposed them to the risk of destruc- 
 tion by the Egyptian army, which was ac- 
 customed to use this route in its expeditions 
 into Asia ; and even had they escaped this 
 danger, they would have been obliged to 
 encounter the warlike tribes of the seashore 
 of Canaan. To protect them from these 
 
 THE MOLTEN CALF. 
 
 the shore of the Mediterranean, past the 
 modern El-Arish and Gaza. This Avould 
 
 them." Many writers claim that this last clause 
 disposes, in the hxnguage of the learned Dr. Win. 
 Smith, " of every theory which makes tlie Pliaraoli 
 of the Exodus survive this catastrophe ; " but it 
 seems clear that the portions which I have italicised 
 make the true meaning of the Bible narrative plain 
 beyond all chance of misconstruction. A few words 
 will make this evident. IMiaraoli had jiursued the 
 Israelites witli a ])owerful army, the strength of 
 which may be understood by the fact that it had COO 
 chariots attached Xo it. The chariot in ancient ar- 
 mies corresponded to the artillery of modern times, 
 and required a certain proportion of infantry and 
 cavalry to each chariot. An army with 600 
 cliariots would tliorefore ))e verv strontr in infantrv 
 
 dangers the route by Avay of the Red Sea» 
 was chosen. There was, however, another 
 
 and cavalry. That such was the case in this in- 
 stance is also shown by the fact that the Egy])tian 
 king was jjursning a body of 3,000,000 peo))le. The 
 Egy]>tians found the Israelites encamped on the 
 shores of the Red Sea. On the Hebrew right the 
 range of Jebel Atakah cut off their escape, and in 
 their front was the sea, too deep to be forded. The 
 Egyptian king at once seized every available line of 
 retreat, and supposed he had the Israelites iu a trap 
 from which escape was impossible. By the power 
 of God the Egyptian camp was plunged in total 
 darkness. (Gem xiv. 19, 20.) When tlie Egyptian 
 advanced forces discovered the withdrawal of the 
 Israelites during the night, the king must have sup- 
 posed that the Israelites had discovered some line 
 
THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 59 
 
 aucl a higher reason for this choice. The 
 Israelites were uot fit to enter upon their 
 inheritance. They were to be carried 
 through a course of instruction and disci- 
 pline, which should make them truly a 
 nation, and were to be taught a system of 
 
 which was to be found their national and 
 individual salvatiou. Tliey were to be 
 purged of the taints which had clung to 
 them from their long contact with the peo- 
 ple and customs of Egypt, and to be made 
 a " peculiar people," separate and distinct 
 
 THE CAMP OF ISRAEL IN THE WILDERNESS. 
 
 religious and civil legislation which was to 
 constitute their national strength, and in 
 
 of retreat around the mountain range of Jebel 
 Atakah. He knew the sea was too deep to be 
 forded, and that his army closed every other line 
 of escape. No conflict on any part of his line M'as 
 reported to him, and the gloom which enshrouded 
 his position rendered it impossible to obtain a clear 
 idea of the nature of the Hebrew movement. lie 
 seems to have done what any skilful commander 
 would have done under the circumstances. He 
 threw forward his chariots and cavalry, " all Pha- 
 raoh's horses, his chariots, and his horsemen," to as- 
 certain the exact nature of this movement. These 
 comprised a strong force, and we may be sure the 
 king held his infantry ready to hasten to their sup- 
 ])ort .as soon as he should be reliably informed of the 
 movements of the Hebrews. He would not have 
 •withdrawn his troops from the positions which com- 
 manded the Hebrew line of retreat to the desert 
 ■north of the lied Sea, for that would have been 
 a ))lunder with which we have no right to charge 
 him. The darkness rendered the task assigned the 
 
 from any of the nations by whom they were 
 to be surrounded, and to be endowed with 
 
 Egyptian cavalry and chariots a difficult one, and 
 they did not discover their dangerous position in the 
 midst of the sea until the break of day. Then the 
 tirst glance filled them with terror, and the entire 
 column became demoralized. In the vain attempt 
 to escape the chariots broke down, and the troops 
 became so confused as to be incajiable of flight. 
 The ne.\t moment they were engulfed by the re- 
 turning waves, and not one of them escaped. I 
 think a fair interpretation of the twenty-eighth 
 verse of the fourteenth chapter of Genesis will show 
 that it was only tlie pursuing column, or the light 
 troops of the Egyptian army, evidently a numerous 
 body, which perished. To suppose that the king 
 risked his whole army in this uncertain pursuit is 
 to believe him guilty of a gross violation of the 
 simplest rules of military ])rudence and conuuon 
 sense. Having Avitnessed the destruction of his 
 advanced column, Pharaoh evidently abandoned 
 the undertaking and returned to Egyjjt. 
 
60 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 those traits \vhich should enable them to 
 preserve forever their peculiarity upon 
 which their whole future depended. No 
 better place could be chosen for this work 
 than the sublime solitudes of the Binaitic 
 desert, to which they were now conducted. 
 From the first God provided for the tem- 
 poral wants of his people. He sweetened 
 the bitter waters of the region through 
 which they were marching, made water to 
 come out of a rock for their nourishment, 
 and sent them food, first in the form of 
 quails, and finally in the shape of manna. 
 This mauna fell with the dew every morn- 
 
 From Rephidim the Israelites moved to 
 Mount Sinai, and encamped in the plain 
 and in the ravines in the vicinity of the 
 sacred mountain. 
 
 A short season of preparation was given 
 the Israelites, and then God descended upon 
 jMount Sinai with a sublime dis2:)lay of his 
 glory, and in the hearing of the whole 
 people spoke the leading pi*ecepts of his 
 law, which we call the Ten Commandments, 
 The people, on their part, made a solemn 
 covenant with God, in which they pledged 
 themselves and their posterity to worship 
 and serve him. Moses was then called up 
 
 THE HOLY PLACE OF THE TABKKNACLE. 
 
 ing in the camp. Only a day's supply was 
 permitted to be gathered, except on the 
 sixth day, when enough was gathered to 
 last for two days, in order that the people 
 might scrupulously obsei've the Sabbath 
 day. This supply from heaven continued 
 every day for forty years, or during the en- 
 tire sojourn of the Israelites in the desert. 
 
 Upon reaching Rephidim, which is be- 
 lieved to be identical with the Wady Feiran 
 of to-day, the Israelites Avere attacked by 
 the Amalekites, who sought to check their 
 advance into the Peninsula. The Hebrew 
 army was led by Joshua, the future con- 
 queror of Palestine, and was victorious. 
 
 into the mountain and remained there for 
 forty days, during which time God re- 
 vealed to him the minute directions which he 
 afterw^ards embodied in the code which we 
 term "the law of Moses," and which consti- 
 tuted the religious and civil systems of the 
 Hebrew nation. The Ten Commandments 
 were engraven on tablets of stone by the 
 hand of God. 
 
 Unable to account for the long absence 
 of Moses on the mountain, the Israelites 
 fell off from their covenant with God, and 
 compelled Aaron to make a golden image 
 of a calf, in imitation of the Egyptian god 
 Apis. They gave themselves up to the 
 
HIGH FBIEST. 
 
 TABLE OF SHEW-BKEAD. 
 
 GULDEN CANDLESTICK. 
 
 AI.TAR clF INCFNSK. 
 
 ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING. 
 
 DHESS OF PRIESTS AND FURNITLKE OF THE TABEF.NACLK. 
 
 (31 
 
62 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 worship of this idol, and Moses, upon com- 
 ing down from the mountain, found them 
 so engaged. His anger was ovevwhehning. 
 Rallying the tribe of Levi, he fell upon the 
 idolaters with the sword, slew a great num- 
 ber of them, and destroyed the idol. The 
 people acknowledged the justice of their 
 punishment, and promisee! to do better. 
 For their zeal in the cause of the true faith 
 upon this occasion, the Levites Avere made 
 the sacerdotal class of the nation. 
 
 The Israelites remained at Sinai eleven 
 months and twenty days, and during this 
 
 AAEOX IX THE DRESS OF THE HIGH PRIEST. 
 
 time the second celebration of the Passover 
 was held. The long halt constituted one 
 of the busiest portions of the life of the na- 
 tion. The people had arrived at Sinai an 
 unorganized mob, without institutions, with- 
 out laws, almost ignorant of their God, and 
 with no prescribed mode of religious w^or- 
 ship. During the sojourn at Sinai the 
 mob Avas foshioned into a compact and 
 firmly-established nation, with a code of 
 laws which has excited the admiration of 
 all succeeding generations of mankind, and 
 which remained substantially intact to the 
 close of the career of the Hebrew nation. 
 
 The Tabernacle, or sacred tent, was con- 
 structed according to the pattern prescribed 
 by God, and all the details of the religious 
 ceremonial were carefully arranged. The 
 priesthood was organized, and the succes- 
 sion to the sacred offices definitely arranged. 
 The fundamental principle of the whole 
 system, civil as well as religious, was the 
 supreme authority of God over the Israeli- 
 tish nation. " He was, in the literal sense 
 of the word, their sovereign ; and all other 
 authority, both in political and civil aflfairs, 
 was subordinate to the continual acknowl- 
 edgment of his own. The other powers 
 were instituted by God to administer affairs 
 in accordance with his laws, but were not 
 ordinarily chosen among the priests, de- 
 scendants of Aaron, nor from the tribe of 
 Levi, consecrated to the various functions 
 of public worship. Each tribe had its 
 civil authorities, although certain causes 
 were reserved for the supreme central tri- 
 bunal ; but the unity of the nation was, 
 above all, founded on unity in faith and 
 worship, on the mighty recollections recalled 
 each year by the solemn feasts : the Pass- 
 over, or Feast of Unleavened Bread (com- 
 memorating the Exodus from Egypt) ; Pen- 
 tecost (the promulgation of the law), and 
 the Feast of Tabernacles, or tents (the so- 
 journ in the desert). The one tabernacle, 
 where the solemn sacrifices were offered, 
 and where was deposited the ark, the symbol 
 of the covenant made between God and his 
 people, was equally the political and reli- 
 gious centre of the nation. The Mosaic 
 law presents the spectacle, unique iu the 
 history of the world, of a legislation which 
 was complete from the origin of a nation, 
 and subsisted for long ages. In spite of 
 frequent infractions, it was always restored, 
 even although in its very sublimity it was 
 in direct opposition to the coarse inclina- 
 tions of the people whom it governed. He 
 alone could impose it on the Israelites, who 
 could say, ' I am the Lord thy God,' and 
 confirm the words by forty years of 
 miracles." 
 
 All things being arranged, Moses, at the 
 command of God, took the census of the 
 males of the nation, from twenty years and 
 upwards, capable of bearing arms. The 
 census was taken on the first day of the 
 second month from the epoch of the Exodus 
 (Jyar — May, 1490 B. c), and placed the 
 number of fighting men at 603,550. The 
 host was divided into four camps, one of 
 Avhich Avas placed on each of the four sides 
 
THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERFNGS. 
 
 63 
 
 of the tabernacle, which stood in the centre 
 of the whole camp. 
 
 Thus organized, a nation and an army, 
 the Israelites broke up their camp at Sinai 
 on the twentieth day of their second year, 
 or about May 20th, 1490 b. c, and re- 
 sumed their march, led by the pillar of 
 cloud, which had guided them since the 
 memorable night of the Exodus, and which 
 was to conduct them to the borders of the 
 promised land. Thus, divinely guided, the 
 Israelites went into the Wilderness of 
 Paran. 
 
 After several halts the Israelites reached 
 Kadesh Barnea, near 
 the borders of Pales- 
 tine. From this place 
 Moses sent twelve 
 men, one from each 
 tribe, into Palestine to 
 examine the country 
 and report the charac- 
 ter of the people, 
 their means of de- 
 fence, the strength of 
 their cities, and their 
 numbers. The "spies," 
 as they are termed, 
 were absent forty days, 
 during Avhich time 
 they explored the 
 country from the 
 Dead Sea to the 
 slopes of Mount Her- 
 mon. Returning to 
 Kadesh Barnea, they 
 reported to Moses and 
 the Israelitish leaders 
 that the laud was ex- 
 ceedingly fertile, but 
 that its conquest by 
 the Israelites would 
 be impossible since its 
 inhabitants were men 
 of gigantic size, Avho 
 
 dwelt in strongly fortified cities. This un- 
 fovorable report greatly excited the people. 
 In vain did Joshua and Caleb, who were 
 of the " spies," declare to them that their 
 colleagues had exaggerated the difficulties 
 of the conquest, and endeavor to en- 
 courage them with a more favorable re- 
 port. The people were panic-stricken, and 
 the next morning broke into open mu- 
 tiny and declared their intention to choose 
 a chief Avho should conduct them back 
 to Egypt. In vain did Moses and Aaron 
 full ou their faces before the people ; in 
 
 vain did Joshua and ('aleb repeat their 
 
 assurances of victory and coiKpiest, and 
 
 urge them not to rebel against God. The 
 
 people took up stones and were about to 
 
 kill the faithful four, when the glory of God 
 
 I suddenly blazed forth from the tabernacle, 
 
 I and brought the rebels to their senses. God 
 
 j spake to Moses, declaring that he would 
 
 disinherit the rebellious nation and choose 
 
 as his people the descendants of Moses, 
 
 The great lawgiver earnestly interceded for 
 
 his countrymen, and at length obtained 
 
 their pardon. But, iu pardoning them, 
 
 Jehovah declared that he would punish the 
 
 THE ISKA ELITES DEFEATED BY THE CANAAMTES. 
 
 rebels. He informed INIoses that, with the 
 exception of Joshua and Caleb, not one of 
 the men of the nation, from twenty years 
 old and upward, should enter the promised 
 laud. They should all die in the wilder- 
 ness, in which the tribes Avere condemned 
 to wander for thirty-eight years longer. 
 Their children should enter upon, the prom- 
 ised inheritance. 
 
 Upon hearing this doom the Israelites 
 were seized with remorse, and were eager to 
 be led into Canaan ; but the divine decree 
 was irrevocable. The peojile persisted iu 
 
64 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 their determiuatiou, and, in spite of the 
 warnings of Moses, who refused to accom- 
 pany them, endeavored to force their way 
 through a mountain pass which Avas hekl 
 by the combined armies of the Cauaanites 
 and Amalekites. The Israelites suffered a 
 bloody repulse, and were driven back into 
 the desert. 
 
 For thirty-eight years the Israelites led 
 a nomadic life, roaming through the desert 
 which lies north of the peninsula of Sinai, 
 to which the Arabs have given the name 
 of Et Tih, or Tih Beni Israel (the Wander- 
 
 after the Exodus, Aaron, the brother of 
 Moses and the high priest of the nation, 
 died at Masera, in Mount Hor, at the age 
 of one hundred and twenty-three years, 
 and was buried there. Mount Hor was on 
 the border of the territory of the Edomites, 
 the descendants of Esau. Moses requested 
 of the Edomites a free passage through 
 their country for the hosts of Israel, offer- 
 ing to respect the property of the inhabi- 
 tants, and to pay for even the water which 
 his peojjle used. This request was refused, 
 and the Hebrews, who were forbidden by 
 
 WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 ing3 of the Children of Israel"). Their 
 range extended from Kadesh Barneaon the 
 north to the head of the Elanitic gulf 
 (Gulf of Akabah) on the south. They do 
 not appear to have been troubled by any 
 of the neighboring tribes. During this 
 period the males of the nation, from twenty 
 years upward, died. The generation which 
 succeeded them consisted of men trained to 
 tatigue and war, hardy and courageous, 
 and accustomed to freedom ; a generation 
 superior to that which had been reared in 
 bondage in Egypt, and had suffered from 
 the taint of that slavery. 
 
 At the beixinnino; of the fortieth year 
 
 God to attack their kindred, turned south- 
 ward, marched to the head of the Elanitic 
 gulf, and turning the range of mountains, 
 moved northward again, east of the territory 
 of Edom. The Canaanites of Arad un- 
 dertook to bar the way of the Israelites, 
 but were defeated. The Edomites allowed 
 the Israelites to march past their territory 
 without molesting them. Moses was for- 
 bidden by God to attack the Moabites and 
 Ammonites, who were descended from Lot. 
 The Hebrews had now reached the Arnon, 
 a small stream which falls into the Dead Sea 
 on its eastern side. This stream formed 
 the southern boundary of a new kingdom, 
 
THE EXODUS AND THE WANDERINGS. 
 
 G.J 
 
 which Sihon, au Amorite adventurer, had 
 conquered from the Ammonites and Moab- 
 ites. The Jabbok formed the northern 
 boundary of this kingdom, and Sihon had 
 established his capital at Heshbon. Moses 
 sent a peaceful embassy to Sihon, asking 
 ibr a free passage through his territory, 
 promising to keep his people to the high- 
 way on their march, and to pay for every- 
 thing they used. Sihou insolently refused 
 this request, and marched with his army to 
 attack the Israelites. He was completely 
 routed, his capital was taken by storm, and 
 his kingdom became the prize of the He- 
 brews. Og, the gigantic king of Bashan, 
 whose territory extended from tlie Jabbok 
 
 I curse upon the Israelites and devote them 
 j to destruction. Instead of cursing the 
 i chosen people, Balaam was compelled by 
 the Almighty to bless them, and to predict 
 1 to Balak their future triumphs. This 
 j scheme having failed, the allies undertO(jk 
 ! to seduce the Hebrews from their faith by 
 i inducing them to take part in their ini- 
 j moral and voluptuous worship of their god 
 I Baal-Peor. This design succeeded so well 
 that Moses was obliged to resort to severe 
 measures to check the evil. All the He- 
 brews guilty of the sin were put to death. 
 A plague broke out in the camp and carried 
 off 24,000 men. A war of extermination 
 was begun against the JMidianites, their 
 
 
 MOUNT NEBO. 
 
 
 to Mount Hermon, and who was also 
 a successful Amorite adventurer, now 
 took the field to avenge Sihon. He was 
 defeated and killed, and his kingdom was 
 conquered by the Israelites, who by these 
 victories became masters of all the country 
 east of the Jordan, from Mount Hermou to 
 the Dead Sea. 
 
 The Isiaelitish host now encamped on the 
 fertile plains opposite Jericho. Balak, the 
 king of Moab, alarmed at the jjresence of 
 so powerful a nation on his borders, made 
 au alliance against them with the Midian- 
 ites. Not deeming himself strong enouorh 
 to attack the new comers, Balak endeavored 
 to induce Balaam, a famous diviner from 
 the country of the Ammonites, to lay a 
 5 
 
 armies were defeated, their country ravaged 
 and an immense booty carried off. 
 
 A new census of the nation was now 
 tnken, and showed that there were 601,730 
 fighting men in the host. 
 
 The country that had been conquered 
 east of the Jordan was very fertile and was 
 admirably adapted to glazing purposes. 
 Pleased with the region, the tribes of Reu- 
 ben and Gad and the halt-tribe of Manas- 
 seh asked permission of ]\Ioses to take this 
 country as their inheritance, as they had 
 numerous cattle. Moses sharply reproached 
 them ibr sowing the seeds of division in the 
 nation ; but consented to the arrangement 
 upon receiving the promise of these tribes 
 that they would only leave their families 
 
66 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 aud their cattle in their new homes, while 
 their fighting men would cross the Jordan 
 with the other tribes and assist in the con- 
 quest of the promised land. The tribe of 
 Reuben was given the southern part of the 
 country east of the Jordan, from the Ar- 
 uon to Mount Gilead ; the tribe of Gad 
 was assigned the country north of this, in- 
 cluding Mount Gilead, to the southern end 
 of the Sea of Chinneroth (the Sea of Gali- 
 lee) ; and the half-tribe of Manasseh re- 
 ceived the country north of Gad as far as 
 
 Kadesh to give water to his people, 
 Moses assembled the entire nation, recited 
 the law in their hearing, bestowed upon 
 them a prophetic blessing, foretelling their 
 future glories, named Joshua as his suc- 
 cessor, and exhorted the people to remain 
 faithful to Jehovah as the indispensable 
 condition of individual and national hap- 
 piness. He then took an affecting farewell 
 of the nation, and at the command of God 
 went up into Mount Nebo, from which 
 God showed him the whole of the land 
 
 MOSES VIEWING THE PROMISED LAND FKOM MOUNT NEBO. 
 
 Mount Hermon. The two tribes and a 
 half faithfully kept their pledges to their 
 brethren and rendered good service in the 
 conquest of the country west of the Jordan. 
 The work of Moses was now completed. 
 He had brought the children of Israel to 
 the border of the promised land at a point 
 where they could easily enter it, and he 
 was warned by God that his death was at 
 hand. Both he and Aax'on had been re- 
 fused permission to enter the land, because 
 of the failure of their faith when God had 
 commanded them to speak to the rock in 
 
 which was to be the home of the He- 
 brews. " So Moses, the servant of the 
 Lord, died there in the laud of Moab, 
 according to the word of the Lord. And 
 he buried him in a valley in the land 
 of Moab, over against Beth-peor ; but no 
 man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this 
 day. And Moses was an hundred aud 
 twenty years old when he died ; his eye 
 was not dim, nor his natural force a- 
 bated." 
 
 The Israelites spent thirty days in 
 mourning the death of their great leader. 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES, 
 
 G7 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN THE JUDGES. 
 
 sometimes used to designate a particular 
 tribe occupying a certain portion of Pales- 
 tine ; but in its more general sense it was 
 applied to all the inhabitants of the Holy 
 Laud, and included seven different nations. 
 These \vere : 
 
 " I. The Canaanites, the ' lowlauders, 
 who inhabited the plain on the lower 
 Jordan, and that on the sea-shore. These 
 plains were the richest and most important 
 part of the country. 
 
 " 11. The Perizzites seem, next to the 
 Canaanites, to have been the most important 
 
 tribe In Judges i. 4, 5, they are 
 
 placed in the southern part of the Holy 
 Land, and in Joshua xvi. 15-18, they 
 occupy, with the Rephaim, or giants, the 
 ' forest country ' in the western flanks of 
 Mount Carmel. 
 
 "III. The. Hittites, or children of Heth, 
 were a small tribe at Hebron, of whom 
 Abraham purchased the Cave of Mach- 
 pelah. They are represented as a peaceful 
 
 Joshua Succeeds Closes — Passage of the Jordan — 
 Occupants of the Promised Land at the Time of 
 the Conquest — Description of Palestine — Capture 
 of Jericho, Ai, and Shechem — Defeat of the Five 
 Canaanitish Kings — Division of Canaan Among 
 the Tribes— Death of Joshua — Evils Which Fol- 
 lowed His Death— A Period of Anarchy — The 
 Judges — Character of the Office of Judge — Ex- 
 ])loits of Ehud — Barak Defeats Sisera — Gideon's 
 Victory — Eli, High Priest — Wickedness of his 
 Sons — Birth of Samson — His Ex])loits and Death 
 — Birth of Samuel — His Call to the Prophetic 
 Office — Defeat of Israel by the Philistines — C'ap- 
 ture of the Ark — Death of P'li — Samuel Judge of 
 Israel — His Authority — The Israelites Demand a 
 King— Samuel's ^\'arning — Saul Chosen King of 
 Israel. 
 
 y^^ T the expiration of the thirty days 
 of mourning for Moses — precisely 
 forty years from the time of their 
 departure from Egypt — the Israel- 
 ites broke up their camp on the 
 plains of Moab, and moved to- 
 wards the Jordan, under the leadership of i people 
 Joshua. The column was 
 headed by the priests bear- 
 ing the Ark of the Covenant. 
 The Jordan was swollen with 
 the spring freshets, and was 
 too high to be forded. As 
 the priests stepped into the 
 stream, bearing the sacred 
 ark, the waters were miracu- 
 lously divided, as the Red 
 Sea had been, and a broad 
 path was opened along which 
 the host passed to the western 
 shore of the river and en- 
 tered Palestine (April, b. c. 
 1451). That night the Israel- 
 ites encamped at Gilgal, ou 
 the plains of Jericho. Here 
 the supply of manna ceased, 
 and from this time the people 
 lived upon the products of 
 the country they had come 
 to conquer. 
 
 It will be well to glance at 
 the character of the people 
 against whom the arms of 
 Israel were now to be turned. 
 During the patriarchal 
 period, the Promised Land 
 was occupied by a niunber 
 of tribes of Canaanitish oi'i- 
 gin, descendants of Canaan, 
 
 'the fourth son of Ham. The word I "IV. The Amorites, 'mountaineers,' a 
 Canaanite properly signifies loiu, and was | warlike tribe, occupied first the barrier 
 
 EMBLEMS ON THE STANDARDS OF THE TRIBES. 
 
68 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 heights west of the Dead Sea, at the same j by the Philistines, a strong and warhke 
 place which afterwards bore the name i nation, concerning Avhose origni authorities 
 of En-gedi, stretching westward towards \ differ, some claiming for them a Hamitic 
 Hebrout At the time of the conquest thev and others a Semitic descent. It seems 
 had crossed the Jordan and occupied the , most probable that they were descendants 
 rich tract boumled by the Jabbok on the of Ham. They are supposed, by those who 
 north and the Arnon on the south, the favor the latter view, to have come into 
 
 Palestine from Egypt ; the 
 advocates of their Semitic 
 origin, on the other hand, re- 
 gard them as having crossed 
 over from the island of Crete. 
 They are believed to have 
 come into Canaan before the 
 days of Abraham, and during 
 his sojourn in that country they 
 were a pastoral tribe in the 
 neighborhood of Gerar. Dur- 
 ing the patriarchal period and 
 the residence of Israel in 
 Egypt, the Philistines aban- 
 their nomadic habits, and grew 
 ])erinaiient and powerful nation. 
 They settled in the fertile plain which 
 bordered the sea-coast, and which was 
 in consequence called the Plain of Phi- 
 listia. The immense fertility of this plain 
 was the secret of their wealth and pros- 
 2)erity. In times of scarcity and famine 
 
 >HEKEL OV Till': S-VXCTIAKV. 
 
 Jordan on the west, and the wilderness on 
 the east. 
 
 " V. The HivUes are lirst named at the 
 time of Jacob's return to the Holy Land, 
 where they occupied Shechem. At the 
 time of the compiest by Joshua, they were 
 living on the northern confines of Western 
 Palestine. 
 
 " VI. The Jcbii'^ites, a mountain tribe, 
 occupying Jebus (Jerusalem), where they 
 continued to dwell with the children of 
 Judah and Benjamin to a late date. 
 
 " VII. The it'ir<jasitcti, whose position is 
 quite uncertain." * 
 
 During the sojourn of the Israelites in 
 Egyi^t, several important changes took 
 place in the character and location of the 
 inhabitants of Palestine. The maritime 
 nation of Plnvnicia, lying immediately upon 
 the north of Palestine, had grown up silently 
 and rai)idly, and had become the most en- 
 lightened and the wealthiest community of 
 the ancient world. Phieuicia had not 
 attained its greatest point of prosperity and 
 })ower at the time of the conquest of Pales- 
 tine by the Israelites, and did not reach it 
 until "about lOlO B. c. At the time of 
 Israel's entry into Palestine, the Phoeni- 
 cians, whose country lay along the northern 
 sea-coast, and was included within the limits 
 of the heritage of the tribes, had secured a 
 firm hold ujx)!! their territory, and were in ! "1 
 a condititm to defend it stubbornly against 
 the new-comers. 
 
 The sea-board of the Holy Land proper, 
 on the coast south of PhaMiicia, was held 
 
 doned 
 int(^ a 
 
 PKOMONTORY AND CONVENT OF MOUNT CARMEL. 
 
 « Dr. Will. Smith. 
 
 all the neighboring nations looked to them 
 'or bread. The low country which they 
 inhabited was favorable to their growth as 
 a military power, as it enabled them to 
 move their troops with ease and rapidity, 
 and admitted of the mananivres of war 
 chariots, " the artillery of the ancients," in 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 
 
 09 
 
 which they were always very strong. They 
 are believed also to have possessed a navy, 
 as they are several times mentioned hy pro- 
 fane historians in accounts of naval exi)edi- 
 
 of Israel. The Land of Possession ex- 
 tended only from Dan, on the north, to 
 Beersheha, on tlie south. 
 
 As regards the laud itself, it was in many 
 respects a remarkable country. It is sin- 
 gularly disproportioned in size to its im- 
 portance in history. Palestine is a small 
 territory, about as large as the principality 
 of Wales, or the State of New Jersey. Its 
 extreme length from north to soutli is about 
 180 miles, and its average breadth al)()ut 
 forty-five miles, giving it an area of about 
 8,000 square miles. It lies between latitude 
 ;]0° 40' and 38° 42' north, and longitude 
 33° 4ry and 35° 48' east. It is bounded 
 on the north l)y Syria, on the east by the 
 Jordan and the country now knoAvn as the 
 Hauran, on the south by the Desert of Et 
 Till, and on the west by the Mediterranean. 
 It lies in Western Asia, to the north of 
 Egypt, and to the east and north of Arabia. 
 
 It is essentially a mountainous country. 
 It possesses no independent mountain 
 ranges, and is sui'passed by other lands in 
 the height and grandeur of its mountains ; 
 "but every part of the highland is in 
 greater or less undulation." The mountain 
 region occupies the centre of the couutiy, 
 and is bordered on each side, both on the 
 east and on the west, by lowlands, extend- 
 ing from the foot of the uplands to the 
 boundaries of Palestine. On the west this 
 
 SCENE ON THE JORDAN. 
 
 tions and battles. Gaza and Askelon were 
 seaports. Numerous well-fortified cities 
 were built by the Philistines in the ])lain, 
 the undulating character of which offered 
 numy admirable sites for such strongholds. 
 Thus the two most prominent nations 
 occupying Palestine at the time of the con- 
 quest by the Israel- 
 ites were, the Phoe- 
 
 nicians, on the 4'^;^^ 
 
 n rt h , and the -^-^ ^^ 
 
 Piiilistines, on the 
 south ; for it will be "°" 
 
 remendtered that 
 the Land of Promise 
 exten<led from the 
 Arabian Desert to 
 the jNIediterranean, 
 and from the Desert 
 of Sinai to " the 
 entering in of 
 Hamath," the name 
 given in Scripture 
 to the low range 
 of hills which forms 
 the water-sheds be- 
 tween the Orontes 
 and the Litany. 
 The northern part, 
 
 or Phwnicia, was never occupied by the ' lowland spreads out into the two great 
 Israelites. The Philistine plain was a | j)lains of Philistia and Sharon, which ex- 
 
 
 •>a.^, -^ . ,'-u^.a_f 
 
 SK.\ OF CiAl.U.KK, I'KOM TUli N'OUTII WK.ST tOAST. 
 
 source of constant contention, and was 
 rarely ever a secure and peaceful possession 
 
 tend from tlie foot of the mountains to the 
 i sea. On the east the mountains are bor- 
 
70 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dered by the remarkable depression of the 
 Jordan Valley, -which is continued by the 
 still more remarkable depression of the 
 Dead 8ea and by the Ghor. " The slopes 
 or cliifs which form, as it were, the retain- 
 ing walls of this depression are furrowed 
 and cleft by the torrent beds which dis- 
 charge the waters of the hills, and tbrm the 
 means of communication between the upper 
 and lower levels. These three features — 
 the mountains, the plains, aud the torrent 
 beds — make up the principal physical 
 characteristics of the Holy Laud." 
 
 battle-field of Palestine. North of this 
 plain the mountains are met again, first in 
 the low hills of Galilee, and rising higher 
 until Hermon aud the Lebanons are 
 reached. The mountains once more push 
 their way out to the sea, and terminate in 
 the white headland of Ras Nakhiira. North 
 of this is the ancient Phcenicia. 
 
 The mountainous region has a generally 
 uniform height along its entire course, 
 averaging from 1,500 to 1,800 feet above the 
 level of the Mediterranean Sea. " It can 
 hardly be denominated a plateau," says 
 
 THE FALL OF JEKICHO. 
 
 A little more than half way up the coast, 
 the plain is suddenly broken by a bold 
 spur of the mountain range, which leaves 
 the central mass and runs abruptly to the 
 northwest to the sea, terminating there in 
 the magnificent promontory of Mount Car- 
 mel, which is the name of the entire spur 
 or ridge. North of Carmel the plain be- 
 gins again, and this time pushes back the 
 mountains and extends entirely across 
 Palestine to the Jordan Valley. This is 
 the plain of Esdraelon, or Jezreel, the great 
 
 Dr. Smith, " yet so evenly is the general 
 level preserved, and so thickly do the hills 
 stand behind and between one another, that 
 when seen from the coast or the western 
 part of the maritime plain, it has quite the 
 appearance of a wall." This appearance 
 of monotony, however, is broken at inter- 
 vals by greater elevations, which form the 
 prominent features of the landscape. The 
 water- shed of the country lies between these 
 highest points, and on either hand the 
 numerous torrent beds descend to the 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 
 
 71 
 
 Jordiiii Valley on the east, and the Medi- 
 terranean Sea on the west. The eastern 
 valleys are very steep and rugged, especially 
 in the southern and central portions of the 
 country ; but those on the west slope more 
 gradually. The level of the maritime plain 
 being higher than that of the Jordan Val- 
 ley, gives them a more gradual descent, and 
 this is made easier by the greater distance 
 intervening between the mountains and the 
 sea than between the mountains and the 
 Jordan. As upon the eastern side, so upon 
 the western, the valleys or wadies form the 
 only means of communication between the 
 plains and the mountains. All the roads 
 from the borders to the interior lie along 
 these valleys. These mountain passes, for 
 such they are, constitute a peculiar feature 
 of Palestine, and in ancient times were of 
 the gi-eatest importance to it. Being diffi- 
 cult, they presented very great obstacles to 
 an armed force encumbered with a camp 
 train or baggage. Though the western 
 passes were easier than those of the eastern 
 border, they were still difficult, and ren- 
 dered it no slight task for an enemy to enter 
 the Isi'aelitish territory. The Israelites, 
 secure in their mountain fastness, were 
 often unmolested, while the cities of the 
 plain below them were taken and retaken 
 by the contending forces of Egypt and 
 Asia. AVhile the plain of Esdraelon be- 
 came the great battle-field of Palestine, the 
 mountains were comparatively exempt from 
 war. 
 
 The Jordan formed the eastern boundary 
 of the Promised Land. It is one of the 
 most remarkable rivers in the world. Ris- 
 ing on the slopes of Mount Hermon it flows 
 through an extraordinary depression, known 
 as the Jordan Valley, and passing through 
 Lake Huleh and the Lake of Tiberias, or 
 Sea of Galilee, finally em])ties into the Dead 
 Sea. Its source is 1,700 feet above the level 
 of the Mediterranean ; its mouth is 1,317 
 feet below the level of that sea, making the 
 total descent of the river 3,017 feet. The 
 length of the river is 200 miles ; the dis- 
 tance in a straight line is sixty miles. The 
 Jordan was never navigable, and in ancient 
 times was passed only by its fords. It was 
 not until the Roman conquest that bridges 
 w^ere thrown over it. No cities stood on its 
 banks. Jericho and the other towns were 
 located at some distance back from the 
 river. 
 
 The first task devolving upon the Israel- 
 ites after their entrance into Palestine was 
 
 the capture of the strong city of Jericho, 
 which stood immediately in front of their 
 place of crossing the river, and commanded 
 the Jordan Valley. As the Israelites pos- 
 sessed uo means of laying siege to the 
 city, God came to their assistance ; the walls 
 of "the town were thrown down in a miracu- 
 lous manner, and the Israelites entering 
 over the ruined fortifications, put the people 
 to the sword and destroyed the city. Only 
 one family, that of " Rahab the harlot," was 
 exempted from the genei-al massacre. She 
 had received and befriended the spies which 
 Joshua had sent into the city before its fall, 
 and they had promised protection to her 
 and her household. She subsequently be- 
 came the wife of one of the spies, and was 
 the ancestress of David. Advancing up the 
 Jordan Valley, Joshua turned to the left 
 and captured the stronghold of Ai, near 
 Bethel, by stratagem, and moving rapidly 
 to Shechcm carried that place without a 
 blow, and planted himself in the heart of 
 the country. 
 
 The Canaanitish tribes now recovered 
 from the surprise and dismay into which 
 the rapid and successful movements of the 
 Israelites had thrown them, and formed 
 a general coalition against the invaders. 
 Joshua defeated the combined forces of the 
 Canaanitish kings in the great battle of 
 Bethhoron, in which the day is said to have 
 been miraculously prolonged in order to 
 give the Israelites an opportunity to com- 
 plete their victory. The kings of the five 
 Canaanitish nations were made prisoners, 
 and were hanged. This victory was fol- 
 low'ed by the capture by the Israelites, in 
 quick succession, of the cities of Makkedah, 
 Libnah, Lachish, Eglon, Hebron, and 
 Debir, the inhabitants of which were exter- 
 minated. These successes made the Israel- 
 ites masters of Southern Palestine. 
 
 A second coalition was now formed 
 against the Hebrews, and consisted of all 
 the tribes of Northern Palestine. Its leader 
 was Jabin, king of Hazor. Joshua routed 
 this force on the banks of Lake Merom 
 (now Lake Huleh), and Jabin was made 
 prisoner and ])ut to death. A number of 
 the cities of Northern Palestine now fell 
 into the hands of the Israelites, and their 
 inhabitants were killed. The Anakim of 
 Southern Palestine were then attacked and 
 exterminated. Six or seven years were spent 
 in these conquests, and at length the Israel- 
 ites were masters of the Promised Land 
 from the foot of Hermon to the borders of 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 
 
 73 
 
 Edom. The Canaanites still held a number 
 of their strongest cities in the midst of the 
 Hebrew conquests ; the Philistines held the 
 sea-coast, and Phoeuicia had uot as yet been 
 molested. 
 
 Joshua was now very old, and decided to 
 suspend his conquests, and devote his re- 
 maining years to establishing his people 
 firmly in the lands they had won. He was 
 now commanded to divide the Promised 
 Land by lot among the nine tribes and a 
 half; the two and a half having received 
 their allotment east of the Jordan from 
 jNIoses, and the Levites having no special 
 territory assigned them. The withdrawal 
 of the Levites from the number of the tribes 
 to devote themselves especially to the ser- 
 vice of God, was made up by the division 
 of the tribe of Joseph into the two tribes of 
 Ephraim and Manasseh. The territory 
 divided among the tribes included many 
 ])laces still occupied by the Canaanites and 
 Philistines, and Joshua left to each tribe 
 the task of reducing such places within its 
 limits. 
 
 The tribe of Judah received the South 
 Country. Its southern border touched the 
 Edomite territory and the desert, and its 
 northern border was a line drawn from the 
 mouth of the Jordan westward to the sea. 
 This line passed on the south side of Jeru- 
 salem, which was thus in the territory of 
 Benjamin. The eastern border was the 
 Jordan, the western the Mediterranean. A 
 large part of the Philistine plain was in- 
 cluded in this allotment. The children of 
 Joseph were given the central portion of 
 the country, from thfe Jordan to the Medi- 
 terranean. Of this region Ephraim had 
 the southern part. His southern border 
 "was drawn from the Jordan along the 
 north side of the plain of Jericho to Bethel, 
 whence it took a bend southward to Beth- 
 horon, and thence up again to the sea near 
 Joppa. The northern border j)assed west 
 from the Jordan opposite the mouth of the 
 Jabbok, past Michmethah to the mouth of 
 the river Kanah." It included the sacred 
 valley of Shechem and the maritime plain 
 of Sharon. The half-tribe of Manasseh 
 iield the region north of Ephraim as far as 
 the range of Mount Carmel and the plain 
 of Esdraelon, from the Jordan to the sea. 
 Benjamin was given the hilly region north 
 of Judah, and south of Ephraim, from the 
 Jordan as far west as Jerusalem. Dan was 
 given the region between Ephraim in the 
 north, Judah on the south, Benjamin on 
 
 the east, and the Mediterranean on the 
 west. This region was almost entirely oc- 
 cupied by the Philistines. For this reason, 
 and because their territory was too small 
 for them, a part of the people of Dan 
 marched northward, and took the city of 
 Leshem or Laish, at the sources of the Jor- 
 dan. They named the city Dan, and ac- 
 quired considerable territory aronnd it. It 
 became the great northern landmark of the 
 Promised Land, as Beersheba was the south- 
 ern, the phrase "from Dan even to Beer- 
 sheba " being commonly used to describe 
 the whole extent of the land from north to 
 south. The tribe of Simeon was given an 
 inheritance out of Judah's portion, and was 
 settled in the southwestern part of the mari- 
 time plain. Their frontier bordered the 
 desert from Beersheba to Gaza ; and their 
 sea-coast extended as far north as Askelon. 
 Issachar received the great and fertile val- 
 ley of Jezreel, sometimes called the plain 
 of Esdraelon. Zebulun was given the moun- 
 tain range which borders the plain of Es- 
 draelen on the north, and which in later 
 times formed the upper part of Lower Gali- 
 lee. He had a small strip of sea-coast north 
 of Mount C'armel, and his eastern border 
 included the Sea of Chinneroth (Sea of 
 Galilee). Asher was given the plain along 
 the Mediterranean from Mount Carmel, 
 northward, including a great part of Phoe- 
 nicia. The Israelites never attempted to 
 gain the Phoenician part of their inherit- 
 ance, and Asher's northern frontier was 
 really the Phoenician border south of Tyre. 
 His territory extended eastward about half- 
 way across Palestine. Kuphtali was given 
 the country north of Zebulun to Mount 
 Herraon and between the Jordan and the 
 dominions of Asher. 
 
 The two tribes and a half belonging east 
 of the Jordan were dismissed with their 
 share of the spoils, and with blessings, and 
 returned to their homes beyond the river. 
 
 Feeling that his end was close at hand, 
 Joshua assembled representatives of the 
 whole nation at Shechem, and after rehears- 
 ing the great goodness of God to them, 
 urged them to remain faithful to the wor- 
 ship of Jehovah and the law of Moses, and 
 to continue the war against the Canaanites 
 until they had finally driven them from the 
 entire land. The crimes of the Canaanitish 
 race had caused the Almighty to devote it 
 to extermination, and the Israelites were 
 specially charged with this mission. Joshua 
 reminded them of this, and predicted great 
 
74 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 misfortunes for his people if they abandoned 
 their faith, or neglected to execute God's 
 purposes with respect to the Canaauites, or 
 mixed with tliem. The people solemnly- 
 promised to obey him, and renewed their 
 covenant with God. Joshua then set up in 
 the place of the assembly a monumental 
 stone as a witness of this vow of the nation. 
 
 Soon after this, Joshua died at the age 
 of one hundred and twenty-seven years. He 
 had been the ruler of Israel for twenty-five 
 years, and was greatly mourned by the 
 nation. 
 
 Unfortunately for his people, Joshua 
 failed to name a successor, and the nation 
 was left without a head. As long as the 
 elders who had been his contemporaries 
 lived, the people retained their reverence 
 for the law and were faithful to the worship 
 of Jehovah. When these died, divisions 
 and dissensions began to creep in amoug 
 the tribes, alienating them from each other. 
 No det':nnined effort was made to conquer 
 the cities which remained in the hands of 
 the Canaauites. The northern tribes began 
 to manifest an indifference to the national 
 ties, and made the best terms they could 
 with the Canaauites in their midst. The 
 efforts of the Israelites to conquer the coun- 
 try of the Philistines were repulsed, and as 
 a rule the coast cities remained in the pos- 
 session of that warlike people. The inter- 
 course which sprang up between the Israel- 
 ites and the Canaauites was quick to produce 
 evil consequences. The great religious cen- 
 tre of the nation was Shiloh, where the 
 Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant 
 had been set up. Now the Altar of God 
 began to be more and more neglected, and 
 the idolatrous worship of the Canaauites 
 was introduced among the people. Quarrels 
 broke out among the tribes, in one of which 
 the tribe of Benjamin was nearly extermi- 
 nated by the other tribes. The state of 
 affairs is strikingly described in the follow- 
 ing words from the Book of Judges (xxi. 
 25) : " There was no king in Israel ; every 
 man did that which was right in his own 
 eyes." There was no central political au- 
 thority, and although God was, by the very 
 fundamental principle of the Hebrew sys- 
 tem, the King of his people, yet the spread 
 of idolatry now became so great that the 
 moral restraints which had bound the 
 Hebrews to their sovereign were almost 
 unheeded. The consequence was division 
 and weakness. The Canaauites and Philis- 
 tines were quick to perceive this, and en- 
 
 deavored to avenge their past grievances 
 by bringing the Israelites under their yoke. 
 God delivered the Israelites into the power 
 of their enemies, who oppressed them cruelly, 
 and so unconsciously executed the Divine 
 justice upon the sinful nation. When the 
 sufferings of the Israelites became intoler- 
 able, they awoke to a sense of their crimes, 
 and in peniteutial sorrow cried to God for 
 aid, and he heard them, and raised up 
 deliverers for them in the persons of heroes 
 who defeated their oppressors and re-estab- 
 lished their independence. As soon as the 
 danger was over, however, the Israelites 
 sank back into idolatry, and were roused 
 from it only by fresh subjugation. 
 
 The deliverers thus raised up by God 
 were called Judges. Having rescued the 
 people from their enemies, they became 
 their governors or rulers, discharging their 
 functions in accordance with the expression 
 of the Divine will, which was ascertained 
 in a presci'ibed manner. They led the 
 armies in battle, and directed the public 
 affairs in peace. The judge neither held 
 the position nor exercised the power of a 
 king; his office was but a little elevated 
 above the mass of the people. The positi(m 
 was not hereditary, the judge being super- 
 uaturally designated by revelation to him- 
 self or to others. The exercise of his 
 powers depended upon the consent of the 
 people ; and his authority did not always 
 extend over the whole nation. Once ap- 
 pointed, he retained his office for life; but 
 his successor was not always chosen imme- 
 diately upon his death. Intervals, some- 
 times very long, ocfcurred between the 
 judges, in w'hich the nation was either 
 without a ruler, or subject to some foreign 
 conqueror. Thei'e were fifteen judges in 
 all, whose names are given in the Bible. 
 The period of the judges extended through 
 several centuries and its chronology is uncer- 
 tain. The dates commonly assigned for the 
 events of this period cannot be trusted. 
 
 During the lifetime of the generation 
 which followed the conquest, a king of 
 Western Mesopotamia, called in the Bible 
 Chushan-rishathaim, pushed his dominions 
 from the Euphrates to the borders of Ca- 
 naan, reduced the Israelites to a state of 
 dependence, and made them tributary to 
 him for eight years, during which time he 
 grievously oppressed them. At length God 
 raised up Othniel, the nephew of Caleb, the 
 contemporary of Moses and Joshua; he 
 defeated the invaders and restored the in- 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 
 
 /o 
 
 dependence of his countrymen, who re 
 mained unmolested for forty years. 
 
 At the end of this time Eglon, King of 
 Moab, who had made an alliance with the 
 Ammonites and the Amalekites, crossed 
 the Jordan, defeated the Israelites, and 
 established himself near the site of Jericho. 
 He kept the Israelites in bondage for eigh- 
 teen years. At the end of this time, Ehud, 
 a Benjamite. succeeded in assassinating 
 Eglon as he was presenting to the king the 
 tribute required of his tribe. He made his 
 escape, rallied the Israelites, and drove the 
 Moabites beyond the Jordan, inflicting upon 
 them a loss of 10,000 men. This success 
 won for parts of Palestine a rest of twenty- 
 four years; but this repose did not extend 
 to the whole country. 
 
 Shamgar is mentioned in the Bible as the 
 third of the judges. At the head of a body 
 of laborers armed only with agricultural 
 implements, he defeated a force of Philis- 
 tines, himself slaying 600 of them with an 
 ox-goad. 
 
 After the death of Ehud, the Israelites 
 fell into sin again, and God delivered them 
 into the power of the Cauaanite Jabin, 
 King of Hazor, a descendant of the mon- 
 arch whom Joshua had defeated, and like 
 him the head of a great confederacy in 
 Northern Palestine. He had 900 chariots 
 of iron iu his army, which was commanded 
 by a great soldier named Sisera. He over- 
 ran Northern Palestine and reduced it to 
 slavery. This bondage continued for twenty 
 years. 
 
 Deborah, a prophetess, at this time 
 administered justice to the Israelites under 
 a palm grove between Ramali and Bethel, 
 iu Mount Ephraim. Smarting under the 
 wrongs of her people, she summoned Barak, 
 the sou of Abinoara, of Kedesh, in Naph- 
 tali, to head an effort for the freedom of the 
 nation, promising him that God would give 
 him the victory. Barak responded promptly, 
 stipulating that Deborah should accompany 
 him. She consented, but warned him that 
 he would reap no honor from the battle, as 
 God would sell Sisera into the hands of a 
 woman. Barak collected the forces of 
 Naphtali, Zebulun, and Issachar, with a 
 few men from Ephraim, Manasseh, and 
 Benjamin, in all about 10.000 men, and 
 took position on Mount Tabor. Sisera at 
 once marched to meet him with the army 
 of Jabin. Barak attacked him on the 
 banks of the Kishon, and, aided by a fierce 
 storm which overflowed the stream and 
 
 destroyed a part of the Canaanitish army, 
 routed him with terrible loss. Sisera fled 
 away on foot, and took shelter in the tent 
 of Heber the Kenite, in Northern Palestine. 
 Jael, the wife of Heber, killed him in his 
 sleep, and so fulfilled Deborah's prophecy. 
 Barak took the city of Harosheth, the home 
 of Sisera, and afterwards Hazor, the capital 
 of Jabin, and killed the king. Receiving 
 aid from the other tribes he continued the 
 war until he had freed the whole couutrv. 
 These triumphs won a period of forty years 
 of peace for the tribes that had taken part 
 in the war. 
 
 The next punishment which the Israelites 
 experienced was of a more severe nature. 
 Their idolatry became so great that God 
 delivered them into the power of the Midi- 
 
 JAEL KILLING SLSEKA. 
 
 anites, who, with the Amalekites and the 
 Bedawin tribes of the East, made repeated 
 forays into Palestine, and ravaged the 
 country as far as Gaza, carrying ofl^ evei-y- 
 thing they could transport, and destroying 
 what they could not take with them. The 
 Israelites Avere obliged to hide with their 
 cattle and crops in caves in the earth, and 
 to dwell in fortified cities. This state of 
 affliirs continued for seven years, and at 
 length the people, humble and repentant, 
 cried to God for deliverance. He heard 
 them, and summoned Gideon, the son of 
 Joash, of the tribe of Manasseh, to lead the 
 movement, and encouraged him with a 
 promise of success. Gideon overthrew the 
 
76 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 altar of Baal aud assembled a force of 
 32,000 Israelites. The Midiauites and their 
 allies, under their most famous chieftains, 
 at once took the field to crush the insurrec- 
 tion. Gideon took position on the heights 
 of Mount Gilboa, while the Arab tribes 
 held the valley of Jezreel below. Confident 
 of success, Gideon gave leave to all his men 
 who wished to depart to do so, aud 22,000 
 at once slunk away, leaving only 10,000 to 
 meet the enemy. It was not God's purpose 
 to employ even this force, however, for he 
 wished to show the Israelites that their 
 salvation was from him. He ordered 
 Gideon to select 300 warriors by a given 
 test, and to hold the rest of his force as a 
 reserve. The 300 chosen men were divided 
 by Gideon into tliree bands, and with these 
 he surprised the Midianite carap by night. 
 His men were armed with trumpets aud 
 with torches enclosed in pitchers of earthen- 
 ware. At a given signal each man blew 
 his trumpet, broke his pitcher, aud disclosed 
 his torch, and shouted, " The Sword of the 
 Lord and of Gideon ! " Tiie enemy aroused 
 from sleep, were seized with a panic, turned 
 their swords upon each other, and abandon- 
 ing their camp fled towards the Jordan. 
 They were pursued by the remainder of 
 Gideon's army, and were exterminated. 
 Scarcely a man escaped over the Jordan. 
 This great victory completely broke the 
 ^Midianite power, and freed Israel. The 
 grateful Israelites ofl^ered to make Gideon 
 their king, but he refused to accept the 
 crown, and ruled them many years as a 
 judge. His rule was not altogether benefi- 
 cial to the Israelites, as idolatry was almost 
 openly encouraged by him. After his death 
 one of his sons, named Abimelech, made 
 himself King of Shechcm and the neighbor- 
 ing country. His reign lasted but three 
 years, aud he was killed by a woman while 
 besieging a town that had refused to recog- 
 nize his autliority. 
 
 The next judge was Tola, who ruled for 
 twenty-three years. He was succeeded by 
 Jair, the Gileadite, whose rule extended 
 over twenty-two years. Their administra- 
 tions were uneventful. We know, how- 
 ever, that idolatry became so prevalent in 
 Israel daring this period that God again 
 gave the people into the hands of their ene- 
 mies. The Ammonites subdued the tribes 
 east of the Jordan, and held them in sub- 
 jection for eighteen years. During this 
 period they frequently crossed the Jordan 
 aud ravaged the land of Judah, Benjamin 
 
 and Ephraim. The people east of the 
 Jordan chose as their leader a man named 
 Jephthah, the chief of an outlaw band occu- 
 pying iSIount Gilead. He defeated the 
 Ammonites in a great battle, and freed the 
 country. He made a vow at the outset of 
 his campaign that, if God would give him 
 the victory, he would sacrifice to Jehovah 
 the first living being which he should meet 
 at the door of his house on his return home. 
 Returning home the first one that met 
 him was his daughter. Jephthah felt him- 
 self bound by his vow, and his daughter 
 offered no resistance. She asked only for a 
 respite of two months, which was granted 
 to her, and at the end of this time Jephthah 
 fulfilled his vow and sacrificed his child. 
 This sacrifice was directly opposed to the 
 law of Moses, and shows how far the Israel- 
 ites east of the Jordan had fallen away from 
 the precepts of that law. Jephthah judged 
 Israel for six years after his victory, and 
 was buried in Mount Gilead. 
 
 Ibzan, a Zebulunite, was the next judge. 
 He encouraged a greater degree of inter- 
 course with the surrounding nations by 
 marrying his children to foreign husbands 
 and wives. He judged Israel seven years. 
 He was succeeded by Elon, another Zebu- 
 lunite, whose term lasted ten years, and 
 was uneventful. The next judge was Ab- 
 don, the son of Hillel, the Pirathonite. 
 He filled an uneventful term of eight j^ears. 
 He is believed by some writers to be iden- 
 tical with Bedan, who is enumerated by 
 Samuel among the judges. 
 
 The successes of the judges seem to have 
 broken the power of the Canaanites, for we 
 do not hear of them any more. The sins 
 of the Israelites were still great, however, 
 and God brought upon them a new and 
 more formidable enemy in the fierce and 
 warlike nation of the Philistines, the in- 
 habitants of the sea-coast of Southern Pales- 
 tine. They extended their power over all 
 the south of Palestine, reducing the terri- 
 tories of Simeon, Judah, Benjamin, and 
 Dan to subjection. This bondage was of a 
 very severe nature, and lasted forty years. 
 
 At this time the judge of Israel was Eli, 
 of the house of Ithamar, Aaron's youngest 
 son. AVe do not know when the high- 
 priesthood was transferred from the house 
 of Eleazar to that of Ithamar, or the reason 
 for the change, but it appears to have had 
 the divine sanction, and was only reversed 
 as a punishment for the sins of the house 
 of Eli. Eli himself was a man of sincere 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 
 
 i I 
 
 and exemplary piety. He resided at 
 Shiloh, witii the tabernacle, and his au- 
 thority was generally acknowledged by the 
 Israelites. His sons were vicious and profli- 
 gate men, whose crimes disgraced the 
 priesthood ; but Eli weakly and sinfully 
 passed them over, and allowed his sons to 
 retain their sacred offices. A prophet was 
 sent to warn him that he would be pun- 
 ished for his weakness, that his sons would 
 be killed, and that his family would lose 
 the august office they had not known how 
 
 be put upon his head. This child, when he 
 grew to manhood, was to accom])lish great 
 things for his people against the Philistines. 
 Samson came to man's estate just as the 
 oppression of the Philistines had reached its 
 severest stage. There was constant war 
 between the Israelites and their oppressors, 
 and the sturdy warriors of the tribe of Dan 
 lived in a fortified camp near Kirjath- 
 jearim. Here the "spirit of Jehovah be- 
 gan to move Samson at times." He was 
 possessed of more than mortal strength, 
 
 SAMSON'S KIDDLE. 
 
 to fill. Eli did no more than remonstrate 
 with his sons, and permitted them to con- 
 tinue in their wicked ways. 
 
 During the judgeship of Eli God raised 
 up two champions for Israel, in the persons 
 of Samson and Samuel. Samson was a 
 member of that part of the tribe of Dan 
 which dwelt to the westward of Judah. 
 His birth had been foretold by the angel 
 of God to his parents, and they had been 
 commanded to raise the child as a Nazarite, 
 to keep him from all unclean food and 
 strong drink, and not to permit a razor to 
 
 and was fearless and incapable of fatigue- 
 Conscious of his powers he determined to 
 provoke a quarrel with the Philistines; and 
 with this view asked the hand of a woman 
 of Timnath. On his way to visit her he 
 slew a lion by seizing it by the mouth and 
 tearing its jaws apart. He left the carcass 
 by the wayside, and told no one of the ex- 
 ploit. Returning that way soon after he 
 saw that a swarm of bees had taken uj) 
 their abode in the carcass. He ate of the 
 honey he found there, but told no one. At 
 his marriage feast he made use of this cir- 
 
78 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cumstance to propound a riddle to the 
 thirty youno; meu assigned him as grooms- 
 men, the riddle to be solved within the 
 week of the marriage feast, for a stake of 
 thirty tunics and thirty changes of raiment. 
 The young mea, by threatening to burn 
 Samson's wife and her family, if she re- 
 fused, induced her to ask her husband the 
 answer. Samson, who was always fatally 
 subject to the wiles of woman, weakly told 
 her, and she revealed the answer to her 
 kinsmen, who, on the appointed day, gave 
 the proper solution. Samson at once 
 saw through the trick, and, flinging 
 the treachery of the Philistines in their 
 teeth, left the city, went down to Aske- 
 lon, slew thirty men of that city, sent their 
 clothing to their fellow-countrj^men who 
 had guessed his riddle, and went back to 
 his own country. His Avife was given to 
 one of his groomsmen, and he was forbidden 
 to see her. In revenge for this wrong, he 
 burned the standing harvests of the Philis- 
 tines. They retaliated by burning his 
 wife and her father ; and he took ven- 
 geance upon them by attacking them and 
 slaying a great number of them. He then 
 took refuge in the territoiy of Judah. 
 From this time there was constant war be- 
 tween the Philistines and Samson, in which 
 the latter repeatedly displayed the most ex- 
 traordinary strength. On one occasion he 
 slew a thousand of their men with no other 
 weapon than the jaw-bone of an ass. As 
 long as he remained faithful to his Naza- 
 rite's vow he escaped every snare set for 
 him, but at length he yielded to the tempta- 
 tions to which his strong animal nature ex- 
 posed him, and was ruined. He formed a 
 tatal connection with a woman named De- 
 lilah, who lived in the valley of Sorek. Tlie 
 Philistines bribed her to betray her lover, 
 who, yielding at last to her entreaties, told 
 her the secret of his strength. As he lay 
 asleep in her arms his enemies stole upon 
 him, cut off his hair in which lay his 
 strength, and made him a prisoner. They 
 imt out his eyes, bound him in fetters, and 
 led him down to Gaza, where they forced 
 him to perform the menial office of grinding 
 the prison mill. God had punished him 
 sorely, but had not deserted him, and as his 
 hair grew his strength returned. Shortly 
 after this the lords and chief people of the 
 Philistines held a great feast in the temple 
 of Dagon, at Gaza, and brought Samson 
 out and compelled him to amuse them with 
 his feats of strength. They then allowed 
 
 him to rest between the two pillars which 
 supported the roof of the court, which, as 
 well as the court itself, was crowded with 
 people to the number of 3,000. With a 
 wild prayer to God for strength to avenge 
 himself upon his enemies, the blind cham- 
 pion grasped the two pillars in his arms and 
 bore upon them with all his might. They 
 yielded and the house fell, killing Samson 
 and all the assembly. " So the dead which 
 he slew at his death were more than they 
 which he slew in his life." His kinsmen took 
 up his body, and buried it with his fathers. 
 Samson is usually reckoned as the thir- 
 teenth of the judges, but his authority does 
 not appear to have extended beyond his 
 own tribe. 
 
 Samuel, the fifteenth and last of the 
 judges, was, like Samson, a child of prom- 
 ise. His father, Elkanah, was a descendant 
 of Korah, and a member of the tribe of 
 Levi. He was settled at Ramathaim- 
 zophim. He had two wives, a rare thing 
 in a private person of that day. One of 
 these, Peninnah, was the mother of several 
 children ; but the other, Hannah, the fa- 
 vorite wife, was barren. The family went 
 up regularly to Shiloh to observe the festi- 
 vals of their religion. As they feasted 
 upon the free-will offering Elkanah be- 
 stowed upon Hannah a mark of his affec- 
 tion which aroused the jealousy of Penin- 
 nah, who reproached the barren woman 
 with her condition in such bitter terms that 
 Hannah left the feast in tears. In her 
 bitterness of heart she went and stood in 
 the door of the tabernacle, and prayed 
 silently for a sou, whom she vowed to de- 
 vote to Jehovah as a Nazarite. Eli, the 
 high priest, saw her lips moving, and, sup- 
 posing she had gotten drunk at the feast, 
 reproved her severely. She assured him 
 that she was a woman of sorrowful heart, 
 who w^as pouring out her griefs before the 
 Lord. Eli spoke more gently to her then, 
 gave her his blessing, and besought God to 
 grant her prayer. She returned home in a 
 happier frame of mind, and in due time 
 Samuel was born. His mother kept him 
 till he was old enough to be separated from 
 her, and then took him to Shiloh, solemnly 
 dedicated him to the service of God, and 
 left him with the high priest. After this 
 she bore her husband three sons and two 
 daughters. Samuel grew up in the service 
 of the tabernacle, winning favor of God 
 and man. A signal proof of God's favor 
 was vouchsafed him, when quite a youth. 
 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 
 
 79 
 
 God spoke to him in the night aud told 
 him of his purpose to destroy the house of 
 Eli, aud take the priesthood from it as a 
 puuishraeut for the sins of his sons aud his 
 failure to exercise his authority over them. 
 From that day Samuel was a prophet of God. 
 Xoue of his predictious failed, and his fame 
 and his influence over the people increased 
 with his growth. 
 
 The favor shown to Samuel by God ap- 
 pears to have encouraged the Israelites to 
 believe that Jehovah would help them to 
 
 of the disaster was brought to Eli as he 
 sat at the gates of the tabernacle. When 
 he heard of the loss of the Ark he fell back- 
 ward from his seat, broke his neck aud ex- 
 pired. 
 
 The Philistines carried the Ark in tri- 
 umph into their own country, but God in- 
 flicted such a severe plague upon them that 
 they sent it away to Bethshemesh. The 
 curiosity of the men of Bethshemesh in- 
 duced them to open the Ark and look into 
 it. God punished this sacrilege by visit- 
 
 SAMSON GRINDING THE PRISON MILL AT GAZA. 
 
 throw ofl^the Philistine yoke. They there- 
 fore took up arms, but were defeated in 
 the highlands of Benjamin, not fiir north 
 of Jerusalem. Hophni and Phinehas, the 
 sous of Eli, brought the Ark of the Cove- 
 nant from Shiloh to the Israelitish camp, 
 believing that this sacrilegious use of the 
 Ark would win them the victory. God 
 punished the sacrilege by allowing the Phi- 
 listines to defeat the Israelites, inflicting upon 
 them a loss of 30,000 men. Hophni and 
 Phinehas were slain, and the Ark of God 
 was captured by the Philistines. The news 
 
 ing 50,070 of them with death. Appalled 
 at this judgment, the survivors sent for the 
 men of Kirjath-jearim to take away the 
 Ark. These took it to their own city, and 
 it remained in the house of Aminidab, a 
 Levite, until David carried it up to Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Samuel succeeded Eli in his office of 
 judge, and his authority was generally ac- 
 knowledged. For twenty years after the 
 loss of the Ark, the Israelites were held 
 down with a heavy hand by the Philistines. 
 At the end of this time Samuel summoned 
 
80 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the nation to make a final effort for free- 
 dom, and to })repare them for it called a 
 solemn assembly at Mizpeh, where, with 
 fasting and repentance, the people renewed 
 their broken covenant with God. Hearing 
 of this assembly, the Philistines sent a 
 strong army to break it up. Samuel en- 
 couraged the peoj)le to attack this force, 
 and the efforts of the Israelites were assisted 
 by a violent storm from heaven, which 
 destroyed a large part of the hostile army. 
 
 government had been the source of tlieir 
 past calamities, and feared that it would 
 expose them to similar evils in the future, 
 forgetting that the true cause of their suf- 
 ferings had been their infidelity to the 
 worship and rule of Jehovah. They longed 
 for a king, believing that with such a 
 leader they could defeat their foes and se- 
 cure peace and prosperity at home. In 
 vain Samuel remonstrated with them, re- 
 minding them that God was their king, and 
 
 DEDICATION OF SAMUEL. 
 
 The Philistines fled, and were pursued with 
 great slaughter. 
 
 Tliis victory broke the Philistine power 
 in Israel, and firmly established the author- 
 ity of Samuel. He made circuits of the 
 country, administering justice among the 
 people, and a]ipointed his sons, Joel and 
 Abiah, his assistants. Under the rule of 
 Samuel the Israelites enjoyed the most 
 ])eaceful period they had ever known. 
 They were not satisfied, however. They 
 believed that their lack of a strong central 
 
 that in choosing an earthly sovereign they 
 would be guilty of the sin of rejecting Je- 
 hovah, They were deaf to all his argu- 
 ments and entreaties, meeting all with the 
 declaration, " We lolll have a king over 
 us." God pitied the weakness of his peo- 
 ple, and punished them by granting their 
 demand. Samuel was commanded to com- 
 ply Avith the request of the people, and in 
 accordance Avith the divine instructions 
 anointed Saul, the son of Kish, a Benjamite, 
 to be king over Israel, B. c. 1 095. 
 
THE SINGLE MONARCHY. 
 
 81 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SINGLE MONARCHY. 
 
 Character of Saul — Discontent of the Tribes — Res- 
 cue of Gilead — Saul Acknowledged by the Na- 
 tion — Saul Usurps the Sacerdotal Power — His 
 Quarrel with Samuel — Wars with the Philistines 
 and other Nations — Extermination of the Amalek- 
 ites — Samuel slays Agag — Curses Saul — Saul's 
 Madness — David Anointed to be King — Saul's 
 Fondness for David — Death of Goliath — Saul 
 Seeks to Kill David— Flight of David— Ilis Ad- 
 ventures — Saul Massacres the Priests — Battle of 
 Mount Gilboa — Death of Sanl and Jonathan — 
 David Becomes King of Jiidah — Civil AV'ar — 
 David King of all Israel — Capture of Jerusalem — 
 David's Conquests — Extent of his Empire — His 
 Civil Administration — His Sins — Ptebellions of 
 his Sons — Death of David — Accession of Solomon 
 — Splendor of his Court — Commerce of the He- 
 brews — Personal Qualities of the King — His Op- 
 pressive System — The Temple — Decline of Solo- 
 mon's Power — His Sins — His Death — Is Suc- 
 ceeded by Behoboam — Kevolt of the Northern 
 Tribes. 
 
 AUL, the new king, _^-.4 
 
 ^^ appears to have ==-- 
 
 been /«.bout forty 
 years old at the 
 time of his eleva- 
 tion to the throne. 1 
 
 He is described in the Bi- ^ 
 
 ble as a man of noble and i 
 
 commanding appearance, ^^ 
 
 " taller than any of the S 
 
 people," and so tridy regal J 
 
 in bearing that when Sara- ; 
 
 uel presented him to the ;. 
 
 people, he was hailed - 
 
 with a rapturous shout b 
 
 of " God save the king." - 
 
 He possessed all the har- 
 dihood of his race and ; 
 
 tribe, all their courage and -; 
 
 energy; but Avas impulsive s 
 
 and unstable in character, ^ 
 
 and was possessed of an k 
 
 ungovernable temper, p 
 
 which changed to madness r 
 
 in the face of opposition, fc 
 The choice of a sov- g 
 
 ereign from the smallest | 
 
 of the tribes gave great i 
 
 offence to a large part of 
 
 the nation, and it was 
 
 considered prudent by _^_^^^ 
 
 Samuel to delay the solemn ^^^^^B 
 
 public installation of Saul 
 
 until this opposition could 
 
 be overcome. At this 
 
 time Gilead, or the couu- 
 6 
 
 try east of the Jordan, was invaded by 
 Nahash, King of the Ammonites. Saul 
 promptly gathered the forces of Israel, 
 crossed the Jordan, annihilated the Am- 
 monites, and rescued Gilead, The skill and 
 brfivery which he exhibited in this cam- 
 paign completely silenced the oj)posi- 
 tion to him, and his authority was en- 
 thusiastically acknowledged by the entire 
 nation. 
 
 Samuel continued to exercise a great in- 
 fluence over the affairs of the nation. He 
 regarded the king as merely a military 
 chieftain, Avithout power to interfere with 
 the ancient constitution and laws, and very 
 different from the sovereigns of the sur- 
 rounding nations. For a while Saul ac- 
 cepted this view, and remained submissive 
 to the prophet's influence ; but his fierce 
 spirit could not long brook this control. 
 He began to resent the restraint jDut upon 
 
 THE ARK OF THE COVENANT. 
 
82 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 him by Samuel, and longed to be a king in 
 fact as well as in name. 
 
 After his solemn installation at Gilgal, 
 which took place on his return from the 
 campaign against the Ammonites, he dis- 
 missed the Israelites to their homes, and 
 kept a force of only 3,000 men in the field. 
 He retained 2,000 of these under his own 
 command, and placed the remaining 1,000 
 under his son Jonathan, a young man of 
 noble character. Jonathan surprised and 
 captured the Philistine stronghold of 
 
 summate his long contemplated intention 
 of throwing off the control of Samuel and 
 usurping the sacerdotal power. He offered 
 the sacrifice himself, thus claiming for him- 
 self priestly as well as kingly poAver. 
 Samuel arrived soon after, and at once com- 
 prehended the significance of Saul's action, 
 which he saw aimed at placing the Hebrew 
 monarchy on the same basis as those of the 
 nations around him, and giving the king 
 supreme power over the spiritual as well as 
 the civil system of the nation. He re- 
 
 SAMUEL ANOINTING DAVID. 
 
 Gibeah, in the land of Benjamin, and re- 
 lieved that tribe from a constant annoy- 
 ance. The Philistines at once put a pow- 
 erful army in the field, and Saul sum- 
 moned the forces of Israel to assemble at 
 Gilgal, at which place Samuel was to join 
 him and offer a solemn sacrifice to the Lord 
 as the opening act of the campaign. The 
 people assembled at the appointed time, but 
 Samuel did not make his appearance. Saul 
 waited seven days for him, and then, notic- 
 ing the impatience of the people, resolved 
 to take advantage of the occasion to con- 
 
 proved Saul severely for his sacrilegious act, 
 and, speaking in the name of God, told 
 him that the divine favor would be from 
 this time withdrawn from him, and that at 
 his death the royal dignity should pass to 
 another family. 
 
 The Philistine bondage had weighed 
 heavily upon the southern tribes, and they 
 had forbidden the smiths to carry on their 
 trade. The consequence was that weapons 
 were so scarce that Saul could find only 
 600 armed men in the whole assembly of 
 the people. Nevertheless he marched 
 
THE SINGLE MONARCH V. 
 
 83 
 
 northward to Michmash to meet the enemy. 
 While there, Jonathan, accompanied only 
 by his armor-bearer, surprised the camp 
 of the Philistines, who were seized with a 
 panic and turned their arms against each 
 other, and fled. Saul at once pursued, and 
 was joined by every Israelite who could 
 find arms. He was soon at the head of 
 10,000 men, and pursued the enemy to 
 Beth-aven, inflicting fearful losses upon 
 them. 
 
 The Philistines withdrew to their own 
 
 though small, was composed of veterans 
 and kept in a high state of efficiency. The 
 command of this force he intrusted to his 
 cousin Abuer, son of Ner. 
 
 Samuel was now very old, and was near 
 his end. He came to Saul one day, and 
 commanded him to undertake a war of ex- 
 termination against the Amalekites, the 
 earliest and most inveterate enemies of 
 Israel. Saul at once marched agaiust them, 
 and defeated them. He had been com- 
 manded by the prophet to destroy every- 
 
 DAVID PLAYING BEFORE SATTL. 
 
 country, and for some years made no fur- 
 ther effort against Israel. During this 
 time Saul repulsed the attacks of the Am- 
 monites, Moabites, Idumseans, and the 
 Syrians of Zobah, who attempted succes- 
 sively to invade his dominions. About the 
 same time the tribes east of the Jordan 
 conquered the nomadic Arab tribe of the 
 Hagareens and extended their territory 
 towards Damascus. Saul, knowing that 
 the safety of his kingdom would depend 
 upon its ability to resist invasion, exerted 
 himself to form a standing army, which, 
 
 thing he captured ; but in spite of this 
 brought off an immense spoil, and spared 
 Agag, the Amalekite king, in the hope of 
 obtaining a ransom from him. 
 
 Samuel met Saul at Gilgal, on his return 
 from the war, and sternly denounced his 
 disobedience to the divine command. In 
 the name of God, he pronounced a curse 
 upon him, and told him that God had re- 
 jected him from that day. At the same 
 time the prophet slew Agag, with his own 
 hand. 
 
 Samuel now departed from Saul, and the 
 
84 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTOBY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 breach between them was complete. The 
 diviue protection was withdrawn from Saul, 
 and Samuel was commanded to go to Beth- 
 lehem, and anoint the future King of 
 Israel. 
 
 He obeyed, and proceeding to the house 
 of Jesse, the chief man of the town, sol- 
 emnly anointed, with the sacred oil, 
 David, the youngest and most gifted son. 
 The newly chosen king was descended from 
 Kahshon, who had been the chief, or prince 
 of the tribe of Judah, in the wilderness, and 
 
 secret influence, could draw him. Saul 
 conceived a warm affection for David, 
 loaded him with honors, and made him his 
 armor-bearer. 
 
 In the meantime the war with the Philis- 
 tines had been resumed, and the armies of 
 Israel and Philistia confronted each other 
 in the south of Palestine. The Philistines 
 brought forward as their champion a man 
 of gigantic stature, named Goliath, an in- 
 habitant of Gath. No Israelite dared to 
 meet him, until David, who had just re- 
 
 DAVID SPAKES THE LIFE OF SATTX. 
 
 among his ancestresses counted Rahab 
 and the beautiful Ruth. He had al- 
 ready reached man's estate, and had 
 shown his valor by his repeated and 
 successful defences of his father's flocks 
 against the robbers and wild beasts of the 
 region. 
 
 After the breach with Samuel, Saul 
 became the victim of a deep melancholy 
 which amounted at times to madness, and 
 from which nothing but the music of the 
 harp of David, who seems to have been in- 
 troduced into the palace through Samuel's 
 
 joined the army, offered to fight him. Saul 
 endeavored to dissuade David from this 
 attempt, but finding him resolute and re- 
 liant upon God for his success, consented to 
 the meeting. 
 
 David, armed only with his shepherd's 
 sling, in the use of which he was an ex- 
 pert, killed the giant, and then cut off 
 his victim's head with his own sword. 
 Terrified at the death of their champion, 
 the Philistine army fled, and was pursued 
 by Saul's forces with great slaughter to the 
 gates of Gath and Ekron. 
 
THE SINGLE MONARCHY. 
 
 Saul was delighted with the prowess of 
 David, and gave him his daughter Michal 
 in marriage. Jouathan couceived a deep 
 and lasting afFectiou for the young hero. 
 Saul, soon after this, with characteristic in- 
 stability, became suddenly jealous of his 
 son-in-law upon hearing the praises which 
 his triumph over Goliath won for him from 
 the nation, and from that day sought to 
 destroy him. 
 
 David was at length obliged to fly 
 from the court of Saul, and took refuge 
 with the king of Gath, where he feigned 
 madness, in order to escape the vengeance 
 of the Philistines. He soon after be- 
 came the leader of a band of outlaws, 
 lived for a while in Moab, and then estab- 
 lished himself in the almost inaccessible 
 
 but generously spared his life. He was 
 obliged at last to take reluge with Achish, 
 King of Gath, who gave him the city of 
 Ziklag. There he dwelt for some years, 
 undertaking frequent expeditions against 
 the Amalekites, the common enemies of 
 Israel and Philistiii. 
 
 At length the war between the Philistines 
 and Israelites broke out again, and David 
 was ordered by Achish to join the Philistine 
 army, and march against Saul. He was 
 compelled to obey, but, fortunately for him, 
 the Philistine leaders, who were suspicious 
 of him, induced their king to order him to 
 return to Ziklag. The armies of the Israel- 
 ites and Philistines encountered each other 
 at Mount Gilboa. The Israelites were 
 routed, and Jonathan was slain. Saul, 
 
 region of the wilderness of Judsea, in 
 the territory of Judah. About the same 
 time Samuel died at Ramah, at an ad- 
 vanced age, and was deeply mourned by 
 all Israel. 
 
 After the death of Samuel, Saul gave free 
 rein to his furious passions. He persecuted 
 all the supporters of the law of Moses, and 
 massacred the high priest Abimelech, 
 eighty-five priests, and the entire popula- 
 tion of the city of Nob, where the high 
 priest dwelt. One of the sons of Abimelech, 
 Abiathar, the heir to the high priesthood, 
 escaped the destruction of his race, and fled 
 to David for safety. 
 
 Saul now turned his arms against David, 
 and hunted him through Southern Palestine. 
 David twice had the king within his power, 
 
 being severely wounded and closely pur- 
 sued, slew himself to avoid capture by his 
 enemies, B. c. 1055. His reign had lasted 
 forty years. 
 
 As soon as David was informed of the 
 death of Saul and Jonathan, he returned to 
 his own country, and established himself at 
 Hebron. He was acknowledged as king by 
 his own tribe of Judah ; but the other tribes 
 gave their adhesion to Ishbosheth, a 
 younger son of Saul, whom Abner had 
 caused to be crowned at Mahanaim. A 
 bloody civil war followed, and lasted seven 
 years. It resulted in the defection of 
 Abner to the cause of David, and the 
 assassination of Ishbosheth by two traitors 
 in his own service. The entire nation then 
 acknowledged David as its sovereign, and 
 
86 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 he was solemnly anointed at Hebron, b, c. 
 1048. 
 
 David was nearly thirty-eight years old 
 when he began to reign over the whole 
 kingdom of Israel. His first exploit was 
 the capture of Jerusalem from the Jebu- 
 sites. 
 
 He made that city the capital of his king- 
 dom, aud also the religious centre of the 
 nation by bringing up to, and lodging in it, 
 the Ark "of the Covenant. He established 
 a standing army, set up a splendid court at 
 his new capital, provided himself with a 
 
 DAVID'S TOWEK AT JEKUSALEM. 
 
 harem, and introduced a royal splendor 
 until then unknown in Israel. He proved 
 himself a faithful servant of Jehovah, and 
 his greatest delight was to honor the God 
 of Israel. 
 
 The prophets Gad and Kathan were 
 his intimate associates. " These two men, 
 inspired by God, were distinguished by 
 their noble character, and by the frank- 
 ness with which they reproached the king 
 on every occasion with the faults of his 
 private or public life, and the king always 
 heard them with deference." 
 
 David was the greatest and most power- 
 ful sovereijrn that ever reijjjued over the 
 
 Hebrew nation. His wars were numerous 
 and successful. The Philistines were pun- 
 ished and rendered powerless by the con- 
 quest of their country as far south as Gaza. 
 Moab was subdued, and only one-third of 
 its inhabitants left alive. These were com- 
 pelled to pay tribute. The Ammonites and 
 the various Syrian states between the Jor- 
 dan aud Euphrates were conquered, and 
 the latter river formed the eastern boundary 
 of David's dominions. Edom was also sub- 
 dued, and the Hebrew territory was ex- 
 tended to the Red Sea and the Egyptian 
 frontier. David 
 formed an alliance 
 with the Phoeni- 
 cian King Hiram, 
 of Tyre, which was 
 very beneficial to 
 his own kingdom. 
 Hiram furnished 
 the cedar and the 
 necessary work- 
 men and artificers 
 for the construc- 
 tion of the magni- 
 ficent palace which 
 David built at Je- 
 rusalem. 
 
 At home David 
 proved a wise and 
 beneficent ruler. 
 The Israelitish 
 army was thor- 
 oughly organized. 
 The civil adminis- 
 tration was con- 
 ducted under the 
 personal supervi- 
 sion of the king, 
 and an admirable 
 internal service 
 was inaugurated 
 for the despatch of the public business. 
 The religious institutions were revised and 
 settled upon the basis upon which they 
 were afterwards conducted. David's rare 
 genius as a musician and poet enabled him to 
 prescribe a gorgeous ritual for the Hebrew 
 worship, and to furnish the noblest of the 
 psalms used therein. It was his design to 
 erect a magnificent temple to Jehovah at 
 Jerusalem, but he Avas forbidden by God to 
 to do so, as his hands were stained with 
 blood. 
 
 His design was commended, and he was 
 told that his son and successor, who should 
 be a man of peace, should build the temple. 
 
THE SINGLE MONARCHY. 
 
 87 
 
 He therefore coufiued his efforts to the pur- 
 chase of a site aud the collection of materi- 
 als for the sacred edifice. 
 
 Though so eminently a servant of God, 
 David could not always resist the tempta- 
 tions to which his nature exposed him. 
 Becoming enamored of the beautiful wife 
 of Uriah the Hittite, one of his captains, he 
 determined to possess her. He therefore 
 caused Uriah to be given the command of 
 a dangerous expedition, in which he was 
 treacherously slain. The king, who had 
 seduced Uriah's wife, Bathsheba, now took 
 her openly to his harem. She bore a 
 child, which died, in accordance with the 
 prediction of Nathan the prophet, who 
 sternly reproved 
 David for his 
 crime. Another 
 child was boin 
 to her, and he 
 became the sue 
 cessor of David 
 on the throne 
 
 The glories of 
 David's reign 
 were tarnished 
 by two rebel 
 lions, each di 
 rectly due to the 
 evil of polyg- 
 amy, which Da 
 vid had intio- 
 duced into the 
 kingdom. His 
 sons by his dif 
 ferent wives tor 
 mented his clos 
 ing years by their 
 jealousies and 
 crimes, and two 
 — Absalom and 
 Adonijah — took up arms in open revolt 
 against their father. Absalom's rebellion 
 forced the king to fly from Jerusalem and 
 take refuge in the country east of the Jor- 
 dan. It was ended only by the defeat and 
 death of Absalom, who had assumed the 
 royal dignity, by his cousin Joab, the com- 
 mander of David's army. Adonijah also 
 atoned for his crime with his life. His re- 
 bellion induced David to secure the succes- 
 sion of Solomon by associating that prince 
 with him upon the throne in the last year 
 of his life. After a reign of forty years, 
 thirty-three of which were spent in Jeru- 
 salem, David died — b. c. 1015 — at the 
 age of seventy-eight years, leaving to his 
 
 people the proudest name in their his- 
 tory. 
 
 Solomon began his reign under the most 
 favorable auspices. Peace reigned through- 
 out the whole of his extensive dominions; 
 his authority was everywhere submitted to. 
 An alliance was contracted with Egypt by 
 the marriage of the young king with the 
 daughter of one of the priestly Pharaohs of 
 the Twenty-first (Tanite) Dynasty. A most 
 advantageous commercial alliance was 
 formed with Hiram, King of Tyre, who had 
 been the friend of David. By this treaty 
 Solomon was admitted to a share of the 
 profits of the Phoenician traflSc, and the 
 wealth of the king was enormously in- 
 
 TOMB OF DAVID, ON MOUNT ZION. 
 
 creased by the vast influx of the precious 
 metals and articles of luxury into Palestine. 
 A navy, manned by Tyrian sailors, was 
 established in the Red Sea, and the Israel- 
 ites engaged in a lucrative trade with the 
 countries along its shores. Solomon, thus 
 enabled to gratify his natural tastes, in- 
 creased the splendor and display of his 
 court. He built him a larger and more 
 magnificent palace than had contented 
 David, aud increased his seraglio to an ex- 
 tent which has no parallel in the history of 
 Eastern raonarchs. Seated on a gorgeous 
 throne, he dispensed justice to his people, 
 and received their homage and the embas- 
 sies aud presents of the neighboring powers. 
 
88 
 
THE SINGLE MONARCHY. 
 
 89 
 
 His personal qualities were in keeping 
 with this splendor. Of noble and command- 
 ing presence, and rare majesty of demeanor, 
 he was possessed of all the learning of his 
 time, and of a wisdom divinely given to 
 judge his people, and to " discern between 
 good and bad." He was the profoundest 
 student of human nature the world has 
 ever known, and his writings have com- 
 manded the admiration of the greatest 
 minds of succeeding generations. 
 
 The most notable act of his reign was the 
 construction of a Temple to Jehovah upon 
 Mount Moriah, at Jerusalem. His alliance 
 with Hiram afforded him the means of exe- 
 cuting this work. Phoenician sailors brought 
 cedars from Lebanon to Joppa, whence they 
 were hauled to Jerusalem for the wood- 
 work of the Temple, and Phoenician archi- 
 tects and masons planned and built the 
 massive platform upon which the sacred 
 edifice stood, and the Temple itself. The 
 Temple was the most superb edifice of its 
 day, and upon it all the artistic and mechan- 
 ical resources of the period were lavished. 
 It was begun in the fourth year of Solo- 
 mon's reign, b. c. 1012, and its construction 
 occupied seven and a half years. It was 
 completed in the eighth month of the 
 eleventh year of Solomon's reign, b. c. 1005. 
 The Ark of the Covenant was placed in it, 
 and the holy house was dedicated to Jeho- 
 vah and his service with the most solemn 
 and imposing ceremonies. God himself 
 accepted the offering in the presence of the 
 assembled nation by causing the sacrifices 
 to be consumed by fire from heaven, and by 
 filling the house with a glorious light, so 
 bright that the priests and people hid their 
 faces from it. Solomon also enlarged and 
 improved Jerusalem, strengthened its forti- 
 fications, and constructed noble and useful 
 public works in various parts of his king- 
 dom. In the midst of the great Syrian 
 desert, half way between Damascus and the 
 Euphrates, he built the splendid city of 
 Tadraor, which afterwards became famous 
 under the name of Palmyra. 
 
 The kingdom of Israel was now at the 
 height of its splendor and prospeiity; but 
 under all this greatness the causes were 
 growing which were to result in the disrup- 
 tion of the Hebrew state. The trade of 
 Solomon was a monopoly of the government, 
 and while it enriched the king was of no 
 benefit to the people. The taxes which he 
 levied for the support of his costly court 
 were so enormous that the nation was im- 
 
 poverished, and a general discontent was 
 aroused. He compelled large bodies of the 
 people to engage in the great works which 
 he carried on, thus interfering with the 
 proper course of the industry of the country, 
 and increasing the general dissatisfaction. 
 The great favor shown to the tribe of Judah 
 was resented by the rest of the nation, espe- 
 cially by the powerful house of Joseph, 
 which had always regarded itself as entitled 
 to the crown. The luxury introduced and 
 fostered by the king exercised an ener- 
 vating influence upon the people, who were 
 also corrupted and led away from their an- 
 cient faith by the encouragement given by 
 the king to the false religions which he 
 maintained in the state, and which were 
 celebrated with cruel and licentious rites. 
 During the king's lifetime the kingdom was 
 weakened by the successful revolt of Rezon, 
 King of Damascus. Hadad attempted to 
 re-establish the independence of Edom, but 
 was defeated and obliged to fly to Egypt, 
 The tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh came 
 near breaking out into open rebellion. 
 The attempt was discovered, and Jeroboam, 
 the leader of the conspiracy, was obliged 
 to take refuge in Egypt. When Solomon 
 died the kingdom was in a feverish and un- 
 settled state, and it was evident that its 
 destruction was close at hand. 
 
 In his old age, Solomon, led away by his 
 love of women, forsook the worship of God, 
 opened his harem to a crowd of women of 
 the most degraded of the neighboring na- 
 tions, and gave himself up to sensuality, 
 and at last to idolatry, thus tarnishing the 
 earlier glories of his reign. He died, after 
 a reign of forty years, B. c. 975. 
 
 Solomon was succeeded by his only son, 
 Rehoboam, who was forty years old at the 
 time of his accession to the throne. At the 
 outset of his reign the northern tribes, which 
 were rife for a revolt, demanded of the new 
 king certain modifications of the oppressive 
 system of his father. Rehoboam haughtily 
 refused the demand, arid threatened to in- 
 crease the burdens of the people. The 
 northern tribes thereupon threw off their 
 allegiance to the house of David, took up 
 arms, established a new kingdom, with its 
 capital at Shechem, and made Jeroboam 
 their leader. King Rehoboam undertook 
 to suppress this revolt by force, and a civil 
 war was prevented only by the express com- 
 mand of God, who forbade either army to 
 attack the other. Thus was accomplished 
 the punishment Avith which God had 
 
90 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 threatened Solomon for his sins. The sepa- 
 ration was complete, and thenceforth, in the 
 place of the powerful empire of David and 
 Solomon, there were two weak kingdoms in 
 Palestine, neither of which ever attained 
 the position of a state of the first rank. The 
 northern kingdom took the name of Israel; 
 the southern that of Judah, 
 
 As the northern kingdom Avas of shorter 
 duration than Judah, it will be best to 
 relate its history before proceeding to that 
 of Judah. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE NORTHERN KINGDOM. 
 
 Character of the Kiiis;clom of Israel — Reign of Jero- 
 boam — The Separation Complete — Reign of 
 •Baasha — War with Damascus — Omri King — He 
 Builds the City of Samaria — Ahab and Jezebel — 
 Reigns of Ahaziah and Jehoram — Death of Jeze- 
 bel — Jehu King — Israel Subject to Syria — Jero- 
 boam II. — The Greatest King of Israel — Shallum 
 King — Invades Assyria— Is Conquered and Made 
 Tributary to Assyria — Conquest of the Trans- 
 Jordanic Country by Assyria — Shalmanezer IV. 
 Invades Israel — Captures Samaria — Transports 
 the Israelites to Assyria — End of the Kingdom of 
 Israel — Settlement of the Country by the Assyrian 
 King. 
 
 JHE kingdom of Israel, set up by the 
 northern tribes under Jeroboam, 
 reached from the northern boundary 
 of Benjamin to the borders of Da- 
 mascus, and embraced all the trans- 
 Jordanic country, including Moab. 
 It was not only larger, but more populous 
 and more fertile than Judah. These ad- 
 vantages were outweighed, however, by the 
 inferiority of every Israelite capital to 
 Jerusalem, and the deliberate adoption by 
 the monarch and nation of an idolatrous 
 religion. A succession of prophets, some 
 of them among the greatest in Hebrew his- 
 tory, vainly endeavored to eradicate this 
 taint and restore the Israelites to their al- 
 legiance to Jehovah. Idolatry was so 
 deeply seated as to be a part of the national 
 existence, and could not be rooted out. The 
 evil grew worse with the progress of time, 
 and its effects upon the political prosperity 
 of the kingdom was so pernicious that it 
 fell an easy prey to the Assyrian conquerors 
 two centuries later. 
 
 Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, was 
 divinely appointed to his oflUce. Under 
 him the rebellion was consummated and the 
 monarchy established. He endeavored to 
 make the separation between the two 
 kingdoms final. As a help to this he es- 
 
 tablished two national sanctuaries, one at 
 Dan and the other at Bethel, with idola- 
 trous emblems, and created a new priest- 
 hood in opposition to that of the Levites. 
 This offended the Levites and their ad- 
 herents in the various portions of the 
 northern kingdom, and they passed into 
 Judah. Jeroboam's reign lasted twenty- 
 two years, and was passed in almost con- 
 stant war with Judah. He died b. c. 954, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Nadab, with 
 whom his dynasty ended. Nadab reigned 
 two years, and was murdered by Baasha, 
 the commander of his army, who also put 
 all the house of Jeroboam to death, and 
 made himself King of Israel, B. c. 953. 
 Baasha removed the capital to Tirzah. 
 He was grossly addicted to idolatry. The 
 remnant of the worshippers of Jehovah 
 left in Israel went over to Judah about the 
 thirteenth year of his reign, attracted by the 
 piety of King Asa. Baasha, in the hope 
 of checking this defection, made war upon 
 Judah and attempted to blockade his 
 southern frontier. He was recalled to the 
 north by the invasion of his kingdom by 
 the Syrians under Benhadad, King of Da- 
 mascus, whose alliance had been purchased 
 by Asa. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Elah, B. c. 930, Avho was murdered, while 
 drunk, by Zimri, B. c. 929. Zimri made 
 himself king, but was not acknowledged by 
 the army, which set up Omri, its com- 
 mander. A civil war of seven days fol- 
 lowed, and Zimri, being defeated, shut him- 
 self up in his palace and burnt it over his 
 head, perishing in the flames. Omri's 
 reign began b. c. 929. He had at first a 
 rival named Tibni, whose claim was sup- 
 ported by half the people, but he overcame 
 him, and reigned until B. c. 918. He built 
 the strong city of Samaria, which he made 
 his capital ; and waged war with Damas- 
 cus, but was obliged to conclude a dis- 
 graceful peace. He was succeeded by his 
 son Ahab, who strengthened himself by 
 marrying Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, 
 King of Tyre and high priest of Astarte. 
 This alliance led to the introduction of the 
 Phoenician idolatry into Israel. Towards 
 the close of the century the prophet Elijah 
 was sent to Israel to denounce upon the 
 king and people the divine punishment for 
 their crimes. A famine of three years' du- 
 ration was sent upon the kingdom. Its 
 close was marked by the memorable vindi- 
 cation of Jehovah's power in the sacrifice 
 offered by Elijah on Mount Carmel, and 
 
THE NORTHERN KINGDOM. 
 
 91 
 
 the slaughter of the priests of Baal. A 
 successful war was waged with Damascus 
 during the latter part of the reign of Ahab, 
 and resulted in the re-establishment of the 
 independence of Israel. It was followed by 
 a peace of three years. About B. c. 897 
 Ahab renewed the war with Syria by at- 
 tempting, in conjunction with Jehoshaphat, 
 King of Judah, to seize the strong frontier 
 fortress of Ramoth-Gilead. In the battle 
 which ensued Ahab Avas killed and the 
 allied army was routed. 
 
 Ahab was succeeded by his son, Ahaziah, 
 during whose brief reign of a little more 
 than a year, Moab revolted, Ahaziah was 
 succeeded by his brother, Jehoram, who 
 continued the alliance 
 with Judah. He was some- 
 what better than Ahab or 
 Ahaziah, for he abolished 
 the Avorship of Baal, though 
 he clung to the idolatry of 
 Jeroboam. He made war 
 upon Moab, which had re- 
 volted against his brother, 
 and was joined in the ex- 
 pedition by Jehoshaphat, 
 and the King of Edom, the 
 vassal of the King of Judah. 
 The army was miraculously 
 supplied with water, and the 
 Moabites were decisively 
 defeated by the same power. 
 Jehoram followed up this 
 victory by ravaging the 
 " land of Moab " with fire 
 and sword, and stained his 
 triumph with such cruelties 
 that the King of Judah 
 indignantly abandoned him 
 and returned to his own 
 country. It seems that tlie 
 last years of his reign wit- 
 nessed the restoration of the worship of 
 Baal. He renewed the war with Syria 
 by seizing Ramoth-Gilead. He was 
 wounded in a battle with the Syrians, and 
 Avent to Jezi-eel to be healed. There 
 Aliaziah, King of Judah, his ally, visited 
 him. During their absence from the army 
 Jehu Avas proclaimed king by the troops. 
 Proceeding to Jezreel, Jehu slew Jehoram 
 and Ahaziah, and caused Jezebel, the 
 wicked widow of Ahab, to be thrown from 
 the w^alls of the city. Thus he destroyed 
 all of Ahab's house. 
 
 Jelui began to reign b. c. 884. His first 
 act Avas to put down with a firm hand the 
 
 Avorship of Baal ; but he maintained the 
 idolatry of Jeroboam. Hazael of Damascus 
 stripped him of his trans- Jordanic provinces, 
 and ujion one occasion at least he paid tribute 
 to Assyria, Avhich now began to loom up on 
 the eastern horizon as the great power of 
 Asia. He Avas succeeded by his son, Je- 
 hoahaz, b. c. 856. Under this king the 
 power of the monarchy Avas still further re- 
 duced by the conquests of the Syrians. 
 The Syrian king even compelled Jehoahaz 
 to fix a limit to the strength of his standing 
 army. His son, Jehoash, a vigorous and 
 Avarlike monarch, succeeded him, b. c. 839. 
 He inflicted three successive defeats upon 
 Benhadad, King of Damascus (the son of 
 
 THE GOLDEN LAMP-BEAKEK. 
 
 Hazael), and Avon back a portion of the 
 territory lost by Israel. He also defeated 
 Amaziah, King of Judah, and entered Je- 
 rusalem as a conqueror. His son, Jero- 
 boam II., succeeded him, b. c. 825. Under 
 him the Israelitish monarchy reached its 
 highest pitch of power. He not only re- 
 gained all the territory lost by Israel east 
 of the Jordan by his conquests of Moab 
 and Ammon, but attacked Damascus itself, 
 now weakened by the preponderance of 
 Assyria, and added a large part of the 
 Syrian territory to the Israelitish monarchy. 
 Jeroboam II. was succeeded, either im- 
 mediately or after an interregnum, by his 
 
92 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 son Zechariah about b. c. 772. Zechariah 
 was assassinated six mouths later by 
 Shallum, and with him ended the line of 
 Jehu. 
 
 Shallum reigued a little more than a 
 month, and was, in his turn, slain and suc- 
 ceeded by his murderer, Menahem. Mena- 
 hem undertook the invasion of the Assyrian 
 territory east of the Euphrates, and cap- 
 
 HALF-SHEKEL. 
 
 tured Thapsacus. This drew upon him the 
 vengeance of the Assyrian monarch, who 
 defeated him and made his kiugdom tribu- 
 tary to Assyria. In b. c. 762 Meuahem was 
 succeeded by his son, Pekahiah, who was 
 murdered by Pekah, one of his generals. 
 Pekah mounted the throne of his victim b. 
 c. 760. His reign of thirty years was full 
 of disaster. He made an alliance with 
 Rezin, King of Damascus, in the hope of 
 protecting "his kiugdom against Assyria, 
 and for the purpose of conquering Judah. 
 The allied forces invaded Judah and re- 
 duced that power to great distress. Tiglath- 
 Pileser II., of Assyria, marched to the aid 
 of Judah and compelled Pekah to make 
 
 soon renounced his allegiance and endeav- 
 ored to re-establish the independence of his 
 country. For this purpose he formed an 
 alliance with Egypt. Shalmanezer IV. in- 
 vaded Israel, overran the country, and laid 
 
 DEMI-SHEKEL. COPPER. 
 
 peace. In a second invasion of Israel by 
 the Assyrians, the trans-Jordanic territory 
 w.as ravaged and its inhabitants carried 
 away captive into Assyria. This was the 
 beginning of the end of the kingdom of 
 Israel. Pekah was slain by Hoshea, who 
 succeeded him, either immediately, or after 
 an interregnum, B. c. 730. Hoshea was 
 the last monax'ch of the Israelitish king- 
 dom, which was now rapidly nearing its 
 end. He was the best of the kings of J^srael 
 and seems to have wished to raise both him- 
 self and his kingdom out of the corruption 
 of idolatry ; but it was too late. He began 
 his reign as the tributary of Assyria, but 
 
 JEZEBEL THROWN FROM THE CITY WALLS. 
 
 siege to Samaria, which city resisted for two 
 years. It was taken in the first year of 
 Sargon, and Avith its fall the kingdom of 
 Israel came to an end, after a duration of 
 255 years. In accordance witli the custom 
 
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
 
 93 
 
 of the age, the conquered territory was de- 
 populated, and its inhabitants removed to 
 distant parts of the Assyrian empire. 
 
 The Israelitish territory remained com- 
 paratively deserted until the reign of Esar- 
 haddon, King of Assyria, in the seventh 
 century B. c. That monarch, appreciating 
 the advantages of this fertile region, colon- 
 ized it with families drawn from Babylon, 
 Orchoe, Susa, Elymais, Persia, and other 
 neighboring nations. " The new inhabi- 
 tants imported their idolatrous worship ; 
 and God showed his jealousy for his own 
 land, by plaguing them with lions, which 
 had doubtless multiplied during nearly half 
 a century of desolation. They ascribed the 
 infliction to their ignorance of * the manner 
 of the God of the laud,' and the King of 
 Assyria sent back one of the captive priests, 
 who established himself at Bethel, and 
 ' taught them how to fear Jehovah.' His 
 teaching was probably mixed with no little 
 error, but it seems to have been free from 
 the old idolatry of Jeroboam." The new 
 inhabitants regarded themselves as at liberty 
 to serve their old gods, and their" worship 
 was a strange compromise between the true 
 and the false, which is thus described in the 
 Bible, " They feared Jehovah and served 
 their own gods," The descendants of these 
 colonists were known in later Jewish history 
 as Samaritans, and became the bitterest 
 enemies of the Hebrew race. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
 
 Advantages of the Southern Kingdom over its Xorth- 
 ern Rival — Reigns of Rehoboam and Abijah — 
 Asa's Good Reign — Defeats the Egyptians — The 
 Levites Join Judah — Alliance with Damascus — 
 Wars with Israel — Reign of Jehoshaphat — Alli- 
 ance with Israel — Athaliah — Joash Proclaimed 
 King — His Reign — Amaziah King — Conquest of 
 Edom — Uzziah's Sin— Reign of Ahaz— Judah be- 
 comes Tributary to Assyria — Hezekiah King — 
 Destruction of Sennacherib's Army — Manasseh's 
 AVicked Reign — His Captivity andRepentance — 
 Reign of Amnion — Judah Tributary to Babylon — 
 Reign of Josiah— His Death— Judah Subject to 
 Egypt — Passes under the Sway of Babylon— Re- 
 volts — Nebuchadnezzar Captures Jerusalem— The 
 Babylonish Captivity. 
 
 HE Kingdom of Judah was confined 
 to the southern and least fertile 
 portion of the Holy Laud. The 
 tribe of Beujarain, though at first 
 attached to the northern kingdom, 
 soon cast its lot with Judah, and 
 its northern line became the boundary of 
 
 the kingdom. Though territorially smaller 
 and numerically weaker, it was really the 
 stronger and more important kingdom of 
 the two. Its position was admirable and 
 was easily defended. It lay out of the route 
 pursued by the contending powers of Asia 
 and Egypt, who followed the level coun- 
 try along the sea, and avoided the difficult 
 mountain region in which Judah sat en- 
 throned. Its inhabitants were filled with 
 an indomitable spirit, due to their convic- 
 tion that they were the true people of God 
 aud the rightful heirs of the promises, they 
 exhibited at all times a remarkable valor, 
 and an extraordinary elasticity in recover- 
 ing from defeat. Above all the kingdom 
 enjoyed the protection and favor of God, 
 an advantage which the crimes of the north- 
 ern kingdom forfeited, and it preserved the 
 hereditary succession of its kings unbroken. 
 Its indomitable spirit enabled it to defy 
 successively the power of Assyria and of 
 Egypt, and required the exertion of the full 
 force of the Babylonian empire to crush it. 
 It lasted a century later than Israel. 
 
 QUAKTEK-SHEKEL. SILVER. 
 
 Rehoboam reigned eighteen years. His 
 reign was one of misfortune. In b. c. 970, 
 Sheshonk I., King of Egypt (called Shishak 
 in the Bible), invaded Judah, and took its 
 fortified cities. He occui^ied Jerusalem, 
 and plundered the temple and the royal 
 ])alace, aud then withdrew, having reduced 
 Judah to the position of a tributary to his 
 crown. During this reigu a large part of 
 the people lapsed into idolatry. A constant 
 but desultory warfare was maintained with 
 the northern kingdom. Abijah, the sou 
 of Rehoboam, succeeded his father, B. c. 
 *958. He prosecuted the war with Israel 
 more vigorously, and defeated Jeroboaui at 
 Zemaraim in Mount Epliraim. As a result 
 of this victory. Bethel, Jeshauah, and Eph- 
 niim fell into the hands of Abijah, and as 
 Jeroboam did not venture to resume the 
 war, a ten years' j^eace followed. 
 
 Asa 'succeeded his father Abijah, B. C. 
 955. Unlike his father, he was a devout 
 follower of Jehovah. He put down idola- 
 try with a stern hand, and replaced the 
 treasures of the temple which had been 
 
94 
 
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAU. 
 
 95 
 
 carried away by Shisliak, by rich offerings 
 of silver and gold. Taking advantage of 
 the peace with Israel, he strengthened the 
 fortifications of his cities, and increased the 
 force of the array. About b. c. 941, Judah 
 was invaded by a strong army led by " Terah 
 the Ethiopian," believed to be Osorhon II., 
 of Egypt. Asa routed him at Mareshah, 
 pursued him to Gerar, and returned to 
 Jerusalem laden with the spoil of his foes, 
 and of the cities around Gerar. Urged by 
 the prophet Azariah, Asa summoned a con- 
 vocation at Jerusalem in the fifteenth year 
 of his reign, B. c. 940, and the nation sol- 
 emnly covenanted to be true to the worship 
 of Jehovah. Many devout persons from 
 the northern kingdom attended this assem- 
 bly, and this defection of the worshippers 
 of God in Israel to Judah, so alarmed 
 Baasha, King of Israel, that he fortified 
 Ramah, on the highway between Judah 
 and Israel, to check this emigration, and 
 made war upon Asa. Asa, alarmed by the 
 danger, committed the one error of his life. 
 He purchased the alliance of Benhadad I., 
 King of Damascus, using the treasures of 
 the temple for this purpose. The Syrian 
 king at once invaded Israel, and drew the 
 northern army from the borders of Judah 
 to meet this danger. The rest of the reign 
 of Asa was passed in constant war. He 
 died B. c. 916. He was succeeded by his 
 son Jehoshaphat. A large part of his reign 
 was passed by Asa in crushing out idolatry, 
 and in fortifying the cities of his kingdom, 
 as well as those which his father had cap- 
 tured in Mount Ephraira. 
 
 Jehoshaphat reigned in Judah twenty- 
 five years. He reduced the Moabites and 
 Philistines to the position of tributaries. He 
 contracted an alliance with Ahab, King of 
 Israel, by marrying his eldest son Jehoram 
 to Athalia, the daughter of Ahab and Jeze- 
 bel, a union which was full of trouble for 
 Judah. He assisted Ahab in his wars 
 against the Syrians, and was present with 
 him at Ramoth-gilead, where Ahab met his 
 death. This disastrous battle encouraged 
 the old enemies of Judah — the Moabites, the 
 Edomites, and Ammonites — to invade the 
 kingdom in great force. They were miracu- 
 lously defeated by God, in answer to the 
 prayer of Jehoshaphat. This deliverance 
 struck terror to all the surrounding nations, 
 and secured peace for Judah during the 
 rest of Jehoshaphat's reign. He attempted, 
 in alliance with Ahaziah, the son of Ahab, 
 to renew the maritime enterprises of Solo- 
 
 mon by way of the Red Sea, but his fleet 
 was wrecked at Ezion-geber in punishment 
 for the alliance with Ahaziah, and the king 
 abandoned the attempt. He died B. c. 889, 
 and was succeeded by his son Jehoram, who 
 had been associated with him in the govern- 
 ment for three years. Jehoram's reign was 
 short and full of disaster. His marriage 
 with Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, thor- 
 oughly corrupted him, and he set up the 
 worship of Ashtoreth, with all its infamous 
 rites, in Judah. He murdered all his 
 brothers to avoid a disputed succession. 
 God punished his wickedness by sending 
 severe calamities upon his kingdom. Edom 
 revolted, defeated the king's efforts to sub- 
 due it, and became an independent state 
 under its own kings, and though it was 
 afterwards worsted in battle by Judah, it 
 was never again tributary to it. The Philis- 
 tines and Arabians, who had been tributary 
 to Jehoshaphat, invaded the kingdom and 
 captured and plundered Jerusalem, and 
 carried off all the king's wives except Atha- 
 liah, and all his children, save Ahaziah, his 
 youngest son. 
 
 Ahaziah came to the throne in B. c. 885, 
 He formed an alliance with his uncle Jeho- 
 ram, King of Israel, the brother of his 
 mother Athaliah. He was present with 
 him in the battle near Ramoth-gilead, in 
 which Jehoram was wounded, and was slain 
 soon after by Jehu in the revolt which gave 
 that warrior the Israelitish crown, B. c. 884, 
 He was^ucceeded by his mother Athaliah, 
 who slew all the royal family of Judah, ex- 
 cept Joash,a new-born infant, the youngest 
 sou of Ahaziah, and made herself queen. 
 Joash was concealed in the temple by his ami t, 
 who was the wife of the high priest Jehoiada. 
 Athaliah reigned six years, during which 
 time Joash remained hidden in the temple. 
 
 In the seventh year Jehoiada headed a 
 rebellion, which was supported by the army 
 and people. Joash was proclaimed king 
 and Athaliah was put to death, b. c. 878. 
 Jehoiada was made regent. For the first 
 twenty-three years of his reign, during which 
 time Jehoiada lived and was his chief coun- 
 sellor, Joash governed well, and the king- 
 dom prospered. Idolatry was uprooted and 
 severely punished. He repaired the temple, 
 and put an end to the peculations of the 
 Levites by which the sacred funds had been 
 scattered. After the death of Jehoiada, 
 Joash plunged into idolatry. Hazael, King 
 of Damascus, attacked his kingdom and 
 forced him to purchase peace by the sur- 
 
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAR. 
 
 97 
 
 render of all the treasures of the royal 
 palace and the temple (including the 
 sacred vessels). He was killed by two of 
 his servants, B. c. 839, and was succeeded 
 by his son Amaziah, who began his reign 
 with the execution of the murderers of his 
 father. He endeavored to regain Edom, 
 which had revolted from Jehoram. He 
 defeated the Edomite army, and took Petra, 
 where he massacred 10,000 men, but his 
 success was only temporary. Elated with 
 his victory he made war upon Jehoash, 
 King of Israel, but was defeated and made 
 prisoner at Beth-sheraesh. The Israelitish 
 monarch led his captive in triumph to 
 Jerusalem, where he plundered the temple 
 and royal palace, and broke down the north 
 wall of the city. Then, taking hostages for 
 the future peaceable behavior of Judah, 
 he returned to Samaria. The last years of 
 Amaziah were so oppressive and corrupt 
 that his people hated him. The result was 
 his murder at Lachish. 
 
 Amazia was succeeded by his son Uzziah 
 (or Azariah), b. c. 809, a great and warlike 
 sovereign. He began his reign by recover- 
 ing and rebuildingthe ancient port of Elath, 
 at the head of the eastern arm of the Red 
 Sea. Uzziah's reign lasted sixty-two years, 
 and was a period of great prosperity. He 
 conquered the most of Philistia, and re- 
 ceived tribute from Aramon. Elated by 
 liis success, he arrogantly attempted to 
 assume the priest's office, and was seized 
 with leprosy in the very act of offering in- 
 cense in the Holy Place. This compelled 
 his seclusion, and for the remaining six or 
 seven years of his reign the government of 
 the kingdom was committed to his son 
 Jotham, by whom he was succeeded. 
 
 Jotham began his sole reign at his father's 
 death, B. c. 757. He was one of the most 
 pious and prosperous of the kings, but his 
 reign was marked by the growing corrup- 
 tion of the people of Judah. He fortified 
 Jerusalem, and forced the Ammonites to 
 pay tribute. During the latter years of his 
 reign, Pekah, King of Israel, and Rezin, 
 King of Damascus, began the war which 
 proved so disastrous in the next reign. 
 Ahaz succeeded Jotham, his father, b. c. 
 742. He re-established the worship of 
 Baal, and greatly corrupted the people. 
 The war, begun in the reign of his father, 
 by Israel and Syria, was prosecuted vigor- 
 ously, and Ahaz was so hard pressed that 
 he begged aid of the great Assyrian mon- 
 arch, Tiglath-Pileser II., purchasing his 
 
 assistance by becoming tributary to him. 
 The Assyrians invaded Syria, captured 
 Damascus, and put an end to the Syrian 
 kingdom. Israel was severely punished 
 and obliged to make peace. 
 
 Ahaz was succeeded by his son Hezekiah, 
 B. o. 726. Hezekiah began his reign by 
 re-establishing the pure worship of God, 
 and destroying all the idols. He was a 
 wise and virtuous prince, and "did that 
 which was right in the sight of Jehovah." 
 He defeated the Philistines, and even ven- 
 tured to throw off the Assyrian yoke. 
 Sennacherib, the Assyrian monarch, there- 
 upon attacked him and compelled him to 
 resume his position as a tributary. Not 
 long afterwards he rebelled again, and 
 made an alliance with Egypt. 
 
 In B. c. 699 Sennacherib once more en- 
 tered Judah, intending to crush the little 
 kingdom before proceeding to the invasion 
 of Egypt, which he meant to punish severely 
 for aiding his rebellious vassal. His march 
 was along the coast to the southern extrem- 
 ity of the plain of Philistia. The cities of 
 the low country fell before him, and at last, 
 having taken Lachish, he formed the siege 
 of Libnah. Either while thus engaged, or 
 after the close of the siege, he sent a mes- 
 sage to Hezekiah demanding his complete 
 submission, blasphemously declaring that 
 God was powerless to save him from the 
 vengeance of Assyria, Hezekiah turned to 
 God in prayer, and the Almighty answered 
 him, and punished the insolent blasphemy 
 of Sennacherib by the mysterious death of 
 185,000 men of his army in a single night. 
 Terrified and flitally weakened by this dis- 
 aster, Sennacherib hastily retreated to his 
 own country, 
 
 Hezekiah was succeeded by his son Man- 
 asseh, B. c. 697. He reigned fifty-five 
 years, and was one of the most wicked 
 monarchs that ever sat on the throne of 
 Judah. He restored every form of idolatry 
 that had ever been practised in Judah or 
 Israel, and so firmly did these abominable 
 rites become established that the Temple 
 was closed, and the hiw of Moses was almost 
 forgotten by the people. Not only was this 
 the case, but the worshippers of God were 
 even persecuted in Jerusalem itself The 
 prophets denounced the apostasy in un- 
 measured terms, and were cruelly maltreated 
 by the king. Isaiah is believed to have 
 been one of the first of the victims slain by 
 Manasseh. 
 
 About B. c. 677, the Assyrian monarch, 
 
98 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 suspecting Manasseh of a design to rebel 
 against him, dethroned him and carried 
 him a prisoner to Babylon. The severity 
 of his captivity brought Manasseh to re- 
 pentance, and it pleased God to hear his 
 prayers. The Assyrians restored him to his 
 throne, and he reigned long and prosper- 
 ously, exerting himself to uproot idolatry 
 and re-establish the religion of his fathers. 
 He also put Jerusalem in a state of de- 
 fence. 
 
 About this time occurred the colonization 
 of the territory of the kingdom of Israel by 
 order of the Assyrian king. 
 
 Manasseh was succeeded on the throne of 
 Judah by his son Amon, b. c. 642. He 
 endeavored to restore the worship of idols, 
 but before he could carry out his plans, was 
 
 MOUNT ZION. 
 
 murdered, B. c. 640, and was succeeded by 
 his son Josiah, a boy of eight years. The 
 first acts of the reign of the young king 
 were the destruction of idolatry and the 
 restoration of the Temple worship. He 
 reigned thirty-one years, and was one of the 
 best of Jewish kings. In his reign the 
 Assyrian empire was overthrown. In B. c. 
 608, Nechoh, King of Egypt, having de- 
 clared war against Babylon, invaded Pales- 
 tine, conquered the Philistine cities, and 
 marched along the sea-coast to Carmel, 
 whence he struck across the great plain of 
 Esdraelon, his march being directed to- 
 wards the Euphrates. Josiah assembled 
 his forces, and, in fulfilment of his duty as 
 a tributary of Babylon, hastened to attack 
 him. Nechoh warned him to desist, as he 
 
 intended him no harm, his expedition being 
 directed against Babylon ; but the Jewish 
 monarch persisted, and was slain in the battle 
 of Megiddo, which ensued, almost on the very 
 spot that had witnessed the great victory of 
 Deborah and Barak. He was succeeded 
 by Jehoahaz, his second son, who was made 
 king by the people. Jehoahaz reigned 
 three months, when he was deposed by 
 Nechoh, who gave the crown to Jehoiakim, 
 the eldest son of Josiah, b. c. 609. Jehoi- 
 akim reigned for four years as the tributary 
 of Egypt, when — Nechoh having been de- 
 cisively defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, the 
 prince of Babylon, at Carchemish, and the 
 Babylonian dominions being extended to 
 the borders of Egypt — Judah was com- 
 pelled to submit, and Jehoiakim transferred 
 his allegiance to 
 Babylon, B. c. 
 605-4. A number 
 of noble Hebrew 
 youths, among 
 whom was the fu- 
 ture prophet Dan- 
 iel, were carried to 
 Babylon by the 
 conqueror and 
 trained in the 
 learning of the 
 Chaldeans. In the 
 year 602 b. c. Je- 
 hoiakim threw off 
 his allegiance to 
 Babylon and raised 
 the standard of re- 
 bellion. 
 
 The prophet Jer- 
 e m i a h began to 
 utter his predic- 
 tions in the reign of Josiah, about b. c. 
 629, and prophesied during the reigns of his 
 sons. 
 
 The rebellion of Jehoiakim seemed to be 
 undertaken at a favorable time. He was 
 promised assistance by Egypt, and Phoenicia 
 was also in revolt against Babylon, under 
 the leadership of Tyre. In B. C. 598, in the 
 seventh year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar, 
 King of Babylon, set out to reduce his re- 
 bellious provinces to submission. Entering 
 Phoenicia, he laid siege to Tyre, but finding 
 the city too strong to be reduced quickly, 
 he left a portion of his army to continue the 
 investment, and with the remainder moved 
 at once upon Jerusalem, which submitted 
 upon his approach. Jehoiakim was put to 
 death, and, contrary to the usual Oriental 
 
FR03f THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 99 
 
 custom, his body was treated with indignity, 
 thus fulfilling the prophecy of Jeremiah 
 concerning the king. 
 
 Jehoiachin, the son of Jehoiakim, a mere 
 youth, was made king by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 who suffered him to remain on the throne 
 for only three months, and then, suspecting 
 his fidelity, removed him and sent him a 
 prisoner to Babylon, replacing him with his 
 uncle Zedekiah, the brother of Jehoiakim 
 and son of Josiah. Zedekiah remained 
 faithful to his allegiance to Babylon for 
 eight years, and then forming an alliance 
 with Uaphris, the Apries of Herodotus, 
 King of Egypt, who agreed to support him 
 with a strong army, threw off his allegiance 
 and raised the standard of revolt, B. c. 589. 
 
 The siege of Tyre was still in progress, 
 and Nebuchadnezzar marched against Jeru- 
 
 to devote themselves to the peaceful culti- 
 vation of the land. He was murdered soon 
 after, and the conspirators fled to Egypt, 
 carrying with them the prophet Jeremiah, 
 
 I 111' \u M \\ 
 
 WALLS OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 salem in person with a large army. He 
 defeated the Egyptian king, who sought to 
 relieve his ally, and took Jerusalem by 
 assault. Zedekiah and the remnant of his 
 army fled, but were overtaken in the plain 
 of Jericho. The troops were cut to pieces, 
 but the king was made a prisoner. Nebu- 
 chadnezzar caused his eyes to be put out, 
 and sent him a captive to Babylon. The 
 city of Jerusalem and the Temple were 
 then pillaged and given to the flames, and the 
 people, except a mere handful, were removed 
 to Chaldea. Thus began the great Baby- 
 lonian Captivity — the national punishment 
 for the sins of the people — B. c. 586. 
 Jud£ea was not left to anarchy, however. 
 A Babylonian governor was settled at Miz- 
 peh, and he endeavored to induce the Jews 
 
 SILVER SHEKEL. 
 
 who had endeavored to dissuade them from 
 their suicidal course. Later on they became 
 involved in the fate of Egypt. The rem- 
 nant remaining in Judasa were removed 
 into captivity in Babylon about the same 
 time, thereby almost completing the depop- 
 ulation of the country. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO 
 THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Jews in Babylon — Fall of the Babylonian Em- 
 pire — Cyrus — His Interest in the Jews — Grants 
 them leave to Return to Palestine — The Eeturu — 
 The Temple Rebuilt — Darius I. grants the Jews 
 permission to Rebuild Jerusalem — Ezra — Con- 
 quests of Alexander the Great — Judrea becomes 
 an Egyptian Province — The Septuagint — Judjea 
 Transfers its Allegiance to Syria — Revolt of the 
 Maccabees — Exploits of Judas Maccabieus — The 
 War with Syria — The Asmontean Kingdom — The 
 Romans in the East — They Intervene in the Af- 
 fairs of Juda;a — Crassus Plunders the Temple^ 
 End of the Asmonsean Monarchy — Herod the 
 Great — Birth of the Lord Jesus Christ^Judaea a 
 Roman Province^ — The War for Independence — 
 Capture of Jerusalem by Titus — The Saracens 
 Conquer Palestine — The Crusades — Subsequent 
 History of Palestine. 
 
 'EBUCHADNEZZAR caused the 
 Jews whom he removed from their 
 own country to be settled in Chal- 
 dea. There they were consoled in 
 their captivity by the promises 
 made by God, through the prophets, 
 that he did not mean to destroy his people 
 as a nation, but would restore them to their 
 own land after they had undergone the pun- 
 ishment he was inflicting upon them. 
 
 During the Jewish captivity the Baby- 
 lonian monarchy was overthrown by the 
 conquests of Cyrus, and its dominions were 
 incorporated in the great Medo-Persian 
 empire. Cyrus was made by the Almighty 
 the means of restoring the Jews to their 
 
100 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 own country. He captured Babylon in 
 B. c. 538, and there found the Jews, " an 
 oppressed race, in whose religion he found a 
 considerable resemblance to liis own." He 
 took a warm interest in their fortunes, and 
 learning that many of them entertained a 
 strong desire to return to their own land, 
 gave them permission to do so. In conse- 
 quence of this permission, a colony of 42,360 
 persons, besides their servants, returned 
 from Babylonia to Jerusalem in b. c. 535. 
 They went direct to Jerusalem, under the 
 leadership of Zerubbabel, a descendant of 
 the old line of kings, and the majority set- 
 
 THE SANHEDRIM IN SESSION. 
 
 tied at fii-st on the site of the Holy City 
 and in its immediate vicinity. The larger 
 part of the Jewish nation remained in 
 Chaldea. 
 
 The first effort of the restored Jews under 
 Zerubbabel was to rebuild the Temple and 
 restore the old Temple service. They be- 
 gan the work in the year of their return, 
 but were interrupted by the Samaritans, 
 who were, as we have seen, a mixed race 
 inhabitiug the ancient territory of Ephraim 
 and Mauasseh, and descended from the col- 
 onists settled in that country by Esar- 
 haddon, King of Assyria. These people, 
 
 upon the arrival of the Jews, proposed to 
 join them in rebuilding the Temple, which 
 they wished to make a sanctuary common 
 to both races. They claimed to be the de- 
 scendants of the ancient tribes of Israel ; 
 but the Jews repudiated the Samaritan 
 claim to Israelitish descent, and refused to 
 allow them any share in their work. The 
 Samaritans consequently became the bitter 
 enemies of the Jews, and sought by every 
 means to defeat the rebuilding of the Temple 
 and city. They succeeded in delaying the 
 work for a while, in b. c. 522, but it was re- 
 sumed by order of Darius Hystaspis, King of 
 
 Persia, in b. c. 
 519, and in b. c. 
 515 the Temple 
 was completed 
 and dedicated. 
 
 The favor with 
 which Darius I. 
 of Persia regard- 
 ed the Jews en- 
 abled them to es- 
 tablish them- 
 selves firmly in 
 their old homes 
 in spite of the 
 jealousy and hos- 
 tility of the 
 neighboring na- 
 tions. His suc- 
 cessor, Xerxes, 
 though favor- 
 ably inclined to 
 the Jews, came 
 near causing 
 their extermina- 
 tion by weakly 
 consenting to a 
 plot for that 
 purpose formed 
 by his prime 
 minister Haman. 
 The plot was detected by Mordecai, a Jew 
 and the uncle of Esther, the favorite wife of 
 Xerxes. Through the exertions of these two, 
 the king was induced to put the Jews on their 
 guard and allow them to defend themselves 
 against their enemies. The result of the 
 plot, therefore, was the death of Haman 
 and the successful defence of the Jews in 
 all parts of the empire. They took advan- 
 tage of the king's permission to destroy their 
 most conspicuous antagonists. This event 
 occurred about b. c. 473, and is still com- 
 memorated in the Feast of Purim. 
 
 In b. c. 458 a second colony of Jews was 
 
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 101 
 
 led from Babylon to Jerusalem by a priest 
 named Ezra, who enjoyed the royal favor. 
 He arrived in time to put a stop to the 
 practice of intermarriage between his people 
 and the surrounding nations, which had 
 become so common as to threaten the ex- 
 tinction of the pure Jewish race. Other 
 necessary reforms were made in church and 
 state by Ezra, and under him the books of 
 the Old Testament were definitely and 
 authoritatively arranged. In b. c. 445, 
 Nehemiah, a Jewish favorite of Artaxerxes 
 I., who had been the king's cup-bearer, 
 
 long as the tribute was paid regularly, the 
 Persian sovereigns left the Jews free to 
 manage their internal affairs in their own 
 way. 
 
 The captivity had the effect of thoroughly 
 curing the Jewish nation of its fondness for 
 idolatry. In all its subsequent history we 
 shall see that among its numerous faults a 
 desertion of the worship of Jehovah finds 
 no place. The attempts of the Syrian 
 kings, in the second century before Christ, 
 to force idolatry upon the Jews were met with 
 a fierce resistance which forms one of the 
 
 THE REBUILDING OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 arrived at Jerusalem, with permission to 
 restore the fortifications of the city. In 
 spite of the king's command, the neighbor- 
 ing nations endeavored to stop the work, 
 but were prevented by the vigilance of 
 Nehemiah, who caused his countrymen to 
 prosecute their labors under arms, ready to 
 repel an attack at any moment. The forti- 
 fications being restored, the peoi)]e were 
 divided between the Holy City and the 
 rural districts. From this time Judjea was 
 usually governed by the High Priest. As 
 
 most striking periods of Jewish history, and 
 is significant of the great spiritual advance 
 made in their faith. 
 
 From the time of the return from the 
 captivity, the ancient territory of Judah 
 was called Judsea, and its inhabitants Jews. 
 The Jews in Babylonia gradually drifted 
 back to Palestine, but a large number re- 
 mained in that country, and between these 
 and their brethren in judiea a constant and 
 intimate intercourse was maintained down 
 to the latest period. 
 
102 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Judcea continued under Persian rule un- 
 til the fall of the Persian empire before the 
 arms of Alexander the Great. According 
 to Josephus, Alexander, while engaged in 
 the siege of Tyre, sent to demand the sur- 
 render of Jerusalem, which was refused by 
 the High Priest Jaddua, who answered that 
 the Jews were the faithful subjects of 
 Darius. After the fall of Gaza, which suc- 
 ceeded the capture of Tyre, Alexander ad- 
 vanced to Jerusalem to take vengeance 
 upon the city. By the command of God, 
 received in a vision, Jaddua hung the city 
 
 THE BREASTPLATE OF THE HIGH PKIEST. 
 
 with garlands, and, arraying himself in his 
 gorgeous vestments, went forth to meet the 
 conqueror at the head of a solemn proces- 
 sion of the priests and people. He met 
 Alexander, who had ridden in advance of 
 his army with his generals, on an eminence 
 in full sight of the city. Upon seeing the 
 high priest, Alexander, to the astonish- 
 ment of his friends, prostrated himself to 
 the earth. In reply to the remonstrances 
 of Parmenio, he told him that he worship- 
 ped not the high priest, but the Name en- 
 graved on the breastplate which he wore, 
 
 and that he recognized in him a figure 
 which had appeared to him in Macedonia 
 and encouraged him to undertake the con- 
 quest of Persia. The story of Josephus is 
 doubted by historians, but it is certain that 
 Alexander not only spared Jerusalem, but 
 bestowed important privileges upon the 
 Jews, and induced many of them to settle 
 in his new city of Alexandria in Egypt, 
 where they formed an important pai't of the 
 population. 
 
 After Alexander's death Palestine was 
 alternately the prize of Egypt and of Syria. 
 The final division of Alexander's empire, 
 which follow^ed the battle of Ipsus, con- 
 firmed Palestine, together with Phoenicia 
 and Coele Syria, to Egypt, b. c. 301. Under 
 the rule of the first three Ptolemies Judsea 
 was allowed to manage its afl^airs very much 
 in its own way, and so long as the tribute 
 was regularly paid, the kings of Egypt 
 rarely attempted to interfere with the Jews 
 in their religious or civil matters. The 
 high priest was the head of the nation and 
 the chief of the national religion. Alto- 
 gether the reigns of the first three Ptolemies 
 constituted a period of peace and prospei'ity 
 for Judsea. 
 
 Ptolemy IV. (Philopator), a weak and 
 dissolute prince, gave mortal oflfence to the 
 Jews by attempting to violate the sanctity 
 of the Holy of Holies in the Temple at 
 Jerusalem by entering it, B. C. 217. His 
 attempt was frustrated, and he avenged 
 himself by outrages upon the Alexandrian 
 Jews, who had done him no harm at all. 
 Disgusted and alarmed by the conduct of 
 this prince, Judsea solicited the protection 
 of Antiochus the Great of Syria, and volun- 
 tarily transferred its allegiance to that 
 prince. 
 
 During the reign of Ptolemy II. (Phila- 
 delphus) occurred an event of the greatest 
 moment in the history of the Jews and of 
 the world. This was the translation of the 
 Hebrew Scriptures into the Greek language, 
 which version is called The Septuagint, or 
 the LXX., from its seventy or seventy-two 
 translators. The tradition ascribes the 
 translation to the desire of the king to read 
 the Scriptures in his own language ; but be 
 this as it may, the appearance of the Sacred 
 Books in a language which made them 
 accessible to the whole civilized world, was 
 an event which could not fail to exercise an 
 immense influence upon the times, and es- 
 pecially upon the Jews themselves. It 
 made the Hebrew Scriptures known to the 
 
FEOM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 103 
 
 ancient world, and so prepared the way for 
 the spread of Christianity. 
 
 The battle of Paneas in b. c. 198 estab- 
 lished the power of Syria over Judsea, but 
 the Jews soon had reason to regret their 
 change of masters. Antiochus at first con- 
 tinued the Egyptian policy of non-interfer- 
 ence, but, towards the close of his reign, 
 being in need of money, be attempted to 
 plunder the Temple of its treasures, but was 
 prevented either by a miracle or by the 
 adroitness of the high priest. Antiochus 
 IV., Epiphanes, was a cruel persecutor of 
 
 These cruelties raised up a national de- 
 liverer in the person of Mattathias, a priest, 
 and the founder of the Asmonsean family. 
 He raised the standard of revolt, but being 
 too old for such an enterprise, the direction 
 of the rebellion passed to his heroic son 
 Judas, surnamed Maccabseus, under whom 
 the movement prospered steadily. Judas 
 defeated numerous detachments of the 
 Syrian army, and having regained Jerusa- 
 lem, with the exception of the citadel on 
 Mount Zion, which was held by a Syrian 
 force, he cleansed the Temple, and restored 
 
 FEAST OF THE KEW MOON. 
 
 the Jews. He sold the high priesthood to 
 the highest bidder, and affecting to regard 
 the quarrel between the claimants as a re- 
 bellion against himself, he marched into 
 Judsea, captured Jerusalem by assault, gave 
 it up to pillage and massacre, polluted the 
 Temple in the most shameful manner, and 
 stripped it of its treasures to the amount of 
 1,800 talents. He endeavored by all the 
 means in his power to compel the Helleni- 
 zation of the Jews, and in his effort to force 
 the Greek religion upon them began one of 
 the cruellest persecutions known to history. 
 
 the services. He defeated five Syrian armies 
 of from six to ten times his own strength, 
 and in these victories erected a splendid 
 and enduring monument to his own great- 
 ness and the courage of his race. In b. c. 
 164 he was besieged in Jerusalem by Anti- 
 ochus V. with a force of over 120,000 men. 
 Being deceived into a peace with Syria, he 
 admitted Antiochus to Jerusalem. The 
 king at once broke the terms of the treaty 
 and destroyed the fortifications of the city, 
 after which he returned to Syria, where his 
 presence was needed. In b. c. 162, Judas 
 
104 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 once more raised the standard of revolt, and 
 defeated the Syrians at Capharsalama. The 
 next year he won his greatest victory, that 
 of Adasa, near Bethhoron, over a vastly 
 superior Syrian force. He now sent an 
 embassy to Rome to seek an alliance with 
 the republic. The mission was successful, 
 but before the return of th« envoys, Judas 
 had closed his glorious career by a soldier's 
 death at Eleasa, where with only 800 men 
 he met a Syrian force of 22,000 infantry 
 and cavalry. With the bulk of his little 
 band he defeated the Syrian right wing and 
 drove it from the field, but the Syrian left 
 closed in upon him at the moment of his 
 success, slew him, and dispersed his follow- 
 ers, B. c. 160. Jerusalem was lost to the 
 patriots, and the followers of Judas fled 
 with Jonathan, his brother, to the fortress 
 of Tekoah, in the " Wilderness of Judsea," 
 from which they carried on a partisan war- 
 fare for fourteen years. 
 
 The civil war which broke out in Syria 
 between Alexander Balas and Demetrius 
 made the alliance of the Jews a matter of 
 
 QUARTER COPPER SHEKEL OF SIMON MACCABEUS. 
 
 importance to the contending parties. The 
 result was that Jonathan Maccabseus w'as 
 recognized as prince of Judsea and high 
 priest, and was restored to Jerusalem, b. c. 
 153. He was murdered by Tryphon, in 
 B. c. 143, and was succeeded by his brother 
 Simon, under whose rule Judsea recovered 
 in some measure from the suffering the war 
 had inflicted upon her, and the independ- 
 ence of the country was effected. He was 
 murdered in b. c. 135, by his son-in-law 
 Ptolemy, who also put to death two sons of 
 Jonathan. The other son, John Hyrcanus, 
 escaped, and succeeded his father. He was 
 attacked by Antiochus Sidetes, and Jerusa- 
 lem was besieged for two years. Hyrcanus 
 was forced to acknowledge the authority of 
 the Syrian king, the fortifications of Jeru- 
 salem were dismantled, and an annual 
 tribute exacted. On the death of Anti- 
 ochus Sidetes in the Parthian war, this trib- 
 ute ceased. Syria had been reduced by 
 the Parthian conquests to a petty kingdom, 
 and Hyrcanus seized the opportunity to 
 make Judiea her equal in power. He sub- 
 
 dued Samaria, destroyed the Samaritan 
 temple on Mount Gerizim, and conquered 
 Idumsea. Hyrcanus was succeeded by his 
 eldest son Aristobulus I., B. c. 106. Aris- 
 tobulus assumed the title of King of Judsea, 
 and founded the Asmonaean kingdom, 
 which lasted just seventy years. He died 
 after a reign of a year, and was succeeded, 
 B. c. 105, by his brother, Alexander 
 Jannseus. 
 
 Alexander Jannreus reigned until B. c. 
 78. He was a Sadducee, and his reign was 
 marked by a rebellion of the nation under 
 the opposite sect of the Pharisees. Though 
 defeated at first he crushed the rebellion, 
 and avenged himself terribly upon his ene- 
 mies. Dying in b. c. 78, he advised his 
 wife Alexandra to end the troubles by ally- 
 ing herself with the Pharisees. She acted 
 upon this advice and reigned in peace for 
 eight years. At her death, in B. c. 69, a 
 civil war broke out between her sons Hyr- 
 canus and Aristobulus. It continued seven 
 years and was ended by the intervention of 
 the Romans, under Pompey the Great, who 
 
 SIXTH-PART COPPER SHEKEL OB" SIMON MACCA- 
 BEUS. 
 
 took Jerusalem, seated Hyrcanus on the 
 throne and carried Aristobulus a prisoner 
 to Rome, b. c. 63. At the end of six 
 years, Aristobulus escaped from Rome and 
 resumed the war. He was defeated and 
 made prisoner by the Romans, who then 
 confined Hyrcanus to his priestly oflice, and 
 placed Judsea under the rule of councils 
 called Sanhedrims. 
 
 Pompey had spared the treasures of he 
 Temple, and had protected the edifice upon 
 his capture of the holy city, but had mor- 
 tally affronted the Jews by entering and 
 profaning with his presence the Holy of 
 Holies, and they favored the party of 
 Csesar in the great struggle between the 
 rivals. In b. c. 54, Crassus, who had re- 
 ceived Syria as his share in the partition of 
 the Roman dominions by the first triumvirs, 
 reached Jerusalem, and stripped the Temple 
 of its treasures to the amount of 10,000 
 talents, or SI 2,000,000, to provide for the 
 expenses of his Parthian expedition. The 
 Jews regarded the fate of Pompey and 
 
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 105 
 
 Crassus as divinely sent punishments for 
 their sacrilege. Aristobulus was freed by 
 Csesar at the outbreak of the civil war, but 
 on his return to Judaea was murdered by 
 partisans of Pompey. The troubled state 
 ill which the kingdom was placed was ended 
 in B. c. 48 by the appointment of Hyrcanus 
 to the nominal sovereignty with the title of 
 Ethnarch. The real ruler was Antipater, 
 an Idumtean noble, who had in the past 
 twenty years played a prominent part in 
 Jewish affairs, Ctesar, in return for his 
 assistance in the Egyptian campaign, made 
 him a Roman citizen, and the procurator 
 or civil governor of all Judsea. 
 
 In B. c. 40, Antipater's powerful patron, 
 Julius Ctesar, being dead, Antigonus, the 
 son of Aristobulus, seized the throne, cap- 
 tured Jerusalem with the assistance of a 
 Parthian army, and reigned as king for 
 three years. In the meantime, however, 
 Herod, the Governor of Galilee, the son of 
 Antipater, aided by his friend and patron, 
 Mark Anton}^, obtained a decree of the 
 Roman Senate, appointing him King of 
 Judsea. He hastened back to Palestine, 
 and with the help of the Romans subdued 
 the open country and the garrisoned cities. 
 Jerusalem was taken by storm after a siege 
 of six months. So severe was the punish- 
 ment inflicted by the Romans upon the 
 Jews at the capture of the city that Herod 
 was obliged to implore the Roman com- 
 mander not to leave him monarch of a de- 
 populated capital. Antigonus was made 
 prisoner and was sent to Rome, where he 
 was put to death at Herod's instigation. 
 With him ended the Asmonsean monarchy. 
 
 Herod became master of Judsea in B. c. 
 37, holding his crown as a tributary of 
 Rome. He possessed great talents as a ruler 
 and a soldier, but was a monster of cruelty. 
 He began his reign by massacring the prin- 
 cipal Jews who had opposed him. Two 
 members of the Asmonsean family were 
 living at the time of his accession — Aris- 
 tobulus and Mariamne, the grandchildren 
 of Hyrcanus II. To conciliate the Jews, 
 Herod married the beautiful princess Ma- 
 riamne, and made her brother high priest, 
 although the latter was only sixteen years 
 old. Tlie Jews were passionately attached 
 to the young prince, as the last of his race. 
 A short time afterward, Aristobulus was 
 put to death by Herod's orders, and in such 
 a manner as to give the act the appearance 
 of an accident. Becoming jealous of his 
 beautiful Avife, Herod caused her to be 
 
 murdered, and somewhat later inflicted the 
 same fate upon her mother, Alexandra, 
 thus entirely extinguishing the Asmonseau 
 line. Later on he caused three of his sons 
 to be executed, upon the suspicion that they 
 were plotting his overthrow, and the last 
 years of his reign were literally drenched 
 with blood. 
 
 He signalized his reign by rebuilding the 
 Jewish Temple upon a scale of unprece- 
 dented magnificence. It was not completed 
 until long after his death. He adorned 
 Jerusalem with palaces and splendid works, 
 greatly added to the extent and strength 
 of its fortifications, and would have ren- 
 dered it impregnable had he not feared to 
 offend his Roman masters by so doing. He 
 also built the splendid city of Csesarea, on 
 the Mediterranean, and erected many noble 
 public works in various parts of his king- 
 dom. He was in no sense a Jew, though 
 he claimed to be one in his religious belief 
 He affected Roman manners, and tolerated 
 all religious beliefs in his dominions. He 
 died from a loathsome disease amid the re- 
 joicings of his sorely tried people, B. c. 4. 
 His dominions were divided among his three 
 sons. Archelaus received Judsea and Sa- 
 maria, Antipas, Galilee, and Philip the 
 region east of the Jordan, called Trachonitis. 
 
 In the last year of Herod's reign our 
 Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was born at 
 Bethlehem, a town of Judeea, the birth-place 
 also of David. By an error the received 
 chronology places this momentous event in 
 the year 4 B. c. 
 
 The Jews were never entirely satisfied 
 with the rule of the Herods. Except by a 
 small faction these princes were hated with 
 an intense bitterness because of their Idu- 
 msean descent, and as the tools of the for- 
 eign masters of the country. They were a 
 standing reproach to the nation, a constant 
 reminder of its weakness and degradation. 
 These feelings were intensified by the anx- 
 iety with which the Jews were at this time 
 looking for the coming of the Messiah, who, 
 they imagined, would be a temporal sover- 
 eign divinely sent for their deliverance, and 
 under whose guidance the ancient power 
 and glory of Israel would be restored. 
 When Herod was informed of the birth of 
 Jesus at Bethlehem, he caused all the chil- 
 dren of that place of two years and under 
 to be put to the sword, thus seeking to rid 
 himself of one whom he regarded as a 
 formidable rival to his house. Thoroughly 
 hated by the people, the Herodian family 
 
106 
 
FBOM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 lOi 
 
 had no safety but in the protection of their 
 Roman masters, and they sacrificed every 
 Jewish interest to their favor. 
 
 These sacrifices availed nothing, however. 
 The Herodian kingdom steadily lost power, 
 and the encroachments of the Romans be- 
 came greater every year. Archelaus ruled 
 his dominions so oppressively that the Ro- 
 mans deposed him in A. D. 8. Judsea and 
 Samaria were incorporated with the Roman 
 province of Syria, but were still allowed a 
 separate administration under Roman pro- 
 curators or governors. 
 
 It was during this period that the Lord 
 Jesus Christ grew up to manhood and 
 
 years ruled over the entire kingdom of his 
 grandfather. The action of Caligula was 
 but a temporary interruption of the Roman 
 system, which aimed at the entire absorp- 
 tion of the JcAvish state in the empire. In 
 A. D. 44 Agrippa began a cruel persecution 
 of the Christians, and this gave the Romans 
 the occasion they wanted. Judsea was taken 
 from him, and was again placed under the 
 government of procurators. 
 
 The Roman governors were cruel and 
 rapacious, and carried their oppressions so 
 far that the Jews could not endure them. 
 Gessius Florus, the sixth of the new line, 
 plundered his province without mercy. He 
 
 '^i^^\S^^%^ ^^^^ 
 
 ANCIENT HAKBOR OF C\±;SAKEA. 
 
 executed the great mission for which he 
 came upon the earth. His crucifixion, 
 resurrection and ascension took place dur- 
 ing the administration of Pontius Pilate, 
 the fifth of the Roman procurators of Judsea. 
 Judsea continued to be so governed until 
 A. D. 36. Herod Antipas reigned, in the 
 meantime, as king in Galilee ; and Philip 
 ruled his domain of Trachonitis. When 
 these provinces became vacant by the death 
 of their rulers, the Emperor Caligula be- 
 stowed them upon his favorite, Herod 
 Agrippa I., the grandson of Herod and 
 Mariamne. In A. d. 41 Agrippa was given 
 Judsea, and Samaria also, and for three 
 
 drove the Jews to despair, and in a. d. 6G 
 the entire nation took up arms to drive out 
 the Romans and regain their independence. 
 Florus is commonly held responsible for the 
 outbreak, but it was the Roman system 
 rather than the tyranny of any particular 
 governor that lay at the bottom of the 
 tx'ouble. Sooner or later it must have driven 
 the Jews into rebellion. Gessius Florus did 
 no more than hasten the struggle, and per- 
 haps give to it a fiercer character than it 
 would otherwise have assumed. Judsea had 
 submitted to foreign masters before the 
 Romans came, but the policy of these powers 
 was unlike that of Rome, which tolerated 
 
108 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 no differences and sought not only to absorb 
 but to assimilate nations. Under no circum- 
 stances would the Jews have allowed their 
 national existence to be destroyed without 
 a struggle. 
 
 The Avar for independence, or the Revolt, 
 as it is more popularly termed, began in the 
 year 66. It was conducted with vigor by 
 the Romans, Avho subdued all of Galilee and 
 Samaria, and scourged those regions with 
 fire and sword. Judsea was overrun, and 
 the war was practically brought to an end 
 by the capture and destruction of Jerusalem 
 by Titus, in a. d. 70. The Romans had by 
 
 COIN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 
 
 this time formed a true conception of the 
 formidable character of the Jewish nation, 
 and the destruction of the holy city was 
 designed as much to deprive them of their 
 strongest rallying point in future revolts, as 
 in punishment for their resistance to the 
 empire. Titus found Jerusalem a city of 
 palaces, and left it a heap of blackened 
 ruins. The splendid Temple was burned, 
 and every edifice but a few fortified towers' 
 which were left as quarters for a Roman 
 garrison and as monuments of Roman valor 
 were levelled with the ground. Not even 
 Nebuchadnezzar did his work of destruction 
 
 COPPER COIN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 
 
 more thoroughly. The siege of Jerusalem 
 lasted five months, and will always remain 
 one of the horrors of history. It was not so 
 much the desperate bravery of the combat- 
 ants or the destruction of the city, as the 
 appalling loss of life and the fearful suffer- 
 ings of the besieged, that make it one of 
 the saddest chapters in the annals of war 
 Josephus states that 1,100,000 persons 
 perished during the siege, and, though his 
 numbers may be somewhat exaggerated 
 they cannot be far wrong. The people who 
 survived the siege were made slaves, and 
 were divided among the conquerors. Large 
 
 numbers were transported as colonies to the 
 interior of Germany and to Italy. 
 
 After the close of the war, Judjea was 
 attached to the province of Syria, and later 
 on, both Syria and Palestine were governed 
 by a Roman Prefect stationed at Antioch. 
 This general state of affairs continued dur- 
 ing the existence of the Roman Empire. 
 Christianity made rapid progress in Syria 
 and Palestine, and secured a firm footing in 
 those countries long before its establishment 
 throughout the empire by Constantine. 
 
 The Jews never recovered from the blow 
 struck them in the destruction of Jerusalem. 
 The political existence of the Jewish nation 
 was annihilated by it. It was never again 
 recognized as one of the states or nations of 
 the world. Scattered over the face of the 
 earth, strangers and sojourners in all lands, 
 the children of Abraham are expiating the 
 sins of their fathers in rejecting the Messiah 
 and his kingdom. 
 
 The ruins of Jerusalem were held by a 
 Roman garrison during the reigns of Ves- 
 pasian and his immediate successors. The 
 
 COPPER COIN OF HEROD ANTIPAS. 
 
 Emperor Hadrian, in order to prevent Jeru- 
 salem from being made a rallying point for 
 the disaffected race of Israel, determined to 
 restore the city, and occupy it with a strong 
 garrison. This measure brought on a for- 
 midable insurrection of the Jews in Pales- 
 tine, led by Bar Cocheba, or Cochbar, who 
 claimed to be the Messiah. The war raged 
 with great fury for three years, but at length 
 resulted in favor of the Romans. Bar 
 Cocheba was slain, and over half a million 
 of Jews fell during the struggle. Hadrian 
 caused the ruins of Jerusalem to be utterly 
 destroyed, and on the site of the old capital 
 built a new city, which he named JRW^ 
 Capitolina, a. d. 136. Christians and Pagans 
 alone were allowed to reside in it ; the Jews 
 were rigidly excluded from it. In the fourth 
 century they were permitted to enter the 
 city once a year, and weep over it on the 
 anniversary of its capture. Though treated 
 with great severity, the Jews were permitted 
 to dwell in other parts of Palestine. Their 
 chief was known as the Patriarch of Tiberias, 
 from the place of his residence. To him 
 
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 109 
 
 was due the allegiance of all the Jews 
 throughout the Roman dominions. 
 
 When Julian became emperor, paganism 
 was restored as the religion of the empire. 
 In the attempt to falsify the prophecies of 
 the Saviour, he called upon the Jews to 
 rebuild their Temple at Jerusalem. They 
 flocked to the holy city from all quarters of 
 the empire, and men, women and children 
 engaged in the work of clearing away the 
 ruins. Their task was suddenly interrupted 
 by a fire which burst out from the Temple 
 foundations in an unaccountable manner, 
 and raged a whole day, 
 driving away the workers, 
 and consuming their tools. 
 They were obliged to aban- 
 don the attempt, and the 
 death of Julian, which 
 occurred soon after, put a 
 stop to the sacrilegious 
 attempt. 
 
 When the Persians be- 
 gan to threaten the eastern 
 possessions of the Roman 
 Empire, the Jews of Pales- 
 tine secretly encouraged 
 them to invade that coun- 
 try. They eagerly wel- 
 comed the advance of the Persian mon- 
 arch Chosroes II., who, in A. D. 610, invaded 
 Palestine, rose unanimously, joined the Per- 
 sians, and helped them to conquer Jerusalem, 
 then a Christian city. Once in possession 
 of the city, they massacred the Christian 
 inhabitants, but were soon terribly punished 
 by the victorious Emperor Heraclius, who 
 not only drove the Persian monarch back 
 to his own dominions, but recovei'ed from 
 
 alternative of death to unbelievers. The 
 Jews were amongst the first from whom he 
 endeavored to make proselytes. Failing in 
 his eflbrt, he turned his arms against them, 
 and conquered those cities of Arabia in 
 which they were numerous and powerful. 
 He intended to add Palestine to his con- 
 quests, but died before he could accomplish 
 this task. Abubeker, his successor, began 
 the invasion of Syria in A. D. 632. He 
 overran the country east of the Jordan, and 
 his generals defeated the Roman army sent 
 to the assistance of Syria, and captured 
 
 com OF HEKOD AGKIPPA II., WITH HEAD OF TITUS. 
 
 him the provinces of Egypt and Syria. The 
 law of Hadrian was re-enacted, which pro- 
 hibited the Jews from approaching within 
 three miles of Jerusalem. 
 
 While this conflict was going on between 
 the Roman and Persian sovereigns, a new 
 and more terrible power was silently grow- 
 ing up in the desert. Mohammed had 
 already proclaimed himself the Prophet of 
 God, and announced his new faith with its 
 
 OINS STRUCK. BY THE EMPEROR VESPASIAN, COMMEMORATING THE 
 CONQUEST OF JUD.EA. 
 
 Damascus in A. D. 634. The whole of 
 Syria now submitted to him. Palestine 
 was next invaded, and the Roman army, 
 assembled for its defence, was defeated at 
 Yarmuk, in November, 636. Jerusalem 
 was besieged, and surrendered to the Khalif 
 Omar, in A. D. 636. It was made the second 
 holy city of the Mohammedans, and Omar 
 built a superb mosque on the site of the 
 Temple. All Palestine now passed under 
 the IMohammedan sway. 
 
 The Mohammedan rule was fatal to 
 Palestine. In A. D. 649 Damascus became 
 the capital of the Mohammedan empire, 
 and from that time Palestine, which, all 
 through the Roman dominion and down to 
 the period of the Moslem invasion, had 
 been among the most prosperous and im- 
 portant of the Roman dependencies, began 
 to decline. Islamism weighed the country 
 down with the weight of a blighting curse, 
 and each succeeding generation saw it sink 
 lower and lower. Its cities fell into decay 
 and ruins ; its industry languished. Jeru- 
 salem is now an insignificant town ; Csesarea 
 is but a heap of broken columns, over 
 which the sand is drifting. The whole land 
 bears terrible witness to the fatal results of 
 Mohammedan rule. When the Moslem 
 
110 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 capital was transferred from Damascus to I nasty, which had recently occupied the 
 Bagdad, Palestine became an insignificant Egyptian throne, and remained subject to 
 
 I it until the latter part of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, when it passed under the sway of the 
 Turks, who had overrun Asia Minor and 
 wrested Syria and Palestine from the 
 Fatimite rulers of Egypt. 
 
 The Turks treated the Christian inhabi- 
 tants of Palestine with such brutal severity 
 that the powers of Western Europe took up 
 arms in their defence. Palestine was in- 
 vaded by the Europeans, and a series of 
 wars ensued which are known as the Cru- 
 sades, the history of which will be related 
 in another part of this work. The result 
 of the fix'st crusade was the capture of Jeru- 
 salem and the establishment of a Latin 
 kingdom in Palestine, a. d. 1099. Godfrey 
 of Bouillon was crowned King of Jerusa- 
 lem; his kingdom consisted of the holy 
 city and Jaffa, " with about twenty villages 
 and towns in the adjacent country." 
 
 The Latin kingdom did not last long. 
 The victories of Saladin, in the twelfth 
 
 SUBTERRANEAN FIRES DEFEAT JtTLIAN'S EFFORT 
 TO SEBTIILD THE TEMPLE. 
 
 part of the province of Syria, and fared 
 even worse than before. 
 
 About the middle of the tenth century 
 Palestine was seized by the Fatimite dy- 
 
 COIN OF HEROD AGRIPPA II., WITH HEAD OF NEKO. 
 
 century, having made him master of Egypt, 
 Syria and Arabia, he bent all his efforts to 
 the task of driving the Christians out of 
 Palestine. A pretext for invading the Holy 
 Land was soon given him, and he entered 
 Palestine at the head of an army of 80,000 
 veteran warriors, defeated Guy of Lusignan, 
 King of Jerusalem, at Mount Hattin, July 
 3d, 1187, inflicted upon him a loss of 30,000 
 men, and took him prisoner. Three months 
 later he captured Jerusalem, marking his 
 victory by the kindness and forbearance 
 with which he treated the Christian inhabi- 
 tants. He followed up this success by 
 driving the Latins out of every city in 
 Palestine, with the exception of a few along 
 the coast. 
 
 In 1228 the Emperor Frederic IL ob- 
 tained the restitution of Jerusalem to the 
 Christians by a treaty with the sultan. 
 Bethlehem, Nazareth, Tyre and Sidon were 
 also restored to them. In 1243 the Tartars, 
 pressed back by the Moguls, overran Syria 
 and Palestine, took Jerusalem by storm, 
 massaci'ed the entire Christian population, 
 and profaned the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 After the loss of Jerusalem, Acre, on the 
 
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Mediterranean, became the Christian capi- 
 tal of Palestine, and " was adorned with 
 strong and stately buildings, with aque- 
 ducts, an artificial port, and a double wall." 
 Its population w'as made up of representa- 
 tives of every European nation. As Gib- 
 bon w^ell says, " the city had many sove- 
 reigns and no government." A reigu of 
 corruption and anarchy ensued, almost 
 without a parallel in history. The out- 
 rages of a portion of the inhabitants on the 
 neighboring Mohammedan villages aroused 
 the anger of Sultan Khalil, who marched 
 
 the Sultan Selim I., and since then has 
 been a part of the Turkish Empire. 
 
 In 1831 Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt, 
 sent his son, Ibrahim Pasha, into Syria 
 with an army of 38,000 men, under pretext 
 of chastising the Pasha of Acre for an in- 
 dignity offered him ; but really for the pur- 
 pose of conquering that country and bring- 
 ing it under Egyptian rule. The conquest 
 of Syria was rapidly effected, and Palestine 
 shared its fate. The Egyptian ruler now 
 resolved to extend his triumphs to the 
 whole of the Turkish dominions, but the 
 
 JAFFA, OK JOPPA. 
 
 against Acre with an army of 200,000 men, 
 and carried it by assault on the 18th of 
 May, 1291, after a desperate siege of thirty- 
 three days. Thus the last Christian pos- 
 session in Palestine passed into the hands 
 of the Moslems. 
 
 In A. D. 1400 Syria was overrun by 
 Timour the Tartar, or Tamerlane, who 
 burned Damascus ; but his passage through 
 the country does not appear to have affected 
 the condition of Jerusalem, which remained 
 in the hands of its Mohammedan masters. 
 In 1517 Palestine yielded to the arms of 
 
 European powers intervened in May, 1833, 
 and compelled Mohammed Ali to accept a 
 treaty which secured to him the whole of 
 Syria, the district of Adana, in Asia Minor, 
 and the island of Caudia or Crete, in the 
 Mediterranean. This settlement continued 
 in force until 1839, when the sultan re- 
 newed the war by despatching his fleet to 
 bombard Alexandria, and invading Syria 
 with an army of 80,000 men. The Turkish 
 army was decisively defeated bv Ibrahim 
 Pasha at Nisib, on the 24th of June, 1839. 
 and the fleet was treacherously surrendered 
 
112 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HI ST OB Y OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to the Egyptians without a battle. Turkey 
 ■was on the point of being overwhelmed by 
 the Egyptian forces, Avhen the European 
 poAvers again intervened. They compelled 
 
 Ali Pasha to accept a peace, by which he 
 lost Syria and Palestine, and retained only 
 Egypt. Since then Palestine has remained 
 a part of the Turkish Empire. 
 
 book: II. 
 
 THE HISTOH^^ OF EOYI^T. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE MON- 
 ARCHY TO THE TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY. 
 
 Description of Egvpt— The Valley of the Nile— 
 The Delta— The'Overflow— Population of Ancient 
 Egvi)t— The Character of the Egyptians— Religion 
 of the Egyptians— The Gods of Egypt— Belief in 
 a Future'State — Embalming the Dead — Classes of 
 Egyptians— The King— The Priests— Mode of 
 Writing— The Laws of the Egyptians— Establish- 
 ment of the Kingdom by Menes— Contemporary 
 Dynasties— The Fourth Dynasty— Evidences of 
 its Greatness— The Pyramids -Advance of Civi- 
 lization during this Dynasty— Conquests— Growth 
 of the Supremacy of Thebes— The Invasion of the 
 Hvksos— Lower and Middle Egypt Overrun— 
 Tlie Twelfth Dynasty of Thebes— Its Greatness- 
 Upper Egypt Conquered by the Hyksos— Destruc- 
 tion of the Monuments- Expulsion of the Hyksos 
 from Egypt — The Eighteenth Dynasty— The 
 Greatness of Egypt under the Nineteenth Dy- 
 nasty— Rameses III.— Decay of the Monarchy— 
 The Priest-Kings. 
 
 iHE continent of Africa lies almost 
 wholly within the tropics. It is the 
 hottest and driest of the great di- 
 visions of the world. A large part 
 of its surface being unfit for human 
 habitation, it is unsuited to the 
 growth or existence of great nations. 
 Egypt and Carthage were the only African 
 States which ever attained any importance 
 in history. Both of these lay in the north- 
 ern part of the continent, and within the 
 limits of the northern temperate zone. 
 
 Egypt occupies the extreme eastern part 
 of the African continent, from the Medi- 
 terranean on the north to latitude 24° on 
 the south, and from the Red Sea on the 
 east, to the Libyan, or Great Desert, on the 
 west. The region known as Nubia lies 
 south of Egypt. Through the centre of 
 Egypt, from south to north, flows the Nile, 
 its only river. The valley of the Nile con- 
 stitutes the only fertile portion of the coun- 
 try, and is really Egypt, so that Herodotus 
 was quite right when he said, "All Egypt 
 
 is the gift of the Nile." About ninety 
 miles from the sea the river divides itself 
 into three distinct channels, called the 
 Canobic, the Sebennytic, and the Pelusaic 
 branches, which enclose a fertile region 
 knoAvn as the Delta, from its resemblance 
 in shape to the fourth letter of the Greek 
 alphabet. The average breadth of the 
 Nile valley, from Cairo to the First Cataract, 
 does not exceed fifteen miles. The laud in 
 this valley is of the best quality, and the 
 Delta is one of the most fertile regions in 
 the world. The richness of the soil is due 
 to the annual overflow of the Nile, which 
 begins in June and lasts until December. 
 In ancient times the Delta was thickly 
 studded with cities of note. The most 
 important cities of the kingdom, however, 
 lay within the narrow valley. These were, 
 Memphis, just above the apex of the 
 Delta, and Thebes, situated in about lati- 
 tude 25° 31' N. 
 
 The population of ancient Egypt is 
 known to have been at least five millions, 
 and may have been greater. The country 
 was originally peopled from Asia by a 
 branch of the Hamitic race, the descendants 
 of Mizraim. The general character of the 
 Egyptians was mild ; their manners were 
 polished ; and they were naturally obedient 
 and religious. They were cleanly in their 
 habits and food, and consequently healthy. 
 
 The religion of the ancient Egyptians 
 was an exceedingly complicated, and in 
 many respects a revolting system, at the 
 base of which, however, they held to a 
 grand faith. They regarded God as one, 
 unrepresented, indivisible. This was the 
 fundamental doctrine of their faith. They 
 held that the deity manifested himself in 
 diflTerent forms, each representing his at- 
 tributes. For each and all of these attri- 
 butes he possessed a name, which to the 
 priests and the educated were but the 
 
A. BIKU'S KYE VIEW OK EUVrf. 
 
 113 
 
114 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 manifestations of one God. To the people 
 they became so many separate divinities. 
 The priests kept their religion concealed 
 from the common people, whom they re- 
 garded as too ignorant to understand it, 
 and suffered the growth of the polytheism 
 which came in time to be regarded, espe- 
 cially by strangers, as the national religion. 
 The people recognized eight gods of the first 
 order ; twelve of the second ; and seven of 
 the third. The sun and the moon were 
 worshipped. Some portion of the divine 
 life was supposed to reside in animals. 
 
 was embalmed. It must not be supposed 
 that every animal of each species was 
 sacred. A few only were set apart, main- 
 tained at the expense of the state, and 
 served by persons of the highest rank. 
 The educated regarded these animals as 
 only the representatives of their deities ; to 
 the common people they were real gods. 
 The same animals were not held sacred in 
 all parts of the kingdom. The worship of 
 the hippopotamus was confined to the 
 Papremis nome. The inhabitants of Thebes 
 worshipped the crocodile, but in the other 
 
 EMBALMING THE BODY OF AN EGYPTIAN KING. 
 
 Hence arose the system of animal worship 
 wjiich appeared so strange and ludicrous to 
 the Greeks and Romans. " The god was 
 represented under the figure of the animal, 
 or more often by that strange conjunction, 
 peculiar to Egypt, of the head of the ani- 
 mal with a human body." The bull, the 
 cow, the ram, the cat, the ape, the croco- 
 dile, hippopotamus, hawk, ibis, scarabseus, 
 were each worshipped. Each of the sacred 
 animals was kept and carefully tended dur- 
 ing its life in the temple of the god to whom 
 it was sacred. Upon its death its body 
 
 provinces it was hunted as a dangerous 
 animal. 
 
 The chief god of Egypt was Amen-Ra 
 CAraen, the sun). With him were asso- 
 ciated Maut, the divine mother ; and Chons, 
 the son of Amen. Amen w'as regarded as 
 the father of all the gods. The ritual dis- 
 tinctly says, "Amen-Ra is the creator of his 
 members ; they become the other gods who 
 are associated with him." " But of all the 
 triads," says Lenormant, "the one most 
 closely related to humanity in external form 
 and worship, although the conception was 
 
FOUNDATION OF MONARCHY TO TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY. 
 
 115 
 
 one of the most exalted, was that of Osiris, 
 Isis, and Horus, who were objects of uni- 
 versal worship in all parts of Egypt. 
 They were said to be the issue of the god 
 Set, the personification of the earth, and of 
 the goddess Nut, the vault of heaven. 
 Osiris, said the tradition, had manifested 
 himself to men, and had reigned in Egypt." 
 Osiris was believed to have been slain in a 
 contest with Set. He at length raised him- 
 self by his own power, and with the aid of 
 his son, Horus, triumphed over Set. From 
 that moment Osiris became the ruler of the 
 future world, and the rewarder of good and 
 punisher of evil. 
 
 The Egyptians believed in a future state, 
 in which the rewards and punishments 
 were the consequences of the acts of the 
 individual in this life. The souls of the 
 
 to the solemn tribunal of the gods, on which 
 were seated Osiris and forty -two other 
 gods. The soul was placed in one of the 
 scales of a balance, held by Horus and 
 Anubis, and weighed against the image of 
 justice. The result was recorded by the 
 god Thoth, and settled irrevocably the fate 
 of the soul. If found guilty of inexcusa- 
 ble faults, the soul was doomed to punish- 
 ment and annihilation. If found perfect 
 and just, it was required to pass through 
 many trials to atone for the faults which 
 were inseparable from its nature in life. 
 In these trials it was sustained by the aid 
 of Osiris, through whose power it was 
 finally to be raised in the general resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 The belief in a future state gave rise to 
 the practice of embalming the dead. The 
 
 EGYPTIAN PRIESTS WEARING LINEN DRESSES AND LEOPARD SKINS. 
 
 wicked were condemned to return to earth, 
 and after undergoing every form of torture, 
 were obliged to inhabit the bodies of the 
 lower animals for a certain period, when 
 they were annihilated. Death put an end 
 to all distinctions that had pi-evailed in life. 
 The king and the slave were subject to the 
 same rule. Before his body could be 
 buried with his fathers, the record of his 
 life had to be submitted to a tribunal of 
 forty-two judges. If found worthy of 
 burial, the body was carried across the sa- 
 cred lake, of which each nome or province 
 had one, and was buried. If unworthy of 
 such honor, the body was returned to the 
 friends of the deceased, and buried usually 
 on the side of the lake opposite the resting 
 place of the just. The body thus disposed 
 of, the soul entered upon a long and trying 
 journey, during which it was engaged in 
 prayers and confessions. This journey led 
 
 mummy was carefully guarded from injury 
 in order that the soul, upon its return to 
 the body at the end of all things, might 
 find its former habitation fit for its recep- 
 tion. 
 
 The Egyptians were divided into classes 
 or ranks, distinguished by occupations. 
 Modern writers generally reckon three 
 classes, viz. : priests, soldiers, and husband- 
 men ; the last being subdivided into gar- 
 deners, boatmen, artisans of all kinds, and 
 shepherds. The king was the head of both 
 the religious and political systems. His 
 title was Phrah (called Pharaoh in the 
 Bible), signifying the sun. He was the 
 representative of the deity, and his person 
 was sacred. He presided over the sacrifice 
 and poured out libations to the gods. He 
 was governed in every act, almost in his 
 thoughts, by the minute requirements of 
 the sacred books, all of which were de- 
 
116 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 signed to make him worthy of his high 
 station. At his death his embalmed body 
 was placed in view of the people, the 
 meanest of whom was free to bring and 
 sustain a charge of unworthiness against 
 him. If the accusation was proved, the 
 body of the king was excluded from burial 
 with his ancestors. 
 
 The priestly class ranked next to the 
 kiog. They were governed by severe rules, 
 which bound them to temperance and 
 cleanliness. They were the masters of all 
 the learning of the Egyptians, and had 
 charge of the secular education as well as 
 the religious training of the sovereign. 
 Their power over the peoj)le was absolute, 
 and was heightened by their proficiency in 
 the physical sciences, which enabled them 
 to arouse the superstitious fears of the 
 masses by their skilful optical delusions. 
 They claimed authority to admit men to 
 or exclude them from the unseen world. 
 They were, from very ancient times, the 
 physicians of the eastern world, the pi'ac- 
 
 has said that " Egypt was the source of all 
 good government." Perjury was regarded 
 as the greatest of crimes — an offence against 
 the gods and men — and was punished with 
 death. To see a man struggling for his 
 life with an assassin, and to fail to assist 
 him, was also a capital crime. Should the 
 witness be unable to render assistance, he 
 was bound to denounce the assailant to the 
 lawful authorities. A person bringing a 
 false accusation against another was pun- 
 ished as a calumniator. Every Egyptian 
 was bound to deposit with the authorities a 
 written statement of his means of subsist- 
 ence ; he who made a false declaration, or 
 pursued an illegal calling, was put to death. 
 Wilful murder was punished by the death 
 of the offender. A pregnant woman could 
 not be executed until after the birth of her 
 child. A judge who condemned an inno- 
 cent person to death was guilty of murder, 
 and was punished accordingly. The soldier 
 who deserted his ranks, or disobeyed his 
 orders, was punished with infamy, not with 
 
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FUNERAL PROCESSION. 
 
 tice of embalming the dead enabling them 
 to study the effects of the various diseases 
 upon the human system. Their knowledge 
 was crude, but superior to that of other 
 nations of the time. The Nile valley fur- 
 nished them with an unlimited suj)ply of 
 medicines. 
 
 The military class ranked next to the 
 priests and enjoyed many privileges, among 
 which was exemption from taxation. When 
 not on duty, the troops were allowed to 
 remain on and cultivate their own lauds. 
 
 The mode of writing practised by the 
 Egyptians consisted of a series of ideo- 
 graphic signs and symbols, which the 
 Greeks termed hieroglyphics, or "sacred 
 sculpture." Neither the Greeks nor Ro- 
 mans ever learned to decipher these signs. 
 Modern scholars have succeeded by their 
 researches in finding the key to them, and 
 they are now easily read. 
 
 The laws of Egypt were remarkable, and 
 afford an indisputable evidence of the high 
 civilization enjoyed by the people. Bossuet 
 
 death ; but could by any subsequent gallant 
 conduct regain his lost honor. Making 
 counterfeit money, false weights, scales, or 
 measures, falsifying public records, or forg- 
 ing documents were crimes punishable with 
 the loss of both hands. A man found guilty 
 of offering violence to a free woman was 
 condemned to mutilation. Adultery was 
 punished, in a man, by a thousand blows 
 with a stick ; in a woman, by the loss of 
 her nose. The property of a man could be 
 seized for debt, but not his person ; and the 
 debt was null if the debtor swore that he 
 owed nothing to a creditor who was without 
 a bond. The interest was never allowed to 
 amount to more than the principal. 
 
 The known history of Egypt extends 
 back to a very remote period. Modern 
 writers differ as to the full measure of its 
 antiquity. One school — the French — with 
 M. Mariette at its head, fix the establish- 
 ment of the monarchy at about 5000 B. c. 
 Other writers, such as Bunsen, place this 
 event about b. c. 3906. The English 
 
FOUNDATION OF MONARCHY TO TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY. 
 
 117 
 
 Egyptologers regard b. c. 2700 as the 
 period of the establishment of the mon- 
 archy. This last view is accepted here, and 
 forms the basis of this narrative. 
 
 Egypt was originally divided into a num- 
 ber of nomes or petty states, independent 
 of each other. The stronger gradually ab- 
 sorbed the weaker. This process of consol- 
 idation finally resulted in the establishment 
 of the kingdom named in history. In b. c. 
 2700 Menes established the first kingdom 
 at This, in upper Egypt, and founded the 
 First Dynasty mentioned by Manetho. He 
 conquered and im- 
 proved lower 
 Egypt, and built 
 Memphis. There 
 were six kings of 
 this dynasty. - 
 
 The Third Dy- 
 nasty reigned at 
 Memphis, and its 
 nine kings were 
 contemporary Avith 
 those of the First, 
 after Menes. The 
 first of these kings, 
 Necherophes, is 
 said to have con- 
 quered Libya, and 
 the last Sephuris 
 is believed to have 
 subdued the tribes 
 of the Sinai Penin- 
 sula. 
 
 The Second, 
 Fourth and Fifth 
 Dynasties reigned 
 simultaneously ; the 
 Second at This, in 
 middle Egypt; the 
 Fourth at Mem- 
 phis, in lower 
 Egypt ; and the 
 
 Fifth at Elephantine, in upper Egypt. 
 Of these the Memphite Dynasty was the 
 most powerful. It is possible that the kings 
 of the Second and Fifth Dynasties were 
 connected with those of the Fourth by 
 blood, and held their respective crowns 
 by permission of the Memphite sover- 
 eigns. 
 
 The Fourth Dynasty was established at 
 Memphis about B. c. 2440. It consisted of 
 eight kings, and has left proof of its great- 
 ness in the immense structures of stone with 
 which it covered middle Egypt, between the 
 Libyan Mountains and the Nile, the chief 
 
 of which were the Pyramids. The founder 
 of the dynasty was Soris (Shure), who 
 built the northern Pyramid of Abousir, on 
 the blocks of which his name has been 
 found. The second king was Suphis I. 
 (Shufu), the Cheops of Herodotus. He 
 built the " Great Pyramid." He was as- 
 sisted in this work by Suphis II. (Non- 
 Shufu), who reigned conjointly with him, 
 and survived him three years. These two 
 kings oppressed the people very greatly 
 and despised the gods. They compelled 
 the people to undergo the severest labors in 
 
 SCENE ON THE NILE. 
 
 their public works, closed the temples, and 
 put a stop to the worship of the gods. 
 Herodotus says that the construction of the 
 "Great Pyramid" consumed thirty years, 
 and required the labor of 100,000 men, 
 who were relieved every three months. 
 The king intended it for his tomb. The 
 great Sphinx, at Gizeh, is also attributed by 
 some writers to this reign. Mencheres, the 
 fourth king, was perhaps the son of Suphis 
 L He built the "Third Pyramid," which 
 contained his sarcophagus. The fifth king 
 was Patoises ; the sixth Bicheris ; the 
 seventh Sebercheres ; and the eighth was 
 
118 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Thamphthis. The dynasty exteuded through 
 a period of 221 years. 
 
 During the existence of the Fourth 
 Dynasty, Egypt exhibited a civilization of 
 a very advanced character. The quarry- 
 ing, transportation, raising, and putting in 
 place the huge blocks of stone of which the 
 pyramids are constructed show a high de- 
 gree of mechanical science. Each pyramid 
 is located so as to face exactly the cardinal 
 points of the compass, to accomplish which 
 required considerable mathematical knowl- 
 edge. The monuments show that writing 
 had acquired a degree of perfection which 
 indicates long use. " The reed pen and the 
 inkstand are among the hieroglyphics em- 
 ployed, and the scribe appears pen in baud 
 in the paintings on the tombs, making notes 
 
 Magharah and Sarabit el Khadim, Profes- 
 sor Palmer, of the British Sinai Survey 
 (A. D. 1868-69), found inscriptions extend- 
 ing from the Third to the Eighteenth and 
 Twentieth dynasties, showing that for long 
 ages these mines were a constant source of 
 revenue to Egypt. 
 
 The Fourth Dynasty was succeeded at 
 Memphis by the Sixth Dynasty about B. c. 
 2220. The Second Dynasty continued to 
 reign at This or Abydus, and the Fifth at 
 Elephantine, Two new dynasties — the 
 Ninth and Eleventh — arose at Heracleopo- 
 lis and Thebes, and Egypt was divided into 
 five kingdoms. Memphis lost its pre-emi- 
 nence, and. Thebes slowly became the most 
 powerful. Thus weakened and divided, 
 the country became the prey of the nomad 
 
 THE TYUAJIIDS OF tUYl'T. 
 
 on linen or papyrus. The drawing of 
 human and animal figures is fully equal, if 
 not superior, to that of later times, and the 
 trades represented are nearly the same as 
 are found under the Rammesside kings. 
 Altogether it is apparent that the Egyptians 
 of the Pyramid period were not just emerg- 
 ing out of barbarism, but were a people 
 Avho had made very considerable progress 
 in the arts of life." The country was divided 
 into nomes or provinces, each of which had 
 its governor. The priestly and military 
 classes were distinct, and were charged with 
 about the same duties as in later time>'. 
 Soris, the first king of the dynasty, took 
 possession of the Peninsula of Sinai, and 
 established there colonies of Egyptians for 
 the purpose of working the copper and tur- 
 onoise mines of that region. In "Wadv 
 
 tribes of Syria and Arabia, which invaded 
 Egypt by the Isthmus of Suez about B. c. 
 2080, or perhaps a little later. These were 
 the Hyksos or Shepherd kings. They suc- 
 ceeded in conquering Egvpt from the sea 
 to latitude 29° 30' K They carried on 
 their conquest in the cruellest manner ; 
 they burned the cities, razed the temples to 
 the ground, slew the male inhabitants, and 
 made slaves of the women and children. 
 Their power was thus established over lower 
 and a part of middle Egypt. They founded 
 two dynasties, which there is reason to be- 
 [ lieve were contemporary. One of these — 
 j the Fifteenth — reigned at Memphis ; the 
 I other — the Sixteenth — either in the Delta 
 { or at Avaris. The remainder of Egypt 
 I continued in the hands of native dynasties. 
 . The Ninth, reigning at Heracleopolis, held 
 
FOUNDATION OF MONARCHY TO TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY. 
 
 119 
 
 the Faioom and the Nile valley as far to 
 the south as Hermopolis ; the Fifth contin- 
 ued to hold upper Egypt, reigning at Ele- 
 phantine. A new kingdom sprang up at 
 Xois, in the Delta, in the very heart of the 
 conquests of the Hyksos, under the Four- 
 teenth Dynasty, and maintained its inde- 
 
 period of IGO years. During their rule the 
 dynasties of Heracleopolis and Elephantine, 
 though continuing to govern, became de- 
 pendent upon Thebes. Their power also 
 extended over Heliopolis, below Memphis ; 
 and they held the Peninsula of Sinai, and 
 made war against the Arabians and Ethio- 
 
 FBONT OF THE KOCK TEMPLE UE lUbAMBUL, EGVrT. 
 
 pendence during the whole period of the 
 Shepherds' ascendency. 
 
 Under the vigorous rule of the Twelfth 
 Dynasty Thebes increased rapidly in power 
 and prosperity. This dynasty included six 
 kings and one queen, who was the last of 
 her line. Their combined reigns covered a 
 
 plans. Amun-m-he III. (the ]\Iaris, or 
 Lcemaris, of Mauetho, and the Moeris of 
 Herodotus) built the Labyrinth in the 
 Faioom. This superb and gigantic temple 
 contained 3,000 rooms, 1,500 of which were 
 underground, and was the receptacle of the 
 mummies of kings and of the sacred croco- 
 
120 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 diles. Herodotus says: "The roof was 
 throughout of stone like the walls, and the 
 walls were carved all over with figures. 
 Every court was surrounded with a colon- 
 nade, which was built of white stones ex- 
 quisitely fitted together." The same king 
 constructed Lake Moeris, also in the 
 Faioom. Sesortaseu I. erected numerous 
 temples and an obelisk. Architecture and 
 the arts flourished ; canals were constructed 
 for the purposes of irrigation, and upper 
 Egypt seemed to increase in power and 
 prosperity in proportion to the oppression 
 and degradation of the lower country under 
 the rude Hvksos, 
 
 The Thirteenth (Theban) Dynasty lost 
 all that the Twelfth had won. They were 
 attacked by the Shepherd kings, driven 
 from their kingdoms and forced to take 
 
 RUINS OF THEBES — UPPER EGYPT, 
 
 refuge in Ethiopia. The Hyksos then occu- 
 pied upper Egypt, and destroyed the monu- 
 ments of the Twelfth Dynasty. Thus their 
 authority was supreme over all Egypt about 
 B. c. 1900. It lasted until about b. c. 1525. 
 The Theban monarchs most likely returned 
 to their own country, and regained their 
 crowns as the tributaries of the Hyksos. 
 The other native kingdoms appear to have 
 existed on the same conditions. The 
 Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Memphis, 
 the Tenth of Heracleopolis, and the Seven- 
 teenth Shepherd Dynasty belong to this 
 period, which is the darkest part of Egyptian 
 history. The Hyksos destroyed the monu- 
 ments of their predecessors and left none of 
 their own, so that we have no record of 
 their history. For nearly 300 years the 
 names of their kings are unknown to us. 
 
 It is believed that Joseph and the family of 
 Jacob came into Egypt during the reign 
 of one of the kings of the Seventeenth 
 Dynasty. 
 
 The Eighteenth Dynasty began to reign 
 at Thebes about B. c. 1525. Its founder 
 was Amosis, or Ames or Aahmes. Thebes 
 had now regained her power, and under 
 Amosis the Shepherd kings were driven 
 out of Egypt, across the isthmus into Asia. 
 The country, thus released from its foreign 
 oppressors, became a single centralized 
 monarchy, with Thebes as its capital. 
 Egypt now entered on the most flourishing 
 period of its history, which continued 
 through the reigns of this and the Nine- 
 teenth and Twentieth Dynasties. During 
 this period Egyptian art attained its high- 
 est perfection. Thebes reached the height 
 of its splendor. Its 
 ~ -^^^V r great temple-palaces and 
 
 "^^ ^^^ ^--^ obelisks belong to this 
 
 ^^^ period. Aggressive wars 
 
 ^^^^^ marked these reigns, and 
 iji: the conquering arms of 
 Sg? : Egypt were carried into 
 Ig^ Ethiopia, Arabia, Syria, 
 -_ -,:7"- and even beyond the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 The first king of the 
 3 Eighteenth Dynasty was 
 W Amosis. He reigned 
 *=^^H twenty-six years. His 
 ^^H successor was Amunoph 
 I., who married the 
 s widow of Amosis, and 
 reigned twenty-one years. 
 She was a Theban prin- 
 cess of Ethiopian blood, 
 and is called " the good, glorious woman." 
 Thothmes I. was the third king. He won 
 great victories over the Ethiopians, and re- 
 duced the Canaanites of Palestine — most 
 likely the Philistine inhabitants of the great 
 maritime plain — to submission. He even car- 
 ried his conquests across the Euphrates into 
 Mesopotamia. He reigned twenty-one years, 
 and after his death his daughter Amen-set 
 (Amensis) became regent for his infant 
 sons. She reigned seventeen years. To 
 her reign belong the two gigantic obelisks, 
 one of which still stands among the ruins 
 of Karnak. Her reign was brilliant and 
 successful, and terminated with her life. 
 She was succeeded by her brother, Thothmes 
 III., who had been of age for some years, 
 Thothmes II. having died during his in- 
 fancy. He reigned for upwards of forty 
 
FOUNDATION OF MONARCHY TO TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY 
 
 121 
 
 years, and carried on wars in Ethiopia, 
 Arabia, Syria, and western Mesopotamia. 
 He built magnificent palaces and temples 
 at Thebes, Karnak, Memphis, Heliopolis, 
 Coptos, and other places. Araunoph II., 
 
 CHAKIOT-HOESE OP RAMESES III. 
 
 his son, the sixth king, was associated with 
 him shortly before his death, and succeeded 
 him. Amunoph's reign was short and un- 
 eventful. He was succeeded by his son 
 Thothmes IV., who is believed by some 
 writers to have caused the construction of 
 the great Sphinx near the Pyramids. 
 Amunoph III., his son and successor, came 
 to the throne about b. c. 1400. He was 
 one of the greatest monarchs of the dynasty. 
 He conducted successful wars against the 
 Libyans and Ethiopians. He was also a 
 great builder. The two great Colossi, one 
 of which is known as " the Vocal Memnon," 
 belong to his reign. He also caused the 
 construction of tanks or reservoirs through- 
 out the kingdom for the retention of water 
 for irrigation. His reign lasted for about 
 thirty-six years, and was marked by great 
 internal troubles caused by his unsuccessful 
 efforts to change the religion of the nation. 
 His son Horus, his lawful heir, succeeded 
 him, but his claims were disputed by pre- 
 tenders who are thought to have been his 
 brothers and sisters, and for thirty years 
 the country was in an unsettled and dis- 
 turbed state. Horus ultimately triumphed, 
 and reigned seven years longer, when he 
 died. He was succeeded by Resitot (Rath- 
 otis), whose relationship to him is uncer- 
 tain, and with whom the dynasty ended in 
 B. c. 1324. 
 
 In the same year the Nineteenth Dynasty 
 was founded by Rameses I., who was de- 
 
 scended from the first two kings of the 
 Eighteenth Dynasty, but not through any 
 of the later kings. He reigned less than 
 two years, and was succeeded by his son 
 Seti (the Sesostris of the Greeks), a great 
 and warlike monarch, who conquered Syria, 
 which had revolted after the death of Am- 
 unoph III., and carried his victorious arms 
 to the borders of Cilicia and the Euphrates. 
 He built the great hall of Karnak, and 
 constructed for himself the most beautiful 
 of the royal tombs. For a number of years 
 his son, Rameses II., called the Great, was 
 associated with him in the government, and 
 after the death of Seti he became sole king 
 (about B. c. 1311). 
 
 Rameses reigned sixty-six years, and the 
 events of his life are so mixed up with fable 
 that it is hard to separate fact from legend. 
 He conquered Libya and Arabia during his 
 father's lifetime, and upon becoming sole 
 king subdued Ethiopia. He built a canal 
 from the Nile above Bubastis to the Red 
 Sea, and maintained a fleet which some 
 writers estimate at 400 vessels in that sea. 
 The legend attributes to him the invasion 
 of Asia at the head of a vast army, and the 
 conquest of that continent as far as the 
 
 EGYPTIANS Al^TACKING A FOKT ON A ROCK. 
 
 Ganges, but it would seem that his Asiatic 
 wars were confined to quelling the revolts 
 in the provinces already held by Egypt, 
 and he added no new territory to the king- 
 dom. His steles are still to be seen on the 
 
122 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 rocks at Adlaa near Tyre, and at Nahr el 
 Kelb (Dog River), uear Beyrout in Syria. 
 He built the Ramesseum (Memnonium) at 
 Thebes; and in his reign Egyptian art 
 reached its highest point. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Amenephthes (Meneph- 
 thah, or Merenphtah) who, according to 
 some systems of chronology, was the Pha- 
 raoh of the Exodus. The length of his 
 reign is uncertain. His successor was his 
 son Sethos II. (Seti), with whom the dynasty 
 terminated about b. c. 1219. 
 
 The Twentieth Dynasty was established 
 
 VIII. followed them, breaking the general 
 monotony of the Egyptian history of this 
 period by some successful wars. Six or 
 seven other kings followed him, all bearing 
 the same name, and nearly all had short 
 and uneventful reigns. The dynasty ap- 
 pears to have ended about b. c. 1085. 
 
 The highest pitch of Egyptian greatness 
 was reached under the Nineteenth Dynasty. 
 Under the Twentieth the military power 
 and the internal strength and prosperity of 
 the empire declined rapidly. One by one 
 its conquests were torn from it in Asia and 
 
 FOKEIGN CAPTIVES EMPLOYED IN MAKING BKICKS AT THEBES. 
 
 by Rameses III. He was a great builder 
 and a great conqueror. He erected the 
 palace at Medinet Abu at Thebes, every 
 pylon, every gate, every chamber of which 
 gives us an account of his exploits. He 
 defeated an invasion of the Libyans aided 
 by the Tokari, the people from the islands 
 or northern shores of the Mediterranean, 
 and appears to have fought a naval battle 
 with the fleet of the latter. He also con- 
 ducted a successful campaign in Asia, 
 advancing as far as Western Mesopotamia. 
 He had four sons, all named Rameses, who 
 came to the throne successivelv. Rameses 
 
 in the country to the south of its natural 
 limits. " From its prolonged contact with 
 Asiatics, Egypt had lost that unity essential 
 to its power. Semitic words had been ad- 
 mitted to the language ; foreign gods had 
 invaded the sanctuaries previously inacces- 
 sible." During this period of general de- 
 cline, another cause of weakness appeared. 
 " The high priests of Amen, at Thebes, with 
 whom that dignity was hereditary, attempted 
 to play the part taken in later times by 
 the mayors of the palace under the Mero- 
 vingian Kings of France ; they possessed 
 themselves successively of all the supreme 
 
TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY TO END OF PERSIAN DOMINION. 123 
 
 functions, civil and military, gradually 
 undermined the royal authority, and 
 aspired to dethrone the legitimate king. 
 Egypt thus paid the penalty of the ambi- 
 tion of the conquerors of the Eighteenth 
 and Nineteenth Dynasties. The process of 
 internal decay was rapidly sapping the 
 prosperity of the nation during the exist- 
 ence of the Twentieth Dynasty. The over- 
 whelming predominance acquired by the 
 priestly class, whose influence pervaded all 
 ranks, from the highest to the lowest, was 
 fatal to thought and progress of all kinds. 
 
 EGYI'TIAN MUMMIES. 
 
 The people were held sternly to the old 
 forms of religion, architecture languished, 
 no new buildings were erected, art neglected 
 the study of nature, and confined itself to 
 the slavish imitation of old models. The 
 object of the priestly party was to maintain 
 all things at a certain set level, fixed and 
 immutable. Hence, when the limit of pro- 
 gress had thus been fixed, decay set in. The 
 later monarchs of the Twentieth Dynasty 
 were little more than puppets in the hands 
 of the priests. 
 
 About B. c. 1085, at the close of that 
 
 dynasty, the Twenty-first began its reign 
 at Tauis (Zoan) in the Delta. They styled 
 themselves "High Priests of Amen," and 
 wore the priestly dress. Their rule was ac- 
 knowledged in upper as well as in middle 
 and lower Egypt, but their power was not 
 established without a struggle. 
 
 The reign of the Twenty-first Dynasty 
 extended through seven kings. This period 
 was one of mental and political insignifi- 
 cance. Ethiopia revolted and became inde- 
 pendent of Egypt; and all the Asiatic con- 
 quests were lost. The strong kingdom of 
 Israel was formed by David out of territory 
 which had once been subject to Egypt. One 
 of the Tanite kings, probably Amenephthes, 
 or Osochor, gave his daughter in marriage 
 to Solomon — an evidence that the dynasty 
 had abandoned all hope of reasserting its 
 ancient power in Asia. At the same time 
 Assyria, the great rival of Egypt, was 
 rapidly growing into a powerful empire 
 beyond the Euphrates. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 -> 
 
 FROM THE TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY TO 
 THE END OF THE PERSIAN DOMINION. 
 
 The Twenty-second Dynasty — Revival of the IMon- 
 archy— Bubastis the Capital— The Twenty -third 
 Dynasty Eemove the Capital to Sais — Egypt and 
 Assyria at War — Battle of Raphia — Sargon Sub- 
 dues the Delta — Egypt Throws Off the Assyrian 
 Supremacy, but is Again Subdued — Decline of the 
 National Spirit — Psanimetichus I. Re-establishes 
 the Independence of Egypt — Defection of the Mili- 
 tary Class — Nechoh Makes War Upon Babylon, 
 but is Defeated by Nebuchadnezzar — Growth of 
 Egyptian Commerce — Egypt Conquered by Baby- 
 lon — Aniasis Re-establishes the Independence of 
 his Kingdom — His Conquests — Egy])t Conquered 
 by Cainl)ysses — His Cruelties — Egy]it a Persian 
 Province — Rebels Against Persia — Ochus Pun- 
 ishes the Rebels. 
 
 HE Twenty-first Dynasty ended 
 with Psusennes II. (Pisham II.), 
 B. c. 993. It was succeeded by 
 the Twenty-second Dynasty, foun- 
 ded by Sheshouk I., the son-in-law 
 of Pisham II. By some writers 
 this king is regarded as the grandson of 
 Pisham II., adopted by him as his heir. 
 Though he styled himself High Priest of 
 Amen, he was in no sense an ecclesiastic. 
 He established his capital at Bubastis, in 
 the Delta. Here he gave asylum to Jero- 
 boam, who had fled from Solomon, King 
 of Israel, upon the discovery of his plot to 
 divide the Hebrew monarchy. Under 
 Sheshonk the Egyptian monarchy experi- 
 
124 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 enced a temporary revival. He restored to 
 it its military character, and made Egypt 
 once more a formidable state. When Jero- 
 boam established the new kingdom of Is- 
 rael, Sheshonk,in alliance with him, invaded 
 Judah, captured its cities, plundered the 
 temple at Jerusalem, and made Judah 
 tributary to him. He died in B. c. 972, 
 and was succeeded by his son Osorkon I., 
 whose uneventful reign covered a period of 
 fifteen years. His successor was his son 
 Pehor, B. c. 957. The remaining kings of 
 this dynasty were insignificant personages. 
 The Twenty-second Dynasty came to an 
 end in b. c. 847. It was succeeded by the 
 Twenty-third Dynasty, which consisted of 
 four kings, none of whom were persons of 
 note. 
 
 The period of the Twenty-third Dynasty 
 was passed by Egypt in contentious and 
 
 established over the Delta, and the Ethio- 
 pians were confined to the limits of upper 
 Egypt. Sabaco II. came to the throne 
 about B. c. 704. It would seem that the 
 Assyrians placed the Delta under the rule 
 of petty kings, tributary to them. Their 
 policy was always to weaken Egypt by 
 dividing it as much as possible. 
 
 Sabaco II. continued on the throne until 
 B. c. 690, when he was succeeded by the 
 greatest of the Ethiopian monarch s of 
 Egypt. This was Tehrak, called Tirhakah 
 in the Bible, and Tarchus, Tarachus, or 
 Tearchon, by the Greeks. About b. c. 
 669 Esarhaddon, King of Assyria, invaded 
 Egypt, and conquered the country as far 
 as the First Cataract. He divided Egypt 
 into twenty small kingdoms tributary to 
 Assyria. The next year, profiting by the 
 fatal illness of Esarhaddon, Tirhakah re- 
 
 VARIOUS FOKMS OF EGYPTIAN HAKPS. 
 
 revolutions. The country was divided 
 between various families, and was full of 
 civil discords. Nor did this state of affairs 
 cease when the Twenty-fourth Dynasty 
 came to the throne, B. c. 758. This dynasty 
 consisted of a single monarch, called by 
 Manetho and Diodorus, Bocchoris. He 
 removed the capital to Sais, another city of 
 the Delta. In b. c. 730 his reign and life 
 were cut short by Sabaco, an Ethiopian, 
 who conquered Egypt at the head of a 
 powerful army of his countrymen, and 
 established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Sa- 
 baco I. is known in the Scriptures as So, 
 or Seveh. He made an alliance with 
 Hoshea, King of Israel, who had revolted 
 from Assyria, and this drew upon him the 
 enmity of the masters of Asia. He was 
 defeated by Sargon in the battle of Raphia, 
 B. c. 718. The Assyrian supremacy was 
 
 conquered the whole valley of the Nile, 
 being everywhere assisted by the priests of 
 the god Amen as the restorer of the national 
 religion. He drove the kings of the Delta 
 out of their cities, and re-established his 
 authority over that district. In the mean- 
 time Asshur-bani-pal, who had succeeded 
 his father as King of Assyria, entered Egypt 
 with a strong army to restore his authority. 
 For two years Tirhakah made a vigorous 
 resistance, but was at length decisively de- 
 feated and obliged to retreat beyond the 
 Cataracts, leaving all Egypt once more in 
 possession of the Assyrians. The country 
 was again divided into petty kingdoms, 
 tributary to Assyria, and remained so for 
 many years. A disastrous practice had 
 been maintained since the time of the 
 Twenty-second Dynasty of employing foreign 
 mercenaries in the Egyptian army. These 
 
TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY TO END OF PERSIAN DOMINION. 
 
 125 
 
 troops cared little under Avhat master they 
 served, and the army was thus deprived of 
 the stimulus of patriotism, and was ren- 
 dered unfit to resist the Assyrians. In 
 addition to this, the national spirit had de- 
 clined so greatly that the foreign yoke was 
 less bitter than it would have been a cen- 
 tury or two earlier. These causes rendered 
 it easy for the Assyrians to maintain their 
 supremacy in Egypt. 
 
 Among the viceroys established by the 
 Assyrians over the petty kingdoms was one 
 named Nechoh. He was either succeeded 
 by his sou, or he associated that son with 
 him almost immediately after his appoint- 
 ment by Asshur-bani-pal. This son was 
 Psammetichus I. For several years he was 
 
 one of the petty «.. i ., i .m.u , - ■- .. . -^ — ^ 
 
 rulers of Egypt, but, 
 at length, taking ad- 
 vantage of the grow- 
 ing weakness of the 
 Assyrian empire, he 
 thi-ew off his allegi- 
 ance to that power, 
 about B. c. 632, and 
 after putting down 
 the opi>osition of the 
 other viceroys, made 
 himself master of all 
 Egypt, and ascended } 
 the throne as the ° 
 first king of the 
 Twenty-sixth D y - 
 nasty. Thus Egypt 
 l)assed once more 
 under the sway of 
 its native kings after 
 nearly a century of 
 foreign domination, 
 ciliate the 
 
 but was arrested at the outset by the Philis- 
 tine city of Ashdod, Avhich resisted him, and 
 endured a siege of twenty -nine years before 
 it succumbed. Psammetichus Avas also a 
 patron of commerce, and did much to en- 
 courage friendly intercourse between Egypt 
 and foreign nations. He was succeeded by 
 his son Nechoh, about B. c. 610. 
 
 By this time the Assyrian monarchy had 
 fallen, and the powerful empire of Babylon 
 had arisen, under Nebuchadnezzar I. A 
 contest between this monarchy and Egypt 
 for the control of the world was inevitable. 
 It soon came. Nechoh continuing the war 
 begun by his father, overran Philistia, de- 
 feated Josiah, Kiug of Judah, at Megiddo, 
 and made himself master of Syria as far as 
 
 EGYPTIAN SYMBOLS OF THE HEAVENS AND THE EARTH. 
 
 In order to con- 
 Ethiopian party Psammeti- 
 chus married the daughter and heiress of 
 the King of Thebes, whom he had dethroned, 
 and so secured the undivided adhesion of 
 upper Egypt, where the Ethiopians were 
 still popular. He was a Avise and liberal 
 ruler, and under him the arts and sciences 
 received new life. He constructed many 
 great works in the kingdom. He continued 
 the practice of using foreign troops, and by 
 his employment of Greek mercenaries so 
 offended the Avarrior class of Egypt that 
 large numbers of them deserted to Ethiopia. 
 The number of Avarriors concerned in this 
 defection is placed at 200,000. Psammeti- 
 chus entreated them to return, but they 
 preferred to remain in Ethiopia. He un- 
 
 the Euphrates, reducing the kingdom of 
 Judah to the position of a tributary. Ad- 
 A'ancing to Carchemish, or Circesium, on 
 the banks of the Euphrates, he encountered 
 the Babylonian army under Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, and Avas utterly routed, and obliged 
 to retire to Egypt, b. c. 604. He lost all 
 his Asian conquests, and Avas comj^elled to 
 confine himself to his oAvn kingdom. Dur- 
 ing his reign Egyptian commerce Avas 
 largely augmented. So greatly had the 
 number of foreigners increased in Egypt 
 that a neAv class of interpreters sprang up. 
 Through the medium of these, intercourse 
 Avith foreign nations Avas greatly facilitated. 
 The kiug undertook to reopen the ancient 
 canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, Avhich 
 had been constructed, as Ave have seen, by 
 
 dertook the conquest of Palestine and Syria, I Rameses II., but abandoned the attempt on 
 
126 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 account of the oracle which warned him 
 that he was working for the barbarian. He 
 caused a vessel, manned by Phoenician 
 sailors, to make the circuit of tlie African 
 continent by sea. They started from the 
 head of the Red Sea, and returned by the 
 Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar) 
 and the Mediterranean. The voyage ex- 
 tended over three years, but was barren 
 of commercial results, and was soon for- 
 gotten. 
 
 Nechoh was succeeded on the Egyptian 
 throne by his son Psammis, or Psaniatik 
 II., B. C. 594, whose unimportant reign 
 of six years witnessed an expedition to 
 Ethiopia. He was succeeded, B. c. 588, 
 by his son Uaphris, the Apries of Herod- 
 otus and the Pharaoh Hophra of the Bible, 
 
 EGYPTIAN STANDAKDS. 
 
 whose reign covered a period of nineteen 
 years. He resumed the aggressive policy 
 of his grandfather, besieged Sidon and 
 fought a naval battle with Tyre, but did 
 not succeed in becoming master of Phoe- 
 nicia. He endeavored to assist Zedekiah 
 in the revolt against Babylon, but Avas 
 driven back into his own country by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. He also undertook an unsuc- 
 cessful expedition against Gyrene. Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, about B. c. 581, invaded Egypt 
 and won some trifling successes. He again 
 invaded the kingdom in B. c. 570, com- 
 pelled its submission, and placed on the 
 throne a new king named Amasis, as a 
 tributary to Babylon, B. c. 569. Amasis 
 reigned forty-four years, holding his crown 
 at first as a dependent of Babylon. He 
 
 added to his influence in the kingdom by 
 marrying a daughter of Nitocris, the sister 
 of his predecessor. Under the weaker suc- 
 cesses of Nebuchadnezzar, he threw off his 
 allegiance to Babylon, and made himself 
 independent. He adorned Sais, his capital, 
 with grand buildings, and the monuments 
 of his reign are found in all parts of the 
 countiy. He cultivated friendly relations 
 with Gyrene and the other Greek states, and 
 encouraged Greek merchants to settle in 
 Egypt. He conquered the island of Cyprus, 
 and made it tributary to him. Alarmed 
 by the growing power of the Persians, who 
 had absorbed Media and Babylon, he made 
 an alliance with Croesus, King of Lydia, and 
 Polycrates of Samos, in the hope of resisting 
 the advance of the conquering nation, but 
 nothing came of this arrangement. He 
 died B. c. 525, and was succeeded by his 
 son Psammenitus, or Psammatik III., who 
 made Memphis his capital. In the same 
 year, the Persian King Cambysses, the son 
 and succes.sor of Cyrus, invaded Egypt at 
 the head of a vast army drawn from all 
 parts of his dominions. Psammenitus en- 
 deavored to drive him back in a pitched 
 battle near Pelusium, but was defeated, and 
 obliged to shut himself up in Memphis. 
 That city was taken, and the Egyptian king 
 became a captive after a reign of but six 
 months. In the same year he was put to 
 death by order of Cambysses, who susj^ected 
 him of a design to regain his crown. AVith 
 him perished the Egyptian monarchy after 
 an existence of a thousand years as a single 
 united kingdom. 
 
 Cambysses remained in Egypt less than 
 three years, but so great was his cruelty, so 
 vast the destruction he accomplished, that 
 the memory of his invasion was never lost 
 by the Egyptians, who from this time de- 
 tested and constantly plotted against their 
 Persian masters. Egypt was always the 
 most disaffected of the Persian provinces, 
 and her efforts to regain her independence 
 were unceasing. 
 
 During nearly the whole of the fifth cen- 
 tury B. c, Egypt remained a province of 
 the Persian empire. For a brief period of 
 five years, from b. c. 460 to B. c. 455, a de- 
 gree of independence was enjoyed by the 
 Twenty-eighth Dynasty, which consisted of 
 one king only. The revolt was suppressed 
 at length, and the Persian authority con- 
 tinued unbroken until B. c. 405, when the 
 Twenty-ninth Dynasty threw off the foreign 
 yoke, under the leadership of Neferites, or 
 
THE GREEK KINGDOM. 
 
 127 
 
 Nefaorot, and established its capital at 
 Mendes. This dynasty held the throne 
 until B. c. 384. 
 
 In the last-named year the Thirtieth 
 Dynasty came into power under Nectanebo 
 I., who reigned until B. c. 366. He was 
 succeeded by Teos, or Tachos, who, in his 
 brief reign of two years, contrived to stir 
 up a general disaffection of all the western 
 provinces of the Persian empire. These 
 disorders were quieted by Artaxerxes, but 
 the Egyptian monarch soon after attempted 
 to conquer Syria. He was recalled to his 
 own country by a revolt in which he lost 
 his crown. The successful leader of the 
 
 EGYPTIAN LANTERN. 
 
 revolt mounted the throne as Nectanebo 
 n., B. c. 364. In B. c. 351, Ochus. King of 
 Persia, made an unsuccessful attempt to 
 conquer Egypt. In b. c. 346, Ochus re- 
 newed his attempt, and invaded Egypt with 
 an army of 344,000 men, of which 14,000 
 were veteran Greek mercenaries, com- 
 manded by experienced generals. Necta- 
 nebo prepared to meet him with an army 
 of 100,000 men, of whom 20,000 were Greek 
 mercenaries. The Greek generals of Ochus 
 outmanoeuvred the Egyptian king, and 
 defeated his army. Egypt was rapidly 
 overrun, and Nectanebo in despair fled to 
 Ethiopia. All Egypt now submitted to 
 
 Ochus, who demolished the walls of the 
 cities, plundered the temples, bestowed 
 large rewards upon the Greeks in his ser- 
 vice, and returned to Persia, carrying with 
 him an immense booty. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 THE GREEK KINGDOM. 
 
 Alexander the Great Conquers Egyjit — Alexandria 
 Founded and Made the Capital— Greek Civiliza- 
 tion in Egyj)t — Death of Alexander — Ptolemy 
 Lagi Takes Possession of Egypt — Reign of Ptol- 
 emy I. — Character of his Kingdom — Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus — Intellectual Greatness of Egypt — 
 The Libraries of Alexandria — The Septuagiut — 
 Events of this Reign — Commercjal Prosperity of 
 Egypt — Vices of the King — Ptolemy III. — His 
 Conquests— His Relations with Rome — Cruelties 
 of Ptolemy IV. — Decline of the Monarchy Under 
 Ptolemy V. — The Romans in Egypt — The Mon- 
 archy Sinks Still Lower — The Romans the Real 
 Arbiters of the Destiny of Egypt — Reigns of the 
 Other Ptolemies— Rapid Decline of Egypt— Cleo- 
 patra Queen — Julius Csesar in Egypt— Mark An- 
 tony — The Romans Conquer Egypt — It Becomes 
 a Province of the Empire. 
 
 'GYPT continued a province of the 
 Persian empire until after the 
 battle of Issus, when it was con- 
 quered by Alexander the Great, 
 who annexed it to his empire, and 
 conferred a lasting benefit upon it 
 by the erection of the city of Alexandria. 
 Alexander spent little time either in the 
 conquest or reorganization of Egypt, but in 
 this brief period he entirely changed the 
 character of Egyptian history and of the 
 Egyptians themselves, and laid the founda- 
 tions of their future greatness and glory. 
 He made Alexandria the capital of Egypt, 
 and gave to it the advantages of Greek 
 civilization which rapidly spread among the 
 native population. By this change Egypt 
 was brought into constant and familiar in- 
 tercourse with the rest of the world, and 
 commercial pursuits were adopted by the 
 greater part of the nation. The Macedo- 
 Greek element was to be found chiefly in 
 and around Alexandria. In the interior 
 the native population continued in language 
 and religion the same people they had 
 always been, except that they were power- 
 fully affected in manners and thought, and 
 brought more into sympathy with the west- 
 ern world, by their association Avith the 
 Greeks. They became the willing subjects 
 of Alexander and the Ptolemies, and under 
 them engaged actively in commerce, and 
 began the cultivation of a literature which 
 
128 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 soon made Alexandria one of the most illus- 
 trious cities in the world. 
 
 Upon the death of Alexander, in b, c. 
 323, the African provinces were assigned to 
 Ptolemy Lagi, in the division of the empire 
 by the generals. Ptolemy at once took pos- 
 session of his government, which he meant 
 from the first to retain for his own benefit, 
 and devoted himself to the task of rendering 
 it unassailable. Relinquishing all great 
 ambitious designs he confined himself to this 
 policy, and limited his conquests to such 
 regions as could be acquired without too 
 much risk. His great effort was to make 
 Egypt a strong naval power, and in this 
 he ultimately succeeded beyond his expecta- 
 tions. To secure the success of this design 
 
 SPECIMEN OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AKT. 
 
 it was necessary that he should be master 
 of Palestine and Phoenicia, as he needed not 
 only the timber but the ha^dy sailor popu- 
 lation of those countries. After a period 
 of alternate success and failure, the peace 
 of B. c. 301, which followed the battle of 
 Ipsns, confirmed him in these possessions. 
 His efforts to obtain Cyprus were unceasing, 
 and after a liberal expenditure of blood and 
 treasure, he made that island a dependency 
 of the Egyptian crown. 
 
 The kingdom founded by Ptolemy was 
 an absolute monarchy, in which, while he 
 made no important changes in the ancient 
 laws or political system of the country, the 
 power was lodged entirely in the hands of 
 
 Macedonian and Greek officials. The 
 standing array was also composed almost 
 entirely of Macedonians and Greeks. 
 
 An author himself, Ptolemy was a munifi- 
 cent patron of learning. He founded the 
 famous library of Alexandria, and induced 
 the most eminent scholars of the world to 
 take up their residence at his court. Under 
 his wise guidance Alexandria became the 
 brilliant rival of Athens in literature, the 
 arts and sciences. He also adorned his 
 capital with a number of splendid edifices, 
 the most noted of which were the royal pal- 
 ace, the museum, the magnificent light- 
 tower of white marble, called the Pharos, 
 which marked the entrance to the harbor, 
 the Soma, or tomb in which the body of 
 Alexander the Great was 
 buried, the temple of Se- 
 rapis, and the hippo- 
 drome. His reign exten- 
 ded into the third cen- 
 tury before Christ, and 
 he died in b. c. 283, at 
 the age of eighty-four, 
 after a reign of forty 
 years. 
 
 Ptolemy II. (Phila- 
 delphus) became sole 
 King of Egypt by the 
 death of his father, b. c. 
 283. He was twenty- 
 six years old, and had 
 been carefully educated 
 by the learned men whom 
 his father had gathered 
 at the Egyptian court. 
 He was a liberal patron 
 of science and literature, 
 and in his reign Alexan- 
 dria reached the height 
 of her intellectual splen- 
 dor. He made extensive additions to the 
 Alexandrian library, and the minor library 
 of the Serapeium was entirely collected 
 by him. Learned men were invited to 
 his court from all parts of the world, 
 and literary works of the greatest value 
 were undertaken at his desire or under his 
 patronage. The most important of these 
 was the translation of the Hebrew Scrip- 
 tures into the Greek language, by which 
 they became the property of the world. This 
 work was begun in his reign and was con- 
 tinued through those of several of his suc- 
 cessors. This version is known as the Sep- 
 tuagint, either because it was the Avork of 
 seventy translators, or because it was au- 
 
THE GREEK KINGDOM. 
 
 129 
 
 thorized by the Sanhedrim of Alexandria, 
 ■which consisted of seventy members. In 
 this reign also, the Egyptian priest Mau- 
 etho composed in Greek his famous *' His- 
 tory of Egypt." Philadelphus was a muni- 
 ficent patron of painting and sculpture, and 
 adorned Alexandria with noble buildings. 
 
 Ptolemy II. did not inherit his father's 
 military genius, and his wars were conse- 
 quently not as important as those of the 
 preceding reign. The first of these was 
 against Macedon for the protection of the 
 Achaean league. He next made war upon 
 his half-brother Magas, King of Cyrene, 
 who threw off his dependence upon Egypt, 
 and marched against that kingdom about 
 B. c. 266. Magas then made an alliance 
 with Autiochus of Syria, and invaded Egypt 
 a second time in B. c. 264. The Egyptians 
 prevented Antiochus from leaving his own 
 kingdom by vigorous movements in that 
 quarter, and checked the advance of Magas. 
 In B. c. 259, Magas was recognized as in- 
 dependent monarch of the Cyreuaica. and 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY I. 
 
 his daughter Berenice was betrothed to the 
 eldest sou of Philadelphus. Ptolemy made 
 himself master of a large part of the coast 
 of Asia Minor and a number of the Cyclades 
 during the war with Syria, which continued 
 ten years longer. Peace was made in b. c. 
 249, and Ptolemy gave his daughter Beren- 
 ice in marriage to Antiochus. 
 
 Under the second Ptolemy Egypt reached 
 the culminating point of her commercial 
 prosperity. He reopened the canal between 
 the Nile and the Red Sea, which had been 
 dug by Rameses the Great twelve hundred 
 years previous to this reign, and built the 
 port of Arsinoe at the head of the Red Sea, 
 on the site of the present town of Suez. 
 Owing to the dangers of the Red Sea navi- 
 gation, one port was insufficient, and two 
 more, each called Berenice, were constructed 
 on the African coast, one nearly in latitude 
 24°, and the other about latitude 13°. A 
 high road was constructed from the north- 
 ern Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, near 
 Thebes. An extensive commerce was es- 
 9 
 
 tablished between Egypt and Ethiopia, 
 Arabia, and India, and for centuries it 
 flowed chiefly along this route to Alexan- 
 dria, which was the point of its distribution 
 to the nations of Europe. The Ethiopian 
 traffic was especially valuable. This flour- 
 ishing state of trade naturally produced a 
 full treasury. The revenues of the kingdom 
 in this reign are said to have amounted to 
 14,800 talents, or about $17,760,000 (with- 
 out counting the tribute in grain), a sura 
 equal to the revenue of the whole Persian 
 empire under Darius I. 
 
 Philadelphus was not as worthy of ad- 
 miration as his father. He began his reign 
 by banishing Demetrius Phalereus, whose 
 only offence was that he had advised Ptol- 
 emy I. against altering the succession. 
 A little later he caused two of his brothers 
 to be put to death. He was married to 
 Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysimachus, King 
 of Thrace, but becoming enamored of his 
 sister, Arsinoe, who had already been mar- 
 ried to his half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY II. 
 
 he divorced his first wife and banished her 
 to Coptos in upper Egypt. He then mar- 
 ried his sister, to whom he continued pas- 
 sionately attached, though she bore him no 
 children. He did not long survive her, 
 and died of disease in B. c. 247, after a 
 reign of thirty-eight years, during thirty- 
 six of which he was sole monarch. 
 
 Ptolemy III., called Eugertes, or the 
 Benefactor, succeeded his father. He was 
 the son of the first wife of Ptolemy II., and 
 was the most entor{)rising prince of his race. 
 He abandoned the defensive policy of his 
 father and grandfather, and entered upon a 
 series of conquests by which he revived the 
 ancient glories of Egypt and added largely 
 to his dominions. By his marriage with 
 Berenice, the daughter and heiress of 
 Magas, he became master of the Cyrenaica, 
 In a year or two after his accession he made 
 war against Syria, to avenge the wrongs ol 
 his sister, Berenice, who had been divorced 
 by Antiochus, and then murdered by 
 Laodice. In b. c. 245 Eugertes marched 
 
130 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 into Syria and captured Antioch, after 
 which he crossed the Euphrates and re- 
 duced Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Susiana, 
 Media and Persia, and received the sub- 
 mission of the eastern provinces to the bor- 
 ders of Bactria. While he was thus en- 
 gaged, his fleet ravaged the coast of Asia 
 Minor and Thrace. He was recalled to 
 Egypt by impending troubles, and at once 
 lost all his eastern conquests, which were 
 recovered by the Syrian monarch. The 
 maritime provinces, however, were retained, 
 as Ptolemy's command of the sea enabled 
 him to hold them. His empire now ex- 
 tended along the Mediterranean from Cy- 
 rdne to the Hellespont, and included a 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY III. 
 
 portion of Thrace, and many islands of the 
 Mediterranean. Towards the close of his 
 reign he made himself master of a part of 
 the western coast of Arabia, and of por- 
 tions of Ethiopia. He took part in the 
 struggles in Greece, supporting first the 
 Achsean League until it came to terms 
 with Antigonus, when he aided Cleomenes, 
 of Sparta, against the confederates. Dur- 
 ing this war the Egyptian fleet defeated that 
 of Antigonus, off* Audros. Eugertes main- 
 tained friendly relations with Kome, but 
 declined the assistance proffered him by the 
 Republic against Syria. He appears to 
 have been suspicious of the ambitious 
 Romans. Eugertes was also a patron of 
 learning and art. He died B. c. 222, after 
 a prosperous reign of twenty-five years. 
 He Avas the last of the great Macedonian 
 kings of Egypt, and under him that coun- 
 try reached the summit of her later power 
 and prosperity. His successors were weak 
 and generally worthless. 
 
 Ptolemy IV. succeeded his father. As he 
 was generally suspected of murdering Eu- 
 gertes, he assumed the title of Philopater 
 (lover of his father) to allay this suspicion. 
 He began his reign, however, by murdering 
 his mother, his brother, and his uncle, and 
 marrying his sister, Arsinoe, whom he put 
 to death a few years later, after she had borne 
 him an heir to the throne. He was a weak 
 and shamefully dissolute king, and the gov- 
 
 ernment of the kingdom was conducted by 
 his minister, Sosibius, who was as wicked 
 and unfit to rule as his master. This state 
 of affairs encouraged Antiochus IH., of 
 Syria, to attempt to recover his dominions 
 and to wrest Palestine and Phoenicia from 
 Egypt. He was defeated by the Egyptians 
 at Raphia, and succeeded in regaining only 
 the port of Antioch, b. c. 217. This war 
 had scarcely closed wlien a general revolt 
 broke out among Philopater's Egyptian 
 subjects. It lasted through a large part of 
 this reign, and required a liberal expendi- 
 ture of blood and treasure for its suppres- 
 sion. Notwithstanding his infamous char- 
 acter, Philopater was a liberal patron of 
 learning and the arts, and dedicated a 
 temple to Homer. He died at the age of 
 forty, B. c. 205, a victim to his excesses. 
 
 Ptolemy V., who afterwards assumed the 
 surname of Epiphanes, was the son of the 
 murdered Arsinoe and Philopater, and was 
 but five years old at the time of his father's 
 death. He Avas readily acknowledged 
 king, and Agathocles, an infamous and 
 incompetent adventurer, a former favorite 
 of Philopater, was made regent. He soon 
 fell a victim to the rage of the people, to- 
 gether with all his relatives, and Tlepole- 
 mus, who was honest, if incompetent, suc- 
 ceeded to the regency. The alliance of 
 Syria and Macedon against Egypt made it 
 of the highest importance that the affairs 
 of the kingdom should be administered by 
 a firm and able hand. A combined attack 
 of the allies stripped Egypt of all her 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY IV. 
 
 foreign possessions but Cyprus and the Cyre- 
 naica. Tlepolemus, feeling his own incom- 
 petence, asked aid of the Romans, who, in 
 B. c. 201, sent M. Lepidus to undertake the 
 management of Egyptian aflfairs. Lepidus,. 
 by his exertions, preserved Egypt from 
 conquest, but was either unwilling or un- 
 able to regain the foreign possessions of 
 which she had been deprived. 
 
 Ptolemy V., protected from the efforts 
 of Antiochus of Syria by his Roman 
 patrons, was declared of age in B. c. 196,. 
 when only fourteen years old. He was a weak 
 
THE GREEK KINGDOM 
 
 181 
 
 and cruel prince, and began his reign by 
 the murder of his honest guardian. He 
 was himself assassinated in B. c. 181. 
 
 Ptolemy VI., seven years of age at the 
 time, succeeded his father. For eight years 
 the kingdom Avas well ruled by his mother, 
 Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus the 
 Great. At her death in b. c. 173, the 
 power passed into the hands of two corrupt 
 and incompetent ministers, who involved 
 Egypt in a war with Antiochus Epiphanes 
 of Syria, who invaded Egypt, defeated the 
 royal army at Pelusium, and gained pos- 
 session of Ptolemy VI., whom he used as a 
 tool for effecting the reduction of the entire 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY V. 
 
 country. The people of Alexandria made 
 the younger brother, Ptolemy Physcon, 
 king, and the Romans, intervening, com- 
 pelled Antiochus to surrender his conquests 
 and Avithdraw. The brothers agreed to 
 reign conjointly, and Ptolemy VI. married 
 his only sister, Cleopatra. Then both re- 
 newed the war with Syria. Antiochus 
 seized Cyprus, and advanced into Egypt, 
 B. c. 168. He would have taken Alexan- 
 dria had not the Romans again compelled 
 him to retire. Four years later the brothers 
 quarrelled, and Ptolemy VI. went to Rome, 
 where the Senate sustained his cause. 
 Physcon refusing to accept the adjustment 
 of the Senate, a civil war ensued, which 
 Avas finally closed by the capture of Phys- 
 con by Ptolemy VI., B. c. 155. Ptolemy 
 spared his brother's life, and restored his 
 dominions. Some years later Ptolemy en- 
 couraged the rebellion of Alexander Balas 
 in Syria as a means of revenging himself 
 upon that couiitry, and aided him to gain 
 the throne. Disgusted by the ingratitude 
 of Alexander, he passed over to Demetrius, 
 and assisted him to hurl his rival from 
 power. He was killed by a fall from his 
 horse in the last battle Avith Alexander, 
 near Antioch, B. c. 146. 
 
 Ptolemy VII., Eupator, succeeded his 
 father, but Avas murdered a fcAV days later 
 by his uncle Physcon, who, by the aid of the 
 Romans, became King of Egypt and Cyrene 
 as Ptolemy VIII. He married his sister. 
 
 the widow of Ptolemy VI., and began such 
 a series of cruelties that his subjects fled in 
 such numbers that Alexandria was half 
 depopulated. He was so bloated and cor- 
 pulent that he could scarcely Avalk. He 
 repudiated his Avife, Cleopatra, although she 
 had borne him a son, and married her 
 daughter, Cleopatra, the child of his 
 brother. His cruelties at length drove the 
 Alexandrians into rebelliou. They made 
 the elder Cleopatra queen, and Physcon 
 fled to Cyprus, B. c. 130. A civil Avar of 
 three years ensued. In B. c. 127 Cleopatra 
 imprudently aj^plied to the Syrian king, 
 Demetrius II., for aid, and this act so 
 alarmed the Alexandrians that they de- 
 posed her and recalled Physcon, who, 
 profiting by the lessons of his exile, desisted 
 from his cruelties. He devoted the latter 
 part of his reign to literary pursuits, and 
 obtained some reputation as an author. He 
 did not desist from Avar, howe\'er, but, to 
 avenge himself on Demetrius for the sup- 
 port he had given to Cleopatra, induced 
 Alexander Zabinas, the son of Alexander 
 Balas, to revive his father's claims to the 
 Syrian croAvn. With the aid of Egypt 
 Alexander became king, but, like his father, 
 turned upon his patron, Avho thereupon 
 hurled him from his throne and secured the 
 elevation of Antiochus Grypus, to whom 
 he gave his daughter, Tryphceua, in mar- 
 riage. 
 
 Ptolemy IX., called Lathyrus, succeeded 
 his father in B. c. 117. At his death Phys- 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEiAIY A'l. 
 
 con bequeathed the kingdom of Cyren^ to 
 his natural son, Apion, Avho at his death 
 left it to the Romans. It Avas thus lost to 
 Egypt. Cyprus became almost a sejDarate 
 monarchy, being governed at first by Alex- 
 ander, the brother of Ptolemy, as king. 
 Ptolemy began his reign as King of Egypt, 
 but the real power Avas held by the queen 
 mother, Cleopatra, Avho obliged her sou to 
 divorce his sister, Cleopatra, and marry his 
 other sister, Selene, Avho AA'as more easily 
 managed by their mother. In B. C. 107 
 Ptolemy having commenced a policy in 
 Syria adverse to her own, the queen mother 
 
132 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 compelled him to retire to Cyprus, and 
 placed Alexander on the Egyptian throne. 
 Soon after this the queen mother endeav- 
 ored to dispossess Ptolemy of Cyprus, but 
 he succeeded in maintaining himself there 
 as king. 
 
 About the year b. c. 89 Alexander I. 
 murdered his mother, and proclaimed him- 
 self king as Ptolemy X. He was expelled 
 from the capital by the Alexandrians, who 
 summoned his brother Lathyrus from 
 Cyprus to resume the sovereignty. Alex- 
 ander subsequently attempted to regain 
 Cyprus, but Avas defeated, and soon after 
 died. A little later a revolt broke out in 
 Thebes, in upper Egypt. The royal troops 
 invested the city, captured it and destroyed 
 it, B. c. 86. Lathyrus after this reigned 
 peacefully until B. c. 81, when he died. 
 
 Berenice, the only legitimate child of 
 Lathyrus and his daughter by Selene, suc- 
 ceeded him upon the throne, and reigned 
 for six months as sole monarch. She then 
 married her cousin Ptolemy XI., also 
 called Alexander II., the son of Alexander 
 I. (or Ptolemy X.) He was a proteg^ of 
 Sulla, and the marriage was consummated 
 in order to prevent a civil war, Avith the 
 agreement that the king and queen should 
 reign conjointly, but within three weeks 
 after the marriage the king murdered his 
 wife. The Alexandrians, enraged at this, 
 rose against him and killed him, b. c. 80. 
 For fifteen years a period of confusion pre- 
 vailed, the crown being claimed by a num- 
 ber of pretenders. 
 
 In B. c. 65, Ptolemy XII., called Auletes, 
 or " the flute player," an illegitimate son of 
 Lathyrus, secured the throne. He dated 
 his reign from the death of his half-sister, 
 Berenice, but he was not properly king of 
 Egypt until b. c. 65. By this time Cyprus 
 had become an independent kingdom. The 
 first efforts of Auletes were directed to se- 
 curing his recognition by, and the friend- 
 ship of, the Romans. He was not able to 
 accomplish this until B. c. 59, when Csesar 
 became Consul, when he succeeded by 
 means of bribery. He had been obliged to 
 spend so much money in effecting this that 
 his treasury was now empty, and in order 
 to refill it he resorted to increased taxation. 
 His subjects, exasperated by his debauch- 
 eries and " fluting," rose against him, and 
 after a brief struggle compelled him to fly 
 to Rome. They then placed his two 
 daughters, Tryphoena and Berenice, upon 
 the throne. The former died a year later. 
 
 The latter continued to rule until B. c. 55, 
 when her father returned under the protec- 
 tion of Pompey, who sent a strong Roman 
 army, under Gabinius, to restore him. He 
 Avas resisted by Berenice, Avho sought to 
 retain the crown, but she was overcome and 
 put to death. Auletes then reigned under 
 the protection of his Roman masters until 
 B. c. 51, when he died, leaving his country 
 on the brink of the ruin and degradation 
 to which he had led it. 
 
 Ptolemy XII. left his crown to his eldest 
 daughter, Cleopatra, aged seventeen, and 
 his eldest son, Ptolemy, aged thirteen. He 
 ordered that the two should reign con- 
 jointly and be married Avhen Ptolemy was 
 of full age. He left also two other children, 
 a son named Ptolemy, and a daughter 
 named Arsinoe, who Avere mere childi'en. 
 His directions Avere approA''ed by the 
 Romans, but Cleopatra, unwilling to sub- 
 mit to any control, quarrelled with her 
 youthful husband. War followed, and 
 Cleopatra took refuge in Syria. Here she 
 met Julius Caesar and so fascinated him 
 Avith her marvellous beauty that he became 
 her protector. With his aid she conquered 
 her husband, Avho Avas slain in the struggle, 
 and Avas made sole queen of Egypt on con- 
 dition of marrying her younger brother 
 Avhen he came of age, B. c. 47. In B. c. 44 
 she complied AA'ith her agreement in form, 
 but freed herself by having her second hus- 
 band poisoned soon after the marriage. The 
 remainder of her reign Avas generally pi'os- 
 perous, for Csesar remained faithful to her 
 during his life. After his death she suc- 
 ceeded in Avinning Mark Antony to her 
 side, B. c. 41, and made him her slave. For 
 the sake of the guilty love he bore her, 
 Antony sacrificed honor, ambition and 
 power. He abandoned his Avife, who Avas a 
 woman worthy of all honor and had been 
 conspicuously faithful to him, deserted his 
 country, and basely left to its fate the army 
 that had stood by him through good and 
 evil report, to folloAV the Egyptian queen, 
 Avho, Avhen the moment of trial came, showed 
 herself willing to sacrifice him to ensure 
 her own safety and the retention of her king- 
 dom. We shall refer to this period of 
 Egyptian history in our account of Rome, 
 and pass it by noAv. It only remains to 
 say that, upon the capture of her capital by 
 the Romans, in b. c. 30, Cleopatra com- 
 mitted suicide, and Egypt became a Roman 
 province. Thus fell the kingdom of the 
 Ptolemies, after an existence of 293 years. 
 
FEOM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 133 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Egypt as a Roman Province — Literary Splendor of 
 Alexandria — Christianity in Egypt — Decline of 
 U)iper Egypt — Zenobia becomes Queen of Egypt 
 — Is Conquered by the Romans — Rebellions of the 
 Egyptians against Rome — They are Unsuccessful 
 — Diocletian Takes Alexandria — Egypt a Ruined 
 Country — The Greek Element Dies Out — Rise of 
 the Copts — Persecutions of the Egyptian Chris- 
 tians — The Establishment of Christianity under 
 Constantine — The Arian Controversy — The Coun- 
 cil of Nicsea — The Arians Persecuted — The Pagan 
 Temples Destroyed — Etfects of Paganism upon 
 Christianity — Cyril — Murder of Hypatia — Deso- 
 lation of Upper Egypt — Conquest of Egypt by the 
 Persians — Rise of the Cojitic Church — ^.Rise of the 
 Jlohammedans — Conquest of Egypt by Aniru — 
 Alexandria Taken — Egypt a Saracen Province — 
 Spread of Islamism — Rise of the Fatimite Kha- 
 lifs — They Conquer Egypt — Division in the ^lo- 
 hammedan Church — Al-Hakem — End of the Fa- 
 timite Line — Saladin — Saladin Conquers Pales- 
 tine and Syria — The ^Mamelukes— They Seize the 
 Egyptian Kingdom — Egypt Conquered by the 
 Ottoman Turks— Becomes a Turkish Province — 
 Is Conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte— ^lehemet 
 All — Massacre of the Mamelukes — Plis Efforts to 
 Make Egypt Independent — The Greek Revolution 
 — -Egypt Rebels against Turkey — Ibrahim Pasha's 
 Victories — Syria Conquered — Intervention of the 
 European Powers — Egypt Reduced to its Proper 
 Limits — Abbas Pasha — The First Railroad in 
 Egypt— The Suez Canal Begun — Ismail Pasha — 
 Rapid Advance of Egypt under its Present Ruler. 
 
 GYPT remained a Roman province 
 for more than three centuries. Under 
 the earliest of the Roman emperors 
 it was, on the whole, well treated, 
 while governed with great rigor. 
 It was regarded as one of the most 
 valuable portions of the empire, and was the 
 chief source from Avhich the city of Rome 
 drew its grain. It Avas governed by prefects, 
 and was frequently visited by the emperors. 
 During this period Alexandria was con- 
 sidered the chief seat of the learning of the 
 ancient world. Its libraries, museums and 
 rare collections of art made it the most at- 
 tractive place of residence and resort in ex- 
 istence to the learned and cultivated, who 
 flocked to it in such throngs as to give 
 character to its society. 
 
 Christianity spread rapidly, Alexandria 
 being its chief centre, and the writings of 
 the Christian authors began to command a 
 respectful attention equal to that paid to 
 the productions of the most learned pagan 
 philosophers. 
 
 During this period the population of 
 upper Egypt decreased steadily. By the 
 reign of the Emperor Commodus (a. d. 
 181-194), " it had been drained of all its 
 
 hoarded wealth. Its carrying trade through 
 Coptos to the Red Sea was much lessened. 
 Any tribute that its temples received from 
 the piety of the neighborhood was small. 
 Nubia was a desert ; and a few soldiers at 
 Syene were enough to guard the poverty of 
 the Thebaid from the inroads of the Blem- 
 myes. It was no longer necessary to send 
 criminals to the Oasis ; it was enough to 
 banish them to the neighborhood of 
 Thebes." Lower Egypt suffered much 
 from the uncertainty and want of order 
 which followed the reign of Alexander 
 Severus (a. d. 222-225), and which were 
 due to the constant rebellions and persecu- 
 tions, and the frequent changes in the im- 
 perial power. Famine, until then almost a 
 stranger to Egypt, became a frequent visi- 
 tor, and poverty increased in a marked 
 degree among the people. 
 
 In the last year of the reign of Gallienus, 
 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, who had 
 hitherto been the ally of Rome, threw off 
 the friendship of the empire, routed the 
 armies which Gallienus sent against her, 
 and marched upon Egypt to add that coun- 
 try to her dominions, which already in- 
 cluded Syria and Asia Minor. She claimed 
 to be a descendant of Cleopatra, the last 
 queen of Egypt, and was joined by a large 
 Egyptian force. The attempt was unsuc- 
 cessful, however. It was renewed upon the 
 death of Claudius (a. d. 270), and this 
 time with success. All Egypt acknowl- 
 edged Zenobia as its queen, and the country 
 became for the time a province of Syria. 
 Aurelian at first recognized Zenobia as his 
 colleague in the empire, and some of the 
 Alexandrian coins of this period bear his 
 head on one side and the head of the Pal- 
 myrene queen on the other. Soon after- 
 wards Aurelian marched against her, de- 
 feated her, made her prisoner, and added 
 her kingdom to the territory of the empire. 
 Egypt thereupon became once more a 
 Roman province. 
 
 The period of the Roman dominion was 
 marked by numerous but fruitless rebel- 
 lions. The most formidable of these lasted 
 nine years, and was suppressed with diffi- 
 culty and great severity by the Emperor 
 Diocletian in person. Several cities were 
 captured and destroyed, and Alexandria 
 was taken by storm after a siege of eight 
 months. A large part of the city was 
 burned, and many of the inhabitants Avere 
 put to the sword, A. T>. 297, Egypt suffered 
 terribly from these rebellions, and especially 
 
134 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 from the last one. The traffic along the 
 Nile was stopped, the canals for the irriga- 
 tion of the country became choked up, the 
 fields were badly cultivated, and trade and 
 manufactures of all kinds were nearly 
 ruined. Egypt, in short, emerged from the 
 great rebellion a very different country 
 from that which Augustus had made a 
 part of his empire, and which his successors 
 had I'egarded as one of the most valuable 
 jewels of their crown. Another change had 
 resulted from these internal troubles. " The 
 frame-work of society had been shaken, the 
 Greeks had lessened in numbers, and still 
 more in weight. The fall of the Ptolemies 
 and the conquest by Rome did not make so 
 great a change. The bright days of Egypt 
 
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN COSTUME, 
 
 as a Greek kingdom began with the build- 
 ing of Alexandria and ended with the re- 
 bellions against Gallienus, Aureliau and 
 Diocletian. The native Egyptians, both 
 Copts and Arabs, now rise into notice, but 
 only because Greek civilization sinks 
 around them. And soon the upper classes 
 among the Copts, to avoid the duty of 
 maintaining a family of children in such 
 troubled times, rush by thousands into 
 monasteries and convents, and further 
 lessen the population by their religious 
 vows of celibacy."* 
 
 Christianity, as we have said, spread 
 
 * History of Egypt, by Samuel Sharpe, vol. ii., 
 241. 
 
 rapidly in Egypt. Since the reign of Gal- 
 lienus the Christians had been allowed to 
 build churches and hold public meetings, 
 and a number of the brightest and purest 
 names of this period were furnished by 
 them. The Emperor Diocletian undertook 
 in A. D. 304 to exterminate the Christian 
 faith throughout the emj)ire by a terrible 
 persecution. This persecution was nowhere 
 more severe than in Egypt, and large num- 
 bers of Christians perished in it. It did 
 not check the growth of the new religion, 
 however, but added thousands of converts 
 to it. These cruelties came to an end in 
 the reign of Constantine the Great, who 
 made Christianity the religion of the 
 empire. The Christians had been united 
 during their suf- 
 ferings, but after 
 the triumphant 
 ^tablishment of 
 their faith, divi- 
 sions appeared a- 
 mong them and 
 led to a number 
 of bitter and even 
 sanguinary quar- 
 rels. After Con- 
 stantinople be- 
 came the capital 
 of the empire in 
 A. D. 330, the his- 
 tory of Egypt is, 
 for a period of 
 about three centu- 
 ries, little more 
 than a record of 
 the disputes of its 
 theologians. These 
 disputes frequent- 
 ly led to riots and 
 other outbreaks, 
 and the streets of Alexandria often flowed 
 with the blood of Christians shed by Chris- 
 tian hands. "As soon as the quarrels with 
 the pagans ceased," says Sharpe, " we find 
 the Christians of Egypt and Alexandria 
 divided into two parties, on the question 
 Avhether the Son is of the same mhdanee, or 
 only a similar substance, with the Father." 
 The first of these disputes was the Arian 
 controversy, which occurred before the 
 building of Constantinople. Arius, a pres- 
 byter of the Alexandrian church, taught 
 that the Father and the Son were not one, 
 but that the Son was a separate being from, 
 and inferior to, the Father, and that the 
 Holy Spirit was created by the power of 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 135 
 
 the Son. Alexander, the Bishop of Alex- 
 audria, denounced this doctrine, and main- 
 tained the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. 
 A quarrel ensued between the two, which 
 became so bitter, and so generally divided 
 tlie people of Alexandria that Constantine 
 felt bound to notice it. He rebuked both 
 parties for their violence, and to settle au- 
 thoritatively the doctrines of the Christian 
 faith, summoned a council of the bishops 
 and fathers of the church. This council 
 met at Nicsea, in Bithynia, in A. D. 325. 
 It condemned the doctrines of Arius and 
 put forth the Nicsean Creed as the expres- 
 sion of the faith of the church. Arius and 
 his followers were excommunicated by the 
 
 Paganism received a decided encourage- 
 ment in Egypt during the short reign of 
 Julian the Apostate. lu A. d. 379 the 
 Emperor Theodosius I. made an earnest 
 effort to root it out. He issued a decree 
 that the whole body of his subjects should 
 adopt the Christian faith as settled by the 
 Nicseau Creed, and ordered that the pagan 
 temples should be closed. Alexandria at 
 this time contained a large pagan popula- 
 tion, among which were most of the learned 
 and cultivated classes, and the students in 
 the schools of philosophy. These bitterly 
 resented the emperor's order. Theodosius 
 went further, and ordered the destruction 
 of the idols contained in the pagan temples. 
 
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN TEMPLE. 
 
 council and banished by the emperor. 
 Constantine II. reversed the policy of his 
 father. Athanasius, the orthodox Arch- 
 Isishop of Alexandria, was removed and an 
 Arian appointed in his place. This was 
 followed by a cruel persecution of the 
 orthodox Christians. When Julian the 
 Apostate became emperor, his effort to re- 
 vive the old worship of Rome caused an 
 outbreak on the part of the pagan mob of 
 Alexandria. The Arian archbishop was 
 murdered, and Athanasius again became 
 bishop. He was banished by Julian. He 
 returned, and was banished by the Emperor 
 Valens, who appointed an Arian to his see. 
 The persecutions of the orthodox were re- 
 newed. 
 
 The Christians, aided by the imperial 
 troops, broke into the heathen sanctuaries, 
 threw down the idols, and desecrated the 
 buildings. The great and superb temple 
 of Serapis, which had for ages been the 
 most famous shrine of paganism, was dese- 
 crated and plundered, and its invaluable 
 library, consisting of 700,000 volumes, was 
 destroyed by the Christian mob. The 
 pagans flew to arms in defence of their faith, 
 and several bloody battles were fought in 
 the streets of Alexandria. The imperial 
 troops, under the command of the prefect, 
 at length succeeded in putting down the re- 
 sistance, and the pagans were driven from 
 the city. 
 
 Christianity was now supreme in Egypt. 
 
136 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Theodosius was a Trinitarian, and at once 
 reversed the policy of his predecessor, and 
 displaced all the Arian clergy and ap- 
 pointed Trinitarians in their place. The 
 Arians were severely persecuted. This was 
 particularly acceptable to the Christians of 
 Egypt, a large majority of whom were 
 Trinitarians. They gave the emperor a 
 loyal support, and during this reign Egypt 
 was regarded as one of the safest and most 
 devoted of his provinces. 
 
 It will be interesting here to notice how 
 
 a dead body, besides burial, was forbidden 
 by the Bible as wicked. St. Augustine, on 
 the other hand, well understanding that the 
 immortality of the soul without the body 
 was little likely to be understood or valued 
 by the ignorant, praises the Egyptians for 
 that very practice, and says that they were 
 the only Christians who really believed in 
 the resurrection from the dead. The figures 
 of the Virgin Mary standing on the new 
 moon as she ascends up to heaven, seem to 
 be borrowed from the goddess Isis, who, in 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF THE PAGAN TEMPLES AT ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 much Christianity, though triumphant over 
 paganism, Avas affected by it, especially in 
 Egypt. " It would be unreasonable," says 
 Sharpe, " to suppose that the Egyptians, on 
 embracing Christianity, at once thrcAV off 
 the whole of their pagan rites. Among other 
 customs that they still clung to was that of 
 making mummies of the bodies of the dead. 
 St. Anthony had tried to dissuade the 
 Christian converts from that practice ; not 
 because the mummy cases were covered 
 with pagan inscriptions; but he boldly as- 
 serted, what a very little reading would 
 have disproved, that every mode of treating 
 
 her character of the dog-star, rises heliacally 
 in the same manner. The tapers even now 
 burnt before the Roman Catholic altars 
 had also from the earliest times been used 
 to light up the splendors of the Egyptian 
 altars, in the darkness of their temples, and 
 had been burnt in still greater numbers in 
 the yearly festival of the candles. The 
 playful custom of giving away sugared 
 cakes and sweetmeats on the 25th day of 
 Tybi, our 20th of January, was then 
 changed to be kept fourteen days earlier, 
 and still marks with us the feast of Epi- 
 phany or Twelfth Night. The division of 
 
FBOM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 137 
 
 the people into clergy and laity, which was 
 unknown to Greeks and Romans, was in- 
 troduced to Christianity in the fourth cen- 
 tury by the Egyptians. While the rest of 
 Christendom were clothed in woollen, linen, 
 the common dress of the Egyptians, was 
 universally adopted by the clergy, as more 
 becoming to the purity of their manners ; 
 'linen,' says the Book of Revelation, 'is 
 what is appointed for the saints.'* At the 
 same time the clergy copied the Egyptian 
 
 rather blots, upon Christianity, which seem 
 to be of Egyptian growth ; and the mud of 
 the Nile, as Homer remarks, was as fruitful 
 of poisons as it was of medicines. Thus 
 was brought about what was called the 
 spread of Christianity, but what was rather 
 an union of the two religions, or a compro- 
 mise between the two parties. Wise and 
 good men have doubted whether it helped 
 or hindered the cause of the religion taught 
 and practised by Jesus."f 
 
 INTERIOR OF PORTICO OF THE TEMPLE AT DENDERAH, EGYPT. 
 
 priests in the custom of shaving the crown 
 of the head bald. Two thousand years be- 
 fore the Bishop of Rome pretended to hold 
 the keys of heaven and hell, there was an 
 Egyptian priest with the high-sounding 
 title of Appointed Keeper of the two doors 
 of heaven in the city of Thebes. It would 
 be easy to point out other improvements, or 
 
 * In the English Bible the expression is, " for the 
 fine linen is the righteousness of the saints," Rev. 
 xix. 8. 
 
 Under Theodosius II. Cyril was Arch- 
 bishop of Alexandria. He was proud, 
 haughty, bigoted and cruel. He had 
 scarcely been installed when he headed a 
 Christian mob and drove all the Jews from 
 Alexandria, after a fierce struggle in the 
 streets, and in spite of the efforts of the 
 civil authorities to protect them, A. D. 414. 
 The Christians next attacked the pagans. 
 
 t Sharpe's History of Egypt, vol. ii., pp. 299, 300. 
 
138 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF- THE WORLD. 
 
 One of the most popular and gifted of the 
 pagan teachers was Hypatia, the beautiful 
 and learned daughter of Theon, the mathe- 
 matician. She taught philosophy publicly 
 in the Platonic school which had been 
 founded by Ammonius, and her modest and 
 womanly behavior, as well as her great 
 learning and rare eloquence, drew to her a 
 large number of pupils. Being a pagan, 
 she became particularly obnoxious to the 
 ignorant followers of Cyril, who seized her 
 one day in the street, dragged her from her 
 chariot, hurried her off to the church called 
 Cffisar's TemjDle, and there stripped and 
 murdered her 
 
 K^.YPTIAN L>A>XIJS"U WO.MKN. 
 
 The Christians, being supreme in Egypt, 
 began to differ among themselves as to cer- 
 tain articles of faith. These controversies 
 grew so bitter that at length a council was 
 called at Chalcedon, in A. D. 451. This 
 council denounced the doctrines held by the 
 greater part of the Egyptian Christians as 
 heretical. The decisions of the council, so 
 far from settling the controversy, only em- 
 bittered it, and the animosities to which it 
 gave rise led to several conflicts be- 
 tween the Alexandrians and the imperial 
 troops who were charged with the enforce- 
 
 ment of the decrees, and finally so alienated 
 the Egyptians from Constantinople, that 
 they came to regard the empire as only an 
 oppressor. 
 
 During this time upper Egypt had been 
 smking into still greater decay. It was now 
 largely overrun by the Nubians and the 
 neighboring Arab tribes, and Christianity 
 was almost driven from the Thebaid Irri- 
 gation was neglected, the fields were half- 
 tilled, the fertile strip along the Nile grew 
 narrower year by year, the great buildings 
 fell into decay, and the desert steadily en- 
 croached upon the valley of the Nile. The 
 "sand drifted in upon the temples, filling 
 them up, burying the broken or 
 overthrown statues, and blocking 
 up the entrances to the tombs. Yet 
 this desolation was not without its 
 compensating benefits. The sand 
 drifting over the ancient monu- 
 ments of the country, preserved 
 them from the future masters of 
 that region, and saved them un- 
 harmed until the present age, when 
 they are being gradually uncovered 
 by learned explorers, and are yield- 
 ing their authoritative testimony to 
 the history of their land. 
 
 In the tenth year of the reign of 
 the Emperor Anastasius, A. D. 501, 
 the Persians, who had already made 
 themselves masters of Syria, de- 
 feated the Roman armies, passed Pe- 
 lusium, and, entering Egypt, laid 
 waste the whole of the Delta to the 
 gates of Alexandria. They were 
 obliged to retire after a number 
 of indecisive battles, but the de- 
 struction they wrought in the Delta 
 caused great suffering to the Egyp- 
 tians, and in Alexandria this dis- 
 tress produced formidable riots. 
 
 Under Justinian a change was 
 made in the government of the coun- 
 try. He appointed an orthodox archbishop 
 or patriarch of Alexandria, and made him 
 also the prefect of Egypt — thus uniting the 
 civil and ecclesiastical functions in one per- 
 son. The Alexandrians stubbornly resisted 
 this change, and attacked the patriarch iu 
 his church. He in his turn charged them 
 with his soldiers, and inflicted such a severe 
 loss upon them that they were compelled 
 to submit. 
 
 In A. D. 616, in the reign of the Emperor 
 Heraclius, the Persians, under their King 
 Chosroes II., again entered Egypt, and this 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 139 
 
 time conquered the country. The people 
 of Egypt had been so thoroughly alienated 
 from the Greek empire that they made no 
 effort to resist the Persians, but readily sub- 
 mitted to their new masters. 
 
 The Persians did not interfere with the 
 religious disputes of the Egyptians. Their 
 conquest, however, destroyed the power of 
 the orthodox or Greek church, and hence- 
 forth the Egyptian or Coptic church was 
 supreme in the country. The separation 
 Avas final. "The Christianity of the Egyp- 
 tians was a superstition of the lowest and 
 grossest kind ; and as it spread over the 
 land it embraced the whole nation within 
 its pale, not so much by purifying the pagan 
 opinions as by lowering itself to their level, 
 and fitting itself to their corporeal notions 
 of the Creator. This was not a little brought 
 about by the custom of using the old tem- 
 ples for Christian churclies; the form of 
 worship was in part guided by the form of 
 the building, and even the old traditions 
 were engrafted on the new religion." Egypt 
 Avas held by the Persians for ten years, and 
 during this time the Egyptians were gov- 
 erned in civil affairs by a Persian governor, 
 and in spiritual matters by a patriarch of 
 the Coptic church, of their own choice. 
 On the whole this was one of the quietest 
 periods Egypt had known for centuries. 
 Heraclius, however, at the end of this time 
 drove the Persians out of Syria, invaded 
 their own dominions, and recovered Egypt. 
 The orthodox Greek church was restored to 
 power, but the Coptic church remained un- 
 shaken and received the allegiance of the 
 people. 
 
 A new power had now grown up in the 
 desert. This was the Saracen or Moham- 
 medan sect, which, commencing with the 
 conquest of Arabia under its founder, was 
 destined under the successors of Mohammed 
 to extend its dominion and religion over 
 the greater part of the eastern world. Hav- 
 ing mastered Arabia, Syi'ia was next at- 
 tacked by the Arabs, or Saracens, the armies 
 of Heraclius were defeated, and by A. D. 
 639 the whole of Syria was in the hands 
 of the conquerors. Heraclius induced the 
 khalif, as the successors of Mohammed 
 were called, to refrain from the conquest 
 of Egypt, by the annual payment of a large 
 tribute. This was continued for eight years, 
 but then the emperor found himself unable 
 to make his payments. The tribute having 
 ceased, the khalif considered himself freed 
 from his engagements. 
 
 In A. D. 640 the Arab army under Amru, 
 the general of the Khalif Omar, entered 
 Egypt from Palestine. Pelusium was taken 
 after a siege of thirty days, and Memphis 
 fell after a siege of eight months, during 
 which it was almost entirely desti'oyed. 
 Struck with the advantages of the situation, 
 Amru began the construction of a new city 
 on the opposite, or eastern bank of the Nile, 
 a mile or two lower down the river. This 
 settlement now forms one of the suburbs of 
 the city of Cairo. 
 
 Amru found a powerful ally in the Egyp- 
 
 l^HS(^ft5 
 
 
 DOOR AT CAIRO INSCRIBED WITH PASSAGES FROM 
 THE KORAN. 
 
 tian people, who had been rendered bitterly 
 hostile to the empire by the persecutions to 
 which they had been subjected on account 
 of their religion. The Saracens were every- 
 where welcomed as the deliverers of the 
 Coptic church. The Egyptians readily sub- 
 mitted to Amru, agreed to pay a stipulated 
 tribute, and swore allegiance to the khalif. 
 The Saracen army during its march was 
 constantly supplied with provisions and 
 trustworthy intelligence. Alexandria was 
 besieged, but its numerous Gi'eek population 
 held out bravely for fourteen months, in- 
 
140 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 flicting upon the Saracens a loss of 23,000 
 men. At length the city was taken, A. D. 
 641, and the Greeks embai'ked in great 
 numbers and fled across the Mediterranean. 
 During the next four years the imperial 
 forces made several efforts to regain Alex- 
 andria, but were driven back by Amru. 
 The conquest of Egypt was now complete. 
 It was marked by an act of vandalism 
 which has scarcely a parallel in history. 
 The great library of Alexandria, which had 
 been spared by Amru, was burned by order 
 of the Khalif Omar. The precious manu- 
 scripts were distributed among the 4,000 
 baths of the city to heat their waters, and 
 
 khalif, and established an independent king- 
 dom, which lasted thirty -seven years. It 
 was subdued at length by the khalif, and a 
 long period of anarchy followed. 
 
 During these centuries a new Arab state 
 grew up in northern Africa. In A. D. 908, 
 Mohammed, surnamed Al Mehdi, or the 
 Leader, the chief of the Shiah sect of the 
 Saracens, threw off the authority of the 
 Khalif of Bagdad, and set up an indepen- 
 dent state in northern Africa. He made 
 himself khalif, or both the religious and civil 
 ruler of his new kingdom, which he and hia 
 successors succeeded in extending over a 
 considerable portion of Africa. This dynasty 
 
 VIEW OF CAIKO FROM THE CITADEL. 
 
 SO great was their number that six months 
 were required for their destruction. 
 
 For the next two centuries Egypt re- 
 mained a province of the Sai'acen empire, 
 governed by viceroys. Large numbers of 
 Arabs settled in the country, and great ac- 
 cessions to the Mohammedan faith were 
 made from the Egyptians. The Coptic 
 faith declined, and Islamism took its place, 
 so that Egypt gradually changed from a 
 Christian to a Mohammedan country. This 
 period was also marked by great disturb- 
 ances. In addition to the usual riots and 
 outbreaks, several general revolts occurred, 
 but were suppressed. In A. d. 868, Ahmed, 
 the viceroy, threw off his allegiance to the 
 
 became the formidable rivals of the khalifs 
 of Bagdad, and assumed the name of Fatim- 
 ites in honor of their great ancestress Fatima,^ 
 the daughter of Mohammed, the Prophet 
 of Islam. 
 
 In A. D. 970, Moez, or Muezzeddin, the 
 fourth of the Fatimite khalifs, conquered 
 Egypt. The time was well chosen, for the 
 country was in a state of anarchy, and the 
 people were suffering from a severe famine. 
 The Fatimite army carried large stores of 
 corn with them, and by distributing these 
 to the starving people, obtained their sub- 
 mission to the spiritual and temporal claims 
 of the African khalif. Al Muezzeddin made 
 Egypt the seat of his power, built the city 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 141 
 
 of Cairo, and made it the capital of his 
 dominions. Thus Egypt became once more 
 an independent and powerful state. The 
 Egyptian khalif denounced the Khalif of 
 Bagdad as an impostor, and declared him- 
 self the only lawful successor of the prophet. 
 His claims were diligently preached through- 
 out the eastern world, and a serious division 
 was thus made in the ranks of Islam. The 
 Patimite khalifs soon added Syria and Ara- 
 bia to their conquests. Palestine became 
 once more the great battle-field of the rival 
 armies of Egypt and the east. The Fatim- 
 ite Dynasty ruled Egypt for two centuries. 
 The most famous of these khalifs was Al 
 Hakem, who reigned from A. D. 996 to 1021. 
 He was either a madman like the Roman 
 Emperor Caligula, or a monster of cruelty. 
 At the outset of his reign he was a zealous 
 Mohammedan, and inaugurated a severe 
 persecution of both the Christians and the 
 Jews within his dominion. He compelled 
 the Christians to bear heavy wooden crosses 
 through the streets, and bound to every Jew 
 the head of a calf in memory of their idola- 
 try at Sinai. He subsequently substituted 
 a heavy wooden bell for the calf's head. 
 In 1020 Hakem, who had fallen under the 
 influence of Hamza, a wandering fanatic, 
 proclaimed himself the incarnation of the 
 Deity, and commanded his subjects to wor- 
 ship him. "At the name of Hakem, the 
 lord of the living and the dead," says Gib- 
 bon, " every knee was bent in religious 
 adoration ; his mysteries were performed on 
 a mountain near Cairo ; 16,000 converts 
 signed his profession of faith." Hakem now 
 became a rigorous persecutor of the Mo- 
 hammedans, as well as the Christians and 
 the Jews. He destroyed the Christian 
 Church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem, 
 and a thousand other churches in Syria and 
 Egypt. In a short while, however, he 
 ceased his persecution of the Christians, 
 and allowed them to rebuild their churches. 
 In his civil administration, Hakem was a 
 cruel and meddlesome tyrant. He was con- 
 stantly interfering in the private affliirs of 
 his subjects, especially the women, and pun- 
 ished all infractions of his arbitrary decrees 
 in the most barbarous manner. He con- 
 demned the women of Egypt to the most 
 perfect seclusion, and forbade them to 
 appear upon the streets. One day he saw 
 what he supposed to be a woman standing 
 in the streets of Cairo, in defiance of his 
 edict ; upon coming nearer, he found that it 
 was only a lay figure, made of pasteboard. 
 
 It bore in its hand, however, a card on 
 which was a writing accusing the khalifs 
 sister of immorality. Hakem in a rage let 
 loose his troops upon the inhabitants of 
 Cairo, and massacred a large number of 
 them. He then ordered an inquiry into 
 the morals of his sister, who, alarmed for 
 her own safety, caused him to be assassin- 
 ated, A. D. 1021. 
 
 After the death of Hakem, Hamza fled 
 to Syria and established in the fastnesses of 
 Mount Lebanon the sect of the Druses, who 
 still regard Hakem as their Messiah. 
 
 The Fatimite line ended with the Khalif 
 Adhed, who died in A. D. 1171. The 
 later khalifs were feeble princes, monarchs 
 only in name. The real power was held by 
 their viziers or chief ministers. The khalif 
 was shut up either in the mosque or the 
 seraglio, as his instincts inclined him, and 
 the vizier ruled the state in his name. This 
 led to frequent struggles for power which 
 weakened the country very greatly. In the 
 reign of the Khalif Adhed the contestants 
 for the supremacy appealed to the Latin 
 King of Jerusalem and to the Sultan of 
 Damascus, respectively, for assistance. Both 
 of these monarchs were hostile to the Egyp- 
 tian khalifate, and each responded to the 
 appeals made to him in the hope of over- 
 throwing that power and adding Egypt to 
 his own dominions. The Latin King Al- 
 meric headed his own army, but the forces 
 of Noureddin, the Sultan of Damascus, 
 were headed by the Emir Shiracouh, a Kurd 
 by birth, and his nephew Saladin. Three 
 successive expeditions made Shiracouh 
 master of Egypt. The conqueror was then 
 invested by the Khalif Adhed with the 
 office of Grand Vizier of Egypt. He lived 
 only two months after this, and, while he 
 accepted the oflfice conferred upon him by 
 Adhed, always styled himself the subject 
 of Noureddin and his lieutenant in Egypt. 
 At his death he was succeeded by his 
 nephew Saladin, who was generally sup- 
 posed to be wanting in talent, and too 
 much addicted to pleasure to have much 
 authority in the army. Adhed hoped that 
 Saladin's weakness would enable him to 
 regain his lost power, and for a while it 
 seemed that he would succeed. Saladin's 
 true nature now awoke, however, and he 
 soon made himself master of the Egyptian 
 khalif. 
 
 Noureddin now ordered Saladin to put 
 an end to the Fatimite khalifate ; but Sala- 
 din hesitated, as he feared that so bold a 
 
142 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 step would provoke an outbreak of the 
 people. " Howevei', one of his council 
 ascended the oratory before the khatib or 
 general reader, and offered the public 
 prayer in the name of the Khalif of Bag- 
 dad. No cry of astonishment, no burst of 
 rage and indignation at this offence to 
 national principles, broke the solemn tran- 
 quillity of devotion. In a few days the will 
 of the court spread through the country, 
 and the people silently submitted to the 
 subversion of their altars." Adhed was 
 confined to his bed with his last illness 
 during this revolution, and died in ignor- 
 ance of it. 
 
 Saladin at once seized the treasures of the 
 dead khalif, and shut up the children of 
 the latter in the seraglio. He was con- 
 firmed in his ofiice by the Sultan of Damas- 
 cus. " The green silk on the pulpits in 
 Egypt gave way to the black ensigns of 
 the Abassides, and the schism of two hun- 
 dred years in the Moslem church was 
 ended." 
 
 As long as Noureddiu lived, Saladin ac- 
 knowledged his authority, but at the death 
 of that monarch he proclaimed himself 
 Sultan of Egypt and Syria, and this usurpa- 
 tion was ratified by the Khalif of Bagdad, 
 the spiritual head of Islam, through grati- 
 tude to the destroyer of his rival. 
 
 The Christian kingdom of Jerusalem had 
 owed its existence to the mutual enmity of 
 the Saracens and the Turks. Now that 
 Saladin's usurpation had made these people 
 practically one, he began to cast longing 
 eyes upon Palestine. A pretext for war 
 was soon afforded him in the violation of 
 the treaty between the Mohammedans and 
 Christians by one of the Latin barons. 
 Saladin rapidly assembled his army, crossed 
 the Jordan, and defeated the Christians in 
 the battle of Hatin, A. D. 1187, in which he 
 took their king, Guy de Lusignan, and his 
 principal commanders prisoners. He fol- 
 lowed up this success by the capture of 
 Tiberias, Acre, Jaffa, Caesarea, and other 
 towns. Tyre held out under the Marquis 
 of Montferrat, but Jerusalem was com- 
 pelled to surrender after a long and desper- 
 ate defence. 
 
 This success of the Mohammedans roused 
 Europe to undertake the Third Crusade. 
 Saladin succeeded in holding the greater 
 part of his conquests during the long war 
 which ensued, but at length consented to a 
 treaty by which he surrendered the sea- 
 coast from Jaffa to Tyre to the Christians. 
 
 He was more successful in other quarters, 
 and during his reign extended his power 
 over Arabia and a large part of western 
 Asia, so that " at the hour of his death his 
 empire was spread from the African Tripoli 
 to the Tigris, and from the Indian Ocean to 
 the mountains of Armenia." 
 
 Saladin died in Palestine A. D. 1193, 
 His dominions were divided among his 
 three sons, who became Sultans of Aleppo, 
 Damascus, and Egypt. Egypt fell to the 
 share of Aziz, and thus became once more 
 separated from Syria. During the next 
 century Egypt was repeatedly harassed by 
 the armies of the European powers which 
 took part in the crusades. These were all 
 successfully repulsed by the descendants of 
 Saladin. The last of these attacks was 
 made by Louis IX. of France, in 1248. 
 The French king brought with him a large 
 and splendid army, and laid siege to Dami- 
 etta. After some unimportant successes, he 
 was defeated with a loss of 30,000 men, 
 and made prisoner. 
 
 Malek Sala, one of the successors of Sal- 
 adin on the Egyptian throne, bought a 
 large number of captives from Zenghis 
 Khan, and organized them as his body- 
 guard under the name of Mamelukes. To 
 these were added from time to time other 
 captives from the same region — the country 
 around the Caspian Sea. The Mamelukes 
 were the flower of the Egyptian army, and 
 from the first appreciated their power. 
 They dethroned the successor of Malek 
 Sala, and made Ibeg, their leader, sultan in 
 his place. For the next 130 years the 
 Mamelukes ruled Egypt, making and un- 
 making sultans at their pleasure. Towards 
 the close of the fourteenth century the Cir- 
 cassians, who now comprised the bulk of 
 the Mameluke force, defeated the Turkish 
 Mamelukes, and made their own leader 
 sultan. For the next century anarchy 
 reigned supreme in Egypt. 
 
 In 1485 the Ottoman Turks, who had 
 established themselves in Europe, with 
 Constantinople as their capital, turned their 
 arms against Egypt. The war lasted five 
 years, and resulted in the defeat of the 
 Turks by the Mamelukes. Selim I. re- 
 newed the war in 1516, and on the 22d of 
 January, 1517, defeated the Mamelukes at 
 Ridania, a little village between the Syrian 
 frontier and Egypt. The Mamelukes lost 
 25,000 men in this battle, and their power 
 was completely broken. Seven days later 
 Selim occupied Cairo without resistance. 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 143 
 
 and leaving a garrison there proceeded to 
 overrun the rest of the country. Cairo 
 had no regular fortifications, and a few 
 days later a Mameluke force made a dash 
 at it, captured the city, and exterminated 
 the Turkish garrison. Selim now sent his 
 best troops to retake the city. The Mame- 
 lukes barricaded the streets and occupied 
 the houses. For three days they held the 
 city against the Turks, but were at length 
 induced by Selim's promises of amnesty to 
 surrender. Eight hundred Mamelukes 
 gave themselves up, and were at once put 
 to death by the conqueror, who then or- 
 dered a general massacre of the citizens, in 
 which 50,000 people are said to have per- 
 ished. The Mameluke Sultan Touman 
 Bey was soon after captured and put to 
 death, and Egypt was completely in the 
 power of the Turks. 
 
 In spite of the anarchy which had pre- 
 vailed in the government, the period of the 
 Mameluke dominion was not entirely un- 
 favorable to Egypt. Some of the Mame- 
 luke sultans were wise and vigorous rulers, 
 and Cairo bears witness in its mosques and 
 tombs to the zeal with which the arts were 
 cultivated during this period. Learning 
 and intellectual pursuits also flourished in 
 the Mameluke capital. 
 
 Selim I. made Egypt a province of the 
 Turkish empire. "He resolved to divide 
 authority among the variety of races in the 
 country, and so to secure his imperial sov- 
 ereignty. He did not extirpate the Mame- 
 lukes ; nor did he provide for their gradual 
 extinction by forbidding the beys to recruit 
 their households with new slaves from Cir- 
 cassia. Twenty-four beys of the Mame- 
 lukes, chosen from those who had acted 
 with the invaders, continued to preside over 
 the departments of the province, and their 
 chief was styled Governor of Egypt. . . , 
 He formed a more effectual and lasting 
 safeguard for the Turkish supremacy by 
 placing a permanent force of 5,000 Spahis 
 and 500 Janissaries in the capital, under 
 the command of the Ottoman Aga Khaired- 
 din, who had orders never to leave the 
 fortifications. This force was recruited 
 from among the inhabitants of Egypt, and 
 formed gradually a provincial militia with 
 high privileges and importance. Selim 
 placed the greater part of the administra- 
 tive functions of law and religion in the 
 hands of the Arab sheiks, who possessed the 
 greatest influence over the mass of the 
 population, which, like themselves, was of 
 
 Arabic origin. The sheiks naturally at- 
 tached themselves, through religious spirit 
 and inclination, to Constantinople rather 
 than to the Mamelukes, and drew the feel- 
 ings of the other Arab inhabitants with 
 them. Selim took no heed of the Copts, 
 the aboriginal natives of Egypt ; but it was 
 from among this despised class and the 
 Jews that the Mameluke beys generally 
 selected their agents and tax gatherers, and 
 the villages were commonly under the 
 immediate government of Coptic local 
 officers." * 
 
 For the next two centuries Egypt was 
 governed by Turkish pashas. This was a 
 period of decay. The country declined in 
 population and wealth, and submitted to 
 the rapacity and greed of its Turkish mas- 
 ters with a docility which showed how 
 completely the ancient Egyptian and Sara- 
 cenic spirit had been broken by tyranny. 
 
 In the eighteenth century the Mamelukes, 
 who had been steadily regaining their 
 power, and who had already attempted sev- 
 eral rebellions against the authority of the 
 Sultan of Turkey, threw oflT their allegiance, 
 and under the leadership of Ali Bey, their 
 ablest chief, proclaimed the independence 
 of Egypt, A. D. 1768. In 1772 Ali Bey 
 was betrayed and poisoned, and the author- 
 ity of the Turkish sultan, was nominally 
 restored. This was followed by more than 
 twenty years of confusion and civil war be- 
 tween the various factions of the Mame- 
 lukes. 
 
 In 1798 a French army under Napoleon 
 Bonaparte invaded Egypt, with the delib- 
 erate intention of conquering the country. 
 This danger united the Mameluke factions 
 in a solid body. On the 21st of July, 
 1798, they attacked the French at the 
 Pyramids, but were defeated. Their splen- 
 did cavalry was almost annihilated. Six 
 days later Cairo submitted to the French, 
 who within a year conquered the whole 
 country. 
 
 Napoleon was recalled to France by the 
 state of aflfairs there in the summer of 1799, 
 and left General Kleber to hold the country 
 he had won. Kleber proved an able suc- 
 cessor, but was assassinated by a Turk. 
 His successor, General Menou, was attacked 
 by an English and Turkish army under 
 General Abercrombie, at Canopus, and was 
 defeated. He was soon compelled to sur- 
 render Alexandria to the English, and to 
 
 *" History of the Ottoman Turks, by Sir Edward 
 Creasy, p. 149. 
 
144 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 consent to evacuate Egypt and return with 
 his array to France, August, 1801. 
 
 Egypt was now restored to the sultan. 
 A fresh war broke out between the Turks 
 and the remnant of the Mamelukes, and re- 
 sulted, in 1806, in the appointment to the 
 pashalic of E^ypt of Mehemet Ali, a native 
 of Macedonia, who had served with great 
 distinction in the Turkish armies, and who 
 had recently been the leader of one of the 
 contending factions in Egypt. 
 
 Mehemet Ali was a man of great abil- 
 ity. He addressed himself at once to the 
 
 in a narrow court, surrounded by high 
 walls, the victims were unable to offer any 
 resistance. This infamous massacre literally 
 exterminated the Mamelukes. 
 
 Mehemet Ali was now free to carry out 
 his scheme without interruption. He estab- 
 lished his power firmly in Egypt, and his 
 armies under his sons conquered the Waha- 
 bites, in Arabia, and brought that country 
 under his sway. Nubia and Senaar were 
 next conquered and added to the Egyp- 
 tian dominions. Mehemet Ali organized a 
 strong army and an efficient navy on the 
 
 LANDING OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. 
 
 task of restoring order in his province, 
 and did not scruple to use any means to 
 accomplish his object. His first effort was 
 to free the country and himself from the 
 tyranny of the Mamelukes. He accom- 
 plished this in 1811 by a stroke of treacher- 
 ous cruelty. Pretending to be reconciled 
 to the Mamelukes he invited those formi- 
 dable warriors to meet him at Cairo. Five 
 hundred accepted his invitation, and were 
 lured by him within the citadel, where he 
 fell upon them with his Albanian troops 
 and massacred them to a man. Cooj^ed up 
 
 European model, and officered each with 
 European adventurers, chiefly Frenchmen. 
 Harbors and docks were constructed, and 
 manufactures of arms, clothing, and other 
 articles were introduced into Egypt and 
 carefully fostered by the pasha. Under 
 him the country had once more a firm, if a 
 despotic, government, and enjoyed a degree 
 of internal peace and prosperity such as it 
 had not known for centuries. In the Greek 
 Revolution (1821-1827) the Egyptian army 
 and fleet were sent to the assistance of the 
 sultan, and did a considerable share of the 
 
FBOM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 145 
 
 fighting. The fleet was almost destroyed in 
 the battle of Navarino, in October, 1827. 
 
 Mehemet Ali's real design was to con- 
 vert his viceroyalty into an independent 
 hereditary kingdom. Immediately after the 
 close of the Greek war he restored his fleet 
 on a more formidable scale, and increased 
 his army. The empire of the sultan had 
 been seriously weakened by the losses it 
 had sustained since the opening of the cen- 
 tury, and the time seemed ripe for the exe- 
 cution of his design. As the price of his 
 services against Greece, Mehemet Ali had 
 been given the pashalic of Crete. He now 
 demanded that of Syria, but was refused 
 by the sultan. He therefore detei-mined to 
 conquer Syria, and a quarrel with the Pasha 
 of Acre gave him a pretext for entering that 
 country. He despatched an army of 40,000 
 men under Ibrahim Pasha, his son, an ex- 
 perienced and able general, into Palestine, 
 and laid siege to Acre, which he also 
 attacked with his fleet. Acre was captured 
 on the 27th of May, 1832, and the Egyptian 
 forces rapidly overran Palestine and Syria. 
 The armies sent against Ibrahim by the 
 sultan were defeated in succession at Ems, 
 in upper Syria, on the 6th of July, 1832 ; 
 at Beylan (in Cilicia, near the ancient 
 battlefield of Issus) on the 29th of the same 
 month ; and at Konieh, in Asia Minor, on 
 the 29th of October, 1832. Ibrahim was 
 now master of almost the whole of Asia 
 Minor, and was preparing to advance upon 
 Constantinople, which must have fallen be- 
 fore him, when the European powers inter- 
 vened and compelled Mehemet Ali to 
 accept a settlement, which confirmed him 
 in his pashalics of Egypt and Crete, and 
 added to them those of Jerusalem, Tripoli, 
 Aleppo, Damascus, and Adana, but which 
 left him a vassal of the jDorte. The treaty 
 was signed on the 8th of July, 1833. It 
 was a great victory for Egypt, and a 
 humiliation to the sultan, and was a vir- 
 tual surrender of all the countries which 
 the conquests of Selim I. had won for 
 Turkey. 
 
 Mehemet Ali steadily pursued his de- 
 sign of converting his dominions into an 
 independent monarchy, and thus aroused 
 the anger of the Sultan Mahmoud II. 
 Mehemet refused to continue the pay- 
 ment of tribute to the porte, and took the 
 bold step of removing the Turkish guards 
 from the Tomb of the Prophet and replac- 
 ing them with his own Arab soldiers, an act 
 which was an open repudiation of the 
 
 ]0 
 
 authority of the sultan as chief of Islam. 
 This brought the quarrel to a crisis, and 
 after some attempts at negotiation the sul- 
 tan sent a peremptory order to the Egyptian 
 ruler to restore the Turkish guards at the 
 prophet's tomb ; to make prompt payment 
 of his annual tribute, and to acknowledge 
 himself the vassal of the sultan. Me- 
 hemet bluntly refused to comply with these 
 demands, and the sultan declared war upon 
 his rebellious vassal a. d. 1839. A large 
 and well-equipped Turkish army crossed 
 the Euphrates, under Hafiz Pasha, and en- 
 countered the Egytian force, under Ibrahim 
 Pasha, at Nezib, on the 25tli of June, 1839. 
 Whole regiments of the Turkish army de- 
 
 IBRAHIM PASHA. 
 
 serted the sultan's standard and went over 
 to the Egyptians. The force Avhich remained 
 firm was routed by Ibrahim with the loss 
 of all its artillery, baggage, and stores. On 
 the 6th of July, 1839, a fleet of thirty-six 
 vessels was despatched from Constantinople 
 to attack Alexandria. It reached Alexan- 
 dria on the 13th, and was at once surren- 
 dered to the Egyptians by its traitorous 
 commander. 
 
 Turkey was now once more at the mercy 
 of Egypt, and Constantinople must have 
 fallen had not the European jiowers again 
 interfered. The English fleet expelled the 
 Egyptian garrisons from the Syrian ports, 
 and aided the sultan's forces to regain pos- 
 session of that countrv. INIehemet Ali 
 
146 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was forced to restore the sultan's fleet, and 
 to -withdraw his troops from Crete and Asia 
 Minor. A treaty was signed on the 13th 
 of February, 1841, by which Egypt was 
 confirmed to INIehemet Ali and his suc- 
 cessors in the direct line, but all his con- 
 quests in the first war were restored to the 
 sultan. The Egyptian pasha Avas to pay a 
 certain annual tribute to the sultan, and to 
 render him specified military and naval 
 assistance on demand. 
 
 Meheraet Ali continued to govern Egypt 
 until 1848, when, being eighty years old, 
 his mind began to give way. His son 
 Ibrahim was made pasha in his place, but 
 died two months later, on the 9th of 
 November, 1848. 
 
 Abbas Pasha, the nephew of Ibrahim, 
 now became viceroy of Egypt. He had 
 been governor of Cairo, under Mehemet 
 Ali, and had been guilty of such cruelties 
 that when Ibrahim became viceroy he was 
 sent into exile at Hedjaz. Abbas Avas a 
 true Mohammedan, and endeavored to undo 
 all the work of civilization that had been 
 accomplished by his predecessors. He 
 erected palaces and fortresses in the desert, 
 and would shut himself up in them for 
 months at a time, neglecting his govern- 
 ment during such absences. He abolished 
 the educational institutions established by 
 his predecessors, and disbanded the army 
 on the ground of economy. He was a bitter 
 enemy to Europeans, and discharged all 
 who were in the service of the state, and 
 endeavored to drive them out of the country. 
 He refused all concessions to Europeans, 
 with one exception, Avhich consisted in 
 granting leave to an English comj^any to 
 build a railway from Alexandria to Cairo 
 and Suez. In 1852 the sultan ordered the 
 pasha to introduce into Egypt the Tanzi- 
 mat, or fundamental law of Turkey. This 
 code not only gave greater liberties to the 
 people than the Egyptians had yet enjoyed, 
 but also curtailed the autocratic power of 
 the pasha. Abbas at first refused to obey 
 this order, but was at length obliged to do 
 so. He narrowly escaped being called to 
 account by the sultan for his cruelty to his 
 relatives, and owed his immunity to his 
 liberal use of money at Constantinople. 
 He furnished a contingent of 15,000 men 
 to the Turkish army during the Crimean 
 war, and sent large sums of money to the 
 porte. He died suddenly on the 12th of 
 July, 1854. He had threatened the life of 
 a princess of his family, and is believed to 
 
 have been assassinated by two Mamelukes 
 in her service. 
 
 Said Pasha, the fourth son of Mehemet 
 Ali, succeeded to the viceroyalty. He was 
 a wiser and better ruler than his predeces- 
 sor. He began his reign by curtailing the 
 powers of the mudirs and sheiks el-beled. 
 He organized a new army and introduced 
 a better system of conscription, established 
 a more equitable system of taxation, and 
 permitted the sale of produce to other pur- 
 chasers than the government. He also 
 undertook several important internal im- 
 provements, among which were the cleans- 
 ing of the Mahraoudieh canal, which had 
 become a fruitful source of pestilence, and 
 the continuation of the railway from Alex- 
 andria to Cairo and Suez. He also gave 
 the first impetus to the construction of the 
 Suez Canal, one of the termini of which 
 appropriately bears his name. The close 
 of the Crimean war found him with a large 
 army, which he used to check the raids of 
 the Bedawin and to invade that part of 
 Nubia which had not yet been annexed, 
 and which he now placed under his pro- 
 tectorate. He died January 18th, 1868. 
 
 Ismail Pasha succeeded his uncle Said, 
 and continued in a more enlightened aud 
 more vigorous manner the reforms of that 
 ruler. The civil war then in progress in 
 America had produced a great scarcity of 
 cotton, and Ismail took advantage of the 
 demand for that article to introduce the 
 cultivation of it into Egypt. He fostered 
 this new industry with such care and dis- 
 cretion that Egypt is now one of the pi'inci- 
 pal cotton markets of the world. He was 
 the warm friend and patron of the Suez 
 Canal, which was completed and opened on 
 the 17th of November, 1869, in the presence 
 of a large and brilliant assembly of guests 
 from all parts of the world. By the pay- 
 ment of a large sum of money to the porte 
 he obtained a reversal of the Mohammedan 
 law of succession, by which the Egyptian 
 viceroyalty is hereafter to descend from 
 father to son. In 1866 he furnished a corps 
 of 30,000 men to the jDorte for the suppres- 
 sion of the rebellion in Crete. Soon after 
 this he voluntarily increased the amount of 
 his tribute. In 1867 he obtained from the 
 porte the right to make such laws as were 
 needed for the internal administration of 
 Egypt, and to conclude treaties with foreign 
 powers respecting general transit and postal 
 affairs. He asked the porte to confer upon 
 him the title of "Sovereign of the Land of 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 147 
 
 Egypt," but was given instead the title of 
 Kliedive (substitute, or viceroy). He sub- 
 sequently demanded for Egypt independent 
 legislation and diplomatic representation 
 abroad. The porta now began to see that 
 his aim was absolute independence of Tur- 
 key, and refused his requests. Ismail 
 threatened to withdraw his troops from 
 Candia, or to take possession of that island, 
 if his demands were not granted, and for a 
 while a war between the sultan and his 
 vassal was imminent. It was averted by 
 the intervention of the foreign powers, 
 
 which he had contracted for in France, and 
 to abstain in future from all diplomatic acts 
 and making loans, and to submit his annual 
 budget of expense for inspection and ap- 
 proval at Constantinople. The khedive 
 refused to comply with these demands, and 
 declared he would make loans whenever 
 and wherever he saw fit. The sultan was 
 about to send an ultimatum to Egypt, but 
 was persuaded by England and France to 
 wait until after the opening of the Suez 
 Canal. The festivities were scarcely over 
 when the khedive received the ultimatum 
 
 OPENING OF THE SUEZ CANAL. 
 
 which compelled the khedive to relinquish 
 his ambitious designs and submit to the au- 
 thority of the sultan. 
 
 In 1868 Ismail extended his authority 
 over the countries of the upper Nile. In 
 the same year he undertook to negotiate a 
 foreign loan, and sent invitations to the 
 sovereigns of Europe to attend the opening 
 of the Suez Canal. These were the acts of 
 an independent sovereign, and gave great 
 offence to the porte, which ordered him to 
 reduce his army to 30,000 men, to recall his 
 order for iron-clads and improved arms, 
 
 of the sultan requiring him to choose be- 
 tween submission and war. Seeing that the 
 European powers would oppose him in his 
 efforts at independence, the khedive, on the 
 9th of December, 1869, announced his sub- 
 mission to the will of the sultan, and for a 
 time laid by his plans for independence, 
 
 Ismail now devoted himself to an effort 
 to bring the country south of Egypt, as far 
 as the sources of the Nile, under his author- 
 ity. He was in a large measure successful in 
 this attempt. He was also obliged to under- 
 take several wars with Aby.ssiuia, in which 
 
148 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 he was generally successful. " Through the 
 other native territories he has drawn a mili- 
 tary cordon and opened roads for traffic. 
 His intention is to transform those regions 
 into an agricultural district ; he supplies 
 the chiefs with seed and holds them under 
 obligation to furnish certain quantities of 
 produce. Thus he has made their stores of 
 ivory, gums, hides, wax, gold, etc., more 
 accessible; and the railways and telegraphs, 
 which he is now rapidly building through 
 Nubia, as well as his control over the Red 
 Sea and the Suez Canal, enable him to 
 secure the wealth of these districts for the 
 benefit of the lower provinces." 
 
 These efforts to build up the prosperity 
 of Egypt won back for the khedive the 
 favor of the sultan, and on the 8th of June, 
 1873, a firman was granted by the latter 
 confirming the privileges enjoyed by the 
 predecessors of Ismail, and changing the 
 position of Egypt from a province into an 
 almost sovereign kingdom. " The firman 
 authorizes the khedive to make laws and 
 internal regulations ; to organize every 
 means of defence, and without restriction 
 to augment or diminish the number of his 
 
 troops ; to contract with foreign powers 
 commercial ti'eaties, and others regulating 
 the position of foreigners, and their inter- 
 course with the government and the popu- 
 lation; and to contract loans abroad in the 
 name of the Egyptian government, with 
 complete and entire control of the financial 
 affairs of the country. The khedive is 
 forbidden to make treaties bearing on 
 political matters; he can have no agents 
 accredited at foreign courts; the money 
 coined in Egypt must be coined in the name 
 of the sultan ; the colors of the Egyptian 
 army and navy must be in no way different 
 from those of the Turkish forces ; iron-clad 
 vessels must not be built without the per- 
 mission of the sultan. The khedive retains 
 the privilege of conferring military promo- 
 tions up to the rank of colonel, and civil 
 grades to that of rutbeh-i-sanieh only. 
 Finally, he is bound to remit every year, in 
 lull, and without delay, to the Turkish 
 treasury, 150,000 purses of tribute." 
 
 Upon the commencement of hostilities 
 between Russia and Turkey, in 1877, the 
 khedive sent a sti'ong contingent of troops 
 to Europe for service in the Turkish army. 
 
 booik: III. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF CH^LD.^EA.. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF THB CHALDEAN MON- 
 ARCHY. 
 
 Chaldsea the most Ancient Asiatic Monarchy — Ex- 
 tent of the Country — Its Geograpliical Position — 
 Physical Characteristics — The Tigris and tlie Eu- 
 phrates — Climate — Fertility of Chaldsea — Vegeta- 
 ble Products — Animals — Foundation of the Chal- 
 dsean Monarchy by Nimrod — Character of Kimrod 
 — His Successors — The Fourth and Hfth Dynas- 
 ties — Relations with Assyria — Chaldsea Conquered 
 by Assyria — The Civilization of Chaldsea — Its 
 Cities — Temples — Commerce — Influence of Chal- 
 dsea upon the Ancient World — Eeligion — Food 
 and Habits of the People. 
 
 HE most ancient of the monarchies 
 of Asia was Chaldsea. The coun- 
 try occupied by this kingdom con- 
 sisted of a portion of the fertile 
 district which breaks about its 
 centre the broad belt of desert 
 which traverses the eastern hemisphere from 
 
 the Atlantic on the west, to the Yellow Sea 
 on the east. This region is divided into a 
 western plain, whose features bear a general 
 resemblance to those of the Nile valley, 
 though on a larger scale ; and an eastern 
 mountainous region " consisting for the most 
 part of five or six parallel ranges, and 
 mounting in many places far above the 
 level of perpetual snow." The western 
 plain, lying between the Syro-Arabian des- 
 ert and the foot of the great mountain range 
 of Kurdistan and Luristan, was in ancient 
 times the seat of three of the great empires 
 of the world, and was known to the Jews as 
 Aram-Naharaim, or "Syria of the two 
 rivers," and to the Greeks and Romans as 
 Mesopotamia. It owes its distinctive fea- 
 tures, its importance, and its fertility to the 
 two great rivers which traverse it — the Eu- 
 phrates and the Tigris. This is true to a 
 greater extent of lower than of upper 
 
RISE AND FALL OF THE CHALDJEAN MONARCHY. 
 
 149 
 
 Mesopotamia ; " for of lower Mesopotamia," 
 says Professor Ravvlinson," it may be said 
 with more truth than of Egypt, that it is 
 an 'acquired land,' the actual gift of the 
 two streams which wash it on either side ; 
 being, as it is, entirely a recent formation — 
 a deposit which the streams have made in 
 the shallow waters of a gulf into which they 
 have flowed for many ages." 
 
 Chaldsea occupied the southern portion 
 of this great plain, and extended from the 
 Persian Gulf on the south to the natural 
 limit between upper and lower Mesopo- 
 tamia on the north, and from the Tigris on 
 the east to the Arabian desert on the west. 
 It seems that the Persian Gulf at the period 
 of the establishment of the Chaldsean mon- 
 archy extended about 120 or 130 miles 
 farther north than it does at present, and 
 that it has gradually receded to the south- 
 ward to its present limits. Therefore a 
 tract of laud, 130 miles long, by some sixty 
 or seventy miles wide, has been gained from 
 the sea in the course of forty centuries. 
 Primitive Chaldrea would thus be reduced 
 to a district covering about 23,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 This region was always monotonous and 
 featureless. Its rivers are its chief geo- 
 graphical features — almost its only ones. 
 At present it consists of a vast level, broken 
 only by single solitary mounds, which mark 
 the sites of its ancient cities and temples, 
 and by lines of crumbling embankments 
 which show the course of its now choked- 
 up canals. The landscape, except in the 
 early spring, is parched and dreary in color. 
 The only verdure is found along the rivers 
 and in the marshy tracts. 
 
 On the northeast of this region, and ex- 
 tending far beyond its northern limit to the 
 main range of the Taurus, of which it forms 
 the eastern prolongation, is the chain of the 
 ancient Niphates mountains, the loftiest of 
 the many parallel ranges which rise between 
 the Mesopotamian plain and the Euxine 
 Sea. In many places it passes the line of 
 perpetual snow. The Tigris takes its rise 
 on the southwestern and the Euphrates on 
 the northeastern slopes of this range. The 
 latter breaks through the mountain range 
 near the source of the Tigris, and thence 
 pursues a tortuous course to the Persian 
 Gulf Both are rivers of the first class, the 
 Tigris being 1,146 miles, and the Euphrates 
 1,780 miles in length. Both are strong, full 
 streams, and are navigable for a considera- 
 ble distance. The Euphrates has few tribu- 
 
 taries after leaving the mountains, having 
 none in the last 800 miles of its course ; the 
 Tigris is constantly receiving the waters of 
 other streams along its entire course. The 
 Tigris is therefore a larger and deeper 
 stream in its lower part than the Euphrates. 
 Both rivers rise many feet in the spring of 
 the year, and overflow their banks in several 
 places. The Tigris inundates the country 
 along its lower course, between the 31st 
 and 32d parallels of latitude. The flood 
 of the Euphrates covers a more extensive 
 region, spreading as high up as its junction 
 with the Khabour. From Hit to the south- 
 ward it overflows both banks. Its flood is 
 variable according to the inclination of the 
 plain and the natui'e of its banks. " If care 
 is taken, the inundation may be pretty 
 equally distributed on either side of the 
 stream ; but if the river banks are neglected, 
 it is sure to flow mainly to the west, render- 
 ing the whole country on that side the river 
 a swamp, and leaving the territory on the 
 left bank almost without water." Though 
 these overflows do not deposit a fresh soil, 
 as is the case in the Nile valley, they are 
 the cause of the fertility of the Mesopota- 
 mian plain, and in ancient times were con- 
 ducted throughout its whole extent by a 
 system of canals. 
 
 The climate of this region is moderate 
 and pleasant in winter. Frost is known, 
 but it is very slight ; ice rarely forms in the 
 marshes, and snow is unknown. Heavy 
 rains fall in November and December. As 
 the spring advances the rains become 
 slighter Summer begins about May, and 
 until November there is scarcely any rain. 
 For weeks and months the sky is cloudless. 
 The summer is intensely hot. The heat is 
 tempered only, at morning and evening, by 
 a slight haze, which for a time breaks the 
 force of the sun's rays. At this season the 
 phenomenon of the mirage is very common, 
 and is Avitnessed in its most beautiful form. 
 
 The fertility of the land is very great. In 
 ancient times enormous crops were raised 
 from it. Modern travellers agree that by a 
 proper system of irrigation and careful cul- 
 tivation this region might once more be 
 made one of the most fruitful sections of 
 the earth. The principal products were 
 wheat and dates. "According to the native 
 tradition, wheat was indigenous in Chaldaea. 
 Its tendency to grow leaves was so great 
 that the Babylonians used to mow it twice 
 and then pasture their cattle on it for 
 a while, to keep down the blade, and induce 
 
150 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the plant to run to ear." The ultimate 
 return was from fifty to one hundred fold. 
 The cultivation of the date-palm was ex- 
 tensively pursued ; the date forming one of 
 the principal articles of diet among the peo- 
 ple. Barley, millet, vetches, sesame, and 
 fruits of all kinds grew in profusion. An- 
 other product was the reed, which grew in 
 dense thickets in the marshes, rising often 
 to a height of fourteen or fifteen feet. The 
 dwellings of the poorer class were con- 
 structed of reeds and mats made of leaves. 
 Boats were also made of reed frames cov- 
 ered with leaves and a coating of bitumen. 
 
 Chaldsea was destitute of stone or miner- 
 als of any kind. The stone used in its 
 buildings was brought from other countries. 
 The country contained an inexhaustible 
 supply of clay, from which excellent bricks 
 were made. It abounded in bitumen, which 
 made an admirable cement. 
 
 The wild animals indigenous in Chaldrea 
 were the lion, the leopard, the hytena, the 
 lynx, the Avild cat, the wolf, the jackal, the 
 wild boar, the buffalo, the stag, the gazelle, 
 the jerboa, the fox, the hare, the badger, 
 and the ^wrcupiue. Domestic animals were 
 also numerous, and were chiefly the camel, 
 the horse, the buffalo, the cow, the ox, the 
 goat, the sheep, and the dog. 
 
 The early history of Chaldsea is obscure 
 and uncertain It would seem that after 
 the dispersion of the other descendants of 
 Noah from the plains of Babel, Nimrod, a 
 descendant of Ham, remained in the great 
 plain and established a kingdom in the re- 
 gion lying at the head of the Persian Gulf. 
 The unfinished tower was converted into a 
 temple, and other buildings were erected 
 around it made of bricks from the clay of 
 the plain. Thus Babylon was founded by 
 Nimrod, who is also regarded as the founder 
 of the empire. The date assigned to this 
 event, with which Chaldsean history opens, 
 is one or two centuries anterior to the year 
 B. c. 2286. Nimrod's kingdom extended 
 from Babylon to the sea. Being a monarch 
 of great personal prowess and ambition — a 
 " mighty hunter before the Lord " — he ex- 
 tended his dominion over the neighboring 
 tribes, and by the strength of his character 
 and his great achievements succeeded in 
 establishing a nation in lower Mesopotamia, 
 which he governed with a firm hand from 
 his capital, the city of Ur or Hur, situated 
 on the right bank of the Euphrates, a short 
 distance from its mouth. He built, in ad- 
 dition to Babylon, the cities of Erech or 
 
 Hurak, Accad, and Calneh. Of the other 
 events of his reign we know nothing. The 
 impression he made upon his country is re- 
 markable. He was evidently one of the 
 greatest men of the ancient world. By his 
 own nation he was deified, and was, down 
 to the latest times, one of the principal ob- 
 jects of worship, under the title of Bilu- 
 JSipru, or Bel-Nimrod, " the god of the 
 chase," or " the great hunter." Rawlinson 
 thinks the name given by the Arabia^ 
 astronomers to the constellation of Orion — 
 El Jabbar, "the giant" — was in memory 
 of Nimrod. Nor has he been forgotten by 
 the ignorant 2)eople who dwell in his land 
 to-day. He forms, with Solomon and 
 Alexander the Great, one of the three 
 heroes of ancient times who alone seem to 
 have been remembered by them when all 
 others have been forgotten. 
 
 We have no account of the immediate 
 successors of Nirarod. It would seem that 
 his conquests were followed, at some uncer- 
 tain period, by an emigration of Semitic 
 and Hamitic tribes to the northward. The 
 Assyrians, a Semitic people, withdrew to 
 upper Mesopotamia and laid the founda- 
 tions of their monarchy along the middle 
 Tigris; the Phosnicians, a Hamitic race, 
 passed to the country of Canaan, and set- 
 tled along the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 where they founded a kingdom of their 
 own The race from which Abraham 
 sprang passed into northern Mesopotamia. 
 
 One of the kings of this early dynasty 
 was Urkham or Urukh. He is the earliest 
 Chaldreau monarch of whom any traces 
 have been found in the country. He began 
 his reign about B. c. 2326. He built nu- 
 merous gigantic structures, which seem to 
 have been designed almost exclusively as 
 temples. They are massive in size, but 
 rude in execution. The bricks of which 
 they are constructed are rough, and are put 
 together in an awkward manner, moist 
 mud or bitumen being used as mortar. 
 " In his architecture," says Professor Raw- 
 linson, " tliough there is much that is rude 
 and simple, there is also a good deal which 
 indicates knowledge and experience." As- 
 tronomy also seems to have been cultivated 
 during the reign of this king. Ur was the 
 capital of the kingdom in this reign ; Baby- 
 lon not yet being a place of importance. 
 Urukh was succeeded by his son Elgi or 
 Ilgi, who also styles himself" King of Ur." 
 His signet-cylinder has been recovered, and 
 is now in the British Museum. 
 
EISE AND FALL OF THE CHALDJSAN MONARCHY, 
 
 151 
 
 After the reign of Elgi there is a blank 
 in Chaldaean history, broken by the con- 
 quest of the country by an Elamitic dynasty 
 from Susa, about b. c. 2286. The first of 
 these kings was Kudur-Nakhunta, who ap- 
 pears to have governed Chaldsea by a vice- 
 roy, while he held his court at Susa. 
 Another was Kudur-Lagamer, who also 
 reigned at Susa and divided Chaldsea into 
 several provinces which he governed by 
 viceroys. 
 
 A third dynasty came to the throne about 
 B. c. 2052, and numbered eleven kings, 
 whose total reigns make up a period of 
 only forty-eight years. This dynasty may 
 be said to mark the transition between the 
 period of national subjection to the Elamite 
 kings and that of complete independence 
 under the succeeding dynasty (the fourth), 
 which was one of native Chaldsean kings. 
 This dynasty came into power about B. c. 
 2004, and reigned until B. c. 1546. It con- 
 sisted of about eight or ten monarchs ; but 
 little is known of the events of their reigns. 
 
 The Fifth Dynasty flourished from about 
 B. c. 1546 to B. c. 1300. It was founded 
 by Khammurabi, an Arab chief, who, tak- 
 ing advantage of the weakness and depres- 
 sion of Chaldsea under the last king of the 
 Fourth Dynasty, succeeded in making him- 
 self master of the country. He appears to 
 have reigned about twenty-six years, and 
 left the crown to his son. He was a great 
 and wise king, and seems to have been the 
 first to comprehend the benefits to be de- 
 rived by the country from a projier system 
 of irrigation. He constructed a canal from 
 one of the rivers of the country for this 
 purpose, and he says in one of his inscrip- 
 tions, that it " changed desert plains into 
 well-watered fields; it spread around fertil- 
 ity and abundance." He constructed sev- 
 eral important buildings. Babylon seems 
 to have been the seat of his court. During 
 the existence of this dynasty intimate rela- 
 tions were maintained with Assyria, which 
 had now become an independent power. 
 The two nations were sometimes bound to- 
 gether by treaties of alliance, and sometimes 
 by royal marriages. Towards the close of 
 the period Assyria once intervened in the 
 affairs of Chaldoea to depose a usurping 
 king and place on the throne the son of the 
 monarch who had been murdered by the 
 leader of the revolution. After this the 
 friendly relations between the two countries 
 appear to be interrupted ; and finally, in 
 about B. c. 1300, Tiglathi-Nin, King of 
 
 Assyria, invaded and conquered Chaldsea, 
 which was merged into the Assyrian mon- 
 archy, and continued for centuries to form 
 a part of that kingdom. 
 
 The early periods of Chaldsean history 
 are marked by the advance made by the 
 people in civilization and the arts. As 
 early as the era of Nimrod, Babylon, Erech 
 or Orchoe, Accad, Calneh, and Ur were 
 flourishing cities. The plan of these cities 
 was rectangular, and the walls and build- 
 ings were of brick cemented usually with 
 bitumen. Many of the edifices of this 
 period were colossal in size. The temples 
 were usually pyramidal in shape, and were 
 built in successive steps or stages to a con- 
 siderable height. They were placed so as 
 to face the cardinal points of the compass. 
 Writing was in use, as is sliown by the 
 
 CHALDSEAN PRIEST. 
 
 CHALD,EAX mVINEK. 
 
 legends stamped in the baked bricks of this 
 period. Gems were cut, polished, and en- 
 graved with portraits. The art of Avorking 
 in metals was known, and arms, ornaments, 
 and useful implements were constructed of 
 various metals. Cloths and textile fabrics 
 of a delicate tissue were manufactured. 
 Astronomy was cultivated, and the results 
 of observations of the heavenly bodies were 
 carefully recorded. Commerce was also 
 carried on by both land and sea with the 
 neighboring nations. The "ships of Ur" 
 navigated the Persian Gulf and traded 
 with the people along its shores. 
 
 " The Chaldsean monarchy," says Pro- 
 fessor Rawlinson, "is rather curious from 
 its antiquity than illustrious from its great 
 names, or admirable for the extent of its 
 dominions. Less ancient than the Egyp- 
 
152 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tian, it claims the advantage of priority 
 over every empire or kingdom Avhich has 
 grown up upon the soil of Asia. The Ariau, 
 Turanian, and even Semitic tribes, appear 
 to have been in the nomadic condition, 
 when the Cushite settlers of lower Baby- 
 lonia betook themselves to agriculture, 
 erected temples, built cities, and established 
 a strong and settled government. The 
 leaven which was to spread by degrees 
 through the Asiatic peoples was first depos- 
 ited on the shores of the Persian Gulf at 
 the mouth of the ' Great River ;' and hence 
 civilization, science, letters, art, extended 
 themselves northward and eastward and 
 westward. Assyria, Media, Semitic Baby- 
 lonia, Persia, as they derived from Chaldsea 
 the character of their writing, so were they 
 indebted to the same country for their gen- 
 eral notions of government and administra- 
 tion, for their architecture, for their decor- 
 ative art, and still more for their science 
 and literature. Each people no doubt 
 modified in some measure the boon received, 
 adding more or less of its own to the com- 
 mon inhei'itance. But Chaldsea stands 
 forth as the great parent and original in- 
 ventress or Asiatic civilization, without any 
 rival that can reasonably dispute her claim." 
 The religion of Chaldsea Avas from the 
 earliest period of which we have any record 
 a polytheism of the grossest kind. Fifteen 
 or sixteen principal gods were worshipped, 
 and a number of inferior or secondary 
 divinities. Local gods abounded, every 
 town being under the protection of its own 
 particular divinity. Our knowledge of 
 this system is still incomplete. The most 
 important deities appear to have been : 
 1. II, or Ra, the principal divinity, but of 
 whom we know scarcely anything. 2. A 
 triad, consisting of Ana, Bil or Belus, and 
 Hea or Hoa. These correspond to the 
 classical Pluto, Jupiter, and Neptune, and 
 each is accompanied by a female principle 
 or wife. The wife of Ana is Anat ; of Bil 
 or Bel, Mulita or Beltis; and of Hea, Dav- 
 kina. 3. A second triad, consisting of Sin 
 or Hurki, the moon god ; San or Sansi, the 
 sun ; and Vul, the god of the atmosphere. 
 Each of these has his female principle or 
 wife. The wife of Sin or Hurki is a god- 
 dess commonly called " the great lady," 
 whose name is uncertain ; the wife of San 
 or Sansi is Gula or Anunit ; the wife of Vul 
 is Shala or Tala. These gods and god- 
 
 desses stand at the head of the Chaldsean 
 Pantheon. Following them is a group of 
 five minor deities, who represented the five 
 planets, viz. : Nin or Kinip (Saturn), Mero- 
 dach (Jupiter), Nergal (Mars), Ishtar 
 (Venus), and Nebo (Mercury). These, 
 with the others already named, constituted 
 the principal gods of the Chaldseans. The 
 inferior deities are too numerous to be 
 mentioned here. 
 
 "The striking resemblance of the Chal- 
 dsean system to that of classical mythology 
 seems worthy of particular attention. This 
 resemblance is too general, and too close in 
 some respects, to allow of the supposition 
 that mere accident has produced the coin- 
 cidence. In the Pantheons of Greece and 
 Rome, and in that of Chaldsea, the same 
 general grouping is to be recognized ; the 
 same genealogical succession is not uu fre- 
 quently to be traced ; and in some cases 
 even the familiar names and titles of classi- 
 cal divinities admit of the most curious 
 illustrations and explanations from Chal- 
 dsean sources. We can scarcely doubt but 
 that, in some way or other, there was a com- 
 munication of beliefs — a passage in very 
 early times from the shores of the Persian 
 Gulf to the lands washed by the Mediter- 
 ranean, of mythological notions and ideas. 
 It is a probable conjecture that 'among the 
 primitive tribes who dwelt on the Tigris 
 and Euphrates, when the cuneiform alpha- 
 bet was invented, and when such writing 
 was first applied to the purposes of religion, 
 a Scythic or Scytho-Arian race existed, who 
 subsequently migrated to Europe and 
 brought with them those mythical tradi- 
 tions which, as objects of popular belief, 
 had been mixed up in the nascent literature 
 of their native country,' and that these 
 traditions were passed on to the classical 
 nations, who were in part descended from 
 this Scythic or Scytho-Arian people." 
 
 The food of the people consisted of the 
 vegetable products of the country. The 
 dates which abound here formed then, as 
 now, the main sustenance of the inhabitants. 
 Fish and chickens and the wild boar were 
 also eaten, at least by the wealthier classes ; 
 though animal food would seem to have 
 been rare. In the towns the houses were 
 of brick ; in the rural districts they were 
 mere huts of reed plastered with slime. 
 The dwellings of even the wealthy appear 
 to have been rude and coarse. 
 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY— THE EARLY KINGS. 153 
 
 book: i-v. 
 
 the history of the -a^ssyri^n 
 
 em:f»ire. 
 
 of the 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY — 
 THE EARLY KINGS. 
 
 Description of Assyria — Its Geographical Position 
 and Area — Eastern and Western Assyria — The 
 Mountainous Region — Cities of Assyria — Climate 
 — Fertility of the Country— Mineral Wealth — 
 Animals — Character of the People — Foundation 
 of the Assyrian Kingdom — Asshur — Relations 
 with Chaldasa— Early Kings — Babylon Conquered 
 — Conquests of Tiglath-Pileser I. — Character of 
 the Civilization of Assyria — Use of Letters — 
 Mode of Preserving Official Records — Assyrian 
 Art — Sargon's Palace — The Bas-Reliefs — The 
 Assyrian Military System — The Royal Dignity — 
 Musical Instruments — Dress of the People — 
 Religion of the Assyrians. 
 
 ^>) SSYRIA, properly speaking, occu- 
 pied the upper portion of the 
 Mesopotamiau valley. It was 
 bounded on the north' by Mount 
 Masius, according to some writers, 
 according to others by the course 
 Tigris from Diarbekr to Til. On 
 the east its limits were marked by the high 
 and difficult chain of the Zagros moun- 
 tains. Its western boundary was the 
 Euphrates, and its southern the northern 
 limit of Chaldsea. The Tigris divided it 
 into two unequal sections, which may be 
 termed Eastern and Western Assyria. The 
 extreme length of the country, from Diar- 
 bekr, on the north, to the Chaldsean border, 
 on the south, was about 350 miles, and the 
 width from the Zagros mountains to the 
 Euphrates varied from 300 to 170 miles, 
 giving to Assyria an area of about 75,000 
 square miles. 
 
 Eastern Assyria, though smaller than 
 the section lying west of the Tigris, was the 
 most densely inhabited and most important 
 part of the kingdom. It contained three 
 out of the four great cities of the country. 
 It consists of a series of rich and productive 
 plains, which are well watered by numerous 
 streams which flow from the mountains into 
 the Tigris. These plains are separated 
 from each other by detached ranges of hills 
 which run in a direction generally parallel 
 
 to the Zagros chain, and supply numerous 
 brooks and small streams which traverse 
 the country in addition to the rivers. All 
 the streams generally flow through deep 
 beds, which are concealed from view from 
 the plains, except when swollen by the rains 
 and melting snows, when they run with full 
 banks, and even overflow the level country. 
 Western Assyria is a less favored region. 
 It is scantily supplied with water, and 
 depends upon irrigation for its fertility. 
 " The general character of the country is 
 level, but not alluvial. A line of moun- 
 tains, rocky and precipitous, but of no great 
 elevation, stretches across the northern part 
 of the region, running nearly due east and 
 west, and extending from the Euphrates at 
 Rum-kaleh to Til and Chelek upon the 
 Tigris. Below this a vast, slightly undu- 
 lating plain extends from the northern 
 mountains to the Babylonian alluvium, 
 only interrupted about midway by a range 
 of low limestone hills called the Sinjar, 
 which, leaving the Tigris near Mosul, runs 
 nearly from east to west across central 
 Mesopotamia, and strikes the Euphrates 
 halfway between Rakkah and Kerkesiyeh, 
 nearly in longitude 40°." The country 
 north of the Sinjar range to Mount Masius 
 is an undulating plain resembling the roll- 
 ing prairies of North America. Water 
 is scarce. Only small streams descend from 
 the Sinjar range, and these are soon ab- 
 sorbed by the thirsty earth. Gypsum 
 abounds in the soil, which is here naturally 
 sterile and difficult of cultivation. Traces 
 of volcanic action are numerous. Basaltic 
 fragments lie thick over the plain, and 
 near the confluence of the two chief branches 
 of the Khaboor are found several old craters 
 of extinct volcanoes. The Sinjar range is 
 composed of a soft white limestone. 
 
 The true heart of Assyria was the region 
 lying along the Tigris from latitude 30° to 
 36° 30'. Within these limits were gathered 
 the great cities of the kingdom and the 
 bulk of the population. One of these, 
 Asshur, the primitive capital, now called 
 
154 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Kileh-Sherghat, stood on the west bank of 
 the Tigris, but Nineveh, Calah (now Nim- 
 rud), and Dur-Sargina (city of Sargon) now 
 called Khorsabad, lay on the east of that 
 stream. Other cities, many of them places 
 of note, studded the country east of the 
 
 TAKEN BY 
 CAPTIVE. 
 
 ASSAULT, AND THE INHABITANTS LED AWAY 
 FKOM AN ASSYRIAN BAS-EELIEF. 
 
 Tigris. The western region also contained 
 a number of important places. Nineveh 
 lay opposite the modern Mosul. Calah was 
 about twenty miles to the south of Nineveh 
 by the direct route, and about thirty by the 
 course of the Tigris. Asshur was forty 
 
 miles below Calah, on the right bank of the 
 Tigris. Dur-Sargina, or Khorsabad, was 
 nine miles east of north from the northern 
 angle of the wall of Nineveh. 
 
 The climate of Assyria differs in its 
 various regions. That of eastern Assyria, 
 owing to the proximity of 
 the lofty, snow-capped 
 range of Zagros, is cooler 
 and moister than the cli- 
 mate of the region west of 
 the Tigris. The mountain 
 breezes moderate the sum- 
 mer heats. The winters are 
 moderately severe. Rain 
 falls heavily in the winter, 
 and even in the spring. 
 Heavy dcAvs are also ex- 
 perienced after the rains 
 have subsided. The most 
 southern part of Assyria, 
 west of the Tigris, from 
 latitude 34° to the Chal- 
 dsean border, possesses a 
 climate similar to that of 
 the last - named country. 
 Central western Assyria 
 is cooler than the district 
 lying south of it. The 
 summer heats are oppressive 
 during the middle of the 
 day, but the mornings and 
 nights are pleasant. Con- 
 siderable rain and snow 
 fall in winter, but this sea- 
 son is brief and not very 
 severe. The mountain re- 
 gion which forms the north- 
 ern part of western As- 
 syria possesses a colder and 
 more rigorous climate than 
 the central region. The 
 temperature in winter falls 
 eight or ten degrees below 
 zero. The district has an 
 average elevation of 1,300 
 feet, and lies near the great 
 mountain range of Arme- 
 nia, which is covered v.ith 
 perpetual snow. Hence the 
 severe winters. Heavy 
 snow^s fall, which lie on the 
 ground for several weeks. The spring 
 is wet and stormy, but the summer and 
 autumn are fine. 
 
 Taken as a whole, ancient Assyria w^as 
 a region of great fertility. It did not pos- 
 sess as many actual advantages as its 
 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY— THE EARLY KINGS. 
 
 155 
 
 southern neighbor, Chaldsea, but careful 
 cultivation and irrigation drew rich returns 
 from the soil. The citron flourished, and 
 the mulberry gave nourishment to an un- 
 usually large silk-worm not found else- 
 where. The most of the edible vegetables 
 appear to have been cultivated in Assyria. 
 In the south, the date palm, the orange, 
 and the lemon were grown. The pome- 
 granate, the olive, the vine, the apricot, 
 and the fig flourished in all parts of the 
 country. 
 
 Assyria was better supplied with minerals 
 than Babylon. Stone of a good quality 
 abounded in all parts of the country. Iron, 
 copper and lead still exist in great abun- 
 dance in the Tiyari mountains, not far 
 from Nineveh, and in other places. The 
 Khurdish mountains supj^lied silver and 
 antimony, and perhaps other metals. Bitu- 
 men, naphtha, petroleum, sulphur, alum, 
 and salt were also among the mineral pro- 
 ducts of Assyria. 
 
 The wild animals of the country con- 
 sisted of the lion, the leopard, the lynx, the 
 Avild cat, the hyseua, the wild ass, the bear, 
 the deer, the gazelle, the ibex, the wild 
 sheep, the wild boar, the jackall, the W'olf, 
 the fox, the beaver, the jerboa, the porcu- 
 pine, the badger and the hare. The tiger 
 is believed to have been found in Assyria 
 at a very early period. The rivers abounded 
 in fish, and the marshy thickets Avith wild 
 fowl. The domestic animals Avere the camel, 
 the horse, the ass, the mule, the sheep, the 
 goat, the ox, the cow, and the dog. 
 
 The Assyrians were a strongly religious 
 people, paying great attention to the wor- 
 ship of their gods. They were also a fierce, 
 treacherous race, delighting in the dangers 
 of the chase and in war. The Assyrian 
 troops were notably among the most formi- 
 dable of ancient warriors, but that they 
 were not specially cruel is shown by the 
 enormous number of male prisoners cajD- 
 tured by them in war. They never kept 
 faith when it was to their interest to break 
 treaties, and were regarded with suspicion 
 by their neighbors in consequence of this 
 characteristic. In mental power they de- 
 serve to be ranked among the foremost of 
 the Asiatic races. 
 
 As has been stated in the account of the 
 Chaldeean monarchy, the conquests of Nim- 
 rod Avere followed at some uncertain period 
 by an emigration of the Semitic inhabitants 
 of the lower country to the nortliAvard. The 
 exact time of this removal is unknown, and 
 
 it is also uncertain whether it was a volun- 
 tary act on the part of the Assyrians, or an 
 enforced colonization carried out by the 
 Chaldiean kings. The tribe, or tribes, from 
 which sj^rang the Assyrians, removed from 
 Chaldtea to the upper country along the 
 middle Tigris, and there erected a city to 
 which they gave their own tribal name of 
 Asshur. It seems certain that for some 
 time after their removal the Assyrians were 
 governed by rulers appointed by, or under 
 the supremacy of, the Chaldsean kings. 
 Gradually, hoAvever, they became stronger, 
 and at length Avere able to gratify their 
 natural longings for independence by throw- 
 ing off' the Chaldsean rule, and establishing 
 a separate monarchy of their oAvn. The seat 
 of the empire Avas at Asshur. The date of 
 
 SHALJIANESER PUTTING OUT THE EYES OF A CAP- 
 TIVE, AVHO, WITH OTHEKS, IS HELD PRISONER 
 BY A HOOK IN THE LIPS. 
 
 the establishment of the monarchy is uncer- 
 tain. Some of the early kings AA'ere con- 
 nected by marriage Avith the Chaldsean 
 sovereigns, and the two nations existed side 
 by side for a considerable period, as friends. 
 Assyria also took part in the struggles of 
 the pretenders to the Chaldsean croAvn, and 
 one of the kings, Asshur-upallit, interfered 
 to place the croAvn on the head of the right- 
 ful lieir, Avho Avas liis relative. One of the 
 kings of this period, Shalmaneser I. (about 
 B.C. 1320), conducted successful Avars in the 
 Niphates mountains, and planted cities in 
 that region. He also built Calah (noAA' 
 Nimrud), on the east bank of the Tigris, 
 forty miles above Asshur. It is evident 
 from this that the kingdom had groAvn far 
 to the north, and had become stronger and 
 
156 
 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY— THE EARLY KINGS. 157 
 
 more populous, and had fairly entered upon 
 its remarkable career of conquest and inter- 
 nal prosperity. The arts of this period 
 were rude, however ; letters were used spar- 
 ingly, and civilization was still in its in- 
 fancy. The cities erected at this time were 
 quadrangular in shape; the temples were 
 pyramidal towers ; and the royal palaces 
 were built on lofty artificial mounds. 
 
 Shalmaneser was succeeded by his son 
 Tiglathi-Nin I., who was probably the 
 original of the Greek Niuus. This mon- 
 arch established the supremacy of his own 
 nation by the conquest of Babylon (about 
 B.C. 1300). It must not be supposed, how- 
 ever, that Chaldsea was from this time con- 
 tinuously a part of the Assyrian kingdom. 
 It was probably thus subject for about a 
 century, but then the yoke of Assyria seems 
 to have been shaken off by a line of kings 
 of apparently Assyrian descent, who 
 were hostile to Assyria, and were en- 
 gaged in frequent wars with that power. 
 All that the latter appears to have been 
 able to accomplish was to preserve her 
 supremacy over Babylon, which was 
 content to hold a secondary position in 
 western Asia, acknowledging the su- 
 zerainty of the Ninivite kings. 
 
 The immediate successors of Tig- 
 lathi-Nin were unimportant. Asshur- 
 ris-ilim, who reigned about B. c. 1150- 
 1130, was a monarch of greater pre- 
 tensions than his predecessors. He 
 seems to have engaged extensively in 
 foreign wars, and to have paved the 
 way for the conquests of his greater 
 sou, Tiglath-Pileser I. He invaded 
 Babylonia and carried on a war against a 
 king named Nebuchadnezzar (Nabu-kudur- 
 uzur), and by some writers it is believed 
 that he carried his arms farther south into 
 Palestine, and that he is the monarch men- 
 tioned in the Book of Judges as Chushau- 
 ris-athaim, " King of Mesopotamia," who is 
 said to have held the Israelites in subjection 
 for eight years. This identification rests 
 upon very uncertain grounds. 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser I. came to the throne 
 about B. c. 1130. He subdued the tribes 
 in the region of INIount Zagros, and con- 
 quered northern Syria. He also waged a 
 successful war against Babylonia. He ap- 
 pears to have been a famous hunter. He 
 erected several great temples, and palaces 
 and castles for his own use, and improved 
 the system of irrigation. He also intro- 
 duced foreign cattle into Assyria, and un- 
 
 dertook the naturalization of foreign vege- 
 table products in the kingdom. During his 
 reign the strength of the army was in- 
 creased, and the limits and power of the 
 kingdom were extended. Assyria in this 
 reign stands out as a compact and powerful 
 kingdom, centralized under a single mon- 
 arch, with a single great capital, in the 
 midst of half-civilized and weak and divided 
 nations. 
 
 Asshur-bil-kala succeeded his father, 
 Tiglath-Pileser I. Nothing is known of 
 him except that he waged war in lower 
 Mesopotamia. He appears to have reigned 
 from about B. c. 1110 to b. c. 1090. 
 
 Let us glance now at the civilization of 
 the Assyrians as revealed by their monu- 
 ments. This view will embrace the entire 
 period of their history, and is introduced 
 here for purposes of convenience. 
 
 ASSYRIAN SPHYNX. 
 
 The Assyrians at an early period made 
 use of letters, and kept a carefully prepared 
 record of their history. These records 
 were cither engraved on stone, or were 
 stamped ou bricks. These bricks were of 
 two kinds — sun-dried and kiln-burned. The 
 former would simply be hardened by fire; 
 the latter could not be aflTected by water. 
 The records were stamped on both kinds 
 of brick, and were thus preserved from the 
 two great dangers of fire and flood, to 
 which Assyria was subject. All the writings 
 of this nation seem to have been upon ma- 
 terials of this description. Paper, such as 
 was used in Egypt, may have been em- 
 ployed for some of the public documents, 
 but very rarely. None has been found in 
 any of the mounds opened by modern 
 explorers. 
 
 As workers in metals and ivory, as 
 
158 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 glass-blowers, as designers, as architects, en- 
 gravers, sculptors and embroiderers of 
 dresses, the Assyrians far surpassed all the 
 nations of the East. Their architecture 
 was less massive than that of the Egyp- 
 tians. Although stone was plentiful in 
 eastern Assyria, brick was preferred in the 
 construction of their edifices. Their most 
 magnificent buildings were their royal 
 palaces. Less religious than the Egyptians 
 and Greeks, they showed more attention to 
 the king than to the gods, and their tem- 
 ples were insignificant compared with the 
 royal residences. The most complete of the 
 Assyrian palaces that has yet been uncov- 
 
 centre. " In the interior arrangements of 
 the building there was neither regularity 
 nor symmetry. Two-thirds of the north- 
 west part was occupied by the grand recep- 
 tion hall and its large and sumptuous 
 galleries, with walls cased with bas-reliefs ; 
 one-third, to the southeast, by the inhabited 
 apartments, with smaller and less decorated 
 rooms. Passages opened into two of the 
 sides of the large court ; one on the north- 
 west led to a square esplanade, or court, 
 occupying the northern angle of the arti- 
 ficial mound of the palace, in front of a 
 building touching the northwest face of the 
 seraglio, with which it had no internal com- 
 
 COUIIT OF SARGON'S PALACE. 
 
 ered is that of Sargou, at Khorsabad. It 
 exhibits the architecture of this nation, and 
 also its decorative art and sculpture, in 
 their highest forms. Like all Assyrian 
 palaces, it stands on the summit of an im- 
 mense mound constructed of bricks. The 
 mound was arranged in two platforms of 
 unequal height, in the form of the letter 
 T. The palace proper stood on the loftier 
 mound, and consisted of a series of build- 
 ings ranged around immense courts. The 
 main building, occupied by the king, stood 
 at the bottom of the principal court, and 
 possessed a perfectly regular fa9ade, Avith a 
 magnificently ornamented gateway in the 
 
 munication. This building was most lav- 
 ishly ornamented ; it comprised six im- 
 mense halls decorated with sculpture, and 
 some other smaller rooms. It was, we may 
 almost say, a second palace grafted on to the 
 first — a second selamlik, rivalling in splen- 
 dor that of the seraglio. . . . The passage 
 opening into the southeast side of the re- 
 ception hall of the seraglio led to the lower 
 platform, and to the great court of the 
 oflSces. The lower platform of the artificial 
 hill built up for the palace of Sargon was 
 occupied by the khan and the harem. 
 This portion of the edifice looked towards 
 the city, and communicated directly with 
 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY— THE EARLY KINGS. 159 
 
 it. In the midst was the khan, properly 
 so called ; that is, an immense square court, 
 surrounded on all sides by buildings, 
 stables, lodgings for grooms, and for the 
 greater number of slaves. It was ap- 
 proached from the city by two enormous 
 flights of steps in the middle of the south- 
 east face of the terrace. An elaborately 
 decorated passage led, as we have said. 
 
 ASSYRIAN ENSIGXS OR STANDARDS. 
 
 from this court of the khan into the recep- 
 tion hall of the seraglio ; two small doors 
 also gave direct communication with the 
 inhabited rooms of the palace. To the 
 right of the immense court we have just 
 mentioned, the khan, was a building of 
 some extent, with many courts and nume- 
 rous chambers, forming part of the offices 
 or common rooms of the palace. This was 
 the khazneh, or treasury ; for there were 
 the stores of provisions and utensils for the 
 use of the royal household, as well as places 
 of custody for all the valuables that Sargon, 
 in his dedicatory inscription, tells us he 
 had acquired by force of arms and stored 
 in his palace. The harem was adjoining 
 the khazneh. It was a building of moderate 
 extent, containing three courts, the walls 
 of one of them covered with the richest 
 decorations in enamelled bricks ; many long 
 galleries, intended no doubt for feasts or 
 festivals ; and lastly a large number of 
 rooms for habitation. This harem was 
 shut in as closely as possible ; all commu- 
 nication with the outer world was inter- 
 cepted, and the women must have found 
 themselves in a real prison. One single 
 vestibule, guarded by eunuchs, gave access 
 to it ; this had two issues ; one communi- 
 cating with the great court of the offices, 
 was the entry by which people came in 
 from the outside ; the other opening on a 
 long, narrow court leading to the inhabited 
 apartments of the seraglio; through this 
 the king had access to his harem without 
 being seen by the public. Behind the 
 harem was an enormous tower, or pyramid 
 
 in seven stages, nearly fifty yards high. 
 The seven stages, equal in height, and each 
 one smaller in area than the one beneath 
 it, were covered with stucco of different 
 colors, and thus presented to view the colors 
 consecrated to the seven heavenly bodies, 
 the least important being at the base. This 
 was the Zikurat, or observatory, and on its 
 summit the priestly astrologers, pupils of 
 the Chaldseans, attempted to read the future 
 in the stars." 
 
 In sculpture the Assyrians were behind 
 many of the ancient nations. Their best 
 Avorks are their bas-reliefs. Their statues 
 are comparatively rare, and are clumsy and 
 coarse in design and execution. They 
 never succeeded in modelling the human 
 figure; their greatest successes are in the 
 representation of animals, and these occur 
 in their bas-reliefs. The low relief, says 
 Kawlinson, "was to the Assyrians the 
 practical mode in which artistic power 
 found vent among them. They used it for 
 almost every purpose to which mimetic 
 art is applicable: to express their religious 
 feelings and ideas; to glorify their kings; 
 to hand down to posterity the nation's his- 
 tory and its deeds of prowess; to depict 
 home scenes and domestic occupations ; to 
 represent landscape and architecture; to 
 imitate animal and vegetable forms ; even 
 
 ASSYEIAN KING PLACING HIS FOOT ON THE 
 NECK OF AN ENEMY. 
 
 to illustrate the mechanical methods which 
 they employed in the construction of those 
 vast architectural works, of which the reliefs 
 were the principal ornamentation. It is 
 not too much to say that we know the As- 
 syrians, not merely artistically, but his- 
 torically and ethnological ly, chiefly through 
 their bas-reliefs, which seem to represent to 
 us almost the entire life of the people." 
 The reliefs, it will be understood, were 
 
160 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 sculptured on stone slabs, which were set in 
 the lower part of the walls they adorued. 
 
 In their ornamental metallurgy the As- 
 syrians exhibited great skill. There were 
 three kinds of this 
 work : entire figures, 
 or parts of figures, 
 cast solid ; castings in 
 low relief; and em- 
 bossed work, wrought 
 principally with the 
 hammer, " but finished 
 by a sparing use of 
 the graving tool." The 
 solid figures Avere 
 small, and were con- 
 fiued to animal forms, 
 principally lions. Cast- 
 ings in low relief Avere 
 used chiefly for the 
 ornamentation of 
 thrones and chariots, 
 and consisted of ani- 
 mal and human fig- 
 ures, winged deities, 
 griffins, etc. The em- 
 bossed work was very 
 curious and beautiful, 
 and was applied to 
 weapons, ornaments 
 for the person, house- 
 hold utensils, and 
 many other objects. The usual material 
 used by the Assyrians for ornamental me- 
 tallurgy was bronze, composed of one part 
 of tin to ten of coi)per, which is still con- 
 sidered the best proportion. It seems that 
 the Assyrians also understood how to inlay 
 one metal with another. They also ex- 
 hibited a high degree of skill in carving- 
 ivory and cutting gems. 
 
 They appear also to have vmderstood the 
 art of dyeing, and the use of the pulley, the 
 lever, aud the inclined plane. The last was 
 constantly used by them in their attacks 
 upon fortified places. 
 
 In the organization and equipment of 
 their troops, and in their system of attack 
 and defence and their method of reducing 
 fortified places, the Assyrians manifested a 
 superiority to the nations by which they 
 were surrounded. 
 
 The king was separated from the orders 
 below him by a rigid etiquette. No one 
 was permitted to have access to him except 
 through the proper officers of the court, 
 who always accompanied him. Only the 
 vizier and chief eunuch were privileged to 
 
 NEBO. Assyrian Statue 
 in British Museum 
 
 open conversation with him. When he 
 received them he sat on his throne, and 
 they stood before him. The throne was 
 carried with the army when the king went 
 to war. The Assyrian monarchs, as a rule, 
 led hardy and active lives. In peace they 
 engaged in superintending the public works, 
 administered justice, etc., and sought re- 
 laxation in the dangerous pleasure of hunt- 
 ing the lion and the wild bull. In war the 
 king usually rode in his chariot, but some- 
 times marched on foot, and went into battle 
 in the same manner. The sovereign showed 
 himself freely to the people, while main- 
 taining his haughty dignity in all things, 
 and was rarely the weak and effeminate 
 voluptuary that the Greeks imagined him. 
 The court ceremonial was elaborate and 
 imposing. The dress of the king in peace 
 and war was magnificent. He had also a 
 special dress in which he engaged in the 
 religious ceremonies prescribed for him. 
 
 The musical instruments of Assyria con- 
 sisted of the harp, the lyre, the guitar, the 
 pipe, the tambourine, the cymbal, the drum, 
 the dulcimer, and the trumpet. Bands of 
 music are represented in some of the bas- 
 reliefs, showing that they were sometimes 
 used in public ceremonials. 
 
 The ordiuary dress of the common people 
 was a plain tunic, reaching from the neck 
 to a little above the knee, and confined at 
 the waist by a broad belt or girdle. The 
 sleeves were very short. The head aud feet 
 were without any covering. The king and 
 
 ASSYRIAN AKMLET. From Nineveh Marbles, 
 British Museum. 
 
 his great officers wore shoes and head dresses. 
 Sandals were worn by laborers above the 
 lowest grade. Soldiers and the better class 
 of laborers wore a close-fitting trouser and 
 a leather boot. Persons of the lower classes 
 wore no ornaments. Armlets and bracelets 
 were confined to persons of rank. Ear- 
 rings were worn by the soldiers and musi- 
 cians. Men of rank wore a long fringed 
 robe, which reached nearly to the feet. The 
 sleeves were short, and barely covered the 
 shoulder. Down to the waist, where it was 
 confined by a belt or girdle, it fitted closely ; 
 below the waist it was fuller, but still scant. 
 Fillets, earrings, armlets, and bracelets con- 
 
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY— THE EARLY KINGS. 161 
 
 stituted the jewelry of the upper classes. 
 Women of the better sort dressed iu long 
 fringed gowns, fuller than those pf the men. 
 The sleeves were long. Outside of this 
 dress they often wore a short cloak of the 
 same pattern, open in front and falling over 
 the arms, which it covered nearly to the 
 elbows. Their hair was either arranged in 
 short crisp curls, " or carried back in waves 
 to the ears, and then in part twisted into 
 long pendent ringlets, in part curled, like 
 that of the men, in three or four rows at 
 the back of the neck." The head was some- 
 times encircled with a fillet. A girdle 
 seems to have been worn around the waist; 
 the feet were bare, or only protected by a 
 sandal. Women of the lower class appear 
 to have worn simply a gown reaching to 
 the ankles ; and a hood for a covering for 
 the head. The ornaments and toilet arti- 
 cles of the Assyrian women of the better 
 class indicate a high degree of luxury iu 
 their mode of life. 
 
 The religion of the Assyrians resembled 
 that of the primitive Chaldseans so closely 
 as to be almost identical with it iu its higher 
 
 ASSYRIAN BATTERING-RAM, 
 
 •divinities. Below these were the local gods, 
 peculiar to Assyria. The principal divinity 
 in the Assyrian mythology is the "great 
 god" Asshur. He is the protecting god of 
 both the country and the dynasty. He 
 places mouarchs on their thrones, strength- 
 11 
 
 ens their power, lengthens their days and 
 their reigns, and grants prosperity in peace, 
 and victory in war. He is styled by the 
 kings "Asshur, my lord." He had no 
 prominent temple or shrine in any part of 
 the country, and it is believed that all the 
 
 REPRESENTATIONS OF A WINGED DEITY, SUPPOSED 
 TO BE THE GOD ASSHUR. 
 
 temples were open to his worship, to what- 
 ever god they might be dedicated. The 
 Assyrian religion is described as " the wor- 
 ship of Asshur." The kings represent them- 
 selves as passing their lives in his service, 
 as fighting to extend his worship and ex- 
 terminate his enemies. The emblem of 
 Asshur was the winged circle or globe, from 
 which a figure in a horned cap is frequently 
 seen to issue, sometimes simply holding a 
 bow, sometimes shooting his arrows against 
 the Assyrians' enemies. 
 
 Next to Asshur the Assyrians worshipped, 
 in early times, Anu and Vul ; in the later 
 periods of their history they adored Bel, 
 Sin, Shamas, Vul, Nin or Ninip, and Nergal. 
 Gula, Ishtar, and Beltis were the favorite 
 goddesses, Hoa, Nebo, and Merodach were 
 worshipped under the later empire. The 
 idols of the gods were made of stone and 
 of baked clay. Sacrifices of animals and 
 birds were offered to them. The religion 
 of the Assyrians was of a sensuous charac- 
 ter; the ceremonies were imposing; and 
 some of the rites practised were impure and 
 disgusting, though the religious symbols are 
 almost entirely free from the grossness which 
 is found in classical works of art. Prayers 
 to the gods were freq^ueutly offered in addi- 
 tion to the sacrifices. 
 
162 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF ASSHUR BIL-KALA 
 TO THE FALL OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Uncertain Period of Assyrian History — Reign of 
 Asshur-izir-pal — Rapid Advance of Assyria Un- 
 der him — His Conquests — Growth of Civilization 
 — Shalmaneser II. Conquers Syria and Compels 
 Israel to Pay Tribute — Shamas-Vul II. Extends 
 the Boundaries of the Empire — Semiramis — Ob- 
 scure Period in Assyrian History — Tiglath-Pileser 
 II. Founds the New Assyrian Empire — Extent of 
 his Dominions — Shalmaneser IV. Invades Phceni- 
 cia and Israel — Sargon's Successful Rebellion — 
 His Brilliant Reign — He Conquers Egypt — Senna- 
 cherib King — He Conquers Babylon — Compels 
 Judah to Become Tributary — Destruction of his 
 Army by Visitation of God — Later Wars of Senna- 
 cherib — His Elamitic Expedition — The Babylon- 
 ians Rebel arrd are Subdued — Conquest of Cilicia 
 — Tarsus Founded — ^lurder of Sennacherib — 
 Esar-haddon King — His Conquests — His Arabian 
 Expedition — Conquers Egypt — Asshur-banv-pal 
 Succeeds to the Throne — Crushes the Egyptian 
 Revolt — Brilliant Reign of Asshur-bani-pal — His 
 Closing Years — War with Media — 'Assyria Over- 
 run by the Scythians — The Country Devastated—' 
 The Foundations of the Empire Undermined — 
 Saracus King — Media Renews the War — -Treach- 
 ery of Nabopolassar, who IMakes himself King of 
 Babylon and Joins the ]\Iedes — Death of Saracus 
 — Capture of Nineveh — Fall of the Assyrian Em- 
 pire. 
 
 ,ROM the reign of Asshur-bil-kala 
 to the mifldle of the tenth century 
 B. c, Assyrian history is almost a 
 blank. It is believed that for a 
 time the kingdom had passed un- 
 der a cloud, possibly because of 
 the rapid growth of the Israelitish domin- 
 ions under David, or possibly because Baby- 
 lonia for a time eclipsed the power of Assy- 
 
 ASSYEIAX SHIELDS. 
 
 ria. Whatever may have been the cause 
 of this temporary decline, we know scarcely 
 anything with certainty of Assyrian history 
 during this period. All that can be asserted 
 
 with safety is that Asshur-bil-kala ceased 
 to reign about B. c. 1090, and was succeeded 
 by his younger brother Shamas-Vul, of 
 whom we know nothing save that he built 
 or repaired a temple at Nineveh. His reign 
 probably ended about b. c. 1070. A dim 
 light is shed upon Assyria about B. c. 909. 
 The capital is still at Asshur, " where a new 
 
 ASSYKIAN SHIELDS. 
 
 series of kings, bearing names which, for 
 the most part, resemble those of the earlier 
 period, are found employing themselves in 
 the repair and enlargement of public build- 
 ings, in connection with which they obtain 
 honorable mention in an inscription of a 
 later monarch. Asshur-dayan, the first 
 monarch of this group, probably ascended 
 the throne about B. c. 930, shortly after 
 the separation of the kingdoms of Israel 
 and Judah. He appears to have reigned 
 from about b. c. 930 to b. c. 911. He was 
 succeeded by his son Vul-lush II., who held 
 the throne until b. c. 889." 
 
 The uncertain period of Assyrian history 
 closed in b. c. 889, when Tiglathi-Nin it. 
 ascended the throne. He reigned six years, 
 and was succeeded, B. c. 883, by his son 
 Asshur-izir-pal, a great and powerful mon- 
 arch. Under him Assyria began its career 
 of conquest. He subdued the surrounding 
 nations, and carried his triumphant arms 
 into the Zagros region, into Armenia, west- 
 ern Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, coming 
 in contact, for the first time, with the Medes 
 and Persians. The boundaries of the king- 
 dom were greatly extended, and the influ- 
 ence of Assyria was all powerful in every 
 direction. By a sudden leap the nation 
 sprang from obscurity into greatness. In 
 the short period of six years, Asshur-izir- 
 pal conducted ten campaigns. The first 
 seven and the tenth of these were in the 
 
BEIGN OF ASSHUR-BIL-KALA TO FALL OF ASSYRLiN EMPIRE. 
 
 163 
 
 regions named. The ninth is to the modern 
 student of history the most interesting. The 
 march of the Assyrian king was direct to 
 Carchemish, across the Euphrates, which he 
 passed by means of rafts. Having received 
 the submission of Carchemish, he entered 
 the territory of the Patena (the region about 
 Antioch and Aleppo), the cities of which 
 submitted to him, and passing around the 
 northern flank of Lebanon, he reached the 
 Mediterranean. Here he erected altars and 
 ofl^ered sacrifices to the gods. The Phoeni- 
 cian states, from Aradus southward, sent in 
 their submission, as they were unable to 
 resist his advance. Laden with spoil, he 
 returned to bis own country. 
 
 The reign of Asshur-izir-pal was not only 
 an era of conquest. Assyria advanced 
 rapidly in wealth and in the arts. Its pro- 
 
 feet history of the country was preserved. 
 Engraved sielod were set up in ail the coun- 
 tries under Assyrian rule. Foreign nations 
 were, through the medium of the Assyi'ian 
 power, brought into a more constant com- 
 munication with each other. Bactrian 
 camels, elephants, etc., were imported into 
 Assyria. During this reign, Asshur, the 
 ancient capital, became unsuited to the 
 needs of the empire, and the seat of govern- 
 ment was transferred to Calah, which the 
 king enlarged and beautified Avith magnifi- 
 cent edifices and noble public works. 
 
 Shalmaneser IL succeeded his father, 
 Asshur-izir-pal, B. c. 858, and reigned thirty- 
 five years. During the first twenty-seven 
 years of his reign he conducted twenty- 
 three campaigns. Babylonia, Chaldaea, Me- 
 dia, the Zimri, Armenia, upper Mesopota^ 
 
 PROCESSION OF ASSYRIAN MUSICIANS. 
 
 gress in the latter was simply wonderful. 
 During this reign magnificent buildings 
 were erected, and were decorated for the 
 first time with bas-reliefs, enamelled bricks, 
 and frescoes, painted on plaster. " The 
 evidence of the sculptures alone," says 
 Rawlinson, " is enough to show that in the 
 time of Asshur-izir-pal, the Assyrians were 
 already a great and luxurious people, that 
 most of the useful arts not only existed 
 among them, but were cultivated to a high 
 pitch, and that in dress, furniture, jewelry, 
 etc., they were not very much behind the 
 imoderns." 
 
 During this period and the reigns of the 
 successors of this great king, literature was 
 cultivated. The records of each reign were 
 carefully cut in stone, or impressed on cyl- 
 inders of baked clay. In this way a per- 
 
 mia, the country about the upper waters of 
 the Tigris, the Hittites, the Patena, the 
 Tibareni, the Haraathites, and the Syrians 
 of Damascus, were each and all attacked 
 successfully. Three campaigns were con- 
 ducted against Damascus, which kingdom 
 was aided by the forces of Israel, Hamath, 
 the Hittites, and the Phoenicians, all of 
 whom were alarmed at the growing power 
 of Assyria. The first campaign occurred 
 in the ninth year of Shalmaneser's reign ; 
 the second five years afterwards ; and the 
 third three years later still. The Syrians 
 and their allies were commanded by Beu- 
 hadad, King of Damascus. The first eflTorts 
 of the Assyrians were fruitless, but in the 
 third campaign they were successful. The 
 allies were defeated with terrible loss, their 
 confederation was broken up, the various 
 
164 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 members submitting to the conqueror, ex- 
 cept Damascus, Avhich was left to face him 
 single-handed. A fourth campaign, the 
 next year, resulted in the defeat of the 
 Syrians under Hazael. Three years later 
 the Assyrians invaded Syria. Hazael, 
 thoroughly cowed by his misfortunes, at- 
 tempted no resistance. He made his sub- 
 
 EMBROIDERED DRESS OF AX ASSYRIAN KING. 
 
 mission to the Assyrian king, and even the 
 distant kingdom of Israel was glad to pur- 
 chase an exemption from punishment by 
 the payment of tribute. 
 
 In the last years of the reign of Shal- 
 maneser, a dangerous rebellion broke out 
 under the lead of his son, the heir apparent, 
 Asshur-danin-pal. It was crushed by the 
 king's second son, Shamas-Vul, and the 
 heir apparent was either killed in the strug- 
 gle or put to death. Shalmaneser died b. c. 
 823, and was succeeded by his son Sharaas- 
 Vul II., who reigned thirteen years. Assy- 
 ria was now the predominant power of Asia. 
 Although Armenia, on the north, remained 
 unconquered, the authority of the empire 
 was extended on the west to the confines of 
 the kingdom of Judah ; Syria, Phoenicia, 
 Hamath, and Israel, becoming tributaries 
 of the Assyrian crown. On the south the 
 frontier was unchanged, for Babylonia, 
 though sometimes tributary, managed on 
 the whole to maintain its position. Some 
 territory had been gained on the east. The 
 Medes and Persians were at this time mere 
 wandering tribes, without a civilization or 
 a government. Shalmaneser won some im- 
 portant successes over the former, and re- 
 ceived tribute from the latter. Shamas- 
 Vul II. conducted successful wars against 
 the Medes and Persians, and the Babylon- 
 ians, but added nothing to the territory of 
 his empire. He was succeeded by his son 
 Vul-lush III., B. c. 810. 
 
 Vul-lush III. extended his dominions 
 eastward and westward in twenty-six cam- 
 paigns. His supremacy was established 
 over Babylon, and the Assyrian emj^ire 
 stretched from the Persian Gulf to the 
 Mediterranean. His wife Avas Sammuramit, 
 the heiress of Babylonia. She is better 
 known as Semiramis. The Greeks and 
 Romans preserved a legendary history of 
 her which made her one of the greatest, as 
 well as one of the most infamous personages 
 of history ; and she was believed to be the 
 wife of Ninus, the mythical founder of 
 Nineveh. It is now admitted that the acts 
 attributed to her were fabulous, and that 
 she was, at the most, simply joint ruler 
 with Vul-lush III., her husband. 
 
 With the death of Vul-lush III. a 
 change came over the policy and history 
 of Assyria. He ceased to reign B. c. 781, 
 and until b. c. 745 the history of Assyria is 
 obscure. A Aveak, peaceful policy was 
 pursued, conquests were discontinued, and 
 the empire appears to have entered upon a 
 decline in every respect. Three monarchs 
 bore sway during this interval. Shalmane- 
 ser III., B. c. 781-771 ; Asshur-dayan III., 
 B. c. 771-753 ; and Asshur-lush, B. c. 753- 
 745. During this period Babylon revolted 
 under Nabonassar. Other revolutions 
 shook the kingdom of Assyria proper, and 
 at length the dynasty Avas overthrown in 
 
 ASSYRIAN CUIKASS. 
 
 the great outbreak Avhich placed Tiglath- 
 Pileser II. on the throne, and ushered in 
 the more glorious era of the new or lower 
 Assyrian empire. It Avas during the last 
 days of the elder empire that the Prophet 
 Jonah AA^as sent to Nineveh to Avarn the in- 
 habitants of their doom, which was averted 
 by their repentance. 
 
 The New or Lower Assyrian Empire be- 
 gan Avith the accession of Tiglath-Pileser 
 II., B. c. 745. The circumstances by Avhich 
 
REIGN OF ASSIIUR-BIL-KALA TO FALL OF ASSYRLiN EMPIRE. 165 
 
 he acquired the crowu are unknown to us ; 
 but he was a usurper, and it appears of 
 humble origin. By a series of vigorously 
 prosecuted wars he regained all that his 
 predecessoi's had lost, and even extended 
 his dominions. He conquered Damascus, 
 Samaria, Tyre, the Philistines, and the 
 Arabians of the Peninsula of Sinai. He 
 also overran the northern territory of 
 Israel and ravaged the trans-Jordanic ter- 
 ritory of that kingdom, carrying away the 
 inhabitants into captivity in Assyria. 
 Judah was made tributary to him. He was 
 succeeded by Shalmaneser IV., b. c. 727. 
 
 Soon after the accession of Shalmaneser 
 IV., Hoshea, King of Israel, refused tribute, 
 but was compelled to submit. In spite of 
 this submission, however, Hoshea revolted 
 again a few years later, and allied himself 
 with the kingdom of Egypt, which had 
 
 also subdued. This accomplished, Sargon 
 turned his arms against Egypt, the ally of 
 Israel, and the only remaining great power 
 unsubdued by Assyria. The two armies 
 met at Raphia, south of Gaza, and the 
 Egyptians were decisively defeated, al- 
 though aided by the Philistines. This 
 victory made Sargon master of Philistia 
 and the Delta. In the latter the suprem- 
 acy of the Assyrians was firmly established. 
 The Egyptian king, confined to the limits 
 of upper Egypt, became tributary, and 
 even the Ethiopian King of Meroe sent in 
 his submission to the conqueror. Sargon 
 next turned his attention to Babylonia, 
 conquered it, and became master of Baby- 
 lonia and Chaldsea. This success was fol- 
 lowed by the conquest of the Aramaean 
 tribes and at least a portion of Susiania, 
 B. c. 709. In the next year Cyprus sent in 
 
 SHALMANESER II. BECEIVING TRIBUTE FROM JEIITJ OF ISRAEL. 
 
 passed under the sway of the Ethiopian 
 Sabaco. Shalmaneser invaded Palestine, 
 and, dividing his forces, attacked Phoenicia, 
 which had revolted on the death of Tiglath- 
 Pileser II., and Israel. Siege was laid to 
 both Tyre and Samaria. His operations 
 against Tyre were unsuccessful. The fleet 
 which he collected to attack the city from 
 the sea was beaten and destroyed by the 
 Tyrians. Samaria held out for two years. 
 During these operations a revolt broke 
 out in Assyria, and its leader, Sargon, 
 seized the throne and brought Shalmaueser's 
 reign to an end, b. c. 721. 
 
 Sargon proved himself a great king. 
 He quickly established his authority over 
 the whole empire of Assyria, crushing all 
 opposition with a firm hand. Samaria 
 surrendered to his generals in the first year 
 of his reign. The city was destroyed, the 
 country depopulated, and the Israelites 
 transported to Ganzanitis and Media, 
 which he had just conquered. Syria was 
 
 its submission and paid tribute. Sargon, 
 now master of the ancient world, illustrated 
 his glorious reign by the construction of a 
 magnificent palace and a city at Dur-Sar- 
 gina, or Khorsabad. The former was one 
 of the most splendid and beautifully 
 adorned edifices ever erected in Assyria, 
 and has been described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 Sargon's reign was terminated by his 
 death, b. c. 705. He was succeeded by his 
 son, Sennacherib, the most famous of all 
 the Assyrian mouarchs, in whose reign the 
 empire reached a high degree of glory and 
 power. Soon after his accession Babylon 
 revolted under Merodach Baladan. Sen- 
 nacherib defeated him, b. c. 703, and seated 
 an Assyrian viceroy on the Babylonian 
 throne, replacing him a year or two later 
 with his own eldest son, Asshur-inadi-su. 
 Phoenicia having revolted, Sennacherib 
 marched against it and compelled its sub- 
 mission. He then continued southward, 
 
166 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 conquered the rebellious Philistines, and 
 terrified Egypt and Ethiopia into submis- 
 sion by a great victory over their forces at 
 Altaku, or Eltekeh. Then, marching 
 against Jerusalem, he forced Hezekiah to 
 become tributary, and took an immense 
 sum from him as tribute. Returning home, 
 he put down a new outbreak in Babylon. 
 
 The opening of the seventh century B. c. 
 was marked by one of the most terrible 
 disasters ever suffered by Assyria. Heze- 
 
 TIGLATH-PILESER II. 
 
 kiah, King of Judah, undaunted by his 
 bitter lesson of two years previous, entered 
 again into an alliance with Egypt, and 
 threw off his allegiance to Assyria. Sen- 
 nacherib resolved to punish him, and in 
 B. c. 699 marched from Nineveh into Pales- 
 tine, with a powerful army, to crush the 
 rebellion. Well knowing that Egypt, not 
 Judah, was the true foe of Assyria in this 
 quarter, he marched along the sea-coast 
 towards the Egyptian frontier, intending to 
 
 crush Egypt before punishing Judah. His 
 progress was barred by the fortresses of 
 Libnah and Lachish, on the extreme verge 
 of Palestine, and which seem to have been 
 subject at this time to Egypt. He at once 
 laid siege to Lachish, which appears to 
 have fallen soon, after which he besieged 
 Libnah. In the meantime, however, find- 
 ing that Hezekiah still maintained his de- 
 fiant attitude, he sent a detachment of his 
 army, under the liabshakeh, or chief cup- 
 bearer, and the Rab-Saris, or chief eunuch, 
 to summon Jerusalem to surrender, ac- 
 companying his demand "with a message 
 grossly insulting to the God of Israel, and 
 which drew upon him the divine ven- 
 geance. The demand was refused by Heze- 
 kiah, and the Assyrian commanders, finding 
 their detachment unequal to the capture 
 of so strong a city, rejoined Sennacherib, 
 who, having taken Lachish, was now en- 
 gaged in the siege of Libnah. The As- 
 syrian monarch despatched fresh messen- 
 gers to Hezekiah, with a letter in his own 
 hand, in which he renewed his demand for 
 the submission of Judah, "warned Hezekiah 
 of the fate of the princes Avho had resisted 
 Assyria, and blasphemously told him that 
 his God, in "vvhom he trusted, "was not able 
 to deliver him from the Assyrians. Heze- 
 kiah took this letter into the temple and, 
 spreading it out before the Lord, implored 
 his help against Sennacherib, who had sent 
 to him " to reproach the living God." The 
 Prophet Isaiah was commanded to declare 
 to Hezekiah that the King of Assyria 
 should not come near Jerusalem, nor molest 
 it, but should return at once to his o"\vn 
 country. 
 
 Meanwhile, Libnah having surrendered, 
 Sennacherib had marched tOAvards Pelu- 
 sium, on the Egyptian frontier, where the 
 Egyptian army, under Sethos, awaited 
 him. On the day when Hezekiah spread 
 his letter before the Lord, Sennacherib en- 
 camped in front of the Egyptian army, in- 
 tending to attack it the next morning. 
 That night, by the direct interposition of 
 the power of God, 185,000 men of the As- 
 syrian army died in their sleep. Horror- 
 struck by this fearful calamity, and too 
 greatly weakened by it to think of con- 
 tinuing the war, Sennacherib abandoned 
 his camp at once, and began a hurried re- 
 treat. The Egyptians, seeing his confusion 
 and flight, pursued him, harassed his 
 march, and cut off his stragglers. The As- 
 syrian monarch returned to Nineveh with 
 
BEIQN OF ASSHUR-BIL-KALA TO FALL OF ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 167 
 
 the remnant of his proud hosts, and for 
 a Avhile there seems to have been a pause in 
 Assyrian aifairs. So powerful a nation, 
 however, was not to be ruined even by so 
 great a loss, and although kSennacherib care- 
 fully refrained from repeating his attempts 
 upon Palestine during the remainder of his 
 reign, he won great successes in other 
 quarters. 
 
 He conducted a successful campaign, 
 which was more a raiding expedition than 
 an attempt at conquest, in the northern 
 portion of the Zagros range. After this 
 he waged a severe war with the Baby- 
 lonians and Susianians. The Babylonians 
 appear to have taken advantage of the dis- 
 aster at Pelusium to throw off the Assyrian 
 yoke, and the Susianians, or Elamites, had 
 given mortal offence to Assyria by receiv- 
 ing and protecting the Chaldseans of Beth- 
 Yakin, who had fled from Sennacherib's 
 dominions. These, taking with them their 
 gods and treasures, had crossed the Persian 
 Gulf in their ships, and had landed on the 
 Elamitic coast, where they were kindly re- 
 ceived by the Susianian kings and allowed 
 to take up their abode. Sennacherib re- 
 solved, after reducing Babylonia to subjec- 
 tion, to take vengeance upon the Elamites. 
 Having compelled the submission of Baby- 
 lonia, he brought a number of Phoenician 
 shipbuilders and sailors from the Mediter- 
 ranean coast, over which his supremacy ex- 
 tended, and built a fleet of Phoenician war- 
 galleys in the lower Tigris. Embarking 
 his army in these, the largest and most 
 formidable vessels that had ever been seen 
 in these waters, he crossed the Persian 
 Gulf, landed on the portion of the Elamite 
 coast occupied by the emigrant Chaldseans, 
 destroyed the city they had built, ravaged 
 the country, burnt a number of Elamite 
 towns, and, re-embarking his army and his 
 captives, returned to the Tigris, without 
 having encountered any serious resistance 
 from the Elamites, who, expecting an attack 
 from the land, had massed their army along 
 their northwestern frontier. The sudden 
 descent of the Assyrians upon their coast 
 took them completely by surprise, and 
 found them utterly unprepared to resist it. 
 
 But though successful in this expedition, 
 Sennacherib found trouble awaiting him on 
 his return. His expedition was popularly 
 regarded as venturesome in the extreme, 
 and as certain of destruction by the sea. 
 The Babylonians, acting upon this hope, 
 rose in rebellion immediately after the 
 
 sailing of the fleet from the Tigris. To 
 their surprise the Assyrians returned from 
 Susiania flushed with victory. Landing 
 upon the Babylonian coast, they at once 
 proceeded to reduce the province to subjec- 
 tion. A great battle was fought, and the 
 Babylonian king, Susub, was captured. 
 The Susianians entered Babylonia a little 
 later in aid of their allies, but were routed 
 by the Assyrians with great loss. Babylo- 
 nia was obliged to submit, and Sennacherib 
 returned in triumph +o Assyria. In order 
 to break the power of Susiania, Sennacherib 
 now invaded that country with a strong 
 army, penetrated to the heart of it, de- 
 
 SARGON. 
 
 stroyed thirty-four large cities and a num- 
 ber of villages, and captured Badaca, the 
 second city of the kingdom. He rean- 
 nexed to the Assyrian empire the cities 
 of Beth-Kahiri and Baza, which had been 
 conquered by the Susianians in the reign of 
 Sargon, and returned to Nineveh loaded 
 with spoils, leaving Susiania greatly crip- 
 pled. Soon after this, war again broke out 
 in Babylonia. Susub, the king who had 
 been taken prisoner by Sennacherib in the 
 year of the naval expedition, managed to 
 escape from captivity, and, returning to 
 Babylonia, was hailed by the people as 
 
168 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 king. By stripping the treasury and tem- 
 ple of the god Bel, at Babylon, of its wealth 
 and ornaments, he managed to raise funds 
 enough to purchase the alliance of the Su- 
 sianians, who marched to his aid. The 
 Babylonians were also joined by a number 
 of revolted Aramaean trd^es from the middle 
 Euphrates. Sennacherib encountered the 
 allied army at Khaluli, on the lower Tigris. 
 After a long and bloody battle, he defeated 
 it, broke up the alliance, compelled the 
 surrender of Babylon, and obliged the allied 
 
 queror. Sennacherib signalized his con- 
 quest by the erection of a new city .on the 
 model of Babylon, and called it Tarsus. 
 It subsequently became a noted city, and 
 was the birthplace of the Apostle Paul. 
 
 Sennacherib was a great builder and a 
 wise patron of the arts. He built a palace 
 at iS'ineveh, which in size and splen- 
 dor eclipsed all the earlier edifices of As- 
 syria, and was only excelled in beauty of 
 ornamentation by one Assyrian edifice — the 
 palace built on the same platform by his 
 
 HEZEKIAH LAYS SENNACHERIB'S LETTER BEFORE THE LORD. 
 
 kings to seek safety in flight. Babylon 
 was severely punished. The fortifications 
 were destroyed ; the temples were plundered 
 and burnt ; and the images of the gods 
 were broken to pieces. An Assyrian vice- 
 roy was again placed over Chaldrea. 
 
 Somewhat later, Sennacherib undertook 
 an expedition against Cilicia, in which the 
 Assyrians encountered the Greeks for the 
 first time. A Greek fleet guarded the 
 Cilician shore, and was defeated by the 
 ships of Sennacherib. It appears that the 
 Greeks were also defeated on land in Cilicia, 
 and that country submitted to the con- 
 
 grandson, Asshur-bani-pal. The art of 
 sculpture made a remarkable advance in 
 this reign. Other great edifices were also 
 constructed in other parts of the country, 
 canals and aqueducts were built for the 
 purpose of bringing good water to the 
 capital, and the Tigris was confined to its 
 channel by an embankment of brick. Sen- 
 nacherib's reign Avas brought to a close by 
 his murder by two of his sons, B. c. 681. 
 The murderers also slew their brother, 
 Nergilus, who claimed the crown, and were 
 themselves overthrown in the course of a 
 few months by Esar-haddon, their youngest 
 
BEIGN OF ASSIIUR-BIL-KALA TO FALL OF ASSYRLiN EMPIRE. 169 
 
 brother, who was supported by the arm}', 
 and wlio was engaged in guarding the Ar- 
 menian frontier at the time of the murder 
 of his father. 
 
 Esar-haddou came to the throne in B. c. 
 681, and reigned for thirteen yeai's. His 
 court Avas held alternately at Nmeveh and 
 Babylon. He compelled the submission 
 of the Babylonians in the first year of his 
 reign. Then, marching into Phcenicia, he 
 put down a revolt of the Sidonians, and 
 conquered the King of the Lebauon region, 
 who had aided them, and put to death the 
 Kings of Sidon and the Lebanon. His 
 next campaign was in Armenia, In which 
 he gained some important successes. He 
 also subdued the Cilicians, who had re- 
 volted at the death of Sennacherib, About 
 B. c. 675 he made an expedition into the 
 southern part of Chalda^a, where Nebo- 
 zirsi-sidi, a son of Merodach-Baladan, had 
 established himself with the help of the 
 Susianians. He deposed this jirince and 
 gave the control of the region to another 
 son of Merodach-Baladan, named Nahid- 
 Marduk, who had sought his aid. He 
 then conquered Edom and made it tributary 
 to Assyria, His next expedition was into 
 the heart of Arabia. He crossed the desert 
 with a large array and reached the more 
 fertile and settled region beyond. He cap- 
 tured and plundered several towns, and 
 returned to his own country in safety. 
 " Considering the physical perils of the 
 desert itself, and the warlike character of 
 its inhabitants, whom no conqueror has 
 ever really subdued, this was a most re- 
 markable success. . . , Arabia has been 
 deeply penetrated thrice only in the liistory 
 of the world ; and Esar-haddon is the sole 
 monarch who ever ventured to conduct in 
 person such an attack." He also subdued 
 the Aramoean tribes along the Euphrates, 
 and gained some important successes in the 
 remoter regions of Media. These wars 
 consumed the first ten years of his reign. 
 
 The most important event of Esar-had- 
 don 's reign was the conquest of Egypt, 
 which was accomplished about B. c. 670. 
 He defeated the Egyptian forces under 
 Tirhakah in a great battle, and captured 
 Memphis. Then proceeding southward, he 
 took Thebes, drove the Egyptian king into 
 Ethiopia, and established his authority 
 over the kingdom, which he divided into 
 twenty petty states, over each of which he 
 placed a king. All these petty kings were 
 made to a certain extent subordinate to 
 
 the prince who reigned at Memphis. This 
 prince was Nechoh, the father of Psam- 
 metichus, and a native Egyptian. The 
 revolt of Manasseh, King of Judah. oc- 
 curred about this time, but was put down by 
 the Assyrian generals, who sent the Jewish 
 king in chains to Babylon, where Esar- 
 haddon was then holding his court. The 
 Assyrian monarch at first treated his cap- 
 tive severely, but subsequently released him 
 and restored him to his throne on condition 
 of his paying an increased tribute. Having 
 thus pacified the kingdom of Judah. Esar- 
 haddon, in order to strengthen the Assyrian 
 influence in Palestine, colonized the terri- 
 tory of the kingdom of Israel with families 
 from the distant regions of his empire. 
 
 In B. c. 669 Esar-haddon appears to have 
 fallen ill, Tirhakah at once made his ap- 
 pearance in Egypt, and soon re-established 
 his authority over the entire valley of the 
 Nile, driving out the petty kings set up by 
 the Assyrians. Esar-haddon, unable to 
 meet this outbreak in person, associated his 
 eldest son, Asshur-bani-pal, with him in the 
 government of the empire. He resigned 
 the crown of Assyria to his son, and re- 
 tained that of Babylon, to which city he 
 retired, and died there about b. c. 667, in 
 the early part of that year. 
 
 Immediately upon the death of his fa- 
 ther, Asshur-bani-pal appointed his younger 
 brother, Saiil-Mugina, Viceroy of Babylon, 
 and collecting his forces, invaded Egypt. 
 Tirhakah sent a powerful army to meet 
 him, remaining at Memphis to await the 
 issue of the conflict. The Egyptians were 
 defeated in a great battle near the city of 
 Kar-banit, and Tirhakah withdrew to 
 Thebes, from which he was driven by the 
 Assyrians, He fled to Ethiopia, and the 
 Assyrian authority was re-established over 
 Egypt. Asshur-bani-pal restored the petty 
 kings established by his father, and having 
 quieted the country, returned to Nineveh, 
 Almost immediately after his withdrawal 
 from Egypt the country was again thrown 
 into confusion by the efforts of the Ethio- 
 pians. Nechoh, who had been placed over 
 Memphis, deserted the Assyrians and joined 
 the Ethiopians. The kings who remained 
 faithful seized Nechoh and some of his asso- 
 ciates and sent them in chains to Nineveh, 
 and endeavored to suppress the revolt ; but 
 Tirhakah succeeded in regaining Thebes, 
 from which he threatened to reconquer all 
 Egjq^t. The Assyrian king, seeing the 
 danger, forgave Nechoh for his defection, 
 
170 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 restorer! his throne to him, and sent him 
 back to Egypt with a strong Assyrian force, 
 with which he drove Tirhakah once more 
 into Ethiopia, where that monarch died, 
 leaving his cause to his stepson Urdamane, 
 who soon afterwards descended the Nile 
 valley, defeated the Assyrians near Mem- 
 phis, took that city by assault, and recon- 
 quei-ed lower Egypt. Asshur-bani-pal at 
 once took the field in person, and entering 
 Egypt at the head of a powerful force, 
 drove the Ethiopians out of the kingdom. 
 In this campaign the Assyrians took Tliebes 
 by assault and sacked it, plundering it of 
 an immense booty, which they carried off 
 to Nineveh. The country was once more 
 arranged on the plan established by Esar- 
 haddon. 
 
 Asshur-bani-pal's next war was in Asia 
 Minor, which he conquered. Gyges. Kmg 
 
 ASSYRIAN raDING HOESE. 
 
 of Lydia, alarmed at his progress, paid him 
 tribute. A large part of Armenia was con- 
 quered in this reign ; Susiania was com- 
 pletely subjugated and attached to Baby- 
 lonia as a province, and many of the out- 
 lying Arabian tribes were subdued. Assyria 
 Avas now at the height of her prosperity and 
 power, without an enemy in the world either 
 Avilling or able to oppose her. Asshur- 
 bani-pal built the most magnificent of all 
 the Assyrian palaces by the side of the pal- 
 ace of his grandfather Sennacherib, at Nine- 
 veh. He was devoted to the arts and to 
 music, and established a sort of royal 
 library at Nineveh. He was unquestion- 
 ably one of Assyria's greatest kings. " In 
 his reign the Assyrian dominions reached 
 their greatest extent, Assyrian art cul- 
 minated, and the empire seemed likely to 
 extend itself over the whole of the East." 
 This period of glory constituted the first 
 part of Asshur-bani-pal's reign. 
 
 It has been generally supposed that 
 Asshur-bani-pal died about B. c. 647 ; but 
 recent discoveries have made it probable 
 that he lived twenty years longer, and died 
 about B. c. 626. This view is adopted by 
 Professor Rawlinson, one of the most emi- 
 nent authorities in this department of his- 
 tory. Tliis period furnishes a striking con- 
 trast to the first twenty-two years of this 
 great king's reign. The first part witnessed 
 the culmination of the glory and power of 
 Assyria; the last, upon which we now enter, 
 was to witness the beginning of the decline 
 of the great empire, in which Assyria 
 passed from the supremacy in the ancient 
 world t(t a doubtful and precarious position. 
 The first of the causes of this decline was 
 the rapid growth of the Median kingdom 
 into a strong military power on the very 
 borders of Assyria. So rapid was this 
 growth that the Medes felt strong enough 
 to invade Assyria about B. c. 634. They 
 were unsuccessful, but the fact of their in- 
 vasion was significant. They were defeated 
 near Nineveh, and their leader, who is 
 called Phraortes, was killed. The aged 
 Asshur-bani-pal had lost the vigor of his 
 youthful spirit, and contented himself with 
 defeating the invaders, but made no effort 
 to follow them into their own country. 
 Profiting by this, Cyaxeres, who succeeded 
 to the Median crown, spent the next two 
 years in preparing an army, and in B. c. 
 632 invaded Assyria, defeated the Assyrian 
 army in the field, and closely invested 
 Nineveh. He was suddenly obliged to 
 raise the siege and return in haste to his 
 own country, in consequence of an invasion 
 of Media by the Scythian hordes of the 
 north of Asia. 
 
 These daring and barbarous people 
 swarmed over the Caucasus into southern 
 Asia, appearing first in Media, which they 
 subdued, but not entirely, owing to its 
 mountainous character, and then spread 
 themselves westward over Asia towards the 
 Mediterranean. Assyria, already weak- 
 ened by the revolt of Egypt under Psam- 
 metichus, was quickly overrun by the Scyth- 
 ians, who passed on into Syria, where the 
 tide was checked by Psammetichus, then 
 engaged in the siege of Ashdod, in Pales- 
 tine. He bribed the barbarians to spare 
 Egypt, and they turned aside into other 
 countries, and finally disappeared ; some, it 
 is believed, returning to their original 
 homes in the steppe country beyond the 
 Caucasus, and others taking service under 
 
REIGN OF ASSHUB-BIL-KALA TO FALL OF ASSYRLiN EMPIRE. 
 
 171 
 
 the native rulers of Asia, who iu the course 
 of a few years regained sufficient strength 
 to throw off the barbarian yoke and re- 
 establish their authority. The first country 
 to accomplish this was Media, under the 
 wise guidance of Cyaxeres. 
 
 Assyria suffex-ed fearfully from the rav- 
 ages of the Scyths, whose numbers made 
 the attempt to resist them hopeless. Many 
 of the old cities were taken, despoiled of 
 their treasures, and their palaces wantonly 
 burned. The country was ravaged and 
 depopulated, for the barbarians pursued a 
 policy of extermination. "Assyria, when 
 the Scythians quitted her," says Rawlinson, 
 " was but the shadow of her former self. 
 Weak and exhausted, she seemed to invite 
 a permanent conqueror. If her limits had 
 not much shrunk, if the provinces still 
 acknowledged her authority, it was from 
 habit rather than from fear, or because they 
 too had suffered greatly from the northern 
 barbarians." Thus, though it was weak 
 and exhausted, Assyria was still an empire, 
 and it is possible that the last efibrts of 
 Asshur-bani-pal were devoted to reorgan- 
 izing his dominions and repairing the dam- 
 ages inflicted by the Scythians. He was 
 cut short in this work by his death early in 
 B. c. 626, after a reign of forty-two years. 
 
 He was succeeded by his sou Asshur- 
 emed-ilin, better known by the name of 
 Saracus, given to him by the Greeks. 
 Scarcely anything is known of him, except 
 that his reign was one of continued misfor- 
 tune. Under him the empire grew weaker. 
 The treasury was exhausted, and the coun- 
 try was ou the verge of ruin in consequence 
 of the ravages of the Scythians. It is not 
 known whether he had the ability to repair 
 these evils, but it is certain that he had not 
 the means of doing so. Before anything 
 could be accomplished the Medes and Susi- 
 anians, having formed an alliance, invaded 
 Assyria — the former from the east and the 
 latter from the south. Saracus, in order to 
 meet this double danger, divided his forces 
 into two armies. He advanced with one to 
 meet the Median invasion, and sent the 
 other, under Nabopolassar, his ablest gen- 
 eral, to drive back the Susianians, who 
 were marching from the sea upon Babylon. 
 This disposition of his forces, though wise 
 and prudent in itself, proved the ruin of 
 Assyria in consequence of the treachery of 
 Nabopolassar, who, seeing his own oppor- 
 tunity in his country's weakness, deserted 
 the Assyrian cause and made terms with 
 
 the enemy. By this arrangement he se- 
 cured the throne of Babylon for himself, 
 and the daughter of Cyaxeres as a bride 
 for his eldest son Nebuchadnezzar. Then 
 uniting his forces with those of Cyaxeres, 
 they marched upon Nineveh and closely 
 invested it. Seeing the city on the point of 
 capture, Saracus, in despair, burned himself 
 in his palace, and Nineveh was taken by 
 the conquerors, who divided Assyria be- 
 tween them, B. c. 625. 
 
 Thus fell the Assyrian empire, not so 
 much from any inherent weakness, or from 
 the effect of gradual decay, as by an unfor- 
 tunate combination of circumstances — the 
 invasion of the Medes, a strong nation of 
 warriors, at a time when the empire had 
 been brought to its lowest state by the 
 
 irruption of the Scythians ; and the treach- 
 ery of its most trusted lieutenant. 
 
 The independent kingdom of Assyria 
 lasted about one thousand years. The 
 empire covered about seven centuries of 
 this period, from B. c. 1300 to B. c. 625 ; 
 or perhaps, to be more accurate, we must 
 limit this duration to five centuries, com- 
 mencing with the reign of Assur-ris-ilim, 
 about B. c. 1150. The first twenty-two 
 years of the reign of Asshur-bani-pal saw 
 the empire at the height of its power and 
 dominion. " In the middle part of this 
 prince's reign Assyria was paramount over 
 the portion of western Asia included be- 
 tween the Mediterranean and the Halys on 
 the one hand, the Caspian Sea and the 
 
172 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 great Persian desert on tlie other. South- 
 wards the boundary was formed by Arabia 
 and the Persian Gulf; northwards it seems 
 at no time to have advanced to the Euxine 
 or to the Caucasus, but to have been formed 
 by a fluctuating line, which did not in the 
 most flourishing period extend so far as the 
 northern frontier of Armenia. Besides her 
 Asiatic dominions, Assyria possessed also 
 at this time a portion of Africa, her author- 
 ity being acknowledged by Egypt as far as 
 the latitude of Thebes. The countries in- 
 cluded within the limits thus indicated, and 
 subject during the period in question to 
 Assyrian influence, were chiefly the follow- 
 ing: Susiauia, Chaldsea, Babylonia, Media, 
 Matiene or the Zagros range, Mesopotamia; 
 parts of Armenia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia; 
 Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Idumsea, a por- 
 tion of Arabia, and almost the whole of 
 Egypt. The island of Cyprus was also, it 
 is probable, a dependency. On the other 
 hand, Persia proper, Bactria, and Sogdiana, 
 even Hyrcania, were beyond the eastern 
 limit of the Assyrian sway, Avhich towards 
 the north did not on this side reach farther 
 than about the neighborhood of Kasoin, 
 and towards the south was confined within 
 the mountain barrier of Zagros. Similarly, 
 on the west, Phrygia, Lydia, Lycia, and 
 even Pamphylia, w-ere independent, the 
 Assyrian arms having never, so far as ap- 
 pears, penetrated westward beyond Cilicia, 
 or crossed the river Halys. 
 
 " The nature of the dominion established 
 by the great Mesopotamiau monarchy over 
 the countries included within the limits 
 above indicated, will perhaps be best under- 
 stood if we compare it with the empire of 
 Solomon. Solomon ' reigned over all the 
 kingdoms from the river (Euphrates) unto 
 the land of the Philistines and unto the 
 borders of Egypt; they brought presents 
 and served Solomon all the days of his 
 life.' The first and most striking features 
 of the earliest empires is that they are a 
 mere congeries of kingdoms. The countries 
 over which the dominant state acquii-es an 
 influence not only retain their direct indi- 
 viduality, as is the case in some modern 
 empires, but remain in all respects such as 
 they were before, with the simple addition 
 of certain obligations contracted towards 
 the paramount authority. They keep their 
 old laws, their old religion, their line of 
 kings, their law of succession, their whole 
 
 internal organization and machinery ; they 
 only acknowledge an external suzerainty 
 which binds them to the performance of 
 certain duties towards the head of the em- 
 pire. These duties, as understood in the 
 earliest times, may be summed up in the 
 two words, 'homage' and 'tribute;' the 
 subject kings 'serve' and ' bring presents.' 
 They are bound to acts of submission ; must 
 attend the court of their suzerain when 
 summoned, unless they have a reasonable 
 excuse ; must there salute him as a superior, 
 and otherwise acknowledge his rank; above 
 all, they must pay him regularly the fixed 
 tribute which has been imposed upon them 
 at the time of their submission or subjec- 
 tion, the unauthorized withholding of which 
 is open and avowed rebellion. Finally, 
 they must allow his troops free passage 
 through their dominions, and must oppose 
 any attempt at invasion by way of their 
 country on the part of his enemies." In 
 return, the empire guaranteed to its depend- 
 ents protection against their foreign foes. 
 It is evident that such an empire contained 
 within itself the elements of constant dis- 
 order and of its ow'n destruction. Pawliu- 
 son well says, that " it exhibits in a marked 
 way both the strength and weakness of this 
 class of monarchies — their strength in 
 the extraordinary magnificence, grandeur, 
 wealth, and refinement of the capital ; their 
 weakness in the impoverishment, the ex- 
 haustion, and the consequent disaflTection of 
 the subject states. Ever falling to pieces, 
 it was perpetually reconstructed by the 
 genius and prowess of a long succession of 
 warrior princes, seconded by the skill and 
 bravery of the people. Fortunate in pos- 
 sessing for a long time no very powerful 
 neighbor, it found little difficulty in extend- 
 ing itself throughout regions divided and 
 subdivided among hundreds of petty chiefs, 
 incapable of union, and singly quite unable 
 to contend with the forces of a large and 
 populous country. Frequently endangered 
 by revolts, yet always triumphing over 
 them, it maintained itself for five centuries, 
 gradually advancing its influence, and was 
 only overthrown after a fierce struggle by a 
 new kingdom formed upon its borders, 
 which, taking advantage of a time of ex- 
 haustion, and leagued with the most power- 
 ful of the subject states, was enabled to 
 accomplish the destruction of the long 
 dominant people." 
 
BI&E AND FALL OF THE BABYLONIAN KINGDOM. 
 
 173 
 
 BOOIEC ^^. 
 THE HISTORY OF BA.BYL0:N"I^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ELSE AND FALL OF THE BABYLONIAN 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 Geographical Position of Babylonia — Almost Identi- 
 cal with Chaldaja — Babylon under Assyrian IviiJe 
 — Frequent Revolts — Saracus Places Nabopolas- 
 sar over Babylon — The Patter Revolts and Makes 
 Himself King of Babylonia — The Median Alli- 
 ance — Fall of Assyria — The Babylonian Empire 
 Formed — Reign of Nabopolassar — War with Egypt 
 — Nebuchadnezzar Defeats Nechoh at Carchemish 
 — Nebuchadnezzar King — Phajnicia and Judah 
 Subdued — Jerusalem Taken and Destroyed — Con- 
 quest of Egypt — Brilliant Reign of Nebuchadnez- 
 zar — His Great Works — The Hanging Gardens— 
 The Walls of Babylon — Commercial Wealth — 
 Character of the King — His Madness — His Re- 
 covery and Closing Years — His Successors — Na- 
 bonadius King — Associates his Son with him — 
 The War with Persia — Belshazzar's Feast — Cyrus 
 Ca]>tures Babylon — Fall of the Babylonian Em- 
 pire — Babylon Becomes the Second Capital of the 
 Persian Empire. 
 
 ABYLONIA proper was almost 
 identical iu its territorial area 
 with the ancient kingdom of 
 Chaldsea, and need not be de- 
 scribed here. It lay entirely west 
 of the Tigris, and consisted of two 
 ^' vast plains, or flats, one situated between 
 the two rivers (the Tigris and Euphrates), 
 and thus forming the lower portion of the 
 Mesopotamia of the Greeks and Romans — 
 the other interposed between the Euphrates 
 and Arabia, a long but narrow strip along 
 the right bank of that abounding river." 
 It comprised an area of about 27,000 square 
 miles — being smaller than Scotland or Ire- 
 land. The country east of the Tigris formed 
 no part of Babylonia proper, but was Cissia, 
 or Susiania — a distinct region known to the 
 Jews as Elam — and was inhabited by a 
 people distinct from the Babylonians. At 
 the height of its power the Babylonian em- 
 pire embraced, as we shall see, a large part 
 of the eastern world. 
 
 After the conquest of Chaldsea by Ti- 
 glathi-Nin I., in B. c. 1300, and its absorp- 
 tion in the Assyrian monarchy, the people 
 of that region were more or less discontented, 
 and from time to time efforts were made to 
 throw off the Assyrian yoke, but without 
 success. In b. c. 747, however, ISTabouassar 
 
 made a successful revolt, and established 
 an independent monarchy in Babylonia. 
 He reigned font teen years, and destroyed 
 the records of the Assyrian viceroys who 
 had preceded him iu order to blot out the 
 record of his country's slavery. He was 
 succeeded by Nadius, who reigned from B. 
 c. 733 to 731. Two kings next came to the 
 throne, Chinzinus and Porus, B. c. 731 to 
 726. Their successor was Elulseus, B. c. 
 726 to 721, who was, in his turn, succeeded 
 by Merodach-Baladan. This king, about 
 B. c. 713, sent an embassy to Hezekiah, 
 King of Judah, congratulating him upon 
 his recovery from a dangerous illness. In 
 B. c. 709 he was attacked and dethroned 
 by Sargon, and Babylon was once more 
 ruled by an Assyrian viceroy. This state 
 of affairs lasted until B. c. 704, and was fol- 
 lowed by an interregnum of a little more 
 than a year. Merodach-Baladan, who had 
 escaped from captivity, then regained his 
 throne and reigned six months, when he 
 was attacked and defeated by Sennacherib, 
 who placed an Assyrian viceroy named 
 Belibus on the throne, about B. c. 702. In 
 B. c. 700, Sennacherib had cause to suspect 
 Belibus of treason, and removed him from 
 the government of Babylonia, which he 
 bestowed upon his own eldest son Asshur- 
 inadi-su, or Assaranadius, who reigned 
 until B. c. 693. During this reign Babylon 
 twice revolted from Assyria, and was twice 
 reduced to submission. A troubled period 
 of about thirteen years followed this reign, 
 and was brought to a close only by the con- 
 quest of Babylon, in B. c. 680, by Esar- 
 haddon, who added to his other titles that 
 of King of Babylon, built himself a palace 
 in that city, and reigned alteinately there 
 and at Nineveh. He held the crown until 
 B. C. 667, when his son, Saos-duchinus, was 
 made viceroy. This prince governed Baby- 
 lon for twenty years, and was succeeded in 
 B. c. 647 by Cinneladanus, who reigned for 
 twenty-two years. 
 
 In B. c. 625 Nabopolassar was placed in 
 command of the province by Saracus, the 
 last Assyrian king, with orders to stay the 
 march of the Susianians, who were approach- 
 
174 
 
RTSE AND FALL OF THE BABYLONLiN KINGDOM. 
 
 175 
 
 ins: from the Persian Gulf. He was proba- 
 bly made viceroy. The people of Baby- 
 lonia were already rising in rebellion when 
 he entered the capital, and he saw that by 
 placing himself at the head of the popular 
 movement he could effect the ruin of his 
 master and advance his own interests. He 
 accordingly entered into an alliance with 
 Cyaxeres, who had invaded Assyria from 
 Media, arranged a marriage between his 
 eldest son Nebuchadnezzar and the daugh- 
 ter of Cyaxeres, and by the terms of the 
 alliance secured to himself the crown of 
 Babylonia as an independent sovereign. 
 These matters being arranged, Nabopolas- 
 sar at once united his forces with those of 
 Cyaxeres, and took part with him in the 
 war which resulted, as we have seen, in the 
 capture and destruction of Nineveh and the 
 overthrow of the empire of Assyria. 
 
 In the division of the Assyrian dominions, 
 Nabopolassar was given the province of 
 Susiania and the valley of the Euphrates, 
 Syria, and Palestine, Assyria proper and 
 the countries dependent upon Assyria to 
 the north and northwest going to Cyaxeres. 
 Thus Babylon became the head of a power- 
 ful empire. The countries named above 
 submitted to the change without any effort 
 at resistance. They had doubtless become 
 so accustomed to seeing an Assyrian king 
 hold his court alternately at Nineveh and 
 Babylon that they may not have appre- 
 ciated the full force of the change at first. 
 For some years the Babylonian king devoted 
 himself to the consolidation of his govern- 
 ~^-^^^»ieiLt»_-aHtr his dominions were at peace. 
 From B. c. 615 to B. c. 610 there was almost 
 constant war between Media and Lydia. 
 Nabopolassar, or sometimes his son Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, took part in these wars as the 
 ally of Cyaxeres. In the last-named year, 
 as the hostile armies were about to engage 
 each other, an eclipse of the sun took place, 
 which terrified both. Nabopolassar took 
 advantage of this to mediate between Cyax- 
 eres and the Lydians, and succeeded in 
 bringing about a peace which gave to 
 Avestern Asia nearly half a century of un- 
 interrupted tranquillity. 
 
 In B. c. 608, Nechoh, having succeeded 
 his father Psammetichus on the throne of 
 Egypt, invaded the dominions of Babylon, 
 and having defeated Josiah, King of Jiidah, 
 who sought to stay his march, at Megiddo, 
 overran all the country between Egypt and 
 the river Euphrates. Three months later, 
 in returning to Egypt, he visited Jerusalem, 
 
 deposed Jehoahaz, a younger son of Josiah 
 who had been made king by the people, 
 and gave the crown to Jehoiakim, his elder 
 brother. About the same time he laid 
 siege to the important Philistine city of 
 Gaza. 
 
 Nabopolassar made no effort for fully 
 three years to recover his lost territory, but 
 allowed Nechoh to enjoy his conquests. In 
 B. c. 605, however, he assembled a vast 
 army and placed it under the command of 
 his son Nebuchadnezzar, who advanced 
 rapidly to the Euphrates. He attacked the 
 Egyptian army near Carchemish, routed it, 
 and continued the pursuit to the frontier 
 of Egypt, recovering on the march all the 
 lost territory, and receiving the submission 
 of Jehoiakim, King of Judah. It was his 
 intention to invade Egypt, and crush that 
 power, but he was compelled to desist upon 
 reaching the frontier by news of the death 
 of his father. He made peace with Nechoh, 
 hastened back to Babylon, and assumed 
 the crown, B. c. 604. The remaining vears 
 of the seventh century b. c. appear to have 
 been peaceful, and Avere employed by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar in improving his capital, and in 
 consolidating his dominions. 
 
 The opening of the sixth century b. c. 
 called the Babylonian king once more to 
 the field to supj^ress the revolts of Phoenicia 
 and Judah, the latter of which was encour- 
 aged by Egypt. In B. c. 598, at the head 
 of an allied Babylonian and Median army, 
 he invaded Phoenicia and laid siege to Tvre. 
 This city Avas strong enough to resist him 
 for thirteen years. During this period he 
 deposed Jehoiakim, King of Judah, and 
 put him o death, set up Jehoiachin and 
 replaced him Avith Zedekiah, and crushed 
 the final revolt of the Jews by the capture 
 of Jerusalem, and the destruction of their 
 Temple and city, and the transportation of 
 the nation into Babylonia, as has alreadv 
 beeu related. In the same period he de- 
 feated the effort of the Egyptian king to 
 raise the siege of Jerusalem, but Avas not 
 able to punish that monarch until after the 
 capture of Tyre. Tyre Avas taken and de- 
 stroyed B. c. 585, after a siege of thirteen 
 years, and all Phoenicia Avas compelled to 
 submit to the conqueror. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar uoav addressed himself 
 to the task of punishing Egypt, and in B. c. 
 581 invaded that country, and gained some 
 unimportant successes. He does not appear 
 to have prosecuted the war Avith much vigor, 
 and for a Avhile Egypt escai^ed the punish- 
 
RISE AND FALL OF THE BABYLONIAN KINGDOM. 
 
 Ill 
 
 meut it had drawn upon itself by its inter- 
 fereuce iu the affairs of Babylou, In B. c. 
 570, however, he invaded the kingdom a 
 second time, conquered it, and placed a new 
 king named Amasis on the throne as his 
 vassal. 
 
 The reign of Nebuchadnezzar constitutes 
 the most illustrious period of Babylonian 
 history. He was not only a great con- 
 queror, but a ruler of unusual wisdom and 
 strength of character. He covered the 
 country with useful works, such as canal'-, 
 reservoirs, sluices for the improvement of 
 irrigation, and a system of piers in the hai- 
 bors of the Persian Gulf — and he made 
 Babylon the most magnificent city of tht 
 east. In order to gratify his queen Amyiti^, 
 who pined for the mountains of her native 
 Media, he built the celebrated " Hangmg 
 Gardens of Babylon," which were con- 
 sidered among the seven wonders of the 
 world. They consisted of a series of ter- 
 races built on ai'ches, rising high above the 
 walls of Babylon. Earth was laid on thih 
 structure and planted with trees and shrub- 
 bery, and hydraulic engines raised water to 
 the highest levels for fountains and cascades, 
 and for the nourishment of the plants. 
 "Art strove to emulate nature with a certam 
 measure of success, and the lofty rocks and 
 various trees of this wonderful Paradise, if 
 they were not a very close imitation of 
 the Median mountain scenery, were at an) 
 rate a pleasant change from the natuial 
 monotony of the Babylonian plain, and 
 must have formed a grateful retreat for the 
 Babylonian queen, whom they reminded at 
 once of her husband's love and of the beauty 
 of her native country." The city was sur- 
 rounded with walls of baked bricks, 335 
 feet high, and 85 feet thick. Their total 
 circuit was 41 miles, making the area of the 
 city enclosed by them a little more than 
 100 square miles. Under the wise policy 
 of this great king, and in consequence of 
 its admirable position, half-way between the 
 Indus and the Mediterranean, with the 
 Euphrates and the Tigris affording com- 
 munication with the Persian Gulf and the 
 more northern regions, Babylon became the 
 leading commercial city of the east. Mei- 
 chants from all the known countries were 
 to be found in her markets. The looms of 
 Babylon produced the finest carpets known, 
 and the towns along the Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates were noted for the fineness of quality 
 and beauty of color of their cotton fabrics. 
 Nor was Babylon the only city improved 
 12 
 
 NEBUCUADNEZZAi: S IMAGE (J F GOLD 
 
178 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 by the king. All the principal Babylonian 
 towns were adorned with noble buildings 
 and temples, and protected with strong 
 walls, and there was scarcely any part of 
 the kingdom to which the genius of the 
 king did not extend. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar is one of the most re- 
 markable personages of ancient history. 
 He is also one of the most striking figures 
 of the Bible narrative, from which we ob- 
 tain perhaps the clearest view of his char- 
 acter. The Book of Daniel pictures him at 
 
 his absolute power could be given than his 
 placing Daniel, a foreigner, over the heads 
 of the entire priestly class. His wealth is 
 so great that he can make an image of pure 
 gold, ninety feet high and nine feet broad. 
 In his religious views he has none of the ex- 
 clusiveness of his race. He worships, some- 
 times his own deities, and then suddenly 
 transfers his allegiance to the God of the 
 captive Hebrews, and compels all his people 
 to follow his example. His temper is vio- 
 lent and hasty, but not obstinate. "His 
 
 DANIEL IXTEKPRETING NEBTJCHADNEZZAH'S DEEAM. 
 
 the head of a magnificent court, surrounded 
 by " princes, governors and captains, judges, 
 treasurers, councillors, and sheriffs ; " waited 
 on by eunuchs who were " well favored," 
 and highly educated ; and attended, when 
 he wished it, by a multitude of astrologers 
 and " wise men," who sought to interpret 
 for him the will of his gods. He is shown 
 to us as an absolute monarch, who can, at 
 a word, make or unmake kings and princes, 
 and upon whose nod depend the lives and 
 fortunes of the people of the vast domain 
 over which he reigns. No better proof of 
 
 fierce resolves are taken suddenly and as 
 suddenly repented of; he is, moreover, ca- 
 pable of bursts of gratitude and devotion, 
 no less than of excesses of fury ; like most 
 orientals, he is vainglorious ; but he can 
 humble himself before the chastening hand 
 of the Almighty; in his better moods he 
 shows a spirit astonishing in one of his 
 country and time — a spirit of real piety, self- 
 condemnation, and self-abasement, which 
 renders him one of the most remarkable 
 characters in Scripture." On the other 
 hand, he was at times ferociously cruel, not 
 
BISE AND FALL OF THE BABYLONLAN KINGDOM. 
 
 179 
 
 always because reasons of state demanded 
 severity on his part, but because he seemed 
 occasionally to delight in inflicting sufl'er- 
 ing upon his vanquished enemies. He was 
 devotedly attached to his wife, who had 
 been chosen for him by his father for politi- 
 cal reasons, and built for her the Hanging 
 Gardens, as has been stated. 
 
 Towards the close of Nebuchadnezzar's 
 reign, probably at a time when his great 
 conquests and public works were completed, 
 and when he was enjoying the repose and 
 
 It consists in the belief that one is not a 
 man, but a beast, in the disuse of language, 
 the rejection of all ordinary food, and 
 sometimes in the loss of the erect posture 
 and a preference for walking on all-fours." 
 AVithin a year of the time that the warning 
 was given, Nebuchadnezzar was seized Avith 
 the malady, and became a helpless lunatic. 
 Imagining himself a beast, he shunned 
 human society, lived in the open air day 
 and night, cast away all clothing, and lived 
 ou herbs. His body became covered with 
 
 BELSHAZZAn'S FEAST. 
 
 prosperity which had been won for his em- 
 pire, the king suddenly received a warning 
 from heaven. He dreamed a dream which 
 troubled him very much, and related it to 
 the prophet Daniel, who, by divine inspira- 
 tion, interpreted its meaning to him. Pie 
 told the king that God would send upon 
 him an unusual kind of madness as a pun- 
 ishment for his sins ; that the malady would 
 last seven years, and that during that time 
 he would be incapable of holding his throne. 
 "This malady, which is not unknown to 
 l^hysicians, has been termed ' Lycanthropy.' 
 
 a rough coating of hair, and his condition 
 Avas pitiable indeed. During the madness 
 of the king it is probable that his subjects 
 were not permitted to see him, and that he 
 was kept within bounds by watchful at- 
 tendants. The queen most probably car- 
 ried on the government. The fidelity and 
 devotion of the Babylonian courtiers to 
 their unfortunate sovereign must have been 
 drawn out by the nobler qualities of his na- 
 ture which had attached them to him in 
 his prosperity. They were sustained by the 
 hope inspired by the prediction of Daniel 
 
180 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that the duration of the malady would be 
 " seven times," which they probably be- 
 lieved to mean "seven years." At the end 
 of these seven years the king's reason sud- 
 denly returned to him, and, amid the re- 
 joicings of his court, he once more assumed 
 the government. He was now an old man, 
 and doubtless took to heart the lesson of his 
 terrible punishment. His closing years 
 Avere as bi'illiant and prosperous as his first, 
 and he died, after a reign of forty-four 
 years, b. c. 561, leaving the kingdom to his 
 son, Evil-Merodach, who reigned two years, 
 and was slain in a revolt of his subjects, 
 headed by his brother-in-law, Neriglis- 
 sar. 
 
 Neriglissar began to reign b. c. 559, and 
 reigned four years. His reign was one of 
 peace, and was employed chiefly in building 
 the "Western Palace at Babylon. He died 
 in B. c. 556, and left his crown to his son, 
 Laborosoarchod, or Labossoracus, a mere 
 boy, Avho was deposed and put to death 
 after a reign of a few months, by a con- 
 spiracy. The conspirators chose Nabona- 
 dius to be king. Not being of royal birth, 
 he sought to strengthen his position by 
 marrying a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 most likely the widow of Neriglissar. 
 
 As soon as his son by this marriage, Bel- 
 shar-uzzar, or Belshazzar, was old enough, 
 he associated him with him on the thi'one. 
 Alarmed by the growing power of Persia, 
 he entered into an offensive and defensive 
 alliance with Croesus, King of Lydia, to 
 check the Persian advance. All to no pur- 
 pose, hoAvever, for, in the spring of B. c. 
 538, Cyrus, the Persian monarch, invaded 
 Babylonia, defeated Nabonadius in a 
 pitched battle, and shut him up in Borsippa. 
 Then, advancing upon Babylon, he cap- 
 tured that city by entering it by the course 
 of the Euphrates, the waters of which he 
 had diverted from their bed, leaving the 
 way into the city open. The Babylonians 
 were engaged in a revel in honor of one of 
 their gods, and were unconscious of the 
 movement of Cyrus until the city was taken. 
 Belshazzar was slain in his banquet hall. 
 Borsippa surrendered upon the fall of 
 Babylon. Nabonadius was kindly treated 
 by Cyrus, and was given the govern- 
 ment of the important province of Car- 
 mania. Babylon became the second city 
 of the Persian empire, and was the resi- 
 dence of the court for half of the year. 
 
 With the conquest of Cyrus the Baby- 
 lonian kinsfdom came to an end. 
 
 book: VI, 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PHOEM^ICIj^, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIME^ TO THE CON- 
 QUEST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 De'icription of Phcenicia — Its Cities — Origin of the 
 Phoenician People — Sidon, the Oldest City — Its 
 Colonies— Tj-re— The Old and New Cities— First 
 Commercial Ventures of the Phoenicians — The 
 Tin Trade— Dangers of the Land Traffic— The 
 Phoenicians Take to the Sea — Extent and Charac- 
 ter of their Commerce— The Phcenician Colonies 
 — The Art of Dyeing — Glass-blowing — Pottery- 
 Bronze Work — Agriculture — The Phoenician Al- 
 phabet and Their Use of Letters — Language of 
 the Phoenicians — Their Literary Works — Archi- 
 tecture—Art — Religion of the Pfioenicians— Char- 
 acter of the People — Rise of Tyre — Hiram King 
 —His Alliance with David and Solomon of Israel 
 — Organization of the Phoenician Confederacy — • 
 Hiram's Successors — Pygmalion King — Flight of 
 Dido and the Aristocratic Party — Carthage 
 Founded — Phtenicia Tributary to Assyria — Siege 
 of Tyre — Sennacherib takes Tyre — End of the 
 Tyrian Supremacy — Esar-haddon Destroys Sidon 
 — Capture of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar — Phoenicia 
 Becomes a Persian Province — Conquered by Alex- 
 ander the Great — Its Subsequent History. 
 
 NCIENT Phoenicia consisted of a nar- 
 row strip of land extending along 
 the Mediterranean, from the Ladder 
 of Tyre, on the south, to the island of 
 Aradus, the Arvad of the Bible, on 
 the north. The length of the coun- 
 try was about 120 miles. Its width from 
 the base of the Lebanon range to the sea 
 never exceeded twenty miles, and was often 
 much less. Near Sidon the mountains are 
 but two miles from the sea, and at Tyre the 
 Phcenician plain is five miles wide. The 
 entire Phoenician plain was a region of 
 great fertility. It was abundantly watered 
 and was provided with a number of Avell- 
 sheltered harbors, suitable to the require- 
 ments of ancient commerce. Several im- 
 l^ortant cities stood along the coast. The 
 most southern of these was Tyre ; about 
 twenty miles to the northward was Sidon ; 
 sixteen miles north of Sidon w^as Bervtus, 
 
EARLIEST TIMES TO CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 181 
 
 which has in modern times become the 
 principal seaport of Syria ; still farther 
 north was Byblus, the Gebal of the Bible, 
 inhabited by seamen and caulkers ; north of 
 this was Tripolis, now known as Tarabulus ; 
 and last of all was Aradus, the Arvad of 
 Genesis (x. 18) and Ezekiel (xxvii. 8). 
 The Lebanon range, which shuts in the 
 country on the east, besides supplying an 
 abundance of pure water, was well wooded, 
 and afforded an inexhaustible supply of 
 timber for ship-building. 
 
 commercial enteri^rises, by land and sea, 
 with the neighboring nations, and was the 
 first to engage in the system of founding 
 colonies, which subsequently became a dis- 
 tinctive feature of the Phoenician policy. 
 Tyre Avas the first of these colonies. Sidon 
 enjoyed the supremacy over the other cities 
 until about b. c. 1050, when it was cap- 
 tured and destroyed by the Philistines from 
 the southern part of Palestine. The in- 
 habitants took refuge in Tyre, which be- 
 came the principal Phoenician city. 
 
 MOUKKN Sli>ON. 
 
 The Phoenicians were a branch of the 
 Hamitic race, and were descended from 
 Canaan. They came into the country from 
 the Chaldtean plains about the era of Nim- 
 rod, and built a number of independent 
 cities, which were subsequently united in a 
 confederacy. One of these cities was usually 
 recognized as the leader of the confederacy. 
 This supremacy Avas exercised only in Avar, 
 the other cities being free to manage their 
 internal affairs in their own way. 
 
 Sidon appears to have been the oldest of 
 the Phoenician cities, and the first to attain 
 Avealth and power. It early embarked in 
 
 The exact date of the founding of Tyre 
 is unknoAvn. The original city stood on the 
 mainland, but at a later period a neAv city 
 Avas built on an island about half a mife 
 from the shore. It soon surpassed old 
 Tyre in Avealth and splendor, and its name 
 became the synonym for commercial great- 
 ness. 
 
 The sea Avas the great field of action, and 
 the inexhaustible mine of riches for the 
 Phoenicians. For many centuries they 
 had no rivals, and the commerce of the an- 
 cient Avorld Avas exclusively in their hands. 
 It is most probable that their first trading 
 
132 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ventures were made with Ejrypt, which was 
 reached by laud. Brouze implements have 
 been fouud iu the tombs of Egypt coutem- 
 porary with the pyramids. Bronze is com- 
 posed iu part of tin, and tin is not found iu 
 Egypt, or nearer than the Caucasus, or 
 India, or Spain. It must, therefore, have 
 been brought into Egypt from the regions 
 in which it is produced. The Phoeuieiaus 
 are believed to have been the medium of its 
 introduction, and their earliest traffic is 
 thus seen to have been the tin trade. The 
 land traffic in this metal with Egypt, how- 
 ever, was attended with great difficulties. 
 It required long and laborious journeys, 
 and the routes pursued led through regions 
 frequented by marauding tribes. More- 
 over, the route of the tin traders was con- 
 trolled by ambitious monarchies which de- 
 sired to monopolize the trade. The Phoeni- 
 cians were thus driven to seek a source of 
 supply for this metal free from these draw- 
 backs, and a route safe from the violence of 
 the marauders. Spain affiirded such a source 
 of supply, and the sea furnished a safe 
 and open route. Consequently the Phoeni- 
 cian ships steered for the Spanish coast, 
 from which, loaded with Spanish tin, they 
 sailed for Egypt. Isor did they relinquish 
 this, their earliest commerce, Avhen they had 
 acquired the Avealth and power of their 
 later history. Until a very late period the 
 Phoenicians retained the exclusive privilege 
 of furnishing Italy and Greece, as they had 
 formerly supplied Egypt, with tin. "When 
 the mines of Spain were exhausted, the 
 jiillarsof Hercules were passed, and voyages 
 were made to the coast of Cornwall for the 
 metal which had been the basis of com- 
 merce. 
 
 The growth of the Phoenician commerce 
 Avas rapid. Theirs was a carrying trade 
 almost exclusively. In order to extend 
 their trade, colonies, or trading stations, 
 were established in distant countries, and 
 many of these became in later times im- 
 portant cities. The position of these col- 
 onies indicates to a certain degree the ex- 
 tent of the trade of Phoenicia; but it must 
 be borne in mind that the colonies were 
 generally centres from which ventures were 
 pushed into more remote regions. In the 
 eastern Mediterranean the Phoenician col- 
 onies were Paphos, Amathus, Tamisus, 
 Ammochosta, iu Cyprus ; lalyssus and 
 Camarius, in Rhodes ; Thera and most of 
 the Cyclades ; and Thasos. In the western 
 ^lediterranean they were Lillybo^um and 
 
 Panormus (Mahaneth), in Sicily ; Gaulos, 
 Milite, Utica, Carthage, and Hadru men turn, 
 in north Africa ; Carteia, Malaca, in 
 Spain. On the Atlantic coast, beyond the 
 Pillars of Hercules, they were Tartessus on 
 the Boetis (Gaudalquiver), and Gadez 
 (now Cadiz) on an island close to the 
 Spanish coast. In the Persian Gulf, Tylos 
 and Aradus (perhaps Bahrein). 
 
 From Gades and Tartessus voyages were 
 made to the west coast of Africa for apes, 
 and to the Scilly Isles and Cornwall for 
 tin. From Tylos and Aradus the Phoe- 
 nician vessels descended the Persian Gulf 
 and traded with India and Ceylon, bring- 
 ing back diamonds and pearls. Elath, at 
 the head of the Red Sea, Avas the starting- 
 point for voyages to Ophir on the southeast 
 coast of Arabia, Avhex'e gold Avas obtained. 
 The Black Sea Avas also penetrated, and 
 commercial relations Avere established with 
 Thrace, Scythia, and Colchis. The stations 
 in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf neces- 
 sitated a laud ti'affic betAveen them and the 
 Phoenician cities, and it seems likely that 
 this land traffic extended to the neighbor- 
 ing nations. 
 
 In addition to their carrying trade the 
 Phoenicians derived great Avealtli from their 
 manufactures. Their principal production 
 Avas the famous dye known as the " Tyrian 
 purple," Avhich they obtained in minute 
 drops from two shell-fish, the buccinum and 
 the mnrex. This purple AA'as of a dark 
 red-violet, of various shades, according 
 to the species of mussel employed. Cotton, 
 linen, and silk fabrics Avere dyed AA'ith this 
 hue, but the most beautiful effects Avere 
 obtained Avith AvooUen goods. As the dye 
 was very costly, it Avas used only for stutis 
 of the best quality. Its manufacture and 
 the process of dyeing Avere not confined to 
 Tyre, but Avere common to all the Phoeni- 
 cian cities. Homer arrays his heroes in 
 Sidonian robes dyed Avith this gorgeous 
 purple. 
 
 The Phoenicians claimed the inA'ention 
 of the art of glass blowing. AVhether they 
 originated it or not, they Avere the first to 
 attain a high degree of skill in its exercise. 
 Sidon and Sarepta were the principal seats 
 of this industry. The sand used was ob- 
 tained from the banks of the little liver 
 Belus, near the promontory of Carinel. 
 Many specimens of their glass-ware still 
 exist, and attest their skilful workmanship. 
 They Avere also skilled in ])ottery. Tlie 
 Greeks learned from them the art of mak- 
 
EARLIEST TIMES TO CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 183 
 
 jng painted vases, which they afterwards 
 carried to such perfection. Pottery was 
 largely exported. The Tyrians used it to 
 exchange for tin in their voyages to Corn- 
 wall and the Scilly Isles. 
 
 The Phoenicians also excelled in their 
 bronze work and in working the precious 
 metals. They were skilful jewellers, and 
 tlie specimens of this branch of their work 
 which have been recovered by modern ex- 
 plorers give us a high opinion of the skill 
 and taste displayed by the ancient jewellers 
 of Canaan. They were equally noted for 
 their beautiful carvings in ivory. 
 
 They were also skilful cultivators of the 
 soil. Excellent wines were j^roduced in the 
 neighborhood of Tyre, Berytus, and Gebal, 
 and in the Lebanon. Silk formed then, as 
 it does now, an important production. The 
 fruits of this region were noted for their 
 excellence and profusion. 
 
 It was once believed that the Phoenicians 
 were the inventors of letters. The discov- 
 eries of late years have raised great doubts 
 concerning this claim. It seems certain, 
 however, that while the writing of other 
 ancient Eastern nations was ideographic, 
 that is, an attempt to depict ideas — a char- 
 acteristic which clung even to the highest 
 development of the Egyptian system — the 
 Phoenicians used an alphabet of twenty-two 
 letters which seem to have been selected 
 from the characters of the Egyptian hieratic 
 writing. Each letter of this alphabet was 
 the invariable representative of one articu- 
 lation. We know of no such system in use 
 anterior to that of the Phoenicians. It is 
 believed that the Phoenician alphabet was 
 invented about the time of Avaris, one of 
 the Shepherd kiugs of Egypt, several cen- 
 turies prior to the exodus of the Israelites. 
 It is the first true alphabet we find in use, 
 so that whether the Plioenicians invented 
 letters or not, they were the first to use 
 them in their proper manner, as a system 
 distinct from hieroglyphic or ideographic 
 writing. Wherever they carried their 
 commercial enterprises they established 
 their alphabet also, and thus taught the use 
 of letters to other nations. As M. Renan 
 happily observes, the alphabet was one of 
 their expoi'ts. 
 
 It is one of the contradictions of history 
 that the Phoenicians, though tliey were de- 
 scendants of Ham, spoke a purely Semitic 
 language. " It is certain that the Phoeni- 
 cian idiom differed but slightly, and in no 
 important point, from that of the Hebrews. 
 
 The identity of grammatical forms and of 
 the vocabulary are so complete between the 
 Hebrew and the Phoenician, that they can- 
 not be considered as two distinct languages, 
 but merely as two slightly differing dialects 
 of the same language." 
 
 The Phoenicians appear to have been a 
 literary people at a very early jieriod of 
 their history. The principles of their re- 
 ligion, and their social and j^olitical organi- 
 zations, constituted a written law. Among 
 their books Avere treatises on religion, agri- 
 culture, and the useful arts, and the various 
 cities possessed regular records or archives 
 in writing, extending back to very ancient 
 times, and preserved with great care. In 
 the sciences great progress was made. The 
 Sidonian architects were considered the 
 best in Syria. Astronomy, arithmetic, 
 geometry, navigation, and philosophy flour- 
 ished in Phoenicia, especially in Sidon, 
 which sought to atone for her lost suprem- 
 acy by her intellectual splendor. 
 
 The few remaining buildings of the Phoe- 
 nicians show the character of their archi- 
 tecture. M. Renan says that its distin- 
 guishing feature " is its massive and imposing 
 strength — a want, indeed, of finish in de- 
 tails, but a general effect of power and 
 grandeur. In short it is a monolithic art." 
 Their buildings were constructed of im- 
 mense stones, such as may still be seen in 
 the lower walls of the Temple platform at 
 Jerusalem, which were built by Phoenician 
 architects and masons, and in the sea-wall 
 of the ruins of Tyre. Their tombs were 
 constructed Avith grandeur and originality 
 of design. All their edifices were erected 
 to last. In spite of the hard fate that has 
 befallen them, this characteristic has pre- 
 served to us some of the most interesting mon- 
 uments of the 2:)ast in a state sufficiently per- 
 fect to enable us to study them with success. 
 
 The statuary of the Phoenicians presents 
 a mixture of the Egyptian and Assyrian 
 styles, the general form being Egyptian and 
 the execution Asiatic. Large statues were 
 comparatively rare ; statuettes, on the other 
 hand, were numerous. Some of these ex- 
 hibit great artistic skill, and are of stone ; 
 others are of baked clay and bronze, and 
 are rough and coarse in design and execu- 
 tion. It seems that both classes were de- 
 signed as idols, of which every Phoenician 
 had one or more in his own house. Those 
 of the rich constitute the first class, while 
 the latter is made up of the gods of the 
 poor, executed hastily and cheaply. 
 
184 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The religion of Phoenicia evidently sprang 
 from the source from, which those of Chal- 
 dfea and Assyria were derived. It was 
 founded on the conception of one universal 
 divine being, "whose person was hardly to 
 be distinguished from the material world, 
 which had emanated from his substance 
 without any distinct act of creation." He 
 was usually termed Baal, " the Lord." He 
 represented the sun, the great agent of 
 creative power. He was subdivided into 
 a number of secondary divinities, called 
 Baalim, emanating from his substance, and 
 who were merely personifications of his at- 
 tributes. "The supreme god, considered 
 as the progenitor of different beings, be- 
 came Baal-Thammuz, called also Adon, 
 * the Lord,' whence the Grecian Adonis. 
 
 As a preserver, he was Baal-Chon ; as a 
 destroyer, Baal-Moloch ; as presiding over 
 the decomposition of those destroyed beings 
 whence new life was again to spring, Baal- 
 Zebub." Each divinity had his female 
 principle or wife : to each secondary Baal 
 there was a corresponding Baalath, who 
 represented the same god under a different 
 aspect. The female principle of the great 
 god Baal at Sidon was Ashtoreth or Astarte, 
 who represented the moon. The planets 
 were worshipped under the generic name 
 of Cabirim or " powerful ones." Fire was 
 also venerated, and the solar and sidereal 
 deities were emphatically " fire gods." The 
 learned Movers has well summed up the 
 Phoenician religion as "an apotheosis of the 
 forces and laws of nature; an adoration of 
 
 the objects in which these forces were seen, 
 and where they appeared most active." 
 
 The worship of the Phoenician deities 
 was accompanied by the most licentious 
 and horrible rites. Children were burnt 
 alive to appease the anger of Baal-^Moloch. 
 In Carthage this was carried to a frightful 
 excess. " This religion silenced all the best 
 feelings of human nature, degraded men's 
 minds by a superstition alternately cruel 
 and profligate, and we may seek in vain for 
 any influence for good it could have exer- 
 cised on the nation." The moral character 
 of the people is well illustrated by their 
 religion. They were unusually unruly and 
 at the same time sei'vile, gloomy, and cruel, 
 corrupt and ferocious, selfish and covetoup, 
 implacable and faithless. They were trad- 
 ers in all things, and seem to have been 
 dead to every generous emotion and elevated 
 sentiment. 
 
 The situation of Phoenicia colored its 
 whole history. The country was exposed 
 to all the great conquerors who made Syria 
 their ))attle-ground for ages, and its Avealth 
 constantly invited attack from them. Con- 
 sequently the period of Phoenician inde- 
 pendence was very brief, and is to be fouiKl 
 in the infancy of the nation. At an eai'ly 
 day it was obliged to submit to the supre- 
 macy of Egyi^t, and from this time passed 
 successively to the powers that held the 
 dominion of the ancient world. 
 
 The eleventh century before the Christian 
 era witnessed the rapid growth of Tyre, 
 which became the leading city of Phoenicia. 
 Under the rule of its cwn kings it advanced 
 swiftly in commei'cial wealth and internal 
 magnificence. The first of its kings known 
 to us was Abibaal, who was partly contem- 
 porary with David. He was succeeded 
 about B. c. 1025 by his son Hiram, who 
 reigned during the remainder of the century. 
 Hiram made an important commercial alli- 
 ance with David and Avith Solomon of Israel, 
 and supplied a large part of the materials 
 for the Jewish Temple and the Avorkmeu 
 by which it Avas constructed. His reign 
 marks a period of great prosperity in the 
 Phoenician cities. It extended over a period 
 of thirty-four years. The supremacy of 
 Tyre Avas acknoAA'l edged throughout Phoeni- 
 cia. Though each of the cities had its king, 
 experience had taught them the necessity 
 and advantages of a close confederation, 
 and the kings of the various cities were all 
 subject to the supremacy of their suzerain, 
 the King of Tyre, " the true and only mon- 
 
EARLIEST TIMES TO CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 185 
 
 arch of the nation, who, in consequence, was 
 called 'King of the Sidouians.'" The 
 reader must not confouiid this title with 
 that of the King of Sidon, who was the local 
 monarch of the ancient metropolis. The 
 King of Tyre managed all business relating 
 to the general interests of Phoenicia, its 
 commerce and its colonies, concluded trea- 
 ties with foreign nations, and disposed of 
 the military and naval forces of the con- 
 federation. He was assisted by deputies 
 from the other towns. 
 
 Hiram died in b. c. 991. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Baalcazar, who reigned 
 seven years, and was succeeded by his son 
 Abdastartus (or Abdastoreth), who reigned 
 nine years, when he was murdered by a 
 conspiracy, B. c. 975. The assassination of 
 Abdastartus was followed by a long period 
 of troubles and civil wars ; various pretend- 
 ers disputed the throne of Tyre one after 
 another, in rapid succession. It was brought 
 to an end about b. c. 941, by Eth-baal (or 
 Ithobalus), the high priest of Astarte, Avho 
 slew Phalcs, the last pretender, and estab- 
 lished himself on the throne of Tyre as 
 King of the Sidonians. He gave his daugh- 
 ter Jezebel in marriage to Ahab, King of 
 Israel. The strong will of this princess 
 made her supreme over her weak-minded 
 husband, and through her Phoenician influ- 
 ence was paramount in Israel during Ahab's 
 reign. Eth-baal was succeeded by his son 
 Badezor, about B. c. 909. He reigned six 
 years, and was succeeded by his son Matgen. 
 
 Matgen mounted the throne of Tyre b. c. 
 903. He reigned thirty-two years, and 
 died B. c. 871, leaving two children, a son 
 named Pygmalion, and a daughter named 
 
 COIN OF TYRE. 
 
 Elissar or Elissa, better known as Dido. 
 The latter was some years older than her 
 brother, who had reached the age of eleven 
 at his father's death. It was the wish of 
 Matgen that his children should reign 
 together. The populace, desirous of chang- 
 ing the aristocratic form of government, 
 revolted and proclaimed Pygmalion king 
 
 to the exclusion of his sister, who married 
 Zicharbaal, the Sichseus of A^irgil. He was 
 high priest of Melcarth, next in rank to the 
 king, and the head of the aristocratic party. 
 A short time afterwards, Zicharbaal Avas 
 assassinated by order of Pygmalion, and 
 Dido organized a conspiracy of the Phoe- 
 nician nobles for the purpose of avenging 
 
 COIN OF SIDON. 
 
 her husband and dethroning her brother. 
 Defeated by the vigilance of the popular 
 party, the conspirators, to the number of 
 sevei'al thousand, seized some ships lying 
 in the harbor of Tyre ready for sea, and 
 sailed away under the leadership of Elissar, 
 whose name was in consequence changed to 
 Dido, " the fugitive." They reached the 
 northern coast of Africa and founded 
 Carthage. 
 
 The departure of the aristocratic party 
 removed the great check upon the power of 
 the Tyrian king, who became from this time 
 an absolute monarch. During this reign 
 the Assyrians under Asshur-izir-pal made 
 their appearance on the Mediterranean 
 coast. The Phoenician cities made their 
 submission as the price of exemption from 
 conquest, and paid tribute. This condition 
 of dependency seems to have lasted for 
 nearly a century. Pygmalion's reign ended 
 B. c. 824, but we have no account of any 
 Phoenician monarch until after the middle 
 of the next century. Native sovereigns, 
 tributary to Assyria, reigned in the Phte- 
 nician cities, and were counted by the 
 Assyrian monarchs among their dependents. 
 Still, this dependency does not seem to have 
 retarded the prosperity of Phoenicia, or in- 
 jured its maritime power. 
 
 The Assyrian supi-emacy was patiently 
 submitted to by the Phoenicians until the 
 middle of the eighth century before the 
 Christian era, when the people became rest- 
 less under it. About B. c. 743, under a 
 Hiram of Tyre, Phoenicia revolted from 
 Tiglath-Pileser II., but was compelled to 
 resume its tributary position by the advance 
 of the conquerors into Palestine. In B. c. 
 727, under Eluheus, Phoenicia again re- 
 
186 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 volted, this time from Shalmaneser IV, 
 The Assyrian kiug marched against the 
 country, occupied old Tyre, which made no 
 resistance, and hiid siege to the island city. 
 He was unable to assail it from the land, 
 and was without a fleet, and the siege 
 became a mere blockade, the most impor- 
 tant feature of which was the cutting off of 
 the water of insular Tyre, supplied by aque- 
 ducts from the mainland. The inhabitants 
 are said to have drank rain-water for five 
 years, the period of the city's resistance. 
 
 Assyria, Tyre emerged from the siege sadly 
 weakened. The other Phoenician cities had 
 thrown off its supremacy and became tribu- 
 tary to Sargon, and its misfortunes were 
 increased in B. c. 708 by the loss of its 
 colony of Cyprus, which submitted to the 
 Assyrians. In B. c. 704, just after the 
 accession of Sennacherib, Elulseus re-estab- 
 lished the supremacy of Tyre over Phoini- 
 cia, and proclaimed the independence of the 
 country. In b. c. 700, Sennacherib invaded 
 Phoenicia with a powerful force, and the 
 
 MODERN TYEE. 
 
 Shalmaneser was dethroned during the 
 siege, which was continued by Sargon, his 
 successor. The other Phoenician cities sub- 
 mitted previous to the commencement of 
 the siege of Tyre and during its progress. 
 Sargon collected a fleet of sixty ships from 
 these cities, and endeavored to attack the 
 island city from the sea ; but the Tyrians 
 sallied out with twelve ships, and defeated 
 and destroyed Sargon's fleet. At last, after 
 five years of fruitless eflbrts, the Assyrian 
 generals raised the siege. 
 
 But thousrh successful in its resistance to 
 
 other cities forsook Tyre, and submitted at 
 the approach of the great king. Elulseus 
 retired to insular Tyre, trusting to his usual 
 good fortune, which, however, deserted him 
 this time. Tyre was taken, and Elulseus 
 sought safety in flight. Sennacherib spared 
 the city, and made Tubal (or Ethbaal) 
 king, as his vassal and tributary. 
 
 The capture of Tyre by Sennachei'ib 
 destroyed the Tyrian supremacy, which for 
 some time had borne very hard on the other 
 cities. Tyre had retained for herself the 
 chief profits of the Phoenician commerce, 
 
EARLIEST TIMES TO CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 187 
 
 and the other cities lent Sennacherib a 
 hearty support in his war against her. All 
 the cities were now placed on an equality 
 as tributaries of Assyria. Sidon, upon the 
 murder of Sennacherib, rebelled, and at- 
 tempted to acquire the supremacy formerly 
 held by Tyre. The revolt was signally 
 punished by Esar-haddon, about B. c. 681, 
 who destroyed Sidon, and enslaved its in- 
 habitants. At the death of Esar-haddon 
 the Phoenician cities threw off the Assyrian 
 yoke, and made an alliance with Egypt. 
 lu B. c. Q>&Q, the Assyrian king, Asshur- 
 bani-pal, having restored his authority in 
 Egypt, put down the Phoenician revolt. 
 
 The punishment of the nation came at 
 length, however. In b. c. 598, Nebuchad- 
 nezzar invaded Phoenicia, rapidly reduced 
 the country, and laid siege to Tyre, which 
 resisted him for thirteen years. At the end 
 of this time he took the city by assault, and 
 laid it in ruins. The greater part of the 
 population fled to the fleet and sailed for 
 Carthage, taking with them their wealth 
 and industry ; but a wretched remnant 
 remained in the city under a king named 
 Baal, whom the conqueror had set up as his 
 vassal. Some years later Uaphris, King of 
 Egypt, undertook to wrest Phoenicia from 
 Babylon, but the Phoenicians remained 
 
 ANCIENT BERYTUS. 
 
 About B. c. 630, or 629, the great wave of 
 the Scythian invasion swept over Phoenicia. 
 The open country was ravaged, but none 
 of the fortified cities were taken. The fall 
 of the Assyrian empire gave the Phoenicians 
 a momentary freedom. About B. c. 608, 
 however, they submitted to Nechoh, King 
 of Egypt. The Egyptian dominion was 
 brought to a close in B. c. 605 by the defeat 
 of Nechoh by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchem- 
 ish. The sudden death of the father of the 
 conqueror recalled him to Babylon, and 
 allowed the Phoenician cities a sliort period 
 of respite before the appearance of their new 
 master in their country. 
 
 faithful to Nebuchadnezzar, and with the 
 aid of Cyprus defeated the Egyptian fleet, 
 which was manned by Greek and Carian 
 mercenaries. Uaphris was stopped in his 
 career by this reverse, and after capturing 
 and sacking Sidon and ravaging the Phoe- 
 nician coast returned to Egypt, laden with 
 plunder. 
 
 Phoenicia passed under the Persian sway 
 at the downfall of the Babylonian kingdom, 
 or more properly at the accession of Cam- 
 bysses. The principal part of the naval 
 forces used in the Egyptian expedition of 
 that king consisted of Phoenician ships and 
 sailors. The Persian dominion came to an 
 
188 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 end with the conquests of Alexander the 
 Great, and at the same time the national 
 existence of Phoenicia terminated. The 
 country was absorbed in the kingdoms 
 erected by the successors of Alexander, 
 being sometimes the prize of Egypt and 
 sometinies of the Greek kingdom of Syria. 
 
 Later on it was numbered amoug the con- 
 quests of Rome, and later still was wrested 
 from the empire by the Mohammedans, 
 who still hold it. Its history from the time 
 of Cambysses is related in our account of the 
 countries to which it was subject. 
 
 booik: ^sTii. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE KHsTODOlMS OF 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE RISE AND FALL OF PHRYGIA, CILI- 
 CIA, AND LYDIA. 
 
 Natural Formation of Asia Minor — The Reason why 
 it never became the Seat of a Great Em])ire — His- 
 tory of Phrygia— Origin of the Phrygians— Their 
 Character— Phrygia Conquered by Lydia— His- 
 tory of Cilicia— Tributary to Assyria — Tarsus 
 Foiinded — Becomes a Persian Province — History 
 of Lydia— Wealth and E,efinement of the Nation 
 — Character of the Lydians — Wars of the Hera- 
 clidte and Mermnadse — Gyges King— Conquej-s 
 the Asiatic Greeks — Invasion of the Cimmerians 
 — War with Media and Babylonia — Croesus be- 
 comes King of Lydia— His Wealth — Visit of 
 Solon— The Sage's Answer— Lydia Conquered by 
 Cyrus— He spares the Life of Crtesus — Lydia a 
 Persian Province. 
 
 C?^^HE Anatolian Peninsula, or Asia 
 ^^ Minor, is divided by mountain 
 chains into several distinct sections, 
 isolated from each other. These 
 regions were inhabited by several 
 races — the Phrygians, the Lydians, 
 the Carians. the Ciliciaus, the Paphlagon- 
 ians, and the Cappadocians — which were 
 nearly equal in strength. This equality, 
 together with the natui-al division of the 
 country, prevented the growth in Asia 
 Minor of a powerful empire, and favored 
 the growth of a number of parallel, inde- 
 pendent kingdoms. It will be interesting 
 as well as instructive to glance at the his- 
 tory of these kingdoms. 
 
 I. Phrygia. Phrygia was the first of 
 the monarchies of Asia Minor to rise to 
 importance, but its history is very obscure. 
 The Phrygians are believed to have been 
 the earliest settlers of Asia Minor, and it is 
 probabl'e that at ooe time they occupied 
 the whole peninsula. Successive immigra- 
 
 tions of fresh tribes from the east and west 
 drove them back from the coast, except in 
 the region south of the Hellespont. They 
 retained this region and the central portion 
 of the peninsula, and thus had a large and 
 fertile country, which abounded in pastures 
 and contained a number of salt lakes. The 
 people were brave, but brutal, and were 
 occupied with agricultural pursuits, prom- 
 inent among which was the cviltiu-e of the 
 vine. They came originally from Arntenia, 
 and in j^rimitive times dwelt in caves or 
 habitations which they hollowed out of the 
 rocky hill-sides. They gradually abandoned 
 these for regular and well-built cities. 
 About B. c. 750, or perhaps earlier, the 
 Phrygians are seen to have a well-organized 
 monarchy, the capital of which was Gor- 
 diseum on the Saugarius. The line of kings 
 lasted for about two centuries, but we know 
 little about them. The mouarchs were 
 named alternately Gordias and ]\Iidas. As 
 Lydia increased in power Phrygia began to 
 decline, and about B. c. 560 was conquered 
 by Lydia and became a province of that 
 kingdom. ' 
 
 IL Cilicia. Cilicia occupied the south- 
 eastern portion of the peninsula. It was a 
 rich and fertile country, and its inhabitants 
 were generally devoted to agricultural pur- 
 suits. We know nothing of its early history 
 save that it existed as an independent 
 monarchy during the period of the early 
 Assyrian monarchy. It was compelled to 
 submit to Sargon, who, about B. c. 711, 
 gave the country to Ambris, King of Tubal, 
 as a dowry with his daughter. It thus be- 
 came a tributary of Assyria. About B. c, 
 701, having revolted from Assyria, Cilicia 
 
THE RISE AND FALL OF PHRYGIA, CILICL4., AND LYDIA. 
 
 189 
 
 was invaded and ravaged by Sennacherib. 
 About B. c. 685 that monarch founded the 
 city of Tarsus, which in after years became 
 famous as the birth-place of the Apostle 
 Paul. About B. c. 677 Esar-haddon rav- 
 aged Cilicia, which appears to have incurred 
 his auger by a revolt. About B. c. 616 a 
 king named Tyennesis came to tlie Ciliciau 
 throne, and from 
 this time all the 
 kings bore that 
 name. Cilicia 
 successfully resist- 
 ed the attempts of 
 Lydia to conquer 
 her, but was com- 
 pelled to submit to i 
 the Persian arms, 
 and became a 
 province of the 
 Persian empire 
 some time during 
 the reign of Cam- 
 bysses. 
 
 III. Lydia. 
 Lydia, which ul- 
 timately became 
 the most impor- 
 tant state of Asia 
 Minor, was situ- 
 ated on the eastern 
 coast of the penin- 
 sula. It ultimate- 
 ly embraced the 
 whole peninsula 
 except Lycia, Cil- 
 icia, and Cappadocia. The principal towns 
 were Sardis, the capital ; Magnesia, at the 
 foot of Mount Sipylus; Thyatira, and Phila- 
 delphia. The original Lydian territory was 
 exceedmgly fertile. The Pactolus, a tribu- 
 tary of the Hermus, carried a rich supply 
 
 wealthy and cultivated people, and were 
 the first to coin money. They " were one 
 of the earliest commercial people on the 
 Mediterranean, and their scented ointments, 
 rich carpets, and skilled laborers or slaves 
 were highly celebrated. The Greeks re- 
 ceived from them the Lydian flute, and 
 subsequently the cithara of three and of 
 
 MOUNT ARARAT. 
 
 COIN OF SARDIS. 
 
 of gold from the slopes of Mount Tmolus, 
 and the precious metal was washed from 
 the sands in the streets of Sardis, the capi- 
 tal. Mounts Tmolus and Sipylus contained 
 rich veins of gokl. The Lydians were a 
 
 twenty strings, and imitated their harmony. 
 The Homeric poems describe the Lydians 
 or Majones as men on horseback, clad in 
 armor, and speak of their commerce and 
 wealth. It ,' seems that the worship of the 
 Lydians resembled that of the Syrians,, and 
 was polluted with its immoral practices. 
 The ancient writers often mention the de- 
 pravity of the Lydians, while admitting 
 their skill and courage in war. When 
 subdued they submitted quietly to their 
 conquerors." 
 
 Lydia was organized as a monarchy at a 
 very early period, and Avas governed until 
 the seventh century before Christ by a dy- 
 nasty called the Heraclidte. The last por- 
 tion of this early period was marked by the 
 struggle between the Heraclidte and the 
 Mernmadie, who appear to have been a 
 branch of the royal family. The latter 
 were obliged to seek safety in flight, but at 
 length returned under the leadership of 
 
190 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 their chief, Gyges, who murdered Can- 
 daules, the reigning king, and mounted the 
 throne about B. c. 700. Lydia was now a 
 prosperous country, and the revenue of 
 Gyges was so great that his wealth became 
 proverbial. He changed the policy of his 
 predecessors towards the Greeks of the 
 Asiatic coast, and reduced them to submis- 
 sion to his rule. Towards the close of his 
 reign, about b. c. 662, the Cimmerians, 
 probably a Celtic people from beyond the 
 Caucasus, burst through the mountain bar- 
 rier and swept over Asia Minor. Gyges 
 was slain in a battle with them, and Sardis, 
 his capital, was taken and sacked. The 
 citadel alone held out against the barbar- 
 
 Lydia and her allies became the fast friends 
 of Media, and the peace was cemented by 
 the marriage of the son of Cyaxeres to the 
 princess of Lydia. Thus relieved from the 
 iear of Media, Alyattes renewed the war 
 against the Asiatic Greeks, in which the 
 last years of his reign were passed. He 
 captured Smyrna, and gained, other im- 
 portant successes. He died b. c. b%^, leav- 
 ing his crown to his son Croesus. 
 
 Croesus continued the wars of his father, 
 and. conquered the Ionian, ^Eolian, and 
 Dorian Greeks, and all Asia Minor west of 
 the Halys, with the exception of Lycia and 
 Cilicia. Under him Lydia reached the 
 height of her glory and prosperity, but 
 
 ians. In spite of this blow Lydia recov- 
 ered rapidly, and under Alyattes, the great- 
 grandson of Gyges, who came to the throne 
 about b. c. 617, the Cimmerians were ex- 
 pelled from Asia Minor. It is likely that 
 in consequence of this great service of 
 Alyattes, the supremacy of Lydia was ex- 
 tended over the various nations that had 
 suffered from the invasion. 
 
 About b. c. 615 Lydia became involved 
 in a war with Media and Babylonia in her 
 efforts to resist the advance of the former 
 power into her territory. Peace was made 
 at the end of five years through the media- 
 tion of the Babylonian king, b. c. 610. 
 
 only to be speedily overthrown in her turn 
 Croesus was famed throughout the an- 
 cient world for his enormous wealth, and 
 considered himself the most fortunate of 
 men. When only crown prince he had 
 been associated with his father in the gov- 
 ernment of the kingdom, and while holding 
 this position had received a visit from 
 Solon of Athens. The sage paid but little 
 heed to the magnificence of the court, and 
 this indifference annoyed Croesus very 
 much. Hoping to elicit a com2:)liment 
 from Solon, the prince asked him to name 
 the happiest man he had met in his 
 travels. " One Tellus," promptly replied 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE KINGDOM. 191 
 
 the sage, " a citizen of Athens ; a very 
 honest and good man, who had lived all 
 his days without indigence, had always 
 seen his country in a flourishing condition, 
 had children that were universally es- 
 teemed, Avith the satisfaction of seeing those 
 children's children, and at last died glo- 
 riously, fighting for his country." As- 
 tounded at such an answer, Croesus asked 
 the sage to name the person whom he es- 
 teemed the next happiest, thinking that the 
 sage would surely name him ; but Solon 
 mentioned two brothers of Argos, who had 
 won the admiration of their countrymen 
 by their devotion to their mother, and who 
 had been rewarded by the gods with a 
 pleasant and painless death. " What, 
 then," exclaimed Croesus, " do you not rec- 
 kon me among the number of the happy?" 
 " King of Lydia," replied the sage, ear- 
 nestly, "no man can be esteemed happy 
 but he whose happiness the gods continue 
 to the end of his life." 
 
 Alarmed by the success of Cyrus, and 
 foreseeing the inevitable conflict Avhich 
 must ensue for the mastery of Asia Minor, 
 Croesus formed a league with the Baby- 
 lonians, Egyptians and Spartans against 
 Persia. The war soon came. An inde- 
 cisive battle Avas fought in Cappadocia. 
 d'cesus withdrew to Sardis, intendino; to 
 
 winter there, but Cyrus pursued him, de- 
 feated his army, took the city, and made 
 the king a prisoner. 
 
 According to the barbarous custom of 
 the times, Croesus was condemned by the 
 conqueror to be burned alive. As the 
 doomed king was laid upon the funeral pile 
 he remembered the words of the Athenian 
 sage, and exclaimed bitterly, "Solon! 
 Solon ! Solon ! " Cyrus, who was standing 
 by, demanded the reason of this singular 
 appeal to Solon at such a moment. Croesus 
 
 COIN OF TARSUS. 
 
 then related to him his conversation with 
 the sage, and the conqueror, reflecting upon 
 the uncertainty of all earthly things, was 
 touched with compassion for the unfortu- 
 nate king, spared his life, and treated him 
 with honor and respect as long as he lived. 
 Lvdia became a province of the Persian 
 empire, and its independent existence 
 ceased, B. c. 554. 
 
 .),<^ S m : - fr ^gg- 
 
 booik: "viii, 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE KI^ODOM 
 
 OF IMEDI^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL 
 OF THE KINGDOM. 
 
 Description of Media — Geographical Position — 
 Physical Characteristics — Mountainous Charac- 
 ter—The Climate — Vegetable Products — ^lineral 
 Wealth — Animals — Origin of the Medes — Per- 
 sonal Appearance and Character of the People- 
 Polygamy — Religion of the Medes — The Primitive 
 Faith — Appearance and Gradual Growth of 
 Magism — True Character of Magisra — Worship 
 of the Elements — Primitive History of Media Un- 
 known — Tribal Organization of the People — 
 Phraortes Founds the Median Kingdom — Makes 
 War upon Assyria — Is Defeated and Slain — Cy- 
 axeres King — Invades Assyria — Media Conquered 
 by the Scythians — The Banquet of Cyaxeres — 
 Median Independence Restored — The War with 
 Assyria Renewed — Alliance with Babylonia — 
 
 Fall of the Assyrian Empire — Media Receives a 
 Part of the Assyrian Territories — Wars and Con- 
 quests of Cyaxeres — Peace with Lydia — Astyages 
 King — Gradual Decline of the Median Monarchy 
 — Media Succumbs to Persia and Becomes a 
 Province of that Empire. 
 
 EDI A, which was the third in im- 
 portance of the ancient Asiatic 
 monarchies, occupied a vast ele- 
 vated region, with an average height 
 of 3,000 feet above the level of the 
 sea, lying south and west of the 
 Caspian Sea, and between that sea and As- 
 syria. Its length was about 600 miles, and 
 its breadth about 250 miles, thus giving it 
 an area of nearly 150,000 square miles, an 
 extent greater than that of Assyria and 
 
192 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Chaldrea combiued. It lay in a sino;le 
 .solid mass, " with no straggling or outlying 
 portions; and it is strougly defended on 
 almost every side by natural barriers offer- 
 ing great difficulties to an invader," 
 
 The Median territory may be divided 
 into two tracts — a series of lofty mountain 
 ridges, Avhich form its northern and w^estern 
 portion ; and a high flat table-land, ex- 
 tending from the foot of the mountain re- 
 gioil southward to the Indian Ocean and 
 
 the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Parthians, 
 or Turks, and remains to this day as inde- 
 pendent of the great powers in its neighbor- 
 hood, as it was when the Assyrian armies 
 first penetrated its recesses. Nature seems 
 to have constructed it to be a nursery of 
 hardy and vigorous men, a stumbling- 
 block to conquerors, a thorn in the side of 
 every powerful empire which arises in this 
 jiart of the great eastern continent." The 
 northern part of the mountainous region is 
 
 . l.tf^^- 
 
 SCENE ON THE UPPER TIGRIS. 
 
 eastward to the country of the AfFghans. 
 The western part of the mountain region 
 was known to the ancients as the Zagros ; 
 modern geographers call it Kurdistan and 
 Luristaii. " Full of torrents, of deep ra- 
 vines, of rocky summits, abrupt and almost 
 inaccessible ; containing but few passes, and 
 those narrow and easily defensible ; secure, 
 moreover, owing to the rigor of its 'climate! 
 from hostile invasion for more than half the 
 year, it has defied all attempts to effect its 
 permanent subjugation, whether made by 
 
 known to modern geographers as Elburz. 
 It is of far less importance than the Zagros 
 region, and is not as well watered, its 
 streams being small, often dry in summer, 
 and soon absorbed in the Caspian Sea or 
 the desert. The chief feature of this range 
 is the lofty, snow-covered peak of Dema- 
 vend, which looks down upon Teheran, and 
 is the highest part of Asia west of the great 
 Himalaya chain. 
 
 "The elevated plateau which stretches 
 from the foot of these two mountain regions 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE KINGDOM. 193 
 
 to the south and east, is, for the most part, 
 a flat, sandy desert, incapable of sustaining 
 more than a sparse and scanty population. 
 The northern and western portions are, 
 however, less arid than the east and south, 
 being watered for some distance by the 
 streams that descend from Zagros and El- 
 burz, and dei'iving fertility also from the 
 spring rains. Some of the rivers which 
 flow from Zagros on this side are large and 
 strong. One, the Kizil-Uzen, reaches the 
 Caspian. Another, the Zeiiderud, fertilizes 
 a large district near Isfahan. 
 A third, the Beudamir, flows by 
 Persepolis and terminates in a 
 sheet of water of some size — 
 Lake Bakhtigan. A tract thus 
 intervenes between the moun- 
 tain regions and the desert, 
 which, though it cannot be called 
 fertile, is fairly productive, and 
 can support a large settled poi)u- 
 lation. This forms the eliief 
 portion of the region which the 
 ancients called Media." 
 
 Media, as a general rule, Avas 
 a sterile region, and, except in 
 the early spring, was stern and 
 uninviting in appearance. The 
 climate in the mountain region 
 is severe ; in the plains it is 
 more temperate, but the ther- 
 mometer rarely reaches ninety 
 degrees in the shade. The cli- 
 mate, on the whole, is regarded 
 as healthy. By the help of irri- 
 gation the great plateau will pro- 
 duce " good crops of grain, rice, 
 wheat, barley, Indian corn, 
 cloura, millet, and sesame. It 
 will also bear cotton, tobacco, 
 safii'on, rhubarb, madder, po]>- 
 pies which give a good opium, 
 senna, and assafetida. Its gar- 
 den vegetables are excellent, 
 and include potatoes, cabbages, 
 lentils, kidney-beans, peas, tur- 
 nij)s, carrots, spinnach, beet-root and cu- 
 cumbers." 
 
 The minerals of Media were numerous 
 and valuable. Many varieties of excellent 
 stone are still found throughout the coun- 
 try, the principal of which is the beautiful 
 Tabriz marble. Iron, copper, and native 
 steel are still mined. Gold and silver were 
 found in the mountains in ancient times. 
 Sulphur, alum, and gypsum ai-e found in 
 various parts of the country, and salt 
 abounds. 
 13 
 
 The wild animals of Media were the 
 lion, the tiger, the leopard, the bear, the 
 beaver, the jackal, the wolf, the wild ass, 
 the ibex, or wild goat, the wild sheep, the 
 stag, the antelope, the wild boar, the fox, 
 the hare, the rabbit, the ferret, the rat, the 
 jerboa, the porcupine, the mole, and the 
 marmot. The domestic animals were the 
 camel, the horse, the mule, the ass, the cow, 
 the goat, the sheep, the dog, the cat, and 
 the buffalo. 
 
 The Medes were of Arian descent, and 
 
 ANCIENT SWOKDS. 
 
 belonged to the same race as their neigh- 
 bors, the Persians, from whom they differed 
 but little. They were generally men of 
 noble and graceful bearing, handsome in 
 features, and strong and active. They wore 
 full beards and moustaches ; their hair was 
 long and was curled in a mass of ringlets. 
 The women are said by Xenophon to have 
 been remarkable for their stature and 
 beauty. Bravery and a capacity for en- 
 durance were striking characteristics of the 
 Medes. After their absorption in the Per- 
 
194 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 bian monarchy, the Medes were always 
 reckoned as next to the Persian ti'oops for 
 steadiness and courage. They were cruel 
 in war ; " the Median conquests were ac- 
 companied by the worst atrocities which 
 lust and hate combined are wont to commit 
 when they obtain their full swing." The 
 habits of the Medes were at first simple and 
 manly ; but their successes in war opened a 
 way to luxury into which they plunged. 
 The capture of Assyria was fatal to the 
 hardy warriors ; they adopted the luxurious 
 habits of the conquered country ; and their 
 degeneracy followed quickly. Their dress 
 was rich and highly ornamented, and showed 
 at once their love of display. The Medes 
 were originally a nation of horsemen. They 
 were expert in the use of the bow, and fought 
 as mounted archers. They doubtless used 
 the sword and spear also, but it was as 
 horse-archers that their greatest successes 
 were won. 
 
 Polygamy was practised by the monarch 
 and the wealthier classes. Letters received 
 but little attention, and the arts were neg- 
 lected. 
 
 The religion of the Medes underwent 
 several changes. In its most ancient form 
 it was a belief in a single great intelligence, 
 Ahuro-Mazdao, the creator, preserver, and 
 governor of the universe. " It sets before 
 the soul a single being as the source of all 
 good, and the proper object of the highest 
 worship. Ahuro-Mazdao is * the creator of 
 life, the earthly and the spiritual;' he 
 has made ' the celestial bodies,' ' earth, 
 water, and trees,' ' all good creatures,' 
 and * all good, true things.' He is ' good, 
 holy, pure, true,' * the Holy God,' ' the 
 Holiest, ' the essence of truth,' ' the father 
 of all truth,' ' the best being of all,' 'the 
 master of purity.' He is supremely 
 'happy,' possessing every blessing, 'health, 
 wealth, virtue, wisdom, immortality.' From 
 him comes all good to man ; on the pious 
 and the righteous he bestows not only 
 earthly advantages, but j^recious spiritual 
 gifts, truth, devotion, ' the good mind,' and 
 everlasting happiness ; and as he rewards 
 the good so he punishes the bad, though 
 this is an aspect in which lie is but seldom 
 represented." Thus it will be seen that 
 Ahuro-Mazdao, or Ahura-mazda, or Or- 
 mazd, approached more nearly to the 
 Hebrew ideal of the True God, than any 
 of the heathen deities. The Median reli- 
 gion was in no sense idolatrous. Its god 
 was invisible, dwelling in the unseen realms 
 
 of the future, and no idol or image of him 
 polluted his temples. Under this great 
 being were a number of angels, some of 
 which can scarcely be distinguished from 
 the attributes of the divinity. These exe- 
 cuted the purposes of Ormazd, and formed 
 the channels of communication between him 
 and men. In the older Median system but 
 little importance is given to the evil spirits 
 or intelligences, which in the Zoroastrian 
 system were the constant antagonists of the 
 good ones. In this form the Median reli- 
 gion was identical with that of the Persians. 
 At a later period a change took place, 
 and there was added to the old faith a 
 belief " in two uncreated and independent 
 principles, one a principle of good and the 
 other a principle of evil," which constitutes 
 dualism proper. These principles were con- 
 stantly at war with each other. " It was 
 natural," .says Rawlinson, "that, as time 
 went on, dualism should develop itself out 
 of the primitive Zoroastrianism. Language 
 exercises a tyranny over thought, and ab- 
 stractions in the ancient world Avere ever 
 becoming persons. The Iranian raimi, more- 
 over, had been struck, when it first turned 
 to contemplate the world, with a certain 
 antagonism; and, having once entered this 
 track, it would be compelled to go on, and 
 seek to discover the origin of the antagon- 
 ism, the cause (or causes) to which it was 
 to be ascribed. Evil seemed most easily 
 accounted for by the supposition of an evil 
 person ; and the continuance of an equal 
 struggle, without advantage to either side, 
 which was what the Iranians thought they 
 beheld in the world that lay around them, 
 appeared to them to imply the equality of 
 that evil person with the being whom they 
 rightly regarded as the author of all good. 
 Thus dualism had its birth. The Iranians 
 came to believe in the existence of two co- 
 eternal and co-equal persons, one good and 
 the other evil, between whom there had 
 been from all eternity a perpetual and 
 never-ceasing conflict, and between whom 
 the same conflict would continue to rage 
 through all coming time." The good prin- 
 ciple was represented by Ahura-mazda, or 
 Ormazd ; the evil by Angro-mainyus. What- 
 ever good work Ahura-mazda sought to do, 
 Angro-mainyus endeavored to blast. The 
 latter introduced war, sickness, famine, 
 poverty, and evil and sufi'ering of all kinds 
 into regions which the good being sought 
 to render happy. The world was regarded 
 as the battle-ground between the two pow- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE KINGDOM. 195 
 
 ers. Each of the contending persons was 
 believed to have his council, which was in 
 each case composed of six members. The 
 council of Ahura-mazda comprised the 
 " Immortal Saints." The two principles of 
 good and evil had also their respective 
 armies. Ahura-mazda created thousands 
 of blessed angels to do his will and fight 
 against the evil one ; and Angro-mainyus, 
 on his part, called into existence thousands 
 of evil spirits to aid him in his attacks upon 
 the blessed. 
 
 The Medians believed in the immortality 
 of the soul, and held that after death the 
 souls of good and bad proceeded along a 
 designated path to " the bridge of the 
 gatherer," a narrow road leading to heaven, 
 or the abode of the blessed. The wicked 
 fell from this bridge to the gulf below, 
 where they were consigned to punishment ; 
 they Avere doomed to dwell forever in the 
 kingdom of Angro-mainyus, and feed upon 
 poisoned banquets. The just were assisted 
 over the bridge by the angel Serosh, who 
 conducted them to the abode of the blessed 
 and the presence of Ahura-mazda. 
 
 Later on, when the Iranian nations began 
 to extend themselves beyond their own 
 countries, Avhich lay east and south of the 
 Caspian Sea, they came in contact with 
 various Scythic tribes inhabiting the moun- 
 tain regions of Armenia, Azerbijan, Kurdis- 
 tan, and Luristan. The religion of these 
 people is believed to have been Magism, 
 which " was, essentially, the worship of the 
 elements, the recognition of fire, air, earth, 
 and water as the only proper objects of 
 human reverence. The Magi held no per- 
 sonal gods, and therefore naturally rejected 
 temples, shrines, and images, as tending to 
 encourage the notion that gods existed of a 
 like nature with man, i. e., possessing per- 
 sonality — living and intelligent beings — 
 Theirs was a nature worship, but a nature 
 Avorship of a very peculiar kind. They did 
 not place gods over the different parts of 
 nature, like the Greeks ; they did not even 
 personify the powers of nature, like the 
 Hindoos ; they paid their devotions to the 
 actual, material things themselves. Fire, 
 as the most subtle and ethereal jDrinciple, 
 and again as the most powerful agent, 
 attracted their highest regards; and on 
 their fire-altars the sacred flame, generally 
 said to have been kindled from heaven, 
 was kept burning uninterruptedly from 
 year to year and from age to age by bands 
 of priests, whose special duty it was to see 
 
 that the sacred spark was never extin- 
 guished. To defile the altar by blowing 
 the flame with one's breath was a capital 
 oflence ; and to burn a corpse was regarded 
 as an act equally odious. When victims 
 were oflTered to fire, nothing but a small 
 portion of the fat was consumed in the 
 flame. Next to fire, water was reverenced. 
 Sacrifice was offered to rivers, lakes, and 
 fountains, the victim being brought near to 
 them, and then slain. While great care 
 was taken that no drop of their blood 
 should touch the water and pollute it. No 
 refuse was allowed to be cast into a river, 
 nor was it even lawful to wash one's bands 
 in one. Reverence for earth was shown by 
 sacrifice, and by abstention from the usual 
 mode of burying the dead." 
 
 LEATHER CUIKASS. 
 
 The Magian religion was strictly sacer- 
 dotal. The worshipper was required in all 
 things to accept the services of a Magus, or 
 priest, who stood between him and the di- 
 vinity as a mediator. The Magi held their 
 oflSces by succession, were richly clad, 
 haughty in bearing, mysterious in manner, 
 and claimed supernatural and prophetic 
 powers. They explained omens, inter- 
 preted dreams, and predicted future events. 
 These pretensions, supported by their mys- 
 tical incantations, not only imposed upon 
 the credulous multitude, but won for them 
 the reverence and willing homage of kings 
 and chiefs. It seems certain that the first 
 union between the Zoroastrian system, 
 which W'e have described, and Magism took 
 place in Media. From the time of this 
 
196 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 union the priestly caste of the Magi was 
 recognized as one of the six Median tribes. 
 "It is not necessary," says Ravvlinson, from 
 whose account of the Median religion this 
 summary is drawn, "to suppose that the 
 Medes ever apostatized altogether from the 
 worship of Ormazd, or formally surrendered 
 their aualistic faith. But, practically, the 
 Magian doctrines and the Magian usages — 
 elementary worship, divination with the 
 sacred rods, dream-expounding, incanta- 
 tions at the fire altars, sacrifices whereat a 
 Magus officiated — seem to have prevailed ; 
 
 mote antiquity ; the ever-burning flame, 
 believed to have been kindled from on • 
 high ; the worship in the open air under 
 the blue canopy of heaven ; the long troops 
 of Magians in their white robes, with their 
 strange caps, and their mystic wands ; the 
 frequent prayers ; the abundant sacrifices ; 
 the long incantations ; the supposed y>yo- 
 phetic powers of the priest-caste — all this 
 together constituted an imposing whole at 
 once to the eye and to the mind, and was 
 calculated to give additional grandeur to 
 the civil system that should be allied with 
 
 SCENE IN THE MOUNTAl-Ns oK MKUJA. 
 
 the new predominated over the old ; backed 
 by the jDOwer of an organized hierarchy, 
 Magism overlaid the primitive Arian creed, 
 and, as time went on, tended more and 
 more to become the real religion of the 
 nation. . . . Upon the whole, Magism, 
 though less elevated and less pure than the 
 old Zoroastrian creed, must be pronounced 
 to have possessed a certain loftiness and 
 picturesqueness which suited it to become 
 the religion of a great and splendid mon- 
 archy. The mysterious fire altars on the 
 mountain topg, with their prestige of a re- 
 
 it. Pure Zoroastrianism was too spiritual 
 to coalesce readily with oriental luxury and 
 magnificence, or to lend strength to a gov- 
 ernment based on the ordinary principles 
 of Asiatic despotism. Magism furnished a 
 hierarchy to support the throne and add 
 splendor and dignity to the court, while 
 they overawed the subject-class by their 
 supposed possession of supernatural powers, 
 and of the right of mediating between hea- 
 ven and man. It supplied a picturesque 
 worship which at once gratified the senses 
 and excited the fancy. It gave scope to 
 
FBOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO TEE FALL OF THE KINGDOM 197 
 
 man's passion for the marvellous by its in- 
 cantations, its divining rods, its omen- 
 reading, and its dream-expounding. It 
 gratified the religious scrupulosity which 
 finds a pleasure in making to itself difficul- 
 ties by the disallowance of a thousand 
 natural acts, and the imposition of number- 
 less rules for extei'nal purity. At the same 
 time it gave no oflfence to the anti-idolatrous 
 spirit in which the Arians had hitherto 
 gloried, but rather encouraged the icouo- 
 clasm which they always uj)held and prac- 
 tised. It thus blended easily Avith the 
 
 been an important tribe in very ancient 
 times, from the fact that they are men- 
 tioned, under the name of Madai, in the 
 Book of Genesis, and the statement of Bero- 
 sus that they furnished an early dynasty to 
 Babylon. About u. c. 830 the Assyrians 
 invaded Media Magna, the proper country 
 of the Medes, and with this invasion our 
 definite knowledge of them begins. They 
 were then divided into a number of tribes 
 governed by petty chieftains. Though they 
 offered but a feeble resistance to Shalmane- 
 ser II. on this occasion, no part of their 
 
 
 CYAXERES CALLS THE MEDES TO FKEE THEIR COUNTRY FROM THE SCYTHIANS. 
 
 previous creed of the people, awaking no 
 prejudices, clashing with no interests; win- 
 ning its way by an apparent meekness and 
 unpresumingness, while it was quite pre- 
 pared, when the fitting time came, to be as 
 fierce and exclusive as if it had never worn 
 the mask of humility and moderation." 
 This last phase of the Median faith was the 
 one that distinguished it at the time when 
 the nation appeared in history as a compact 
 and well-organized monarchy. 
 
 We know but little of the primitive his- 
 tory of the Medes. They appear to have 
 
 country was really subdued until its invasion 
 by Sargon, about B. c. 710, who conquered 
 a portion of it and planted it with cities, in 
 which he settled his Israelite captives. The 
 successors of Sargon made other conquests 
 in Media. As late as B. c. 671, Esar-had- 
 don invaded and conquered its distant 
 parts, and found it still divided among 
 small chieftains. 
 
 About B. c. 660, however, a sudden 
 change occurred in the organization and 
 government of Media. The population of 
 the country was largely increased by an 
 
198 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 extensive Aryan emigration from the re- 
 gion east of the Zagros mountains, led by 
 Phraortes, the father of Cyaxeres. This 
 leader, having settled with his followers in 
 Media, and appreciating the evils of the 
 I'ule of a number of jDetty chiefs, set himself 
 to work to organize a strong central king- 
 dom, capable of resisting the Assyrians. He 
 succeeded so well that, about B. c. 634, he 
 conceived the design of attacking Assyria, 
 now ruled by the aged Asshur-bani-pal. 
 The Median army was promptly met by 
 the Assyrians upon its entrance into their 
 country. A great battle was fought, prob- 
 ably somewhere in Adiabene. The Median 
 
 ANCIENT CKOWNS. 
 
 army was utterly destroyed, and Phraortes 
 himself was among the slain. 
 
 Cyaxeres succeeded his father as King 
 of Media, and devoted the first years of his 
 reign to a total reorganization of the mili- 
 tary system of the country. He raised and 
 equijiped a large and powerful army, con- 
 sisting of his Persian subjects as well as of 
 Medes, and in B. c. 632 renewed the war 
 by invading Assyria a second time. He 
 defeated the Assyrian army in the field, 
 and laid siege to IS^ineveh, which he pressed 
 so hard that it must have fallen that year, 
 had not he been summoned home in hot haste 
 to resist the invasion of the Scythians, who 
 had poured into his country from the north. 
 He met the barbarians in a great battle 
 almost immediately after returning to his 
 
 country, and was defeated by them and 
 obliged to make peace. He retained his 
 crown by acknowledging the supremacy of 
 the Scyths and agreeing to pay them an 
 annual tribute. Media does not aj^pear to 
 have suffered as much from the ravages of 
 the Scythians as the other countries, but the 
 presence and dominion of the barbarians 
 were galling to the Medians, who were 
 naturally a brave and high-spirited race. 
 
 As the time passed on, and the force of 
 the invasion became weakened by the 
 spreading out of the Scythians over the 
 vast territory of western Asia, the Medians 
 began to take heart. At length Cyaxeres, 
 feeling that the time had come to strike for 
 the independence of his country, resolved 
 to destroy the Scythian leaders by treachery, 
 which he regarded as justifiable under the 
 circumstances. Inviting a number of 
 Scythian chiefs to a banquet, he j^lied them 
 with wine ; and when they were rendered 
 helpless by intoxication, caused them to be 
 put to death. This was the signal for a 
 general uprising of the Median nation. 
 The people turned upon their opi^ressors 
 with relentless fury, and a war of several 
 years ensued, which resulted in the exjDul- 
 sion of the Scythians from Media and the 
 adjacent countries, and their flight across 
 the Caucasus to their own land. 
 
 Having freed his country, Cyaxeres de- 
 voted himself to the task of restoring to it 
 the power and prosperity of which it had 
 been strii:)ped by the Scythians. He suc- 
 ceeded so well that in a few years he found 
 himself in a condition to renew his designs 
 upon his old enemy, Assyria, which was 
 now fatally weakened by its losses at the 
 hands of the barbarians. As a prelude to 
 a new war, Cyaxeres endeavored to excite 
 the Susianians and Chaldseans to throw off 
 their allegiance to Assyria, and join him. 
 He was successful, and it was agreed that 
 the Susianians should invade Assyria from 
 the south, while the Median army attacked 
 it from the east. Saracus, the Assyrian 
 monarch, being informed of this plan of 
 campaign, sent Nabopolassar to Babylon to 
 meet the danger in that quarter while he 
 prepared to encounter the Medes in person. 
 As has been related, Nabopolassar, seeing 
 the advantages certain to accrue to himself 
 from a betrayal of his sovereign, sent an 
 embassy to Cyaxeres, offering to become 
 the ally of the Mede, if the latter would 
 guarantee to him the independent crown 
 of Babylon, and bestow his daughter, 
 
FEOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE KINGDOM. 199 
 
 Amuhia, or Amyitis, upon Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, the son of Nabopolassar, as a wife. 
 Cyaxeres readily accepted the offer; the 
 young people were married ; Nabopolassar 
 joined his forces to those of the Medes; 
 and siege was laid to Nineveh, which was 
 finally taken and destroyed. The con- 
 querors divided the fallen empire between 
 them. The share of Nabopolassar has 
 been described. Cyaxeres received Assyria 
 proper and the dependent countries north 
 and northwest of it. Thus Media became, 
 like Babylon, a considerable empire. The 
 two powers which thus arose upon the 
 ruins of the Assyrian empire were friendly, 
 their rulers being allied by ties of affinity 
 as well as by treaties. Each was satisfied 
 with its acquisitions, and seems to have 
 been ready, at important periods, to assist 
 the other. 
 
 After the conquest of Nineveh, Media, 
 unlike Babylon, which enjoyed some years 
 of peace, became involved in wars with the 
 states of western Asia which had been trib- 
 utary to Assyria, and which eudeavoi-ed to 
 make the downfall of that empire the occa- 
 sion of recovering their independence. Cyax- 
 eres conquered all of this part of Asia from 
 the Caspian Sea to the river Halys. Armenia 
 and Cappadocia, countries never really sub- 
 ject to Assyria, were included in these 
 conquests. These wars involved Cyaxei'es 
 in a struggle with Lydia, which endeavored 
 to turn back his conquests. In this war he 
 was assisted by the Babylonians, com- 
 manded sometimes by the prince royal 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and sometimes by Nabo- 
 polassar in person. At the close of five 
 years, when the two armies were about to 
 engage in battle, they were both terrified 
 by an eclipse of the sun. Nabopolassar 
 took advantage of this to mediate between 
 Cyaxeres and Alyattes, the Lydiau king. 
 The result was the arrangement of a peace 
 
 between the two monarchs, the river Halys 
 becoming the boundary between their 
 dominions. The two kings swore an oath 
 of friendship which was cemented by the 
 marriage of Astyages, the son of Cyaxeres 
 and Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes. A 
 peace of fifty years in western Asia was the 
 fruit of these negotiations. The three king- 
 doms of Media, Lydia, and Babylonia re- 
 mained fast friends during this period, 
 pursuing their separate courses without 
 quarrel or collision. The remainder of the 
 century was passed by Cyaxeres in peace- 
 fully governing his extensive dominions. 
 
 Cyaxeres was succeeded by his son Asty- 
 ages, B. c. 593. Astyages reigned thirty- 
 five years. This period, though peaceful, 
 and in one sense prosperous, was in reality 
 an era of decline, owing to the luxurious 
 habits which the Medians had adopted 
 since the downfall of the Assyrian empire. 
 The court of Ecbatana was one of the most 
 elaborate and splendid in the East, and 
 Astyages was fonder of the pleasures of his 
 harem than of the dangers of the field. 
 His chief pastime was hunting in a para- 
 dise or pai'k near the capital. The court- 
 iers, clad in "soft raiment," forgot their old 
 warlike habits and became weak and effem- 
 inate. The priestly caste of the Magi also 
 acquired great influence at the Median 
 court. 
 
 This was the state of affairs when the 
 Persian revolt — the events of which will be 
 related in the history of that country — 
 broke out. Though at first successful, the 
 Medians, weakened by a long course of 
 luxury, proved no match in the end for the 
 hardy mountaineers, and the war resulted 
 in the complete overthrow of the Median 
 monarchy, b. c. 558. Media became the 
 first and most important of the Persian 
 provinces, and long maintained that posi- 
 tion. 
 
200 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 booik: ix:. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE I^EHSI^lSr 
 
 EMI^IRE. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 Description of Persia — Geographical Position — The 
 Mountain Eegion— Climate— Products— Minerals 
 —Character of the Persian People— Their Loyalty 
 to their Sovereigns — Religion of the Persians— 
 The Persian Monarchy Founded— Persia Tribu- 
 tary to Media— Residence of Cyrus at the Median 
 Coiirt— His Escape— Raises the Standard of Re- 
 volt — Overthrows the Median Kingdom — Estab- 
 lishes the Persian Empire — His Conquests- 
 Captures Babylon— Median Civilization Adopted 
 — Death of Cyrus the Great. 
 
 'ERSIA proper corresponded very 
 nearly to the modern Persian 
 province of Iran. It lay upon the 
 gulf which bears its name, extend- 
 ing from the mouth of the Tab 
 (Oroatis) to the point where the 
 o;ulf joins the Indian Ocean. It was 
 bounded on the north by Media Magna, on 
 the east by Mycia, on the south by the sea, 
 and on the west by Susiania. Its length 
 was about 450 miles, and its width averaged 
 about 250 miles, giving it an area of over 
 100,000 square miles. 
 
 Persia was divided into two distinct re- 
 gions, which modern geographers term the 
 "warm district" and the "cold region." 
 The "warm district" occupied about one- 
 eighth of the country, and was a tract of 
 sandy plain, often impregnated with salt, 
 extending between the mountains and the 
 sea the whole length of the kingdom. The 
 soil is poor and badly watered. The rest of 
 the country was embraced in the "cold 
 region." It was a mountainous region, 
 " consisting of alternate mountain, plain, 
 and narrow valley, curiously intermixed, 
 and as yet very incompletely mapped." It 
 has on the whole an aspect of sternness 
 and sterility, but nevertheless abounds in 
 spots of rare beauty and fertility. The 
 water supply is scanty ; scarcely any of the 
 streams reach the sea. A number of lakes, 
 some of them salt, are found in Persia, and 
 receive the waters of most of the streams. 
 
 " The most remarkable feature of the coun- 
 try consists in the extraordinary gorges 
 which pierce the great mountain chain, and 
 render possible the establishment of routes 
 across that tremendous barrier. Scarped 
 rocks rise almost perpendicularly on either 
 side of the mountain streams, Avhich de- 
 scend rapidly, with frequent cascades and 
 falls. Along the slight irregularities of 
 these rocks the roads are carried in zigzags, 
 often crossing the streams from side to side 
 by bridges of a single arch, which are 
 thrown over profound chasms where the 
 waters chafe and roar many hundred feet 
 below. The roads have for the most part 
 been artificially cut in the sides of the preci- 
 pices, which rise from the streams some- 
 times to the height of 2,000 feet. In order 
 to cross from the Persian Gulf to the high 
 plateau of Iran, no fewer than three or four 
 of these kotiils, or strange gorge passes, have 
 to be traversed successively. Thus the 
 country towards the edge of the plateau is 
 peculiarly safe from attack, being defended 
 on the north and east by vast deserts, and 
 on the south by a mountain barrier of unu- 
 sual strength and difficulty." 
 
 The climate of Persia proper was two- 
 fold : in the low country it was hot and 
 enervating ; in the mountain region it was 
 cold in winter, but pleasant during the rest 
 of the year. The vegetable products were 
 neither numerous nor remarkable. The 
 low country yielded dates in moderate 
 quantities, and in a few places corn, the 
 vine, and different kinds of fruit trees were 
 cultivated. The mountain region furnislied 
 an abundance of rich pasture ; grapes of an 
 admirable quality grew there, and nearly 
 all the fruits except the olive were abun- 
 dant. The peach is believed to be a native 
 of Persia, as is also the citron. Of the 
 grains, wheat, barley, millet and rice were 
 the principal products. In modern times 
 Indian corn, introduced from America, has 
 been successfully grown here. Pulse, beans, 
 sesame, madder, henna, and cotton were 
 cultivated bv the ancients. 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT. 201 
 
 The wild animals of the couutry were the 
 lion, the bear, the wild ass, the stag, the 
 antelope, the ibex or wild goat, the wild 
 boar, the hysena, the jackal, the wolf, the 
 fox, the hare, the porcupine, the otter, the 
 jerboa, the ichneumon, and the marmot. The 
 domestic animals were identical with those 
 of Media, and need not be described here. 
 
 The minerals of Persia proper were nu- 
 merous and valuable. They consisted of 
 gold, silver, copper, iron, red lead, orpiment, 
 salt, bitumen, naphtha, sulphur, and, as is 
 supposed by some, common lead. Sulphur 
 and salt abounded. Excellent building 
 stone was also found. 
 
 The Persians were an Iranian race, 
 sprung from the same stock as their neigh- 
 bors, the Medes ; the two nations being in 
 reality one people. The Persians were 
 quick and lively, very intelligent, and 
 more far-sighted than most Oriental na- 
 tions. They were brave, hardy, possessed 
 of many manly virtues, and, in the earlier 
 days, Avere noted for their regard for truth, 
 ^schylus calls them a "valiant-minded 
 l^eople." They possessed a boldness, a 
 dash, and a stubbornness which made them 
 irresistible in battle. No nation could 
 stand before them until they met the 
 Greeks, and then they yielded only to the 
 superior armor and discipline of the Hel- 
 lenic troops. Herodotus says that the in- 
 structors of the Persian j^outh were required 
 to teach them three main things, namely : 
 " To ride, to draw the bow, and to speak 
 the truth." In all ages, in fine, the Per- 
 sians have been noted as an active, vigor- 
 ous race, raised by these qualities far above 
 the indolent people of the neighboring 
 countries. They were an essentially mili- 
 tary people, and among their most striking 
 traits was devotion to their sovereign, 
 which led them to submit absolutely to his 
 will, and to endure any hardship or priva- 
 tion for his sake. This excessive loyalty 
 on the part of the people paved the way 
 for the grossest tyranny on the part of the 
 kings, and in the end sapped the self-respect 
 of the people and corrupted the entire na- 
 tion. The Persian armies were composed 
 of infantry and cavalry ; chariots were re- 
 garded with disfavor and were not often 
 used. The bow and the spear were the 
 chief weapons. The bow was of unusual 
 size, and was wielded with terrible effect by 
 the Persian troops. The infantry bore 
 shields, but the cavalry were without them. 
 Unlike the Medes, the Persians readily 
 
 gave quarter when asked, and treated their 
 prisoners of war with kindness. They 
 were fond of luxury and display, and the 
 Persian court during the flourishing period 
 of the empire was one of the most magnifi- 
 cent known to history. 
 
 The religion of the Persians in the earlier 
 periods of their history was identical with 
 the Median belief in Dualism, consisting 
 mainly in the worship of Ahuramazda, or 
 Ormazd ; the acknowledgment of the prin- 
 ciple of evil — Angro-mainyus — and obe- 
 dience to the teachings of Zoroaster. When 
 the Medians adopted Magism, the Persians 
 held sternly to their purer and simpler 
 faith ; but when the empire became great 
 and powerful, Magism gradually overshad- 
 owed the earlier faith until it became the 
 religion of the court and the nation. Per- 
 haps it would be more correct to speak of 
 the Persian religion at that period as a 
 strange combination of Magism and Zoroas- 
 trianism. This union was so apparent to 
 the later Greeks that they termed the 
 Persian religion "the Magism of Zoroaster." 
 As the two systems have been described in 
 our account of Media, it is unnecessary to 
 repeat the description here. 
 
 At the period of the establishment of the 
 empire by Cyrus, Zoroastrianism was the 
 national creed. That monarch found a 
 strong bond of union between the captive 
 Jews in Babylonia and his own people. 
 He found them worshippers of one God, 
 whom he evidently identified with Ormazd, 
 his own deity ; " and accepting as a divine 
 command the prophecy of Isaiah (xliv. 28), 
 undertook to rebuild their Temple for a 
 people who, like his own, allowed no image 
 of God to defile the sanctuary. Darius, 
 similarly, encouraged the completion of the 
 work after it had been interrupted by the 
 troubles which followed the death of Cam- 
 bysses. The foundation was thus laid for 
 that friendly intimacy between the two 
 peoples, of which we have abundant evi- 
 dence in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and 
 Esther ; a friendly intimacy which caused 
 the Jews to continue faithful to Persia to 
 the last, and to brave the conqueror of Issus 
 rather than desert masters wiio had shown 
 them kindness and sympathy." 
 
 The region we have described as Persia 
 proper was conquered about the middle of 
 the seventh century before the Christian 
 era by a brave, hardy, warlike people from 
 the upland region east of the Caspian Sea. 
 These were the founders of the Persian nation. 
 
202 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The nation was from the first divided 
 into ten tribes. Four of these were nomadic, 
 three cultivated the soil, and three bore 
 arms for the common defence. The warrior 
 tribes constituted the nobility of the coun- 
 try. The most illustrious of these tribes 
 were the Pasargadse, who held almost all 
 
 dom of Media acquired an ascendency over 
 Persia, whose kings, until the accession of 
 Cyrus the Great, held their crowns as feuda- 
 tories of Media. Cambysses, the father of 
 Cyrus, was king of Persia, but was the 
 vassal of Astyages of Media, to whom he 
 paid an annual tribute. He was also 
 
 CAMEL EQUIPPED 
 
 the high offices, both civil and military. 
 The reigning family of the Achsemenidse 
 belonged to this tribe. They derived their 
 name from Achremenes, the first chief who 
 set up an Aryan monarchy in this region, 
 and w'ho is regarded as the founder of the 
 Persian kingdom. 
 
 At an early period the neighboring king- 
 
 FOR A JOUKNEY. 
 
 obliged to send his son and heir, Cyrus, to 
 reside at the Median court as a hostage for 
 his loyalty. The prince royal was held 
 there in a sort of honorable captivity ; he 
 was treated with the respect befitting his 
 rank, and with kindness, but was not al- 
 low'ed to leave the court without the per- 
 mission of his sovereign. 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT. 203 
 
 During his residence at the Median court, 
 Cyrus observed that the vigor of the Medes 
 was being destroyed by their luxurious 
 habits, and that they were physically as 
 well as mentally inferior to his own vigor- 
 ous countrymen. Influenced by this knowl- 
 edge, he conceived the bold plan of throw- 
 ing off the Median yoke and establishing 
 his country's independence. It may be 
 that his indignation at the encroachments 
 of iMagism upon the pure religion of his 
 fathers furnished another incentive to this 
 step. He resolved to put his plan into 
 execution during the reign of the effeminate 
 Astyages ; and he therefore asked leave of 
 the Median monarch to return home for a 
 short time, pleading that his father was in 
 weak health and needed his care; but Asty- 
 ages, fearing to lose his hold upon Persia, 
 returned to Cyrus the flattering answer that 
 he loved him too well to lose sight of him 
 even for a day. Cyrus appeared to be con- 
 tented with the answer, and awaited a more 
 favorable opportunity. After a considera- 
 ble interval, he renewed his request, making 
 it this time through a favorite of the king. 
 The effort was successful, and Cyrus received 
 leave of absence for five months. He at 
 once left Ecbatana, the Median capital, by 
 night, with a few chosen attendants, and 
 took the road to Persia. 
 
 The next evening Astyages, while enjoy- 
 ing himself in his harem, was aroused to a 
 sense of the imprudence of his act by the 
 words of a song sung by one of his dancing 
 girls. He at once summoned an ofiicer 
 into his presence, bade him take a body of 
 horsemen, pursue the Persian prince, and 
 bring him back either dead or alive. The 
 Mede at once set out on his mission, over- 
 took Cyrus, and informed him of the king's 
 orders. Cyrus professed to be willing to 
 obey, but proposed that, as it was late, they 
 should encamp for the night, and start on 
 their return the next day. The Medes con- 
 sented to this, and were entertained at a 
 feast by Cyrus, who succeeded in making 
 all of tliem drunk. He then mounted his 
 horse, and, with his attendants, rode with 
 speed until they reached a Persian outpost, 
 where, in accordance with a plan which he 
 had concerted with his father, he found a 
 strong force of Persian cavalry awaiting 
 him. When the Medes recovered from 
 their drunkenness, they set out in pursuit 
 of Cyrus, and coming up with him at the 
 head of his cavalry attacked him. They 
 were defeated Avith great loss, and Cyrus 
 
 made his way rapidly to his father's 
 court. 
 
 Persia now raised the standard of revolt, 
 and Astyages collected a large army to 
 reduce his rebellious vassal to submission. 
 A bloody war ensued. In the first battle 
 the Persians were defeated, and Cambysses, 
 their king, was slain. Cyrus was now made 
 King of Persia. Astyages won a second 
 great victory near Pasargadse, the Persian 
 capital ; but in the third battle Cyrus in- 
 flicted a stinging defeat upon him. In a 
 fifth battle, fought in the neighborhood of 
 Pasargadse, the Medians were utterly routed. 
 The Persian troops, elated by their victory, 
 hailed Cyrus with deafening cheers as 
 " King of INIedia and Persia." Cyrus fol- 
 lowed up his victory by a vigorous pur- 
 suit of the Medes, in which he broke up 
 their arm}^, and took Astyages prisoner. 
 This success made him master of Media, 
 which quietly submitted to his rule, B. c. 
 558. Thus were laid the foundations of the 
 Medo-Persian empire. The conquest of 
 Media was followed by that of Lydia, which 
 was incorporated into the Persian empire, 
 B. c. 554. HarpaguB, the lieutenant of 
 Cyrus, reduced the Greek cities of Asia 
 Minor to submission, B. c. 553. 
 
 Cyrus now entered upon an extensive 
 career of conquest in the far east. In the 
 thirteen years intervening between b. c. 
 553 and b. c. 540, he subdued Hyrcania, 
 Parthia, Bactria, Sacia, Chorasmia, Sogdi- 
 ana. Aria, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagy- 
 dia, and Gandaria, the vast region lying 
 between the Jaxartes, and the Caspian and 
 Erythraan Seas, with the Indus for its east- 
 ern bouudai-y. 
 
 Having accomplished this great under- 
 taking, Cyrus next turned his arms against 
 Babylon, captured that city, as has already 
 been related, and added the Babylonian 
 empire to his dominions. Egypt was now 
 the only remaining great power that had 
 not felt the weight of the vengeance of the 
 Persian king. He intended to conquer that 
 country, but never put this design into 
 execution. The reason of this is unknown. 
 
 Upon the conquest of Babylon, Cyrus 
 made it the second capital of his empire, 
 Ecbatana being the principal capital. Pasar- 
 gadie, the old Persian metropolis, was made 
 a sacred city, and reserved for coronations 
 and burials. The civilization of the Medes 
 and their arts, architecture, dress, manners, 
 and, to a certain extent, their luxurious 
 habits, were adopted by the Persians. Cy- 
 
204 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 rus did little towards consolidating his 
 empire or establishing a definite system of 
 
 government for 
 his successors. 
 
 The religion of the empire was the purer 
 form of Zoroastrianism professed by the Per- 
 
 sians, but all creeds were tolerated. Cyrus, 
 a Monotheist, was naturally drawn to the 
 Jewish captives in Babylon, whose religion 
 so closely resembled his own. He took 
 them into especial favor, and restored them 
 to their own country, where they were 
 treated with equal kindness by his suc- 
 cessors. 
 
 The close of his reign is involved in 
 uncertainty. The traditional account re- 
 ceived from Herodotus is, that his last 
 campaign was against the Massagetse, who 
 dwelt on the north of his empire, to the east 
 of the Sea of Aral. He so thoroughly sub- 
 dued these barbarian hordes and struck such 
 terror into them that they did not venture 
 to attack the Persian empire during its sub- 
 sequent existence. He was slain in a battle 
 with these people. His body was conveyed 
 to Persia and buried at Pasarcjadce. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT 
 TO THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Accession of Cambysses — His Character — Conquers 
 Egypt — Cruel Treatment of that Country — His 
 Failures — The False Sruerdis — Death of Cambys- 
 ses — Darius I. Becomes King of Persia — He Re- 
 organizes the Empire — His System — Conquers a 
 Part of India — His Scythian Expedition — Begin- 
 ning of the War with Greece — Failure of the Ex- 
 pedition of Mardonius — Defeat of the Persians at 
 Marathon— Xerxes I. King of Persia— His Expe- 
 dition into Greece— Battles of Thermopyhe and 
 Salamis — Failure of the Expedition — Return of 
 Xerxes to Persia — Gives himself up to Luxury — 
 Defeat of Wardonius at Plata?a — Artaxerxes I. 
 King of Persia — Revolt of Egypt — The Peace of 
 Calias — Xerxes II. — His Murder — Darius II. King 
 — His Weak Reign — Rapid Decline of Persia — 
 Artaxerxes II. — Revolt of Cyrus — Battle of Cun- 
 axa— Retreat of the Ten Thousand— Wars with 
 the Greek States— Rapid Disintegration of the 
 Empire — Plans of Artaxerxes for the Conquest of 
 Greece — Internal Troubles of the Empire— Och us 
 — His Vigorous Reign — Is Assassinated — Darius 
 III. — The Macedonian War — Alexander the Great 
 Enters Asia— Battle of the Granicus — Loss of Asia 
 Minor — Battle of Issus— Capture of the Royal 
 Family — Alexander Conquers the Mediterranean 
 Provinces of Persia— Battle of Arbela— Flight and 
 Death of Darius— Fall of the Persian Empire. 
 
 ^M&YRUS was succeeded, b. c. 529, by 
 his eldest son Cambysses. He left 
 also another son named Bardius, 
 or, as he was called by the Greeks, 
 Smerdis, to whom he bequeathed 
 the government of some large and 
 important provinces. This arrangement 
 aroused the jealousy of Cambysses, who, at 
 an early period of his reign, caused Smerdis 
 to be put to death secretly. 
 
DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT TO FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 205 
 
 Canibysses inherited liis father's ambition 
 and love of war, but not his genius. He 
 ranks in history as one of the greatest 
 destroyers of the ancient or modern world. 
 He compelled the submission of Phoenicia 
 and Cyprus, the great naval powers of 
 western Asia, which had not been tributary 
 to Cyrus. In B. c. 525, he invaded Egypt 
 with an enormous army, defeated Psam- 
 menitus in a pitched battle, took Memphis, 
 and conquered Egypt, and received the 
 submission of the Libyan tribes bordering 
 upon Egypt and of the Greek towns of the 
 Cyrenaica. Greatly elated by his success, 
 Carnbysses formed vast schemes of conquest 
 which he had not the ability to carry out. 
 He planned the reduction of Carthage, in- 
 tending to attack it by sea and land, but 
 the Phoenicians, who formed the bulk of his 
 naval strength, refused to take part in the 
 subjugation of the Carthaginians, who were 
 their own countrymen ; so the project mis- 
 carried. The king then despatched a force 
 of 50,000 men to capture and plunder the 
 famous temple of Anion, situated in an 
 oasis in the Libyan desert, twenty days 
 journey from Thebes. The expedition never 
 reached the temple, but perished to a man 
 amid the sands of the desert. With a 
 stronger force he attempted the invasion of 
 Ethiopia. While still toiling across the 
 Nubian desert his supplies gave out, and 
 his army found itself without water. Carn- 
 bysses insanely endeavored to continue his 
 march, but after suffering frightful priva- 
 tions — his troo]")S were even reduced to the 
 horrible necessity of eating each other — he 
 was obliged to return to Memphis Avith the 
 shattered wreck of his army. His own 
 forces were noAV thoroughly disheartened, 
 and convinced of the lack of ability in their 
 leader, and Egypt was on the brink of re- 
 bellion. Symptoms of revolt manifesting 
 themselves under the encouragement of the 
 priests, Canibysses applied himself merci- 
 lessly to the intimidation of the country. 
 His cruelties were very great and he pun- 
 ished all opposition to him with death. The 
 Egyptians could have forgiven him these 
 acts, had he not aroused their bitter and 
 undying hatred by making war upon their 
 gods, with the avowed purpose of bringing 
 them into contempt. He stabbed the sa- 
 cred calf believed to be the incarnation of 
 the god Apis, and scourged the priests in 
 charge of it; suspended the festival of Apis 
 on pain of death ; opened the tombs, and 
 examined the mummies; entered the chief 
 
 sanctuary at Memphis ; publicly insulted 
 the image of Phtha ; and caused the destruc- 
 tion of all the images of the gods. From 
 one end of Egypt to the other he was viewed 
 with feelings of horror and hatred, and the 
 impression he left upon the country lasted 
 for centuries. The Egyptians were thor- 
 oughly cowed, however, and Carnbysses, 
 finding the country sufficiently intimidated, 
 set out on his return to his capital, from 
 which he had already been absent too long. 
 Upon reaching Syria, he was met by the 
 news of the usurpation of his throne by the 
 false Smerdis, and despairing of overcoming 
 the conspiracy he committed suicide, B. c. 
 522, after a reign of eight years. 
 
 The prolonged absence of Canibysses from 
 his own dominions had resulted in a revolu- 
 tion of the Magians at the Medo-Persian 
 capital. Gomates, a Magian, supported by 
 his order, in what would seem an effort to 
 make Magianism the religion of the state, 
 seized the throne, passing himself off as 
 Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, whose death, by 
 order of Cambysses, was knoAvn to hini^ but 
 not to the people. His claims were sub- 
 mitted to, and in order to conciliate his 
 subjects he released them from taxation, 
 and the conquered nations from military- 
 service, for a period of three years. At the 
 same time he carefully secluded himself 
 from the public, admitting no one to his 
 presence but his wives (the widows of 
 Cambysses, whom he married), whom he 
 prevented from communicating with each 
 other or with their friends, and his fellow- 
 conspirators. His religious reforms by 
 which he proceeded to supplant Zoroas- 
 trianism with Magianism aroused the sus- 
 picious of the people, which were increased 
 by his studied seclusion. The truth at 
 length became known, and an insurrection, 
 headed by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
 and probably heir presumptive to the 
 crown, hurled the impostor from the throne 
 after a reign of eight months, and re-estab- 
 lished the Persian religion in its original 
 purity. 
 
 Darius I. ascended the throne B. c. 52L 
 He reigned nearly thirty-six years, and 
 was the greatest monarch of the Persian 
 empire. He found his dominions in a 
 general state of revolt. No less than eleven 
 Satrapies — the principal provinces of his 
 realm — took arms against him, and it 
 seemed that the empire of Cyrus was 
 doomed to destruction. For six years 
 Darius was engaged in the conquest of 
 
206 
 
DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT TO FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 207 
 
 these revolted provinces. His great mili- 
 tary and executive geuius carried him safely 
 through his trials. Order was restored 
 throughout his dominions, the rebel leaders 
 were executed, and his authority was gen- 
 erally acknowledged. 
 
 These troubles revealed to Darius the 
 necessity of a fixed and definite organiza- 
 tion of the empire. He began this task by 
 removing all the tributary kings of the con- 
 quered countries. The empire was divided 
 into twenty provinces called SatrajDies. Over 
 each province a Persian satrap, or civil 
 governor, was placed, who was directly 
 responsible to the king. A standing army 
 was established and divided among the 
 Satrapies, asa means of restraining rebellion 
 and resisting foreign aggression. The mili- 
 tary commanders also acted as a check upon 
 the satraps. A fixed rate of tribute was 
 established^ for each province. Royal roads 
 from the capital to the various provinces 
 were constructed, and a system of posts put 
 into operation by which the court could 
 rapidly and regularly communicate with 
 the provinces. A body of royal secretaries, 
 called the " king's eyes and ears," was dis- 
 tributed among the provinces. Their duties 
 were to Avatch the satraps and keep the 
 king informed of the events transpiring iu 
 each government. Royal inspectors, and 
 frequently the king himself, made sudden 
 and unexpected official visits to the satraps, 
 and thus kept them faithful to their duties. 
 In course of time these inspections were 
 practically discontinued, and an important 
 check upon corruption was thus removed. 
 The offices of satrap and military comman- 
 der were finally consolidated, and the power 
 of the satraps was thus materially increased, 
 a circumstance which encouraged them to 
 revolt. Darius also reorganized the army, 
 confining the standing foi'ce to the dominant 
 Medo-Persian race, but drawing men from 
 the whole erajiire in time of war. Great 
 prominence was given to the cavalry. The 
 navy was drawn entirely from the conquered 
 nations, chiefly from Phoenicia, Egypt, Cy- 
 prus, Cilicia, and Asiatic Greece. 
 
 Having established his empire, Darius 
 undertook an expedition into India, and 
 conquered the Punjaub and Scinde, at some 
 period between b. c. 515 and b. c. 509. He 
 thus acquired an important gold region, 
 and increased the revenue of the empire by 
 one-third. An active commerce also sprang 
 up between Persia and India. 
 
 The next expedition of Darius was 
 
 against the Scythians, dwellers in the vast 
 plains between the Don and the Danube, 
 the region now called the Ukraine. He 
 did not expect to conquer this country, hut 
 his object was to strike terror to the Scyth- 
 ians and prevent them from attempting the 
 invasion of his dominions. He crossed the 
 Bosphorus by a bridge of boats, about B. c. 
 508, and marched through Thrace, while 
 his fleet proceeded through the Euxine to 
 the Danube, and bridged that river. The 
 maritime Thracians submitted without re- 
 sistance, but the Getse endeavored to oppose 
 his march, and were conquered. Darius 
 crossed the Danube, ravaged the Scythian 
 country, and returned to Asia in triumph 
 by the way he had come. As a result of 
 the expedition, Thrace became tributary, 
 including those parts bordering on the 
 
 TOMB OF CYKTTS. 
 
 -^gean, and even Macedonia submitted. 
 The Persian empire thus extended from the 
 Indian Desert to the borders of Thessaly, 
 and from the Caucasus to Ethiopia, b. c. 506. 
 The closing years of the sixth century 
 before the Christian era were marked by a 
 revolt of the Asiatic Greeks, who were an- 
 gered by the support given by Darius to 
 their tyrants. Under the leadership of 
 Aristagoras of Miletus, they drove out or 
 killed their tyrants, and took arms against 
 Persia. They were joined by Athens and 
 Eretria, iu Euroj^ean Greece. Deeming 
 boldness the best policy, the}'' attacked and 
 captured Sardis, the capital of the Satrapy. 
 The city was destroyed by an accidental 
 conflagration, and the invaders were over- 
 taken and defeated bv the Persian forces in 
 
208 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 a battle near Ephesus, b. c. 500. Athens 
 and Eretria immediately abandoned the 
 alliance. Numerous states, however, came 
 to the assistance of the Greeks, and a gen- 
 eral revolt against Persia spread along the 
 entire Asiatic coast from the Sea of Mar- 
 mora to the Gulf of Issus. The Ionian, 
 ^oliau, and Hellespontiue Greeks, the 
 Carians and Cauraians, and the Cyprians 
 all united in the effort against Persia. 
 Darius, appreciating the importance of 
 checking this outbreak promptly, put forth 
 the most strenuous exertions to crush it. 
 A number of battles were fought w'ith vary- 
 ing success, but at length the superior 
 power of Persia began to prevail. The 
 Ionian fleet was decisively defeated in the 
 battle of Lade, and Miletus was carried by 
 storm, B. c. 494. The rebellious states 
 were made to feel the full weight of the 
 vengeance of Darius, and the Persian 
 authority was re-established firmly in all 
 the countries that had borne a part in the 
 rebellion. 
 
 Having quieted his own dominions, 
 Darius now began to take measures to pun- 
 ish the Greek states which had dared to 
 assist his rebellious subjects. He had long 
 meditated the conquest of Greece, and the 
 interference of Athens and Eretria in the 
 Ionian revolt gave him an excellent ground 
 of quarrel with them. In the spring of 
 B. c. 492 an expedition was fitted out and 
 despatched against Greece under Mar- 
 donius, Mardonius proceeded along the 
 coast, and when off Mount Athos lost the 
 greater part of his fleet by a storm, and his 
 land army was defeated and almost de- 
 stroyed by a night attack of the Brygians, 
 a Tliracian tribe. Although these disasters 
 made it imj^ossible to attempt the invasion 
 of Greece, the expedition was not without 
 results. Thasos was captured, and Mace- 
 donia was made subject to Persia. 
 
 A second expedition was collected, and 
 two years later, b. c. 490, was sent against 
 Greece under the command of Datis, one 
 of the ablest Persian generals. Crossing 
 through the Cyclades, Datis proceeded first 
 to Eretria, which fell into his hands through 
 treachery. He burned its temples and 
 bound its inhabitants in chains for trans- 
 portation to Asia. Having taken Eretria, 
 the Persians crossed the Euripus and landed 
 at Marathon with the intention of advanc- 
 ing upon Athens. They were met at Mar- 
 athon by the Athenian army, under Milti- 
 ades, and decisively defeated. Retiring to 
 
 their ships, they sailed around the Athenian 
 foreland in the hope of surprising Athens ; 
 but Miltiades, by a forced march from 
 Marathon, reached Athens in time to make 
 it evident to the Persian commander that 
 an attempt upon the city would be useless. 
 Datis, therefore, sailed for the Asiatic 
 coast, taking with him his Eretrian pris- 
 oners. The victory of the Greeks at JNIara- 
 thon was the first great check the Persians 
 had yet received, and it proved the iucon- 
 testible superiority of the disciplined brav- 
 ery of the European Greeks over the vast 
 masses of the Orientals, Undismayed by 
 his reverse, Darius prepared to invade 
 Greece with a still greater force, which he 
 intended to lead in person ; but troubles in 
 Egypt delayed him, and his death, in b. c. 
 486, put an end to his schemes, and gave 
 the Greeks an opportunity of completing 
 their preparations for resistance. 
 
 Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes 
 I., the Ahasuerus of the Bible. He began 
 his reign by stamping out with great sever- 
 ity the revolt of the Egyptians, and made 
 his brother Aehteraenes viceroy of Egypt, 
 The Babylonians about this time attempted 
 a revolt, which was put down by the Per- 
 sians, and Xerxes punished them by confis- 
 cating the vast treasures of their temples, 
 b. c. 485. 
 
 Xerxes now took up his father's project 
 of the invasion of Greece. He aroused the 
 enthusiasm of his satraps and military 
 commanders by detailing to them in a gen- 
 eral council, Avhich he summoned at Susa, 
 the advantages of the conquest of Greece, 
 and preparations for the expedition were 
 immediately begun. For four years the 
 entire Persian empire was busily engaged in 
 preparing for the approaching contest. The 
 largest fleet that had ever been assembled 
 in the jMediterranean was collected from 
 the maritime dependencies of Persia, and 
 an immense army assembled from every 
 part of the Persian dominions. The navy 
 is said to have consisted of over 1,200 
 triremes and 3,000 vessels of an inferior 
 description. Depots of supplies were formed 
 at various points along the route the mon- 
 arch intended to pursue. He had Avisely 
 concluded from the experience of Datis 
 that an expedition strong enough to con- 
 quer Greece could not be conveyed by sea, 
 but must cross the Hellespont and march 
 by the north coast of the ^gean. For this 
 purpose the Egyptians and Phoenicians 
 were charged with the construction of a 
 
14 
 
 209 
 
210 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATE! 
 
 bridge of boats across the Hellespont. It 
 was built successfully, but was broken to 
 pieces by a violent storm. Xerxes at once 
 caused the engineers who had constructed 
 the bridge to be beheaded, and the sea to 
 be scourged, A pair of fetters was thrown 
 into the waves as a hint that they had 
 found a master in the Persian king. A 
 double bridge was now constructed with 
 greater care, and made so solid and secure 
 that it constituted a high road "along 
 which men, horses, and vehicles might pass 
 with as much comfort and facility as they 
 
 UVBY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 king. The same authority places the 
 strength of the army at 1,800,000 men, of 
 which 80,000 were cavalry and 20,000 
 charioteers or riders of camels. Making all 
 due allowance for exaggerations, it can 
 hardly be doubted that the force with which 
 Xerxes invaded Europe exceeded a million 
 and a half of fighting men. 
 
 From Sardis the army marched to Aby- 
 dos, where the troops and the fleet were re- 
 viewed by the king, who beheld his vast 
 navy for the first time. The next morning 
 the passage of the Hellespont was begun, 
 
 CYRUS LISTENING TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE JEWISH FAITH. 
 
 could move on shore." In order to enable 
 the fleet to avoid the dangers of doubling 
 Mount Athos, the king employed a body of 
 men for three years, under Persian over- 
 seers, in cutting a canal in the rear of the 
 mountain from the Strymonic to the Singi- 
 tic Gulf 
 
 All things being in readiness, Xerxes re- 
 paired to Sardis in the winter of B. c. 481, 
 to superintend the final arrangements in 
 person. In the spring of B. c. 480 the Per- 
 sian army assembled in Lydia. Forty-nine 
 nations are said by Herodotus to have 
 marched under the banner of the great 
 
 and was continued for seven days, the 
 troops using one bridge and the baggage- 
 train and attendants the other, the move- 
 ments of all being hastened by a liberal use 
 of the lash. The march was continued 
 through Europe into Thessaly, across that 
 country, and through Achsea and Phthiotis 
 into the Malian plain. A halt was made 
 near the small town of Trachis, before the 
 Pass of Thermopylae, the entrance to cen- 
 tral Greece. On the way large reinforce- 
 ments from the Macedonians, Thracians, 
 and other European nations, had materially 
 increased the strength of the array of 
 
DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT TO FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 211 
 
 Xerxes, which now numbered at least two 
 millions of fighting men. Estimating the 
 personnel of the fleet at 500,000 men, and 
 allowing for camp followers and attendants, 
 at least three millions of men must have fol- 
 lowed Xerxes into Greece. 
 
 The Greeks had collected a small detach- 
 ment, under the Spartan King Leonidas, at 
 Thermopylae, to hold the pass until they 
 could arrive in force for its defence. This 
 little band resisted the efforts of the Per- 
 sians to force a passage, but were betrayed 
 by a traitor who revealed to Xerxes a 
 mountain path by which the pass might 
 be turned. The little band of Leonidas 
 was overwhelmed, and the Persians poured 
 into central Greece. They advanced upon 
 Athens, which had been deserted by its in- 
 habitants, and reduced it to ashes. At the 
 same time the Persian fleet sailed around 
 the promontory of Sunium, and came to 
 anchor in the bay of Phalerum. The 
 Greeks were sorely disheartened, and were 
 on the point of breaking up their fleet, 
 when Xerxes, having caused a throne to 
 be erected on the slopes of Mount ^galeos, 
 from which he could view the contest, gave 
 orders to his naval commanders to attack 
 them. The battle took place in the Saronic 
 Gulf, off Salamis, and lasted all day. It 
 resulted in the total defeat of the Persian 
 fleet, notwithstanding its immense superior- 
 ity of force. 
 
 The defeat of his fleet utterly destroyed 
 the plans of Xerxes. Seeing that his ships 
 could not hope to cope successfully with the 
 Greeks, and knowing that he must be su- 
 perior to them at sea as well as on land in 
 order to accomplish the conquest of their 
 country, he resolved to abandon the expe- 
 dition and to return to Persia. He made 
 no efibrt to retrieve his ill fortune, but be- 
 gan a forced retreat by the way he had 
 come. The fleet was ordered to proceed 
 direct to the Hellespont to guard the 
 bridges. Upon reaching Thessaly, Mardo- 
 nius was left behind with 260,000 picked 
 men to prevent pursuit and to renew the 
 effort to conquer Greece the next year, 
 while the king pressed on with the rest of 
 the army towards the Hellespont. His 
 stores were exhausted, and vast numbers 
 of the troops died from famine and fatigue 
 on the way. Reaching the Hellespont he 
 found his bridges shattered by a storm, and 
 his army was obliged to cross the strait in 
 ships. At Abydos food was obtained. The 
 march was resumed to Sardis, but many 
 
 died on the way from the effects of over- 
 eating after their long privation, and it was 
 only a wreck of his magnificent host that 
 
 THE COL'RT OF XERXES I. 
 
 the king led into the Lydian capital, just 
 eight mouths after he had set out from it 
 in the flush of his power and hopes. 
 
 The operations of Mardonius in Greece 
 
212 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 will be related in the Grecian history of 
 this period. They resulted in the defeat of 
 his army at Platsea, and the destruction 
 of his fleet at Mycale, disasters which ut- 
 terly annihilated the Persian power in 
 Europe. The Greeks followed up their 
 successes by freeing the islands of the 
 ^Egean from the Persians, and ravaging 
 the coasts of Asia. For twelve years no 
 Persian sail dared show itself in the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 Xerxes, utterly disheartened by his 
 failure to subdue Greece, gave himself up 
 to luxury and pleasure, and during the rest 
 of his reign attempted no more military 
 enterprises. It is quite probable that his 
 immense losses had too seriously crippled 
 his empire to allow any important attempt 
 at conquest for a while, and that the coun- 
 try needed rest. The natural temperament 
 of Xerxes, however, inclined him to yield 
 to his disgrace, Avithout caring to wipe it 
 out. He gave himself up to the pleasures 
 of his harem, and, submitting himself to 
 the government of Avomen and eunuchs, 
 ceased to take any interest in matters of 
 State. The remainder of his reign was a 
 period of licentiousness and corruption. 
 Its end was fitting. The king was mur- 
 dered, B. c. 465, by Artabanus, the captain 
 of his guard, and Aspamitres, his cham- 
 berlain. 
 
 Artabanus placed on the tlirone the 
 youngest son of Xerxes, Artaxerxes I., 
 called Longimanus, or the " Long-handed." 
 He had removed the eldest son, Darius, by 
 putting him to death, Artabanus was soon 
 after executed by order of the king, Avho 
 discovered that the satrap was the real 
 murderer of Xerxes. 
 
 In B. c. 460 Libya and Egypt revolted 
 from Persia, and called in the assistance of 
 Athens, Avhich had instigated the revolt, 
 and which responded by sending a fleet of 
 200 ships to the aid of the Egyptians. A 
 Persian army, under the Satrap MegabazAis, 
 succeeded in putting down the revolt The 
 Libyan King Inarus was taken prisoner, 
 and was crucified by order of Artaxerxes. 
 The Greek fleet was defeated and destroyed. 
 The Egyptian King Amyrtjeus fled to the 
 marshy districts of the Delta, Avhere he 
 maintained himself for nearly six years. 
 Athens, smarting under the loss of her fleet, 
 renewed her exertions with such vigor in 
 B. c. 449, that Persia found herself in 
 danger of losing both Egypt and Cyprus, 
 and Artaxerxes consented to a most hu- 
 
 miliating treaty, known as the " Peace of 
 Calias." Persia recognized the independ- 
 ence of the Asiatic Greeks, and bound 
 herself not to molest the coast of Avestern 
 Asia Minor Avith her fleet or army. Athens, 
 on her part, engaged to respect the Persian 
 supremacy in Cyprus and Egypt. Thus 
 all the Greeks cities, from the mouth of the 
 Hellespont to Phaselis in Lycia, Avere ceded 
 to the Athenian Confederacy. Those on 
 the shores of the Euxine remained in the 
 hands of Persia. 
 
 Two years later (b. c. 447) Megabazus, 
 the Satrap of Syria, incensed at the execu- 
 tion of Inarus, in violation of the pledge 
 of safety he had made to the Libyan king, 
 threAV off* his allegiance. He was allowed 
 to return to obedience on his OAvn terms — a 
 most dangerous precedent. Artaxerxes 
 died in b. c. 425, and Avas succeeded by his 
 only legitimate son, Xerxes II., Avho 
 reigned forty-fiA-e days, AA'hen he Avas mur- 
 dered by his illegitimate brother, Secydi- 
 anus, or Sogdianus, Avho seized the throne, 
 only to be slain six months later by Ochus, 
 another illegitimate son of Artaxerxes, Avho 
 ascended the throne as Darius II., b. C. 
 424. 
 
 Darius II., or Ochus, was married to his 
 aunt Parysatis, a daughter of Xerxes I., 
 and the nineteen years of his reign were 
 passed under her control. Her natural 
 wickedness and cruelty had free scope dur- 
 ing this period. The empire had been 
 sorely shaken by numerous successful re- 
 A^olts. Darius undertook to defeat them 
 by the most infamous means. He lured 
 the satraps into his power by promises he 
 never meant to keep, and put them to 
 death. Treachery and corruption were in- 
 troduced into every branch of the public 
 service, and a series of Aveak concessions to 
 the remaining satraps fatally damaged the 
 power of the empire in other respects. A 
 formidable revolt of the Medes in b. c. 408 
 was quelled, but an outbreak in Egypt in 
 B. c. 405 Avas more successful. The Egyp- 
 tian King Nepherites drove the Persians 
 out of Egypt, and re-established the inde- 
 pendence of his country. 
 
 The only compensation for all these 
 losses of power and prestige Avas the re-estab- 
 lishment of the Persian authority over the 
 Greeks of Asia Elinor. Taking advantage 
 of the Peloponnesian Avar, which required 
 all the efforts of Athens and Sparta for its 
 prosecution, Darius succeeded in bringing 
 the Greek cities of Asia Minor once more 
 
DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT TO FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 213 
 
 under liis authority. He also interfered in 
 the quarrels of the European Greeks, and 
 began the policy of playing off one Greek 
 state against another for the purpose of 
 weakening both. His power lay in his 
 gold, of which he made a lavish use, and 
 which was found to possess attractions 
 which the Greeks were quite unable to re- 
 sist. Henceforth, until the liberties of 
 Greece were lost, Persia played an influen- 
 tial part in Grecian afiairs. 
 
 About this time, Cyrus, the younger son 
 of the Persian king, was made satrap of 
 
 the state of a king in his province, and won 
 the regard of his courtiers by his amiable 
 qualities, while he commanded their respect 
 by his undoubted ability. Darius was 
 alarmed by the evidences of his son's am- 
 bition, and recalled him to Persia. He 
 reached the capital just in time to witness 
 the death of his father and the accession of 
 his elder brother. 
 
 Darius was succeeded by his eldest son, 
 Artaxerxes II. (called Mnemon by the 
 Greeks, because of his remarkable memory), 
 B. c. 405. The first act of the new king 
 
 CYRUS THE YOUNGEK APPOINTED SATRAP OF ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Phrygia, Lydia and Cappadocia. He de- 
 voted himself enthusiastically to the Spar- 
 tan alliance, and declared to 'Lysander, the 
 Spartan admiral, that he would sell his 
 very throne to raise money to carry on the 
 Avar against Athens. Cyrus was at this 
 time meditating an attempt to raise him- 
 self to the throne of Persia, and his zeal in 
 behalf of the Spartans was caused by his 
 wish to secure their aid in his undertaking. 
 He was the favorite of his mother, Parysatis, 
 who vainly sought to induce Darius to 
 name him as his successor. He assumed 
 
 was to imprison Cyrus and condemn him 
 to death. Parysatis succeeded, however, in 
 procuring not only his release, but his 
 restoration to his satrapy, and he went back 
 to his province determined to lose no time 
 in putting his ambitious plans into execu- 
 tion. He raised an army, the flower of 
 which was a force of Greek mercenaries, 
 and upon the pretext of engaging in an ex- 
 pedition against the bandits of Pisidia, 
 marched from Sardis in the spring: of B. c. 
 401. 
 
 Artaxerxes, informed of his movements, 
 
214 
 
 TEE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 prepared to meet Cyrus, and advanced for 
 that purpose at the head of a strong army. 
 Cyrus moved rapidly through Phrygia, 
 Cilicia and Syria, and crossed the Eu- 
 phrates at Thaj)sacus. His Greek merce- 
 naries had now learned the true object of 
 the expedition, but it was too late to with- 
 draw from it. Reaching the plain of 
 Cuuaxa, about fifty-seven miles from Baby- 
 lon, Cyrus found his progress barred by the 
 royal army under the command of the king 
 in person. It Avas four times as strong as 
 his own force, but the Greeks inflicted a 
 sharp defeat on the royal forces opposed 
 to them. In the moment of victory, Cyrus 
 rashly dashed into the Persian centre, 
 where the king commanded, and had as- 
 sailed and wounded his brother, Avhen he 
 was cut down by one of the royal guard. 
 Artaxerxes at once caused his head and 
 right hand to be cut off. His death put an 
 end to the battle. 
 
 The position of the Greek troops, whom 
 Cyrus had entrapped into the expedition, 
 was now dangerous and difficult in the ex- 
 treme. They were deserted by their Per- 
 sian allies, who made their peace with the 
 great king. Tissaphernes, who had been 
 given the dominions of Cyrus by Arta- 
 xerxes, detained them for a month on pre- 
 tence of treating with them. Having en- 
 ticed them as far as the upper waters of the 
 Tigris, he entrapped their officers and put 
 them to death. At this juncture an Athe- 
 nian named Xenophon, who had accom- 
 panied the army of Cyrus, though not in a 
 military capacity, assembled the Greek 
 leaders at midnight, and showing them the 
 necessity of instant action, urged them to 
 choose new leaders and attempt to regain 
 their own country, a thousand miles distant. 
 Five generals were chosen, of whom Xeno- 
 phon Avas one, and the retreat began the 
 next morning at daybreak. 
 
 It was the winter season, and the Greeks 
 were Avithout guides and ignorant of the 
 country. Their route was across the bleak 
 table lands of Armenia, where many suc- 
 cumbed to the cold. The Persian army, 
 under Tissaphernes, hung constantly upon 
 their rear, but so admirable were the valor 
 and discipline of the Greeks, that their 
 enemy was not able at any time to stop 
 their march, or to gain a decisive success 
 over them in any of the numerous conflicts 
 which marked the Retreat of the Ten 
 Thousand. The efforts of the heroic band 
 w^ve successful. Pressing on, they beheld 
 
 at last, from a mountain to the south of 
 Trapezus, the wide expanse of the Euxine 
 in the distance. Instantly there burst from 
 those in the advance the glad cry, " The 
 sea ! the sea ! " which was caught up by the 
 rest of the column, which pressed forward 
 eagerly to behold the joyful sight, the 
 assurance of speedy deliverance from the 
 perils of their march. 
 
 The participation of the Ten Thousand in 
 the revolt of Cyrus gave mortal offence to 
 Persia, although the Spartans were not ac- 
 tually responsible for it. Still it had the 
 effect of breaking off the alliance between 
 the two states, and it was no secret that 
 Persia would take vengeance upon Sparta 
 for the insult that had been offered her. 
 The Spartans therefore resolved to strike 
 the first blow. They enlisted the survivors 
 of the Ten Thousand in their army, and car- 
 ined on a war against the satraps of Lydia 
 and Phrygia for the space of six years, 
 from B. c. 399 to 394, with such success 
 that Persia seemed on the point of losing 
 all her possessions in Asia Minor. Had 
 Sparta been able to continue the war for a 
 few years longer, this would most probably 
 have been its result. So far had the Per- 
 sian empire advanced in its progress of dis- 
 integration that the satraps of Lydia and 
 Phrygia thought more of defeating each 
 other than of beating the Greeks, and one 
 at least went so far as to bribe the Spartans 
 to spare his territory and attack that of his 
 rival. To add to the troubles of Persia, 
 the Mysians and Pisidians had become in- 
 dependent of her rule, and to these Avere 
 soon added the Paphlagonians, Avhose mon- 
 archs boldly asserted their independence; 
 and the Bithynians gave signs of rebel- 
 lion. 
 
 Persia met these troubles Avith more 
 wisdom than her rulers had exhibited since 
 the time of Darius I. By a liberal use of 
 her gold she brought about an alliance be- 
 tween Argos, Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, 
 Avith herself, against Sparta, and this com- 
 bination proved so formidable that the 
 Spartan forces Avere recalled from Asia 
 Minor to defend their own territory. In 
 the battle of Cnidus the Persian fleet bore a 
 part, and by its result Sparta Avas compelled 
 to yield the command of the sea to the 
 allies. In B. c. 387, in order to save her- 
 self, Sparta succeeded in bringing about 
 the disgraceful peace of Antalcidas, by 
 Avhich Persia regained her supremacy over 
 the Greek territories of Asia Minor, and 
 
DEATH OF CYRUS THE GREAT TO FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 215 
 
 established a controlling influence in the 
 afikirs of European Greece. 
 
 Artaxerxes II. was anxious to attempt 
 the conquest of European Greece, and to 
 realize the ambitious dreams of Darius I. 
 and Xerxes I., but he was prevented by the 
 revolt of Cyprus, which was aided ' by 
 Egypt, which country had been practically 
 free since the commencement of the century. 
 The Cyprian revolt was put down with 
 great difficulty after a long and doubtful 
 struggle, but the leader of the revolt, Eva- 
 goras, the tyrant of Salamis, was allowed to 
 retain his sovereignty upon the payment of 
 an increased tribute, B. c. 379. About B. c. 
 384 a serious revolt broke out among the 
 Cadusians, on the shores of the Caspian 
 Sea. The king attempted to quell it in 
 person, but was only saved from total de- 
 feat by the skill of one of his generals, Tiri- 
 bazus, who also procured the submission to 
 the revolted province. In B. c. 375 the 
 Persian forces occupied Samos. Artaxerxes 
 intended this step as a prelude to a general 
 reduction of the Greek islands, but he was 
 obliged to delay his project by renewed 
 trouble with the Egyptians, against whom 
 he sent a large army commanded by Iphi- 
 crates, an Athenian, and Pharnabazus, a 
 Persian general. The expedition failed iu 
 consequence of the quarrels of its command- 
 ers. The knowledge of its failure encour- 
 aged the already disaffected satraps of the 
 western provinces, but this danger Avas re- 
 moved by bribes and the treacherous mur- 
 der of those who could not be bought. In 
 B. c. 361 Egypt, encouraged by Sparta, 
 attempted the conquest of Phoenicia and 
 Syria, but without success. Artaxerxes 
 died soon afterwards, in B. c. 359. 
 
 During the reign of this king the Persian 
 court had become a scene of incessant 
 cruelty. The infamous Parysatis, the 
 mother of the king, was the ruling spirit, 
 and her cruel and bloody deeds have 
 scarcely a parallel in Oriental history. 
 The result was that the members of the 
 royal family were divided by irreconcilable 
 hatreds which gave rise to murders, execu- 
 tions, and suicides which were so numerous 
 as to thin out the reigning race very rap- 
 idly. 
 
 Ochus, the youngest son of Artaxerxes, 
 seized the throne after having caused the 
 execution of his eldest and the suicide of his 
 second brother, and assumed the name of 
 Artaxerxes III. He possessed more vigor 
 of character than any Persian monarch had 
 
 displayed since Darius I. In order to 
 strengthen himself on the throne he de- 
 stroyed all the branches of the royal family 
 except those which seemed to him too re- 
 mote to give trouble. He formed grand 
 designs, and might have succeeded in re- 
 storing to Persia her former greatness and 
 strength had he lived long enough. His 
 plans were delayed by the revolt of Arta- 
 bazus, in Asia Minor, which had been en- 
 couraged by Athens and Thebes. Ochus 
 sent a force against him, defeated him, and 
 compelled him to fly for his life. He took 
 refuge at the court of Philip, King of Mace- 
 don, by whom he was protected. This 
 led to complications between Macedon and 
 Persia which opened the way for the con- 
 quests of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Ochus had conceived the design of con- 
 quering Egypt, which had now been inde- 
 pendent for more than half a century. In 
 B. c. 351 he invaded that country, but was 
 utterly defeated and obliged to relinquish 
 his attempt. He returned to Persia to col- 
 lect a new army, and immediately all the 
 western provinces rose in revolt. Phoenicia 
 asserted her independence under the leader- 
 ship of Sidon ; nine native kingdoms were 
 set up in Cyprus, and in Asia Minor a 
 dozen petty chiefs endeavored to establish 
 as many independent monarchies. Ochus 
 was not disheartened by these dangers. He 
 consigned to his satraps the task of quelling 
 the minor revolts, while at the head of a 
 large army, commanded by Greek generals 
 and containing a band of 10,000 Greek 
 mercenaries, he marched in B. c. 346 to 
 punish Phoenicia and conquer Egypt. 
 Sidon was besieged, and taken partly by 
 force and partly by treachery — 4,000 of its 
 Greek defenders, under Mentor, deserting 
 to the Persians, with whom they took ser- 
 vice. The rest of Phoenicia then submitted, 
 and Ochus invaded Egypt, conquered it, 
 and placed it once more under a Persian 
 satrap. Notwithstanding the fact that 
 these successes were due chiefly to the skill 
 of the Greek generals and the courage of 
 the Greek mercenaries employed by Ochus, 
 it seemed that he was about to raise Persia 
 once more to a position of real strength and 
 glory. His savage cruelties, however, had 
 made him implacable enemies in his own 
 court, and in B. c. 338 he was assassinated 
 by his prime minister, the eunuch Bagoas. 
 
 Bagoas destroyed all the children of 
 Ochus but Arses, a mere boy, and him he 
 placed ou the throne, retaining the govern- 
 
216 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ment in his own bauds. In b. c. 336 he 
 became alarmed by some threats which 
 Arses had uttered, and put him to death. 
 He did not dare to assume the crown him- 
 self, as such a step would have been resented 
 by the whole empire, but conferred it upon 
 Codomannus, who is said to have been a 
 grandson of Darius II., and who ascended 
 the throne as Darius III. The first act of 
 the new king was to cause the execution of 
 Bagoas, B. c. 334. 
 
 Darius III. was personally the best sov- 
 ereign that ever sat on the Persian throne, 
 but he did not possess the ability requisite 
 to the task of preserving his empire against 
 the dangers which burst upon it with the 
 commencement of his reign. Before he 
 mounted the throne the Macedonian war 
 had begun. Since the battle of Marathon 
 this final struggle between Greece and 
 Persia had been inevitable; but Persian 
 gold had been able until now to postpone 
 it. Darius did not properly estimate the 
 danger which threatened hin'i, and seems to 
 have despised the young and inexperienced 
 King of Macedon. Had he been sufficiently 
 impressed with the gravity of the crisis, i't 
 is likely that Alexander's genius would 
 have conquered him in the end ; but, as it 
 was, his carelessness greatly simplified the 
 task of the conqueror. He gathered a large 
 force in Mysia to oppose the INIacedonians, 
 and sent a powerful fleet to the Hellespont, 
 which should have prevented the passage 
 of that strait by the Greeks. This plain 
 duty was not performed, however. Alex- 
 ander was suflered to cross unopposed in 
 the spring of B. c. 334, and to plant his 
 army of 35,000 men on the shore of Asia. 
 Memuon, a Rhodian general in the Persian 
 service, advised Darius to decline battle in 
 Asia, to cross the ^Egean with his whole 
 force and invade Macedonia, and thus com- 
 pel the withdrawal of Alexander. The 
 plan was rejected, however, and the Per- 
 sians decided to dispute the advance of the 
 Greeks in Asia Minor. A battle was fought 
 ou the Granicus, in which the Persians 
 were defeated and thrown on the defensive, 
 and Asia Minor passed into the hands of 
 the conqueror. Darius now assembled two 
 new armies, and in the spring of B. c. 333 
 
 made another attempt to stay the progress 
 of Alexander. He attacked the Greeks at 
 Is.sus, and met with a crushing defeat. 
 His army was routed, and he himself was 
 obliged to fly for his life. His wife, mother, 
 and children were made prisoners, and 
 were treated with the greatest kindness bv 
 the conqueror. 
 
 Having driven Darius out of Asia Minor, 
 Alexander in the next two years conquered 
 and annexed to his empire Phcenieia, Egypt, 
 and Syria, and then marched to the Eu- 
 phrates to complete his conquest of the 
 Persian dominions. Darius had collected 
 the entire force of his empire, and now pre- 
 pared to stake everything upon the issue of 
 a single conflict. The two armies encoun- 
 tered each other near Arbela, in the great 
 Assyrian plain east of the Tigris. The 
 Persians were defeated and put to flight, 
 and Darius fled to the city of Arbela. about 
 twenty miles distant from the battle-field. 
 Here he was seized by his generals, who 
 formed the plan of delivering him to Alex- 
 ander and thereby advancing their own 
 fortunes. They loaded him with chains, 
 and compelled him to accompany them in 
 their retreat beyond Arbela. They were 
 pursued so hotly by the Macedonians that 
 their escape w\as prevented. Thus hemmed 
 in, they basely turned upon the king, 
 wounded him mortally, and left him by the 
 roadside to die. A Macedonian soldier 
 discovered the dying king, and in response 
 to his appeal, brought him a cup of water. 
 Darius thanked his generous enemy, and 
 told him that his inability to reward him 
 for his kindness added bitterness to his dy- 
 ing hour. He commended him to the 
 notice of Alexander, Avho he said was mao-- 
 nauimous enough to grant his dying re- 
 quest, and expired. Alexander ' arrived 
 shortly after his death, and, deeply moved, 
 covered the body of Darius with his oavu 
 mantle, and ordered it to be buried at Pasar- 
 gadre with royal honors. He also provided 
 for the fitting education of the children of 
 Darius. 
 
 The battle of Arbela sealed the fate of 
 the Persian empire. The provinces were 
 speedily reduced by Alexander and added 
 to his own dominions. 
 
FROM FOUNDATFON OF CARTHAGE TO THE WARS WITH ROME. 217 
 
 book: x:, 
 
 THE HISTOH^^ OF O^RTH^aE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF CARTHAGE TO 
 THE WARS WITH ROME. 
 
 Carthage Founded by Dido — Situation of the City — 
 Early History Uncertain — Gradual Growth of 
 Carthage — Extent of its Territory — Its Authority 
 Extended Over the African Tribes — Defects in the 
 Carthaginian System — Carthaginian Colonies — 
 The Military and Naval Forces of the Republic — 
 The Revenue — Commerce — Character of the Re- 
 ])nblic — The System of Government — Religion — 
 Efforts to Conquer Sicily — Wars in Africa — Re- 
 newed Attempt to Conquer Sicily — Wars with 
 Syracuse — The Syracusans Invade the Cartha- 
 ginian Home Territory — Appearance of Rome in 
 Carthaginian Affairs. 
 
 ?^HE story of the flight of Dido and 
 the aristocratic party from Tyre 
 has been told in our account of the 
 history of Phoenicia. The course 
 of the fugitives was directed to the 
 African coast, upon which several 
 Phoenician colonies had already been 
 founded, such as Utica, Hadrumetum, etc. 
 The site chosen for the new colony was the 
 head of a peninsula projecting eastward into 
 the Gulf of Tunis, on the tenth meridian of 
 longitude, and connected with the mainland 
 by an isthmus or neck about three miles in 
 breadth. The spot offered two excellent 
 landlocked harbors, and the narrow neck 
 could be easily defended against attack 
 from the mainland. The good-will of the 
 natives, who understood the benefits of 
 commerce, was easily won, and the colon- 
 ists agreed to pay a fixed annual rent for 
 the land on which their city was to be 
 erected. Thus Carthage was founded, b. c. 
 869. 
 
 The growth of the colony was at first 
 slow, but by degrees it became a place of 
 importance. For two centuries its history 
 is vague and uncertain. The ninth, eighth, 
 and seventh centuries before the Christian 
 era were passed in this gradual growth, and 
 in extending its power over the mainland. 
 When the definite history of Carthage com- 
 mences in the sixth century before Christ, 
 the city emerges from the gloom that 
 enshrouds it until then, a strong, handsome 
 and flourishing metropolis, exercising an 
 
 acknowlcc.gcd supremacy over the northern 
 coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules 
 to the territory of Cyreue, and from the sea 
 to Lake Triton on the south. 
 
 It is difficult, if not impossible, to trace 
 the successive steps by which this growth 
 and power were accomplished. It seems 
 that from the very period of its foundation, 
 Carthage aimed at establishing an empire 
 on land as well as over the sea. Its first 
 efforts were to win over the nomadic tribes 
 on the neighboring mainland to agricultural 
 pursuits ; and this accomplished, Cartha- 
 ginian colonies were scattered thickly among 
 them, and intermarriages between the col- 
 onists and the natives were encouraged. 
 Thus a mixed race sprang up along the 
 coast to the south and southwest, which 
 yielded a ready and hearty submission to 
 Carthage, and adopted the language and 
 habits of the people of that city. Beyond 
 the line of these settlements were a number 
 of native African tribes, some of which 
 were induced to adopt agricultural pursuits. 
 The majority, however, clung to their old 
 nomadic life. These tribes occupied a posi- 
 tion similar to that of the Arabs in modern 
 Algeria — they were held in a subjection so 
 loose as to be merely nominal, but still 
 were regarded as, in a certain sense, Car- 
 thaginian subjects, and it is believed that 
 they contributed to the resources of the 
 state. The territory" of Carthage proper 
 was regarded as extending as far to the 
 south as Lake Triton, and to the west as far 
 as the river Tusca, which separated Zeugi- 
 tana from Numidia. It was almost identi- 
 cal with the modern province of Tunis. 
 
 These limits did not satisfy the Cartha- 
 ginians, however, and as soon as they were 
 able, they proceeded to establish their 
 supremacy over the regions to the east- 
 ward and westward of it, and, as has been 
 stated, succeeded in making their authority 
 recognized between the Tusca and the Pil- 
 lars of Hercules, and between Lake Triton 
 and Cyi'ene. 
 
 At the time of the founding of Carthage, 
 several Phoenician colonies were in existence 
 along- the coast of the region which after- 
 
218 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY. OF THE WORLD. 
 
 wards became Carthaginian territory. The 
 most diiEcult task of the new city was to 
 establish her supremacy over these. In 
 strict truth these cities never entirely sur- 
 rendered their independence, and as con- 
 cerns them Carthage must be regarded as 
 occupying much the position originally held 
 by Tyre with respect to the Phoenician 
 cities — that of the chief of a confederacy. 
 She was stronger from the first than either 
 Utica, Hadrumetum, Leptis Magna, or the 
 other Phoenician colonies, and when her 
 power was fairly established none of them 
 were able to resist it, or to exercise any 
 check Upon her policy. Still, the fact that 
 she did not possess absolute sovereignty 
 over so many places, all within her limits, 
 was an element of weakness, which, in the 
 end, weighed terribly against her. 
 
 This lack of complete unity at home did 
 not prevent Carthage from seeking to ex- 
 tend her authority and influence beyond 
 her own limits. She succeeded in establish-' 
 ing her influence over the western part of 
 Sicily at a very early day. Sardinia next 
 claimed her attention, and was conquered 
 after several bloody wars, near the close of 
 the sixth century B. c. About the same 
 time, or perhaps earlier, the Balearic islands, 
 Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica were occupied 
 by Carthaginian colonies. Somewhat later 
 colonies were established in Corsica and 
 Spain, and the islands of Madeira, and the 
 Canaries, Malta, Gaulos (Gozo), and Cer- 
 cina were conquered. " By the close of the 
 sixth century B. c, Carthaginian power ex- 
 tended from the greater Syrtis to the For- 
 tunate Islands, and from Corsica to the 
 flanks of Atlas." Between each of the col- 
 onies thus established and the parent state 
 an enterprising trade sprang up, and was 
 carefully fostered by the home government, 
 which was thus enriched from every quarter. 
 
 The conquests of Carthage were effected 
 in a great degree by the employment of 
 mercenary troops. A large, disciplined 
 force of native troops was maintained as 
 the nucleus of the Carthaginian army, but 
 foreign troops in great numbers were hired 
 from the Numidians and Mauritahians and 
 other independent African natious, and from 
 the Iberians of Spain, the Celts of Gaul, and 
 the Ligurians of northern Italy. The ex- 
 act time at which the employment of mer- 
 cenaries became the policy of the state is 
 not known ; but it seems to have been well 
 established as early as B. c. 480. 
 
 Cartha^re also maintained a r)owerful 
 
 navy. This was a necessity, as the republic 
 was compelled from the first to protect its 
 commerce from the pirates who swarmed in 
 the Mediterranean. The rowers of the fleet 
 were mainly slaves, bought or bred for the 
 purpose by the state; but the officers were 
 native Carthaginians. Both the army and 
 navy were carefully fostered, as upon them 
 the power of the republic depended. Their 
 su])port required, on the part of the state, a 
 large, steady, and assured revenue. This 
 revenue was derived partly from the state 
 property — especially the mines in Spain 
 and other colonies ; partly from tribute 
 paid by the subordinate cities (such as 
 Utica, Hadrumetum, etc.), by the Liby- 
 Phoenices, by the dependent African no- 
 raades,and by the colonies (such as Sardinia, 
 Sicily, etc.) ; and partly from the customs 
 which were rigorously enforced in all parts 
 of the Carthaginian dominions. The trib- 
 ute varied according to the needs of the 
 state ; sometimes amounting to one-half of 
 the income of those from whom it was ex- 
 acted. 
 
 Although ambitious of extending her 
 limits, the conquests of Carthage were 
 based upon the sound policy of acquiring 
 no more territory than she could defend, 
 and she kept within this wise moderation, 
 although the whole African continent oflfered 
 her a field for the exercise of her ambition. 
 Even in Spain, at a later day, no extensive 
 scheme of conquest was attempted until she 
 was driven into it by the strategical neces- 
 sities of her struggles with the Romans. 
 "A commercial and maritime nation soon 
 perceives the fact that there are no safer 
 and more advantageous possessions than 
 islands. The most striking historical ex- 
 amples prove that large continents cannot 
 be guarded by fleets alone, as even if all 
 the ports are closed or blockaded, ample 
 supplies can be drawn from the inland dis- 
 tricts. Carthage early adopted this policy ; 
 and, even at the period of its greatest pros- 
 perity, restricted its possessions beyond its 
 natural territory almost exclusively to is- 
 lands. There, they had no rivalry to fear, 
 their own maritime superiority secured their 
 dominion, and trade could be carried on 
 almost unperceived and without risk, in an 
 age when as yet there was no great rival 
 maritime power. . . . The western part of 
 the Mediterranean, filled with large and 
 small islands, was an open field to them, 
 and in harmony with both their position 
 and resources." 
 
FROM FOUNDATION OF CARTHAGE TO THE WARS WITH ROME. 219 
 
 The commerce of Carthage is kuown to 
 have been large, but its extent is uncertain. 
 " There can be little doubt," says Rawlin- 
 son, " that it reached, at any rate, to the 
 following places : in the north, Cornwall 
 and the Scilly islands ; in the east, Phoeni- 
 cia ; towards the west, Madeira, the Cana- 
 ries, and the coast of Guinea ; towards the 
 south, Fezzan." By means of this traffic 
 Carthage obtained the commodities she 
 most needed, such as wine, oil, dates, salt, 
 fish, silphium, gold, tin, lead, ivory, pre- 
 cious stones, and slaves. In exchange for 
 these she exported her own manufac- 
 tures — textile fabrics, hardware, pottery, 
 ornaments for the person, harness for 
 horses, tools, etc. This commerce " was 
 also, to a considerable extent, a carrying 
 trade, whereby Carthage enabled the na- 
 tions of western Europe, western Asia, and 
 the interior of Africa, to obtain respectively 
 each other's products. It was in part a 
 land, in part a sea, traffic. While the Car- 
 thaginian merchants scoured the sea in all 
 directions in their trading vessels, caravans 
 directed by Carthaginian enterprise pene- 
 trated the Great Desert, and brought to 
 Carthage from the south and southeast the 
 products of those far-off regions. Egypt, 
 upper Cyrene, the Oases of the Sahara, 
 Fezzan, perhaps Ethiopia and Bornou, car- 
 ried on in this way a traffic with the great 
 commercial emporium. By the sea her 
 commerce was especially with Tyre, with 
 her own colonies, with the nations of the 
 western Mediterranean, with the tribes of 
 the African coast from the Pillars of Her- 
 cules to the Bight of Benin, and with the 
 remote barbarians of southwestern Albion." 
 
 The government of Carthage was always 
 an aristocratic republic. The supreme 
 power was lodged in the hands of the na- 
 tive Carthaginians residing in or about the 
 city of Carthage, and unqualified obedience 
 to all the orders of the home government 
 was exacted of the provinces. The chief 
 distinction which divided class from class 
 in Carthage was wealth. All Carthagin- 
 ians were eligible to office, but as none of 
 the offices were salaried, it followed that 
 no poor man could afford to be an office- 
 holder. Consequently the political jDower 
 fell entirely into the hands of the rich, who 
 alone had the time and the money to 
 devote themselves to public aflairs. Public 
 opinion was strongly against the elevation 
 of a poor man to office. 
 
 At the head of the state were two suffetes, 
 
 or judges, who, in the earlier times, were 
 the military leaders of the nation ; but 
 whose office gradually came to be regarded 
 as exclusively civil, and in no sense mili- 
 tary. The suffetes were chosen by the 
 citizens from certain families, which had an 
 exclusive claim to the dignity, and are be- 
 lieved to have held office for life. Next fol- 
 lowed the Council, which consisted of sev- 
 eral hundred members. From this body 
 almost all the officers of the government 
 were taken, such as the Senate of One Hun- 
 dred, a select committee of the Council, 
 which directed all its proceedings ; and the 
 Pentarchies, or commissions of five mem- 
 bers each, which were charged with the 
 management of the various departments of 
 state, and which appointed the members of 
 the Senate. "The Council of One Hun- 
 dred (or, with the two suffetes and the two 
 high priests, 104) Judges, a high court of 
 judicature elected by the people, was the 
 most popular element in the constitution ; 
 but even its members were practically 
 chosen from the upper classes, and their 
 power was used rather to check the exces- 
 sive ambition of individual members of the 
 aristocracy than to augment the civil rights 
 or improve the social condition of the peo- 
 ple. The people, however, were contented. 
 They generally elected the suffetes under 
 certain restrictions, and the generals freely ; 
 they probably filled up vacancies in the 
 Great Council ; and in cases where the 
 suffetes and the council differed, they dis- 
 cussed and determined political measures. 
 Questions of peace and war, treaties and 
 the like, were frequently, though not neces- 
 sarily, brought before them ; and the aris- 
 tocratical character of the constitution was 
 maintained by the weight of popular 
 opinion, which was in favor of power resting 
 with the rich. Through the openings 
 which trade gave to enterprise any one 
 might become rich ; and extreme poverty 
 was almost unknown, since no sooner did it 
 appear than it was relieved by the planting 
 of colonies and the allotment of waste lands 
 to all who applied for them." 
 
 The religion of the Carthaginians was the 
 same as that of the Phoenicians. All the 
 worst features of the Phoenician faith were 
 adopted, and after the Roman conquest 
 stern measures Averc necessary to compel 
 their discontinuance, particularly to repress 
 the practice of human sacrifices to Baal. 
 
 The first object of the ambition of Car- 
 thage, after she had become strong enough 
 
220 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to attempt a foreigu policy, was to obtain 
 possession of the island of Sicily. Settle- 
 ments were made in the western corner of 
 the island, and though the Carthaginians 
 must have cherished, at a very early day, 
 the design of expelling the Greek settlers 
 from Sicily when they became strong 
 enough to do so, they made no effort in that 
 direction until the fifth century b. c. When 
 the invasion of Greece by Xerxes had occu- 
 pied the attention of the entire Hellenic 
 race, Carthage believed that the hour had 
 come to attempt the conquest of the Greek 
 cities of Sicily, which could not hope for 
 aid from the mother country at such a time. 
 A large army, under Hamilcar, the son of 
 Mago, was sent to attempt the conquest, 
 but was defeated by Gelo at Himera, and 
 Carthage was obliged to abandon the un- 
 dertaking and consent to an ignominious 
 peace, b. c. 480. 
 
 Carthage now turned her arms against 
 the native Libyan tribes, reduced them to 
 a state of dependence upon her, and put a 
 stop to the tribute she had until now paid 
 them as an acknowledgment that the 
 ground on which the city stood was Libyan 
 territory. Some advantages were gained in 
 a war with the Greek city of Cyrene. The 
 commanders in these successful expeditions 
 were Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Sapj^ho, 
 grandsons of Mago and nephews of Hamil- 
 car. Fearful that the successes of this 
 family might be used to the disadvantage 
 of the state, the Carthaginians established 
 the Council of One Hundred, before whom 
 every general was obliged to appear on his 
 return from an expedition, and render an 
 account of his acts. 
 
 In B. c. 409, seventy years after their 
 first failure in Sicily, the Carthaginians 
 again invaded that island, invited this time 
 by the city of Egesta to assist her in her 
 contest with Sell n us. A large fleet and 
 army, under Hannibal, the grandson of 
 Hamilcar, comprised the expedition. The 
 Greeks were defeated in several battles, 
 Selinus and Himera were destroyed, and 
 the Carthaginians returned home in tri- 
 umph. 
 
 These successes induced the Carthagin- 
 ians to put forth all their strength in the 
 effort to conquer Sicily, Their wars for 
 this purpose occupied the whole of the 
 fourth century before the Christian era. In 
 B. C. 405 Hannibal and Himilco invaded 
 Sicily with a strong force, and captured 
 Agrigentum, Gela, and Camarina. Diony- 
 
 sius, King of Syracuse, alarmed at the 
 progress of the Carthaginians, made peace 
 with the invaders, and so checked their ad- 
 vance for a time. Feeling himself strong 
 enough to cope with them, Dionysius, in 
 B. c. 397, broke the treaty, and, by a series 
 of rapid movements, recovered his lost 
 cities and took the town of Moyta. The 
 next year Himilco was sent to Sicily by the 
 Carthaginian government, and regained 
 Moyta and captured Messene. In the 
 same year (b. c. 396) Mago, the comman- 
 der of the Carthaginian fleet, gained a 
 great victory over the Sicilians off Catana. 
 The combined Carthaginian forces now laid 
 siege to Syracuse. In b. c. 395 a frightful 
 pestilence scourged the Carthaginian army. 
 Himilco, disheartened by this affliction 
 and by his failure to take the city, aban- 
 doued his army and committed suicide ; 
 and the Syracusans, sallying out, destroyed 
 the wreck of the Carthaginian force. 
 Himilco was succeeded by Mago, but the 
 war lagged, and in B. c. 393 peace was made 
 with Syracuse. In B. c. 383 and 368, 
 Dionysius endeavored to expel the Cartha- 
 ginians from the island, but was each time 
 defeated and compelled to sue for peace. 
 
 The war was renewed in B. c. 346, when 
 Carthage, taking advantage of the internal 
 troubles of Syracuse which followed the 
 death of Dionysius I., endeavored to extend 
 her power over all Sicily. The eftiirt was 
 defeated, and Carthage was compelled to 
 make j^eace in B. c. 340. 
 
 In B. c. 311, Agathocles, King of Syra- 
 cuse, began a Avar upon the Carthaginians 
 in Sicily. He was defeated by Hamilcar at 
 the Himera, B. c. 310, and the successful 
 general at once laid siege to Syracuse. 
 Agathocles endeavored to relieve his capi- 
 tal by suddenly transferring the war to 
 Africa. He sailed for that continent with 
 the larger part of his army, leaving his 
 kingdom in charge of his son ; and, landing 
 near Carthage, attacked the home territory 
 of the republic. For a while he was suc- 
 cessful, through the treachery of the Car- 
 thaginian general, Bomilcar, but was at 
 length comj^elled to withdraw from Africa 
 and return to Syracuse, where his son had 
 already sustained two defeats. The king 
 himself was badly beaten in an engage- 
 ment after his return, and was obliged to 
 make peace B. c. 804. 
 
 These wars cost Carthage large numbers 
 of men and immense sums of money, and 
 accomplished nothing for her. The repub- 
 
THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 221 
 
 lie barely held its original possessions in 
 Sicily, about one-third ol* that island. When- 
 ever the Carthaginians had met the Greeks 
 on anything like equal terms they had 
 been defeated. This was a valuable lesson 
 to Carthage, which was taught also that her 
 own territory was liable to invasion, and 
 that her African subjects were as likely to 
 aid the invaders as to remain faithful to 
 her. 
 
 Carthage, in spite of these lessons, held 
 to her designs upon Sicily. Agathocles 
 died in B. c. 289, and from that time the 
 Hellenic power in Sicily began to wane. 
 Carthage renewed the war, seized Agrigen- 
 tum, occupied all the southern part of the 
 
 island, and threatened Syracuse. The Syra- 
 cusans now summoned Pyrrhus to their aid. 
 That king at once sailed for Syracuse, i-e- 
 lieved the city, and compelled the Cartha- 
 ginians to retire southward, b. c. 279. He 
 had reduced them to great straits, when his 
 sudden return to Italy changed the fortune 
 of the war. Peace was made upon favora- 
 ble terms between Carthage and Hiero, the 
 Syracusan king. 
 
 A new power — Rome — now appeared 
 upon the scene. From this time the history 
 of Carthage is so closely connected with 
 that of Rome, that we shall suspend the 
 narrative here, and resume it in our account 
 of the history of E)me. 
 
 book: x:i, 
 tele histohy of areece. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 Bituatioa of Greece — Description of the Country — 
 Its Physical Characteristics — Mountainous Cliar- 
 acter — Influence of this upon the Greeks — The 
 Political Divisions of Greece — The Greek Islands 
 —Early History of Greece Uncertain — The Primi- 
 tive Inhabitants — ThePelasgi — The Heroic Age — 
 The Three Greatest Heroes of this Period — The 
 Cities — Introduction of Letters into Greece — The 
 Trojan War — Dr. Schlieman's Discoveries — Social 
 and Political Constitution of Greece during the 
 Heroic Age — Migrations of the Greek Tribes — The 
 Return of the Heraclidse — Colonization of the 
 Islands of the Jigean and the Shores of Asia 
 Minor — Religion of the Greeks — A Brief Account 
 of their System — The Eleusinian Mysteries — The 
 Oracles — Gradual Growth of the New Civilization 
 of Greece — Growth and Political Character of the 
 City — The Greek Love of Independence — Its Con- 
 sequences — Common Ties of the Greek States. 
 
 ^C^REECE, or, as it was anciently 
 called, Hellas, occupied the south- 
 ern part of the eastern peninsula 
 of the continent of Eui'ope. Its 
 greatest length, from Mount Olym- 
 pus, on the north, to Cape Tse- 
 narum, on the south, is about 250 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth from east to west 
 about 180 miles. Its superficial extent has 
 been estimated at 35,000 square miles. 
 Continental Greece is bounded on the north 
 by the Cambunian range, on the east by 
 the ^gean Sea, on the south by the Medi- 
 terranean, and on the west by the Ionian 
 Gulf or Adriatic Sea. 
 
 The most distinctive geographical fea- 
 tures of Greece are the number of its moun- 
 tains and the great extent of its sea-coast, 
 which is broken by numerous deep bays. 
 The sea is tideless and is studded with beau- 
 tiful and fertile littoral islands. Communi- 
 cation between the various parts of the 
 country is thus rendered easy by water. 
 The climate of Greece is mild, the soil fer- 
 tile, and the country is admirably adapted 
 to the maintenance of a large and active 
 population. The numerous islands of the 
 JNIediterrauean render the navigation of 
 that sea easy, and lie like so many stepping- 
 stones between Greece and the coast of 
 Asia Minor and the Black Sea. The penin- 
 sula of Italy is only thirty miles distant 
 from the west coast of Greece. The Grecian 
 peninsula is divided into three distinct jwr 
 tions by the long gulfs which indent its 
 shores. The Ambracian and Malian Gulfs 
 separate northei-n from central Greece, and 
 central Greece is separated from southern 
 Greece or the Peloponnesus by the Corinth- 
 ian and Saronic Gulfs. 
 
 The peninsula is deeply ridged by ranges 
 of mountains which divide it into a number 
 of distinct regions admirably adapted to the 
 existence of independent communities or 
 states. This mountainous character not 
 only preserved the country from successful 
 invasion by foreigners, but made it very 
 hard for one Grecian state to subdue an- 
 
222 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 other. The mountains rendered the internal 
 communications difficult, and the few moun- 
 tain passes could be held by a handful of 
 men against an army. At the same time 
 the sea afforded unusual facilities for peace- 
 ful and friendly intercourse. Thus the 
 Greeks united the two usually opposite 
 characters of mountaineers and mariners ; 
 exhibiting the sturdy love of freedom of the 
 one and the hardy daring of the other. 
 
 The chief products of ancient Greece 
 were wheat, barley, flax, wine, and oil. 
 Cattle and flocks were raised in large num- 
 bers, the hills furnishing excellent pastur- 
 age. In ancient times the hills were thickly 
 wooded ; they are now bare. 
 
 of Greece. Attica, which occupied the 
 eastern foreland of the peninsula, was the 
 principal state. Its chief town, Athens, 
 was the most important of all the Greek 
 cities. 
 
 The Peloponnesus, or southern Greece, 
 contained eleven states, viz. : Corinth, 
 Sicyon, Achaia, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, 
 Laconia, Argolis, Epidauria, Troezenia, and 
 Hermionis. Of these Laconia, sometimes 
 called Lacedsemon, was the most important. 
 Its capital was the famous city of Sparta. 
 
 Besides continental Greece, ancient Hel- 
 las included a number of islands lying close 
 to the shore and in the Mediterranean. The 
 largest of the littoral islands was Euboea, 
 
 4 
 
 SCENE ON THE GREEK COAST. 
 
 Although only about the size of the State 
 of Maine, continental Greece contained 
 twenty-four different states or countries, 
 each of which was independent of the other. 
 Northern Greece contained two principal 
 countries, Thessaly and Epirus. To the 
 north of these lay Macedonia, whose kings 
 claimed to be of Hellenic descent, but which 
 was not regarded as a part of Greece until 
 a very late period. 
 
 Central Greece contained eleven coun- 
 tries, viz. : Acarnania, JEtolia, western Lo- 
 cris, JEniania, Doris, Malis, eastern Locris, 
 Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. The 
 general character of the region was moun- 
 tainous, and it was less fertile than the rest 
 
 off* the eastern coast. It w^as 100 miles in 
 length. Corcyra, off" the western coast, 
 was an important island, about forty miles 
 in length ; and Crete, off" the southern coast, 
 was 150 miles in length. Besides these 
 were the Cyclades and Sporades, lying in 
 the JEgean, like stepping-stones between 
 Greece and Asia Minor. The name of 
 Hellas was also applied to the Greek settle- 
 ments on the neighboring shores of Europe 
 and Asia ; in short, to all places where the 
 Greeks obtained a foothold. 
 
 The early history of Greece is so com- 
 pletely enshrouded in fable as to be actually 
 unknown. The Greeks themselves believed 
 they were descended from Hellen, the son 
 
THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 223 
 
 of Deucalion and Pyrrha. Hence they 
 called themselves Hellenes and their coun- 
 try Hellas. The names Greece and Greeks 
 were not known to them, but originated 
 with the Romans, who applied them to the 
 eastern peninsula of Europe and its inhab- 
 itants. The Greeks of historical times had 
 no knowledge of a migration of their an- 
 cestors from Asia, but believed them to 
 have always been in the country, though 
 they were not always called Hellenes. 
 
 It is certain that the original inhabitants 
 of the country were a branch of the great 
 Indo-European race, all the branches of 
 which were, as has been slated elsewhere, 
 originally one people, inhabiting the high 
 table land of central Asia. At some re- 
 mote period the ancestors of the historic 
 Greeks moved west- 
 Avard, entered Europe, 
 and settled in the pen- 
 insula. In the earliest 
 times Greece was oc- 
 cupied by a race 
 known as the Pelasgi, 
 which was divided 
 into several branches, 
 known as the Hel- 
 lenes, Leleges, Cau- 
 cones and others. The 
 Pelasgi are represent- 
 ed as having attained 
 a certain degree of 
 civilization. They 
 dwelt in walled towns, 
 and cultivated the 
 ground. Their wor- 
 ship consisted of the 
 adoration of Jove, 
 
 the national god of the later Greeks. 
 His principal altar was at Dodona in 
 Epirus, and the oracle at this place was 
 always considered the most ancient in Greece. 
 In process of time the other tribes were 
 either driven out or absorbed by the Hel- 
 lenes. The Hellenic dialect of the Pelasgic 
 tongue became the language of Greece, and 
 the worship of the Dodonjean Jove gave 
 place to that of the Olympian Jove, who 
 was substantially the same as the more 
 ancient god. 
 
 This period is known as the Heroic Age. 
 In later times it formed the theme of the 
 poets. Its people were believed to be a race 
 midway between the gods and men, and, 
 though not divine, superior to the men of 
 later times in greatness of soul and physical 
 strength. The exploits and adventures of 
 
 these heroes belong to mythology, and we 
 must necessarily pass them by in this narra- 
 tive. The three which possessed the sti'ong- 
 est hold on the j)opular imagination were 
 Hercules, the great national hero ; Theseus, 
 whom the Greeks regarded as the civilizer 
 and first monarch of Attica, and the founder 
 of constitutional government; and Minos, 
 King of Crete, the first great lawgiver. 
 
 The Greeks acknowledged themselves in- 
 debted to some extent to foreigners for their 
 civilization, but there can be no doubt that, 
 with the exception of the introduction of 
 the use of letters, Greek civilization was a 
 product of the soil, the result of the peculiar 
 genius of the people. The ancient Greeks 
 believed that Athens was founded and its 
 religious rites established by Cecrops, a na- 
 
 f^--^L!<j^ 
 
 SITE OF TROY. 
 
 five of Sais in Egypt. Modern authorities 
 regard Cecrops as a Pelasgian hero. Argos 
 was believed to have been founded by 
 Danaus, an Egyptian, who was said to have 
 fled to Greece with his fifty daughters to 
 escape the persecution of their suitors. 
 This is evidently a fable. Cadmus, a Phoe- 
 nician, was regarded as the founder of 
 Thebes, in Boeotia, and as the first to intro- 
 duce the use of letters into Greece. Modern 
 historians accept this belief as true in the 
 main. Whether there was such a person 
 as the Phoenician Cadmus, and whetlier he 
 built the town of Cadmea, which afterwards 
 became the citadel of Thebes, cannot now 
 be determined ; but it is certain that the 
 Phoenicians established colonies in the 
 Greek islands at a very early period, and 
 there is reason to believe that they also 
 
224 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 made settlements on the mainland. Above 
 all, it is certain that the Greek letters were 
 derived from the Phoenician, both in name 
 and in form ; a fact t\^hich proves incontest- 
 ibly a very ancient intercourse between 
 Greece and Phojnicia. 
 
 To the mythical period of Greece belong 
 the stories of the war of the seven against 
 Thebes, the Epigoni, and the siege of Troy, 
 the last of which was the final and greatest 
 undertaking of the Heroic Age, and is re- 
 lated in the poems of Homer, the great 
 national poet of Greece. According to the 
 legend, Paris, the son of Priam, King of 
 Troy, in Asia Minor, having been enter- 
 tained by Menelaus, King of Sparta, be- 
 trayed his hospitality by eloping with his 
 wife, the beautiful Helen. The Greek 
 princes, resenting the insult offered to Men- 
 elaus, assembled their forces, crossed the 
 ^Egean with nearly 1,200 ships, and laid 
 siege to Troy. The expedition Avas com- 
 manded by Agamemnon, King of Mycen?e. 
 All the heroes of Hellas were represented 
 in the expedition, and a siege of ten years 
 followed, which resulted in the capture and 
 destruction of Troy. In the narrative of 
 Homer the gods take part in the war, 
 espousing the sides of their respective favor- 
 ites. Modern historians have doubted even 
 the existence of such a city as Troy, and 
 the story of a war against it receives little 
 favor from them. Of late years, however, 
 some remarkable discoveries have been 
 made, which may perhaps do something 
 towards settling this much disputed ques- 
 tion. Dr. Schlieman has conducted a 
 series of extensive explorations upon the 
 alleged site of ancient Troy, and has laid 
 bare the foundations of a city datiug evi- 
 dently about 1,400 or 1,500 years before the 
 Christian era. These ruins lie from twenty- 
 three to thirty-three feet below the surface 
 of the country, and bear marks of a severe 
 conflagration. Many articles of household 
 use, arms, ornaments, etc., have been re- 
 covered by Dr. Schlieman. It seems cer- 
 tain that the fact of the existence of an 
 ancient city on the site assigned by Homer 
 to Troy has been thus proved beyond 
 question ; and that the ancient city to which 
 the ruius belonged was destroyed by fire 
 seems equally sure; but it has not yet been 
 conclusively shown that this city was Troy. 
 
 The social and political state of Greece 
 during the Heroic Age is described by 
 Homer with great exactness. The country 
 was divided into a number of independent 
 
 states, each governed by its own king. The 
 authority of the monai'ch was patriarchal 
 rather than regal. He was responsible only 
 to Jove for the exercise of his power, since 
 he claimed descent from the gods them- 
 selves, and received his authority from them. 
 In war he was the sole commander of his 
 people ; in peace he was their judge and 
 priest, administering justice among them, 
 and offering prayers and sacrifices for them 
 to the gods. Though his authority was 
 acknowledged, the people required of him 
 a personal superiority over them as the con- 
 dition of his rule. He must exhibit personal 
 courage in war, wisdom in council, and elo- 
 quence in debate. As long as he manifested 
 these high qualities, his right to rule was 
 conceded, and he was obeyed by all ; even 
 his caj^rices and violence were submitted to. 
 His authority began to decline when he 
 showed weakness of body or mind. 
 
 The Greeks of this period were divided 
 into three classes — nobles, common freemen, 
 and slaves. The nobles, like the king, traced 
 their descent from the gods. They were 
 very powerful and wealthy, possessing large 
 estates and many slaves. They were the 
 leaders of the people in war. Indeed, judg- 
 ing from the pictures given us by Homer, 
 these chiefs really did the fighting, the com- 
 mon soldiers being often mere spectators in 
 the crisis of many a battle. The freemen 
 seem to have possessed lands of their own, 
 which they cultivated themselves. A poorer 
 class, who were not land-owners, appear to 
 have worked on the lands of others for hire. 
 The seer, the bard, and the herald belonged 
 to the class of common freemen, but their 
 attainments raised them above their fellows, 
 and secured them the respect of the nobles. 
 To this list may be added the carpenter 
 and the smith, for as a knowledge of the 
 mechanical arts was possessed by but few, 
 these naturally became men of note. The 
 slaves were the property of the nobles alone. 
 They were not so numerous as in later times, 
 nor were they as badly treated. Indeed a 
 very kindly relation seems to have existed 
 between master and slave during this period. 
 
 The family relations occupied a promi- 
 nent place in the social system of primitive 
 Greece. The paternal authority was highly 
 reverenced, and nothing was so much 
 dreaded as a father's curse. All the mem- 
 bers ol'a family or clan wci-e united by the 
 closest ties, and were bound to avenge with 
 their united strength an injury offered to 
 any individual of the race. AYomen held a 
 
THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 225 
 
 higher positiou and were allowed greater 
 liberty than in historic Greece. The station 
 of the wife and mother was one of great 
 dignity and influence, in spite of the fact 
 that wives were purchased by their hus- 
 bands. Hospitality was a solemn duty en- 
 joined upon all classes. A stranger was 
 welcomed, and given the best the house 
 afforded before his name or his business 
 was asked ; if he came seeking protection 
 his claim upon the host was even stronger, 
 although to grant it might bring the latter 
 into trouble, for Jove was believed to pun- 
 ish without mercy the man who turned a 
 deaf ear to the prayer of a suppliant. 
 
 The manners of this early age were sim- 
 2)le. Labor was honorable, and kings did 
 not deem it beneath their dignity to engage 
 in it. Ulysses is I'epresented as building 
 his own bed-chamber, and constructing his 
 raft, and boasts of his skill in ploughing 
 and mowing. The food of the people was 
 simple, consisting of beef, mutton, and goat's 
 flesh, cheese, flour bread, and sometimes 
 fruits. Wine was used, but intemperance 
 was unknown. The chiefs prided them- 
 selves upon being excellent cooks. The 
 wives and daughters of the kings and nobles 
 were employed in spinning and weaving. 
 They also brought water from the well, and 
 assisted their slaves in washing garments in 
 the river. 
 
 On the other hand these ancient heroes 
 were fierce and unrelenting in war. The 
 stronger chief plundered and maltreated his 
 less powerful neighbor ; piracy was a rep- 
 utable calling; bloodshed was common; 
 quarter was rarely given to a fallen foe; 
 the arms of the vanquished wai-rior became 
 the spoil of the conqueror ; and the naked 
 corpse of an adversary was thrown out to 
 the birds of prey. Homer describes Achil- 
 les as sacrificing twelve human victims on 
 the tomb of Patroclus. 
 
 As has been said, the Greeks of this 
 period dwelt in fortified towns which were 
 surrounded by strong walls and adorned 
 with palaces and temples. The houses of 
 the nobles were magnificent and costly. 
 They were ornamented with gold, silver, 
 and bronze. The dress of the nobles in 
 poace Avas very rich and elegant. In war 
 they wore highly wrought armor. The 
 Phoenicians supplied them Avith everything 
 they did not produce themselves. The 
 massive ruins of Mycenae and Tiryns belong 
 to tliis period, and afford positive evidence 
 of the strength and splendor of the cities of 
 
 15 
 
 the Heroic Age. The arts of sculpture and 
 design had made considerable progress ; 
 poetry was cultivated ; but whether writing 
 was yet known is doubtful. 
 
 The Heroic Age was brought to a close 
 by a general movement to the southward 
 of the tribes which constituted the immedi- 
 ate progenitors of the Greeks of historic 
 times. It is possible that this movement 
 was produced by the pressure upon north- 
 western Greece of the lllyriau people. These 
 entering Epirus (about B. c. 1200, as near 
 as the date can be conjectured), brought 
 about a general movement of the popula- 
 tions of northern and central Greece. The 
 Thessalians left Thesprotia in Epirus, 
 crossed the Pindus mountains and drove 
 the Boeotians out of the fertile valley of the 
 Peneus, and occupied it, giving to the coun- 
 try thus acquii-ed the name of Thessaly. 
 The Boeotians, in their turn, crossed Mounts 
 Othrys and (Eta, and seized the plain of 
 the Cephissus, driving out the Cadmeiaus 
 and Minyte. This region was subsequently 
 known as Boeotia. The Cadmeians and 
 MinyiB dispersed themselves over Attica, 
 Lacedsemon, and the neighboi'ing states. 
 About the same time, the Dorians, moving 
 from their old home in the north, conquered 
 Dryopis, the narrow valley between Q^ta 
 and Parnassus, which was subsequently 
 known as Doris. The Dryopians fled by 
 sea, and settled in Euboea, Cythnus, and 
 the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Not many years later, another, and appa- 
 rently a distinct, movement took place. The 
 Dorians found the narrow valley in which 
 they had settled too small for them, and 
 formed an alliance with the ^tolians. 
 These tribes crossed the Corinthian Gulf at 
 its narrowest point, between Rhium and 
 Antirrhium, and effected a lodgment in 
 the Peloponnesus, from which they succes- 
 sively conquered Elis, Messenia, Laconia, 
 and Argolis. The previous Achaean in- 
 habitants in part submitted, and in part 
 moved northward and conquered the north 
 coast of the Peloponnesus, the Ionian in- 
 habitants of which found a temporary refuge 
 in Attica. Elis was assigned to the JEtoli- 
 ans, and the Dorians set up kingdoms of 
 their own in the other countries. The con- 
 quest of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians 
 is known as the return of the Heraclidte, 
 from the claim of the Dorians that they 
 were regaining the possessions of their great 
 ancestor Hercules, who had been exi)elled 
 from the southern peninsula a century before. 
 
226 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 These migrations and conquests led to a 
 still further movement of the Greeks. Find- 
 ing their continental possessions too small 
 for them, certain of the tribes moved into 
 the islands of the Mediterranean and to the 
 shores of Asia Minor. The conquest of the 
 plain of the Cephissus by the Boeotians led 
 to the colonization of the island of Lesbos, 
 and to the first and most northern of the 
 Greek settlements in Asia Minor, between 
 the Hermus and the Hellespont. The lo- 
 nians, driven from the north coast of the 
 Peloponnesus, after a brief sojourn in Attica, 
 passed on to the Cyclades, and thence to 
 Chios and Samos, and the Asiatic shores 
 directly opposite, between the Hermus and 
 the Meander. The Achseans, after their 
 expulsion from the Peloponnesus by the 
 Dorians, emigrated in part to Italy, but 
 principally, under Doric leaders, to the 
 islands of Cos and Rhodes and the south- 
 west coast of Asia Minor. The ..^olians 
 had twelve cities on their islands and the 
 Asiatic shore. Mitylene, or the island of 
 Lesbos, was considered their metropolis. 
 The lonians had also twelve cities. These 
 ■were independent of each other, but were 
 bound by the ties of a common worship. 
 Their chief sanctuary, dedicated to Poseidon, 
 crowned the headland of INlycale. The 
 Dorians had six cities, which Avere often 
 called the Dorian Hexapolis. These had a 
 common sanctuary — the temple of the Tri- 
 opian Apollo. 
 
 The Greeks were essentially a religious 
 people, and a knowledge of their religious 
 belief is absolutely necessary to a proper 
 understanding of their history. The follow- 
 ing statement presents the leading features 
 of their creed. According to the Greek 
 mythology the world was originally a rude, 
 chaotic mass, from which heaven, or Uranus, 
 and earth, or Grea, separated themselves as 
 independent divinities. These two pro- 
 duced the first race of gods, known as the 
 Uranids, or sons of heaven and earth. The 
 powerful brood of the Titans belonged to 
 them. The second race was ruled by 
 Cronos. Zeus made war upon him, over- 
 threw him, and established his own power 
 after struggles with the Titans and giants 
 which convulsed all nature. From the 
 time of this victory Zeus was the supreme 
 god, the head of the entire system, the king 
 and father of gods and men. His throne 
 was set up high on the summit of Mount 
 Olympus, in Thessaly. Olympus was also 
 the abode of the other gods. The summit 
 
 of the mountain is wrapped in clouds, and 
 above these the Greeks placed the abode of 
 their deities in a region of perpetual sun- 
 shine, far above and free from the storms 
 of the lower world. A gate of clouds 
 guarded by the goddesses of the seasons 
 afibrded communication with earth. Each 
 god had his own dwelling, but was obliged 
 to repair to the palace of Jove, or Zeus, 
 when summoned. There they feasted on 
 ambrosia and nectar, conversed upon the 
 afiairs of heaven and earth, and listened to 
 the music of Apollo's lyre and the songs of 
 the Muses. Zeus divided his dominions 
 with Poseidon, to whom he yielded the 
 command of the sea, and Pluto, to whom 
 he confided the control of the under world, 
 the abode of the spirits of the dead. 
 
 The Olympian council, presided over by 
 Jove, was composed of eleven great deities, 
 viz. : Poseidon, the god of the sea ; Apollo, 
 the sun -god, and patron of poetry, music, 
 and eloquence ; Ares, the god of war ; He- 
 phaestus, the god of fire and the useful arts ; 
 Hermes, the herald of the gods, and the 
 patron of commerce and wealth ; Hera, the 
 great goddess of nature ; Athene, the daugh- 
 ter of Zeus, the goddess of civilization, learn- 
 ing and art ; Ai'temis, the goddess of the 
 moon and hunting ; Aphi-odite, goddess of 
 beauty and love ; Hestia, goddess of domes- 
 tic life ; and Demeter, the goddess of bounti- 
 ful harvests. 
 
 Besides these there were many other 
 divinities, some of them of nearly equal 
 power, as Pluto, the god of the under world ; 
 Helios, Hecate, Dionysus, Lato, Dione, Per- 
 sephone, Selene, Themis, Eos, J^olus, Neme- 
 sis, the Graces, the Muses, the Mcerse or 
 Fates, the Eumenides or Furies, the Ocean- 
 ids, the Nereids, the Nymphs, and the 
 Hours. There were other deities whose 
 personality was more faintly conceived, 
 such as Ate, the Litse, Eris, Thanatos, Hyp- 
 nos, Cratos, and Bia. There were also mon- 
 sters, the offspring of the gods, as the Har- 
 pies, Gorgons, Grsete, Pegasus, Chrysaor, 
 Echnida, Chimsera, Cei'berus, Geryon, the 
 Lern?ean hydra, the Nemsean lion, the 
 Centaurs, the Sirens, the Sphinx, Scylla 
 and Charybdis. These divinities peopled the 
 earth, the sea, and the infernal world. For 
 an explanation of their characters and pow- 
 ers the reader is referred to any of the 
 standard classical dictionaries. 
 
 Poseidon was surrounded by Amphitrite, 
 Thetis, the Nereids, and the Tritons ; the 
 Eumenides pursued the guilty with the 
 
THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 227 
 
 pangs of remorse; Persephone ruled in 
 Hades with Pluto ; the entrance to the in- 
 fernal regions was guarded by Cerberus; 
 Minos, ^acus, aud Rliadaraanthus were 
 the judges of the souls of the dead ; Pan 
 and the Fauns ruled in the fields ; the 
 Nymphs in the mountains and fountains ; 
 the Dryads and the Hama-dryads in the 
 forests ; the jNIuses and Graces were the in- 
 spirers of poetry and beauty ; Eos, the 
 dawn, dwelt upon the banks of ocean in a 
 golden-gated palace, from which she issued 
 each morning to announce the approach of 
 her great brother Apollo, or the sun ; ^olus 
 bound the winds in caves or sent them out 
 upon their missions ; Iris was the messenger 
 of the gods, and the rainbow the bridge 
 over which she passed when sent upon her 
 journeys ; Dionysus was the patron of the 
 vine, and his rites were celebrated with the 
 wildest frenzy ; Nemesis was the divine 
 justice acting in punishment of crime. 
 
 The great principle of the Greek religion 
 was obedience to a moral ruler of the world, 
 who was ever present, aud who exercised 
 an unceasing aud active influence upon 
 human affairs. This obedience and rever- 
 ence extends to thoughts aud woi'ds as well 
 as deeds. In the Heroic Age sacrifices 
 were offered as expressions of gratitude or 
 to gain the favor of the gods. It was 
 thought impossible for a guilty person to 
 avert the torments of the Eumenides. At 
 a later period the sacrifices assumed an 
 expiatory character, and it was held that 
 the divine auger could be averted aud the 
 stain of sin removed by sacrifices. 
 
 Among the most sacred rites were the 
 Eleusinian mysteries, or ceremonies per- 
 formed in secret at Eleusis in honor of 
 Demeter and Persephone. They were at- 
 tended only by those who had heen regu- 
 larly initiated into tliem. It was a crime 
 to speak of them to tlie uninitiated. Thos^ 
 who engaged in them were regarded as 
 being under the special protection of the 
 gods. 
 
 The will of the gods was made known by 
 means of oracles. The oldest of these was 
 tlie oracle of Zeus, at Dodona, in Epirus. 
 The god was believed to speak in the rust- 
 ling of the leaves of the sacred oaks, and 
 his utterances were interpreted by priests 
 or priestesses. Apollo, however, was the 
 chief spokesman of the gods. He had 
 twenty-two oracles in Greer-e and the Greek 
 colonies in Asia Minor. The most famous 
 of these was located at Delphi, iu Phocis. 
 
 Here there was a temple dedicated to 
 Apollo, containing his golden statue and a 
 perpetual fire of fir wood. A crevice in the 
 centre of the floor was supposed to emit a 
 peculiar gas, believed to be the breath of 
 the god. In seeking to learn the will of 
 the god, the priestess, or Pythia, seated 
 herself over this crevice, aud the fumes of 
 the vapor were supposed to inspire her. 
 AVheu properly exalted, she gave utterance 
 to the response of Apollo in hexameter 
 verses. The words of the oracle were taken 
 down by the attendant priests, and were 
 frequently so confused or obscure that their 
 meaning could not be understood. The 
 Delphian oracle was consulted not only by 
 the Greeks, but by the Lydians, Phrygians, 
 aud even the Romans. 
 
 From the ch)se of the Heroic Age to the 
 period of the First Olympiad the chrono- 
 logical history of Greece is very uncertain, 
 and at the best we have but a general idea 
 of the course of events during this long in- 
 terval. The first thing; to which our atteu- 
 
 SILVER COIN OF MITYLENE. 
 
 tion is directed is the effect upon the coun- 
 try of the migrations which have been 
 described. The immediate result was to 
 check the progress of civilization iu Greece, 
 The races which took possession of the 
 country were stronger aud rougher than the 
 weak and polished people who were driveu 
 out, and for a time physical qualities were 
 supreme over refinement and culture. But 
 the new settlers of the Greek states did not 
 rest satisfied with merely destroying the old 
 order of affairs. In its place they laid the 
 foundations of the hardy aud adventurous 
 nation which afterwards eclipsed the glories 
 of the Heroic Age. " War and movement, 
 bringing out the personal qualities of each 
 individual man, favored the growth of self- 
 respect and self-assertion. Amid toils and 
 dangers which were shared alike by all, the 
 idea of political equality took its rise. A 
 novel and unsettled state of things stimu- 
 lated political inventiveness; and, various 
 expedients being tried, the stock of political 
 ideas increased rapidly. Tiie simple hered- 
 itary monarchy of the heroic times was 
 
228 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 succeeded everywhere, except in Epirus, by 
 some more complicated system of govern- 
 ment — some system far more favorable to 
 freedom and to the political education of 
 the individual." 
 
 To the new order of things was due also 
 
 the change by which the City acquired its j to the general rule." 
 
 Boeotia, Phocis, and Locris, contained nu- 
 merous political communities independent 
 of one another, Attica, it is true, formed a 
 single state, and its different towns recog- 
 nized Athens as their capital and the source 
 of supreme power ; but this is an exception 
 
 1 
 
 11. * 
 
 special dignity and importance. The cou' 
 querors naturally remained together in 
 some stronghold for their mutual protec- 
 tion. This stronghold thus became an iu- 
 dependent state, ruling over a certain tract 
 of the country immediately around it. It 
 should be borne in mind in the study of the 
 history of Greece, that the fundamental 
 article of the political system of the Greeks 
 was the supreme and complete independence 
 of each city. To his city the allegiance of 
 the Greek was due, and to it his patriotism 
 ■was confined. Hence the slight degree of 
 national feeling which marks the history of 
 these people. So completely was this inde- 
 pendence recognized that a citizen of one 
 city was an alien and a stranger in the 
 others. The Greek cities constantly re- 
 pelled each other, their object being to 
 centre the feelings of each citizen in his 
 own community. This exclusiveness made 
 it difficult for them to combine in times of 
 danger against a common foe. They were 
 ever ready to turn their arms against each 
 other, and, being divided, were easily over- 
 come by the Macedonian monarchs. The 
 exercise of authority by one city over an- 
 other was repugnant to the Greeks at all 
 periods of their known history. The domin- 
 ion held by Thebes over the Boeotian cities, 
 and by Athens over her subject allies, was 
 submitted to w^ith reluctance, and thrown 
 off at the first opportunity. " Careless 
 readers of history are tempted to suppose 
 that the territory of Greece was divided 
 among a comparatively small number of 
 independent states, such as Attica, Arcadia, 
 Bffiotia, Phocis, Locris, and the like ; but 
 this is a most serious mistake, and leads to 
 a total misapprehension of Greek history. 
 Every city was usually an independent 
 state, and consequently each of the territor- 
 ies described under the names of Arcadia, 
 
 Still there were ties which bound the 
 Greeks together. These were community 
 of blood and language, community of re- 
 ligious faith and festivals, and community 
 of manners and character. They regarded 
 themselves as the descendants of Hellen, 
 and called the other nations of the world 
 barbarians, applying the term equally to the 
 civilized Egyptians and the rude Scythians. 
 
 Their common religion and the observance 
 of the same festivals led to the formation 
 of associations of neighboring tribes or cities, 
 who were accustomed to meet at certain 
 fixed times to offer sacrifices to the god of a 
 particular temple which was supposed to be 
 the common property and under the com- 
 mon protection of all. The most celebrated 
 of these was the Amphictyonic Council. 
 This assembly, originally insignificant, ac- 
 quired its importance because of its guar- 
 dianship of the Delphian temple, the great 
 national shrine of Greece. The date of its 
 establishment is unknown, but it would ap- 
 pear to be one of the institutions which 
 survived the Heroic Age. It met twice in 
 the year — in the spring at the tem^^le of 
 Apollo at Delphi, and in the autumn at the 
 temple of Demeter at Thermopylae. Its 
 members consisted of sacred delegates from 
 twelve tribes, each of which contained sev- 
 eral independent states or cities. The depu- 
 ties of each tribe consisted of a chief called 
 Hieromnemoa and subordinates called 
 Pylagorse. The main duties of the council 
 were to restrain acts of aggression against 
 its members, and to maintain the rights 
 a,nd dignity of the god and his temple. 
 They were not a national congress whose 
 duty was to protect and defend the common 
 interests of Greece, and their pow'ers were 
 employed for political purposes only when 
 they could be made to serve the ends of 
 some of the more ambitious Grecian states. 
 
EARLY HISTORY— TO THPJ FIRST OLYMPIAD. 
 
 L'29 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 TAKI.Y HISTORY TO THE FIRST OLYM- 
 PIAD. 
 
 Growth of Ar2:os — The Dorian Colonization — Rise 
 of Sj)art;i — War witli Ariiyclfe — Early History of 
 Athens — The Death of (Jodrus — Royalty Abol- 
 ished — The Rule of Archons Plstablished — The 
 Annual Archons — The P^irst Certain Date in 
 Athenian History — iSteady Growth of Sparta — 
 Division of the Peoijle into Classes — The Helots — 
 Tlie Laws of Lycurffus — Training of a Spartan 
 Citizen — Voluntai'y Exile of Lycurgus — The Poet 
 Tfonier — His Inllueuee u])on Grecian History — 
 Prosperity of Argos — The First Messenian War — 
 The Olympic Games Revived — Their Character — 
 The First Olympiad. 
 
 HE first state which attained to polit- 
 ical importance after the close of 
 the Heroic Period was Argos. 
 Tradition asserts that it was from 
 Argos that the Dorian colonists 
 went out to settle Epidaurus, Troe- 
 zen, Phlius, Sicyon, and Corinth. From 
 Epidaurus the Doriens, according to the 
 tradition, colonized ^Egina and Epidaurus 
 Liraera; and Megara from Corinth. Over 
 these colonies Argos held a protectorate. 
 For several centuries she was the leading 
 state of the Peloponnesus. Slie never for- 
 got this fivct, and it never ceased to exercise 
 a powerful influence upon her history. 
 
 The early history of Sparta is marked 
 by the efforts of the Dorian conquerors to 
 extend their power. They were confined 
 at first to the upper part of the valley be- 
 tween the Taygetus and Parnou ranges, a 
 tract about twenty-five miles long by about 
 twenty broad. The Achteaus held the lower 
 valley, having their capital, Arayclse, on 
 the Eu rotas, about two miles south of 
 Sparta. For three centuries there was per- 
 petual war between Sparta and Amyclre, 
 but the former made no progress to the 
 southward. The powerful fortifications of 
 Amycliea held the Spartans in check, and 
 bafiied all their efforts to extend their ter- 
 ritory. Sparta then endeavored to reduce 
 Arcadia, but without success. She even 
 went so far as to pick quarrels with Mes- 
 seuia and Argos, which led to unimportant 
 wars. 
 
 The early history of Athens commences 
 with a kingl}^ period. From about b. c. 
 1300 to B. c. 1050, Attica was governed by 
 absolute monarch?. The last of these was 
 Codrus, who, according to the tradition, 
 fell in resisting au invasion of the Dorians, 
 who attacked Attica from the newly-con- 
 quered Peloponnesus. Dui-ing this period 
 
 the people were divided into four tj-ibes : 
 Teleontes (or Geleontes), Hopletes, ^gico- 
 reis, and Argadeis. These were subdivided 
 into two branches: 1st. Brotherhoods and 
 clans. 2d. Thirdlings and Naucraries. The 
 former division was based upon consan- 
 guinity ; the latter was an artificial arrange- 
 ment of the state for purposes of taxation 
 and military service. Three classes of 
 citizens were recognized : nobles, farmers, 
 and artisans. The first possessed all the 
 political power, and enjoyed the sole right 
 of filling the public offices. The senate, or 
 Council of Areopagus, which held its sittings 
 on Mars Hill, was drawn from this class. 
 It is possible that the farmers and artisans 
 may have had the right to attend and 
 express dissent in the agora. 
 
 The history of Greece during the eleventh 
 century before Christ is uncertain. The 
 period of certain chronology is still several 
 centuries distant. 
 
 This century was passed by the Dorians 
 in thoroughly establishing themselves in 
 their conquests in the Peloponnesus. Sparta 
 maintained her struggle against Amyclre 
 for the j)ossession of the valley of the 
 Eurotas, and was confined by the Achteans 
 to the upper part of the valley. 
 
 Argos was the supreme power of the 
 Peloponnesus, and her colonies were scat- 
 tered through the north of this peninsula 
 The government of Argos was a monarchy 
 of the heroic type. The crown was heredi- 
 tary in the house of the Temenidse, who 
 traced their descent from Teraenus, the 
 eldest son of Aristomachus, and one of the 
 Heraclidse. 
 
 In Athenian history this century is be- 
 lieved to have witnessed the change of the 
 form of government from royalty to the 
 rule of archons for lite. The legendary 
 account of this change informs us that the 
 Dorians invaded Attica soon after their 
 settlement in the Peloponnesus. An oracle 
 declared to them that they would conquer 
 that country if they spai-ed the life of the 
 King of Athens. Codrus, the Athenian 
 king, being informed of this, resolved to 
 sacrifice himself for his country's safety. 
 He entered the Dorian camp in disguise, 
 provoked a quarrel with a soldier, and was 
 slain. Upon learuing of the death of the 
 king, the Dorians retreated from Attica 
 without striking a blow. The Athenians, 
 out of respect for the memory of the royal 
 martyr, abolished the office of king, and 
 substituted for it that <jf archou for life. 
 
230 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 This occurred about B. c. 1085. The first 
 iirchou for life was Medoii, tlie son of Co- 
 drus. He was followed by twelve of the 
 descendants of Codrus, tiie dignity being 
 confined to this family. On the death of 
 Alc93mon, the thirteenth archon, and the 
 last one for life, the eupatrids, or Athenian 
 nobles, limited the archon's term of office to 
 ten years (about b. c. 752). The dignity 
 was still confined to the descendants of Co- 
 drus and Medon ; but about B. c. 714 the 
 office was thrown open to all the nobles in 
 the state. In B. C. 683 the archouship was 
 made annual, and its duties were distributed 
 among uinepersons, all of whom bore the title, 
 but one of whom was the archon, and gave 
 his name to the year. Thus the government 
 was changed, according to the legendary 
 account, from a royalty into an oligarchy. 
 The political power of the state was vested 
 exclusively in the nobles ; the nine annual 
 archons were chosen from and were directly 
 
 GRECIAN DIDRACHM. 
 
 responsible to them alone. The people had 
 no share in the government. 
 
 The history of Athens really commences 
 with the institution of the nine anuual 
 archons in b. c. 683. This is its first certain 
 date. 
 
 During this period Sparta had been 
 growing rapidly in power and importance. 
 The Spartan government was a royalty. 
 Two kings I'uled the country together, and 
 the monarchy was of the heroic type. The 
 two kings acted as checks upon each other, 
 and the result was that the royal pow-er was 
 so weakened that by the middle of the 
 ninth century it had become almost insig- 
 nificant. 
 
 The nation was divided into three classes. 
 1. The Spartans, about 9,000 in number, 
 the inhabitants of the capital. These were 
 the descendants of the Dorian conquerors, 
 and were the nobles of the kingdom. The 
 political power was vested exclusively in 
 them. They were the owners of the greater 
 part of the soil, and lived in Sparta on the 
 
 rents received from their tenants. 2. The 
 Perioeci, or free inhabitants of the country 
 towns and villages. These were citizens in 
 a certain sense, but had no political power. 
 They were of mixed Doric and Achsean 
 blood. They were spread throughout the 
 whole country ; were the possessors of the 
 poorest lands, and were the only class en- 
 gaged in trade, commerce, and handicrafts. 
 They fought in the Spartan armies as heavy 
 armed troops, but were not subject to the 
 discipline by which the Spartans were 
 trained to war. 3. The Helots, or slave 
 population. They were originally of Achsean 
 blood, but after the Messenian wars their 
 number was increased by captives taken in 
 battle, and they became a mixed race. 
 They were employed in cultivating the 
 lands of their Spartan masters, to whom 
 they paid a fixed rent of one-half the pro- 
 duce. This class was slight at first, and a 
 very kindly feeling seems to have prevailed 
 between the Helots and the Spartans. 
 After the Messenian wars, however, 
 the Helots became the most numerous 
 class in the state. From this time 
 they were regarded with fear and sus- 
 picion by their masters. They were 
 obliged to wear a peculiar dress, and 
 every means was adopted to degrade 
 and weaken them. Sparta was always 
 in dread of a revolt of the Helots. 
 From time to time, for the purpose of 
 reducing this class, a select number of 
 Spartan youths were armed by the state 
 with daggers, and sent out to range the 
 country in all directions, with orders to 
 secretly assassinate such of the Helots as 
 were considered formidable. Sometimes, 
 on the other hand, the Helots who had 
 distinguished themselves in war, in which 
 they were obliged to participate as light - 
 armed troops, Avere given their freedom 
 by the state. These constituted a distinct 
 class known as the Xeodamodes, or " the 
 newly enfranchised." 
 
 The growing weakness of the crown so 
 alarmed the Spartans that they became con- 
 vinced of the necessity of a change in their 
 political system. About B. c. 850, Ly- 
 curgus, a member of the royal family, but 
 not in the direct line of succession, who had 
 spent many years in travelling in foreign 
 lands and observing their institutions, pre- 
 pared a code of laws which provided for the 
 government of the state and the proper 
 training of the citizens. His reforms ex- 
 tended to every branch of the political and 
 
EARLY HISTORY— TO THE FIRST OLYMPIAD. 
 
 231 
 
 social life of the Spartans, and were carried 
 out only after a severe opposition. 
 
 The main object of Lycurgus was to re- 
 tain the control of the state in the hands 
 of the Spartans. This class, but 9,000 in 
 number, could maintain its authority only 
 by force, and the supreme effort of the legis- 
 lator was to bind them into a compact and 
 harmonious body by the closest ties, and to 
 train them in such habits of bravery, en- 
 durance, and military subordination, that 
 they should always be prepared to main- 
 tain their ascendency as they had won it, 
 by the sword. He subjected them to a dis- 
 cipline which for sternness and rigor has no 
 parallel in any age. 
 
 The constitution which he established for 
 the state provided that the monarchy should 
 still be double, but limited the power of the 
 two kings to presiding over the senate, 
 voting by proxy, and delivering the casting 
 vote where the senate was equally divided. 
 The senate consisted of thirty members, 
 including the two kings. It was called 
 the Gerusia, or "Council of Elders." Its 
 members Avere not less than sixty years old, 
 and were elected, for life. They had some 
 slight share in the general administration 
 of the state, and discussed and prepared 
 all the measures which w^ere to be brought 
 before the popular assembly. They were 
 judges in all criminal cases affecting the 
 life of a Spartan citizen, and were bound 
 in their proceedings by no written law. 
 The popular assembly had the power of 
 electing the senate, of passing laws, and 
 determining upon war and peace. It would 
 seem that these powers were merely nomi- 
 nal, and that this assembly was summoned 
 simply to ratify the measures already de- 
 cided upon. No such open discussion and 
 criticism of public measures as prevailed in 
 Athens was known in Sparta. Certain 
 officers, called ephors, were appointed an- 
 nually from the general body of Spartan 
 citizens, whose business it was to watch over 
 the Lycurgean constitution and punish 
 violations of it. In course of time the 
 political power was centred in their hands, 
 they became the real rulers of the state, 
 and their orders were submissively obeyed 
 by all classes of Spartans. They exercised 
 their despotic powers in the most arbitrary 
 manner, and without restraint. Thus the 
 Spartan government was really a close 
 oligarchy, in which the kings and senate, 
 as well as the people, were subject to the 
 unrestrained and irresponsible authority of 
 the five ephors. 
 
 But while providing for the state, the 
 legislation of Lycurgus looked jirincipally 
 to the discipline of the citizen. Every 
 child born in Sparta was examined in pub- 
 lic, and if found weakly or deformed, was 
 exposed to perish on Mount Taygetus. At 
 the age of seven he was taken from his 
 mother's care, and his education and train- 
 ing were begun under the supervision of 
 officers appointed by the state. He was 
 trained in all the gymnastic exercises, for the 
 purpose of giving strength and activity to 
 his body, and was drilled in all the manoeu- 
 vres required of the Spartan troops in the 
 field. He was also required to engage in 
 hunting, and to endure fatigue and hard- 
 ship without repining. His fortitude was 
 further tested by a cruel scourging in 
 presence of the whole city at the altar of 
 Artemis (Diana), and many youths died 
 under the lash without complaining. He 
 was required to Avear the same garment 
 winter and summer, and to bear hunger, 
 thirst, heat and cold. He took his meals 
 at the syssitia, or public table, was allowed 
 only the plainest and scantiest fare, and 
 slept with his comrades in the public dor- 
 mitories. After a certain age, he was al- 
 lowed no food save what he could steal 
 Avithout detection. If caught in the theft, 
 he Avas severely punished. Letters and 
 music also constituted a part of the boy's 
 education, but they were made subordinate 
 to his physical training. He was taught 
 to play on the lyre and to sing, but his 
 songs Avere either martial lyrics or hymns 
 to the gods. Literature and philosophy 
 were despised in Sparta. The Spartans 
 Avere taught to express themselves Avith a 
 sententious brevity; long speeches were 
 their abhorrence. 
 
 Upon arriving at man's estate, the Spar- 
 tan enjoyed but a slight release from his 
 severe discipline. The men ate at the pub- 
 lic messes, and slept in the public barracks. 
 At the age of thirty they Avere permitted to 
 marry, and Avere punished if they remained 
 unmarried. They had no private life, how- 
 ever. No man under the age of sixty Avas 
 permitted to reside ov take his meals with 
 his wife. The greater part of his time was 
 spent in military and gymnastic exercises, 
 and in hunting. At the age of sixty the state 
 relaxed its hold upon the Spartan, who Avas 
 thenceforth permitted to enjoy the pleasures 
 of his OAvn home. 
 
 Girls Avere also rigorously trained in 
 athletic exercises. They Avere viewed as a 
 part of the state whose duty it was to give 
 
232 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to Sparta vigorous sons. At the age of 
 twenty the Spartan women usually married, 
 and the wife, although enjoying but little 
 of her husband's society, Avas treated by him 
 with great respect, and was allowed greater 
 freedom than was permitted in the other 
 Grecian states. She was trained to take a 
 deep and abiding interest in the honor and 
 welfare of her country, and the high spirit 
 of the Spartan women constituted one of 
 the chief incentives of the men to heroic 
 actions. Cowardice met the certain con- 
 tempt of the women, and gallant conduct 
 was rewarded with their warmest j^raise. 
 " Eeturn either with your shield, or upon it," 
 was their exhortation to their sous Avhen 
 going to battle. The death of a husband 
 or sou in battle was an occasion of thanks 
 to the gods. 
 
 Lycurgus is credited by some writers 
 
 THE KACK. 
 
 with a redivision of the lands of the coun- 
 try ; but the most reliable authorities doubt 
 this. He is said to have banished all gold 
 and silver money from Spai'ta, and to have 
 substituted for it an unwieldy iron cur- 
 rency, to prevent the love of gain from 
 acquiring too gi*eat an influence u^^on the 
 Spartans. This may also be doubted, as 
 silver money was not coined in Greece until 
 the time of Pheidou of Argos, iu the next 
 century. Gold money was first coined in 
 Asia, but was scarcely known in Greece 
 even as late as the Peloponnesian war. All 
 luxury was forbidden by Lycurgus, and the 
 plainest and severest mode of life was re- 
 quired of all. Strangers were not allowed 
 to reside in Sparta without the leave of 
 the magistrates, nor were its citizens allowed 
 to go abroad without a similar permission. 
 
 The legislation of Lycurgus having been 
 finally adopted by the Spartans, the law- 
 giver resolved to sacrifice himself for the 
 
 welfare of his country. Having obtained 
 from the people of Sparta a solemn oath to 
 make no changes in his laws until his re- 
 turn, he quitted Sparta forever. He went 
 first to Delphi, where he obtained an oracle 
 from the god, sanctioning all he had done 
 and promising jDrosperity to Sparta as long 
 as his laws were obeyed. He then departed 
 to some unknown region and was never 
 heard of again. The Spartans, true to 
 their oath, remained faithful to his laws. 
 Tiie results of this system were soon appa- 
 rent. The Spartans became a body of 
 well-trained and well-disciplined profes- 
 sional soldiers, at a time when scarcely a 
 Grecian state understood the value of, or 
 practised military discipline or training of 
 any kind. Hence they were irresistible in 
 war, and Sparta rapidly conquered the 
 neighboring states, and made herself su- 
 preme in the Peloponnesus. To- 
 wards the close of the century 
 Amyclce fell, and the Spartans be- 
 
 f'^ came masters of the entire valley 
 of the Eurotas. The Achteaus 
 ]7^ submitted or fled to Italy. 
 
 The ninth century before Christ 
 is illustrious in Grecian history as 
 the age of the poet Homer. Va- 
 rious dates are assigned to him, 
 but it would seem that he flourished 
 about B. c. 850. No less than seven 
 cities claim the honor of being his 
 birth-place. Modern authorities 
 regard him as a native of Smyrna, 
 in Asia Minor. He was thus 
 an Asiatic Greek. His Iliad and Odyssey 
 were the great national poems of Greece, 
 and were sung or recited at the festivals 
 and in the public assemblies of every 
 Grecian state, and related by every Gre- 
 cian fireside. They brought iuto especial 
 prominence the unity of the Hellenic race, 
 and constituted one of the strongest bonds 
 that united its various members. 
 
 Argos continued to be the principal state 
 of the Peloponnesus during the eighth cen- 
 tury before the Christian era. About B. c. 
 780, Pheidon, the greatest of its monarchs, 
 came to the throne. In the preceding 
 reigns the royal authority had been consid- 
 erably weakened, and the government had 
 become in reality a republic, though a mon- 
 archy in form. Pheidon was " a great man 
 in every way;" under him the lost powers 
 of the crown were re-established, and Argos 
 became more powerful thau ever in the 
 Peloponnesus. In his reign Crete, Rhodes, 
 
EAELY HISTORY— TO THE FIRST OLYMPIAD. 
 
 233 
 
 Cos, Cnidus, anrl Halicarnassus were colo- 
 nized by the Argives. He died about B. c. 
 744, and Argos rapidly declined in power. 
 The government relapsed into the state in 
 which Pheidon had found it, and the history 
 of the country soon became insignificant. 
 
 In Sparta the effects of the Lycurgean 
 system wex-e even more manifest than in the 
 past century. Sparta, now a compact and 
 organized state, spreading over the whole 
 of Laconia, and possessing the only tlior- 
 oughly disciplined army in Greece, began 
 to quarrel with her neighbors for the delib- 
 erate purpose, it would seem, of extending 
 her domain. The conquest of the valley 
 of the Eurotas was followed by wars with 
 Arcadia and Argos, in each of which Sparta 
 gained some advantage. Argos lost all 
 her territory south of Cynuria. Encour- 
 aged by these successes, Sparta began a 
 series of aggressions upon the adjoining 
 state of Messenia, prompted evidently in 
 part by a desire for more territory, and in 
 part by a dislike of the liberal policy which 
 the Dorian conquerors of Messenia had 
 adopted towards their Achaean subjects. 
 Hostilities soon followed, and the struggle 
 known as the First Messenian War began, 
 B. c. 748. Sparta had but a single ally in 
 this war, Corinth ; while on the side of 
 Messenia were ranged Argos, Arcadia and 
 Sicyon. The war lasted upwards of nine- 
 teen years, being prolonged by the long de- 
 fence of the city of Ithoine. In the struggle 
 the resources and spirits of the Messenians 
 were gradually exhausted, and in the twen- 
 tieth year Sparta compelled the evacuation 
 of Ithome, and completed the conquest of 
 the country. Many of the inhabitants 
 sought refuge in Argolis and Arcadia. 
 Those who remained were reduced by the 
 Spartans to the condition of Helots. 
 Ithome was razed to the ground. Sparta 
 ruled her conquest with a strong hand, and 
 for thirty-nine years the Messenians en- 
 dured a severe oppression. 
 
 The eighth century before Christ is noted 
 in Grecian history as the era of the Olym- 
 piads, or the revival of the Olympian 
 games, which had been instituted in Greece 
 during the Heroic Age. These games were 
 celebrated in the sacred territory of Elis, at 
 Olympia, on the banks of the Alphreus, and 
 were in honor of the Olympian Jove and of 
 Hercules. They had been much neglected 
 during the period of change and conquest 
 which succeeded the Heroic Age, but were 
 revived, b. c. 776, by Iphitus, King of Elis, 
 it is said; though some writers place the 
 
 date of Iphitus a century earlier. At a 
 later period the Greeks began to reckon 
 time from these games, and regarded those 
 of 776 as the first Olympiad. The games 
 were celebrated at the end of every four 
 years, and the interval which elapsed be- 
 tween each celebration was called an Olym- 
 piad. The celebration of these games was 
 continued as late as A. D. 394, when they 
 were abolished by the Emperor Theodosius. 
 The management of the festival was con- 
 fided to the Eleans, who chose several of 
 their own number to preside over the 
 sports as judges. These judges were called 
 Ilellanodicse. At first the festival was con- 
 fined to a single day, but at length the 
 sports became so numerous that it was ex- 
 tended through five days. The original 
 sjDorts consisted of foot-races in the stadium ; 
 but to these were subsequently added va- 
 rious trials of strength and skill, such as 
 boxing, wrestling, the Pancratium, or box- 
 ing and wrestling combined, and the Pen- 
 tathlum, or a peculiar combination of 
 jumping; running, pitching the quoit, 
 liurling the javelin, and wrestling. Horse 
 races and chariot races were also included 
 in the sports, but no combats with weapons 
 were allowed under any circumstances. 
 During the month in. which the games 
 were celebrated, war w^as discontinued 
 throughout Greece, except against a foreign 
 invader. No armed troops were allowed 
 to enter the limits of Elis, as such an act 
 was sacrilege. The only prize given to the 
 victor was a garland of wild olive, but this 
 was considered the proudest distinction in 
 Greece. The concjueror was regarded as 
 the most famous person of the Hellenic 
 race for that Olympiad, and his statue was 
 set up in the sacred grove of Jove at Olym- 
 pia. On his return home he was received 
 with the highest honors, and was conducted 
 into his native city by a triumphal j^i'oces- 
 sion through a breach made in the wall for 
 that purpose, in token that the honored 
 city put its trust in such heroic sons rather 
 than in stone walls. His praise was sung 
 by the poets, and he had a right to the 
 front seat in all the public assemblies. He 
 was usually released from the payment of 
 taxes. Tu Athens the winner of the Olym- 
 pian crown received a prize of 500 drach- 
 mas, and a right to a place at the tal)le 
 of the magistrates in the Prytaneum, or 
 town hall. In Sparta he had the right to 
 fight by the side of the king in battle. The 
 games were open to every Greek, without 
 distinction of rank or wealth. All others 
 
234 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ■were rigidly excluded. They were attended 
 by vast throngs from every part of Greece ; 
 for, besides those who were drawn by private 
 interest, or by curiosity, the merchant had an 
 opportunity of selling his wares, the poets 
 of chaunting their lays, and the philosophers 
 of explaining their theories to all Greece. 
 
 The First Olympiad was B. c. 776-772. 
 From this the Greeks dated their chronol- 
 ogy to the latest period of their existence. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD TO THE PER- 
 SIAN WARS. 
 
 The Second Messenian War — Exploits of Aristo- 
 menes — Destruction of the Messenian State — Char- 
 acter of the Athenian Government — The Power 
 of the State in the Hands of tiie Nobles — Code of 
 Draco — Cylon Attempts to Seize the Government 
 — The Sacrilege of Megacles — Expulsion of the 
 Alcmajonidffi — Sparta Conquers Tegea — Becomes 
 Supreme in the Peloponnesus — Assumes the Eight 
 to Interfere in the Atfairs of tlie Greek States — 
 The Plague at Athens — The Puritication of Epi- 
 menides— Political Troubles at Athens — The Laws 
 of Solon — The Seven Wise Men of Greece — So- 
 lon's Reforms not altogether Acceptable, but are 
 Adopted by the Atlienians — He Secures them a 
 Trial — Quarrels of the Athenian Factions — Death 
 of Solon — Pisistratus Dictator — Is Driven from 
 Athens — Is Recalled — Quarrel with Megacles — Is 
 Driven Away a Second Time and Regains his 
 Throne — His Liberaiitv — Causes Homer's Poems 
 to be Collected— His Death— The Two Tyrants- 
 Reign of Hippias — Is Expelled from Athens — 
 Return of the Alcmteunidte — Clisthenes in Power 
 — -His Changes in the Athenian System — He Of- 
 fends the Nobles— Is Expelled and Shortly Re- 
 called — Quarrels between Athens and Sj)arta — 
 Conquest of Eubcea — Athens Assists the Ionian 
 Greeks in their Revolt against Persia. 
 
 HE thirty-nine years .following the 
 close of the first Messenian war 
 were passed by the Messeuians in a 
 severe slavery. At the end of this 
 time they rose against their Spartan 
 oppressors under the leadership of 
 Aristoraenes of Andania. Thus began the 
 Second Messenian War, in B. c. 685. The 
 Argives, Arcadians, Sicyonians, and Pisa- 
 tons came to the aid of the Messeniaus, while 
 Sparta had, as in the first struggle, only Co- 
 rinth for an ally. The first battle fought 
 before the arrival of the allies was inde- 
 cisive, but the exploits of Aristomenes so 
 greatly disheartened the Spartans that they 
 applied to the oracle for a leader, and were 
 commanded to seek one at Athens. The 
 Athenians, fearing to disobey the oracle, 
 sought to evade its command by sending to 
 the Spartans for a leader, a lame school- 
 master named Tyrtseus. His stirring poems 
 revived the drooi^ing spirits of the Spar- 
 
 tans, and encouraged them to make another 
 effort. A great battle was fought, in which 
 the allies on both sides were engaged, at the 
 Boar's Grave in the plain of Stenyclerus. 
 The Spartans were defeated with great loss, 
 and were obliged to withdraw to their own 
 country. In the third j^ear of the war an- 
 other great battle was fought, in which the 
 Messeuians were defeated through the treach- 
 ery of Aristocrates, the king of the Arcadian 
 Orchomenus. In consequence of this defeat 
 Aristomenes was not able to take the open 
 field again, and threw himself into the 
 mountain fortress of Ira, from which be 
 continued the war for eleven years. The 
 Spartans encamped at the foot of the moun- 
 tain, but Aristomenes frequently sallied out 
 from his stronghold and ravaged Laconia 
 with fire and sword. His exploits were 
 brilliant. He three times offered to Jove 
 Ithomates, the sacrifice called Hecatom- 
 phonsa, which could be ofiTered only by a 
 warrior who had slain a hundred enemies 
 with his own hand. Once he was captured 
 with a number of his companions, carried 
 to S^iarta, and thrown with them into a deep 
 pit. His companions were all killed by the 
 fall, but Aristomenes Avas unhurt. He ex- 
 pected to die of starvation, however, as he 
 saw no means of escape. On the third day 
 he perceived a fox groping about among the 
 bodies in the pit. Seizing the animal by 
 the tail he followed it in its struggle to es- 
 cape, and was guided by it to an opening m 
 the rock, through which he gained his lib- 
 erty, and returned to Ira to the surprise of 
 both friends and foes. But, in spite of bis 
 valor, the war closed in the triumph of the 
 Spartans. Ira was surprised one night while 
 Aristomenes was disabled by a wound. He 
 cut his way through the enemy with the 
 bravest of his followers, and thus escaped. 
 He took refuge in Arcadia, where he formed 
 a plan for surprising Sparta. This plan 
 was betrayed by Aristocrates, who was 
 stoned by his countrymen for his treachery. 
 Aristomenes then withdrew to Rhodes, 
 where he ended his days. Many of the 
 Messeniaus abandoned their country and 
 fled to Rheggium in Italy. The others were 
 again reduced by the Spartans to the con- 
 dition of Helots; the inhabitants of a few 
 towns being admitted to the position of 
 Perioeci. The war closed in B. c. 668, and 
 until B. c. 369 Messenia disappears from his- 
 tory, its territory forming during this inter- 
 val a part of Laconia. The memory of 
 Aristomenes was long cherished by his coun- 
 trymen, and the legends of later times de- 
 
FROM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 235 
 
 clared that in the great battle of Leuctra, 
 in which the Lacedseraonian powei' Avas 
 finally crushed, his spirit was seen, animat- 
 ing his countrymen and scattering ruin 
 among their foes. 
 
 The Messeniau war was followed by a war 
 with Arcadia, which had been the ally of 
 ]\ressenia. The result appears to have been 
 the conquest of the southern part of Arca- 
 dia. The efforts of the Spartans to reduce 
 Tegea were not so successful Tegea offered a 
 stout resistance, and for three generations 
 defied the Spartan power. 
 
 The true history of Athens begins in B. c. 
 683. In this year the term of the archons 
 was changed from ten years to one year, 
 and the number of archons increased for 
 one to nine. The first of these was called 
 The ArcJion, and some- 
 times the Archon Ejjony- 
 mu-s, because he gave his 
 name to the year. He pre- 
 sided over the body to 
 which he belonged, and 
 was the representative of 
 the dignity of the state. 
 He determined all dis- 
 putes relating to the fami- 
 ly, and was the protector 
 of widows and orphans. 
 The second archon was 
 called The Basileus, or 
 The King, since he repre- 
 sented the king in his 
 quality of high priest of 
 the nation. He was the 
 judge in all cases respect- 
 ing religion and homi- 
 cide. The third archon 
 was called the Polemarch, or Commander- 
 in-chief, and until the time of Clisthenes, 
 commanded the army in war. Disputes 
 between citizens and strangers were submit- 
 ted to him for adjudication. The remain- 
 ing six archons were called Thesmotheice, 
 or Legislators. Their duties appear to have 
 been entirely judicial, and all matters not 
 especially pertaining to the other three were 
 decided by them. As there was no written 
 code in existence, their decisions had the 
 force of laws. In addition to the archons 
 there was the Council of Areopagus, or Sen- 
 ate, which derived its name from its place 
 of meeting on a rocky eminence, opposite 
 the Acropolis, called the Hill of Ares, or 
 Mars' Hill. It consisted of Eupatrids, or 
 nobles alone, and all the archons became 
 members of it at the close of their year of 
 
 office It was originally called simply the 
 Senate or Council. Later on, Solon insti- 
 tuted another Senate, and the original coun- 
 cil took the name of Areopagus, to distin- 
 guish it. 
 
 The power of the state rested entirely 
 with the nobles, and, as is usually the case 
 with oligarchies, it was used for the oppres- 
 sion of the people. The archons were pos- 
 sessed of arbitrary powers, with no written 
 laws to restrain them, and they naturally 
 promoted the interests of their own order 
 to the injury of the commons. Within sixty 
 years after the establishment of the annual 
 archons, the popular discontent had become 
 so great and the demand for a written code 
 of laws so vehement, that the nobles could 
 no longer afford to resist it,aud in b. c. 624 
 
 VIEW OF DELPHI AND MOUNT PAKNASSUS. 
 
 Draco was appointed to prepare a code. It 
 was a very simple one. He prescribed 
 death for every offence, for petty theft as 
 well as for murder. Hence his code was 
 said to be written not in ink, but in 
 blood. It placed the lives of the citizens 
 entirely at the mercy of the nobles, and in- 
 creased instead of quieting the popular dis- 
 content. One of the nobles, named Cylon, 
 endeavored to take advantage of this state 
 of feeling, and make himself tyrant of 
 Athens, B. c. 612. He had won the crown 
 at the Olympic games, and had married the 
 daughter of Theagenes, who had made him- 
 self tyrant of Megara. Before making his 
 attempt he consulted the oracle at Delphi, 
 and was told to seize the Acropolis " at the 
 greatest festival of Jove." Cylon, forget- 
 ting that the Diasia was the greatest festival 
 
236 
 
 THE ILLUSIT.ATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Jove at Athens, supposed that the oracle 
 referred to the Olympic games, and accord- 
 ingly at the next celebration of these games, 
 he seized the Acropolis, with a strong force 
 composed partly of his partisans and partly 
 of troops furnished by his father-in-law. 
 He met with no support from the great 
 mass of the people, however, and was block- 
 aded in the Acropolis by the troops of the 
 government. Cylon and his brother suc- 
 ceeded in escaping, but his followers, over- 
 come by hunger, soon ceased their resistance 
 to the attack of the government forces, and 
 took refuge at tlie altar of Athene, or Mi- 
 nerva, The Archon Megacles, a member 
 of the illustrious family of the Alcmseonidre, 
 found them there, and fearing lest their 
 death should pollute the sanctuary of the 
 
 GREEK SOLDIER. 
 
 goddess, prevailed upon them to come forth, 
 promising that their lives should be spared. 
 They had no sooner left the temple, how- 
 ever, than they were set uj)on and killed ; 
 some who sought safety at the altar of the 
 Eumenides or Furies were slain even at 
 that sacred spot. 
 
 Thus the victory of the archons was 
 stained with sacrilege, and this gave rise to 
 fresh troubles in the state. The whole 
 family of the Alcmseonidre were regarded 
 as tainted with the sacrilege of Megacles, 
 and the friends of the murdered men de- 
 manded vengeance upon the accursed race. 
 The former were possessed of sufficient 
 wealth and influence to maintain their 
 cause against their enemies during the re- 
 
 mainder of the century, but at length were 
 banished from Attica by the decree of a 
 council of three hundred members of their 
 own order, b. c. 597. 
 
 The war between Sparta ana Arcadia 
 was brought to a close about B. c. 554, by 
 the submission of Tegea to the former state, 
 a very insignificant ending to so long a 
 struggle. The Thyreatis was about the 
 same time wrested from Argos. The Spar- 
 tan influence was now established over at 
 least two-thirds of the Peloponnesus. Spar- 
 tan policy had until now been confined to 
 the internal afl^uirs of Lacedsemon and to 
 efl^orts to extend its territory. It now 
 began to take a wider range. In B. c. 555 
 an embassy arrived at Sparta from Croesus, 
 King of Lydia, acknowledging Sparta as 
 the leading state of Greece, and asking its 
 alliance in the effort to defeat the Persians. 
 The Spartans accepted the offers of Croesus 
 and prepared an expedition for his assist- 
 ance, but before it could be despatched 
 Cyrus had rendered it useless by the con- 
 quest of Lydia. This alliance marks the 
 beginning of the foreign policy of Sparta. 
 It was followed by other expeditions beyond 
 her limits. In b. c. 525, Sparta and Co- 
 rinth sent a combined expedition to the 
 Asiatic coast for the purpose of deposing 
 Polycrates of Samos. It was unsuccessful. 
 Her ambition being aroused by these ven- 
 tures, Sparta assumed the right (b. c. 510) 
 to interfere in the affliirs of the Greek states 
 beyond the limits of the Peloponnesus, as 
 the champion of the oligarchical cause. 
 Her efforts against Attica aroused that re- 
 markable fear and dislike with which the 
 Athenians regarded her for nearly a century 
 and a half. 
 
 The expulsion of the Alcmaonidie in b. 
 C. 597 did not quiet the superstitious alarm 
 which had been aroused at Athens by the 
 sacrilege of Magacles, and while the people 
 were agitated by these fears, a plague broke 
 out in the city which was regarded as a 
 divinely sent punishment for this crime. 
 They consulted the Delphic oracle, which 
 advised them to invite the celebrated Cretan 
 prophet and sage Epimenides to visit 
 Athens, and purify their city from pollu- 
 tion and sacrilege. Epimenides was highly 
 esteemed for his knowledge of the healing 
 powers of nature. He visited Athens, per- 
 formed certain rites and sacrifices by which 
 it was believed he succeeded in propitiating 
 the oflfended deities. The plague ceased, 
 and the grateful Athenians offered their 
 
FROM THE FIRST 0LY3IPIAD TO THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 237 
 
 deliverer a talent of gold, but he refused it. 
 The only payment he would accept was a 
 branch of the sacred olive tree which grew 
 on the Acropolis. The date of this purifica- 
 tion is B. c. 596. 
 
 The ai'chous now awoke to a true sense 
 of the dangers which threatened the state. 
 The sacrifices of Epimenides had stayed the 
 plague but they did not touch the popular 
 discontent. Three factions divided the peo- 
 ple of Athens — the Plain, composed of the 
 wealthy nobles, the Shore, consisting of the 
 merchants, and the Mountain, in which were 
 ranged the poorer peasantry of Attica. The 
 hatred which arrayed tliese factions against 
 each other was increased by the fact that 
 many of the third class had been obliged 
 by their necessities to borrow money from 
 the nobles at an exorbitant rate of interest, 
 and being unable to dischai'ge these debts 
 had become their slaves. In this emergency, 
 the archons appealed to Solon, the wisest 
 of their number, to prepare a code of laws 
 for Athens in place of those of Draco. 
 
 Solon was a member of the noble order, 
 but his fortune liad been so greatly reduced 
 in early life, that he had been obliged to 
 engage in trade to repair it. In his com- 
 mercial enterprises he had visited succes- 
 sively the principal countries of the ancient 
 world, and had studied their laws and cus- 
 toms. He Avas thus the best qualified per- 
 son in Athens for the task assigned him. 
 He traced his descent from the heroic Co- 
 drus, and was a cousin of Pisistratus, of whom 
 we shall speak further on. His reputation 
 for learning and mature wisdom was so 
 great that he was always reckoned as one 
 of the Seven Sages or "Wise Men of Greece. 
 The other six were Periauder, of Corinth, 
 Cleobulus, of Liudus, Bias, of Priene, Pitta- 
 cus, of Mitylene, Thales, of Miletus, and 
 Chilo, of Sparta. About the year b. c. 600 
 he had aroused the Athenians to attempt 
 the recovery of the island of Salamis, which 
 had been taken from them by the Megari- 
 ans, and had commanded the expedition 
 which reconquered the island. In B. c. 
 594 he was chosen archon, and was in- 
 vested with absolute powers to introduce a 
 new code of laws. His appointment gave 
 satisfaction to all parties. 
 
 The main object of Solon was to abolish 
 the tyrannical oligarchy, and substitute for 
 it a moderate government, in which all 
 classes of citizens should have a voice, the 
 controlling influence, however, being re- 
 tained to the nobility. To accomplish this, 
 
 he divided tne people into four classes, ac- 
 cording to the amount of their incomes : 
 1. The Pentacosiomedimni, oi those who 
 possessed an annual income of 500 medimni 
 of corn. 2. The Hippeis or Knights, whose 
 income was 300 medimni of corn 3. The 
 Zeugitic, vhose income was 150 medimni. 
 4. The Thetes, whose income was less than 
 150 medimni. The last-named class were 
 given the right of suflfrage, but were ineligi- 
 ble to any ofiice. The highest office was 
 the archonship, which was confined to the 
 first or wealthiest class. A new council or 
 senate of 400 members was established, 100 
 from each of the four old tribes of Atlioni- 
 ans. The members were elected annually 
 by the free vote of all the citizens. The 
 especial duties of this body were the prepara- 
 tion of matters of legislation, and the carry- 
 ing into effect of the resolutions of the pub- 
 lic assembly. The public assembly consisted 
 of the meeting of the whole body of citizens. 
 It elected the archons and councillors oi' 
 senators, and sat in judgment upon them at 
 the expiration of their year of office. The 
 assembly also voted or rejected all the de- 
 crees or laws proposed by the senate. Popu- 
 lar law courts for the hearing of appeals 
 from other tribunals were instituted. This 
 measure was really the introduction into 
 Athens of trial by jury. The council of 
 Areopagus was retained. It was charged 
 with a general supervision of the laws, and 
 had power to compel their observance and 
 to prevent or punish any departure from 
 them. 
 
 Having thus provided for the state, Solon 
 endeavored to remedy the popular grievances 
 arising mainly from the general poverty 
 and pecuniary distress which prevailed in 
 Athens. Under the rule of the oligarchy 
 the rich had grown richer and the j^oor 
 poorer. Solon abolished all contracts by 
 which the land or person of a debtor had 
 been given as security, and prohibited all 
 future loans in which the person of the 
 debtor was pledged as security. He thus 
 set free all enslaved debtors, released the 
 lands from the claims and burdens from 
 which they had suffered, and prevented the 
 recurrence of one form of the evil — that of 
 slavery for debt. The arrangement entirely 
 released the jioorer classes from their diffi- 
 culties, but many persons were still left un- 
 able to discharge their obligations. To aid 
 these he lowered the standard of the coinage, 
 by which the debtor saved one-fourth in 
 every jjayment. By these arrangements, 
 
238 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the rich, of course, lost. Solon himself lost 
 as much as five talents. The lawgiver 
 wisely decided that in such an emergency 
 the loss should fall upon the class best able 
 to bear it. As a means of preventing 
 poverty he required that each father should 
 teach his son some useful trade. Where 
 the father failed to do this, the son was 
 freed from the obligation of supporting him 
 in old age. 
 
 Solon established a system of rewards and 
 punishments by which he hoped to stimulate 
 the virtue of the citizens and to repress 
 crime. He utterly swejit away the bloody 
 code of Draco. Among the rewards which 
 he established for iaithful citizenship were 
 crowns conferred in public by the senate or 
 people ; public banquets in the town-hall or 
 Prytaneum ; places of honor in the theatre 
 and jDublic assembly ; and statues in the 
 Agora or in the streets. Foreigners were 
 encouraged to settle in Athens, but were 
 obliged to practise some useful avocation. 
 The council of Areopagus 2:)unished severely 
 idleness and profligacy. Theft was pun- 
 ished by compelling the culprit to restore 
 double the value of the property stolen. 
 People were forbidden to speak ill of either 
 the living or the dead. 
 
 Solon met the fate of most moderate 
 statesmen. His own order accused him of 
 having yielded too much, and the other 
 classes complained that he had not granted 
 them enough. He admitted frankly that his 
 laws were not the best that could be de- 
 vised, but were the best the people would 
 accept. The high esteem in which all par- 
 ties held him prevented any outbreak for a 
 while. At length, worn out by perpetual 
 complaints and questions, he obtained from 
 the Athenians an oath to respect his con- 
 stitution for ten years, and then departed 
 into foreign lands, B. c. 570. 
 
 Returning to Athens in B. c. 560, he 
 found the state once more torn by contend- 
 ing factions. The Plain, led by Lycurgiis, 
 the Shore, by Megacles, and the Mountain, 
 by Pisistratus, a cousin of Solon, had re- 
 sumed their old hostility. Of the three 
 leaders the last was the favorite, because of 
 his personal beauty, his military prowess, 
 and his generosity and eloquence. He was, 
 however, as Solon clearly saw, a man of 
 unbounded ambition, and was resolved 
 upon becoming master of Athens. In this 
 he succeeded, and having secured the tri- 
 umph of the Mountain over the other fac- 
 tious, he used this success to make himself 
 
 Dictator, or, as the Greeks called it. 
 Tyrant. He seized the supreme jDower b. c. 
 560. Soon after this, Solon, who had 
 vainly opposed this action of his kinsman, 
 died. According to his will, his ashes were 
 scattered around the island of Salamis, 
 which he had saved to Athens. 
 
 For the first six years after his accession 
 Pisistratus faithfully observed the laws of 
 Solon. In B. c. 55-4: he was driven from 
 the city by a combination of the two fac- 
 tions of the Plain and the Shore. These 
 factions quarrelled a few years later, and 
 ]Megacles, the leader of the Shore, invited 
 Pisistratus back to his sovereignty on con- 
 dition tha' the latter should marry his 
 daughter. The offer was accepted, and 
 Pisistratus regained his throne B. c. 548. 
 He married the daughter of JNIegacles, ac- 
 cordino; to the afrreement, but as he had 
 grown chijdren by a former marriage, and 
 did not care to connect his blood with a 
 family which was regarded as accursed on 
 account of Cylon's sacrilege, he did not 
 treat her as his wife. Megacles, incensed 
 at this, renewed his alliance with Lycurgus, 
 the leader of the Plain, and Pisistratus was 
 again driven from Athens, B. c. 547. He 
 now passed ten years in exile, occujoyiug 
 this time in raising troops and money in 
 difierent parts of Greece. In B. c. 537 he 
 landed at Marathon with a strong army, 
 and, being joined by many of his friends, 
 advanced upon Athens, defeated his ene- 
 mies, and made himself once more master 
 of the city. He reigned for ten years more, 
 administering the laws of Solon with im- 
 partial justice, and the people forgot their 
 lost liberties in the fairness with which he 
 treated them. He threw open his library 
 and beautiful gardens on the Ilissus to the 
 people. He caused the poems of Homer, 
 which had existed until now in a fragment- 
 ary form, to be collected and arranged in 
 proper order, that they might be chanted 
 by the raphsodists at the Greater Pana- 
 thensea, or the twelve days' festival in 
 honor of Athene, the guardian of Athens. 
 His reign fully justified the opinion of Solon 
 that he was the best of tyrants, whose sole 
 vice was ambition. He died in b. c. 527. 
 
 Pisistratus was succeeded by his sons, 
 Hippias and Hipparchus, who are usually 
 known as the Two Tyrants. They reigned 
 peaceably for fourteen years, pui-suiug the 
 plan of government followed by their 
 father. Although they reduced the land 
 tax from one-tenth to one-twentieth, Athens 
 
FBOM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD TO THE FEES IAN WARS. 
 
 239 
 
 grew so rapidly in prosperity that their 
 reigu was regarded as one of the happiest 
 periods of Atlienian history. 
 
 In B. c. 514 a change took place. A 
 citizen of Athens, named Harinodius, hav- 
 ing given offence to Hippias, the tyrant 
 avenged himself by putting a public affront 
 upon his sister. Harmodius, aided by his 
 intimate friend, Aristogiton, organized a 
 conspiracy to kill the two tyrants. The 
 conspiracy resulted in the murder of Hip- 
 parchus. Hippias saved himself by his 
 presence of niiud, but from that time his 
 character changed. Suspecting every one 
 of being an enemy, he put to death large 
 numbers of citizens, and raised enormous 
 sums by excessive taxation. The peo])le 
 became so bitterly hostile to him that he 
 himself felt that his downfall was but a 
 question of time. In order to secure a 
 place of refuge in such an event, he began 
 to cultivate friendly relations with the 
 Persians. 
 
 The Alcmpeonidco, who had lived in exile 
 ever since the third and final restoration of 
 Pisistratus, now invaded Attica in the hope 
 of driving out the tyrant ; but were de- 
 feated by Hippias. Clisthenes, the leader 
 of the family, by bribing the Delphians by 
 the gift of a magnificent temple in place of 
 the ancient edifice, which had been pre- 
 viously destroyed by fire, obtained an oracle 
 commanding the tSpartans to assist in the 
 deliverance of Athens. The result was the 
 invasion of Attica by the Spartans. It was 
 unsuccessful. A second invasion resulted 
 in the capture of Athens and the perpetual 
 bauisliment of Hippias and all his kin, 
 B. c. 510. 
 
 Clisthenes, now the head of the state, al- 
 lied himself with the popular party. He 
 divided the peoj^le into ten tribes, which he 
 subdivided into denies or districts, each of 
 which was given its own magistrate and 
 popular assembly. All the free inhabitants 
 of Attica were admitted to the pi-ivileges of 
 citizens, and the senate Avas inci-eased to 
 500 members, or fifty from each tribe. As 
 a precaution against the usurpation of 
 power by one man, Clisthenes introduced 
 the custom of o-ifracism. By this measure 
 any citizen could be banished without being 
 brought to trial or allowed a defence. If 
 the senate and assembly decided that such 
 a measure was necessary, each citizen wrote 
 upon a tile or oyster shell the name of the 
 person whom he wished banished. If this 
 name was found ujion six thousand ballots, 
 
 the person Avas compelled to leave Athens 
 within ten days. The term of banishment 
 was fixed at ten years, but was subsequently 
 reduced to five. 
 
 The measui'es of Clisthenes gave great 
 offence to the nobles, and their leader, 
 Isagoras, called upon the Spartans to inter- 
 vene once more in the affairs of Athens and 
 drive out the Alcmaeonidce, which was done. 
 Isagoras then proceeded, with the aid of 
 the Spartan King Cleomenes, to banish 
 seven hundred families, to dissolve the 
 senate, and to inaugurate other revolution- 
 ary changes. The people rose in arms, be- 
 sieged Isagoras and the Spartans in the 
 citadel, and allowed them to suiTender only 
 on condition of quitting the country. They 
 withdi'cw, and Clisthenes was recalled, and 
 his institutions restored. 
 
 Meanwhile Cleomenes, the Spartan king, 
 had been collecting a great army in the 
 Peloponnesus, and had formed an alliance 
 Avith the Thebans and the Chalcidians of 
 Euboea, for the purpose of reducing Athens 
 and, compelling her to submit to Isagoras 
 as tyrant. The Athenians, alarmed by the 
 power of their enemies, sought aid from 
 Persia. The Persians agreed to assist them 
 on condition of their becoming tributary', 
 but the condition was rejected with indig- 
 nation, and Athens prepared to meet the 
 storm alone. Meanwhile the allied army 
 had entered Attica. Until now, Cleomenes 
 had. concealed from his Pelopqnnesian allies 
 the real object of the invasion. Becoming 
 aware of it, they refused to take part in 
 crushing the liberties of Athens, and 
 obliged the Spartan king to abandon the 
 attempt and return home. Freed from this 
 danger, the Athenians advanced against 
 the Thebans, defeated them, and then, 
 crossing over to Euba?a, inflicted a severe 
 chastisement upon the Chalcidians. They 
 took formal possession of the island and 
 distributed the estates of the Avealthy Chal- 
 cidian land-owners among 4,000 of their 
 own citizens, who settled in Euboea under 
 the name of Cleruchi, or " lot-holders." 
 
 Sparta now endeavored to inaugurate 
 another war against Athens, this time for 
 the purpose of forcing her to accept the 
 rule of Hippias once more. The Pelopon- 
 nesiau states refused to take part in the 
 attempt, and Sparta was obliged to relin- 
 quish her design. Hippias, now an aged 
 man, had lent himself to the Sparltan 
 scheme. Upon its failure he returned to 
 the Persian court, where he busied himself 
 
240 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OE THE WORLD. 
 
 in seeking to induce Davius to replace him 
 on his throne. 
 
 Athens now entered upon a great career. 
 Proud of her successes, and conscious of her 
 strength at home, she ventured to assist the 
 Ionian Greeks in their revolt against Per- 
 sia. She did not suj^port them very heartily, 
 however, but withdrew from the league 
 upon the first reverses of the louiaus. At 
 home her policy was more successful. The 
 institutions of Clisthenes developed amoug 
 the citizens a personal interest in public 
 affairs and an ardent patriotism which sus- 
 tained them in the ordeal of the Avars with 
 Persia which marked the following century. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 Greece Incurs the Wrath of Persia — Efforts to Bring 
 About a Union of the Greek States for their Com- 
 mon Defence — Expedition of Mardonius — Its 
 Failure — Darius Demands the Submission of tiie 
 Greek States — Datis Invades Greece — Eretria 
 Taken by the Persians — The Persians Land at 
 ^larathon — Miltiades in Command of the Greeks 
 — The Battle of Marathon — Importance of the 
 Victory — Datis Attempts to Surprise Athens- 
 Fails — Sails for Asia — Subsequent Career of Mil- 
 tiades — Banishment of Aristides — Themistocles 
 Sujireme at Athens — War with ^Egina — Foresight 
 of Themistocles — He Induces the Athenians to 
 Provide a Navy — Character of Themistocles — 
 Xerxes Invades Greece — Battle of ThermopylEe— 
 Athens Deserted by its Citizens — Occupied by the 
 Persians — They Burn the City — Battle of Salamis 
 — ^Yictory of the Greeks — Xerxes Abandons the 
 Attempt to Conquer Greece — lleturns to Asia — 
 Mardonius lienews the Attempt to Conquer 
 Greece — Battle of Plattea — Destruction of the Per- 
 sian Army — Naval Victory of Mycale — Other 
 Successes of the Greeks. 
 
 C^^^^HE interference of the European 
 Greeks in the Ionian revolt drew 
 upon them the wrath of Darius,King 
 of Persia, and made it evident to the 
 Greek leaders that their country 
 would be the next object of the 
 great king's enterprise and vengeance. It 
 was clearly understood by them that the 
 Persians would not rest satisfied Avith the 
 conquest of the offending states of Athens 
 and Eretria, but would seek to bring all 
 Gieece under their sway. The danger was 
 common to the whole of Hellas, and efforts 
 were made to bring about a union of all the 
 Greek states for the common defence. 
 Sparta being the most important military 
 state, the leadership was conceded to her. 
 This union was not accomplished, however, 
 until the war had actually broken out. 
 We shall see in the course of this narrative 
 
 that the tendency to confederacies under 
 the leadership of a certain state continued 
 to exist among the Greeks long after the 
 danger which gave rise to it had passed by. 
 From this time Ave" shall find a certain de- 
 gree of unity in the afiairs of Greece, Avhich 
 the earlier history of that country does not 
 possess. 
 
 Darius had not forgotten his vow to take 
 A^engeance upon the Greeks, and in b. c. 
 492 despatched his son-in-laAV, Mardonius, 
 Avith a powerful fleet and army to Greece, 
 with orders to bring to Persia those Athen- 
 ians and Eietrians Avho had dared to defy 
 the great king. Mardonius crossed the 
 Hellespont Avith his army and marched 
 through Thrace. He encountered a serious 
 resistance at the hands of the Brygians, a 
 native tribe of that region, and although he 
 reduced them to submission, his army Avas 
 too greatly weakened to permit him to con- 
 tinue his march upon Greece. His fleet 
 was overtaken about the same time by a 
 fearful hurricane, and Avas dashed against 
 the rocky promontory of Mount Athos. A 
 number of vessels Avere destroyed, and 
 20,000 men perished in this storm. Mar- 
 donius, thoroughly disheartened, retreated 
 into Asia, and the expedition ended in 
 failure. 
 
 This failure, hoAvcA'er, did not shake the 
 resolution of Darius; it only made him the 
 more determined. He sent heralds to most 
 of the Grecian states, demanding of them 
 earth and Avater as the symbols of submis- 
 sion. The majority of the Greek states, 
 terrified by the power of the great king, 
 complied Avith his demand ; but at Athens 
 the heralds were thrown into a deep pit by 
 the indignant citizens, Avhile the Spartans 
 cast them into a Avell and bade them get 
 earth and water from thence. 
 
 In B. c. 490 Darius despatched a strong 
 army and a fleet of 600 galleys and many 
 transports, under Datis, a Mede, to conquer 
 Greece and especially to destroy Athens 
 and Eretria, in the inland Euboea, and en- 
 slaA^e their inhabitants. Datis sailed di- 
 rectly across the JEgean, reducing the 
 Cyclades on the Avay, and reaching Euboea, 
 took Eretria after a siege of six days, 
 through the treachery of two members of 
 the aristocratic party. The city Avas sacked 
 and burned, and its inhabitants placed in 
 chains on board the Persian ships. Datis 
 then crossed the Euripus, and landed at 
 Marathon, in Attica, to take vengeance 
 upon Athens. 
 
THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 241 
 
 The Athenians had by great exertions 
 assembled a force under Miltiades, Themis- 
 tocles, Aristides, and other generals. Of 
 these Miltiades was the ablest commander, 
 and had served under Darius while prince 
 of the Chersonesus. A swift courier was 
 sent to Sparta to announce the landing of 
 the Persians. The Spartans promised aid, 
 but with characteristic selfishness delayed it. 
 
 The Athenians assembled their forces on 
 the heights overlooking the plain of Mara- 
 thon, in which the immense host of the 
 Persians was encamped. Their leaders 
 were divided, some believing it best to give 
 instant battle, others preferring to await the 
 arrival of the promised aid from Sparta. 
 The arguments of Miltiades at length pre- 
 vailed, and it was resolved to attack the 
 enemy immediately. In order that the 
 army might have but a single leader, each 
 of the generals gave up his day of command 
 to Miltiades. The opportune arrival of 
 1,000 heavy-armed troops — the entire fight- 
 ing population of the little tow'u of Platiea, 
 in Boeotia — who had come to share the fate 
 of their Athenian friends through gratitude 
 for a past kindness, contributed greatly to 
 arouse the hopes of the Athenians. The 
 odds were feai'ful, however. The Greeks 
 numbered but 10,000 heavy-armed men 
 and a few lightly-armed attendants and 
 slaves. The Persians were 110,000 strong 
 at the lowest estimate. Miltiades, undis- 
 mayed by this disparity of numbers, made 
 a furious attack upon the Persians, routed 
 them, and drove them to their ships with a 
 loss of 6,400 men. Only 192 Greeks fell. 
 The tyrant Hippias is said to have been 
 slain in the battle. Datis now stood out to 
 sea, and by doubling the promontory of 
 Sunium, sought to surprise Athens during 
 the absence of its defenders. Miltiades, 
 divining his intention, reached Athens by a 
 forced night march in time to make it evi- 
 dent to Datis that his attempt Avas hopeless. 
 The Persian fleet then sailed for Asia with 
 its Eretrian prisoners. 
 
 The battle of Marathon was one of the 
 most important ever won by the Greek 
 arms. It was the first serious check ever 
 received from any quarter by Persia, and 
 taught the Greeks the value of their disci- 
 plined valor as opposed to the dense masses 
 of Asia. It gave them a respite in Avhich 
 to prepare for the final struggle for the 
 liberties of their country, and encouraged 
 them to make the effort when the greater 
 trial came upon them. 
 16 
 
 The victory was hailed Avith delight by 
 the Athenians. Miltiades was received 
 with the highest honors, and for a while he 
 was the most eminent and beloved citizen 
 of the republic. The Persians had brought 
 with them a block of white marble which 
 they meant to erect as a trophy upon the 
 field of Marathon in honor of the victory 
 they anticipated. It was carved by Phidias 
 into a gigantic figure of Nemesis. The 
 brazen Aveapons and shields of the Persians 
 were cast into a colossal statue of Athene 
 Promachos, which Avas set up in the Acropo- 
 lis, and could be seen from the sea far 
 beyond the promontory of Sunium. The 
 192 heroes Avho fell in the battle were 
 buried in the field, and a mound or tumulus 
 was raised over them. 
 
 GREEK WHIELD. 
 
 Miltiades AA'Ould have been fortunate had 
 he died on the field of his glory. He now 
 tarnished his fairly-AVon fame by a gross 
 abuse of the confidence of the citizens, Avith 
 which his career came to a melancholy end. 
 He asked for a fleet of seventy ships and a 
 large supply of money, promising the Athen- 
 ians to secure them important additions to 
 their possessions, but without telling them 
 the object of the expedition. So great Avas 
 the public confidence in his integrity that 
 his request Avas unhesitatingly granted. 
 He used the expedition to Avreak his private 
 vengeance upon the island of Pares, which 
 had oftended him. Pares resisted his eflforts, 
 and he received a dangerous Avound in his 
 attempt to take the city. Disheartened, he 
 raised the siege and returned to Athens in 
 disgrace. He Avas accused by Xanthippus, 
 the leader of the aristocracy, of having de- 
 
242 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ceived the people, and was brought to trial. 
 Being unable to walk, he was borne into 
 the presence of his judges on his couch. 
 He disdained to make any defence but the 
 story of his services. Though he had mer- 
 ited death according to the laws, the people 
 refused to put to death the victor of Mara- 
 thon. He was lined in the sum of fifty 
 talents, probably the cost of the expedition. 
 He was unable to raise the fine at once — it 
 was subsequently paid by his son Ciraon — 
 and died soon afterwards from the effect of 
 his wound. 
 
 The death of Miltiades left Aristides the 
 leading citizen of Athens. Though an aris- 
 tocrat by birth, he was ardently devoted to 
 the interests of the people, and his stern in- 
 tegrity won him the surname of " the just." 
 His chief rival was Themistocles, one of the 
 ablest and most ambitious of the Greeks. 
 He succeeded at length in procuring the 
 ostracism of Aristides — a mere jjartisan 
 measure, for the Athenians could not lay 
 to the charge of Aristides any act which 
 deserved such a punishment. 
 
 Themistocles was now supreme in Athens, 
 without a rival. He was a man of vast 
 abilities, and his acute mind conceived a 
 plan for preparing Athens to meet the 
 supreme effort which he believed Persia 
 would yet make for the conquest of Greece. 
 Since the victory at Marathon war had been 
 going on between Athens and ^Egiua, the 
 quarrel having grown out of the disputes 
 connected with the Persian invasion and 
 the hatred which had always existed be- 
 tween the two states. In the end this war 
 proved the greatest blessing that could have 
 befallen the republic, ^gina Avas at this 
 time the strongest naval j^ower of Greece. 
 Athens, on the contrary, had no navy. 
 Themistocles, appreciating the importance 
 of a powerful fleet in the approaching con- 
 flict with Persia, determined to make the 
 ^^ginetan war the occasion of providing 
 such a fleet for Athens. Had he exj^osed 
 his real design he would have been laughed 
 at, for few of his countrymen comprehended 
 the intentions of Persia. He therefore ap- 
 pealed to the Athenians to construct a fleet 
 which should surpass that of ^gina, and to 
 apply to this purpose the revenues arising 
 from the silver mines at Laurium. His 
 advice was acted upon and a fleet of 200 
 ships of war was ordered to be built, and a 
 decree was passed for the construction of 
 twenty new ships every year. Thus the 
 foresight and statesmanship of Themistocles 
 
 made it possible for the great victory of 
 Salamis to be won. Had the integrity of 
 Themistocles been equal to his ability, his 
 would have been one of the noblest names 
 of Hellas. In the sagacity with w'hich he 
 divined the plans of his antagonists, the un- 
 erring genius with which he seized upon 
 the proper course of action in the most 
 difficult emergencies, and the rapid and 
 tireless energy with which he put his plans 
 into execution, Themistocles ranks with the 
 greatest statesmen the world has ever 
 known. 
 
 The wisdom of Themistocles was vindi- 
 cated by the extensive preparations made 
 by Xerxes for the invasion of Greece. 
 These preparations soon became known in 
 Greece, and efforts were begun by Athens 
 and Sparta to unite all the Greek states for 
 their common defence. The most impor- 
 tant of these was the assembling of a con- 
 gress of the Greek states at the Isthmus of 
 Corinth, at the call of Athens and Sparta. 
 Though a number of the states refused to 
 take part in it through fear of Persia — pre- 
 ferring the loss of their liberties to the 
 sacrifices demanded of them by the ap- 
 l^roaching war — the congress was, in the 
 main, successful. Measures Avere taken for 
 a vigorous defence, and the militaiy leader- 
 ship was conceded to Sparta. 
 
 The preparations of Xerxes, the son and 
 successor of Darius, for the invasion of 
 Greece, have already been related in our 
 account of the history of Persia. In the 
 spring of B. c. 480 he entered Greece at the 
 head of a vast army, followed closely along 
 the shore by his superb fleet. He advanced 
 through Thrace and Macedonia into Thes- 
 saly. The Greeks made no attempt to hold 
 Thessaly, but stationed a small force, under 
 the Spartan King Leonidas, at the pass of 
 Thermojiylre, the key to central Greece, to 
 hold it until their main army could be as- 
 sembled, while a strong detachment of the 
 allied fleet Avas stationed at Artemesium to 
 hold the narrow strait and prcA-ent the en- 
 emy from landing troops at the southern end 
 of the pass. The force of Leonidas con- 
 sisted of about 7,000 men, of Avhom 300 
 were Spartans, 3,000 heavy armed troops 
 from the other Peloponuesian states, 700 
 Thespians, 400 Thebans whom Leonidas had 
 obliged Thebes to furnish, 1,000 Phocians, 
 and a strong body of Opuntian Locrians. 
 Upon reaching the Thermopylae Leonidas 
 learned for the first time that there Avas a 
 path leading over the summit of the moun- 
 
THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 243 
 
 tain by which the pass could be turned. At 
 their own request, he stationed the Phocians 
 on the mountain to hold this pass. 
 
 Xerxes waited four days for the Grecian 
 forces to retire from the pass, refusing to 
 believe that they would venture to resist 
 him. On the fifth day he moved forward a 
 body of picked Median troops to storm the 
 pass. They were repulsed, and the Immor- 
 tals were sent to renew the effort, but with 
 DO better success. The attack was resumed 
 the next day, with the same result. A Ma- 
 lian, named Ephialtes, now betrayed to the 
 Persian king the secret of the path over the 
 mountain. Waiting until night, Xerxes sent 
 the Immortals across the mountain by this 
 path, guided by the traitor, to turn the posi- 
 tion of the Greeks, and assail their rear while 
 he renewed the attack in front. They set 
 off at nightfall, and by daybreak the next 
 morning reached the position of the Phoci- 
 ans, who, instead of disputing the path, re- 
 treated to the summit of the mountain. 
 The Persians paid no further attention to 
 them, but began their descent of the south- 
 ern side of the mountain. 
 
 Leonidas was promptly informed of the 
 danger which threatened him, and sum- 
 moned a council of war. The council de- 
 cided that as the pass had been turned, the 
 army should fall back before the Immortals 
 cut off its retreat, as their lives were valu- 
 able for the future defence of Greece. Le- 
 onidas gave all who desired to retreat leave 
 to do so. As for himself, he said, he was a 
 Spartan, and the laws of his country required 
 him to conquer or to die at his post. He 
 should therefore remain ; and he was the 
 more ready to sell his life as the oracle had 
 declared that either Sparta or its king must 
 fall. The three hundred Spartans refused 
 to abandon their heroic sovereign, and the 
 seven hundred Thespians resolved to share 
 their fate. Leonidas compelled the four 
 hundred Theban hostages to remain. 
 
 About noon, feeling sure that the Immor- 
 tals had reached the rear of the pass, Xerxes 
 made another attempt to storm it. Leoni- 
 das had at the first fortified the pass by 
 building a wall across it, but the Greeks 
 now sallied out from behind the Avail and 
 attacked the Persians wdth desperate valor. 
 They inflicted a heavy loss upon them, and 
 so great was the terror which this handful 
 of heroes inspii'ed, that it was only by a 
 vigorous use of the lash that the Persians 
 could be driven to face them. As long as 
 the Greeks kept their ranks unbroken they 
 
 were invincible. At last, how^ever, their 
 spears were broken, and they had only their 
 swords. Then the Persians began to gain 
 ground. Leonidas was slain, and the Per- 
 sians made four distinct attempts to gain 
 possession of his body. Each time they 
 were beaten back by the Greeks with great 
 loss. The Immortals now came up from 
 the other end of the pass. The Thebans 
 begged for quarter, declaring that they had 
 been forced into the conflict against their 
 will, and their lives were spared. The sur- 
 viving Spartans and Thesi:)ians, scorning to 
 yield, were slain. Only one man escaped 
 to Sjjarta to tell the tale, and was thei'e re- 
 ceived with contempt, because he had not 
 shared the fate of his comrades. When 
 the freedom of Greece had been won, a mar- 
 ble lion was set up in the pass, in honor of 
 Leonidas. Two monuments were erected to 
 commemorate the heroism of his followers. 
 On the first was an inscription stating that 
 "four thousand Peloponnesians had there 
 fought Avith three hundred myriads of their 
 
 COIN OF CYPRUS 
 
 foes." The second was in memory of the 
 three hundred Spartans, and bore this in- 
 scription : "Go, stranger, and tell the 
 Spartans that w'e obeyed the laws, and lie 
 here ! " 
 
 In the meantime the fleets had not been 
 idle. Several engagements had taken place, 
 in which the Greeks had been generally 
 successful, and had displayed a boldness and 
 skill which astounded the Persians. The 
 latter were not a little disheartened by the 
 loss of four hundred of their ships of war, 
 and a large number of transports laden 
 with stores and treasures, which were dashed 
 ashore on the rocks by a hurricane, which 
 raged furiously for three days . and nights. 
 A second tempest did considerable damage to 
 the main body of the Persian fleet, and utterly 
 destroyed a detachment of two hundred ships 
 which had been sent around Eubwa to cut 
 off the retreat of the Greek squadron from 
 Artemesium. The loss of Thermopylae now 
 obliged the Greek vessels to retire to the 
 southward. This was done at once, and, 
 
244 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 doubling the promontory of Sunium, the 
 fleet cast anchor in the bay of Salamis. The 
 Persian army at once advanced into central 
 Greece, and was followed by its fleet, wjiich 
 sailed down the Eurijxis. 
 
 But for the courage and resolution of 
 Themistocles, Greece would now have been 
 lost. The Spartans refused to send any 
 land force to the assistance of Athens, and 
 applied their army to the task of fortifying 
 the Isthmus of Corinth for the protection of 
 their own territories. It was with the great- 
 est difficulty that Themistocles prevailed 
 uj^on the Spartan admiral to remain at Sa- 
 lamis until measures could be taken for the 
 safety of the Athenians. Seeing that Athens 
 could not be held against Xerxes, he exer- 
 ted himself to remove the inhabitants in 
 order to save them from captivity. The 
 Athenians were unwilling to leave their be- 
 loved city, and Themistocles was obliged to 
 resort to a stratagem to secure their re- 
 moval. The old men and the women and 
 children were sent to Salamis, -(Egina, and 
 Troezene ; but all the able-bodied men Avent 
 on board the fleet. The Persians, upon 
 reaching Athens, found it a deserted city. 
 A few fanatics, trusting in the protection of 
 Athene, had thrown themselves into the 
 citadel. These were overpowered and put 
 to the sword, and Athens was laid in ashes. 
 At the same time the Persian fleet anchored 
 in the Bay of Phalerum. 
 
 A new danger to Greece now arose. The 
 commanders of the fleet, with the exception 
 of Themistocles, resolved to withdraw from 
 Salamis and take position nearer the isth- 
 mus in order to cooperate with the land 
 forces in the defence of the Peloj^onuesus. 
 This movement would have left the wives 
 and families of the Athenians at the mercy 
 of the invaders. Themistocles opposed it 
 with all his energy, both for this reason and 
 because he was convinced that the true pol- 
 icy of the Greeks was to bring on the deci- 
 sive battle in the nari'ow strait, where the 
 advantages were all with them. Finding 
 the other commanders bent upon their self- 
 ish policy, he resorted to a characteristic 
 stratagem. .He sent a message to Xerxes, 
 informing him of the division in the Greek 
 councils, and urged him to attack their fleet 
 at once, and at the same time detained the 
 allies at Salamis by his threats and argu- 
 ments until the Persian king could act upon 
 his information. He thus prevented the 
 selfish and suicidal plan of the allies from 
 being acted upon. Xerxes at once resolved 
 
 to accept the suggestion of Themistocles, 
 and stationed his fleet on the Attic side of 
 the Strait of Salamis, a movement which 
 rendered the retreat of the Greeks impossi- 
 ble. The Persian ships outnumbered their 
 antagonists three to one, but as soon as the 
 news of their movement was communicated 
 to the Greek commanders, preparations were 
 made for battle. The news was brought by 
 Aristides, who had returned from his exile 
 to share the fate of his countrymen. The 
 next morning the hostile fleets confronted 
 each other, ready for the struggle which 
 was to decide the fate of Greece and of the 
 world. 
 
 In the morning a Avind usually arose, and 
 caused a heavy swell in the channel. The- 
 mistocles succeeded in delaying the attack 
 until this swell had arisen to the great in- 
 convenience of the cumbrous ships of the 
 Persians. The lighter vessels of the Greeks 
 were not affected by it. They dashed at 
 their enemy with ease, drove their brazen 
 prows through their sides, and sunk them. 
 The Athenians were opposed to the Phoeni- 
 cians, while the Peloponnesians confronted 
 the Ionian allies of the Persians. The bat- 
 tle lasted all day, and towards evening the 
 Persian fleet, defeated and disheartened, 
 abandoned the Straits of Salamis. Two 
 hundred of the enemy's ships were de- 
 stroyed and sunk by the Greeks, and a large 
 number captured with all their crews. 
 Xerxes had stationed a body of troops on 
 the little island of Psyttaleia to assist such 
 Persian vessels, and destroy such Greek ships 
 as might be driven upon the island. When 
 the defeat of the Persian fleet was complete, 
 Aristides with a body of Athenians crossed 
 to the island and put the Persians to the 
 sword. The Greeks lost forty shij^s in the 
 naval battle. 
 
 The defeat of his fleet utterly disheart- 
 ened Xerxes, and, as has been related, he 
 at once passed from the lofty heights of self- 
 confidence to the depths of despair. He 
 instantly abandoned the invasion of Greece, 
 and retreated towards the Hellespont, send- 
 ing the fleet at the same time back to Asia. 
 Mardonius was left to attempt the conquest 
 of Greece the next year. 
 
 In the spring of B. c. 479, Mardonius 
 endeavored to detach the Athenians from 
 the Grecian league. Failing in this he in- 
 vaded Attica. The Athenians a second 
 time took refuge in Salamis, and their de- 
 serted city was occupied by the Persians. 
 The Athenians demanded aid of Sparta. 
 
THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 
 
 245 
 
 An answer was delayed for ten days. The 
 Athenian envoys, disgusted with the selfish 
 policy of Sparta, now declared that unless 
 aid were immediately forthcoming their 
 countrymen wijuld make terms with Persia, 
 and leave Sparta to her fate. The Ephors 
 now acted with vigor. They sent a force 
 of 45,000 men, of whom 5,000 were Spartans, 
 against the Persians, under their new regent 
 Pausanias. Mardonius at once abandoned 
 Atliens, and retreated into Boeotia, where 
 he took position near the city of Plati?ea. 
 Pausanias, reinforced by the contingents 
 from Athens and the other Greek states, 
 followed him. A decisive battle was fought 
 under the walls of Platsea, in which the Per- 
 sians and their allies of northern Greece 
 were routed with fearful loss. Mardonius 
 was slain, and but 40,000 men of all his im- 
 mense army escaped. His camp with all 
 its treasures fell into the hands of the vic- 
 tors. The field of battle was made sacred 
 by the Greeks, and its guardianship was 
 intrusted to the Platteans, to attack whom 
 it was solemnly declared was sacrilege. 
 
 On the same day another success crowned 
 the Greek arms. The Persian fleet and a 
 strong land force were defefited by the 
 Greek fleet at Mycale in Ionia, in Asia Minor. 
 
 Greece was now free from danger at the 
 hands of the Persians. The victory of 
 Salamis and the destruction of the army of 
 Mardonius, had so disheartened Xerxes 
 that he thought no more of military glory, 
 but gave himself u]) to pleasure. His dis- 
 asters might have been retrieved had he 
 made the effort, but they changed his entire 
 character, and from this time he ceased to 
 be a formidable enemy of the Greeks. The 
 power of the great king in the Mediterranean 
 was so thoroughly destroyed that for twelve 
 years no Persian sail ventured to show itself 
 in those waters. The Greeks were thus at 
 liberty to revenge the injuries their enemies 
 had inflicted upon them. A fleet of fifty 
 ships was fitted out for the purpose of 
 rescuing every Greek city in Europe or 
 Asia from the Persian dominion. Athens 
 furnished the majority of the vessels, but 
 the command was given to the Spartan 
 Pausanias. He drove the Persians out of 
 Cyprus, and then passing through the Hel- 
 lespont, took Byzantium, and made it his 
 residence for seven years. The Athenians, 
 after a long siege, regained Sestos, the col- 
 ony which had been founded in the Thra- 
 ciau Chersonese by Miltiades, the uncle of 
 the hero of ^Marathon. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE SUPREMACY OF ATHEXS. 
 
 The Persian War really Beneficial to Atliens — The 
 City Rebuilt u)X)n a Better Plan — Tt is Fortified — 
 Jealousy of Sparta — Themistocles Baffles the Spar- 
 tans — Importance of Athens in Greek Affairs — 
 Pausanias Re.uoved from the Command of the 
 Greek Fleet — An Athenian Admiral Appointed — 
 Formation of the Confederacy of Delos, with Ath- 
 ens at its Head — Scyros made Tributary to Athens 
 — Athens the Leading State of Greece — Treason 
 of Pausanias — His Death — Downfall of Themisto- 
 cles — Death of Aristides — Cimon — Chancres in the 
 Confederacy of Delos — Successes of Cimon — Re- 
 volt of the Helots — Sparta asks Aid of Athens — 
 Insults the Athenian Army — Fall of Cimon — Rise 
 of the Democratic Party at Athens — Pericles in 
 Power — His Measures against Sparta — The War 
 with Persia Continued — Victories of Athens over 
 Corinth, Epidaurus, and JLgina~-The Long Walls 
 of Atliens Constructed — Efibrts of Sparta "against 
 Athens — Patriotism of Cimon — He is Recalled to 
 Athens — Battle of CEnophyta — Sparta Humbled — 
 Quarrel About the Deljihian Oracle— War with 
 Sjiarta Renewed — Athens Loses Bo'ntia — Great- 
 ness of Athens under Pericles — He Beautifies the 
 City— The Parthenon Built— The Intellectual Su- 
 premacy of Athens Established — Disaffection of 
 the Members of the Confederacy of Delos — Rebel- 
 lion of Samos — It is Crushed. 
 
 HE Persian war, though apparently 
 so disastrous to Athens, proved in 
 the end the source of her greatness. 
 The sacrifices Avhich it demanded 
 from them aroused in the Athen- 
 ians a patriotism, and revealed to 
 them the possession of a power of w^hich 
 they had not been conscious. Themistocles 
 had saved the Athenian people by causing 
 them to abandon their city to its fate and 
 trust to their ships, and the great victory 
 of Salamis and the subsequent successes 
 against Persia had shown him the true 
 policy to be pursued in the future. In 
 order to be a great state Athens must be- 
 come a great naval power. To this end all 
 classes of the people now devoted them- 
 selves. 
 
 Returning home from their enforced ex- 
 ile in Salamis, vEgina,, and Trcezene, the 
 Athenians found their city a heap of ruins. 
 Providing temporary shelter for their fami- 
 lies, they began the rebuilding of the city 
 ujion a larger and more magnificent scale, 
 and decided to fortify it with a Avail. The 
 construction of the wall gave great oflfence 
 to the allies, Avho feared any increase in the 
 strength of Athens, and the ^ginetans ap- 
 pealed to the Spartans to put a stop to the 
 work. Sparta could not decently under- 
 take sucli a step by force, but, always jeal- 
 ous of Athens, endeavored to accomplish by 
 craft what she did not venture to attempt 
 
246 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 \\\ a more open manner. She found her 
 match in Thomistocles, whose adroitness 
 gained a delay for the Athenians which en- 
 abled them to carry their walls so far for- 
 ward that it was no longer possible for 
 Sparta to stop the work without open war. 
 He then boldly defended the course of his 
 countrymen, and Sparta was obliged to 
 sanction the completion of the walls, and to 
 acknowledge herself outwitted. Athens 
 being safe, Themistocles enclosed Pirieus 
 and Munychia with a strong wall, and im- 
 proved and enlarged the harbor that it 
 might serve as a safe and ample shelter for 
 the superb fleet he designed for his country. 
 The work of rebuilding the city was rapidly 
 prosecuted. Themistocles also secured im- 
 portant changes in the constitution by which 
 the humblest citizens were made eligible to 
 the highest honors in the state. 
 
 TJIE ACUUi'uJ.lS AT ATllKM.s, AS IT WAS. 
 
 Athens had now grown beyond the insig- 
 nificant position in which the Persian war 
 had found her, and had fairly entered upon 
 her great career as the leading state of 
 Greece. She had furnished thirty ships to 
 the fleet sent out by the Greek cities to re- 
 lieve their Asiatic brethren after PlatiJea 
 and Mycale. The command of the exj^edi- 
 tion had been assigned to Pausanias, as has 
 been stated. Elated by his success at Pla- 
 t!?ea, Pausanias dreamed of becoming a still 
 greater personage, and was willing to sacri- 
 fice his country to his ambition. He en- 
 tered into secret negotiations with Xerxes, 
 and his conduct towards his countrymen 
 was so insolent and overbearing that the 
 Greek commanders became alarmed, and 
 suspecting his true intentions, demanded his 
 lecall. Before the arrival of the new Spar- 
 
 tan commander, the Ionian Greeks, distrust- 
 ing Sparta, and feeling that the naval supe- 
 riority of the Athenians entitled them to 
 the first place in the expedition, requested 
 Aristides and Cimon to assume the chief 
 command of the allied fleet. Their request 
 was at once granted, and when Dorcis, the 
 new Spartan admiral, arrived, he did not 
 venture to interfere with this arrangement. 
 Nor was this merely a measure which 
 aflfected the fleet. It was a revolution of 
 the entire Grecian system, and constituted 
 a long step on the part of Athens to the 
 supremacy in Greece. Under the wise 
 guidance of Aristides, who was quick to 
 secure the advantage thus offered, a league 
 was formed in which the Athenians, lon- 
 ians, the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Lesbos, 
 and Tenedos, Miletus, the Greek towns of 
 the Chalcidian peninsula and Byzantium, 
 bound themselves to 
 mutually assist each 
 other in resisting the 
 aggressions of Persia. 
 The league was de- 
 signed to embrace all 
 who sought in the 
 maritime power of 
 Athens a protection 
 against Persia. The 
 details of the league 
 were arranged by 
 Aristides, who, while 
 he secured the leader- 
 ship to Athens, gave 
 entire satisfaction to 
 all the other members 
 by his fairness. A 
 tax, called phoros, 
 was assessed upon 
 1 each member, and officers were appointed to 
 1 levy and collect it. The treasury and place 
 of meeting of the deputies charged with the 
 direction of the league were located in the 
 sacred island of Delos, from which the 
 union was known as the Confederacy of 
 Delos. 
 
 Soon after the formation of this league, 
 Aristides returned to Athens, and was suc- 
 ceeded in the command of the fleet by 
 Cimon. About b. c. 475, Cimon captured 
 the city of Eion, on the Strymou, and about 
 B. c. 470, expelled the inhabitants of the 
 island of Scyros, who had been declared 
 guilty of piracy by the Amphictyonic 
 Council, and colonized it with Athenians, 
 thus gaining an important naval station 
 for Athens, and taking the first decisive 
 step in the brief but brilliant career of 
 
THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 
 
 247 
 
 aggrandizement upon which the Athenians 
 now entered. 
 
 Sparta had bitterly resented the forma- 
 tion of the Confederacy of Delos, which she 
 regarded as an encroachment upon her 
 supremacy, but the dread that Persia might 
 renew her efforts at conquest induced her to 
 allow the Athenians to have their own way 
 for the time. A little later the last vestige 
 of supreme power was lost by the miscon- 
 duct of her leaders, and was seized by the 
 active and daring Athenians. The genius 
 of Themistocles had raised Athens to a posi- 
 tion which entitled her to the first place in 
 Greece, and the wisdom and virtue of Aris- 
 tides enabled her to gain it without offend- 
 ing her allies at a time when their friend- 
 ship was all important to her. The influence 
 of Aristides was now stronger in Athens 
 than that of his rival. The utter lack of 
 principle in the character of Themistocles, 
 and the well-grounded belief of the Athen- 
 ians that he had accepted bribes in his 
 settlement of the affairs of the Greek 
 islands, had greatly weakened their confi- 
 dence in him. The aristocratic party, led 
 by Cimon, opposed him because of his re- 
 forms, which increased the influence of the 
 common people at their expense. When 
 Pausanias was recalled from Byzantium, 
 Themistocles was charged with complicity 
 in his treason, but was triumphantly ac- 
 quitted. His acquittal, however, gave rise 
 to such intense bitterness of party spirit 
 that he was ostracised. He retired to Argos, 
 indignant at this treatment, which was a 
 sorry return for his great services to the 
 state. Five years later, Pausanias, being 
 detected in his treasonable correspondence 
 with the Persians, fled to the temple of 
 Athene of the Brazen House for refuge. 
 Unable to remove him without incurring 
 the guilt of sacrilege, the ephors blocked up 
 the entrances to the temple and removed 
 the roof, and left him to die of starvation 
 and exposure to the elements. When at 
 the point of death, he was removed from 
 the temple, lest his dead body should pol- 
 lute the sanctuary. So died the victor of 
 Platrea. 
 
 After the death of Pausanias, proofs 
 were discovered among his papers which 
 made it clear that Themistocles, who was 
 undoubtedly an innocent man when first 
 charged with the crime, had become a party 
 to the plot with Persia. A council of the 
 allies, assembled at Sparta, ordered his 
 arrest. He sought safety in flight, and suc- 
 
 ceeded, after a series of remarkable adven- 
 tures, in reaching the Persian court, where 
 he was kindly received. He was assigned 
 a residence at Magnesia, where he died, 
 B. c. 449. 
 
 The death of Aristides, in b. c. 468, left 
 Cimon, the leader of the aristocratic party, 
 the most influential man in Athens. He 
 was immensely wealthy, and he used his 
 money freely in beautifying his native city, 
 and in contributing to the expenses of the 
 state. Naxos, the largest of the Cyclades, 
 alarmed by the fact that Athens was using 
 the power and wealth of the Confederacy 
 of Delos for her own aggrandizement, with- 
 drew from the league, and was reduced by 
 Cimon at the head of a confederate fleet, 
 and made tributary to Athens. About the 
 same time the smaller states of the league 
 asked and received permission to make an 
 annual payment of money into the con- 
 federate treasury instead of furnishing their 
 quota of ships. Thus they deprived them- 
 selves of their only means of resisting 
 Athens, whose navy was maintained at its 
 maximum strength. In the same year 
 Cimon, with a fleet of 300 ships, 200 of 
 which were Athenian, expelled the Persians 
 from several towns in Caria, and Lycia, in 
 Asia Minor, and defeated them by sea and 
 land at the mouth of the Eurymedon, in 
 Pamphylia. Returning home he encoun- 
 tered and destroyed a squadron of eighty 
 ships coming to reinforce the Persian fleet, 
 ignorant of its defeat. These successes en- 
 tirely broke the Persian power, and drove 
 them from the Mediterranean and the coast 
 of Asia Minor, and wex-e regarded as amoug 
 the greatest ever won by the Greeks. 
 Cimon, though a political opponent of 
 Themistocles, pursued the domestic and 
 foreign policy of that statesman with vigor. 
 The Athenians now undertook to plant a 
 line of colonies in Thrace. Being opposed 
 by the people of Thasos, who had valuable 
 possessions in Thrace, war ensued between 
 Athens and that island. About B. c. 463, 
 Thasos was subdued, and made tributary to 
 Athens, into whose hands passed also the 
 Thasian fleet and the possessions of that 
 state in Thrace. 
 
 The Thasians in their extremity had 
 asked aid of Sparta, which, though an ally 
 of Athens, did not hesitate to prepare 
 secretly to attack the latter. The execu- 
 tion of this design was prevented by the 
 destruction of the city of Sparta and 20,000 
 of its citizens by a fearful earthquake, iu 
 
248 
 
THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 
 
 249 
 
 B. c. 464. The Helots took advantage of 
 the misfortunes of their masters to rise in 
 rebellion, and being joined by the Messen- 
 ians, they fortified themselves in Mount 
 Ithome, in Messenia, and pressed the Spar- 
 tans so hard that they were obliged to ask 
 aid of their allies, among others of Athens, 
 Avhose destruction they were plotting at the 
 moment of their misfortune. The earth- 
 quake was but the crowning event of a 
 long series of disasters which had greatly 
 weakened the power and influence of 
 Sparta. 
 
 The Spartan appeal was warmly seconded 
 by Cimon and the aristocratic party. The 
 influence of that leader was already on the 
 wane. His Thasian expedition had dis- 
 appointed his countrymen, who had ex- 
 pected nothing less than the conquest of 
 Thrace or Macedonia. Pericles indeed had 
 charged him with being bribed by the 
 ]\[acedonian king to leave him in peace. 
 His appeal in behalf of Sparta Avas suc- 
 cessful, however, and he was despatched 
 to her aid Avith a force of 4,000 heavy- 
 armed troops. Conscious of their own 
 treachery towards their ally, the Spartans 
 suspected the fidelity of the Athenians, and 
 took the first opportunity to dismiss them. 
 This they did abruptly, saying they had 
 no further need of their sei'vices. At the 
 same time they retained the troops fur- 
 nished by their other allies. The jiretext 
 was that the Athenians, Avho were noted for 
 their skill in siege oj^erations, had failed to 
 take Ithome. Cimon returned home not 
 only unsuccessful, but under the cloud of 
 this studied insult which had been put upon 
 his country by the state he had so earnestly 
 sought to serve. His political influence 
 was for the time at an end. 
 
 The democratic party now rose into 
 power under the leadership of Pericles. 
 Pericles was of noble birth, his mother 
 being descended from the princes of Sicyon 
 and the Alcmreonidoe, Avhile through his 
 fathei*, Xanthippus, he was connected with 
 Pisistratus, whom he is said to have re- 
 sembled in person. He was grave and 
 reserved in manner, of noble bearing and 
 a strikingly handsome countenance. He 
 kept -himself secluded from society, and 
 appeared in public only on occasions of 
 note, wisely considering that such a course 
 would increase, rather than diminish, the 
 interest with which the people regarded 
 him. As a military leader, he was inferior 
 to either Themistocles or Cimon, but his 
 
 intellectual gifts were many, and had been 
 carefully trained by constant intercourse 
 with Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Zeno and 
 other philosophers. He was a master of 
 eloquence, which he had carefully studied, 
 and is said to have been the first Athenian 
 to commit his speeches to writing. 
 
 He promptly took advantage of the ill 
 success of Cimon at Ithome to strike a 
 decisive bloAV at the aristocratic party. He 
 made some important changes in the con- 
 stitution, which weakened the influence of 
 the aristocracy and increased the power of 
 the commons. As a result of the contro- 
 versy, Cimon was ostracised, and condemned 
 to a ten years' banishment. 
 
 Pericles was thus without a rival at 
 Athens. His policy aimed at securing to 
 Athens the supremacy by land as well as 
 sea, and was thus an advance upon that of 
 Themistocles. Retaining her position as 
 leader in the struggle against Persia, but 
 treating this as a secondary matter, he 
 directed her main efforts to acquiring such 
 authority and influence in central and 
 northern Greece as would make her superior 
 to Sparta as a laud poAver. To accomplish 
 this he cultivated friendly relations and 
 alliances with such of the Peloponnesian 
 states as were jealous of Sparta, and took 
 advantage of the bad feeling caused by the 
 insult offered to Athens by the Lacedaemon- 
 ians in dismissing her troops, to urge his 
 countrymen to renounce the Spartan alli- 
 ance. Argos had seized the occasion 
 offered by the troubles of Sparta to conquer 
 Mycenae, Tiryns, and some neighboring 
 towns, and Avith this state thus strengthened 
 Athens made an alliance, and, a little later, 
 Avith Megara. This last alliance gave 
 Athens the control of the passes by which 
 the Peloponnesiaa army must enter central 
 Greece, and also the control of the Crissrean 
 Gulf Naturally this step gave serious 
 ofl^ence to Sparta. In order to strengthen 
 Megara the Athenians connected it Avith its 
 port of Nispea by tAvo parallel lines of Avails 
 Avhich they garrisoned Avith their own 
 troops. 
 
 Meanwhile the contest with Persia was 
 continued. The fleet of the Confederacy of 
 Delos Avatched the Asiatic shore, and about 
 B. c 460 the revolt of Inarus, in Egypt, 
 gave the Greeks an opportunity of Aveaken- 
 ing Persia in that quarter by aiding the 
 rebellion of one of her most important proA'- 
 inces. Aid Avas sent to Egypt; Avith Avhat 
 result has already been related. 
 
250 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Corinth, Epidaurus, and ^gina, alarmed 
 by the growth of the Athenian power, and 
 the evident subordination of the confederacy 
 to the purposes of Athens, endeavored to 
 put a stop to what they considered a dan- 
 gerous ambition. The allies were defeated 
 in a naval battle near uJEgina. The ^gin- 
 etans lost the best part of their fleet. On 
 land the Corinthians were decisively de- 
 feated, and the power of Athens was 
 strengthened by these successes. Sparta 
 was still engaged in the siege of Ithome, 
 and though anxiously desiring to see her 
 rival crippled, was obliged to remain a 
 spectator of the contest. 
 
 Foreseeing the troubles about to burst 
 upon his country, Pericles now caused the 
 construction of " the Long AValls " by which 
 Athens was united to its ports of Piraeus 
 and Phalerum. The wall from Athens to 
 Phalerum was four miles, and that to 
 Piraeus four and one-half miles in length. 
 These gigantic works were the wonder of 
 the time, and were the especial pride of 
 the Athenians. 
 
 Sparta now resolved to strike a blow at 
 Athens in spite of the Helot war. Under 
 the pretext of assisting the Dorians, whose 
 territory had been invaded by the Phocians, 
 she sent a force of 1,500 heavy-armed Spar- 
 tan troops and 10,000 allies into Doris. 
 The Phocians at once retired, and the 
 Spartan army began the execution of the 
 real design of the expedition, which was 
 the destruction of the Athenian power in 
 Bceotia. Sparta herself had united in pun- 
 ishing Thebes for her alliance with Persia 
 in the battle of Platsea. The Spartan army 
 now sought to undo this work by rebuild- 
 ing the walls of Thebes and reducing the 
 Boeotian cities to obedience to her. The 
 aristocratic party in Athens, which had 
 vainly opposed the construction of the Long 
 Walls, now invited the Spartans to invade 
 Attica, put a stop to this work, and destroy 
 the democratic rule. The Spartans accepted 
 the invitation, and took jwsition at Tana- 
 gra, on the border of Attica. The Athenian 
 government, suspecting the design, rapidly 
 collected such troops as could be spared 
 from the siege of ^gina, which was still in 
 progress, and marched against the Spartans, 
 B. c. 457. A bloody battle ensued. The 
 Thessalians deserted to the Lacedaemonians 
 in the heat of the battle, and this defeeti£>n 
 gave them the victory. Their own losses, 
 however, prevented them from invading At- 
 tica, and they retired into the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Previous to the battle, Cimon, who had 
 been strongly suspected of being engaged 
 in the treasonable plot of his party, hastened 
 to the Athenian camp from his place of 
 exile, and earnestly begged leave to fight 
 against his country's enemies. His request 
 was refused, and he withdrew, but first 
 charged a large body of his most devoted 
 friends, who were in the Athenian ranks, 
 to spare no effort to relieve themselves 
 from the foul suspicion of treachery. They 
 bore themselves so gallantly in the battle 
 that they entirely dispelled the suspicions 
 which had attached to them and to their 
 leader. Upon the return of the army to 
 Athens, Pericles proposed and carried a 
 decree revoking Cimon's banishment. 
 
 The next year, b. c. 456, the Athenians 
 marched into Boeotia, and defeating the 
 Bceotians at CEnophyta, revoked all the 
 Spartans had done and re-established their 
 own power, together Avith a democratic 
 form of government. Phocis and Locris 
 were soon afterwards added to these acquisi- 
 tions. In B. c. 455 JCgina Avas reduced 
 and made a tributary ally, and the Long 
 Walls were completed. An Athenian fleet 
 sailed around the Peloponnesus and burned 
 the Lacedaemonian ports of Methone and 
 Gythium. Ithome had been evacuated by 
 the Helots and Messenians in the same 
 year, and these were settled by the Athenian 
 admiral in Naupactus, a town of the Ozo- 
 lian Locrians, near the mouth of the Cor- 
 inthian Gulf. This expedition also com- 
 pelled the islands of Zacynthus and Cephal- 
 lenia to join the Athenian alliance. Athens 
 was now the supreme power in central and 
 northern Greece and in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Sparta made no further effort to resist 
 the advance of Athens, but in B. c. 452 
 concluded a five years' truce with that city. 
 In the same year Cimon sailed to Cyprus 
 to wrest that island from the Persians. He 
 formed the siege of Citium, after sending a 
 part of his fleet to Egypt to assist the re- 
 volted King Amyrtaeus, who still held out 
 in the Delta ; but he died shortly after the 
 siege began. The command now devolved 
 on Anaxicrates, who, being short of provis- 
 ions, raised the siege of Citium and sailed 
 for Salamis, in the same island, where he 
 defeated and destroyed the Phoenician and 
 Cilician fleet in the service of Persia. This 
 success was followed by peace with Persia, 
 as has been related in the history of that 
 country. 
 
 Trouble again arose with Sparta. The 
 
THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 
 
 251 
 
 inhabitants of Delphi, of Dorian origin, 
 asserted their right to manage the affairs 
 of their sacred city without the interference 
 of the Phocians, in whose territory their 
 city stood. Sparta intervened in their 
 favor, drove out the Phocians from the 
 city, and restored to the Delphiaus their 
 former privileges. Delphi declared itself 
 an independent state, and rewarded the 
 Spartans for their assistance by granting 
 them the right of precedence in consulting 
 the oracle, A brazen wolf was erected in 
 the city and inscribed with this decree. 
 The^privilege of obtaining the first response 
 from the oracle was of great value, as its 
 moral effect upon the religious Greeks was 
 all-powerful. Athens, which had hitherto 
 enjoyed it, was unwilling to resign it. The 
 Spartans had scarcely left Delphi when 
 Pericles marched into it and restored the 
 temple to the Phocians, who inscribed on 
 the brazen wolf a decree confirming Athens 
 in her ancient privilege. 
 
 Assured that Sparta would resent this 
 action and take up their cau:?e, a number 
 of the exiles of Boeotia, who had been 
 driven out upon the re-establishment of the 
 Athenian supremacy in their country, 
 seized Orchomenus, Chajronea, and several 
 unimportant towns in Boeotia. The more 
 hot-headed Athenians clamored for war, 
 but Pericles advised his countrymen to re- 
 main quiet for the present, as the season 
 was unfavorable. With a supreme con- 
 tempt for their enemies, and in disi'egard 
 of the counsels of Pericles, a thousand 
 young Athenians, under Tolmides, marched 
 into Boiotia. Cheeronea was taken and 
 garrisoned by the Athenians, but as the 
 little army was leaving the place it was 
 surprised and cut to pieces by the Boeotians, 
 Tolmides himself being among the slain. 
 The remaining Athenians were made pris- 
 oners. In order to secure the return of the 
 captives Athens was obliged to restore the 
 exiles, evacuate Boeotia, and consent to the 
 re-establishment of the oligarchies she had 
 overthrown. The rashness of the Athen- 
 ians had cost them their supremacy in 
 Boeotia, which, with the exception of Pla- 
 ttea, was now to be counted among their 
 most determined enemies. Phocis and Lo- 
 cris were also lost to Athens, and Euboea 
 and ]\Iegara revolted from her. At the 
 same time the five years' truce between 
 Athens and Sparta expired, and the Spar- 
 tans prej)ared to avenge the insult put upon 
 them at Delphi. Pericles had set out upon 
 
 an expedition to reduce Euboea, when he 
 was recalled by the advance of the Spar- 
 tans, who marched to the neighborhood of 
 Eleusis and threatened Athens. Pericles 
 is said to have saved the capital by bribing 
 the Spartan King Pleistoanax, and Clean- 
 drides, his guardian and counsellor, to 
 evacuate the country. Pericles then re- 
 sumed his Euboean expedition, and com- 
 pelled the submission of the island. The 
 Athenians gained no further successes, 
 however, and, alarmed by the dangers 
 which threatened them, they concluded 
 (b. c. 445) a thirty years' truce with Sparta 
 and her allies, by which they abandoned all 
 their acquisitions in the Peloponnesus and 
 consented that Megara should become an 
 ally of Sparta. Pericles, whose wisdom 
 had been vindicated by the results of the 
 war, was now more than ever trusted by 
 his countrymen. 
 
 Under Pericles Athens reached the height 
 of her glory and jiower. The proudest 
 period of her history may be stated as that 
 which elapsed between the victory of 
 CEnoi^hyta, B. c. 456, and the defeat at 
 Chseronea, B. c. 447. After the conclusion 
 of the thirty years' truce, Pericles put into 
 execution a policy which made Athens the 
 most illustrious city of Greece. Party dis- 
 putes almost ceased. The aristocratic party 
 honored him as one of the most famous 
 men their order had ever produced ; he 
 won the confidence of the mercantile class 
 by his protection and encouragement of 
 commerce ; and the esteem of all classes by 
 the interest which he took in, and the new 
 life which he infused into, their respective 
 callings. He sought to make Athens the 
 most famous and beautiful city in the 
 world, the centre of art and refinement, and 
 the source from which democratic institu- 
 tions should flow out to all nations. He 
 was liberally aided by the wonderful genius 
 and great liberality of his fellow-citizens, 
 and by the enormous resources at his com- 
 mand. In the brief period which elapsed 
 between the thirty years' truce and the 
 beginning of the Peloponnesian war, Athens 
 became the admiration of the ancient world 
 and the wonder of modern times. The city 
 was adorned with noble public buildings. 
 The magnificent Parthenon, or Temple of 
 Athene, was built on the Acropolis, from 
 the plans of Ictiuus and Callicrates. Phid- 
 ias superintended its erection and adorned 
 it with the most beautiful sculptures and 
 with a colossal statue of Athene, in ivory, 
 
252 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 forty-seven feet in height. The Odeum, a 
 theatre designed for musical performances, 
 ■was built on the southeastern foot of the 
 Acropolis. The reconstruction of the 
 Erechtheum, or the ancient temple of 
 Athene Polias, was begun, but the Pelopon- 
 nesian war put a stop to the work upon it. 
 The Acropolis w^as adorned with a magnifi- 
 cent entrance on the western side, called the 
 Propylsea. The city was beautified and the 
 arts flourished. A third wall, jDarallel to 
 the Long Walls, was built between Athens 
 and Pirseus, thus rendering the communi- 
 cation with the port more secure. Pir- 
 
 trammels, became more vigorous. This 
 period is adorned with the names of ^s- 
 chyius, the true father of the Greek 
 tragedy ; and Sophocles and Euripides, his 
 worthy successors. Aristophanes made 
 comedy famous at Athens ; Thucydides and 
 Xenophon raised history to its true dignity ; 
 and Socrates laid the foundations of the 
 purest and loftiest philosophy of Greece. 
 The great works of Phidias, those noble 
 sculjDtures which are still the models of ar- 
 tists^ belong to this period ; and Polygnotas, 
 A])ollodorus, Zcaixis, and Parrhasius 
 raised the art of painting to a high degree 
 
 EUINS OP THE PARTHEXOX, ATHENS. 
 
 sens itself was beautified and improved, 
 and a new dock and arsenal were con- 
 structed. 
 
 In order to extend the influence and 
 jjower of Athens a system of colonization 
 was begun in the Thracian Chersonese, in 
 2saxos, Andros, and even upon the shores 
 of the Euxine. Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros, 
 and the northern end of Eubrea were also 
 j^lanted with Athenian settlers. 
 
 Under Pericles Athens established her 
 true empire, of which her reverses never 
 deprived her, an empire of taste and genius, 
 which has extended down to the jiresent 
 day. Literature, freed from its ancient 
 
 of excellence. The mental activity of this 
 period is simply Avonderful. 
 
 The members of the Confederacy of 
 Delos had long regarded the course of 
 Athens with dissatisfaction and alarm. 
 That state had used the power and re- 
 sources of the league to advance her own 
 interests, and had made all its members, 
 save the islands of Chios, Samos, and Les- 
 bos, tributary to her. The revenue of the 
 league was 600 talents annually, and this 
 comprised more than one-half of the total 
 revenue of Athens. The Athenians justi- 
 fied their use of the fund by arguing that 
 Avhatever strenerthened Athens carried out 
 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 253 
 
 the object of the league by enabling her to 
 be in readiness to take the field in its de- 
 fence at any moment. Tlie treasury of the 
 league had been removed from Delos to 
 Athens, and the members felt that they 
 were simply paying tribute to their mis- 
 tress, although Pericles annually laid aside 
 a reserve fund for the uses of the confeder- 
 acy, which sum amounted to 6,000 talents, 
 or over $7,000,000, at the breaking out of 
 the Peloponnesiau war. 
 
 Samos having become involved in a dis- 
 pute with the Milesians, the latter referred 
 the matter to the arbitration of Athens. 
 Samos was the largest and most important 
 of the members of the confederacy which 
 were still free, and refused to accept the ar- 
 bitration. Athens resolved to compel it to 
 do so by force. An expedition of forty ships 
 was sent against the island under command 
 of Pericles, who compelled its submission 
 and established a democratic government 
 in the island, in place of the oligarchical 
 form w^hich had previously existed. Upon 
 his departure the Saranians expelled the 
 government he had established, restored 
 their own system, and, being joined by By- 
 zantium, openly rebelled against Athens, 
 B. c. 440. The revolt was jiut down after 
 a struggle of nine months, and Samos and 
 Byzantium Avere severely punished. The 
 victory of Athens increased to a marked 
 degree the hostility with which she was 
 regarded by a large number of the Greek 
 states, and it was clear that the most trifling 
 circumstance would array against her the 
 powerful coalition of which Sj^arta was the 
 leading spirit. ^ 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 Corcyra, Rebels against Corinth — /vtlieas Assif3ts 
 Corcyra — S|)artu's Demands — Athens Prei^ares for 
 War — Comaiencement of the Peloiioniiesiaii War 
 — The Ten Years' War — The Spartans Invade At- 
 tica—Athens Overcrowded — Wisdom of Pericles 
 —Attacks upon him— (,'leon the Tanner — The 
 Plaijue at Athens — Pericles Vindicated — Death of 
 Pericles — Grief of the Athenians — Destruction of 
 Platfea— Revolt of Mitylene — Cleon Causes the 
 Inhabitants to be Sentenced to Death — Ptcversal 
 of the Decree — Progress of the AVar— Victory of 
 the Athenian Fleet at Pylos — Sparta Sues" for 
 Peace — Cleon Prevents a Settlement — The Tan- 
 ner's Good Luck — lie Defeats the Si)artans at 
 S])haeteria — Reverses of Athens — Negotiations for 
 Peace — Death of Cleon and Rrasidas — The Peace 
 of Nicias — Alcibiades — Argos Submits to Sparta — 
 The Sicilian Expedition — The Siege of Syracuse 
 — Loss of the Athenian Army and Fleet— Con- 
 sternation at Athens — The Dccelian War — Treach- 
 ery of Alcibiades — The Athenians Rise Superior 
 
 to their Reverses — Fidelity of Samos — Successes 
 of Atliens in theEast— Alcibiades Seeks to Return 
 to Athens — Aids his Countrymen — Vigorous Ef- 
 forts of Athens — Persian Policy towards the 
 Greeks — Battle of Cyuossema — Return of Alcibi- 
 ades to Athens — Persia Gives more Active Aid 
 to Sparta — Lysander — Downfall of Alcibiades — 
 Battle of Arginuste — Battle of ^gospotaraai — ^The 
 Athenian Supremacy Destroyed — Athens Surren- 
 ders to the Spartans — The Thirty Tyrants — A 
 Reign of Terror — ]\Iurder of Alcibiades — Reaction 
 Against the Thirty — Return of the Exiles under 
 Tiii-asybulus — Fall of the Thirty — Law and Order 
 Restored at Athens. 
 
 ^pHE apprehensions of the Athenian 
 
 ' ^' leaders were soon realized. A quar- 
 rel having broken out between Cor- 
 inth and its colony of Corcyra, in 
 B. c. 435, Athens interfered in be- 
 ^ half of the Corcyrans. Matters soon 
 came to a crisis. A congress of the Pelo- 
 ponnesiau states was held at Sparta, and 
 this body resolved to make war upon 
 Athens, under the leadership of SjDarta, 
 B. c. 431. Sparta, as the champion of the 
 Dorian confederacy, demanded certain con- 
 cessions of Athens ; among others the ban- 
 ishment of Pericles and the abdication by 
 Athens of her leadership of the Confederacy 
 of Delos. As a matter of course these de- 
 mands were refused. Athens, though re- 
 solved not to begin the war, prepared to 
 meet it. 
 
 Hostilities were precipitated by the 
 treacherous attack of the Thebans upon 
 the little city of Platsea, which had re- 
 mained friendly to Athens. The attack 
 was defeated, and the Thebans made pris- 
 oners. The Platjeans, with equal treachery, 
 massacred their prisoners, and so drew upon 
 themselves the vengeance of the enemies of 
 Athens. 
 
 All parties now prepared energetically 
 for war. On the side of Sparta were all the 
 Peloponnesiau states (except Achaia and 
 Argos) together with jNIegara, Boeotia, 
 Phocis, Opuntian Locris, Ambracia, Leuca- 
 dia, and Anactoria. Their army was strong 
 and well prepared, but their navy was in- 
 ferior to that of Athens. Still the allies 
 hoped to be able to equip a fleet of 500 
 galleys, and to secure the assistance of the 
 Phoenician fleet through an alliance with 
 Persia. The allies of Athens were, on the 
 main land, Thessaly and Acarnania, and 
 the cities of Naupactus and Platsea. To 
 these must be added her tributaries on the 
 coasts of Thrace and Asia jNIinor and in 
 the Cyclades, and her insular allies, Chios, 
 Lesbos, Corcyra, Zacynthus, and, at a later 
 period, Cephallcnia. 
 
254 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The Spartans and their allies assembled 
 an army estimated variously at from 60,000 
 to 100,000 men, at the isthmus of Corinth. 
 The command -was assigned to Archidam- 
 nus, King of Sparta, who advanced into 
 Attica about the middle of June, B. c. 431. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War, which thus be- 
 gan, lasted tw^enty-seven years, and is usu- 
 ally divided into three distiuct parts : 1. 
 The Ten Years' War ; 2. The Sicilian Ex- 
 pedition ; 3. The Decelian War. It brought 
 more misery to Greece than the peninsula 
 had ever known. 
 
 I. The Ten Years' War, b. c. 431-421. 
 
 miles from, Athens. They laid waste the 
 country in every direction, committing 
 their ravages under the eyes of the Athen- 
 ian army within the city, which clamored 
 loudly to be let out against them. Pericles 
 was not willing to risk an encounter in the 
 field with his inferior force. His design 
 was to draw the enemy out of Attica by 
 assailing the Peloponnesus. He pursued 
 this policy with firmness in the face of 
 incessant attacks upon his courage and 
 patriotism. Conspicuous among the leaders 
 of these assaults upon the great statesman 
 was Cleon, a noisy demagogue, who was 
 
 KmNS OF THE TEMPLE OF VICTORY— ATHENS. 
 
 Upon the invasion of Attica by the Pelo- 
 ponnesians, the inhabitants of the open 
 country and defenceless villages took refuge 
 within the walls of Athens. The city was 
 crowded, as was also Piraeus. The market- 
 place, the public squares, the space be- 
 tween the Long Walls — every available foot 
 of ground, was covered with huts and tents 
 for the temporary accommodation of the 
 rural population. Men even dwelt in casks 
 placed against the Long AValls. 
 
 Meanwhile the Peloponnesian army, 
 after ravaging the fertile Thriasian plain, 
 advanced to Acharnse and encamped on 
 rising ground within sight of, and seven 
 
 destined to play an important part in the 
 affairs of this period. Pericles promptly 
 collected a fleet of 100 Athenian and fifty 
 Corey ran ships, and sent it to ravage the 
 Peloponnesus, while a smaller fleet of thirty 
 ships was sent to attack Phocis and Locris. 
 These expeditions were so successful that 
 the Peloponnesians were obliged to aban- 
 don Attica after an indecisive campaign of 
 three weeks, as they w^ere needed for the 
 2>rotection of their own country. 
 
 In the spring of B. c. 430 the Peloponne- 
 sians, under Archidamnus, again invaded 
 Attica, and at the same time the plague 
 broke out in Athens, and committed fright- 
 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 255 
 
 fill ravages among the over-crowded popu- 
 lation. All classes turned against Pericles, 
 whose prudent policy, while it was really 
 their salvation, was denounced as the cause 
 of their woes. Pericles, however, pursued 
 his designs with unshaken firmness. He 
 knew that on land Athens was no match 
 for her enemies, and that to risk a battle 
 would be to stake the fate of his country 
 upon a single venture. To relieve Attica 
 he fitted out another naval expedition, and 
 led it in person to ravage the coasts of the 
 Peloponnesus. Returning to Athens he 
 found that the opposition had grown stronger 
 and bolder in his absence, and that an em- 
 bassy had even been sent to Sparta to sue 
 for peace. The Spartans had contemptu- 
 ously dismissed the envoys without a hear- 
 ing, and this had actually increased the 
 opposition to Pericles. The gi-eat statesman 
 at once summoned a public assembly, and 
 succeeded in persuading his countrymen to 
 continue the war, but he did not quiet the 
 feeling of distrust with which the people re- 
 garded him. Cleon openly charged him 
 with embezzling the public funds. His 
 enemies hoped by fastening this charge 
 upon him to disqualify him for the office of 
 strategus or general. He was tried before 
 the dicastery ou this charge, and sentenced 
 to pay a considerable fine. It now became 
 evident to the mass of the people that they 
 were simply lending themselves to an un- 
 just persecution of their great leader and a 
 strong reaction set in in his favor. He was 
 re-elected general, and appears to have re- 
 gained the confidence and affection of his 
 countrymen. This tardy justice came too 
 late, however. 
 
 The plague had numbered among its vic- 
 tims many of his most devoted personal and 
 political friends. It now swept away his 
 sister and his two legitimate sons. During 
 the funeral ceremonies of the younger son, 
 the firmness of Pericles gave way, and he 
 burst into tears in the presence of the peo- 
 ple. His ancient house was now without 
 an heir. His only remaining son, the child 
 of Aspasia, was illegitimate. The Athen- 
 ians, as a partial atonement for their unjust 
 treatment of the father, legitimized this son, 
 who boi'e the name of Pericles. A year 
 later, the great leader himself lay upon his 
 death-bed. As his weeping friends were 
 Kcalliug his exploits, he turned to them 
 and said : " What you praise in me is partly 
 the result of good i()rtune, and at all events 
 common to me with many other command- 
 
 ers. What I chiefly pride myself upon, 
 you have not noticed — no Athenian ever 
 wore mourning thi-ough me." He died, b. 
 c. 429, the greatest man of Greece. 
 
 Meanwhile the war went on. In the sec- 
 ond campaign, B. c. 430, the Peloponnesians 
 ravaged all Attica, and even plundered the 
 silver-mines of Laurium. Their fleet de- 
 stroyed the Athenian fisheries, and devas- 
 tated the island of Zacynthus. The only 
 success of the Athenians was the capture of 
 Potidsea, which surrendered after a blockade 
 of two years. It was occupied by an Athen- 
 ian colony of one thousand persons. 
 
 In B. c. 429 the Spartans marched against 
 Plataea, and laid siege to it. The Platpeans 
 endeavored to hold them back by reminding 
 them of the solemn oath of the Spartan re- 
 gent Pausanias after the great victory of 
 Platsea, that the little city should be sacred 
 
 PERICLES AND ASPASIA. 
 
 forever from invasion. The Spartans re- 
 plied that they would respect this oath if 
 Platsea would abandon the cause of Athens, 
 and reminded the citizens that they had 
 justly incurred the vengeance of the allies 
 by their massacre of the Theban prisoners. 
 The Platseans refused to desert their Athen- 
 ian allies, and their city Avas taken after a 
 heroic defence of two years. All the in- 
 habitants were put to death ; the city was 
 utterly destroyed, and its territory was as- 
 signed to the Thebans. In B. c. 427 au 
 Athenian squadron of twenty ships defeated 
 a Spartan fleet of forty-seven ships ; and also 
 won a second victory over a fresh Spartan 
 fleet of seventy-seven vessels. Both engage- 
 ments occurred in the Corinthian Gulf. 
 
 In the fourth year of the war ^litylene, 
 the capital of the island of Lesbos, revolted 
 from Athens, and, appealing to Sparta for 
 
256 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 protection, was received into the Pelopon- 
 nesiau league. A Spartan fleet was sent to 
 the assistance of the revolted city in the 
 spring of B. c. 427, but the Athenians had 
 regained the town before its arrival. They 
 had proceeded to blockade Mitylene imme- 
 diately upon its revolt, and the majority of 
 the inhabitants, who preferred the rule of 
 Athens to that of their own oligarchs who 
 had made the insurrection, compelled the 
 governor to surrender to the Athenian fleet. 
 The city was reoccupied, and its fate re- 
 ferred to the people of Athens. Influenced 
 by Cleon, the assembly ordered that the 
 nien of Mitylene should be put to death and 
 the women and children reduced to slavery. 
 Fearing a reaction from this barbarous 
 decision, Cleon caused a galley to be de- 
 spatched instantly to Lesbos with the orders 
 of the assembly. The night brought re- 
 flection, and next morning the Athenians 
 demanded a new assembly, which was 
 granted by the strategi, though contrary to 
 law. The vote of the previous day was re- 
 considered, and the barbarous decree re- 
 scinded. A swift galley, manned by a 
 picked crew, who were stimulated to the 
 greatest exertions by the promise of large 
 rewards if they arrived in time, was de- 
 spatched to Lesbos, with the decree counter- 
 manding the order for the execution of the 
 men of Mitylene. Every nerve was strained, 
 the rowers scarcely paused for sleep, and ate 
 their food while laboring at the oars. The 
 weather was fair, and they reached Lesbos 
 just as the Athenian commander was pre- 
 paring to execute the first order. The city 
 was punished by the destruction of its walls, 
 and the surrender of its fleet to the Athen- 
 ians. The oligarchical leaders were put to 
 death. 
 
 Corinth now attempted to win over the 
 island of Corcyra from the Athenian alli- 
 ance by releasing the Corcyrau prisoners 
 who had been captured in B. c. 432. These 
 reaching home brought about a civil war 
 which came near resulting in the total ex- 
 termination of the Corcyran oligarchy. 
 
 The year b. c. 426 was marked by no 
 military events. Fire and floods agitated 
 Greece throughout its whole extent, and 
 Athens Avas again visited with the plague. 
 The next year witnessed another invasion 
 of Attica by the Spartans under their King 
 Agis. They soon withdrew in haste, alarmed 
 by the success of the Athenians in establish- 
 ing a naval station at Pylos, on the coast 
 of Messenia, from which they were endeavor- 
 
 ing to excite a revolt of the Helot popula- 
 tion. The Spartan army at once marched 
 against Pylos, which was held by a small 
 Athenian force commanded by Demosthenes. 
 Two assaults were repulsed by the little 
 garrison, and a third was prevented by the 
 prompt arrival of an Athenian fleet. The 
 Athenian admiral the next day attacked 
 the Spartans in the harbor of Pylos, and 
 inflicted a severe defeat upon them. The 
 Peloponnesians lost several of their ships, 
 and only saved the remainder by beaching 
 them. The Athenian fleet now blockaded 
 the island of Sphacteria, in which the 
 flower of the Spartan army had been posted. 
 So great was the danger which thus threat- 
 ened these troops, many of whom were 
 native Spartans of the highest rank, that 
 the ephors, having come to Pylos, and 
 having examined the situation for them- 
 selves, saw no hope of rescuing them but by 
 making peace. An armistice was arranged 
 at Pylos, and an embassy despatched to 
 Athens to sue for peace. 
 
 The Athenians were greatly elated at 
 beholding the proud Spartans as suppli- 
 cants for peace. The wiser citizens hoped 
 that a settlement of the dispute might now 
 be peacefully arranged ; and such would 
 have been the result had not the demagogue 
 Cleon induced his countrymen to insist upon 
 conditions Avhich the Spartans rejected with 
 indignation. Hostilities were renewed. 
 Demosthenes, fearing that the wintry 
 weather which Avas now approaching would 
 compel him to raise the blockade of the 
 island of Sphacteria, and thus allow the 
 Spartans to escape to the mainland, re- 
 solved to make an immediate attack, but 
 regarding his force as too weak to attempt 
 it, sent to Athens explaining his plan and 
 asking for reinforcements. The assembly, 
 disheartened by this report, accused Cleon 
 of having caused it to lose the opportunity 
 for securing an honorable peace. The noisy 
 Cleon retorted by declaring that the messen- 
 gers of Demosthenes had not stated the 
 facts of the case truly. Driven from this 
 plea, he began to accuse the commanders 
 of incompetence, and declared that if he 
 were Strategus he would take the island at 
 once. Nicias, his political opponent, asked 
 sarcastically, " Why don't you go then ? " 
 The assembly, which had burst into a fit of 
 laughter at the boast of Cleon, the tanner, 
 now took up the Avords of Nicias, and in- 
 sisted that Cleon should take the command 
 at Pylos, and make good his boast. After 
 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 257 
 
 vaiuly trying to excuse himself from accept- 
 ing so dangerous au honor, he agreed to 
 undertake the task. Declining a reinforce- 
 ment of Athenian troops, and taking with 
 him only a small force of auxiliaries, he 
 sailed from Athens, promising to take the 
 island within twenty days, and either ex- 
 terminate the Spartan force, or bring them 
 in chains to Athens. Reaching Pylos, 
 where Demosthenes had made every prepar- 
 ation for the attack, and was only awaiting 
 reinforcements, Cleon assumed the com- 
 mand. By a combination of most singu- 
 larly fortunate accidents, Cleon's attack 
 was successful. The island of Sphacteria 
 was taken, and all its defenders who sur- 
 vived were made prisoners. The harbor of 
 Pylos was strongly fortified aud garrisoned 
 by Messeuian troops and made a base for 
 future operations against Sparta. Cleon 
 and Demosthenes sailed for Athens with 
 their prisoners, returning within the twenty 
 days. Having thus gained one of the most 
 important victories of the war, Cleon's in- 
 fluence at home was greatly increased, a 
 result due entirely to his own accidental 
 good fortune and the prudence of Demos- 
 thenes. The possession of the Spartan 
 prisoners enabled the Athenians to exercise 
 a constant restraint over the movements of 
 their enemy, and to prevent the invasion 
 of their territory by threatening to put their 
 prisoners to death. The Spartans, sensible 
 of the disadvantage under which they now 
 labored, rej^eatedly made overtures of peace, 
 to all of which the Athenians turned a 
 deaf ear. 
 
 The eighth year of the war, B. c. 424, 
 opened most encouragingly for the Athen- 
 ians. Thus far the results of the war were 
 largely in their favor. In the early part 
 of the year their prospects were still more 
 improved by the conquest of the island of 
 Cythera by Nicias, who placed Athenian 
 garrisons in its two principal towns ; after 
 Avhich he ravaged the coast of Laconia, aud 
 captured the town of Thyrea, in which the 
 ^ginatans had been settled by the Spartans 
 after the loss of their island. All the sur- 
 viving natives of -^giua were barbarously 
 put to death by the Athenians. 
 
 The Athenians were so greatly elated by 
 their successes that they undertook to re- 
 gain all the territory they had held previ- 
 ous to the thirty years' truce. They won 
 some trifling successes in Megara, but were 
 totally defeated in Boeotia. About the same 
 time the Thraciau dependencies were partly 
 17 
 
 conquered and partly won over to the Pe- 
 loponnesian alliance by the Spartan com- 
 mander Brasidas. He also subdued the 
 most eastern of the Chalcidian peninsulas. 
 
 Athens was now sorely disheartened, and 
 the Spartans were eager to recover their 
 relatives taken captive at Sphacteria, who 
 were held by the Athenians. Both parties 
 being anxious for peace, a year's truce was 
 concluded, B. c. 423, and negotiations for a 
 permanent peace were begun. They were 
 interrupted a few days later by the revolt 
 of the town of Scione, which Avent over to 
 Brasidas. As the truce had forbidden any 
 change in the situation of affairs, the Athen- 
 ians demanded the restoration of the town. 
 Brasidas refused to comply with the de- 
 mand, and at the instigation of Cleon, an 
 expedition was despatched under his com- 
 mand to retake Scione and put the inhabi- 
 tants to death. He took the towns of To- 
 rone and Galepsus, and was advancing upon 
 Amphipolis, when he found his progress 
 barred by Brasidas. A severe battle en- 
 sued, in which the Athenians were defeated. 
 Cleon was slain, and his country was thus 
 relieved of his pernicious influence. Brasi- 
 das was mortally wounded. 
 
 The deaths of Cleon and Brasidas re- 
 moved the principal obstacles to a general 
 peace, aud in the spring of B. c. 421 a treaty 
 was concluded between Athens and Sparta, 
 establishing a peace for fifty years. This 
 treaty is known as the "Peace of jS'icias." 
 Some of the Spartan allies complained that 
 Sparta had sacrificed their interests in order 
 to carry out her own plans. These with- 
 drew from the Peloponnesian league, and 
 formed a new confederacy under the leader- 
 ship of Argos. Athens immediately con- 
 cluded an alliance with Argos, Elis, and 
 Man tinea for a hundred years, B.C. 420. 
 
 The Athenians had been led to this step 
 by the efi\:)rts of Alcibiades, who had at first 
 been friendly to Sparta, but had been 
 changed into a bitter enemy of that country 
 by the contempt with which the Spartans 
 had met his advances. He was one of the 
 most accomplished of the Grecian leaders, 
 possessed of great abilities, but utterly with- 
 out principle, and a man of dissolute habits. 
 Upon the death of Cleon he became the 
 leader of the popular party, not from sym- 
 pathy with the cause of the people, but as 
 a means of furthering his own ambition. 
 
 The disputes between Sparta and Argos 
 soon culminated in war, and Agis, the Spar- 
 tan king, won the important victory of 
 
258 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Mantinea, b. c. 418. This defeat strength- 
 ened the oligarchical party at Argos, Avhich 
 overthrew the government, repudiated the 
 Athenian alliance, and made a treaty with 
 Sparta. The people succeeded in expelling 
 this party finally, and applied to Athens for 
 aid. An Athenian fleet and army were de- 
 spatched to help them, under the command 
 of Alcibiades. Nothing decisive resulted 
 from this expedition. The peace between 
 Athens and Sparta continued to be nomi- 
 nally observed. All this while the Athen- 
 ian garrison at Pylos was committing rav- 
 ages in Lacouia, while the Spartans in re- 
 taliation sent out privateers to prey upon 
 Athenian commerce. 
 
 II. The Sicilian Expedition, B. c. 415- 
 413. About B. c. 416 the quarrels of the 
 Greek colonies in Sicily revived the great 
 struggle between the Ionian and the Dorian 
 races. The cities of Egesta and Selinus 
 having become involved in a quarrel, the 
 former appealed to Athens for aid, which 
 was granted, the Egestans having deceived 
 the Athenians as to their ability to bear 
 their share of the expenses of the war. A 
 fleet was despatched to Egesta under the 
 command of Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lama- 
 chus, B. c. 415. Alcibiades had been pub- 
 licly accused of sacrilege, and was sufiered 
 to depart with this accusation hanging over 
 him. Upon reaching the coast of Sicily 
 the Athenian commanders learned the de- 
 ception that had been practised upon their 
 countrymen by the Egestans, and were at 
 a loss what course to pursue. Each one 
 suggested a different plan. That of Alcibi- 
 ades was adopted, however, namely, to se- 
 cure new allies among the Greek cities of 
 Sicily, and with their aid to attack both 
 Selinus and Syracuse. It was the least 
 promising plan of the three. The expedi- 
 tion proceeded to the coast of Sicily, took 
 Catana, and made it the base of the opera- 
 tions designed against Syracuse. Alcibiades 
 was now recalled to Athens to answer to the 
 charge of sacrilege, but instead of proceed- 
 ing to Athens escaped to Italy, from which 
 he passed over to Sparta and betrayed the 
 plans of his countrymen. The operations 
 of Nicias against Syracuse were not success- 
 ful, and he went into winter quarters at 
 Naxos. The winter was spent by the Syra- 
 cusans in strengthening the fortifications of 
 their city. 
 
 In the spring of B. c. 414 the Athenians be- 
 gan the siege of Syracuse, and at first gained 
 such advantages that the capture of the city 
 
 must have ensued had Nicias, the Athenian 
 commander, acted with vigor and decision. 
 His hesitation gave the Syracusans time to 
 receive aid from the Peloponnesian confed- 
 eracy. Gylippus, the Spartan admiral, a 
 brave and active commander, reached Sicily, 
 and assembling an army from the Dorian 
 cities of the island, threw himself into Syra- 
 cuse with this force. By his energetic move- 
 ments he infused new spirit into the Syra- 
 cusans, and the tide at once turned. The 
 Athenian investment was broken, and about 
 the same time Gylippus was reinforced by 
 a squadron of thirty Peloponnesian ships, 
 and the cities of Sicily, which until now had 
 remained neutral, embraced the cause of 
 Syracuse. Nicias was obliged to abandon 
 the attempt to blockade Syracuse. He 
 therefore occupied the peninsula of Plem- 
 myrium, where he formed a naval station. 
 His prospects of success were so poor that 
 he wrote to Athens for reinforcements, and 
 asked to be recalled. 
 
 Matters Avere very bad at Athens. The 
 Spartans had invaded Attica in the spring 
 of the year (b. c. 413) and had established 
 a permanent camp at Decelea, on the ridge 
 of Mount Parnes, about fourteen miles from 
 the capital and overlooking the Athenian 
 plain. Provisions were scarce, and the reve- 
 nue almost exhausted. Nevertheless the 
 Athenians refused to recall Nicias, and sent 
 him a reinforcement of seventy-five ships 
 under Demosthenes and Eurymedon. This 
 squadron arrived in time to rescue Nicias 
 from a perilous position in the great harbor 
 to which he had been driven by Gylippus. 
 Finding it impossible to restore matters to 
 a favorable footing, Demosthenes advised 
 Nicias to abandon the attempt upon Syra- 
 cuse, and return home and drive the Spar- 
 tans from Attica, but the latter was not 
 willing to return to Greece with the disgrace 
 of a failure resting upon him. He con- 
 sented to retire to Catana, a less dangerous 
 position, but delayed his movement so long 
 that the Syracusans Avere informed of it, 
 and attacked him at once. The Athenian 
 fleet was defeated, but the army repulsed 
 the attack upon it. The Syracusans then 
 endeavored to cut off" the retreat of the 
 Athenians by closing the mouth of the great 
 harbor with a line of ships which they 
 moored across it. In the attempt to break 
 through this barrier, the Athenians were 
 defeated with the loss of half their fleet. 
 The disheartened crews refused to renew the 
 attempt. The Athenian army was still 
 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 259 
 
 40,000 strong, and it was resolved to abandon 
 the fleet and retreat by land to some friendly- 
 city, from which they could take shipping 
 back to Greece. Nicias delayed the attempt 
 until the favorable moment had passed, and 
 in the effort to escape the army was defeated, 
 scattered, and forced to surrender. Both 
 Nicias and Demosthenes were made prison- 
 ers. Being condemned to death in spite of 
 the efforts of Gylippus and the Syracusan 
 commander Hermocrates to save them, they 
 were rescued by those commanders from 
 the indignity of a public execution by be- 
 ing secretly furnished with the means of 
 ending their own lives. The other captives, 
 after undergoing many hardships, were sold 
 into slavery. 
 
 III. The Decelian War, and the Decline 
 of Athens, -B. c. 413-404. The news of the 
 fate of the Sicilian expedition was received 
 at Athens with the wildest grief and alarm. 
 It is said to have been communicated by a 
 stranger in a barber's shop in the Piraeus. 
 The story was so terrible and appeared so 
 incredible, that the man was put to the tor- 
 ture as an impostor and spreader of false 
 news. It was confirmed at length by the 
 arrival of fugitives from the scene of the 
 disaster, and Athens found herself face to 
 face with the greatest calamity she had ever 
 suffered. The private grief of the citizens 
 for the loss of relatives and friends was 
 mingled with a general alarm for the safety 
 of the state. The Spartan post at Decelea 
 was a source of incessant annoyance to 
 Athens. It was a constant menace to the 
 city, and kept the garrison always on duty. 
 To add to the gravity of the situation, the 
 allies of Athens now began to desert her. 
 Alcibiades was busy stirring up revolts in 
 Chios, Lesbos, and Euboea, which applied 
 to Sparta for aid, and Sparta basely entered 
 into a treaty of alliance with Persia, the 
 great enemy of Grecian liberty, to crush 
 Athens and restore the Persian authority 
 over all the countries to which it had for- 
 merly extended, including the islands of the 
 ^Egean, and Thessaly and Boeotia. Persian 
 gold, which was freely expended in her be- 
 half, enabled Sparta to maintain a fleet su- 
 perior to that of Athens, and the Pelopon- 
 nesian navy was largely reinforced by the 
 addition of the powerful Sicilian contin- 
 gent. 
 
 Recovering from their first alarm, the 
 Athenians addressed themselves cheerfully 
 to the task of repairing their losses. The 
 most rigid economy was introduced into the 
 
 public service, and a now fleet was ordered 
 to be constructed without delay. The gar- 
 rison lately established on the Laconian 
 coast was recalled, and the promontory of 
 Sunium was fortified, in order to secure the 
 communication with Euboea, from which 
 island the Athenians drew the greater part 
 of their provisions. 
 
 Of all the dependencies of Athens, Sa- 
 mos alone remained faithful. Warned by 
 the revolution in Chios, the Samiaus rose 
 against their oligarchical government, slew 
 a number of that party, banished the rest, 
 and instituted a democratic government, 
 Athens at once acknowledged Samos as an 
 equal and independent ally. The reserve 
 fund of one thousand talents, which had 
 been set aside by Pericles to meet the needs 
 of an actual invasion, had until now re- 
 mained untouched, being guarded by the 
 penalty of death which had been denounced 
 against any one who should venture to use 
 it until the emergency for which it had been 
 provided should have arisen. The laws 
 guarding it were now repealed, and the 
 fund was applied to the construction and 
 equipment of the fleet, which, when com- 
 pleted, sailed at once against Chios. 
 
 The war was now transferred to the 
 eastern end of the Mediterranean and to 
 Asia Minor. The task which devolved 
 upon Athens was not only to defeat the 
 coalition against her, but to reduce her re- 
 volted provinces to obedience. In the first 
 campaign which ensued Athens seemed to 
 have recovered from her losses in Sicily. 
 Lesbos and Clazomenre were recovered, and 
 the Chians were defeated and their territory 
 laid waste. Samos was made the head- 
 quarters of the Athenian fleet, and re- 
 mained their base of operations during the 
 rest of the war. A battle was fought near 
 ]Miletus in Asia Minor, in which the Spar- 
 tans themselves were defeated. The won- 
 derful elasticity with which Athens rose 
 superior to her misfortunes, and the courage, 
 patience and patriotism of her people, 
 which lifted her out of her adversity and 
 placed her on a footing which made the 
 issue of the war doubtful once more, 
 merited and have commanded the admira- 
 tion of succeeding ages. 
 
 Much of this success was due to the 
 genius of Alcibiades, who, influenced by his 
 desire to regain his lost place in Athens, 
 had applied himself to the task of detaching 
 Persia from the Spartan alliance. He 
 moved adroitly, and succeeded in persuad- 
 
260 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 iug the satrap Tissaphernes that it was not 
 to the interest of Persia to permit either 
 Athens or Sparta to conquer in this war, 
 but that her true policy lay in allowing 
 them to exhaust each other, and then to 
 seize the dominions of both when they had 
 become too weak to resist her. Influenced 
 by this advice, which was sound, the Per- 
 sian satrap held back at the moment when 
 a vigorous support given to Sparta would 
 have enabled her to bring the Avar to a 
 close. He succeeded in overcoming the 
 impatience of the Spartan commanders by 
 
 and feared the people. Believing that 
 their only hope of success in the war lay in 
 the assistance of Persia, the Athenians re- 
 luctantly accepted these hard terms, and 
 abolished their democratic government. 
 A Council of Four Hundred, chiefly self- 
 appointed, seized the administration of 
 affairs. It soon became apparent that Al- 
 cibiades had simply duped his countrymen, 
 and the four hundred were overthrown, and 
 the republic was restored. This revolution 
 had been hastened by the defection of the 
 ish\ud of Euboea to the Spartans, b. c. 411. 
 
 THEATKE OF DIONYSUS— ATHENS. 
 
 liberal bribes. Sparta had also begun to 
 be ashamed of her unnatural alliance with 
 the ancient enemy of Greece. 
 
 Alcibiades exerted himself to widen the 
 breach which had thus opened between 
 Persia and Sparta. He succeeded in dup- 
 ing the Atlienian commanders at Samos 
 into the belief that his influence with Tissa- 
 phernes was strong enough to draw him 
 into an alliance with Athens, and offered to 
 effect this result on condition of his being 
 allowed to return to Athens and regain his 
 former position. He stipulated that the 
 republic should be overthrown, and an oli- 
 garchy set up in its place, as he both hated 
 
 The Athenians were obliged to put forth 
 every energy to maintain their national 
 existence. Their losses during the war had 
 so seriously crippled them that they were 
 compelled to conduct a mainly defensive 
 struggle, and the Persian policy of aiding 
 the state which needed it most prevented 
 them from reaping any of the advantages 
 of their successes. 
 
 The Persian policy did not please the 
 Spartans any more than the Athenians. 
 Mindarus, the Spartan commander in Asia 
 Minor, left Miletus in disgust and sailed 
 for the Hellespont, where he hoped to find 
 the other satrap more active in his support. 
 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 261 
 
 He was followed by an Atlionian fleet of 
 inferior force, under Thrasybulus, and was 
 defeated in an engagement in the strait 
 between Sestos and Abydos. The Spartan 
 admiral now endeavored to rejoin the allied 
 fleet at Euboea, but his vessels were lost in 
 a storm off Mount Athos. Mindarus him- 
 self escaped. The Athenians followed up 
 their advantage by capturing Cyzicus, 
 which had revolted from them. A month 
 or two later a great battle was fought be- 
 tween the Athenian and Peloponnesian 
 fleets at Cynossema, off Abydos, and was 
 decided in favor of the former by the timely 
 
 Mindarus, with the Spartan fleet, assisted 
 by a Persian army, under the Satrap Phar- 
 nabazus, now undertook the siege of Cyzi- 
 cus, and the Athenians decided to relieve 
 it. A fierce battle ensued, in which the 
 Peloponnesian fleet was driven ashore, 
 where the Persians, under Pharnabazus, en- 
 deavored to defend the ships. Alcibiades 
 landed at the head of his men and routed 
 the Persians, while the Athenians attacked 
 the fleet drawn up on the shore. Mindarus 
 was slain and the whole Peloponnesian 
 fleet captured, except the Syracusan ships, 
 which were burned by their commander. 
 
 EUINS OF THE ACROPOLIS— ATHENS. 
 
 arrival of Alcibiades with a squadron of 
 eighteen s\n\)B from Saraos, b. c. 410. 
 
 The wily Athenian had lost the confi- 
 dence of his Persian friends. The Persian 
 king was not satisfied with the policy he 
 had advised, and had ordered Tissaphernes 
 to give active aid to Sparta. One of the 
 first acts of the satrap was to arrest Alcibi- 
 ades and imprison him at Sardis. At the 
 end of a month he made his escape, reached 
 Clazomenie, and, determining to risk every- 
 thing in an effort to secure his recall to 
 Athens, raised a force of eighteen galleys at 
 Samos, and joined the Athenian fleet just 
 in time to decide the victory in their favor. 
 
 To this great victory no one had con- 
 tributed more than Alcibiades. By their 
 success the Athenians became once more 
 masters of the Propontis and the trade of the 
 Euxine. Supplies of grain were collected 
 in the Euxine and sent to Athens, to the 
 great disappointment of the Spartans at 
 Decelea, who had hoped to starve the city 
 into submission. 
 
 In B. c. 409 the Athenians gained still 
 greater successes. Chalcedon surrendered 
 to them in spite of the efforts of Pharnaba- 
 zus to save it, and Alcibiades took Selym- 
 bria. In B. c. 408 Byzantium surrendered 
 to him. 
 
262 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The great sei'vices of Alcibiades had 
 now gone far to atone for his past mis- 
 conduct, and in b. c. 407 he ventured to 
 return to Athens. He met with an en- 
 thusiastic welcome from the whole popula- 
 tion, the senate reversed his sentence, the 
 curse was removed from him, and as he 
 seemed the only leader capable of restoring 
 to Athens her lost power and glory, he was 
 made general, with unlimited powers, and 
 was given command of a force of 100 gal- 
 leys, 1,500 heavy-armed troops, and 500 
 cavalry. Alcibiades, with characteristic 
 levity, believed that he had regained the 
 affection and confidence of his countrymen, 
 and seemed blind to the fact that the 
 Athenians were simply according him a 
 new trial, and that he had many influential 
 enemies at Athens, who still doubted him. 
 
 Meanwhile the execution of the Persian 
 plans had fallen into more vigorous hands. 
 Cyrus, the younger son of Darius II., the 
 reigning King of Persia, was made satrap 
 of the Asia Minor provinces. He was a 
 man of genuine ability, and of unbounded 
 ambition. As a means of furthering his 
 own schemes he resolved to give a cordial 
 aid to Sparta in her efforts to crush Athens. 
 At the same time the command of the 
 Spartan fleet was given to Lysander, one 
 of the ablest men his country ever pro- 
 duced. These two personages conceived a 
 marked respect for each other's abilities, 
 and agreed upon a hearty and vigorous co- 
 operation. Cyrus reached Sardis in the 
 spring of B. c. 407, and in September of the 
 same year Alcibiades sailed from Athens to 
 Andros, which was held by a Lacedaemo- 
 nian force. Finding the resistance offered 
 greater than he had expected, Alcibiades 
 left Conon with twenty ships to continue the 
 siege, and with the rest of his fleet sailed 
 for Samos. Here for the first time he 
 learned that Persia had become the open 
 enemy of Athens. Being short of funds he 
 attempted to raise money by levying a 
 contribution upon Cyme, an unoffending 
 dependency of Athens. His demand was 
 refused, and in revenge he ravaged the 
 territory of that city, which lodged a 
 formal complaint against him at Athens. 
 While engaged in this attempt his fleet, 
 which he had left in command of his pilot, 
 Antiochus, was defeated by the Pelopon- 
 nesians off Notium, with the loss of fifteen 
 ships. Antiochus was himself slain. The 
 conduct of Alcibiades was dissolute and 
 profligate on shore, and his men began to 
 
 show signs of grave disaffection. Besides, 
 though in command of a splendid force, he 
 had spent three months in idleness. These 
 things showed to tlie Athenians that Alcibi- 
 ades had not changed his character, nor pro- 
 fited by his adversity. A few years of success 
 had revived his old traits. He was accord- 
 ingly removed from his command, and re- 
 placed by ten generals, with Conon at their 
 head. About the same time the command 
 of the Spartan fleet was transferred to Cal- 
 licratidas, who, in spite of the efforts of 
 Lysander to hamper him and thus secure 
 his own reappointment to the command, 
 showed such energy and self-reliance, and 
 such indifference to the Persian alliance, 
 that Cyrus, who had resented his appoint- 
 ment over Lysander, came to his aid with 
 an abundant supply of money. Previous 
 to this action of Cj'rus, Callicratidas had 
 proved his ability by attacking the Athen- 
 ian fleet in the harbor of Mitylene, and 
 defeating it with the loss of thirty ships. 
 The remaining forty were saved by being 
 hauled ashore under the walls of the town. 
 The Spartan admiral then blockaded the 
 harbor of Mitylene by sea and land. 
 
 When the situation of Conon became 
 known at Athens, great efforts were made 
 to aid him. A fleet was immediately fitted 
 out and despatched to Samos, where it was 
 joined by the allies, and its strength in- 
 creased to 150 sail, after which it proceeded 
 to the relief of Mitylene. Upon the ap- 
 proach of the Athenian fleet Callicratidas 
 detached fifty ships to continue the block- 
 ade, and with the remainder of his force 
 advanced to meet the enemy. The hostile 
 fleets encountered each other off the island 
 of Arginusse, near the southeastern cape of 
 Lesbos, and a severe battle ensued. The 
 result was doubtful until Callicratidas fell 
 into the sea and was drowned. The Spar- 
 tans, deprived of their leader, were defeated 
 with the loss of seventy-seven ships. Their 
 squadron at Mitylene at once took flight, 
 and Conon was able to leave the harbor 
 and join his friends. The united Athenian 
 fleet then sailed for Samos. 
 
 At the beginning of B. c. 405 Lysander 
 Avas again given the command of the Spar- 
 tan fleet. Being inferior in force to the 
 Athenians, he avoided an engagement, and 
 eluding the enemy's fleet, crossed the ^gean 
 to the coast of Attica, where he had a con- 
 ference with Agis. The result of this con- 
 ference was the departure of the Spartan 
 fleet for the Hellespont, which their adver- 
 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 263 
 
 sary had left unguarded. Lysauder took 
 position at Abydos. 
 
 The Athenians were at this time ravag- 
 ing Chios. They were withdrawn from 
 this work by the news of Lysander's pres- 
 ence in the Hellespont and of the com- 
 mencement of the siege of Lampsacus. 
 They at once moved their fleet to the 
 Hellespont, but arrived too late to save 
 Lampsacus. They took position at ^gos- 
 potami, or the " Goat's River," on the 
 northern side of the channel, with the in- 
 tention of bringing the Spartans to battle. 
 The Spartans were well supplied with pro- 
 visions and occupied a strong position, and 
 the delay was in their favor. The Athen- 
 ians, on the other hand, held a wretched 
 position — a mere sand-beach, distant from 
 Sestos, whence they drew their supplies, 
 and without anything to recommend it. 
 The sailors were obliged to go ashore to 
 get their meals, and the discipline of the 
 fleet was relaxed to an alarming extent. 
 Alcibiades, -who, since his dismissal, had 
 been residing in his castle in the vicinity, 
 saw the danger to which his countrymen 
 exposed themselves by retaining this posi- 
 tion, and advised their leaders to move to 
 Sestros, where they would be more secure. 
 His advice Avas received with insults. 
 There is a reasonable ground for the suspi- 
 cion that some of the Athenian commanders 
 had been bribed by Cyrus to bring about 
 the state of affairs which now existed. 
 Lysauder Avas aware of the lax discipline 
 of his enemies, and while declining battle, 
 was on the alert to profit by some of their 
 errors. On the fifth day after the arrival 
 of the Athenian fleet he seized the oppor- 
 tunity offered him by the absence of the 
 Athenian seamen, who had gone ashore and 
 were scattered over the country, to cross 
 the strait with his entii'e force and attack 
 the enemy's ships. He found the entire 
 Athenian fleet, with the exception of eight 
 or ten galleys, deserted and defenceless. 
 He seized them without striking a blow and 
 carried them oflT. Only eight or ten gal- 
 leys, including the flag-ship, commanded by 
 Conon, succeeded in escaping. Conon was 
 afraid to return to Athens, and took refuge 
 in Cyprus. The Spartans now held the 
 Athenian fleet and four or five thousand 
 prisoners. The latter they put to death in 
 retaliation for the cruelty with which the 
 Athenians had lately treated their captives. 
 The Spartan success at -^gosj)otami was 
 the death-blow of the Athenian empire ; all 
 
 the Athenian possessions fell into the hands 
 of the victors ; the democi-atic governments 
 were overthrown, and oligarchical estab- 
 lishments were set up in their place, con- 
 sisting of ten citizens, at whose head was a 
 Spartan officer called a hormost. 
 
 The news of this crushing disaster reached 
 Athens in the night. The citizens, roused 
 from their slumbers by the fearful tidings, 
 slept no more that night. The situation of 
 the city was desperate in the extreme. 
 The sources from which the Athenians 
 drew their provisions were now in the 
 hands of Spartans, and the city could be 
 easily starved into submission, even if the 
 enemy did not attack it. The Public 
 Assembly met the next morning, and it 
 was agreed to overlook all crimes except 
 the most serious, and release the prisoners 
 to enable them to take part in the public 
 defence. All debtors were released on the 
 same condition, and the citizens, assembled 
 in the Acropolis, swore a solemn oath of 
 mutual forgiveness and harmony. Although 
 the result was evident to all, no one spoke 
 of yielding. 
 
 The battle of ^Egospotami took place in 
 September, B. c. 405, but Lysander, who 
 had spent the intervening time in reducing 
 the Athenian dependencies and establishing 
 oligarchical governments in them, did not 
 appear in Athenian waters until November, 
 when he reached ^gina with a fleet of 150 
 sail, and proceeded to ravage Salamis and 
 blockade Pirseus. At the same time the 
 Peloponnesian army advanced into Attica 
 and encamped in the groves of the Aca- 
 demia, at the gates of Athens. 
 
 The fall of the city was only a question 
 of time, for famine had already made its 
 appearance within the walls ; but the spirit 
 of the Athenians was unsubdued. They 
 offered to capitulate upon condition of re- 
 taining their Long Walls and the port of 
 Pirseus. The Spartan ephors rejected their 
 conditions and insisted that the Long Walls 
 should be destroyed for a distance of ten 
 stadia at least. The senator Archestratus 
 proposed to accept the Spartan terms, and 
 was imprisoned by the indignant citizens 
 for his proposal, though many of them were 
 actually dying with hunger. At last Ther- 
 amenes, formerly one of the Four Hundred, 
 who pretended to have great influence with 
 Lysander, offered to ascertain his real in- 
 tentions respecting Athens. He wasted 
 three months — three months of terrible suf- 
 fering to his countrymen — and at last re- 
 
264 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 turned to Athens with the answer that the 
 ephors alone had the power to make peace. 
 Upon his return to the city the suffering 
 from the famine had become so great that 
 he was sent back to conclude a peace on the 
 best terms that could be obtained. A 
 council of the allies was held at Sparta to 
 decide the fate of Athens. The Thebans 
 and Corinthians urged that the city should 
 be destroyed, its name obliterated, and the 
 entire population sold into slavery. The 
 Spartans now exhibited the only generosity 
 that ever marked their history. They de- 
 clared with a magnanimity which is suspi- 
 cious, to say the least, that they would 
 never consent to annihilate or enslave a city 
 which had rendered such eminent services 
 to Greece. The truth is most probably 
 this : they wished to secure in Athens a 
 useful dependency. The terms finally 
 agreed upon were that the Long "Walls and 
 fortifications of Pirseus should be destroyed ; 
 that the Athenians should relinquish all 
 their foreign possessions and confine them- 
 selves to their own territory ; and that they 
 should surrender all that remained of their 
 navy, readmit all their exiles, and become 
 allies of Sparta. So reduced were the 
 Athenians by the famine that they eagerly 
 accepted these terms, and about the middle 
 of March, B. c. 404, Lysander took formal 
 possession of Pirseus and the Spartan army 
 entered Athens. Lysander at once set to 
 work to execute the terms of the treaty. 
 All the Athenian ships but twelve were 
 carried away, the fortifications of Piraeus, 
 the docks, arsenals, ships on the stocks, and 
 the Long AValls Avere demolished. The 
 work was performed amidst the rejoicings 
 of the Peloponnesians, who made it the 
 occasion of a festival which was a needless 
 insult to the vanquished. 
 
 Thus fell the Athenian empire, twenty- 
 seven years after the beginning of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, and seventy-three years 
 after the formation of the Confederacy of 
 Delos. The Spartans, in alliance with 
 Persia, were now supreme in Greece. Free 
 governments were everywhere destroyed 
 and oligarchies set up in their stead. Athens 
 was given a genuinely Spartan constitution, 
 which was framed by a provisional govern- 
 ment of five ephors presided over by Ly- 
 sander. Lysander caused these to intrust 
 the government to thirty officers, who are 
 known in history as the " Thirty Tyrants." 
 At their head was Critias, who had been 
 banished by a vote of the people, and who 
 
 had been permitted to return by the terms 
 of the surrender. He now used his power 
 to take vengeance upon his enemies. He 
 caused the best and noblest citizens to be 
 put to death, and inaugurated a reign of 
 terror in Athens. A more moderate party, 
 under Theramenes, endeavored to stop this 
 violence by causing the selection from the 
 friends of the Thirty of 3,000 citizens, whose 
 assent was required in all important pro- 
 ceedings. The only result of this measure 
 was to exempt these 3,000 citizens from the 
 illegal acts of the Thirty ; all the rest of the 
 Athenians were placed without the pale of 
 the law and might be put to death at the 
 pleasure of the tyrants. A list of suspected 
 citizens and intended victims was now 
 made, and to this list any one belonging to 
 the ruling party might add the name of an 
 enemy. As the estate of the victim went to 
 his informer, the blow fell first upon the 
 rich, and the persecution thus lost its polit- 
 ical character and became an effort to 
 secure plunder. Theramenes being urged 
 to destroy a prominent alien resident and 
 enrich himself Avith his wealth, indignantly 
 refused. He was denounced as a public 
 enemy by Critias, dragged from the altar in 
 the senate house where he had sought sanc- 
 tuary, and compelled to drink the fatal 
 hemlock. Thus released from all restraint, 
 Critias and his party indulged their cruelty 
 u^nsparingly. 
 
 One of the victims of Sparta was Alci- 
 biades, who had been allowed by the Per- 
 sians to retire into Phrygia after the battle 
 at JEgospotami. Orders were sent from 
 Sparta to put him to death.. His house 
 was surrounded by the Persians and set on 
 fire, and he was slain by the arrows and 
 javelins of his assailants, who shrank from 
 meeting him face to face. 
 
 Meanwhile the cruelties of the Thirty had 
 aroused a strong reaction in Greece against 
 them and against Lysander, whose tools 
 they were. The Thebans and Corinthians 
 had come to regard the Thirty as the willing 
 instruments of promoting the ambition of 
 the Sj)artans, whom they now saw aimed at 
 being the masters rather than the liberators 
 of Greece. A number of the Athenian 
 exiles who had taken refuge in Bceotia now 
 returned, under the leadership of Thrasy- 
 bulus, accompanied by some Theban citi- 
 zens, and seized the frontier fortress of 
 Phyle. The Thirty, at the head of the 
 Spartan garrison and the Three Thousand, 
 marched out to attack them, but were de- 
 
THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 
 
 265 
 
 feated. The Thirty, conscious that their 
 downfall was close at hand, seized Salarais 
 and Eleusis as places of refuge, removed 
 their inhabitants, and garrisoned them with 
 their own adherents. Critias then convoked 
 an assembly of the Three Thousand and the 
 Spartan garrison, and compelled them to 
 decree the death of the prisoners, who were 
 immediately executed. Thrasybulus now 
 marched to Piraeus, defeated the Thirty and 
 their adherents, and seized the hill on 
 which the citadel of the port had formerly 
 stood. Critias was slain in the conflict, and 
 the moderate party formei-ly led by Thera- 
 meues overthrew the Thirty after a reign 
 of eight months, and instituted a new oli- 
 garchy known as the Ten. The Thirty 
 and the Ten both asked aid of Sparta, and 
 a new Spartan array under Lysander en- 
 tered Athens, while their fleet under the 
 brother of Lysander blockaded Piraeus. 
 
 GKl 1 k 1 I \M 1 L VI KIlNOr A ML-', V(.L TO A. CIIY. 
 
 At this juncture, however, the Spartans, 
 becoming suspicious of the designs of Ly- 
 sander, removed him from the command, 
 which was assumed by Pausanias, the new 
 Spartan king. After some conflicts, in 
 which the Spartans were at first defeated 
 by Thrasybulus, but were at length suc- 
 cessful, peace was restored upon condition 
 that the exiles at Piraeus should be restored 
 to Athens. Amnesty was granted to all 
 the Athenians except the Thirty, the Ten, 
 and the Eleven, the last of whom were the 
 executioners of the barbarous decrees of the 
 Thirty. The rule of the archons, the 
 judges, and the Senate of Five Hundred 
 was restored, and a revised code of the laws 
 of Draco and Solon was ordered to be pre- 
 pared by a subsequent assembly of the 
 people. Thrasybulus and his party now 
 marched into the city and were crowned 
 with olive wreaths as the deliverers of 
 Athens. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 
 
 Conservative Reaction at Atliens — Socrates Con- 
 demned to Death — His Character— War between 
 Sparta and Persia — Agesilans — Sparta and Thebes 
 at War — The League against Sparta— Conon Se- 
 cures Persian Aid for Athens — The Long Walls 
 Rebuilt — The Peace of Antalcidas — Persia the Ar- 
 biterof Grecian Ali'alrs — SpartaSupreme in Greece 
 — Sptirta Seizes theCadmeia — The Thebans Recov- 
 er the Cadmeia — Epaininondas — Battle of Leuctra 
 — Danger of Sparta — Rise of Thebes to Power — 
 Decline of the Spartan Supremacy — Jason — His 
 Death — The Arcadian Confederation — Mantinea 
 Rebuilt — Epaniinondas Restores the Messenian 
 State — His Triumphs in the Peloponnesus — The 
 "Tearless Battle" — Persia Upholds the Suprem- 
 acy of Thebes — The Violation of the Sanctity of 
 the Olympian Games by the Arcadians — Results 
 of this Act — Battle of Mantinea— Death of Epa- 
 minondas — Agesilaus goes to Egypt — His Recep- 
 tion there — His Revenge and Death — Wars of 
 Athens and Pherse — The Social War — The Sacred 
 W^ar — End of the Theban Supremacy. 
 
 p^^HE victory of Thi-asybulus and his 
 party restored to Athens her an- 
 cient laws and customs, and so pro- 
 found was the rejoicing which it 
 occasioned, that a conservative re- 
 action took place in the city. It 
 was made painfully memoi'able by the con- 
 demnation and death of the philosopher 
 Socrates, one of the wisest and purest men. 
 of Greece. Twenty years before, Aristo- 
 phanes, in his comedy of "The Clouds," 
 had charged him Avith being an enemy of 
 religion and a corrupter of youth ; but this 
 attack had failed at the time. He was now 
 accused of not believing in the gods which 
 the state -worshipped, with teaching a new 
 religion, and with corrupting the Athenian 
 youth. He was condemned to death by a 
 majority of six, but his proud speech in 
 reply to his accusers raised the majority 
 against him to eighty. The true secret of 
 the hostility with wdiich he was treated lay 
 in the fact that he had offended many of 
 the Athenians by his outspoken denuncia- 
 tions of their faults, and by his peculiar 
 method of arguing, Avhich compelled them 
 to become the denouncers of their own acts. 
 As the sacred ship or Paralus had sailed to 
 Delos at the time of his sentence, and no 
 execution could take place until its return, 
 Socrates spent the thirty days of its absence 
 in prison, in noble and inspiring conversa- 
 tion with his friends. He spoke of his past 
 life without regret, and expressed his firm 
 belief in the immortality of the soul. 
 When the fatal moment arrived, he took 
 the cup of deadly hemlock, and drank it 
 
266 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 with a cheerful countenance, and calmly 
 expired. His last words were a request to 
 his friend Crito, that he would ofler a cock 
 to ^sculapius for him, as was customary 
 with persons who had recovered from a dan- 
 gerous illness, thus testifying his conviction 
 that death was but the entrance to a new 
 and better life. Posterity has done justice 
 to his memory, and has accepted th^ esti- 
 mate formed of him by his friend and pupil, 
 Xenophou, who says of him : " To me, 
 most emphatically (being, as I have de- 
 
 those who were in error, and persuading 
 them to the pursuit of virtue and all that 
 was honorable and good), he seemed to be 
 such an one as the very best and happiest 
 man could be." 
 
 In B. c. 398 Agis, the Spartan king, died, 
 and was succeeded by his brother Agesilaus, 
 one of the bravest and most capable of the 
 Lacedaemonian leaders. He soon found a 
 fitting held for the exercise of his powers. 
 The aid rendered to Cyrus by the Spartans 
 gave mortal offence to Persia, and when 
 
 SOCKATES PARTING FKOM HIS FRIENDS. 
 
 scribed him, so pious, that he undertook 
 nothing without the counsel of the gods ; 
 so just, that he never injured any one — no, 
 not even in the slightest degree — ^but was of 
 the greatest service to those that associated 
 with him ; so temperate, that he never pre- 
 ferred pleasure to virtue ; so sensible, that 
 he never erred in distinguishing the better 
 from the worse, without requiring aid from 
 any one else, but being of himself perfectly 
 competent to discriminate between them; 
 so capable of discoursing upon and defining 
 such matters ; and so skilled in estimating 
 the character of others, and in convincing 
 
 Tissaphernes, the successor of Cyrus, re- 
 turned to the coast, he brought orders to 
 harass the Greek cities of Asia Minor, now 
 under the protection of Sparta. The Spar- 
 tans resolved to strike the first blow and 
 thus secure whatever advantages might re- 
 sult from it. For six years, from B. c. 399 
 to 394, they waged war in Asia Minor. 
 Their first commanders were but indifferent 
 generals, but Avhen Agesilaus was sent to 
 Asia INIinor, to direct the war, directly after 
 his accession to the crown, a change was 
 immediately perceptible, and from this time 
 the Spartan successes were so numerous and 
 
THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 
 
 267 
 
 so marked, that it seemed certain that Per- 
 sia Avould be sti'ipped of her provinces in 
 tliat quarter. A very considerable part of 
 the Spartan army was composed of the Ten 
 Thousand, whose exploits we have related 
 in our account of the history of Persia, and 
 Avho had returned from their expedition 
 under Cyrus. 
 
 Persia, grown wiser since the days of 
 Xerxes, now brought about an alliance 
 against Sparta of the secondary Greek 
 states — Athens, Thebes, and Corinth — B. c. 
 395. Thebes had already drifted into war 
 with Sparta, and had defeated the Lacedae- 
 monian army under Lysander at Haliartus. 
 Lysander had been slain in this conflict, 
 and Pausanias, who had arrived too late to 
 relieve him, had sought refuge in the Tem- 
 ple of Athene, at Tegea, being afraid to 
 return home after his failure. He had been 
 succeeded on the throne by his son Agesi- 
 polis. In this emergency it became neces- 
 sary for Agesilaus to discontinue his con- 
 quests in Asia Minor, and return home. 
 About the same time the league against 
 Sparta was strengthened by the accession 
 of Euboea, Acarnania, Western Locris, Am- 
 bracia, Leucadia, and Chalcidice in Thrace. 
 In the spring of B. c. 394 a congress of the 
 allies was held at Corinth, and it was pro- 
 posed to march on Sparta at once. The 
 movement was prevented by the rapid ad- 
 vance of the Sj^artans, who defeated the 
 allies near Corinth. A second battle was 
 fought soon after under Agesilaus, who had 
 assumed the command of the Spartans, and 
 the allies were once more defeated. 
 
 These successes were neutralized in the 
 same year by the successes of Conon, who 
 had come forward from his exile in Cyprus, 
 and had been furnished with a fleet by 
 Persia. He defeated the Spartan admiral 
 Pisander off the peninsula of Cnidus in 
 Caria, in b. c. 394, and released all the Asi- 
 atic Greeks from their dependence upon 
 Sparta. Thus the maritime empire of the 
 Spartans was lost more rapidly than it had 
 been acquired. Persia had associated an 
 admiral of her own with Conon in the com- 
 mand of the fleet. This officer, Pharna- 
 bazus, met the allied commanders at Corinth, 
 and assured them of his hearty support. 
 At the request of Conon he employed the 
 sailors of the fleet in fortifying Piraeus and 
 rebuilding the Long Walls of Athens, and 
 granted a considerable sum of money for 
 that purpose. The grateful Athenians 
 forgave Conon the disaster of -ZEgospotami, 
 
 and he was hailed as the restorer of his 
 country. 
 
 The war was now conducted within the 
 territory of Corinth, which was the princi- 
 pal suflerer. Sparta was so successful that 
 Thebes, despairing of defeating her, at- 
 tempted to make a separate peace with her. 
 The Theban envoys were treated with con- 
 tempt by Agesilaus, but their hopes were 
 revived during their interview by the news 
 of a victory over a Spartan detachment by 
 a body of Athenians under Iphicrates. The 
 effort for peace was at once discontinued. 
 Other successes on the part of the Athen- 
 ians caused Sparta to renew the efforts she 
 had been making for some time to induce 
 Persia to compel a general peace between 
 the Greek states. This time she was suc- 
 cessful. The Persian king dictated the 
 terms of the treaty, known as the " Peace 
 of Antalcidas," from the Spartan of that 
 name who induced Artaxerxes to take the 
 step. By intercepting the supplies of corn 
 from the Euxine, the Persian fleet compelled 
 Athens to accept the peace. The other 
 states ratified it at once, b. c. 387. By the 
 terms of this disgraceful treaty, the Greek 
 cities of Asia were surrendered to Persia, 
 who became the recognized arbiter of the 
 affairs of European Greece. 
 
 The immediate consequences of the treaty 
 were the separation of Corinth from Argos, 
 and the loss to Thebes of her leadership of 
 the Boeotian confederacy. The Spartans, 
 as a means of weakening Thebes, re-estab- 
 lished the little city of Platsea, and brought 
 back to it as many as possible of its original 
 inhabitants. Athens naturally supported 
 this step, moved by her ancient friendship 
 for the Platseans, whose fidelity to her had. 
 caused their disaster, and Thebes became 
 to a certain extent estranged from her. 
 Under the pi-etext of looking after the en- 
 forcement of the terras of the treaty, Sparta 
 extended her influence on all sides, and it 
 w^as now more than ever evident to the 
 Greeks that she designed bringing the 
 entire peninsula into subjection to her. In 
 B. c. 382, in a time of profound peace, a 
 Spartan force seized the Cadmeia, the cita- 
 del of Thebes, and the Spaf tan government 
 refused to surrender it in spite of the \)\'o- 
 testations of Thebes and the fact that the 
 U\o states Avere on nominally friendly terms. 
 By her insolence Sparta thus succeeded in 
 rendering Thebes her implacable enemy. 
 
 The restless ambition of the Lacedtemo- 
 nian state, having no proper field in the 
 
268 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 peninsula in which to expend its energies, 
 was now directed against a powerful con- 
 federacy on the northern border of Greece, 
 composed partly of Greek and partly of 
 Macedonian cities, under the leadership of 
 Olynthus. The Olynthian war lasted four 
 years, from B. c. 382 to 379, and resulted 
 in the triumph of Sparta, who thus suc- 
 ceeded in removing the only formidable 
 rival of Macedon — the only state which 
 might have formed a barrier between 
 Greece and the ]\Iacedonian conquerors. 
 
 Sparta was now at the height of her 
 power. She was supreme on land, and at 
 sea was as ^^owerful as Athens. She had 
 gained her predominance by her efforts 
 against the liberties of Greece, and now 
 sought to maintain it in the same way. Her 
 unpopularity in Greece, which was due to 
 the harshness with which she administered 
 her authority, was increased by the intimacy 
 of her alliance with the bitterest enemies 
 of Grecian freedom — the Persians, the 
 Macedonians, and the Syracusans. For- 
 tunately she did not long hold her power. 
 The day of retribution was close at hand. 
 
 Thebes had been for three years in the 
 hands of the Spartan party, and its citadel 
 was held by a Lacedaemonian garrison. A 
 plot for its deliverance was formed by 
 Pelopidas and other Theban exiles at Ath- 
 ens, and was entirely successful. The Spar- 
 tan party in Thebes w^as overpowered, its 
 leaders were jiut to death, and the city was 
 regained by the patriotic party. At the 
 same time Epamiuondas, the noblest of the 
 Thebans, reached Thebes and took part in 
 the struggle. The Sj^artan garrison was 
 besieged in the citadel, and surrendered on 
 condition of being allowed to march out 
 with the honors of war. The Spartans at 
 once prepared to punish Thebes. By an 
 unjustifiable outrage upon Athens they 
 drove that city into alliance with Thebes, 
 and she took her place at the head of the 
 league against Sparta, B. c. 378. In the 
 war which ensued Sparta was mainly un- 
 successful. She was not able to cope wath 
 the Athenian fleet, which inflicted several 
 severe defeats ujion her navy. The The- 
 bans, under their'great leader Epaminondas, 
 after suffering some preliminary reverses, 
 succeeded in freeing their country. Athens 
 now became jealous of the success of Thebes, 
 and made an unsuccessful effort to secure 
 a separate peace with Sparta. In B. c. 371 
 a general congress of the Greek states was 
 held at Sparta, and a general peace con- 
 
 tracted, from which Sparta excluded Thebes. 
 The bitter hatred existing between these 
 states would permit no adjustment between 
 them. The treaty is known as the " Peace 
 of Callias." 
 
 War existed now only between Sparta 
 and Thebes, and the latter city was re- 
 garded by the rest of Greece as doomed to 
 certain destruction. Such would most likely 
 have been the result of the war had not 
 Thebes possessed in Epaminondas a leader 
 equal to the emergency. He was the great- 
 est general, and one of the noblest charac- 
 ters Greece ever produced, and withal a 
 patriot who sought his country's good with- 
 out a thought for himself. The Spartans 
 promptly invaded Boeotia under Cleombro- 
 tus, from the direction of Phocis. They 
 surprised and captured the port of Creusis 
 on the Crissean Gulf, and took twelve 
 Theban galleys. Continuing their advance 
 into Boeotia, they were decisively defeated 
 by the Theban army under Epaminondas 
 in the great battle of Leuctra, with terrible 
 loss, and were besieged in their fortified 
 camp. So great a disaster had not befallen 
 Sparta since the battle of Thermopylae. 
 
 The news of the battle of Leuctra was re- 
 ceived at Sparta with a characteristic as- 
 sumption of indifference ; all signs of mourn- 
 ing were forbidden ; but every effort was 
 put forth to rescue the defeated army from 
 its perilous position. The whole remaining 
 military force of the kingdom was de- 
 spatched by sea from Corinth to Creusis. 
 Before it could reach Boeotia the Thebans 
 had asked assistance of Jason, the tyrant 
 of Pherse in Thessaly, which had been 
 granted. By the advice of Jason,, they 
 permitted the besieged Spartans at Leuctra 
 to evacuate the country, and this force 
 marching to Creusis, and thence to the 
 Megarid, met the army despatched to their 
 relief on its march. The entire Spartan 
 force at once returned to their own country. 
 
 Leuctra was fatal to the Spartan suprem- 
 acy, which fell instantly to the ground. 
 The defeat Avas the greatest disaster that 
 had ever befallen Sparta, and it destroyed 
 her influence over even the cities of the 
 Peloponnesus. Her dependencies north of 
 the Corinthian Gulf were lost to her, and 
 were divided between the Thebans and 
 Jason. For thirty-four years — since her 
 victory at JEgospotami — Sparta had been 
 supreme in Greece. She was now obliged 
 to accept the loss of her power and take her 
 place among the secondary states. The 
 
THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. 
 
 269 
 
 next year, b. c. 370, another danger to 
 Greece was removed by the assassination 
 of the ambitious Jason, who had begun to 
 show his intention to make himself master 
 of the peninsula. His death was felt as a 
 relief by all the Greek states. Athens, 
 jealous of Thebes, called upon all the states 
 to form a new alliance upon the terms of 
 the peace of Antalcidas. The majority of 
 the Peloponuesian states joined the league, 
 which was known as the Arcadian confed- 
 eration, and which secured the independence 
 of every member. Elis refused to do so on 
 the plea that she would thus deprive her- 
 self of her sovereignty over the Triphylian 
 cities. Thus the Peloponuesian states be- 
 came independent of Sparta, even those in 
 which her authority had been undisputed 
 for centuries. 
 
 The Mantineans seized the occasion to 
 avenge the wrongs inflicted upon them by 
 Sparta. They rebuilt their city, and in- 
 vited Epaminondas to aid them. Towards 
 the close of B. c. 370, Epaminondas entered 
 Arcadia with an army which was swelled 
 by Argive and Elean volunteers to 70,000 
 men, and advanced against Sparta itself 
 The advance was checked by Agesilaus, 
 and Epaminondas contented himself with 
 ravaging the valley of the Eurotas. He 
 then returned to Arcadia, and devoted him- 
 self to the task of establishing the Arcadian 
 league on a firmer basis. To avoid jeal- 
 ousies, he advised the members of the league 
 to build a new city, which was called Mega- 
 lopolis. It was made the capital of the 
 league, and was peopled by settlers from 
 foi'ty Arcadian towns. 
 
 Epaminondas completed the humiliation 
 of Sparta by restoring the Messeniau state. 
 The town of Messene was rebuilt ; its cita- 
 del was placed on the summit of Mount 
 Ithome, which had been the scene of the 
 principal struggles of the first and second 
 Messenian wars. The Messenians — descend- 
 ants of those who had been exiled three cen- 
 turies before by Sparta — came back at the 
 call of Epaminondas, and the Messenian 
 territories were restored very nearly as they 
 had formerly existed. 
 
 Sparta was now so thoroughly humbled 
 that she sought the alliance of Athens, and 
 the latter, alarmed by the growing power 
 of Thebes, came to the help of her old 
 enemy. Their combined forces were posted 
 to hold the mountain passes of the isthmus 
 in order to prevent the Thebans from reach- 
 ing southern Greece, but Epaminondas 
 
 defeated a Spartan detachment, forced their 
 line, and formed a junction with his allies 
 in the Peloponnesus. At the same time 
 Sicyou abandoned Sparta and joined the 
 Theban league. An effort of the Thebans 
 to take Corinth was repulsed, and about the 
 same time a fleet bearing 2,000 mercenaries 
 from Gaul and Spain, sent by Dionysius 
 of Syracuse, arrived at Lechseum to the 
 assistance of Athens and Sparta, b. C. 369. 
 In B. c. 368 the Arcadians undertook to 
 conquer the Messenian territory which re- 
 mained in the hands of Sparta. They were 
 defeated in an engagement known as " The 
 Tearless Battle," so called because the Spar- 
 tans gained their victory without the loss 
 of a man. The Thebans viewed the defeat 
 of their allies with complacency, as it taught 
 them their dependence upon them for pro- 
 tection. They confined their efibrts in this 
 year to organizing a confederacy of the 
 cities of Thessaly, and entered into an alli- 
 ance with Macedonia. Among the hostages 
 sent by the Macedonian King Amyntas 
 II. to Thebes was his son Philip, then a youth 
 of fifteen, but destined to become the master 
 of Greece. He remained some years at Thebes. 
 The Thebans now (b. c. 367-366) entered 
 into negotiations with the Persian king, 
 who, since the peace of Antalcidas, had 
 been the recognized arbiter of the fate of 
 Greece, and succeeded in obtaining the 
 sanction of Artaxerxes to the supremacy of 
 Thebes. The independence of Messene and 
 Amphipolis was confirmed by the Persian 
 king, and the Athenians were directed to 
 lay their fleet up in ordinary. Elis was 
 confirmed in the sovereignty of the Tri- 
 phylian cities. The Thebans had great 
 difficulty in procuring the acceptance of 
 the Persian rescript by the otker states. 
 When Pelopidas visited Thessaly to secure 
 its enforcement, Alexander of Pherffi threw 
 him into prison, and defeated a Theban 
 force sent to rescue him. Epaminondas 
 then accomplished the release of Pelopidas, 
 but he was prevented by the necessity of 
 securing his friend's liberty from destroying 
 the power of Alexander. In b. c. 363 the 
 Thebans again invaded Thessaly under 
 Pelopidas. He defeated Alexander, but 
 was slain at the moment of victory, and his 
 loss was regarded by his countrymen as 
 outweighing their success. They wrested 
 all of Alexander's possessions from him 
 except the city of Pherse, and brought the 
 whole of northern Greece under the do- 
 minion of Thebes. 
 
270 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The Peloponnesus was now divided by 
 an act of sacrilege. The Arcadians and 
 their allies sent an army into Elis during 
 the celebration of the Olympian Games, 
 seized the sacred grove, expelled the Eleans 
 from the management of the festival, and 
 confided it to the Pisatans. The Eleans 
 and Achseans attacked the invaders in the 
 midst of the games, and a battle was fought 
 upon the holy spot. The Arcadians re- 
 pulsed the attack and plundered the tem- 
 ples of Olympia of their treasures. The 
 Mautinean assembly sternly denounced the 
 sacrilege and refused all participation in 
 the sacred spoil. The Mantineans were 
 then proclaimed traitors to the Arcadian 
 league. The result was the disruption of 
 
 THE EEECHTHEUM — ATHEN 
 
 that league. Peace was made with Elis, 
 but Mautinea became the ally of Sparta, 
 while Tegea, and the rest of the confedera- 
 tion, remained faithful to Thebes. Hos- 
 tilities were so frequent between the two 
 parties that Thebes was asked to intervene 
 by her friends, while the Mantineans be- 
 sought the assistance of Sparta. 
 
 In the summer of B. c. 362 Epaminon- 
 das invaded the Peloponnesus, and was 
 joined at Tegea by his allies, while Agesi- 
 laus, with the Spartan army, marched to 
 the assistance of Mantinea. By this move- 
 ment Agesilaus uncovered his capital and 
 placed Epaminondas nearer to it than him- 
 self The Theban general was quick to 
 profit by his adversary's error, and marched 
 rapidly upon Sparta. Agesilaus, being in- 
 
 formed of this movement, regained Sparta 
 by a forced march in time to meet the 
 Theban attack, and, in a battle fought in 
 the streets of his capital, compelled the in- 
 vaders to withdraw. The Thebans then 
 sought to surprise Mantinea. The citizens 
 were unarmed and scattered through the 
 harvest fields, and Mantinea must have 
 fallen but for the opportune arrival of a 
 detachment of Athenian cavalry, which, 
 though hungry and weary with a long- 
 march, met and repulsed the Thebau 
 attack. The arrival of the Spartan army 
 soon after obliged Epaminondas to fall 
 back to Tegea. On the same day the two 
 armies met in the upland plain — 2,000 
 feet above the sea — between Tegea and 
 Mantinea. In the 
 bloody battle of Man- 
 tinea Avhich ensued, 
 the Mantineans and 
 Spartans were utterly 
 defeated. The The- 
 ban victory w a s 
 dearly purchased. 
 Epaminondas fell 
 mortally wounded at 
 the moment of vic- 
 tory. Realizing the 
 loss his countrymen 
 would suffer in his 
 death, he spent his 
 latest breath in ad- 
 vising them to make 
 peace. With the 
 death of her great 
 hero the supremacy 
 of Thebes came to 
 an end. Having no 
 one to take his place, 
 she soon fell back into her ordinary position. 
 In accordance with the advice of Epami- 
 nondas, peace was made, matters being left 
 in the condition in which the war had 
 found them. Sparta refused to sign the 
 treaty, but was unsupported by her allies, 
 and was thus harmless. 
 
 Agesilaus, the Spartan king, though 
 eighty years old, now set out for Egypt at 
 the head of 1,000 heavy-armed troojDS, to 
 assist Tachos in his revolt against Persia. 
 The Egyptians, astonished at the appear- 
 ance of the little, lame old man, which 
 seemed to them unworthy of a king, mor- 
 tally affronted him with their ridicule, and 
 refused him the command of their army. 
 He avenged himself by supporting the re- 
 bellion of Nectanebo and gaining the Egyp- 
 
THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 
 
 271 
 
 tian throne for him. The successful king 
 repaid this service with 230 talents of gold, 
 and Agesilaus set out on his return to 
 Sparta. He died on his way home, and 
 his body was embalmed in wax, carried to 
 Sparta, and buried with great pomp. It 
 has been said of him that he was " Sparta's 
 most perfect citizen and most consummate 
 general ; in many ways, perhaps, her 
 greatest man." 
 
 The peace of B. c. 362 remained un- 
 broken on the continent of Greece for six 
 years. During this time Athens and Alex- 
 ander of Pherse were engaged in hostilities 
 at sea, and war was waged beyond the 
 proper limits of Greece, between Athens on 
 the one hand and Amphipolis, Macedou 
 and the Thracian princes on the other. In 
 B. c. 358 Euboea, Amphipolis and the 
 Chersonesus were again subdued, and 
 Athens was once more the most powerful 
 state of Greece. This year marks the cul- 
 minating point of her second period of 
 glory, and the beginning of her decline. In 
 this year began what is known as " The 
 Social "War." Rhodes, Cos, Chios and 
 Byzantium revolted from her, and were 
 joined by Sestos and the other Hellespon- 
 tine towns subject to Athens, and Caria 
 sent aid to the insurgents. The war was 
 very exhaustive to the Athenian treasury, 
 and brought no profit to it. Funds for the 
 payment of the sailors of the fleet being 
 scarce, the Athenian commanders secured 
 them by aiding Phai'nabazus in his revolt 
 against Persia. The great king now pre- 
 pared to take part in the quarrel, against 
 Athens, and the republic was obliged to 
 avert his anger by consenting to the inde- 
 pendence of the four revolted states and 
 making peace. While the attention of 
 Athens was thus engaged, Philip of Mace- 
 don rapidly seized her dependencies on the 
 Thermaic Gulf, and made himself master 
 of the entire region between the Xestus and 
 the Peneus, and thus secured a footing in 
 Greece. 
 
 In B. c. 357, during the prevalence of the 
 social war, another struggle, called " The 
 Sacred War," broke out in Greece. The 
 hatred of Thebes towards the Phocians 
 compelled the latter to fight for their ex- 
 istence. The Phocians seized the treasures 
 of the temple of Delphi, and by a prudent 
 use of them raised a large army of merce- 
 naries, and even bought the alliance or 
 neutrality of Athens, Achrea and Sparta at 
 critical times. The Phocians, though de- 
 
 feated at first, were able, under Onomar- 
 chus, to conquer Socris and Doris, and to 
 invade Boeotia and conquer Orchomenus iu 
 B. c. 353. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY, 
 
 Description of Macedon — Origin of the Nation — 
 Foundation of the Macedonian Monarchy — Ti'ib- 
 ntary to Persia — Recovers its Independence — 
 Early History of Macedon — Philip II. — He Con- 
 quers the lUyrians — Plans the Subjugation of 
 Greece — His Vigorous Measures at Home — En- 
 croachments upon the Athenian Possessions — In- 
 tervenes in the Affairs of Greece — Thebes asks 
 Aid of Philip — He Makes Himself Master of 
 Greece — Demosthenes — His Philippics — Philip 
 Destroys the Olynthian Confederacy — The Second 
 Sacred War — Battle of Cha?ronea — Philip Supreme 
 in Greece — He Induces the Greek States to De- 
 clare War Against Persia — Humiliation of Sparta 
 — Death of Philip — Alexander the Great Becomes 
 King of Macedon — His Early Training — Vigorous 
 Measures of Alexander — He is Appointed to Com- 
 mand the Persian Expedition — Wars with the 
 Barbarian Tribes — Revolt of Thebes — Alexander 
 Takes the City and Destroys it — AlexanderrCrosses 
 the Hellespont and Begins the Persian AVar — 
 Battle of the Granicus — Conquest of Asia Minor — 
 Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot — Battle of 
 Issus — Conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt — 
 Alexandria Founded — Battle of Arbela — Fall of 
 the Persian Empire — Death of Darius — Capture 
 of Babylon and Susa — Conquests of Alexander in 
 the East^Excesses of the Conqueror — Murder of 
 his Generals — Alexander Pushes his Conquests 
 into India — Conquers Porus — Reaches the Hy- 
 phasis — His Troops Refuse to Advance Further — 
 His Return to Susa — A Terrible March — Alexan- 
 der Shares the Hardships of his Men — Orientali- 
 zation of the Court of Alexander — His Wives — 
 His Plans — His True Claim to Greatness — Prepar- 
 ations for the Conquest of Arabia — Last Illness 
 and Death of Alexander. 
 
 HE struggle now took a wider range 
 and drew a new and fatal element 
 into the quarrels of Greece. This 
 was none other than the Macedo- 
 nian kingdom, which for several 
 centuries had been acquiring 
 strength on the borders of Greece, and had 
 long desired to extend its authority over 
 that country. 
 
 Macedonia lay beyond the borders of 
 Greece proper, and immediately north of 
 Thessaly. Its limits varied at different 
 times, but the following may be taken as a 
 fair description of its boundaries. On the 
 north it was separated from Moesia by the 
 mountains called Orbelus and Scomius ; on 
 the east from Thrace by the river Strymon ; 
 on the south from Thessaly by the Cam- 
 bunian range ; on the west from Illyria by 
 a continuation of the great chain of the 
 
272 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Pindus mountains, known here as Scardus 
 and Bern us. Macedonia proper comprised 
 an area of about 6,000 square miles. The 
 country was generally fertile, and was ex- 
 tremely varied in its character. High 
 mountain chains, covered with snow during 
 the greater part of the year, cut the king- 
 dom in every direction, and euclosed a 
 number of large and distinct basins which 
 gave to this region its j^eculiar character. 
 Some of these basins have a lake in their 
 centre which receives the drainage ; others 
 are drained by rivers, which, with one ex- 
 
 :ma(ji:donian coin. 
 
 ception, flow eastward into the ^gean. 
 " In both cases the basins are of large ex- 
 tent, offering to the eye the appearance of a 
 succession of plains. The more elevated 
 regions are for the most part richly wooded, 
 and abound with sparkling rivulets, deep 
 gorges, and frequent waterfalls ; but in 
 places this character gives way to one of 
 dulness and monotony, the traveller passing 
 for miles over a succession of bleak downs 
 and bare hillsides, stony and shapeless." 
 
 The Macedonians were probably of Illy- 
 rian origin, and were regarded by the 
 Greeks as barbarians, or people not of Hel- 
 lenic descent. The Macedonian kings 
 claimed to be of pure Hellenic blood, and 
 traced their descent to Temenus of Argos. 
 
 The early history of INIacedon is obscure. 
 The monarchy is believed to have been 
 founded by Perdiccas I., somewhere about 
 B. c. 700, but nothing is known with cer- 
 tainty of its history until the reign of Amyn- 
 tas I., who was contemj^orary with the 
 Pisistratidse at Athens and Darius I. of 
 Persia. In b. c. 507 he submitted to 
 Darius I., and Mardonius, in his first expe- 
 dition against Greece, in b. c. 492, reduced 
 Macedonia to the condition of a province 
 of the Pei-sian empire. Its native sover- 
 eigns governed merely as tributaries of the 
 great king. After the defeat of Xerxes it 
 became free once more, and began to extend 
 its territories slowly along the northern 
 coast of the JEgean, moving steadily to the 
 eastward. Two rival powers barred its 
 progress in this quarter — the Thracian 
 
 kingdom of Sitalces, and the Athenians, 
 who had colonized the Chalcidian peninsula 
 with Greek cities. Archelaus I., who 
 reigned from b. c. 413 to B. c. 399, im- 
 proved his country very much by the con- 
 struction of roads and of fortresses along 
 the frontier to keep back the barbarian 
 tribes. He made Pella his capital, and 
 endeavored to spread among his peoj^le a 
 love of literature and art, of which he was 
 a munificent patron. He was assassinated 
 in B. c. 399. The next great sovereign was 
 Perdiccas III., who came to the throne in 
 B. c. 364. Five years later he was slain in 
 battle. He left an infant son, Amyntas, 
 but his brother Philip succeeded to the 
 crown, B. c. 359. 
 
 Philip II., the son of Amyntas II. and 
 brother of Perdiccas III., was but twenty- 
 three years old when he became regent. 
 It was a critical period in the history of his 
 country. His claim was disputed by four 
 princes ; the western provinces of the king- 
 dom had been overrun by the Illyrians, and 
 the eastern were in danger of being seized 
 by Thrace and Pseouia. Philip at first 
 acknowledged his nephew's succession, and 
 having propitiated Athens and Thrace, 
 marched against the Illyrians, and adopt- 
 ing the tactics of Epaminondas, which he 
 had studied during his residence in Thebes, 
 inflicted ujDon them a series of defeats 
 which completely broke their power. He 
 then deposed his nephew and neutralized 
 the efibrts of the pretenders to the crown. 
 
 TETRADRACHJI OF ARCHEI.AUS, KING OF 
 MACEDON. 
 
 Until now he had professed a warm friend- 
 ship for the Athenians. Now that he was 
 free from danger at the hands of the Illy- 
 rians, he began the aggressions upon the 
 Athenian possessions in the East to which 
 reference has already been made. Taking 
 advantage of the social war which occupied 
 the Athenians, he suddenly attacked and 
 captured Amphipolis, and then conquered 
 the entire coast district between the Stry- 
 mon and the Nestus. He thus became 
 master of the rich Thracian gold mines, 
 which yielded him an annual revenue of 
 
THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 
 
 273 
 
 1,000 talents. He organized his army on the 
 principles which he had learned at Thebes, 
 and by introducing into it the most 
 rigid discipline, succeeded iu rendering it 
 irresistible, and was thus able to carry out 
 his designs by its superiority to any force 
 of Greece or Asia. Having made himself 
 master of the Athenian possessions on the 
 ^Egean, he proceeded to put in execution 
 the design which he had formed from the 
 first of becoming the supreme master of 
 Greece. The quarrels between the tyrants 
 of Thessaly gave him the pretext he desired. 
 
 The Aleuadse of Larissa, disgusted with 
 the tyranny of the successors of Alexander 
 of Pharge, asked assistance of Philip against 
 those rulers. He promptly granted their 
 request, and entering Thessaly at the head 
 of his army, marched against Pharse. Ly- 
 cophron, the tyrant of that city, besought 
 aid of Onomarchus, who sent an army to 
 his assistance. Philip defeated this force, 
 and Onomarchus led a second army in pei*- 
 son into Thessaly, and defeated Philip in 
 two pitched battles, and compelled him to 
 withdraw from Thessaly. He then re- 
 turned to Boeotia and captured Chseronea. 
 Philip now invaded Tiiessaly a second 
 time, and Onomarchus marched to meet 
 him. He was defeated and slain, and 
 Philip became master of Thessaly, b. c. 352. 
 Philip now marched southward as far as 
 the Pass of Thermopylae, but finding it 
 strongly guarded by an Athenian force, 
 withdrew. He then made himself master 
 of Thrace and the Chersonese. 
 
 Meanwhile the sacred war went on. The 
 treasures of the Delphian temple becoming 
 exhausted, the Phocians began to show 
 signs of weakness. In the twelfth year of 
 the war, b. c. 346, Thebes, reckless of the 
 consequences of such a step, called in Philip, 
 who had long since assumed the character 
 of the champion of the Delphic god, to 
 crush Phocis. The Macedonian king was 
 quick to respond to the invitation which 
 held out so many advantages to him. Hav- 
 ing secui-ed the neutrality of Athens, he 
 moved through the pass of Thermopylae 
 without resistance, and in a brief campaign 
 utterly subdued Phocis, and was admitted 
 into the Amphictyonic council iu the place 
 of that state. 
 
 Philip was now the real master of Greece. 
 Athens alone was capable of resisting him, 
 but the Athenians had no leader able to 
 contend with him. Moreover, a strong Ma- 
 cedonian party began to spring up in Athens 
 IS 
 
 itself. The great orator Demosthenes had 
 long foreseen the danger which threatened 
 the liberties of Greece, and when Philip 
 began the execution of his ambitious de- 
 signs, the result of which the orator clearly 
 comprehended, Demosthenes endeavored to 
 arouse his countrymen to a sense of their 
 danger, and to stimulate them to an energetic 
 resistance to the Macedonians. His Philip- 
 pics, or orations against Philip, are justly 
 regarded as amongst the grandest outbursts 
 of eloquence, and the most powerful denun- 
 ciations of aggression on record. When 
 Philip attacked the Olynthian Confederacy, 
 the last barrier between himself and Greece, 
 Demosthenes exerted himself nobly to in- 
 duce the Athenians to succor Olynthus. 
 An expedition for its relief was determined 
 upon, but it was too late. Olynthus was 
 betrayed by two of its leading citizens, and 
 was taken in b. c. 347. Philip razed it to 
 the ground, and sold its inhabitants into 
 slavery. As he had taken all the other 
 Chalcidian cities before besieging Olynthus, 
 he was now master of the entire confederacy. 
 A proficient in intrigue, Philip then exerted 
 himself to strengthen the party at Athens 
 and throughout Greece, favorable to him. 
 He succeeded in making peace with Athens, 
 as it was his policy to conciliate that state 
 for the present, and accepted the invitation 
 of the Thebans to crush Phocis, as has just 
 been related. At the close of the saci'ed 
 war, Athens alone was capable of resisting 
 the Macedonian advance, but Macedon had 
 become the leading state in Greece. The 
 Athenians were now fully alive to a sense 
 of their danger. The wisdom of Demos- 
 thenes was vindicated by the result of the 
 war, and his influence was greatly increased 
 among his countrymen. 
 
 The aggressions of Philip on the Bospho- 
 rus embroiled Athens and Macedon in hos- 
 tilities in B. c. 340. In the next year, the 
 struggle known as the "Second Sacred 
 War" began, and gave to Philip the oppor- 
 tunity of executing his long cherished de- 
 sign of making himself master of Greece. 
 The Locrians of Amphissa having been ac- 
 cused of sacrilege, the Amphictyonic coun- 
 cil punished them by levying a fine upon 
 them, which they refused to pay. Philip 
 of Macedon was thereupon named general 
 of their forces by the Amphictyons, and 
 ordered to carry out the decree against 
 Amphissa. Being thus admitted to the 
 very heart of Greece, Philip, instead of 
 proceeding against Amphissa, seized Elatea, 
 
274 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the chief town in the eastern part of Phocis. 
 It was now clear that his real design was 
 against Boeotia and Attica. Those states 
 formed an alliance to resist him, though it 
 Avas with difficulty that the Athenians in- 
 duced Thebes to take the decisive step. On 
 the 7th of August, B. c. 338, Pliilip defeated 
 the allied Theban and Athenian armies at 
 Chserouea, in spite of their heroic resistance. 
 He was now supreme in Greece. With the 
 exception of Sparta, every Gi'ecian state 
 acknowledged his sovereignty. 
 
 It was the policy of Philip to engage the 
 Greeks in some important enterprise in ac- 
 cord witli the national feeling, which 
 should prevent them from reflecting up(m 
 their lost liberties. He had long meditated 
 the chastisement of Persia for the injuries 
 she had inflicted upon his own country and 
 upon Greece, and now resolved to put his 
 scheme in execution. He summoned a con- 
 gress of the Greek states at Corinth. Sparta 
 alone refused to take part in the assembly. 
 The result of the conl'erence was that war 
 was declared against Persia, and Philip was 
 assigned the supreme command of the expe- 
 dition, each state being required to furnish 
 a certain contingent of troops and ships. 
 
 Before embarking upon this expedition, 
 Philip resolved to punish Sparta for her 
 hostility to him. He entered the Pelopon- 
 nesus with a strong army, marched down 
 the eastern coast, and returned by the west- 
 ern, meeting with scarcely any resistance. 
 Indeed his march was more like a royal 
 progress. The western states of Greece, 
 north of the isthmus, submitted to him, and 
 a Macedonian garrison was stationed in 
 Ambracia. His authority being now un- 
 disputed in Greece, Philip returned to Ma- 
 cedon to prepare for the Persian expedition, 
 and in b. c. 336 was assassinated by a young 
 man named Pausanias, wdio claimed to have 
 suffered an injury at his hands. 
 
 Philip was succeeded by his son Alexan- 
 der III., called " the Great." Alexander 
 was born B. c. 356, and was but twenty 
 years old when he came to the throne. His 
 education had been carefully conducted by 
 the best of teachers. Leonidas, a kinsman 
 of his mother, had trained him in the Spar- 
 tan habits of endurance and hardihood ; 
 and Lysimachus had early aroused the am- 
 bition of the prince by teaching him to love 
 and emulate the heroes of Homer, and by 
 implanting in him a belief in the family 
 tradition that the blood of the great hero 
 Achilles ran in his veins. At the age of 
 
 thirteen he was confided to the care of Aris- 
 totle, who for several years directed his 
 education. "Thus the greatest conqueror 
 of the material world received the instruc- 
 tions of him who has exercised the most 
 extensive empire over the human intellect." 
 Alexander always cherished a warm affec- 
 tion for the great philosopher, and it was 
 from him that he drew the enlarged and 
 statesmanlike views that raised him above 
 the level of an ordinary conqueror. He 
 excelled in manly sports, and possessed a 
 constitution which enabled him to laugh at 
 fatigue and privation. From his father he 
 inherited a profound ambition, and from his 
 mother a fiery temper and an imperious 
 will. At the age of sixteen he was made 
 regent of Macedonia during his father's ab- 
 sence, and when only eighteen he com- 
 manded one of the wings of the Macedonian 
 army in the battle of Chteronea, and de- 
 cided the fortunes of the day. 
 
 He came to the throne in the midst of 
 difficulties and dangers. The more power- 
 ful Greek states were preparing to shake 
 off" the ]\Iacedonian yoke, esteeming the 
 young king too weak to continue the vigor- 
 ous policy of his father. Thebes, indeed, 
 went so far as to threaten open rebellion 
 against Macedon. Alexander was equal to 
 the emergency He secured the adhesion 
 of the Thessaliaus, partly by flattery and 
 partly by a display of force, summoned the 
 Amphictyonic council at Thermopylae and 
 compelled it to confer upon him the com- 
 mand with which his father had been in- 
 vested. He then marched upon Thebes and 
 prevented the revolution. The other Greek 
 states were convened in a congress at Co- 
 rinth, and, apprehensive of incurring the 
 wrath of one whom they now saw they had 
 evidently misjudged, appointed him gen- 
 eralissimo for the Persian war in the place 
 of his father. Sparta alone held aloof, still 
 clinging to the phantom of the supremacy 
 she had once possessed, but Alexander did 
 not deem it worth while to chastise her into 
 submission. The remainder of the year 
 was spent by him in subduing the Thra- 
 cians, Tribalians, Get?e, and the Danubian 
 tribes on the east, and the Illyrians and 
 Taulantians on the west. By these victories 
 Alexander not only gained an immense 
 booty, but compelled these nations, who 
 were about to attack Macedon, to cease their 
 annoyances. 
 
 While he was thus engaged, a report of 
 his death was circulated in Greece. Thebes 
 
THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 
 
 '^i-) 
 
 at once rose in rebellion, and was furnished 
 with assistance by Athens. Before the re- 
 port was contradicted, Alexander suddenly 
 appeared in Boeotia, and advanced against 
 Thebes. He offered the leaders of tlie re- 
 bellion an opportunity to surrender, but 
 they replied to his proposals with insults; 
 whereupon he attacked and captured Thebes, 
 and entirely destroyed it, with the excep- 
 tion of one house — that of Pindar the poet. 
 The Cadmeia was preserved and garrisoned 
 with Macedonian troops. The inhabitants 
 were massacred in large numbers at the 
 capture of the city; the remainder were sold 
 into slavery. 
 
 Alexander had now nothing more to 
 fear from Greece. He had impressed the 
 Hellenic states too deeply with a sense of 
 his energy and vigor for them to dream of 
 attempting a fresh revolt. He could now 
 apply himself to the conipiest of the Persian 
 dominions. He made Antipater regent of 
 Macedonia and Greece, and with an army of 
 oO,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, of which 
 force 12,000 foot were Macedonians, crossed 
 the Hellespont in the spring of B. c. 334. 
 Passing the strait in advance of his army he 
 hastened to the plain of Troy, and visited 
 the scenes made memorable in his beloved 
 Iliad, after which he rejoined his army 
 near Abydos. The Persians had taken 
 position, under Memnon, of Rhodes, an 
 able general, near Zela, on the Granicus, to 
 dispute the advance of the invaders. Alex- 
 ander forced a passage of the river and 
 routed the Persian army, taking, among 
 other prisoners, 2,000 mercenary Greeks. 
 After the battle he visited the wounded, 
 and decreed that the fiimilies of all his 
 slain soldiers should be exempted from tax- 
 ation. Sardis, Ephcsus, IVIagnesia, and 
 Tralles sun-endered at the approach of the 
 victors, and JNIiletus capitulated after a 
 short siege. The activity and genius of 
 INIemnon delayed the movements of Alex- 
 ander for some time, but in spite of him 
 Alexander succeeded in making himself 
 master of a large part of Asia jNIinor during 
 the remainder of the year. tStill he seems 
 to have been unwilling to remove his army 
 far from the ^gean as long as Memnon 
 was alive. The death of that commander 
 iu the spring of B. c. 333 removed the last 
 obstacle to his success and placed the Per- 
 sian empire at his mercy. 
 
 Alexander passed the winter at Gor- 
 dium, the ancient capital of Phrygia. In 
 the Acropolis of this city was kept the 
 
 wagon or chariot in which Midas, the son 
 of Gordiura, one of the ancient Phrygian 
 kings, had entered the town with his pa- 
 rents, and had been by the direction of the 
 oracle made king. An ancient prophecy 
 predicted that he who should untie the 
 knot of bark which fastened the yoke of the 
 wagon to the pole, should become the mas- 
 ter of Asia. Alexander repaired to the 
 citadel to attempt this feat, and, drawing 
 his sword, cut the Gordian knot through. 
 That night a violent storm of thunder and 
 lightning burst over the city, which was in- 
 terpreted by the superstitious people as a 
 divine intimation that the conqueror had 
 fulfilled the prediction. 
 
 In the spring of B. c. 333 Alexander re- 
 sumed his advance to the eastward, receiv- 
 ing the submission of Paphlagonia and 
 meeting no resistance from Cappadocia, 
 and finally passed the Taurus range and 
 entered the plains of Cilicia. Here he was 
 delayed by a dangerous fever caused by his 
 imprudence in bathing. He remained at 
 Tarsus until he had recovered, and then 
 continued his march to ]\Iallus, still cling- 
 ing to the coast. Here he learned that 
 Darius was advancing to meet him at the 
 head of 600,000 fighting men. The Per- 
 sian king, impatient of delay, had resolved 
 to seek Alexander, whose youth he despised. 
 The two armies met near Issus, and while 
 the Persians were still entangled in the 
 mountains, in a position so cramped that 
 they were not able to profit by their supe- 
 rior numbers, they were attacked by the 
 INIacedonians. A desperate battle ensued, 
 in which the skilful dispositions of Alexan- 
 der and the valor of his troops secured him 
 the victory. The Persians were routed and 
 driven from the field with fearful loss. 
 Darius saved himself only by the speed of 
 his horse, but his camp, and his mother 
 and wife fell into the hands of the victor. 
 The royal ladies were treated with the most 
 respectful consideration by the young con- 
 queror. 
 
 The battle of Issus was fought in No- 
 vember, B. c. 333. Alexander's genius was 
 strikingly illustrated by the use which he 
 made of it. Knowing that it would require 
 a considerable time for Persia to recover 
 sufficiently from her disaster to be able to 
 take the field again, he suffered Darius to 
 escape, and turned southward to conquer 
 the Mediterranean coast and Egypt, by 
 which he would effectually secure the safety 
 of Macedon and Greece. All the PhciMii- 
 
276 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ciau cities but Tyre submitted. That city 
 resisted him for seven months, trusting to 
 its insular position for success. Alexander 
 collected the ruins of old Tyre, built a wide 
 causeway with them from the mainland to 
 the city, took it by storm and destroyed it 
 in July, B. c. 332. Eight thousand Tyrians 
 fell by the sword, and 30,000 were sold into 
 slavery. Gaza also resisted, and was cap- 
 tured after a siege of two months. Jerusa- 
 lem next yielded to him, as has been re- 
 lated. Continuing southward, he entered 
 Egypt, where he was gladly welcomed. 
 The Egyptians had bitterly hated the Per- 
 sians since the time of Cambysses, and they 
 
 the ancient kingdom into direct relations 
 with the European world. 
 
 All the maritime provinces of Persia 
 were now in the hands of Alexander, who 
 was complete master of the sea. He now 
 retraced his steps and advanced to the east- 
 ward once more, to complete the conquest 
 of the Persian empire. Moving through 
 Samaria and Syria, he crossed the Eu- 
 phrates at Thapsacus about the end of 
 August, B. c. 331, and advanced through 
 the fertile region of Mesopotamia towards 
 the Tigris, on the left bank of which stream 
 he was informed that Darius awaited him. 
 Darius had collected the full force of his 
 
 KUJNS OF CORINTH. 
 
 welcomed the Greeks as deliverers. Alex- 
 ander won their friendship by the respect 
 with which he treated their religion, a 
 policy in striking contrast with the con- 
 tempt that had been heaped upon it by the 
 Persians. He founded the city of Alexan- 
 dria, at the mouth of the western branch 
 of the Nile, selecting with the genius of a 
 born statesman the most favorable commer- 
 cial site in Egypt. Undoubtedly the new 
 city owed much to the Ptolemies in future 
 times, but so admii-able Avas the choice of 
 its founder that a city so located could not 
 under any circumstances have failed to be- 
 come a great metropolis. Alexander made 
 it the capital of Egypt, and thus brought 
 
 empire, and is said to have assembled a 
 million of men under his standard, of whom 
 50,000 were Greek mercenaries. He had 
 taken position in one of the extensive plains 
 east of the Tigris, between that stream and 
 the Kurdistan mountains, about twenty 
 miles from the town of Arbela, which gave 
 its name to the battle which ensued there. 
 He had selected this position in order that 
 he might be free to manoeuvre his immense 
 force. The Macedonian armv consisted of 
 but 40,000 infantry and 7,000 horse. It 
 was made up of European soldiers, how- 
 ever, and its commander was the first gen- 
 eral of his time. Early in September 
 Alexander attacked the Persian army in its 
 
THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 
 
 211 
 
 chosen position, and inflicted upon it such a 
 crushing defeat that Persia was unable to 
 offer any further i-esistauce. Darius fled 
 from the fieUl before the battle was de- 
 cided, and his army quickly followed his 
 example. Alexander pursued the fugitives 
 with such vigor that as many were drowned 
 in trying to cross the Lycus as fell on the 
 field of battle. A few hours were passed 
 by the Greeks in resting from their fatigue, 
 and then the army jxished on to Arbela. 
 Darius had fled far beyond that city, but 
 the whole of the royal baggage and treas- 
 ure was captured there. 
 
 Finding it useless to pursue the fugitive 
 king any farther, Alexander marched to 
 Babylon, which surrendered at his ap- 
 proach. He made a magnificent entry 
 into the famous city. The Persians had 
 been severe persecutors of the Chaldseau 
 religion ; Alexander Avon the affection of 
 the Babylonians, as he had that of the 
 Egyptians, by restoring their temples and 
 protecting their religion. Susa* had al- 
 ready promptly surrendered to a detach- 
 ment of the conquering army sent to seize 
 it immediately after the battle of Arbela, 
 and in November, Alexander, after leaving 
 a garrison in Babylon, marched to Susa 
 with his whole array. The Persian treasury 
 was captured there, containing 40,000 
 talents (848,000,000) in gold and silver 
 bullion, and 9,000 in golden darics ($10,- 
 800,000). Besides this, the spoils carried 
 away from Greece by Xerxes were re- 
 covered. These were sent back to Athens. 
 
 At Susa Alexander received a reinforce- 
 ment of 15,000 men from Greece, and the 
 news of the revolt of Sparta against Anti- 
 pater. He sent a considerable sum to the 
 regent to aid him in putting down the dis- 
 turbances, and then pressed on into the 
 heart of the Persian empire. Pie stormed 
 and carried the difficult mountain pass 
 called " The Persian Gates," which was de- 
 fended by the Satrap Ariorbarzanes with 
 over 40,000 men, and advanced to Perse- 
 polis, which surrendered without striking 
 a blow. The treasure captured here is said 
 to have exceeded that found at Babylon 
 and Susa, and to have amounted to the 
 enormous sum of 120,000 talents, or S144,- 
 000,000. 
 
 Not satisfied with his victories, Alexander 
 continued his advance into Media, where 
 Darius had collected his forces for a last 
 stand. On the appi'oach of the conqueror 
 the Persian king fled through the Caspian 
 
 Gates into Bacti*ia, where he was murdered 
 by Bessus the satrap, who assumed the title 
 of King of Persia. Alexander caused the 
 dead monarch to be interred with royal 
 pomp with his ancestors at Passargadse. 
 The Greek mercenaries of Darius now 
 joined the ranks of the conqueror, who 
 continued his march deeper into the heart 
 of the empire, the eastern provinces of 
 which submitted at his approach and were 
 reorganized and attached to his dominions. 
 Bessus, the murderer of Darius, was cap- 
 tured in Sogdiana, and was put to death 
 with cruel tortures for his treason and 
 usurpation. The conqueror founded a new 
 city, which he called Alexandria, on the 
 Jaxartes, and inflicted a severe chastisement 
 upon the Scythians, and returned to Bactria 
 and went into winter-quarters at Zariaspa, 
 B. c. 329. 
 
 But the fairly-won fame of Alexander 
 had been tarnished by a brutal exercise of 
 power. Elated by his conquests he had 
 assumed the pomp and dress of a Persian 
 king, and had given offence to some of his 
 generals thereby. Philotas, the son of 
 Parmenio, the ablest of the Macedonian 
 generals, had made some disparaging re- 
 marks upon the change in the habits and 
 manners of the king, and was put to death 
 on the unsustained charge of plotting against 
 the life of his sovereign. Parmenio was also 
 slain by order of Alexander for his alleged 
 participation in the same plot. The next 
 year in a drunken revel Alexander slew 
 with his own hand his friend Clitus, who 
 had saved his life at the battle of the Gran- 
 icus, and who had offended him by refusing 
 to join in the fulsome adulation of the 
 courtiers. 
 
 In B. c. 328 Sogdiana was subdued, and 
 the next year Alexander advanced into 
 India. His army had been largely recruited 
 from among the Asiatic nations, and is said 
 to have numbered 120,000 foot and 15,000 
 horse. He marched through tlie Punjaub, 
 or the region of the " Five Rivers," with- 
 out encountering any resistance until he 
 reached the Hydaspes, where Porus, an 
 Indian monarch, endeavored to stop his 
 progress with a large force of men and ele- 
 phants. A bloody battle ensued, in which 
 Porus Avas defeated and made a prisoner. 
 Alexander asked his captive how he wished 
 to be treated. "As a king," replied Porus. 
 "And have you no other request ? " asked 
 Alexander. "No," was the rejily, "every- 
 thing is comprehended in the Avord king." 
 
278 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Struck with this spirited answer, Alexander 
 restored Porus to his throne, and thus 
 changed an enemy into a friendly vassal. 
 
 Alexander halted for a month on the 
 Hydaspes to rest his army, and during this 
 time founded two cities. One of these he 
 called Nicsea, in commemoration of his 
 victories ; the other Bucephala, in honor of 
 his favorite war-horse Bucephalus, which 
 is said to have died here. Then resuming 
 his march he overran the whole of the Pun- 
 jaub as far as its southern boundary, the 
 river Hyphasis, the modern Ghara. He 
 was very anxious to cross this stream and 
 conquer the country beyond it, but the 
 army, Avorn out with fatigue and hardship, 
 refused to advance any farther. Finding 
 it impossible to prevail upon the troops to 
 continue the march, Alexander yielded with 
 as good a grace as possible to the inevitable. 
 Pretending that the sacrifices were unfavor- 
 able for the passage of the Hyphasis, he 
 erected twelve colossal altai's on its banks 
 to mark his conquests in this direction, and 
 gave the order to retreat. He returned to 
 his new cities on the Hydaspes, from which 
 he determined with characteristic enter- 
 prise to return to Babylon by a different 
 route from that by which he had come. He 
 had caused a fleet of 2,000 ships to be con- 
 structed when he first advanced into the 
 Punjaub It was now ready, and embark- 
 ing with 8,000 men on these he descended 
 the Indus, which he at first believed to be 
 a branch of the Nile, while the army 
 marched along the shore. But little re- 
 sistance was encountered except from the 
 tribe of the Malli, in the capture of whose 
 town Alexander came near losing his life. 
 Two new cities were built at the junction 
 of the chief tributary of the Indus, the 
 Acesines (Chenab), and the entire valley 
 W'as reduced to submission Arriving at the 
 Indian Ocean Alexander sent Kearchus 
 Avith the fleet to the Persian Gulf, while he 
 marched by land to Persepolis and Susa. 
 His route lay through Gedrosia (Beloo- 
 chistan) and Carmania. It was the most 
 terrible march he had ever attempted. In 
 crossing the Gedrosian desert more men 
 died than had fallen during the entire expe- 
 dition. Alexander shared the hardships 
 and privations of his troops, marching with 
 them on foot and enduring all that they 
 were -called upon to bear. In spite of his 
 losses, however, he reached Persepolis with 
 the bulk of his army, a force strong enough 
 to enable him not onlv to maintain his con- 
 
 quests, but to attempt new ones. Persepolis 
 was reached in the early winter of b. c 326. 
 The next year Alexander returned to Susa. 
 Here he gave his army several months of 
 much-needed rest, and applied himself to 
 the organization of his empire. 
 
 Two years previous he had married 
 Roxana, a beautiful Bactrian princess whom 
 he had captured, and he now took for a 
 second wife Statira, the eldest daughter of 
 Darius III., hoping by this union to con- 
 ciliate his Eastern subjects. He bestowed 
 the hand of her sister Drypetis on Hepha^s- 
 tion, and promoted the marriages of about 
 one hundred of his officers with Eastern 
 women of rank. At the same time ten 
 thousand of his soldiers took Asiatic wives, 
 and were given rich presents by the king. 
 Twenty thousand Persians were admitted 
 into the army and trained in the Mace- 
 donian discipline. Persian satraps were 
 placed over a number of the provinces, and 
 the court was composed of about an equal 
 number of Europeans and Asiatics. The 
 manners and habits of the king conformed 
 more and more to those of an Eastern des- 
 pot. These changes gave great offence to 
 the Macedonian veterans, who at length 
 broke out into open revolt when the king 
 proposed to dismiss such Macedonians as 
 were wounded or otherwise disabled. Alex- 
 ander promptly seized thirteen of the leaders 
 of the mutiny and put them to death, and 
 with great address succeeded in bringing 
 the others to a sense of their dependence 
 ujDon him. They besought pardon, and 
 were forgiven, and ten thousand veterans 
 were sent back to their homes beyond the 
 sea. 
 
 Alexander was no vulgar conqueror, and 
 his title of Great does not rest simply upon 
 his conquests. He had conceived the de- 
 sign of founding a vast empire which should 
 comprise the then known world. He did 
 not intend merely to bring these countries 
 under his sway, but his plans comprehended 
 their improvement as well. He caused the 
 rivers of the countries conquered by him to 
 be freed fi om obstructions, encouraged com- 
 mercial enterprises, and gave a new imj^etus 
 to Oriental industry. Wherever he went 
 he left the Greek language and some por- 
 tion of Greek cultivation as a priceless 
 legacy to the countries through which he 
 passed. This universal spread of the Greek 
 tongue was all-powerful in drawing the 
 nations of the old world into a closer and 
 more intimate contact with each other. 
 
FROM DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 279 
 
 Greek became the language of commerce, 
 as well as of the court. At a later period the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, translated into Greek, 
 were made accessible to the whole world, 
 and the way Avas thus paved for the mission 
 of Him of whom these Scriptures testified. 
 
 Alexander intended to extend his con- 
 quests into Arabia, and after subduing that 
 country to conquer Carthage, then Italy, 
 and then Europe. Babylon was to be his 
 capital, and he caused the construction of 
 a harbor to be begun which should change 
 the inland city into the principal port of 
 the East. 
 
 In the spring of b. c. 324 he went from 
 Ecbataua to Babylon. The preparations 
 for the Arabian expedition were rapidly 
 pushed forward, and in the meantime 
 Alexander occupied himself with surveying 
 the course of the Euphrates and devising 
 plans for its improvement. While thus en- 
 gaged in the unhealthy Chaldiean marshes 
 he contracted a fever, which prostrated him 
 soon after his return to Babylon, and in 
 the midst of the final preparations for, and 
 the banquets which were to precede, his 
 departure for Arabia. At these carousals 
 the king drank deep, and at the termination 
 of one he was seized with the fever. He 
 neglected it for some days, but at length 
 was confined to his bed. He succumbed 
 rapidly to the malady, and it was evident 
 to all that his end was near. As he lay 
 speechless on his death-bed his favorite 
 troops were admitted to take leave of him. 
 He could only stretch out his hand to them 
 in mute recognition, while the hardened 
 veterans sobbed in uncontrollable grief. 
 He died on the 28th of June, b. c. 323, at 
 the age of thirty-two, and iu the thirteenth 
 year of his reign. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE 
 GREAT TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 Consequences of the Death of Alexander — Arrange- 
 ments of his Generals — Philip Arrhidajus made 
 King — Division of Alexander's Dominions Among 
 his Generals — Birth of the Son of Alexander — 
 Quarrels of Alexander's Successors — Their Wars 
 — Battle of Ipsus — Final Division of Alexander's 
 Dominions — Matters in Greece — Final Conquest 
 of Athens by JIacedon — Philip IV. of Macedon — 
 Demetrius Becomes King of Macedon and Greece 
 — Goes to War witU Sj'ria — Loses Macedon — 
 ^Macedon Subject to Thrace — Seleucus Master of 
 Alexander's Empire — Ptolemy Ceraunus King of 
 Macedon — His Cruel Picigu — Irruption of the 
 Uuulb into Greece — Anti'_'oiius Gouatus King of 
 
 Macedon — Wars with Pyrrhus — Death of Pyrrhus 
 — Antigonus Master of the Whole of Greece — The 
 Achaian League — It Frees the Peloponnesus 
 from Macedon — Demetrius II. is Succeeded by 
 Philip V. — Failure of the Effort to Revive the 
 Power of Sparta — Philip Makes War Upon the 
 iEtolians — Allies himself with Cartilage — Attacks 
 the Roman Possessions — Is Defeated and Com- 
 pelled to Make Peace — Renews the War — Is De- 
 feated and Compelled to Retire to Macedonia — 
 The Achican and ^Etoliau Leagues — The Latter 
 Made Subject to Rome — Further Humiliation of 
 Philip — liis Death — Perseus King of Macedon — 
 Rome Declares War Against Macedon — Perseus 
 Conquered and Taken Prisoner — Conquest of 
 Greece by the Romans. 
 
 r;^^HE unexpected death of Alexander 
 '■^ threatened his great empire with 
 disruption, as he had appointed no 
 successor. On the day of his 
 death a council of his generals 
 was called to decide upon the 
 proper course to be pursued. The king on 
 his death-bed had given his ring to Perdic- 
 cas, and that general now took a leading 
 part in the discussions of the council. 
 Koxana, the wife of Alexander, was preg- 
 nant at the time of his death, and it was 
 agreed that if she should give birth to a 
 son he should inherit his father's crown. 
 After considerable difficulty the council 
 agreed to an arrangement on the following 
 basis : That Philip Arrhidreus, an illegiti- 
 mate brother of Alexander the Great, and 
 a young man of weak intellect, should be 
 declared king, " reserving, however, to the 
 child of Roxana, if a son should be born, a 
 share in the sovereignty ; that the govern- 
 ment of Macedonia and Greece should be 
 divided between Antipater and Craterus ; 
 that Ptolemy, who was reputed to be con- 
 nected with the royal family, should preside 
 over Egypt and the adjacent countries; 
 that Antigonus should have Phrygia proper, 
 Lycia, and Pamphylia; that the Helles- 
 pontine Phrygia should be assigned to 
 Leonnatus ; that Eumenes should have the 
 satrapy of Paphlagouia and Cappadocia, 
 which countries, however, still remained to 
 be subdued ; and that Thrace should be 
 committed to Lysimachus. Perdiccas re- 
 served for himself the chiliarchy or com- 
 mand of the horse guards, the post before 
 held by Hepha^stion, in virtue of which he 
 became the guardian of Philip Arrhidteus, 
 the nominal sovereign." 
 
 These matters being arranged, the last 
 rites were paid to the remains of Alexander. 
 His body was conveyed to Syria, and thence 
 transported to Alexandria in Egyj)!, where 
 it was deposited in a mausoleum erected by 
 
280 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Ptolemy I. In clue time Roxana gave 
 birth to a son, who was named Alexander, 
 and declared joint sovereign of the empire. 
 The real ruler was Perdiccas, who for two 
 years kept the empire united and faithful 
 to the family of Alexander. Four regents 
 or guardians of the realm were appointed — 
 two in Asia and two in Europe. Perdic- 
 cas murdered his co-regent and thus became 
 sole ruler of Asia, but Antipater and Cra- 
 terus administered the government west of 
 the Hellespont. It was plain, however, 
 that the various commanders who had been 
 appointed to the provinces would seek to 
 retain the dominions assigned them, and it 
 was not long before they realized these au- 
 ticiimtions. Seeing the impossibility of 
 presei'ving the crown for the infant Alex- 
 ander, Perdiccas resolved to seize it hira- 
 
 THESSALONICA. 
 
 self. He was opposed by Antigonus and 
 Ptolemy, the most important of the pro- 
 vincial rulers. The former had ambitious 
 schemes of his own, and the latter meant to 
 erect his dominions into an independent 
 kingdom. Perdiccas was slain by his mu- 
 tinous soldiers in a campaign against Ptol- 
 emy, and Craterus perished in a battle with 
 Eumenes in Cappadocia. Antipater was 
 thus left sole regent. He silenced Eurydice, 
 the young wife of the mock king Philip 
 Arrhid^eus, who demanded to be admitted 
 to a share of the goverument, and caused a 
 new division of the provinces to be made, 
 B. c. 320. Antigonus was intrusted with 
 the war against Eumenes, and under the 
 pretext of sustaining the royal authority, 
 made himself master of the greater part of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 In B. c. 310 Antipater died at Macedou. 
 Instead of leaving the regency to his son 
 Cassander, he appointed his friend Poly- 
 sperchon his successor. Cassander at once 
 joined Antigonus, who was prosecuting the 
 war against Eumenes. Eumenes and Poly- 
 sperchon were the only persons who were 
 honestly seeking to maintain the integrity 
 of the empire ; Cassander, Antigonus, and 
 Ptolemy sought its destruction as the means 
 of their own aggrandizement. Antigonus 
 defeated a royal fleet near Byzantium, and 
 then drove Eumenes beyond the Tigris, 
 where he was joined by a number of the 
 Eastern satraps. Notwithstanding this re- 
 inforcement, Eumenes was defeated, and 
 was delivered by his own troops to Anti- 
 gonus, who put him to death, B. C. 316. 
 In the same year Olympias, the mother of 
 Alexander the Great, 
 caused Philip Arrhi- 
 dffius and his wife to 
 be murdered. Not 
 long afterwards she 
 herself fell into the 
 power of Cassander, 
 who had become mas- 
 ter of Macedonia and 
 Greece, and was 
 killed. Cassand er 
 now strengthened 
 himself by marrying 
 Thessalonica, the 
 half-sister of Alex- 
 ander the Great. He 
 founded in her honor 
 the city of Asia 
 Minor which bears 
 her name. 
 It was plain that Antigonus was "seeking 
 nothing less than the sovereignty of the 
 entire East. In jDursuance of this design 
 he drove Seleucus from Babylon. The lat- 
 ter sought refuge in Egypt, and a new coal- 
 ition was formed against Antigonus, con- 
 sisting of Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and 
 Lysimachus. A war of four years ensued, 
 which exhausted all parties, and peace was 
 made in B. c. 411, by which it was provided 
 that the Greek cities should be free, that 
 Cassander should exercise his authority in 
 Europe until Alexander came of age — he 
 Avas now sixteen years old — and that Ptol- 
 emy should retain Egypt and Lysimachus 
 Thrace. Very soon after the negotiation 
 of this treaty Cassander caused Roxanaand 
 the young Alexander to be secretly assas- 
 sinated. 
 
FROM DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 281 
 
 Seleucus, who had recovered Babylon, 
 had also made himself master of Media, 
 Susiauia, aud Pei'sia, aud was not a party 
 to the peace. It was doubtless believed by 
 his allies that he was strong enough to hold 
 his conquests. The peace was broken in 
 B. C. 310 by Ptolemy, who complained that 
 Antigonus had not freed the Greek cities 
 of Asia. Antigonus also complained that 
 Cassander still maintained his garrisons in 
 the cities of European Greece. The war 
 was resumed. Ptolemy gained important 
 successes at first in Cilicia, but Avas ulti- 
 mately checked by Demetrius, the son of 
 Antigonus. H e 
 then transferred 
 his operations to 
 the opposite side of ( 
 the -^gean, and 
 occupied S icy on 
 and Corinth. He 
 sought to secure in 
 marriage the hand 
 of Cleopatra, Alex- 
 ander's sister and 
 the last survivor 
 of the royal house 
 of Macedon, but 
 Cassander pre- 
 vented this by 
 causing that prin- 
 cess to be assassin- 
 ated, B. c. 308. 
 Demetrius now ar- 
 rived with a large 
 fleet to the assist- 
 ance of Athens. 
 He did not remain 
 there long, as he 
 was recalled early 
 in B. c. 306, and 
 sent to besiege Cy- 
 prus, Avhich had 
 been seized by 
 Ptolemy. Ptolemy 
 hastened to the relief of the island Avith 140 
 ships and 10,000 troops. A severe naval 
 battle ensued off Salamis — one of the most 
 memorable in the history of the world. 
 Ptolemy was completely defeated and lost 
 all his ships but eight, and 17,000 soldiers 
 and sailors. Antigonus regarded this vic- 
 tory as of so much importance that he as- 
 sumed the title of king. His example was 
 followed by Ptolemy, Cassander, Lysima- 
 chus, and Seleucus. 
 
 Demetrius now undertook the siege of 
 Rhodes, which he conducted with great 
 
 ability, but after a year Spent in a vain en- 
 deavor to take the town he was obliged to 
 retire. Rhodes took no part in the re- 
 mainder of the war. During this year Cas- 
 sander had been very successful in his 
 efforts to bring Greece under his authority. 
 He had taken Corinth and was besieging 
 Athens when Demetrius arrived in the 
 Euripus to the assistance of that city. 
 Cassander at once raised the siege and 
 marched against Demetrius, who defeated 
 him in a battle near Thermopylae, after 
 which the conqueror entered Athens, where 
 he was joyfully received. Demetrius re- 
 
 EATTLE OF IPSCS. 
 
 mained in Greece two or three years, and 
 during this time Cassander was unable to 
 make any progress. He was recalled in 
 the spring of B. c. 301, to the assistance of 
 his flither, who was t-hreatened by the com- 
 bined forces of Lysimachus and Seleucus. 
 A great battle, which decided the struggle, 
 was fought at Ipsus in Phrygia. Antigonus 
 was utterly routed and slain. The wreck 
 of his army was conducted by Demetrius 
 to Ephesus, from which port he sailed to 
 Cyprus, and afterwards proposed to go to 
 Athens, but the Athenians refused to receive 
 
282 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 him. The conquerors at Ipsus divided 
 Asia between them. Ptolemy was in pos- 
 session of Palestine, Phoenicia, and a part 
 of Coele-Syria, and was allowed to keep 
 these provinces. Lysimachus received the 
 greater part of Asia Minor, in addition to 
 his Thracian kingdom, whilst Seleucus re- 
 ceived all of western Asia not given to 
 Lysimachus or held by Ptolemy, from the 
 coast of Syria to the Euphrates. Cassander 
 was not molested in ^Macedonia, and ruled 
 that country until his death. 
 
 Greece still remained a possession of the 
 Macedonian crown. Upon the death of 
 Alexander the majority of the states had 
 rebelled against Macedon, under the leader- 
 ship of Athens. Antipater, the regent, en- 
 deavored to quell the revolt, but was de- 
 feated and besieged in the Thessalian town 
 of Lamia. He now had recourse to diplo- 
 macy, and broke up the league of the 
 Greeks by treating with each of its mem- 
 bers separately. All were granted the 
 most lenient terms except the leaders. 
 
 COIN OF THESSAI-OXICA. 
 
 Athens was severely punished. Twelve 
 thousand of her citizens were exiled to 
 Thrace, Illyria, Italy, and Africa, and the 
 remainder willingly submitted to the Mace- 
 donian authority. Demosthenes and the 
 other leaders of his party were executed. 
 Athens now had not a vestige of inde- 
 pendence left, B. c. o21. 
 
 Cassander died in B. c. 298, three years 
 after the battle of Ipsus. He was succeeded 
 by his eldest son, Philip IV., who died in 
 the same year. Thessalonica, the wife of 
 Cassander, then divided Macedonia between 
 her remaining sons, Antipater and Alex- 
 ander. Antipater aspired to the undivided 
 crown, and murdered his mother and in- 
 vited his father-in-law, Lysimachus of 
 Thrace, into Macedonia, to aid him in be- 
 coming master of the whole kingdom. 
 Alexander asked aid of Demetrius, then 
 master of Athens and the greater part of 
 Greece, and of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. 
 The brothers were put to death by their 
 respective allies, and Demetrius (b. c. 294) 
 became King of Macedon and Greece. Sev- 
 
 eral of the western provinces having been 
 ceded by Alexander to Pyrrhus, Deme- 
 trius undertook to recover them, but was 
 defeated by Pyrrhus. At the head of a 
 large army he then invaded Asia about 
 B. c. 288, for the purpose of recovering the 
 dominions of his father, Antigonus. To 
 avert this invasion, Seleucus and Lysima- 
 chus induced Pyrrhus to attack Macedonia 
 from the west, while Lysimachus invaded it 
 from Thrace. This combined attack forced 
 Demetrius to resign the Macedonian crown, 
 B. c. 2i'57. Later on he was made prisoner 
 in an expedition into Asia against Seleucus, 
 and kept in captivity until his death three 
 years afterwards. Pyrrhus and Lysimachus 
 quarrelled over the division of Macedonia, 
 and the former was driven back into his 
 own coimtry, and INIacedouia became a part 
 of the Thracian kingdom. Five years later 
 the nobles rebelled against Lysimachus 
 and offered the crown to Seleucus, who de- 
 feated and slew Lysimachus in the battle 
 of Corupedion, and became master of all 
 his dominions. Seleucus now ruled over 
 the Avhole of Alexander the Great's vast 
 empire with the exception of Egypt. He 
 was slain a few weeks later by Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus, the disinherited son of Ptolemy 
 L, who had taken refuge at his court. 
 Ptolemy Ceraunus at once seized the Mace- 
 donian crown. His short reign was liter- 
 ally steeped in crime. He married his 
 half-sister Arsinoe, the widow of Lysima- 
 chus, and murdered her children before her 
 eyes and banished her to Samothrace, 
 whence she fled to Egypt and became the 
 wife of her brother Ptolemy II. The 
 reign of Ceraunus was cut short by a sud- 
 den invasion of the Gauls, who burst into 
 Macedonia about B. c. 280. He was slain 
 in the effort to resist them, and his king- 
 dom was ravaged far and wide. The next 
 year the Gauls entered Thessaly in force 
 ami passed into central Greece. They were 
 gallantly resisted by the Greeks, and being 
 repulsed in their efforts to capture Delphi, 
 broke up into predatory bands. Disease, 
 exposure, and loss in battle destroyed the 
 greater part ; of the survivors some settled 
 in the region of the Danube, others founded 
 a kingdom in Thrace, and others still 
 passed into Asia, Avhere they gave their 
 name to the country called Galatia. 
 
 Macedonia fell into a state of anarchy at 
 the death of Ptolemy Ceraunus, and the 
 crown was disputed by several pretenders. 
 In B. c. 278 Antigonus Gouatus, the sou of 
 
FROM DEATH OF ALEXAyDER THE GREAT TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 283 
 
 Demetrius, who had continued to hoUI the 
 kingdom of southern and central Greece, 
 entered Macedonia at the head of an arniy 
 of Gallic mercenaries, and made himself 
 king. The Syrian King Antiochus Soter 
 endeavored to expel him, but finding this 
 impossible, acknowledged him as King of 
 Macedonia and gave him his sister in mar- 
 riage. Neither tlie Macedonians nor the 
 Greeks submitted willingly to Antigonus, 
 and upon the invasion of Macedonia by 
 Pyrrhus, in B. c. 278, the Macedonian army 
 allowed itself to be twice defeated by the 
 Epirote king, and Antigonus became a 
 fugitive. Pyrrhus was unquestionably the 
 ablest warrior and ruler of his day, and 
 had he sought to consolidate his conquests 
 instead of attempting others, he might have 
 retained the extensive domain of which he 
 was now master. He was possessed, how- 
 ever, of a restless ambition which soon led 
 him to attempt the conquest of southeni 
 Greece. He was repulsed in an attack 
 upon Sparta, and killed in a night assault 
 upon Argos by a tile thrown from a house- 
 top by an Argive woman, b. c. 271. 
 
 Antigonus now returned, regained his 
 throne in Macedon, and reigned for thirty- 
 two years more. He made himself master 
 of nearly tlie whole of the Peloj^onuesus, 
 and governed it by means of tyrants whom 
 he esta])lished in the various cities. With 
 the aid of an Egyptian fleet and a Spartan 
 army, he laid siege to Athens, which re- 
 sisted him for six years. The Athenians 
 were reduced to great extremities, and their 
 city was captured about B. c. 262. During 
 the siege of Athens Antigonus was obliged 
 to return to INIacedonia to meet an invasion 
 of Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, who had 
 won so many successes that he had been 
 acknowledged King of Macedonia. Deme- 
 trius, the son of Antigonus, drove Alex- 
 ander back into Epirus, and even wrested 
 that kingdon^ from him. He was obliged 
 to restore Epirus, but Alexander wisely 
 confined himself to his own dominions in 
 future. In B. c. 242 Antigonus captured 
 Corinth. With the exception of Sparta, he 
 was now master of all Greece. 
 
 A new power had now arisen in Greece. 
 The Achsean League, or the confederacy of 
 the cities of Achuia, which had been sup- 
 pressed by the successors of Alexander the 
 Great, was revived in B. c. 251 by Aratus 
 of Sicyon, who seized his native city and 
 added it to the league. In b. c. 245 Aratus 
 was elected Strategus, or general of the 
 
 league, and again in b. c. 243, in which 
 latter year he captured Corinth from the 
 Macedonians and added it to the confeder- 
 acy, the object of which was to free Greece 
 from jNIacedoniau rule and re-establish the 
 independence of its states. By his etforts 
 the league soon embraced the whole Pelo- 
 ponnesus with the exception of Sparta, 
 Elis, and some of the Arcadian towns. 
 Antigonus, now an old man, did not attack 
 the Acha3an Confederacy, but retaliated by 
 inducing the JEtolians to do so. He died 
 in B. c. 239, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Demetrius II. 
 
 Demetrius made an alliance with Epirus. 
 By so doing he alienated the JEtolians, who 
 were enemies of that kingdom, and they i 
 joined their forces with those of the Achaean 
 League against Macedon. Though Deme- 
 trius succeeded in driving the allied Greeks 
 from Thessaly and Bceotia, he lost the Pel- 
 oponnesus. The ^tolians having begun a 
 series of aggressions u^wn Acarnania, Rome 
 interfered for the first time in the affairs of 
 Greece, and compelled the ^tolians to re- 
 spect the integrity of Acarnania. In B. c. 
 228 the Romans obtained a footing in 
 Greece by becoming masters of Corcyra, 
 Apollonia, and Epidaranus. Demetrius II. 
 died in B. c. 227, leaving his crown to his 
 son Philip V., a boy of eight years. Anti- 
 gonus Doson, a near kinsman of the young 
 king, was made regent. 
 
 During all this while Sparta had retained 
 her independence, but had lost even the 
 shadow of her former power and greatness. 
 Agis IV., who came to the throne in B, c. 
 244, endeavored to restore the ancient 
 power and glory of his country by reviving 
 the laws of Lycurgus, but lost his life in the 
 attempt. Cleomenes, his successor, carried 
 out these reforms some years later, and 
 Sparta, thus reinvigorated, was able to in- 
 flict another defeat upon the forces of the 
 Achaean League, and to detach from it the 
 principal Aciiaian towns of the Peloponnesus, 
 and make them her own allies. Aratus, the 
 Strategus of the league, was now so hard 
 pressed that he called in the aid of Anti- 
 gonus Doson, the Macedonian regent, thus 
 using the power of the league which had 
 been formed to regain the liberties of 
 Greece, to complete its enslavement. Sparta 
 was unable to make head against this coal- 
 ition, and in b. c. 221 Cleomenes was de- 
 feated in the battle of Seilasia, and obliged 
 to take refuge in Egypt with Ptolemy IV. 
 It was plain now that the cllbrt to revive 
 
284 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Sparta had failed, that Greece must become 
 the prize of either Macedon or Rome. 
 
 In B. c. 220 the regent, Antigouus, died, 
 and Philip V., a youth of seventeen years, 
 assumed the government. The wise and 
 cautious policy of the regent had won great 
 advantages for Macedon ; Philip was now 
 to lose them. His reign began with a war 
 with the jEtolians, who, thinking that the 
 accession of so young a sovereign would 
 enable them to advance their interests at 
 the expense of their rivals, invaded Mes- 
 senia. Aratus went to the help of Messeuia, 
 with the Achaean army, but was defeated, 
 and the Achieans begged aid from Philip, 
 who readily responded to their appeal. 
 He defeated the ^Etolians in several en- 
 gagements, and achieved so much substan- 
 tial success in Greece that he could easily 
 have reduced the whole of that country to 
 submission to him. But after several years 
 of brilliant success, he suddenly made 
 peace with the ^tolians, in B. c. 217, and 
 turned his attention to another quarter. 
 
 It had become his dearest wish to expel 
 the Romans from the eastern coast of the 
 Adriatic, and to conquer Italy. The great 
 victory won over the Romans by Hannibal 
 
 COIN OF LYSIMACIIUS. 
 
 at Lake Trasimene seemed to him to 
 have reduced the power of the republic to 
 such a low ebb that, by a vigorous co- 
 operation with the Carthaginians, he could 
 secure the success of his plan. Accord- 
 ingly, in B. c. 21(3, he began to negotiate 
 with Hannibal for this purpose. His am- 
 bassadors were captured by the Romans, 
 but the next year the negotiations were 
 brought to a successful close. An alliance 
 was formed between Macedon and Carthage, 
 and in b. c. 214 Philip began the long- 
 wished-for war with Rome by besieging 
 Apollonia, the chief Roman seaport in II- 
 lyricum, and capturing Oricum. He soon 
 found, however, that he had seriously mis- 
 calculated the power of Rome. The siege 
 of Apollonia was raised by M. Valerius 
 Lsevinus, who surprised the Macedonian 
 camp, and obliged Philip to burn his ships 
 
 and beat a hasty retreat. Still clinging to 
 his schemes against Rome, Philip com- 
 mitted the mistake of arousing the hatred 
 of the Greeks by his arbitrary and insolent 
 treatment of them. Aratus, venturing to 
 remonstrate with him, was poisoned by his 
 order, B. c. 213. 
 
 In B. c. 211 the Romans, having re- 
 covei'ed from their disasters in Italy, 
 formed an alliance with the ^tolians, 
 Eleans, Spartans, Illyrians, and Attains, 
 King of Pergamus, and carried the war 
 into Philip's dominions, where they pressed 
 him so bard that, instead of being able to 
 send succor to Hannibal, he was forced to 
 ask aid from Carthage. The Romans cap- 
 tured Zacyuthus, Kesosand CEniadre, Anti- 
 cyra in Locris, and the island of JEgina, 
 and turned them over to the -^toliaus. 
 The first two years of the war passed by 
 with varying success. In B. c. 209 Philo- 
 ptemen, the Achsean commander, put in 
 force a series of reforms among , the 
 Achseans, which seemed to promise a re- 
 vival of the ancient glories of Greece, and 
 enabled them to gain the important victory 
 of Mantinea, in b. c. 207, over the Lacedse- 
 raonian allies of Rome. This victory 
 placed Philip in a position to dictate terms 
 to the ^tolians, with whom a separate 
 peace was made. The Romans, now anx- 
 ious to devote all their energies to the de- 
 struction of Carthage, consented to a treaty 
 of peace with Macedon, on terms honorable 
 to both parties, B. c. 205. Philopoemen 
 was hailed by the Greeks as the liberator 
 of their country. 
 
 The unscrupulous and reckless ambition 
 of Philip did not permit him to take ad- 
 vantage of the respite which this treaty 
 gave him. Instead of seeking to consoli- 
 date his power in Macedon and Greece, and 
 thus prepare for the final struggle with 
 Rome, he began the execution of vast plans 
 which were destined to prove his ruin. He 
 concluded a treaty in b. c. 205 with Anti- 
 ochus the Great, of Syria, for the partition 
 of the possessions of Egypt, by which he 
 hoped to gain Thrace and a part of Asia 
 Minor. This measure involved him in a 
 war with Rhodes and Pergamus (b. c. 
 203), which for their own preservation took 
 up the Egyptian cause. In b. c. 201 the 
 Macedonian fleet w^s signally defeated by 
 the allied squadron off Chios. Philip sub- 
 sequently gained the victory of Lade, and 
 made himself master of Thasos, Saraos, 
 Chios in Caria, and of several places in 
 
285 
 
286 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Ionia. He was thus successful iu the main 
 objects of the war, but his success was 
 more than counterbalanced by his gaining 
 the bitter hostility of two powerful naval 
 states and the ill-will of ^tolia. A more 
 serious consequence of his acts was the re- 
 newal of the war with Rome. Pergamus 
 was an ally of Rome, and had been in- 
 cluded iu the recent treaty of peace. In 
 B. c. 200 Rome remonstrated with Philip 
 upon his infraction of the treaty and the 
 unprovoked war against her ally, but her 
 warning was unheeded. In the same year 
 Rome, having concluded the second Punic 
 war, was free to turn her arms against 
 Macedon, and war was declared against 
 that kingdom. 
 
 The Roman declaration of war found 
 Philip engaged in the siege of Athens. A 
 Roman fleet arriving to the relief of the 
 city, he was obliged to withdraw. Before 
 he did so, however, he gratified his wrath 
 by barbarously destroying the gardens and 
 buildings in the suburbs, including the 
 Lyceum and the tombs of the Attic heroes. 
 He returned soon after with larger rein- 
 forcements, and committed further out- 
 rages. Greece was divided. Some of the 
 states supported Rome," some jNIacedou, and 
 others remained neutral. "With matters in 
 this condition, neither of the combatants 
 gained any decided advantage. In b. c. 
 198, however, the Consul T. Quinctius 
 Flamininus succeeded in inducing the 
 Achaean League to join the Roman alli- 
 ance, to which the ^Etolians were already 
 attached. At the same time Flamininus 
 proclaimed himself the champion of the 
 separate independence of the Greek states, 
 and was joined by nearly every state of 
 Greece. In b. c. 197 the Macedonian array 
 was decisively defeated at Cynoscephalse, 
 near Scotussa, in Thessaly, and the power 
 of Philip, whose kingdom was already 
 threatened from the direction of Illyria by 
 a combined army of Romans, Illyrians and 
 Dardanians, and from the sea by the fleets 
 of Rome, Pergamus and Rhodes, was so 
 greatly prostrated that he was obliged to 
 sue for peace. In B. c. 196 a treaty was 
 made, by which Philip gave up all his pos- 
 sessions in Greece, withdrew his garrisons 
 from the Greek towns, surrendered his fleet 
 to the Romans, and jaaid an indemnity to 
 Rome of 1,000 talents. Flamininus sol- 
 emnly promised the re-establishment of the 
 freedom of Greece, but it was not until 
 B. C. 194 that the Roman armies were with- 
 drawn from the peninsula. 
 
 In the final settlement of the affairs of 
 Greece the Romans assigned to the states 
 smaller limits than they had formerly pos- 
 sessed, and left the two leagues of Achaia 
 and ^tolia as a check upon each other. 
 The majority of the states were contented 
 with the new arrangement, as the separate 
 independence of each was guaranteed. The 
 jEtolians, however, were dissatisfied, and 
 endeavored to persuade Macedon, Sparta, 
 and Syria to aid them in overturning the 
 settlement. The Syrian King Antiochus 
 alone ventured to respond favorably. He 
 entered Greece at the head of an army in- 
 adequate to the task he had undertaken, 
 and was defeated by the Romans at Ther- 
 mopylae in B. c. 191. The -^iltolians were 
 now left to continue the war alone, and the 
 next year they were defeated in the battle 
 of Magneisia, and compelled to submit un- 
 conditionally to Rome. Rome deprived 
 them of a portion of their territory, and 
 made them subject allies. 
 
 The humiliation of the ^tolians aided 
 the growth of the Achaean league (which 
 was patronized by Rome) in power and im- 
 portance. Guided by the able and upright 
 Philopoemen, its advance was marked. In 
 B. c. 192 Sparta joined the league, and the 
 next year the last of the Peloponnesian 
 states which had held aloof from it, Ells 
 and Messeue, came into it. It now em- 
 braced all the Peloponnesus, Megara, and 
 other places beyond the limits of southern 
 Greece. 
 
 Philip had remained at peace since his 
 defeat at Cynoscephalte, with the exception 
 of having aided Rome against Antiochus 
 and ^tolia. In return for this service he 
 had been allowed to extend his kingdom 
 over a part of Thrace and a portion of 
 Thessaly. When his aid was no longer 
 needed, however, the Romans ordered him 
 to surrender all his dominions but Macedon 
 proper. In the negotiations which followed, 
 and which were conducted by Demetrius, 
 Philip's second son, Avho had been long 
 resident at Rome as a hostage, the senate 
 relaxed its demands somewhat in considera- 
 tion of its friendship for the young prince. 
 This led Perseus, the eldest son of Philip, 
 to accuse his brother, of whom he was jeal- 
 ous, of treason. He forged letters to 
 sustain his charges, and Philip caused 
 Demetrius to be put to death. He dis- 
 covered the truth when it was too late, and 
 it is said that it was remorse for his act that 
 hastened his own death, which occurred 
 two years later, b. c. 179. The leader of 
 
FROM DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 287 
 
 the Achaean league, PhilipoenieD, was also 
 dead. He was captured iu b. c. 183, in an 
 attempt to suppress a rebellion of the Mes- 
 seniaus against the authority of the league, 
 and was put to death by his captors. 
 
 Philip had intended to leave his crown to 
 a distant relative named Antigonus, as a 
 punishment to Perseus for having caused 
 the death of Demetrius, but Antigonus was 
 absent from the court at the time of Philip's 
 death, and Perseus mounted the throne 
 without opposition. The last years of 
 Philip had been passed in preparing for a 
 renewal of the struggle with Rome, which 
 he saw was inevitable, and Perseus con- 
 tinued these preparations with diligence. 
 The mines were worked industriously and 
 the treasury filled ; the losses in population 
 were made good by the importation of col- 
 onies from Thrace ; the army was increased 
 and carefully disciplined; and alliances 
 were made with the Illyrians, Gauls, and 
 Germans, whose aid the Macedonian king 
 hoped to enjoy against Rome. For eight 
 years these efforts went on. Perseus might 
 have drawn all the Greeks to his standard, 
 as there was already a considerable party 
 in Hellas, which preferred the Macedonian 
 to the Roman supremacy ; but he wavered, 
 and pursued such a selfish and penurious 
 course that he lost his opportunity. In B. 
 C. 172, Eumenes, King of Pergamus, for- 
 mally accused Perseus before the Roman 
 senate of hostile designs. On his return 
 home, he was murdered near Delphi, and 
 the Romans, believing Perseus to be respon- 
 sible for the murder, declared war against 
 him. 
 
 In B. c. 171 the Romans landed in Epirus, 
 and during the next few months succeeded 
 in inducing the Greek states to join their 
 side. They put down the Boeotian confed- 
 eracy, which was friendly to Macedon, and 
 won over Thessaly and Achsea. Everywhere 
 the friends of Perseus were crushed. Per- 
 seus himself was induced to accept a truce 
 during these months. When the Romans 
 were in readiness, they advanced into 
 Thessaly, but were met and defeated by 
 Perseus, who, however, made no effort to 
 follow up his victory. In b. c. 168, L. 
 iEmilius Paulus having succeeded to the 
 command, Perseus was decisively defeated 
 near Pydna. He fled to the sacred island 
 of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to 
 surrender himself to a Roman squadron. 
 He was taken to Rome, where he w'as made 
 to walk in the trium j)h of Paulus, and then 
 
 cast into a dungeon. Paulus generously 
 interceded in his behalf, and he was allowed 
 to spend the rest of his life in a milder cap- 
 tivity at Alba. 
 
 The victory of Pydna sealed the fate of 
 Macedon. The kingdom was divided into 
 four states subject to Rome, and these were 
 ibrbidden to hold any intercourse with each 
 other. As a compensation to the Mace- 
 donians for the loss of their freedom, a trib- 
 ute equal to only one-half ol the taxes they 
 had paid their kings was required by 
 Rome. 
 
 Another result of the war was the estab- 
 lishment of the Roman supremacy over four- 
 fifths of Greece. All the confederacies but 
 the Achaean league were dissolved. Rome 
 thought it necessary, however, that she 
 should have no possible rival in Greece, 
 and that Achsea should either submit un- 
 conditionally to her will or be conquered. 
 In B. c. 167, the republic demanded of the 
 league the trial of one thousand of its chief 
 citizens on charges of having secretly aided 
 
 COIN OF PEKSEUS. 
 
 Perseus. The Achrean assembly did not 
 dare refuse, and the whole number of pris- 
 oners were carried to Italy, and imprisoned 
 in the Etruscan towns. The Roman party 
 was thus left in control of Achfea. The 
 captives were kept in prison for seventeen 
 years without a hearing, for the deliberate 
 purpose of exasperating their friends in 
 Greece. When their number had been re- 
 duced by suffering and death to three hun- 
 dred, the survivors were suddenly released 
 and sent back to their own land. Rome 
 had barbarously reckoned upon their going 
 back with the intention of being revenged 
 upon her, and she was not disappointed. 
 Three of the survivors wdio were most em- 
 bittered against her by their treatment came 
 into power, and their hatred soon gave the 
 republic a pretext for hostilities. War was 
 declared in B. C. 146, and in a few years 
 southern Greece was conquered and added 
 to the Roman dominions. 
 
288 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME — THE MODERN KINGDOM 
 OF GREECE. 
 
 Greece under the Romans — Sufferings During the 
 Civil Wars — Efforts to Regain its Freedom — Well 
 Treated by the I'^mperors — Invasions of the Goths 
 — Athens Plundered — Spread of Christianity in 
 Greece — Its Establishment by Constantiue — Con- 
 stantinople Founded — Greece under the Eastern 
 Empire — The Latin States of Greece — The Vene- 
 tian Dominion — Capture of Constantinople by the 
 Turks^Wars between the Venetians and the 
 Turks for the Possession of Greece — Sufferings of 
 the Greeks^Destruction of the Parthenon — Greece 
 under Turkish Rule — A Remarkable System of 
 Government — ^How the Greek Nation was Pre- 
 served — -The ^Mountaineers Unconquered — Revolts 
 of the Greeks — The Revolution of 1S21 — Uprising 
 of the Greeks — Their First Successes — A Revolu- 
 tionary Government Organized — Greece Declared 
 Independent — Massacre of Scio—^Miaulis Drives 
 back the Turkish Fleet — Siege of Missolonghi 
 — Marco Bozzaris — Death of Lord Byron — Ibrahim 
 Pasha Conquers Crete — Invades Peloponnesus — 
 Fall of Missolonghi — Ibraham Desolates Pelopon- 
 nesus — Intervention of the European Powers — 
 Battle of Navarino — Ibraham Evacuates Pelopon- 
 nesus — Treaty of Adriauople — Greece a Free Coun- 
 try once more — Organization of the Kingdom of 
 Greece — Otho Chosen King — A Constitution 
 Granted — Revolution of 18t)'2 — Otho Expelled — 
 George of Denmark King — Subsequent History. 
 
 REECE remained a possession of 
 Rome for more than four centuries, 
 or from B. c. 146 to A. D. 324. At 
 first it continued to enjoy a sort of 
 municipal freedom, for every im- 
 portant town was governed by one 
 of its own citizens, and the Romans paid a 
 willing and hearty homage to the superior 
 genius and civilization of their conquered 
 subjects. The best of the Romans were 
 proud of a knowledge of the Greek lan- 
 guage and literature, and looked upon 
 Greece with an aflectiouate reverence as 
 their intellectual mother. Even the empe- 
 rors in later times were proud of being citi- 
 zens of Athens. These feelings at length 
 excited the envy of the Roman people, and 
 the term Grceculm, which was at first re- 
 garded as a mark of honor, became an ex- 
 pression of contempt. 
 
 The proximity of Greece to Italy made 
 it the scene of many wars, both between 
 various factions of the conquerors and be- 
 tween the Romans and other nations. These 
 brought a plentiful harvest of misfortunes 
 upon the country. In many of these Avars 
 the Greeks joined the foreign enemies of 
 Rome in the vain hope of throwing oflT the 
 Roman yoke and recovering their independ- 
 ence. In the early part of the first cen- 
 
 tury B. c. Mithridates, King of Pontus, 
 became involved in a war with the Romans. 
 He drove them out of Asia Minor and at- 
 tacked their European possessions. He 
 formed an alliance Avith the Greeks, and 
 sent several armies into Greece, which were 
 joined by the Athenians, Spartans, The- 
 bans, and Achreans. The allies were for a 
 while successful, and for a brief season 
 Greece was a free country once more. In 
 B. c. 87, however, the tide turned ; nearly 
 all the Greek cities Avere retaken by the 
 Romans. Athens Avas besieged, and the 
 next year Avas driven by hunger to sur- 
 render. The Romans stained their victories 
 by indiscriminate massacres in Athens, 
 Thebes, and other tOAvns, and sold many of 
 the conquered Greeks into slavery. The 
 temples of Delphi, Olympia, and Epidau- 
 rus were plundered of their treasures, and 
 the country Avas stripped of its choicest 
 works of art, Avhich Avere sent to Rome. 
 
 The quarrels of Csesar and Pompey in- 
 volved Greece in fresh trouble. The Athen- 
 
 COIX OF ANTONINUS STRUCK AT COEINTH. 
 
 ians, Bceotians, and Peloponnesians sided 
 with Pompey, Avhile the Acharnanians, 
 iEtolians, and a portion of the people of 
 Epirus sustained the cause of Ca?sar. The 
 great battle of Pharsalia, fought in Thes- 
 saly, in b. c. 48, made Csesar master of all 
 Greece. He visited his seA^erities on the 
 Megarians alone, and treated the rest of 
 Greece Avith remarkable forbearance. 
 Athens, Avhose ancient glories he admired, 
 received many favors from him ; and he 
 caused the city of Corinth, Avhich had been 
 destroyed in the first Roman conquest, to be 
 rebuilt, B. c. 46. 
 
 Upon the murder of Csesar a ncAV civil 
 Avar broke out in Greece, this time between 
 Antony and Octavian on the one hand, and 
 Brutus and Cassius on the other. The 
 Athenians joined the latter party, AA'hile the 
 Lacedaemonians cast their lot Avith the 
 former. The battles of Philippi, in B. C. 
 42, made Antony and Octavian masters of 
 the Roman world, Avhich they proceeded to 
 divide betAveen them. Greece fell to An- 
 
FRO.^[ THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO PRESENT TIME. 
 
 289 
 
 tony's share. He took up his abode at 
 Athens, in which city he had been edu- 
 cated, and treated the Greeks with such 
 liberality that their country seemed on the 
 point of recovering its ancient glories. 
 When the civil war broke out between An- 
 tony and Octavian, almost the whole of 
 Greece supported the former. Antony was 
 finally defeated and ruined in the battle of 
 Actium, in b. c. 31. Octavian treated the 
 Greeks with great kindness ; he caused the 
 town of Patrse to be rebuilt, and erected 
 the city of Nicopolis on the spot where he 
 had gained his great victory. 
 
 Under the Roman emperors, Greece, on 
 
 the empire sank deeper into corruption, 
 Greece suffered greatly from the general 
 insecurity, and the growing needs of the 
 Romans caused them to plunder the wealthy 
 cities whenever the opportunity offered it- 
 self. The numerous bloody wars had greatly 
 reduced the population, and many districts 
 of the country were almost uninhabited. 
 
 To make matters worse, the Goths, who 
 had begun their irruptions into the Roman 
 dominions, threatened in A. D. 253 to over- 
 run Greece. The Greeks occupied the pass 
 of Therraopylre, the walls of Athens were 
 rebuilt, and the isthmus of Corinth was 
 strongly fortified. The victories of the Ro- 
 
 MODERN CORINTH. 
 
 the whole, enjoyed peace and prosperity. 
 ]\Iany of its cities — especially Athens — were 
 allowed to retain their oAvn governments, 
 and though Caligula and Nero carried 
 away many of the other art treasures to 
 Rome, others, like Trajan and Hadrian, 
 were never tired of lavishing marks of their 
 affection upon Athens. Hadrian greatly 
 adorned that city, to which he made fre- 
 quent visits, and boasted of his title of 
 Archon Epouymos of Athens. Still, the 
 character of the Greeks was steadily low- 
 ered under the Roman rule; tlie coarser 
 manners and the gladiatorial games of the 
 conquerors demoralized the people, and de- 
 praved their taste in art and literature. As 
 19 
 
 mans over the Goths in Thrace saved Greece 
 from the barliarian invasion this time ; but 
 in A. T>. 262 the Goths made a descent upon 
 the country by sea. Corinth, Argos, and 
 many of the towns on the main land and 
 on the islands, were captured and destroyed. 
 Athens fell after a heroic resistance, and its 
 streets were deluged with the blood of its citi- 
 zens. The monuments were destroyed, and 
 the manuscripts in the libraries would have 
 shared the same fate had not the barba- 
 rians believed that the study of literature 
 made the Greeks weak and effeminate and 
 the more easily conquered. At this junc- 
 ture Dexippos, the historian and one of the 
 Athenian generals, collected the remnant 
 
290 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of his forces, aud surprised and defeated 
 the Goths, who retreated into Illyricuni, 
 where they were routed by the Emperor 
 Gallieuus. During the reign of the Em- 
 peror Claudius, the Goths made another 
 formidable attack upon Thrace, Macedonia, 
 Thessaly, and other Greek provinces, but 
 were defeated by Claudius. This put an 
 end for two centuries to the attempts of the 
 barbarians u})on Greece, but the country 
 shared the general suffering which was 
 caused by the growing weakness of the 
 empire. 
 
 very successful at Athens, and passed on to 
 Corinth, where he established a church. 
 From these beginnings, Christianity spread 
 rapidly over other parts of Greece. In 
 spite of the persecutions wdth which the 
 Roman authorities sought to check its prog- 
 ress, in spite of the charms with which pa- 
 ganism surrounded the old religion, Chris- 
 tianity spread steadily, and by slow degrees 
 affected the character of the entire Greek 
 nation. 
 
 ^\ hen Constantine became Emperor of 
 Rome, he made Christianity the religion of 
 
 ST. PAUL PREACHING CHKISTIAXITY IN GKEECE. 
 
 During all this while Greece had been 
 experiencing a radical change. Christianity 
 had been gradually extending its influence 
 throughout the country. About the mid- 
 dle of the first century after Christ, the 
 Apostle Paul crossed over from Asia Minor 
 to Macedonia, and began preaching the 
 Gospel of Christ to the Greeks. He made 
 many converts, especially at Thessalonica, 
 where he established a church. Persecu- 
 tions drove him to Athens, where he renewed 
 his efforts, preaching in the presence of the 
 assembled city on Mars' Hill. He was not 
 
 the empire. His next most important act 
 was the establishment of his capital in the 
 new city which he built on the site of an- 
 cient Byzantium, and named Constantiuo- 
 polis, or city of Constantine. He perceived 
 that the ruin of the western part of the em- 
 pire was inevitable, and believed that a 
 stronger and more enduring state might be 
 founded in his Greek dominions. 
 
 The establishment of the new capital in 
 the ancient Greek territory was to a certain 
 extent the revival of the independence of 
 Greece, which gave a hearty support to the 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO PRESENT TIME. 
 
 291 
 
 ' emperors at Constantinople. The history 
 of the Greek empire will be related else- 
 where, and we can only pause to notice a few 
 events which directly concerned Greece 
 itself. 
 
 Until the eleventh century Greece re- 
 mained an undisputed part of the Byzan- 
 tine empire. In A. D. 1080 Robert Guis- 
 card, a Norman prince of lower Italy, 
 invaded Epirus and Thessaly, and attempted 
 their conquest, but was driven out by Alexis 
 Comueuus. In 1146 Robert II. of Sicily 
 seized the island of Corcyra, and plundered 
 Corinth and other Greek cities. Corcyra 
 was soon recovered by the imperial forces. 
 In A. D. 1204 the Venetians, in alliance 
 with the French crusaders, attacked and 
 captured Constantinople, and divided Greece 
 between thera. The Marquis of Montferrat 
 became the sovereign of Salonica (the an- 
 cient Thessalonica), Achaia, and the Morea 
 (the Peloponnesus became a principality 
 under Gillaume de Champlitteand Geoffroi 
 Villehardouir ; the archipelago was organ- 
 ized as a dukedom with Naxos as its cap- 
 ital ; and a dukedom was set up at Athens, 
 which lasted from 1205 to 1456. The 
 Greeks recovered Constantinople from the 
 Venetians in 1261, but the other foreign 
 dominions lasted for several centuries. The 
 Venetians held a large part of the ]\Iorea 
 or Peloponnesus, and other portions of con- 
 tinental Greece, and the island of Crete 
 and other islands, until the conquest of the 
 eastern empire by the Turks. 
 
 In A. D. 1453 the Turks, who had wrested 
 from the Greek emperors almost the whole 
 of their dominions, captured the city of 
 Constantinople, and brought the Eastern 
 Empire to an end. The next three cen- 
 turies were occupied with wars between the 
 Turks and the Venetians for the possession 
 of Greece. Northern Greece was already 
 in the hands of the Turks, and they soon 
 after sticceeded in acquiring the island of 
 Eubcea and Attica. Athens once in the 
 hands of the Moslems, the Parthenon was 
 converted into a mosque. The sultan next 
 turned his efforts to Peloponnesus, the 
 greater part of which was held by the 
 Venetians. Between the contending powers 
 the Greeks led a miserable existence. If 
 they sided with the Venetians the Turks 
 visited the most fearful vengeance upon 
 them, and if they aided the Turks they ex- 
 perienced treatment almost as cruel at the 
 hands of the Venetians. On the whole, 
 their sympathies were with the Venetians, 
 
 who were Christians, and who constantly 
 held out the hope of freedom to them. One 
 result of this war was the transfer to Venice 
 and Genoa of the large silk manufactories 
 which had flourished at Athens and Corinth 
 since the days of Justinian. In 1522 the 
 island of Rhodes was conquered by the 
 Turks after a desperate struggle, and soon 
 after they subdued the remaining Venetian 
 possessions in Peloponnesus. In 1571 the 
 island of Cyprus fell into the hands of the 
 sultan, and not long after the entire Turkish 
 fleet, consisting of 200 ships, was defeated 
 and destroyed ofl" Naupactus by the allied 
 fleets of the Venetians, the pope, and the 
 emperor, under the command of Don John 
 of Austria. Almost all the men serving in 
 the Venetian fleet* on this occasion were 
 Greeks. In 1670 the Turks drove the 
 Venetians out of the island of Crete after a 
 struggle of thirty years. In 1685 the Vene- 
 tians, under the command of the famous 
 Morosini, assisted by the Greeks, regained 
 the whole of Peloponnesus, and the next 
 year captured Athens. During this siege 
 the Parthenon was used as a powder maga- 
 zine by the Turks. A Venetian shell 
 thrown into it exploded the magazine and 
 shattered the beautiful edifice. In 1699 
 the Venetians were obliged to relinquish all 
 their conquests but Peloponnesus, and in 
 1715 Achmed III. wrested that peninsula 
 from them also. With the exception of the 
 Ionian islands, Turkey was now mistress of 
 all the Greek countries. 
 
 The Turks organized the Greek territory 
 into provinces, and adopted a somewhat 
 peculiar system for their government. The 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, the head of 
 the Greek Church, Avas recognized by the 
 sultan as the head of the Greek nation, and 
 thus became the civil as well as the spir- 
 itual ruler of Greece. In every province 
 there was a bishop, who held both the civil 
 and ecclesiastical control of the Greeks. 
 He was acknowledged as the judge in all 
 private affairs; he directed the schools, 
 which preserved the Greek language, and 
 governed the church, which preserved the 
 national religion and the national character 
 of the people. He was directly responsible 
 to the Patriarch of Constantinople, who 
 was, in his turn, responsible to the sultan. 
 The lower clergy were constituted so many 
 civil oflncials by this arrangement, and were 
 dependent upon the bishop, from whom 
 they received their orders in political mat- 
 ters. This system, it should be understood. 
 
292 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 applied only to the Greeks. In every pro- 
 vince the Turkish government was repre- 
 sented by the pasha and other civil officials, 
 but with these the Greeks had little to do. 
 In consequence of the system under which 
 they were placed, the Gi'eeks, in their dis- 
 putes among themselves, never resorted to 
 the Turkish courts of justice. They laid 
 their differences before the ecclesiastical 
 tribunals and accepted their decisions. The 
 bishops, on their part, collected and paid 
 over the tribute to the 
 Turkish authorities, and 
 protected the people 
 against the Turkish mili- 
 tary and civil officials, 
 mainly by bribing the 
 pashas. They regulated 
 
 GEEEK PATRIARCH. 
 
 the revenues of every community, and 
 directed the necessary expenditures. 
 
 This system had the inevitable effect of 
 keeping alive the Greek nntion even under 
 the grinding tyranny of the Turks. The 
 Greeks were kept to themselves, and taught 
 that they had nothing in common with 
 their conquerors ; the church, to which 
 they were devotedly attached, kept alive 
 the spirit of national patriotism, and the 
 schools preserved the national language, the 
 greatest tie that united the oppressed people 
 
 of Hellas. In all the churches daily prayers 
 were offered that God would drive out the 
 Turks and restore the freedom of Greece. 
 No Greek adopted the faith of Islam, and 
 no marriages took place between the two 
 races. Their hatred was deep and mutual. 
 Another cause of the survival of the 
 national spirit of the Greeks was the war- 
 fare waged upon the Turks by the Klephts, 
 or the inhabitants of the mountains of 
 Epirus, Tliessaly, Acharnania, JEtolia, 
 Arcadia, and Maina, or Laconia. 
 These hardy mountaineers had never 
 submitted to the Turkish authority, 
 and had been joined since the Turkish 
 conquest by numbers of men who 
 refused to submit to the Moslems, 
 From their moUBtain fastnesses they 
 carried on a con- 
 stant warfare 
 against the Turks, 
 causing them great 
 losses. Their ex- 
 ample was a con- 
 stant incentive to 
 the Greeks to keep 
 alive their national 
 feelings until the 
 day of deliverance 
 should come. 
 
 In the latter 
 half of the eigh- 
 teenth century the 
 Greeks Avere 
 strongly moved by 
 the hope of speed- 
 ily regaining their 
 independence. 
 ^ The Turkish sul- 
 1 tans from the very 
 period of the con- 
 quest had been 
 forced to employ 
 Greeks in many 
 ways. The^' were 
 largely engaged in 
 the service of the foreign office, and in 
 the financial department of the empire. 
 Greek mercantile houses controlled the 
 trade of the Levant, and had branches 
 in the various cities of Europe. The Greeks 
 in the Turkish service had many oppor- 
 tunities of aiding and benefiting their un- 
 fortunate countrymen, and made good use 
 of them. The hopes of the Greeks were 
 also revived by the growing weakness 
 of the Turkish empire, and everywhere 
 the nation was on the alert to profit by 
 
FBOiM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO PRESENT TIME. 
 
 293 
 
 the first opportunity to rise against its 
 oppressors. 
 
 In 1769, Turkey Laving become involved 
 in a war with Russia, the Greeks rose in 
 revolt in Peloponnesus and Maina (La- 
 conia), stimulated by promises of assistance 
 from Russia. The Russian promises proved 
 deceptive, and the revolt Avas put down 
 with di-eadful cruelties by the Turks. 
 
 In 1787 a new revolt broke out in parts 
 of Greece, especially in the mountain dis- 
 tricts. For the first time in many cen- 
 
 schools were encouraged, the pupils care- 
 fully trained in the history of their ances- 
 tors, and secret societies, having for their 
 object the emancipation of the country, 
 were formed in various parts of Greece. 
 Rigas Pherseos, and, later on, Coray, two 
 leading writers, appealed to the Greeks to 
 remember the glories of their ancestors and 
 emulate them. In 1797 Rigas went to 
 Italy to endeavor to interest Napoleon 
 Bonaparte in the afiairs of Greece. He 
 was arrested at Trieste by the Austrians, 
 
 NAVARINO— THE ANCIENT PYLOS. 
 
 turies, the Greeks now formed a small navy 
 under Lambros Catsouis, and inflicted con- 
 siderable damage upon the Turkish ship- 
 ping. The revolt was put down. The 
 Suliotes of Epirus, though they managed 
 to prolong the struggle until 1803, were 
 driven from their mountain fastnesses, and 
 sought refuge in the Ionian islands. 
 
 During all this time, and far into the 
 present century, the best men of Greece 
 continued their efforts to prepare the nation 
 for the attempt to regain its freedom. The 
 
 who delivered him up to the Turks, by 
 whom he was beheaded at Belgrade. His 
 last words were, "The Greeks will .soon 
 avenge my death." 
 
 At length the moment for which all 
 Greece had been looking so long, arrived. 
 In 1821 the secret societies and the leaders 
 of the Greeks, believing that the time had 
 come when the Turkish rule could be no 
 longer endured, gave the signal for revolt, 
 and uprisings took place simultaneously in 
 every part of Greece. The movement em- 
 
294 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 braced the provinces of Moldavia and Wal- 
 lachia. The Turks by rapid and vigorous 
 movemeuts crushed the iusurrection iu those 
 provinces, and the Greek towns were scenes 
 of frightful massacres. On the pretext that 
 a plot of the Greek residents of Constan- 
 tinople to seize the city and kill the sultan 
 had been discovered, the patriarch was ar- 
 rested on Easter Sunday, 1821, and hanged 
 on the gate of his palace, after which his 
 body was thrown into the sea. A number 
 of the bishops and clergy and hundreds of the 
 leading Greek citizensof Constantinople were 
 massacred and their property confiscated. 
 
 In Greece proper the insurrection was 
 more successful. On tlie 6th of April, 1821, 
 the leading men of Peloponnesus assembled 
 at the monastery of Saucta Laura, iu Ar- 
 
 SCENE IN THE ISLAND OF CRETE. 
 
 cadia, and pledged themselves in a solemn 
 oath to free their country from Turkish 
 rule or die in the attempt. The whole Pel- 
 oponnesus rose iu arms, and succeeded in 
 defeating the force of 6,000 Turkish troops 
 sent to quell the insurrection. Several im- 
 portant places were taken by the patriots, 
 but the Turkish forces inflicted great suffer- 
 ing upon the country, wliich they ravaged 
 with fire and sword. On the 5th and 6th 
 of September all continental Greece joined 
 the insurrection. On the latter day a pow- 
 erful fleet sailed from Constantinople to 
 reduce the Greek islands. To meet this 
 force the patriots collected a small fleet, 
 chiefly from Hydra, Spezzia, and Psara, the 
 citizens of these islands making great sacri- 
 fices to procure and equip these vessels, 
 which were in every way inferior to the 
 
 Turkish ships. The Greek vessels encoun- 
 tered the Turks off" the island of Lesbos on 
 the 8th of June, and by means of a fire- 
 ship, which they handled with great daring, 
 burned a Turkish frigate with 600 men on 
 board. The Turkish fl^eet at once put about 
 and sailed for Constantinople. 
 
 The hopes of the Greeks were aroused 
 by their successes on laud and sea, and they 
 resolved to make the separation between 
 Turkey and their country final. Early in 
 1822 a National Assembly -was held at Epi- 
 daurus. This body drew up a declaration, 
 in which, after reciting the sufferings of 
 Greece at the hands of the Turks, and 
 appealing to all Christendom for sympathy, 
 they declared the Greek nation independent 
 of Turkey. The next step of the assembly 
 was to organize a pro- 
 visional government, 
 with Alexander Ma- 
 vrocordatos at its 
 head. The nation 
 gave its enthusiastic 
 support to the provis- 
 ional government, 
 and from this time 
 the resources and 
 energies of the coun- 
 : try were directed iu a 
 more systematic and 
 successful manner. 
 
 Turkey now put 
 forth the greatest ex- 
 ertions to crush the 
 revolt of the Greeks. 
 Forty thousand men, 
 under Dram Ali.were 
 sent into Peloponne- 
 sus to relieve the fortress of Nauplia, w'hich 
 was besieged by the Greeks. They were 
 defeated by a force of about 10,000 Greeks, 
 and driven from Peloponnesus. This was 
 one of the most brilliant victories ever won 
 by the Hellenic race. 
 
 In the month of April, 1822, the Turkish 
 fleet made a descent upon the island of Scio 
 (Chios), and laid the beautiful island waste. 
 Thousands of the inhabitants were mas- 
 sacred without mercy, and as many more 
 were sent to the slave markets of Asia and 
 Egypt. Both sexes and all ages were treated 
 alike, and for many days the island was 
 the scene of indiscriminate massacres, burn- 
 ing, and pillage. Never had a more ter- 
 rible vengeance been wreaked upon a help- 
 less people. 
 
 When the news of the massacre of Scio 
 
FE03I THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO PRESENT TIME. 
 
 295 
 
 became known, the Greek fleet undauntedly 
 sailed to meet the Turks. It was com- 
 manded by Andreas Miuulis, the greatest 
 naval hero of modern Greece, "an iron 
 man Avho never smiled and never wept, 
 whose superiority was acknowledged by 
 all." With characteristic boldness, Miau- 
 lis kept the powerful Turkish fleet from 
 proceeding against the other Greek islands, 
 and so saved them from the fate of Scio. 
 On the night of the 6th of June, 1822, a 
 young Greek ofiicer, Constautine Canaris 
 by name, with a small vessel manned by 
 thirty-three men, succeeded in setting fire 
 to a Turkish frigate, and blew it up with all 
 on board, off' the island of Chios. This was 
 the admiral's ship, and that officer and more 
 than 2,000 Turks perished in the explosion. 
 This disaster struck terror to the Turks, 
 and abandoning their effort to relieve Nau- 
 plia, they retreated in haste towards the 
 Hellespont. On the voyage the fleet was 
 overtaken by a severe storm off" Tenedos, 
 and in the midst of it the Greeks succeeded 
 in destroying a Turkish frigate and 1,600 
 men. The Turks thereupon returned to 
 Constantinople. Nauplia, thus abandoned, 
 surrendered to the Greeks ou the 12Lh of 
 December. 
 
 While these events Avere transpiring in 
 other parts of Greece, Alexander INIavro- 
 cordatos had occupied the town of INIisso- 
 longhi, at the head of the Gulf of Patras, 
 and appreciating the importance of the po- 
 sition had determined to hold it against the 
 Turks. From this point he directed the 
 resistance of Acharnania and -^tolia, and 
 also endeavored to assist the Suliotes, who 
 had returned to their mountains in Epirus 
 from their exile in the Ionian islands. He 
 was unsuccessful, however, and was com- 
 pelled to withdraw to Missolonghi. The 
 Suliotes were driven from Epirus, and took 
 refuge in the island of Cephalenia, from 
 which they soon after sailed to Missolonghi 
 and joined the little band there under Ma- 
 vrocordatos. The Turks now concentrated 
 all their efforts against this place, which 
 wasbut poorly fortified, and garrisoned with 
 a small force. On the Gth of January, 1823, 
 they attempted to carry the town by assault, 
 hut were repulsed with heavy loss, and 
 driven from their position. 
 
 Early in 1823 a strong Turkish army 
 was sent against INIissolonghi. The little 
 town was hard pressed, and must have fallen 
 but for the heroic effbrts of JNIarco Bozzaris, 
 the Suliote chief, who with a small force of 
 
 his countrymen made a night attack upon 
 the Turkish position, and gained a brilliant 
 victory over the enemy, purchasing his suc- 
 cess with his life. Later in the year the 
 Turks made another unsuccessful effort to 
 capture Missolonghi. 
 
 The heroism of the Greeks aroused the 
 sympathies of all Europe, and many vol- 
 unteers hastened to Greece to assist the 
 patriots. Among these was the English 
 poet Lord Byron. He organized a corps 
 of Suliotes at his own expense, and repaired 
 to Missolonghi. His death, which occurred 
 soon after his arrival, prevented him from 
 taking an active part in the war. 
 
 Having failed to subdue the Greeks, the 
 sultan now demanded aid of his vassal, the 
 Pasha of Egypt. Mehemet Ali was at this 
 time seated on the Egyptian throne. He 
 was, as we have seen iu our account of 
 Egyptian history, an able ruler, and was 
 well seconded by his gifted son Ibrahim. 
 The sultan bestowed upon Mehemet the 
 island of Crete, which had supported the 
 Greek cause, and ordered him to occupy it 
 and stamp out the insurrection there. This 
 was done in the latter jDart of 1823 by the 
 Egyptian forces under Ibrahim Pasha. 
 Ibrahim was now appointed Governor of 
 the Peloponnesus, with orders to conquer 
 that peninsula. 
 
 Ibrahim began the execution of his orders 
 in the summer of 1824, and directed his 
 first efforts against several of the Greek 
 islands which had been most conspicuous 
 in their support of the patriot cause. In 
 spite of the heroic resistance of the Greeks, 
 the Egyptians were successful, and Kasos, 
 Psara, and other islands were conquered, 
 and the inhabitants massacred or sold into 
 slavery. Roused by these disasters the 
 Greeks sent out their fleet, and gained 
 several nobly won successes over the Turk- 
 ish fleet, finally driving it into the Helles- 
 pont. 
 
 In 1825 Ibrahim Pasha entered the Pel- 
 oponnesus at the head of a large and well- 
 equipjoed army, largely oflficered by Euro- 
 peans. He formed the siege of Pylos, and 
 on the 8th of May captux-ed the island of 
 Sphacteria and put its garrison to the 
 sword, but could not prevent the escape of 
 the Greek fleet of eight vessels, which cut 
 its way through the fifty-two Egyptian men- 
 of-war. Pylos fell into Ibrahim's hands 
 soon after this, and the conqueror ravaged 
 iMessenia with fire and sword. Ibrahim 
 then rapidly subdued the greater part of 
 
296 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Peloponnesus, everywhere marking his con- 
 quests with the greatest cruelty, and rous- 
 ing the indignation of all Europe by his 
 barbarities. Early in 1826 he joined the 
 Turkish forces before Missolonghi. The 
 Turks had made the most determined 
 eiForts to capture this place, and the siege 
 had lasted nearly six months. The little 
 garrison had held their own with heroic 
 courage, but by the time of Ibrahim's 
 
 ish lines. The attempt was made on the 
 night of the 22d of April, 1826. The 
 Greeks were driven back, and the Turks 
 and Egyptians entered the town with them. 
 Seeing that all was lost, the Greeks blew 
 up their magazine and forts, involving 
 many thousand Turks and Egyptians in 
 their destruction. On the morning of the 
 23d of April, Ibrahim Pasha was master 
 of Missolonghi. He held a heap of black- 
 
 BATTLE OF NAVARINO. 
 
 arrival had begun to suffer fearfully from 
 famine and disease. The patriot govern- 
 ment at Nauplia was powerless to do any- 
 thing for their relief, and the gallant efforts 
 of the Greek squadron under Miaulis to 
 throw provisions into the town had been 
 baffled by the superior force of the Turkish 
 and Egyptian fleets. At length driven to 
 despair, the garrison of Missolonghi re- 
 solved to cut their way through the Turk- 
 
 ened ruins, for the possession of which he 
 had paid dearly. This success was followed 
 early in 1827 by the capture of Athens by 
 a Turkish army under Reshid Pasha. The 
 Turks and Egyptians visited the most 
 frightful cruelties upon the country. Ibra- 
 him Pasha deliberately sought to extermin- 
 ate the native population of Peloponnesus, 
 intending to repcople that peninsula with 
 Egyptians and Arabians. 
 
FROM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO PRESENT TIME. 
 
 291 
 
 By this time the barbarities of the Turks 
 and Egyptians had aroused the indignation 
 of all Europe, and the heroism of the Greeks 
 had won for them the sympathies of the 
 whole world. At first the European powers 
 had regarded the Greeks as rebels in revolt 
 against their lawful sovereign, and the 
 Austrian government openly sided with the 
 Turks. Even Russia had met the appeal 
 of the Greeks for aid with the cold com- 
 mand to them to return to their allegiance 
 to the sultan. Fortunately for Greece 
 Alexander I. of Kussia died on the 1st of 
 December, 1825. His successor, the Czar 
 Nicholas, reversed his father's policy, and 
 determined to give active aid to the Greeks. 
 At the same time the sympathies of the 
 English and French people for the Greeks 
 compelled their governments to move in 
 the same direction. Great Britain recog- 
 nized the Greeks as belligerents, and a con- 
 vention was signed in London on the 6th 
 of July, 1827, by the representatives of 
 England, France, and Russia, by which it 
 was agreed to ask Turkey to grant a truce 
 to the Greeks, and in the event of the 
 refusal of the sultan to do so, to recognize 
 the independence of Greece and compel the 
 Turks to stop the war. One month was 
 given to the sultan to reply. A combined 
 English, French, and Russian fleet was sent 
 to the Mediterranean with oi'ders to put a 
 stop to the cruelties of Ibrahim Pasha in 
 Peloponnesus. As had been foreseen, the 
 sultan refused to grant the truce, and the 
 war went on. On the 20th of October, 
 1827, the allied fleet, under the command 
 of the English Admiral Coddrington, 
 entered the harbor of Navarino (the an- 
 cient Pylos), which was occupied by the 
 Egyptian and Turkish fleets. The allies 
 had ten ships of the line, ten frigates, and 
 some smaller vessels, and the Egyptians 
 and Turks had five linc-of-battle ships, 
 nineteen frigates, and a large number of 
 smaller craft. The object of the allies was 
 to compel Ibrahim Pasha to desist from 
 further hostilities against the Greeks. As 
 their fleet entered the harbor it was fired 
 upon by the Mohammedans, and at once 
 closed with them. The battle which en- 
 sued was stubbornly contested during the 
 greater part of the day, and resulted in the 
 total destruction of the sultan's fleet. 
 
 This great victory virtually decided the 
 struggle. Deprived of his fleet, Ibrahim 
 consented to evacuate the Morea (Pelopon- 
 nesus), and withdrew to Egypt with the 
 
 larger part of his army. A division of 
 14,000 French troops, under Marshal Mai- 
 son, was landed in Greece and rapidly 
 drove the Turks out of that country. The 
 Greeks, on their part, w^on several impor- 
 tant successes over the Turks, by land atul 
 sea. In the meantime Russia had begun 
 its war ujion Turkey, and had pressed the 
 sultan so hard that Mahmoud II. was com- 
 pelled to come to terms. On the 28th of 
 August, 1829, the treaty of Adrianople was 
 signed. This treaty, besides making many 
 concessions to Russia, recognized the inde- 
 pendence of Greece. The new kingdom 
 included all of continental Greece south of 
 a line drawn from the Gulf of Arta to the 
 Gulf of Volo, thus leaving Thessaly and 
 Albania within the Turkish empire. The 
 islands of Euboea, the northern Sporades, 
 and the Cyclades, were included within the 
 new limits of Greece. The Ionian Islands 
 remained under the rule of Great Britain, 
 and Crete and the islands off" the coasts of 
 Thrace and Asia Minor remained in the 
 hands of the Turks. 
 
 Early in 1828 the seat of the Greek 
 national government had been removed to 
 the island of jEgina. Count Capo d'lstria, 
 a distinguished Greek statesman, then in 
 the service of Russia, had been chosen 
 president of the provisional government. 
 11 is measures were not satisfactory to the 
 people, who were so much divided by in- 
 ternal dissensions that the independence of 
 the country had hardly been secured when 
 it was perceived that the only permanent 
 organization of the country possible must 
 be the work of the powers that had given 
 freedom to the Greeks. Accordingly efil)rts 
 were set on foot to accomplish this, and 
 after many failures were successful. Greece 
 w'as organiz(>d as a kingdom, and in the 
 spring of 1832 Prince Otho, son of the King 
 of Bavaria, who had been an enthusiastic 
 friend of Greek independence, was chosen 
 King of Greece. This choice was ratified 
 liy the national assembly of the Greeks, on 
 the 8th of August, 1832. _ 
 
 King Otho, then but eighteen years old, 
 arrived at Nauplia on the 6th of February, 
 1833. In 1835 the seat of government 
 was transferred to Athens. The king soon 
 after attained his majority, and governed 
 from this time in his own name, by minis- 
 ters responsible to himself, aided by a 
 council of state. 
 
 The treaty by which the kingdom of 
 Greece was established was silent on the 
 
298 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 question of a constitution, but the Greeks 
 confidently expected that one would be 
 granted them. The government of Otho 
 was despotic, though mild on the whole, 
 and was not satisfactory to the people. 
 The discontent continued to grow, and on 
 the night of the 14th of September, 1843, 
 broke out iu open revolt. The array and 
 people surrounded the royal palace at 
 Athens, and demanded a constitution. 
 The king hesitated for a while, but finally 
 yielded, and convoked a National Assem- 
 bly. This body drew up a constitution, 
 which was approved by the king on the 
 16th of March, 1844. 
 
 The histoiy of the ten years following 
 the adoption of the Greek constitution is a 
 record of constant confusion. Partisan con- 
 troversies raged with great bitterness, and 
 were increased by foreign intrigues. Min- 
 isterial changes and insurrections were fre- 
 quent, the latter on several occasions at- 
 taining very formidable proportions. The 
 national party was obliged to maintain a 
 constant struggle with the foreign elements, 
 which, owing to the peculiar circumstances 
 in which Greece was placed, were able to 
 exercise a powerful control upon its gov- 
 ernment. Iu the presence of these conten- 
 tions the material interests of the country 
 suffered severely. 
 
 In 1847 Greece barely escaped another 
 war with Turkey, which threatened to grow 
 out of an alleged discourtesy to the Turkish 
 ambasfeddor at Athens. In 1848 a more 
 serious misunderstanding arose with Eng- 
 land, arising out of demands made upon 
 Greece by that country for damages suffered 
 by British subjects. The question re- 
 mained unsettled for several years, and be- 
 came harder to adjust. In 1850 a British 
 fleet anchored off Piraeus, and blockaded 
 Athens and made many seizures of Greek 
 shipping. Brought face to face with the 
 alternative of war with - Great Britain, 
 Greece now yielded, and. the questions at 
 issue were settled. 
 
 In 1852 the failure of the grape crop 
 caused much suffering among the people, 
 and in 1853 a severe earthquake destroyed 
 a considerable amount of property in va- 
 rious parts of the. kingdom, and added to 
 the general distress. The country was iu 
 a greatly disturbed condition. Banditti in- 
 fested the Peloponnesus and central Greece 
 and made life and property unsafe ; and 
 the government Avas too Aveak to check the 
 evil. 
 
 When the Crimean war broke out Greece 
 was very active iu behalf of Russia, but 
 was obliged by the menaces of England 
 and France to pledge itself to a strict neu- 
 trality. An English and French squadron 
 was stationed at Piraeus to compel the ob- 
 servance of this pledge, and was not re- 
 moved until 1857, two years after the close 
 of the war, and then only after repeated 
 protests by the Greek government. 
 
 In the mean time the opposition to King 
 Otho and the royal family had been steadily 
 increasing from year to year. In Decem- 
 ber, 1861, Dossios, a student, attempted to 
 assassinate the queen, and, in spite of the 
 fact that his intended victim was a woman, 
 was openly defended by many of the people. 
 On the 22d of October, 1862, a revolution 
 broke out at Athens, and, through the in- 
 difference or sympathy of the army, was 
 successful. The next day a provisional 
 government was established by the leaders 
 of the revolution. King Otho was declared 
 deposed, and a National Assembly was 
 convoked. The king was absent at the 
 time on a visit to the ports of Pelopon- 
 nesus. He received the news of his deposi- 
 tion on his return to Pir?eus. He did not 
 attempt to laud, but held a council with the 
 foreign ministers at Athens on board his 
 ship. Acting upon their advice, he issued 
 a proclamation on the 24Lh, taking leave 
 of Greece. He made no formal abdication, 
 however, and soon after sailed in an English 
 frigate for Germany. On the 1st of Decem- 
 ber a decree was issued by the Provisional 
 Government, ordering an election for a 
 new king. England now offered, in the 
 event of the election of a king who should 
 be satisfactory to her, to transfer to Greece 
 the sovereignty of the Ionian Islands. The 
 National Assembly met at Athens on the 
 22d of December, 1862. On the 16th of 
 February, 1863, the deposition of the Ba- 
 varian dynasty was confirmed, and on the 
 30th of March, Prince George, son of the 
 King of Denmark, was elected king. This 
 choice was confirmed by the great powers 
 on the 16th of July. 
 
 King George reached Athens in October, 
 1863, and on the 31st took the oath to sup- 
 port the constitution. On the 14th of No- 
 vember, 1863, a treaty was signed between 
 Great Britain and Greece, by which the 
 Ionian Islands became a part of the Greek 
 kingdom, thus fulfilling the long-deferred 
 hopes of the people of those islands. 
 
 In 1866 the island of Crete, or Candia, 
 
FROM ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 200 
 
 revolted against the Turks. The Greeks 
 Avere open in their sympathy with the in- 
 surgents, and in spite of the prohibitions of 
 the government, furnished them with con- 
 siderable assistance. The insurrection was 
 put down by the Turks, and over 30,000 
 Cretans, mostly women and children, took 
 refuge in Greece. The aid given by the 
 Greeks to the insurgents and the shelter af- 
 forded by them to the fugitives came near 
 involving the kingdom in a war with 
 Turkey. The danger was averted, how- 
 ever. 
 
 In 1870 a party of four English travel- 
 lers, on a visit to the scene of the battle of 
 Marathon, were captured by the Greek 
 brigands, and were put to death in conse- 
 
 quence of the failure of the negotiations for 
 their ransom. England held Greece re- 
 sponsible for the massacre, on the ground 
 that it was boundf^to suppress brigandage 
 in its territories. 'The matter was pressed 
 by Great Britain so firmly that at one time 
 it threatened to lead to war. It was set- 
 tled by the i:)ayment of £10,000 to the 
 ftimily of one of the muixlered men and by 
 negotiation. 
 
 When the war between Russia and Tur- 
 key broke out in 1877, the Greeks were 
 anxious to unite with Russia in the hope 
 of freeing all the Greek countries from 
 Moslem rule, but the government, yielding 
 to the warnings of Great Britain, decided 
 to remain neutral. 
 
 boo:k: :x:ii, 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE OHEEK 
 
 KEsraDoiNi: of syi^i^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KING- 
 DOM TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 Division of Alexander's Empire — Seleucus Receives 
 Syria — Establishment of tlie Kingdom— Its Early 
 Prosperity — Antioch Founded — P^eign of Anti- 
 ochus I.— His Wars — Antiochus II. — His Succes- 
 sors — Reign of Antiochus the Great — War with 
 Egypt — Reverses of Antiochus — He Invades Par- 
 thia— Wars with Rome — Is Defeated — Antiochus 
 IV. — Drives the Jews into Rebellion — Weak 
 Reign of Antiochus V.— Demetrius I. — Comes in 
 CoiiHict with Rome — Alexander Balas— Deme- 
 trius II.— Made Prisoner by the Parthians — His 
 Captivity — Reign of Antiochus VII. — Decline 
 of the Syrian Kingdom — Civil Wars — Syria P>e- 
 comes Subject to Armenia — Conquered by Pom- 
 pey — Made a Roman Province. 
 
 HE empire of Alexander the Great 
 
 il was divided after his death, as we 
 have seen, among his generals. We 
 - " have related the establishment of 
 the Egyptian kingdom under Ptol- 
 emy Lagi, and the fortunes of 
 Macedonia and Greece under Alexander's 
 successors. We have now to consider the 
 establishment of the Greek kingdom of 
 Syria by Seleucus and his successors. 
 
 The kingdom dates from the year b. c. 
 312. Seleucus, as has been related, taking 
 advantage of the check which Antigonus 
 had received by the victory of Ptolemy 
 
 Lagi over Demetrius, near Gaza, regained 
 possession of Babylon, and extended his 
 power over all the provinces of Alexander's 
 empire between the Euphrates and the In- 
 dus, on the one hand, and the Jaxartes and 
 the Indian Ocean on the other. He also 
 n)ade war upon an Indian monarch whose 
 kingdom lay upon the head-waters of the 
 Ganges, and compelled him to make a 
 treaty by which Seleucus gained important 
 commercial advantages and added 500 ele- 
 phants to his army. After the victory of 
 Antigonus at Salamis, Seleucus assumed the 
 royal title. The battle of Ipsus (b. c. 301) 
 gave Seleucus Cappadocia, part of Phrygia, 
 upper Syria, and the right bank of the 
 middle Euphrates, as his siiare of the ter- 
 ritory divided between tlie conquerors. 
 
 Seleucus speut-the remaining years df the 
 century in thoroughly organizing his king- 
 dom, which was the most important of all 
 the monarchies formed from the wreck of 
 Alexander's empire. In this work he 
 showed great skill. His only apparent 
 error was in not continuing Babylon as the 
 capital, by which Syria might have re- 
 tained the East, and prevented the subse- 
 quent rise of the Parthian kingdom. 
 Seleucus divided his dominions into seventy- 
 two provinces, which were without exception 
 
300 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 placed under the rule of Greek or Mace- 
 douian governors. A standing army of 
 native troops was organized and officered 
 by Macedonians or Greeks. New cities 
 
 JIODEKN ANTIOCH. 
 
 were built iu each province. The king 
 named sixteen of these Antioch,in honor of 
 his father ; five Laodicea, for his mother ; 
 seven Seleuceia, for himself, and several for 
 his two wives, Apa- 
 
 meaand Stratouice, _=-_ 
 
 Antioch on the ^^.^^ ftg;=;.;^^^ ^ ; ;^ 
 Orontes, one of these ''•^"""-- ~^ ^^ ^ 
 cities, was made the ^^^gj^feJ^^^^^^"^^ 
 capital of the king- ^^^^^^-~ ^^'^^ 
 dom, and Seleueus fe, 
 spent the remaining ^-l 
 years of his life in 
 building and orna- 
 menting it, and con- 
 structing its port, 
 Seleuceia. Antioch 
 became one of the 
 largest and most 
 famous cities of the 
 East, and main- 
 tained its command- 
 ing position for fully 
 a thousand years. 
 
 In B. c. 293 Sele- 
 ueus divided his em- 
 pire with his son 
 
 Antiochus, to whom he gave all the prov- 
 inces east of the Euphrates. In B. c. 287, 
 Demetrius, who had won and lost Mace- 
 donia, invaded the Asiatic provinces of 
 
 Lysiraachus, hoping to carve out a new 
 kingdom with his sword. Unable to gain 
 any advantages in this quarter, he passed 
 into Cilicia and attacked the Syrian pos- 
 sessions. He was defeated 
 ■ - and made a prisoner by 
 
 ^-"^ Seleueus, who kej^t him in 
 
 captivity during the re- 
 mainder of his liie. In b. c. 
 281, Lysimachus having 
 murdered his son, at the in- 
 stigation of his Egyptian 
 J wife Arsinoe aud her brother 
 Ptolemy Cerauuus, the wid- 
 ow of the murdered j^rince 
 fled to the court of Ji^eleucus, 
 who took up herquarr.l and 
 invaded the territories of 
 Lysimachus. The latter 
 was defeated and slain in 
 the battle of Corupedion, 
 and Seleueus became master 
 of nearly the whole of Alex- 
 ander's empire. He has- 
 tened to take possession of 
 the capital of Lysimachus, 
 but on the way was mur- 
 dered in open day by Ptolemy Cerauuus, 
 who became King of Macedonia, as has been 
 related. 
 
 Antiochus I. (Soter) succeeded to the 
 
 JJAMAbv C.-j. 
 
 crown of Syria upon the death of his father 
 Seleueus. His kingdom was confined to 
 Asia. Soon after his accession he became 
 involved in a war with the native kings of 
 
FBOM ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 301 
 
 Bithynia, during which he lost the provinces 
 afterwards known as Galatia and Perga- 
 mus lie undertook an unsuccessful war 
 •with Egypt in support of his son-in-law 
 Magas, the rebellious King of Cyrene. He 
 was finally defeated and killed in a battle 
 with the Gauls near Ephesus, in B. c. 261. 
 
 Antiochus II., who bore the blasphemous 
 surname of " Theos," " the god," succeeded 
 his father. He was a weak and dissolute 
 prince, and resigned the government of his 
 kingdom to his wives and favorites. Syria 
 declined rapidly under him. The king- 
 doms of Bactria and Parthia sprang up 
 about B. c. 255, and greatly reduced the 
 dimensions and 
 power of the Sy- 
 rian state. Becom- 
 ing involved in a 
 war with Egypt, he 
 ended it by repu- 
 diating his wife 
 and marrying Ber- 
 enice, the daugh- 
 ter of the Egyptian 
 king. On the 
 death of that mon- 
 arch, Antiochus 
 put aside Berenice 
 and took back his 
 former wife Lao- 
 dice, who mur- 
 dered him, toge- 
 ther with Berenice 
 and her infant son, 
 B. c. 246. 
 
 Seleucus II., the 
 son of Laodice, 
 succeeded his 
 father. The next 
 year he lost nearly 
 all his dominions 
 by an invasion of 
 
 Ptolemy III., who came to avenge the 
 wrongs of his sister Berenice. Ptolemy 
 carried his victorious 
 arms as far as the In- 
 dus, but being suddenly 
 called home by a re- 
 volt, lost all he had 
 gained, and Seleucus 
 succeeded in re-estab- 
 lishing his authority 
 from the Indus to the 
 -^gean. A little later, 
 Antiochus Hierax, a younger brother of 
 Seleucus, began a formidable rebellion, and 
 at the same time the Parthians gained some 
 
 important successes on the eastern border, 
 and defeated Seleucus in a great battle in 
 B. c. 237. The civil war continued until 
 B. c. 229, when Antiochus was defeated and 
 obliged to fly for his life. Seleucus was 
 killed in b. c. 226 by a fall from his horse. 
 
 Seleucus III. now came to the throne. 
 In the third year of his reign he undertook 
 an expedition against Pergamus, in which 
 he was slain by his mutinous troops, b. c. 
 223. 
 
 Antiochus III., called the Great, the 
 great-grandson of Seleucus, the founder of 
 the dynasty, now mounted the throne. His 
 reign constitutes the most eventful period 
 
 COIN OF LrilKSUS. 
 
 STKEET SCENE IN DAMASCUS. 
 
 of Syrian history. He began it by quelling 
 the revolt of Molo, the ablest of the Syrian 
 generals, who had made himself master of 
 the region east of the Euphrates, and had 
 defeated every army sent against him. 
 During his absence his relative Achseus 
 assumed the title and state of king. Anti- 
 ochus, who had declared war against Egypt, 
 was anxious to prosecute his campaign in 
 that quarter, and contented himself with 
 remonstrating with the rebel. He marched 
 into Palestine and Phoenicia, and conquered 
 those provinces. Palestine had become 
 alienated from Egypt by the profanation 
 of the Jewish Temple by Ptolemy IV., and 
 
302 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 submitted from choice to the Syrian king. 
 Proceeding southward, Antiochiis encoun- 
 tered the Egyptian array at Raphia, on the 
 eastern edge of the desert, aud was defeated, 
 B. c. 217. He now lost all his conquests 
 except Seleuceia, the port of Antioch. He 
 therefore made peace with Egypt and 
 turned upon Achseus. With the help of 
 
 COIN OF EPHESUS AND SMYKNA, ALLIED. 
 
 Attalus, King of Pei'gamus, he defeated 
 him and besieged him in Sardis. In B. c. 
 214 he obtained possession of the person of 
 AchiBus by treachery, aud the rebellion 
 ceased. Antiochus then repaired to the 
 eastern part of his kingdom to meet the 
 Parthian King Arsaces III., who was 
 thi'eatening Media. By a rapid march 
 from Ecbatana across the desert to Heca- 
 toinpylos, he seized that city, B. c. 213, and 
 then passed the mountains and entered Hyr- 
 cauia, where he fought a battle with the 
 Parthians, the issue of which was so far 
 doubtful that Antiochus consented to make 
 peace, and recognized the independence of 
 Parthia and Hyrcania, under Arsaces, as 
 one kingdom. He then made war against 
 Bactria, but after gaining some advantages 
 he made peace with the Bactrian king, En- 
 thydemus, and left him in possession of 
 Bactria and Sogdiana. A marriage was 
 arranged between the daughter of the 
 Bactrian king and Demetrius, the son of 
 Antiochus. Crossing the Hindoo Koosh 
 range into the modern Aifghanistan, Anti- 
 ochus renewed the old alliance between 
 Syria and the Indian kingdom of that re- 
 gion, and returned home through Arachosia, 
 Drangiana, and Carmania, passing the win- 
 ter in the last-named province. The next 
 year he undertook a naval expedition in the 
 Persian Gulf against the Araljs of the west- 
 ern shore, whose piracies he punished 
 severely, and returned home in B. C. 205. 
 
 Antiochus now resumed his designs 
 against Egypt, encouraged by the fact that 
 that country had just passed under the 
 sway of the infant Ptolemy V. and an in- 
 competent regent. He succeeded in regain- 
 ing Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, 
 which were secured to him by the victory 
 of Paneas, in b. c. 198. Antiochus prom- 
 
 ised Coele-Syria and Palestine as a dowry 
 to his daughter Cleopatra, whom he gave in 
 marriage to Ptolemy V., but neither he nor 
 his successors fulfilled this promise. He 
 then subdued Asia Minor aud conquered 
 the Thracian Chersonesus. 
 
 In B. c. 196 the Romans, who had de- 
 feated Philip of Macedon and assumed the 
 protectorate of Egypt, demanded of Syria 
 the surrender of all the territories taken 
 from Egypt and from JMacedon. Antiochus 
 refused to comply with the demand, and 
 aided by the great Carthaginian leader 
 Hannibal, who had taken refuge at his 
 court, prepared for war. In B. c. 192 he 
 invaded Greece, but after some successes, he 
 was decisively defeated by the Romans at 
 Thermopylae aud obliged to withdraw into 
 his own country. The Romans followed up 
 their success, and in two naval victories 
 wrested from Syria the whole of the western 
 coast of Asia Minor. The Roman army 
 crossed the Hellespont under the two 
 Scipios, and in the great battle of Magnesia, 
 in Lydia, reduced Antiochus to such an 
 extremity that he was obliged to sue for 
 peace. He was compelled to cede all Asia 
 Minor save Cilicia, and to agree to pay an 
 indemnity of 12,000 talents, or $14,400,000. 
 The territory surrendered by Antiochus 
 was given by the Romans to Pergamus, 
 which was thus made strong enough to act 
 as a check upon Syria. These losses were 
 followed by a revolt in Armenia, which 
 country succeeded in establishing its inde- 
 pendence. While attempting to put down 
 this revolution, Antiochus, in order to raise 
 the money to meet the payment of the fine 
 imposed upon him by Rome, stripped the 
 
 TETRADRACIIM OF ANTIOCHUS IV., EPIPHANES, 
 OF SYRIA. 
 
 temples of Asia of their treasures. While 
 thus engaged he aroused a tumult in Ely- 
 mais, in which he was killed, b. c. 187. 
 
 Seleucus IV., Philopator, succeeded his 
 father. He reigned eleven years, but this 
 period was uneventful. He was murdered 
 by Heliodorus, his treasurer, who seized the 
 throne, b. c. 176, but was soon overthrown 
 
FROM ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM TO ROMAN CONQUEST. 303 
 
 by Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, with the aid 
 of Pergamus, Antiochus was the second 
 son of Antiochus the Great, and inherited 
 a good share of his father's ability and 
 courage. Having lived fourteen years in 
 Rome as a 
 hostage he 
 introduced 
 many Rom- 
 an customs 
 into his 
 kingdom. 
 He made 
 war upon 
 Armenia, 
 and enraged 
 at the de- 
 m a n d of 
 Egypt f o r 
 the surren- 
 der of Coele- 
 Syria and 
 Palestine, 
 which his 
 father had 
 promised as 
 a dowry to 
 the wife of 
 Ptolemy V., 
 
 he invaded that country, and would have 
 conquered it had not the Romans compelled 
 him to withdraw. He revenged himself 
 upon the Jews by capturing their Holy 
 City by assault, and plundering and defiling 
 the Temple, A little later his eflfort to sup- 
 plant the worship of Jehovah with that of 
 Greece brought about the Maccabsean war 
 of independence. His army was several 
 
 death, B. c. 164. Antiochus V., Eupator, 
 the son of Epiphanes, succeeded his father. 
 He was but twelve years old, and the king- 
 dom passed into the hands of Lysias as re- 
 gent. The regent and the young king 
 
 COIN OF LAODICEA. 
 
 times defeated by Judas Maccabjeus. An- 
 tiochus then set out to punish Judaea him- 
 self. On the way he stopped to plunder the 
 Temple of Elymais, but was seized with a 
 superstitious madness which caused his 
 
 SCENE IN SYRIA. 
 
 repaired to Judsea to conduct the war, and 
 compelled Judas Maccabseus to shut him- 
 self up in Jerusalem. Phiiip, who had been 
 appointed by Epiphanes guardian of his 
 son, now appeared in Antioch with the 
 royal signet, and seized the government. 
 Lysias at once caused the king to make 
 ))eace, and returning to Antioch, defeated 
 Philip, captured him, and put him to death. 
 Lysias seems to have 
 cared nothing for the 
 interests of the king- 
 dom, for he took no 
 steps to resist the Par- 
 thians who were over- 
 running the eastern 
 provinces at this time. 
 Neither did he seek to 
 check the Romans, who 
 were enforcing the 
 terras of the treaty with 
 Antiochus the Great 
 with unusual severity. 
 The danger which thus 
 threatened the kingdom was very serious. 
 It was ended by the arrival of Demetrius, 
 who had escaped from Rome, where 
 he had been detained for many years 
 as a hostage. He seized the throne 
 
304 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and put both Antiochus and Lysias to 
 death. 
 
 Demetrius I. began to reign in b. c. 162. 
 He commenced his reign by attempting to 
 reconquer Judiea. He was at first success- 
 fully opposed by Judas Maccabseus, but 
 when the death of that heroic leader seemed 
 to place the victory within his reach, he 
 was deprived of it by the Romans, who had 
 made an alliance with Judiea, and who now 
 forbade him to molest that province, which 
 they declared an independent kingdom. 
 Demetrius then undertook to dethrone 
 Ariarathes, King of Cappadocia, and con- 
 ferred his crown upon Orophernes, his ille- 
 gitimate brother. The neighboring kings 
 now induced Alexander Balas, an illegiti- 
 mate son of Epiphanes, to claim the crown, 
 and the league in his favor was joined by 
 the Romans. Syria had now sunk so low- 
 that both claimants of the crown courted 
 the favor of the persecuted Jews. In B. c. 
 151 Demetrius was slain in battle, and his 
 rival gained the crown. 
 
 Alexander Balas reigned for five years. 
 
 COIX OF ALEXANDER BALAS. 
 
 He ow-ed his success mainly to Egypt, and 
 had married Cleopatra, the daughter of the 
 Egyptian monarch ; but he proved himself 
 utterly unfit to be a king. He abandoned 
 his authority to a worthless favorite named 
 Ammonius, gave himself up to licentious- 
 ness and self-indulgence, and treated his 
 father-in-law with such ingratitude that 
 Ptolemy Philoraeter withdrew his support, 
 took his daughter Cleopatra from him, and 
 gave her to Demetrius Nicator, the son of 
 Demetrius I., Avho, encouraged by the 
 hatred of the Syrians for Alexander, had 
 claimed the crown. Aided by Ptolemy the 
 pretender defeated his rival, who was soon 
 after slain by his own officers. 
 
 Demetrius II., Nicator, became king in 
 B. c. 146. He was such a cruel tyrant that 
 he soon alienated his subjects. The people 
 of Antioch having rebelled against him, he 
 allowed his body-guard of Jewish merce- 
 naries to plunder the city. A pretender was 
 now set up by Diodotus of Apamea, in the 
 
 person of Antiochus VI., the son of Alex- 
 ander Balas, a child of two years. Three 
 or four years later Diodotus removed this 
 child, assumed the surname of Tryphon, 
 and declared himself king, B. c. 143 In 
 the meantime the Parthiaus were pressing 
 upon the eastern border of the kingdom so 
 persistently that Demetrius, confiding the 
 government to his wife, Cleopatra, marched 
 against the Parthiaus. He won some suc- 
 cesses at first, but in B. o. 140 he was de- 
 feated and made a prisoner by the Parthian 
 monarch, Arsaces VI., who kept him in 
 honorable captivity for ten years, and gave 
 him a Parthian princess for his second 
 wife. 
 
 Cleopatra finding herself unable to main- 
 tain her position unaided, called to her 
 assistance her husband's brother, Antiochus 
 Sidetes, who joined his arms to hers, and 
 after a war of two years with Tryphon, 
 defeated and killed him, b. c. 137. The 
 conqueror then made himself sole King of 
 Syria, as Antiochus VII., Sidetes. He 
 married Cleopatra, his brother's wife, Avho 
 considered herself set free by the captivity 
 of her husband and his marriage with a 
 Parthian princess. Antiochus attacked 
 Judtea, and brought it once more under 
 Syrian rule, b. c. 135-133. He then un- 
 dertook an expedition against Parthia for 
 the purpose of delivering his brother. He 
 gained some important successes at first, 
 but was at length defeated, wdth the loss of 
 his army, and slain. 
 
 Just before the death of Antiochus the 
 Parthian king released Demetrius, and sent 
 him to Antioch to claim his crown, hoping 
 to compel Antiochus to withdraw in order 
 to preserve his kingdom. Demetrius re- 
 sumed his authority, to 'which the death of 
 his brother left no rival. In a short while 
 a rival did appear, however. Ptolemy 
 Physcon of Egypt, to revenge himself upon 
 Demetrius for the support he had given the 
 Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, raised up a pre- 
 tender to the Syrian crown, named Alex- 
 ander Zabinas, who claimed to be the son 
 of Alexander Balas. A battle ensued be- 
 tween the rivals near Damascus. Deme- 
 trius was defeated and fled to his former 
 wife Cleopatra, at Ptolemais, but she re- 
 fused to receive him. He then attempted 
 to throw himself into Tyre, but was cap- 
 tured and slain, B. c. 126. 
 
 Cleopatra, having put to death her eldest 
 son, Seleucus, because he had assumed the 
 crown without her consent, now seated her 
 
20 
 
 ^Oh 
 
306 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 second son, Antiochus Grypus, on the 
 throne with herself as joint monarch. At 
 the same time Zabinas reigned in parts of 
 Syria. He continued to do so for seven 
 years, but at length he quarrelled with his 
 Egyptian patron, and was abandoned to 
 Antiochus by Ptolemy Physcon, B. c. 124. 
 In B. c. 122 Antiochus captured him and 
 forced him to take poison. The next year 
 Antiochus, finding his mother engaged in a 
 plot against him, put her to death, and thus 
 became sole monarch. A period of eight 
 years of peace followed. Syria was in sore 
 need of rest. She was exhausted by con- 
 
 STKEET IN DAMASCUS. 
 
 stant strife, and had lost Judosa and the 
 eastern provinces, and had herself become a 
 mere petty state, without energy and utterly 
 corrupt. The wealth of the country was in 
 the hands of a few weak nobles ; the masses 
 of the people were fearfully poor. 
 
 In B.C. 114 a rebellion broke out, headed 
 by Antiochus Cyziceuus, the son of Cleo- 
 patra by her third husband, Sidetes. A 
 
 bloody war of three years' duration com- 
 pelled the king to divide his territory with 
 his half-brother. The war was resumed in 
 B. c. 105, and continued through the cen- 
 tury, lasting, indeed, until B. c. 96, and 
 entailing fearful suffering upon the king- 
 dom. During this period Syria suffered 
 very greatly from the ravages of the Arabs 
 on the eastern, and the Egyptians on the 
 southern, border. Cilicia revolted, and 
 Tyre, Sidon, and Seleuceia asserted their 
 indei^endence. At length, in B. c. 96, An- 
 tiochus was assassinated by Heracleon, an 
 officer of his court, who endeavored to 
 secure the crown, but failed. 
 
 Seleucus V. succeeded his fa- 
 ther, and continued the war with 
 Cyzicenus, whom he defeated in 
 a great battle. The pretender 
 slew himself to avoid capture, 
 but his son Antiochus Eusebes 
 took up his quarrel, assumed the 
 royal title, and drove Seleucus 
 into Cilicia. Seleucus now 
 sought to raise money from the 
 people of Mopsuestia by a forced 
 contribution, but they turned 
 upon him and burned him 
 alive. 
 
 Philip, the second son of An- 
 tiochus VIII., succeeded to the 
 throne, and for some years car- 
 ried on the war with Eusebes, 
 assisted by his brothers Deme- 
 trius and Antiochus Dionysus. 
 Eusebes was finally overcome 
 and driven into Parthia. Philip 
 and his brothers, unable to 
 agree upon a satisfactory distri- 
 bution of power, made war 
 upon each other. The Syrians, 
 disgusted with these quarrels, 
 invited Tigranes, King of Ar- 
 menia, to rule over them. He 
 accepted the invitation, and 
 from B. c. 83 to B. c. 69 
 Syria was at peace. Towards 
 the close of this period Tigranes incurred the 
 vengeance of the Eomans by aiding his 
 father-in-law Mithridates, King of Pontus. 
 They compelled him to relinquish Syria, 
 and the crown passed to Antiochus XIII., 
 Asiaticus, Avho reigned for three years. 
 In B. c. 65 Pompey the Great overthrew 
 Asiaticus, subdued Syria, and organized it 
 as a Roman province 
 
PEBGAMUS, BIIHYNIA, PAPHLAGONIA, PONTUS, GAPPADOCIA, ETC. 307 
 
 book: xiiii. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE SlVl^LLER 
 GREEK KIITSTGDOjVES OE A.SI^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORY OF PERGAMUS, BITHYNIA, PAPH- 
 LAGONIA, PONTUS, CAPPADOCIA, ARME- 
 NIA, AND BACTRIA. 
 
 Rise of the Kingdom of Pergamus — Eumenes I. — 
 Reign of Attains I.— Takes tlie Royal Title— His 
 Alliance with Rome — Eumenes II. — Is Rewarded 
 by the Romans — Intellectual Splendor of Per- 
 gamus — Reign of Attains III. — Leaves his King- 
 dom to the Romans — Pergamus a Roman Prov- 
 ince — Growth of the Kingdom of Bithynia — Prus- 
 sias I.— His Wars — Death of Hannibal — Reign 
 of Nicomedes II. — Nicomedes III. Bequeaths the 
 Kingdom to Rome — Rise and Fall of the Paphla- 
 gonian Kingdom — Growth of the Kingdom of 
 Pontus — Mithridates III. — His Conquests — Takes 
 Sinope — Mithridates IV. — Aids Rome in her 
 Wars — Mithridates the Great King — His Con- 
 quests — His Struggle with Rome — His Defeat and 
 Death — Pontus Becomes a Roman Province — His- 
 tory of the Cappadocian Monarchy — The Rise and 
 Fail of the Armenian Kingdoms — The Greek 
 Kingdom of Bactria Founded — Its History — It is 
 Absorbed by Parthia. 
 
 "/^^ESIDES the monarchies we have 
 mentioued, a number of smaller 
 kingdoms were erected out of the 
 fragments of the empire of Alexan- 
 der the Great. It will be necessary 
 ^ to notice the most important of these. 
 
 I. The Kingdom of Pergamus. The city 
 of Pergamus, on the Caicus, in Mysia, was 
 regarded as one of the great strongholds of 
 Asia Minor. Lysimaehus, King of Thrace, 
 made it the depository of the treasures of 
 his kingdom, and placed it in charge of the 
 eunuch Philetierus. On the death of Ly- 
 simaehus at the battle of Corupedion, 
 Philetserus retained possession of his prin- 
 cipality on his own account, and with the 
 aid of the treasures of Lysimaehus suc- 
 ceeded in establishing his independence. 
 He reigned twenty years, from B. c. 283 to 
 B. c. 263 ; but did not take the title of 
 king. 
 
 He was succeeded by his nephew, Eu- 
 menes L, the son of his brother. Soon 
 after his accession Eumenes was attacked 
 by Antiochus I., of Syria, but defeated him 
 in a pitched battle near Sardis. By this 
 victory he greatly increased his territory. 
 
 He died in B. c. 241, from the effects of 
 drunkenness, after a reign of twenty-two 
 years. 
 
 Eumenes was succeeded by his cousin, 
 Attains I. The Gauls, who had been for 
 about thirty years settled in northern 
 Phrygia, or Galatia, as it was afterwards 
 called, made frequent predatory raids into 
 the territories of their neighbors. About 
 B. c. 239 they made a descent upon the 
 territories of Pergamus, and met a terrible 
 defeat at the hands of Attains. This suc- 
 cess induced Attains to take the title of 
 " king," which none of his predecessors 
 had ventured to assume. Ten years later 
 he was obliged to defend his kingdom 
 against the invasion of the Syrians under 
 Antiochus Hierax, the brother of Seleucus 
 II. This ambitious prince, who was en- 
 deavoring to make himself king of Asia 
 Minor, was defeated by Attains and driven 
 out of Asia. Attains succeeded also in ex- 
 tending his territories, which, by the year 
 B. c. 22G, embraced nearly all the countries 
 west of the Halys and north of Taurus. 
 He was deprived of these conquests by 
 Seleucus Ceraunus and Antiochus the 
 Great, and by the year B. c. 221 he was 
 simply monarch of his Pergamene territory. 
 By wise management and a judicious em- 
 ployment of Gallic mercenaries he re- 
 covered ^olis in B. c. 218, and in B. c. 216 
 made a treaty of alliance with Antiochus 
 the Great, by which the Syrian king re- 
 stored him the better part of the territory 
 of which he had deprived him. 
 
 In B. c. 211 Attalus became the ally of 
 the Romans and ./Etolians in the war 
 against Philip V., of Macedon, and ren- 
 dered good service to his allies. This won 
 for him the all-important friendship and 
 patronage of Rome. After the peace of 
 B. c. 20-1 Philip attacked Attalus, ravaged 
 his dominions, and endeavored to drive his 
 fleet from the ^gean. The Pergamene 
 king made an alliance with Rhodes, and in 
 B. c. 201 the allies inflicted a terrible defeat 
 upon the fleet of Philip off Chios. In b. c. 
 199 the second war between Rome and 
 
308 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Philip was begun. Attains, though seventy- 
 years old, wai'mly espoused the cause of the 
 Romans and rendered them valuable aid 
 with his fleet. His exertions iu their behalf 
 caused his death in B. G. 197. 
 
 Eumenes II., the eldest of the four sons 
 of Attains, mounted the throne of his 
 father, whose talents and policy he also in- 
 herited. In the wars of Rome with Philip 
 of Macedonia, Antiochus the Great, of 
 Syria, and Perseus, the successor of Philip, 
 Eumenes rendered such valuable aid to the 
 Romans, that, after the battle of Magnesia, 
 B. c. 190, he was rewarded with a large in- 
 crease of territory on both sides of the Hel- 
 lespont. These additions made Pergamus 
 
 one of the greatest kingdoms of the East. 
 
 • '111 
 
 The Pergamene territories now included 
 Mysia, Lydia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Pam- 
 phylia, and portions of Caria and Lycia in 
 Asia, and the Thracian Chersonese with its 
 capital, Lysimacheia, and adjacent parts of 
 Thrace. In b. c. 183 a war broke out be- 
 tween Pergamus and Bithynia, by which 
 the former power acquired the Hellespon- 
 tine Phrygia. A war with Pontus began 
 in B. c. 183, and lasted nntil B. c. 179, and 
 in B. c. 168 Pergamus was at war with the 
 Gauls. The object of Eumenes in these 
 wars was not conquest, bvit the maintenance 
 of the territories he had won. 
 
 Under Eumenes II. Pergamus became 
 one of the most brilliant cities of the an- 
 cient world. His father had been a liberal 
 promoter of literature, science and art, but 
 
 Eumenes surpassed him in the assistance he 
 gave them. The capital was adorned with 
 noble buildings, the ruins of which still at- 
 test their splendor. Painting and sculp- 
 ture were liberally encouraged. Eumenes 
 founded the great library of Pergamus, 
 which was excelled only by that of Alex- 
 andria, and attracted to his court a large 
 number of learned men. A school of 
 grammar and criticism grew up at Per- 
 gamus, which had but one superior — that 
 of Alexandria. Parchement ( Charta Per- 
 gamena), a material for writing far superior 
 to the EgyjDtian papyrus, was introduced in 
 this reign. 
 
 Eumenes died in b. c. 159. He left a 
 son named At- 
 tains, a mere 
 child, too young 
 to reign, and the 
 crown was as- 
 sumed by At- 
 tains II., the 
 brother of Eu- 
 menes, who took 
 the surname of 
 Philadeli^hus. He 
 reigned twenty- 
 one years, and 
 more than half 
 of this time was 
 sj^ent by him in 
 defending his 
 kingdom against 
 Prussias II., of 
 Bithynia. In or- 
 der to relieve 
 himself of so dan- 
 gerous a neigh- 
 bor, Philadelphus supported the revolt of 
 Nicomedes, the son of Prussias, against his 
 father, and helped to establish him upon his 
 throne. This led to peace between Per- 
 gamus and Bithynia. Philadelphus was a 
 great builder, and employed the peaceful 
 years of his reign in building cities and 
 adding to his library. Among the cities 
 built by him were: Eumenia, in Phrygia; 
 Philadelphia, in Lydia ; and Attalia, in 
 Pamphylia. He died in b. c. 138. 
 
 Attains III., the son of Eumenes II., 
 succeeded his uncle Philadelphus. He 
 took the name of Philometer (lover of his 
 mother). His reign of five years was a 
 period of horror. He caused the murder 
 of all the trusted friends of his father and 
 uncle, together with their families, and put 
 to death nearly every office-holder in the 
 
PEBGAMUS, BITHYNIA, PAPHLAQONIA, PONTUS, CAPPADOCIA, ETC. 309 
 
 kingdom. Finally he murdered his mother 
 and a number of his relations. Then, 
 seized with remorse for his crimes, he aban- 
 doned the government of his kingdom and 
 devoted himself to painting, sculpture and 
 gardening. He died in b. c. 133, and by 
 his will left his 
 kingdom as a ■"" 
 
 legacy to the Ro- ^ 
 man peoj^le. 
 
 Rome accepted 
 the bequest with 
 charac t e r i s t i c 
 promptness. Ar- 
 istonicus, an ille- 
 gitimate son of 
 Eumenes II., 
 claimed the 
 kingdom as his 
 natural inheri- 
 tance, and at first 
 won important 
 successes over the 
 Romans. In b. c. 
 131 he defeated 
 and captured Li- 
 
 cinius Crassus, the Roman commander who 
 had been sent to take forcible possession of 
 the kingdom. The next year he was him- 
 self defeated and made prisoner by Perpena, 
 and the kingdom of Pergamus became a 
 Roman province. 
 
 II. The Kingdom of Bithynia. Dur- 
 ing the existence of the Persian empire 
 Bithynia was one of its tributary kingdoms, 
 governed by its own sovereigns. It readily 
 recovered its independence after the battle 
 of Arbela, and successfully resisted all the 
 
 I his sons, Nicomedes and Zipoetes. With 
 the help of the Gauls the elder defeated 
 his brother, and ascended the throne as 
 Nicomedes I. He founded Nicomedeia, on 
 the Gulf of Astacus. He had two wives, 
 by the first of whom he had a single son, 
 
 SILVER COIN OF MILETUS. 
 
 efforts of the generals of Alexander the 
 Great to conquer it. Bas, the king under 
 whom this resistance was maintained, died 
 in B. c. 326, and left to his son, Zipoetes, a 
 flourishing and independent kingdom. 
 
 Zipoetes reigned forty-eight years, from 
 B. c. 326 to B. c. 278, and successfully de- 
 fended his kingdom against the efforts of 
 Lysimachus and Antiochus Soter. At his 
 death a civil war broke out between two of 
 
 Zeilas by name. By his second wife he 
 had three children, to whom he wished to 
 leave his dominions. Zeilas called in the 
 Gauls to his help, defeated his half-brothers, 
 and obtained the throne. He reigned 
 about twenty years. 
 
 Prussias I., called " Prussias the Lame," 
 succeeded Zeilas, his father, about B. c. 
 228. His reign lasted until about B. c. 
 180, a period of forty-five years. The first 
 eight years were uneventful, but the re- 
 mainder were passed in constant and im- 
 portant wars. In b. c. 220 he assisted 
 Rhodes in her Avar with Byzantium, and in 
 B. c. 216 gained a victory over the Gauls. 
 He became the ally of Philip V., of Mace- 
 don, in his Avar Avith Rome, and in b. c. 
 208 attacked the territories of Pergamus 
 and compelled Attalus I. to return home 
 for the protection of his kingdom. This 
 act on the part of Prussias made Rome his 
 enemy, and her anger Avas still further in- 
 creased in B. c. 187 by the shelter giA'en by 
 Prussias to Hannibal, the vanquished Car- 
 thaginian leader. "With the help of Han- 
 nibal, Prussias attacked Eumenes of Per- 
 gamus and defeated him. He gained 
 nothing by his A'ictory, for Rome now in- 
 tervened and compelled him to compensate 
 Eumenes for his losses by ceding to him the 
 whole of the Hellespontine Phrygia. The 
 
810 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Romans also clemanderl of the Bithynian 
 king the surrender of Hannibal, threatening 
 him with war in case of refusal, and 
 Prussias was weak enough to order the 
 arrest of his guest. Hannibal, seeing that 
 he could not escape, baffled his enemies by 
 taking poison. AVith his last breath he ex- 
 pressed his hatred of Rome and his con- 
 tempt for Prussias. The Bithynian king 
 now turned his arms against Heracleia 
 Pontica, and though he won some successes, 
 received the wound from Avhich he derived 
 his surname of " the Lame." He died soon 
 after this, about b. c. 180. 
 
 Prussias II. succeeded his father, and 
 reigned until b. c. 149. He was the most 
 
 ular with the people than himself, he sent 
 him to Rome, with secret orders to his at- 
 tendants to assassinate him. The prince 
 discovered the plot, and with the consent 
 of the Roman senate left Rome and re- 
 turned to his own country, where he raised 
 the standard of revolt. By the aid of At- 
 tains II., of Pergamus, Nicomedes defeated 
 his father, took him prisoner, and put him 
 to death. 
 
 Nicomedes II., surnamed Epihanes, or 
 " the Illustrious," mounted the throne in B. 
 c. 149. He endeavored to stand well with 
 Rome, and rendered valuable aid in the 
 war against Aristonicus of Pergamus. He 
 was not always faithful to the Romans, 
 
 THYATIKA. 
 
 wicked and contemptible of all the Bi- 
 thynian sovereigns, and suffered great dis- 
 asters. He married the sister of Perseus, 
 King of Macedonia, but declined to render 
 him active aid in his final struggle with the 
 Romans, and on the downfall of Perseus 
 made an abject submission to the con- 
 querors, who allowed him to retain his 
 kingdom. In b. c. 156 he went to Avar 
 with Attains II., of Pergamus, and would 
 have conquered him had not the Romans 
 intervened and compelled him to make 
 peace, restore his conquests, and pay 
 Attains an indemnity of 500 talents. Find- 
 ing that his son, Nicomedes, was more jDop- 
 
 however, and in B. C. 102, in alliance with 
 Mithridates the Great, of Pontus, conquered 
 Paphlagonia, and took possession of a part 
 of it. Required by the Romans to restore 
 the province to its legitimate heir he pre- 
 tended to obey, but by a trick secured it to 
 one of his own sons. In B. c. 96 ]\Iithri- 
 dates endeavored to annex Cappadocia to 
 his dominions. Laodice, the widow of the 
 late king, took refuge at the court of Kico- 
 medes, who married her, and, espousing her 
 cause, caused her to be established in Cap- 
 padocia as its queen. She was shortly after 
 driven out by JNIithridates. Somewhat later, 
 Nicomedes endeavored to regain Cappado- 
 
PEBGAMUS, BITHYNIA, PAPHLAGONIA, PONTUS, CAPPADOGIA, ETC. 311 
 
 cia by one of his characteristic tricks, but 
 the Romans refused to be deceived and de- 
 prived him of both Cappadocia and Paph- 
 lagonia. In B. c. 91 Nicomedes died, being 
 nearly eighty years old. 
 
 Nicomedes III. succeeded his father, but 
 was almost immediately driven from the 
 kingdom by a revolt headed by his brother 
 Socrates, who was aided by Mithridates of 
 Pontus. In B. c. 90 Rome compelled So- 
 crates to withdraw, and Nicomedes re- 
 ascended his throne. He now undertook 
 to punish Pontus by making incursions into 
 her territory. Mithridates thereupon took 
 the field with a vast 
 army, defeated Ni- 
 comedes on the Am- 
 neius, B. c. 88, and 
 expelled him and 
 his Roman protect- 
 ors from Asia. This 
 led to the first Mith- 
 ridatic war, which 
 resulted in the de- 
 feat of Pontus, and 
 the restoration of 
 Nicomedes to his 
 throne, b. c. 84. He 
 now enjoyed a 
 jDcaceful reign of 
 ten years. He died 
 in B. c. 74, and, as 
 he had no issue, be- 
 queathed his king- 
 dom to the Romans, 
 a bequest which in- 
 volved the republic in a third war with 
 Mithridates. 
 
 III. The Kingdom of Paphlagonia. 
 The date of the establishment of the Paph- 
 lagouiau kingdom is unknown. After the 
 establishment of the Persian empire it was 
 nominally subject to that power, but was 
 never entirely submissive to it. As early 
 as B. c. 400 we find the kingdom paying 
 very little attention to the great king's 
 orders, and about the same year the Paphla- 
 gonian king allowed the Ten Thousand to 
 pass through his territory without making 
 any effort to check their progress. In B. c. 
 394 Cotys or Otys, the king of the country, 
 entered into an alliance with Agesilaus of 
 Sparta against Persia. About b. c. 365, 
 Thyus, or Thys, another king, was reduced 
 to submission by the Persian Satrap Da- 
 tames. Upon the fall of the Persian em- 
 pire Paphlagonia did not become a part of 
 
 the dominions of Alexander the Great in 
 anything more than name. Shortly after 
 it was overrun by Mithridates of Pontus, 
 and attached to his kingdom, of which it 
 formed a portion for many years. The 
 time at which it recovered its independence 
 is uncertain, but about b. c. 200 it appears 
 once more under the rule of native mon- 
 archs, and is engaged in wars to protect its 
 freedom against the efforts of Pontus, on 
 the one hand, and Bithynia on the other. 
 In B. c. 102 Pylsemenes, the last native 
 king, died without issue, and the country 
 was seized conjointly by Mithridates the 
 
 AN EASTERN WELL. 
 
 Great, of Pontus, and Nicomedes II. of 
 Bithynia. Mithridates at length succeeded 
 in driving out the Bithynians and annexed 
 Paphlagonia to his own dominions. 
 
 IV. The Kingdom of Pontus. The 
 kingdom of Pontus was formed out of the 
 satrapy of Cappadocia, which Darius I. of 
 Persia conferred upon Onates, one of the 
 generals who had assisted him to overthrow 
 the false Smerdis. Onates was a descend- 
 ant of the ancient Arian kings of Cappado- 
 cia, and Darius made the satrapy hereditary 
 in his family. In b. c. 363 Ariobarzanes, 
 the sou of Mithridates, the satrap, led a 
 successful revolt against Persia, and made 
 himself master of that portion of Cappado- 
 cia which lay along the coast of the Euxine. 
 He erected his territory into a kingdom, to 
 which the Greeks gave the name of " Pon- 
 tus," by which it has since been known. 
 Inland Cap^^adocia remained a province of 
 
 'f7'*. 
 
312 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Persia. Ariobarzanes died in B. c. 337, 
 and was succeeded by his son ]\Iithridates 
 I. Upon the conquest of Persia by Alex- 
 ander the Great, Poutus became a Mace- 
 donian province, B. c. 322. In B. c. 318 
 Mithridates threw off the Macedonian yoke, 
 and re-established the independence of his 
 country. He was assassinated in b. c. 302, 
 by order of Antigonus, to Avhom, as we have 
 seen, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia had 
 fallen in the division of Alexander's do- 
 minions. 
 
 Mithridates II. succeeded his father. He 
 reigned thirty-six years, and added to his 
 dominions at the expense of Cappadocia and 
 Paphlagonia. He was succeeded by his son 
 Ariobarzanes II., in b. c. 266, Avhose reign 
 was uneventful. He died about b. c. 245, 
 and the crown passed to his son Mithridates 
 III., wdio was the most spirited of all the 
 early Pontic kings. He was a minor when 
 he came to the throne, and as soon as he 
 attained his majority married a sister of 
 Seleucus II., of Syria, and received the 
 province of Phrygia with her as a dowry. 
 In B. c. 222 he gave his daughter Laodice 
 in marriage to Antiochus the Great, of 
 Syria, and gave another daughter, also 
 called Laodice, as a wife to Achseus, a 
 cousin of the Syrian king. He never per- 
 mitted these marriages to influence his 
 political action, and made war upon Syria 
 as readily as if he had not been bound to 
 her by such ties. He is believed to have 
 died about B. c. 190. Pharnaces succeeded 
 his father on the Pontic throne. About B. 
 C. 183, he conquered the town of Sinope, on 
 the Euxine, and made it the capital of his 
 kingdom. In B. c. 181 he engaged in a 
 war with Eumenes II., of Pergamus, in 
 spite of the efforts of the Romans to prevent 
 the conflict. He gained some successes at 
 first, but was at length obliged to make 
 peace on condition of relinquishing all his 
 conquests except Sinope. He died about 
 B. c. 160, and was succeeded by his son 
 Mithridates IV., surnamed " Euergetes." 
 He reigned about forty years, from about 
 B. c. 160 to B. c. 120. He fought in alli- 
 ance with Attains II., of Pergamus, against 
 Prussias II., of Bithynia, B. c. 154; and in 
 the third Punic war, b. c. 150 to B. c. 146, 
 was the ally of the Romans against Car- 
 thage. He also aided the Romans to drive 
 Aristonicus out of Pergamus, and at the 
 close of the war Avas rewarded by them with 
 the gift of the Greater Phrygia. He was mur- 
 dered in B. c. 120 bv his disaflfected courtiers. 
 
 Mithridates V., called " the Great," suc- 
 ceeded to the crown of his father. He Avas 
 the ablest of the Pontic sovereigns and one 
 of the greatest of Asiatic kings. He was a 
 minor when he succeeded to the crown, and 
 for eight years the affairs of the kingdom 
 were directed by his guardians. He passed 
 this period in diligent study, and is said to 
 have acquired twenty-five different lan- 
 guages. To harden his constitution he en- 
 gaged in perpetual hunting expeditions in 
 the roughest parts of his dominions. Dis- 
 trusting his guardians, he began at an early 
 day to accustom himself to antidotes against 
 poison for the purpose of defeating any at- 
 tempt upon his life. At the age of twenty 
 he assumed the government. He was pos- 
 sessed of a hardy and vigorous physical 
 constitution, and his mind was Avell stored 
 with knowledge. His remarkable linguistic 
 acquirements enabled him to transact busi- 
 ness with every part of his dominions in its 
 own peculiar dialect. 
 
 Upon coming to the throne, Mithridates 
 saw clearly that the position of his king- 
 dom would soon make it a rbark for the 
 efforts of the Romans, and that, in order to 
 meet them with any prospect of success, he 
 must add to the size and strength of his 
 dominions. With this end in view, he 
 began in b. c. 112 a deliberate and system- 
 atic effort at conquest in the East, in 
 which quarter he was safe from the inter- 
 ference of Rome. During the next seven 
 years he added to his kingdom the Lesser 
 Armenia, Colchis, the Avhole of the eastern 
 coast of the Black Sea, the Cimmerian 
 peninsula, now known as the Crimea, and 
 the region Avestward from the Crimea to 
 the Dneister. He further strengthened 
 himself by alliances with the Avild tribes of 
 the Danube, and Avith the Kings of Arme- 
 nia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia. He at- 
 tempted to place his own son on the 
 Cappadocian throne, in B. c. 93, and to 
 seat Socrates on that of Bithynia, in B. c. 
 90, but Avas unsuccessful in both attempts. 
 The Romans commanded him to undo both 
 of these acts, and Mithridates deemed it 
 best to obey, as he was not yet ready for 
 Avar with Rome. 
 
 In B. c. 89, Nicomedes, encouraged by 
 the Romans, invaded Pontus. Mithridates 
 at once took the field Avith a poAverful army, 
 and the next year overran Cappadocia and 
 annexed it to his kingdom. He next in- 
 vaded Bithynia, defeated Nicomedes on the 
 Amneius, and drove him and his Roman. 
 
PERGAMUS, BITHYNIA, PAPHLAGONIA, PONTUS, CAPPADOCIA, ETC. 313 
 
 allies out of Bithynia. Mithridates now 
 rapidly overran Galatia, Phrygia, and the 
 Roman province of Asia, and made himself 
 master of all of Asia INIinor except a few 
 towns in Lycia and Ionia. He established 
 himself at Pergaraus for the winter, aud 
 there committed the great error of his life. 
 Elated by his success, he ordered the mas- 
 sacre of all the Romans and Italians in 
 Asia. Eighty thousand persons were slain, 
 and from this moment the fortunes of the 
 Pontic king began to wane. In B. c. 87 
 he sent two armies under skilful generals 
 to drive the Romans out of Greece ; but 
 these forces were defeated by Sulla in the 
 battle of Chseroneia. A third army was 
 sent into Greece, but this was also defeated. 
 In the meantime the Romans had carried 
 the war into Asia, and after gaining several 
 successes, defeated the princijjal Pontic 
 army in Bithynia, in b. c. 85. Mithridates 
 was obliged to seek safety in flight, and, 
 finding his reverses too heavy to be recov- 
 ered from speedily, made peace on the 
 humiliating conditions of surrendering all 
 his conquests and a fleet of seventy vessels, 
 and paying to Rome an indemnity of 2,000 
 talents. The Kings of Cappadocia and 
 Bithynia were restored to their thrones, and 
 the Roman authority was re-established 
 over the province of Asia. 
 
 These disasters caused the eastern con- 
 quests of Mithridates to attempt the recov- 
 ery of their independence. The king 
 prepared a large army and fleet to recon- 
 quer them, but was obliged to use these 
 forces to meet another danger. Murena, 
 the Roman commander in Asia, suddenly, 
 and without provocation, attacked Pontus, 
 in B. c. 83. Mithridates at first simply 
 complained to the Roman senate, which 
 ordered its general to let Pontus alone. 
 Murena refused to obey the order, and 
 Mithridates marched against him, and 
 totally defeated him on the banks of the 
 Halys. Murena fled, and the senate sent 
 a legate, who negotiated a peace with the 
 Pontic king, in b. c. 82. 
 
 Seven years of peace with Rome now 
 followed, and Mithridates was enabled to 
 subdue all his revolted provinces, and to 
 re-establish his kingdom upon a firm basis 
 once more. This accomplished, he bent all 
 his energies to the task of preparing for a 
 final struggle with Rome. His army was 
 made up largely of men from the barbarous 
 nations of the Danube and the Black Sea ; 
 it was very numerous, and was disciplined 
 
 and equipped according to the system of 
 Rome. The navy was increased to a force 
 of 400 triremes. 
 
 Both Rome and Pontus, though each 
 saw that a final contest for supremacy in 
 Asia Minor was inevitable, would gladly 
 have put ofi" the evil day. The outbi'eak 
 came sooner than either expected or de- 
 sired. In B. c. 74 Kicomedes III., dying 
 without issue, left the kingdom of Bithynia 
 to the Romans, who accepted the legacy. 
 Mithridates saw that to allow the Romans 
 to occupy Bithynia would be to place his 
 whole western border at their mercy, and 
 he at once poured his forces into Bithynia, 
 and occupied that kingdom. This act, 
 though one of self-defence, was a declaration 
 of war against Rome; and the republic 
 promptly accepted the challenge. 
 
 COURT OF AN EASTERN HOUSE. 
 
 The war which thus began in B. c. 74 
 lasted nine years. In the first year Mithri- 
 dates defeated Cotta, the Roman command- 
 er, on land and sea. He then laid siege 
 to Chalcedon and Cyzicus, but was obliged 
 to abandon these enterprises. In b. c. 73 
 his army was badly beaten by Lucullus, 
 and his fleet was defeated off" Tenedos, aud 
 then wrecked in a gale. In the same year 
 Mithridates took Heracleia Poutica, and 
 returning to his capital raised a fresh army. 
 He then took position at Cabeira, but was 
 attacked there by the Romans and routed. 
 He escaped with difficulty, and fled for 
 safety to his son-in-law, the Armenian 
 King Tigranes, b. c. 72. The Romans now 
 demanded of Tigranes the surrender of 
 Mithridates, and upon the refusal of the 
 Armenian monarch, he was declared an 
 enemy of Rome, and the war was trans- 
 ferred [to his kingdom, B. c. 70. The war 
 was carried on for three years in Armenia, 
 and the two kings were twice defeated by 
 Lucullus, b. c. G9. In b. c. 68 Mithri- 
 dates returned to his kingdom with a new 
 
314 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 army, and in the course of a few months 
 inflicted two defeats upon the Romans. A 
 mutiny in the army of Lucullus paralyzed 
 the efforts of that commander, and Mithri- 
 dates and Tigranes recovered Pontus and 
 Cappadocia. In B. c, QQ Lucullus was 
 superseded by Pompey the Great. The 
 new commander saw that it was within the 
 power of the allied kings to prolong the 
 war indefinitely, and he determined to give 
 Tigranes employment at home until he 
 could destroy Mithridates, To this end he 
 made a treaty of friendship and alliance 
 with Phraates, King of Parthia, by which 
 that monarch agreed to attack Armenia. 
 This was done in the same year, and Ti- 
 granes was obliged to devote all his efforts 
 to the defence of his own kingdom. Pompey 
 promptly advanced upon Mithridates, de- 
 feated him with the loss of nearly the whole 
 of his army, and forced him to fly from 
 Pontus across the Black Sea into the Cri- 
 mea, where the Romans made no effort to 
 pursue him. The year B. c. 65 saw Pontus 
 entirely in the hands of the Romans. Mith- 
 ridates now prepared to renew the war 
 against Rome from the European coast of 
 the Black Sea, hoping to gather to his 
 standard the barbarian tribes of the Dan- 
 ube, and to march upon Italy from that 
 quarter. In spite of his great age, he en- 
 tered with enthusiasm into this project ; but 
 his ofiicers looked coldly upon it, and a 
 plot, headed by his own son, was formed 
 against him. The old king, finding him- 
 self deserted by all whom he had relied 
 upon, gave way to despair, and caused one 
 of his guards to despatch him, B. c. 63. 
 Pontus became a Roman province, and 
 until the time of Nero it continued to be 
 ruled by princes of its ancient line, who 
 held their throne as subjects of Rome. 
 
 V. The Kingdom of Cappadocia. 
 The northern division of Cappadocia be- 
 came, as we have seen, the independent 
 kingdom of Pontus ; but the southern divi- 
 sion remained faithful to Persia until the 
 downfall of the empire. In B. c. 331, after 
 the battle of Arbela, Ariarathes, the satrap, 
 assumed the state of an independent mon- 
 arch. He was conquered by Perdiccas, in 
 B. c. 331, after the death of Alexander the 
 Great, and was made prisoner and crucified. 
 Perdiccas made over his conquest to Eu- 
 menes of Pergamus, but at the death of 
 that king, Cappadocia revolted, and recov- 
 ered its independence under Ariarathes II., 
 
 the nephew of Ariarathes I. He died about 
 B. C. 280, and left his crown to his son 
 Ariamues, who was succeeded by his son 
 Ariarathes III. Their reigns were obscure. 
 The latter king died in b. c. 220, and the 
 throne passed to his infant son Ariarathes 
 IV. Coming to man's estate, this king 
 married Antiochis, the daughter of his 
 cousin Antiochus the Great, B. c. 192. He 
 assisted Antiochus in his war with Rome, 
 and fought as his ally in the great battle 
 of Magnesia, which destroyed the power of 
 the Syrian empii-e, b. c. 190. By this 
 course the Cappadocian king exposed him- 
 self to the wrath of the Romans. He suc- 
 ceeded by good management in appeasing 
 the republic and obtaining favorable terms. 
 He maintained friendly relations with 
 Rome during the rest of his reign, and died 
 in B. c. 162. 
 
 Ariarathes V. succeeded his father, and 
 reigned thirty-one years. He was remark- 
 able as a blameless ruler. " He was a 
 student of philosophy, and made Cappado- 
 cia a residence of learned men. . . No 
 cruel or perfidious deed of his doing is upon 
 record. He conciliated the affection of his 
 subjects, and commanded the respect of his 
 neighbors. The history of the three cen- 
 turies after Alexander shows us no other 
 monarch who led so pure and blameless a 
 life." He remained faithful to the Roman 
 alliance in spite of efforts to draw him 
 from it, and when the Romans undertook 
 to drive Aristonicus out of Pergamus, took 
 the field to aid them, and was killed in 
 their service, B. c. 131. 
 
 Ariarathes V. left six sons, all of whom 
 were minors at the time of his death. His 
 widow Laodice became regent, and, in 
 order to retain the power in her own hands, 
 poisoned five of her sons before they came 
 of age. The queen-mother finally fell a 
 victim to the wi'ath of the people, and her 
 youngest son ascended the throne as Ariar- 
 athes yi. The reign of this king was in- 
 significant. He married a sister of Mithri- 
 dates the Great of Pontus, and was murdered 
 by an emissary of that monarch in B. c. 96. 
 Mithridates at once seized Cappadocia, but 
 Laodice, the widow of the late king^ took 
 refuge with Nicomedes II., of Bithynia, 
 who married her, and established her as 
 Queen of Cappadocia. Mithridates suc- 
 ceeded in driving her out of the kingdom, 
 and a war of several years ensued, during 
 which the Pontic king set up two sovereigns 
 and the Cappadocians themselves one. In 
 
FEROAMUS, BITHYNIA, PAPHLAGONIA, PONTUS, CAPPADOCIA, ETC. 315 
 
 this struggle the old royal line of Cappadocia 
 became extinct, Pontus and Bithynia 
 both set up pretenders to the throne ; but 
 the Romans permitted the Cappadocians to 
 settle the matter by choosing their own 
 king. This they did, and Ariobarzanes 
 ascended the throne in b. c. 93. He was 
 almost immediately driven out of his king- 
 dom by Tigranes of Armenia, but was re- 
 instated by the Romans in b. c. 92, He 
 reigned unmolested until B. c. 88, when he 
 was overthrown by Mithridates, who held 
 Cappadocia during the whole of his first 
 war with Rome. He was restored to his 
 throne by the treaty between Pontus and 
 Rome, but was again driven out by Mithri- 
 dates and Tigranes in b. c. 67, and was 
 restored once more by Pompey in b. c. 66. 
 About B. c. 64 he abdicated in favor of his 
 son, who ascended the throne as Ariobar- 
 zanes II. Ariobarzanes sided with Pompey 
 against Csesar, but after the battle of Phar- 
 salia was magnanimously forgiven by 
 Csesar, and was allowed to increase his 
 territory. In the next civil war he sided 
 with Antony and Octavian, and was put 
 to death by order of Cassius, B. c. 42. 
 The battle of Philippi overthrew the "Lib- 
 erators," and Antony gave the Cappadocian 
 crown to Ariarathes IX., who is believed 
 to have been a son of the last king. He 
 soon turned against him, had him put to 
 death, b, c. 36, and gave his throne to 
 Archelaiis, one of his own creatures. This 
 king ruled the kingdom until A. D. 15, 
 when, having ofiended the Emperor Tibe- 
 rias, he was summoned to Rome, where he 
 died in A. d. 17. Cappadocia was then con- 
 verted into a Roman province. 
 
 VI. The Kingdom of the Greater 
 Armenia. From the battle of Ipsus, b. c. 
 301, until the battle of Magnesia, b. c. 190, 
 Armenia formed a part of the Syrian em- 
 pire. After the defeat of Antiochus the 
 Great, it revolted from Syria, and was 
 divided into the kingdoms of Armenia Ma- 
 jor and Armenia Minor, the latter of which 
 lay west of the Euphrates. The first king 
 of the Greater Armenia was Artaxias, 
 who had been a general of Antiochus, and 
 had headed the revolt of his kingdom. He 
 founded the city of Artaxata, the capital 
 of his kingdom. He reigned until about 
 B. c. 165, when he was defeated by Antio- 
 chus Epiphanes, who made Armenia once 
 more a Syrian possession. This subjection 
 lasted for an indefinite period. In B. c. 100 
 
 Armenia appears once more as an indepen- 
 dent monarchy under Ortoadistes, who was 
 succeeded in B. c. 96 by Tigranes I., the 
 greatest of the Armenian kings. 
 
 Tigranes began his reign by a cession of 
 a part of his kingdom to Parthia ; but about 
 B. c. 90 to 87 won important victories over 
 the Parthians, recovered his lost territory, 
 and added to his kingdom the regions of 
 Atropatene and Gordyene (Upper Mesopo- 
 tamia). He then overran the Syrian do- 
 minions, and conquered the whole of that 
 kingdom, including the province of Cilicia. 
 For the next fourteen years — from B. c, 83 
 to B. c. 69 — his dominions extended from 
 the borders of Pamphylia to the shores of 
 the Caspian. During this period he built 
 the city of Tigranocerta, and made it the 
 capital of his kingdom. 
 He ravaged Cappa- 
 docia, and carried 
 ofi" more than 300,000 
 people, B. c. 75. By 
 so doing he drew 
 ujDon himself the en- 
 mity of Rome. Some- 
 what later he received ^„ „ ^„ 
 
 1 ^. COIN OF TIGRANES, 
 
 and gave active sup- 
 port to his father-in-law, Mithridates the 
 Great, who had been driven from his king- 
 dom. The Romans now demanded of 
 Tigranes the surrender of the Pontic king, 
 and, being refused, invaded Armenia. In 
 B. c. 69 Tigranes was defeated, and lost his 
 capital. The next year Tigranes, accom- 
 panied by Mithridates, retreated to the 
 Armenian highlands, to which they were 
 pursued by the Romans, who inflicted 
 another terrible defeat upon them at Ar- 
 taxata. The disaffection of the Roman 
 troops put a stop to their victories, as we 
 have seen, and enabled Tigranes and Mith- 
 ridates to resume the offensive in b. c. 67. 
 
 As has been related, Pompey now as- 
 sumed the command of the Roman army, 
 and induced Parthia to attack Armenia. 
 The Parthian invasion obliged Tigranes 
 to abandon his father-in-law to his fate in 
 order to save his own kingdom. Having 
 conquered Pontus, Pompey turned his arms 
 against Armenia, and Tigranes, unable to 
 resist both the Romans and the parthians, 
 submitted. He surrendered all his con- 
 quests, and retained only his Armenian 
 kingdom. He died in b. c. 55. 
 
 Artavasdes I. succeeded his father. He 
 assisted Crassus in his expedition against 
 the Parthians, B. c. 54, aud so won the 
 
316 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 favor of the Romans. He offended Antony 
 in after years, and was made a prisoner by 
 him, B. c. 34. In b. c. 30 he ^Yas put to 
 death by oi'der of Cleopatra. 
 
 The Armenians, upon the capture of their 
 king, conferred the crown upon his son 
 Artaxias II. This proved distasteful to 
 the Romans, and a troubled period ensued 
 until the reign of Trajan, the Armenian 
 sovereigns being merely puppets of Rome. 
 In A. D. 114 the Emperor Trajan converted 
 Armenia into a Roman province. 
 
 VII. The Kingdom of Armenia 
 Minor. Armenia Minor revolted from 
 Syria at the same time that Armenia Major 
 threw off the Syrian yoke. Zariadras, the 
 successful leader of the revolt, made him- 
 self king of his province. Armenia Minor 
 continued to be governed by his descendants 
 as an independent kingdom until the reign 
 of Mithridates the Great of Pontus, who 
 seized it and annexed it to his kingdom. 
 Upon the fall of Pontus it became a Roman 
 province. Its history is uneventful, and 
 the names of the successors of Zariadras are 
 almost unknown. 
 
 VIII. The Kingdom of Bactria. 
 After the death of Alexander the Great, 
 Bactria became a part of the Syrian empire. 
 In B. c. 255, Diodotus, the satrap, threw off 
 his allegiance to Syria, and founded the 
 kingdom of Bactria. This kingdom was 
 thus purely Greek in its origin, and so 
 stands in marked contrast with that of Par- 
 thia. But little is known of the reign of Di- 
 odotus. He is believed to have assisted Seleu- 
 cus Calliuicus in his first expedition against 
 Parthia, and to have obtained in return for 
 this service a recognition of the independ- 
 ence of Bactria. He died about b. c. 237, 
 and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., 
 who reversed the policy of his father, be- 
 came the ally of Pai'thia against Syria, and 
 assisted that country to gain its iudejiend- 
 
 ence. He appears to have been overthrown 
 by a revolt led by Euthydemus, a native of 
 Magnesia, who seized the throne and became 
 the third King of Bactria. He was obliged 
 to defend his kingdom against Antiochus 
 the Great of Syria, and was defeated in a 
 battle fought on the Arius. Antiochus was 
 wounded in this battle, and soon after made 
 peace with Euthydemus, and left him in 
 peaceful possession of his kingdom, b. c. 
 206. Demetrius, the son of Euthydemus, 
 made extensive conquests in Affghanistan 
 and India during his father's lifetime. He 
 succeeded his father on the throne about 
 B. c. 200, and continued his eastern wars. 
 While thus employed he was su23plauted at 
 home by a rebel named Eucratides. For 
 some years the two monarchs divided the 
 kingdom between them, Demetrius reigning 
 on the south, and Eucratides on the north 
 side of the mountains. Demetrius appears 
 to have died about b. c. 180, and Eucratides 
 reigned over the whole kingdom. He 
 carried his conquests far into the Punjaub, 
 but on the other hand lost some of his ter- 
 ritory through the encroachments of Par- 
 thia. He was murdered by his son on his 
 return from an Indian campaign, about 
 B. c. 160. Heliocles, the murderer of his 
 father, now mounted the throne. But little 
 is known of his reign. Bactria declined 
 rapidly under him. The Scythian tribes 
 on the north pressed heavily upon the king- 
 dom, and the Parthians on the west and 
 south wrested province after province from 
 it. The Bactrian Greeks besought the aid 
 of their brethren in Syria, and Demetrius 
 Nicator marched to their aid. He was de- 
 feated and made a prisoner by the Parthi- 
 ans. The reign of Heliocles came to an 
 end about b. c. 150, eight years before this 
 expedition. From that time no record of 
 the history of Bactria exists. Parthia and 
 the Scythic tribes rapidly absorbed the 
 country. 
 
THE RISE AND FALL OF THE PABTHLiN MONARCHY. 
 
 317 
 
 book: xiiAT. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE I^^^HTHI^lSr 
 
 em:p»ire. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE RISE AND FALL OF THE PARTHIAN 
 MONARCHY, 
 
 Description of Partliia— Characteristics of the Par- 
 thians — Rise of the Parthian Kingdom — The 
 Early Kings — Wars with Syria — Invasion of An- 
 tiochus the Great — Alliance between Parthia and 
 Ptorae — Rome Makes War mjon Parthia — Defeat 
 of Crassus — Rome Resolves upon the Conquest of 
 Parthia— Wars between Parthia and the Roman 
 Republic — Reign of Arsaces XXV. — Is Defeated 
 by the Emperor Trajan — War between Vologeses 
 III. and Marcus Aurelius — Other Wars with 
 Rome — Arsaces XXX. King — Rebellion of the 
 Persians — Sudden Fall of the Parthian Kingdom. 
 
 A R. T H I A proper corresponded 
 nearly in extent to the modern 
 Persian province of Khorasan. It 
 ■was about 300 miles long from east 
 to west, and from 100 to 120 miles 
 broad. It thus covered an area of 
 about 33,000 square miles, being about 
 equal in size to Ireland. This region con- 
 sisted of a mountainous country on the north, 
 and a plain on the south. The elevation of 
 the mountain chains is not great, the heights 
 rarely exceeding 6,000 feet. The mountains 
 are for the most barren and rugged, but the 
 valleys, some of which are very extensive, 
 are remarkably rich and fertile. The moun- 
 tain country is well watered by numerous 
 rivers. The flat country, or plain, lay at 
 the southern base of the mountains, and 
 was regarded by the ancient writers as the 
 true Parthia. It is about 300 miles long. 
 It has always depended upon irrigation for 
 its fertility. In ancient times the fertile 
 belt was much wider than at present, irri- 
 gation being more extensively practised, but 
 the plain could never have extended more 
 than ten miles beyond the foot of the moun- 
 tains, as at that distance the Salt Desert 
 begins, and renders cultivation impossible. 
 Compared with the countries around it, 
 Parthia was a "garden spot," and was re- 
 garded by the Persian sovereigns as one of 
 the most desirable parts of their dominions. 
 It was bounded on the north by Chorasmia I 
 
 and Margiana, on the east by Aria, on the 
 south by Sarangia, and on the west by La- 
 gartia and Hyrcania. "The situation and 
 character of Parthia thus, on the whole, 
 favored her becoming an imperial power. 
 She had abundant resources within herself; 
 she had a territory apt for the production 
 of a hardy race of men ; and she had no 
 neighbors of sufficient strength to keep her 
 down, when once she developed the desire to 
 become dominant." 
 
 The Parthians were a Turanian race. 
 "Like the Turkoman and Tartar tribes 
 generally, they passed almost their whole 
 lives on horseback, conversing, transacting 
 business, buying and selling, and even eat- 
 ing on their horses. They practised po- 
 lygamy, secluded their women from the 
 sight of men, punished unfaithfulness with 
 extreme severity, delighted in hunting, and 
 rarely ate any flesh but that which they 
 obtained in this way, were moderate eaters, 
 but great drinkers, and did not speak much, 
 but yet were very unquiet, being constantly 
 engaged in stirring up trouble either at 
 home or abroad. A small portion of the 
 nation alone was free ; the remainder were 
 the slaves of the privileged few. Nomadic 
 habits continued to prevail among a portion 
 of those who remained in their primitive 
 seats, even in the time of their greatest na- 
 tional prosperity ; and a coarse, rude, and 
 semi-barbarous character attached always 
 even to the most advanced part of the na- 
 tion, to the king, the court, and the nobles 
 generally, a character which, despite a cer- 
 tain varnish of civilization, was constantly 
 showing itself in their dealings with each 
 other and with foreign nations." The Par- 
 thians are represented in modern times by 
 the Turks, who are allied to them in race, 
 and rule over some of the same countries. 
 At the height of their power, the Parthians 
 were barbarians ; they were repulsive in 
 appearance, treacherous in war, and indo- 
 lent and unrefined in peace. Still, they 
 were brave and enterprising, with a genius 
 
318 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and love for war, and possessed many char- 
 acteristics which fitted them to rule. They 
 were never subdued by the Romans, and 
 maintained their independence until A. D. 
 226, when they fell before the modern king- 
 dom of Persia. Rome was forced to con- 
 fess her inability to deal with these fierce 
 warriors, and when the w^hole world bowed 
 in submission to the republic and the 
 empire, Parthia remained free under her 
 own kings. 
 
 Parthia formed a part of the Persian em- 
 pire from an early day, and was governed 
 by a satrap. Upon the fall of Persia it 
 became a part of Alexander's empire on the 
 same terms. At his death it passed under 
 the dominion of the Syrian kings, and re- 
 mained subject to them until B. c. 255. Then 
 the weakness of Syria prompted the Par- 
 thians to rise against their Greek masters 
 
 A SCYTHIAN FAMILY. 
 
 and assert the independence of their 
 country. 
 
 The leader of the revolt was Arsaces, a 
 Scythian general, the commander of a body 
 of Scythian Dahse from the banks of the 
 Ochus, who emigrated to Parthia and ob- 
 tained the ascendency in that country. 
 " There was probably sufiicient affinity be- 
 tween the emigrant Dahse and the pre- 
 vious inhabitants of the region for the two 
 races to readily coalesce ; both appear to 
 have been Turanian, and the Dahse were so 
 completely absorbed that we hear nothing 
 of them in the subsequent history." Ar- 
 saces made himself King of Parthia. His 
 reign lasted two years, and was spent in 
 consolidating his authority over the Par- 
 thians, some of whom resisted him. He 
 was succeeded in B. c. 253 by his brother 
 Teridates (Arsaces II.), who had assisted 
 
 him in his revolt. The new king ascended 
 the throne as Arsaces II. The only impor- 
 tant event of his reign was his defeat of 
 Seleucus Callinicus, who was forced to ac-' 
 knowledge the independence of Parthia. 
 He was succeeded by his son Arsaces III., 
 about B. c. 216, who two years later invaded 
 Media and threatened to wrest that prov- 
 ince from the Syrian crown. Antiochus 
 the Great marched against him, drove him 
 out of Media, invaded Parthia, and took 
 its capital ; and pursued Arsaces into Hyr- 
 cania, where he defeated him in a pitched 
 battle. He found it impossible to subdue 
 the country, however, and wisely made 
 peace, confirmiug Arsaces in the possession 
 of Parthia and Hyrcania. This reign is 
 believed by the best authorities to have ex- 
 tended to B. c. 196. 
 
 Arsaces III. died in b. c. 196, and was 
 
 succeeded by 
 the fourth 
 king of that 
 name, whose 
 reign was 
 uneventful. 
 In B. c. 181, 
 Arsaces V. 
 (P h r a a t e s) 
 came to the 
 throne, and 
 about B. c. 
 174 left his 
 crown to his 
 brother Mith- 
 ridates I., also 
 called Arsaces 
 VI., a great 
 who conquered 
 Babylonia, and 
 
 and warlike sovereign, 
 Media, Susiana, Persia, 
 Bactria, and founded the Parthian em- 
 pire, the western boundary of which was 
 the Euphrates. The reigns of Arsaces 
 VII. (b. c. 136-127) and Arsaces VIII. 
 (b. c. 127-124) were uneventful. Mithri- 
 dates II. (or Arsaces IX.), called the Great, 
 was a powerful king and a great warrior. 
 He beat back the Turanian tribes from his 
 northern frontier, and broke their spirit. 
 In a long series of wars he extended the 
 Parthian power in every direction. Parthia 
 now became next to Rome the most pow- 
 erful state of the ancient world. He reigned 
 from b. c. 124 to b. c. 89. 
 
 From this reign Parthian history is un- 
 eventful and uncertain until the accession 
 to the crown of Phraates III. or Arsaces 
 XII. He came to the throne in b. c. 69, 
 
THE RISE AND FALL OF THE PARTHIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 319 
 
 at the time when Rome had driven Mithri- 
 dates the Great out of Pontus and had in- 
 cluded Armenia in the war. Both combat- 
 ants sought his alliance, but for a Avhile he 
 maintained a strict neutrality between them. 
 Pompey, upon assuming the command in 
 the east, succeeded in drawing him into an 
 alliance. Phraates invaded Armenia, and 
 so occupied Tigraues that Pompey was left 
 free to conquer Pontus, as has been related. 
 The object of the Romans being accom- 
 plished, they made terms with Tigranes, 
 and even assisted him against Parthia, b. c. 
 65. The province of Gordyene, which had 
 been occupied by Phraates, was wrested 
 from him by the Romans and given to Ar- 
 menia. Phraates remonstrated with Pom- 
 pey against this breach of faith, but the 
 Roman was deaf to his remonstrances. 
 Phraates then made terms with Tigranes, 
 and the war came to an end ; about B. c. 63. 
 In B. c. 60 the Parthian king died, poisoned, 
 it is believed, by his two sons. 
 
 By the war with Pontus, Rome absorbed 
 all of Syria, and thus extended her domin- 
 ions to the western border of the Parthian 
 empire — the Euphrates. A collision be- 
 tween the two great powers that now di- 
 vided the ancient world became from this 
 period merely a question of time. 
 
 Mithridates III. (Arsaces XIII.) suc- 
 ceeded his father. Tigranes I. having died 
 in Armenia, the throne was seized by his 
 second son. Mithridates at once invaded 
 Armenia to restore the rightful heir, who 
 was his brother-in-law. He was unsuccess- 
 ful in his efforts, and alienated the reigning 
 King of Armenia. A few years later, Mith- 
 ridates was deposed by the Parthian nobles, 
 who made his brother king. He threw 
 himself into Babylon, where he held out 
 for some time, but was finally captured and 
 killed, B. c. 55. 
 
 Orodes (Arsaces XIV.) was made king 
 in the place of his brother. He had scarcely 
 mounted the throne when he became in- 
 volved in a war with Rome. The wars of 
 Parthia with Pontus and Armenia had 
 shown the Romans that the Parthian king- 
 dom was a richer and more powerful state 
 than any Oriental monarchy with which 
 they had yet come in contact. It was, in- 
 deed, the only power that had not submitted 
 to Rome, and the jealousy of the republic 
 was aroused at the presence of so formidable 
 a rival. War was determined upon, and 
 was declared by Rome, without any pretext 
 whatever, in b. c. 55. In B. c. 54 Crassus 
 
 invaded Parthia at the head of a powerful 
 army, but was defeated by Orodes and 
 slain. In b. c, 52 and again in B. c. 51 a 
 strong Parthian array, under Pacorus, the 
 son and heir of Orodes, crossed the Eu- 
 phrates and ravaged the Roman territories. 
 Upper Syria was quickly overrun, and 
 Cilicia and Antioch were made to feel the 
 Parthian vengeance. Orodes having be- 
 come suspicious of the loyalty of his son, 
 recalled him and withdrew his army behind 
 the Euphrates. Eleven years afterwards, 
 in B. c. 40, the Parthians once more crossed 
 the Euphrates, under the command of 
 Pacorus, who was aided by the Roman 
 refugee Labienus, and invaded Syria. A 
 Roman army, under Decidius Saxa, which 
 sought to bar their way, was destroyed, and 
 Antioch, Apemea, Sidon, and Ptolemais 
 were occupied. Jerusalem was captured 
 
 PAKTHIAN HORSEMAN. 
 
 and plundered. All Syria, Palestine, and 
 Phoenicia fell into the hands of the Par- 
 thians, who now turned into Asia Minor 
 and subdued the whole south coast as far 
 as Caria. Here they were checked by the 
 Romans under Ventidius, who in B. c. 39 
 routed and killed Labienus. The next 
 year he gained a great victory over Pacorus, 
 who was slain. The Parthians now aban- 
 doned Syria and retreated behind the Eu- 
 phrates. 
 
 Orodes did not long survive these disas^ 
 ters. He died in b. c. 37, and was succeeded 
 by his second son, Phraates IV. (Arsaces 
 XV.) In b. c. 36 the Romans under ]\Iark 
 Antony invaded Parthia. Antony, after 
 gaining some trifling successes, suffered al- 
 most as great a disaster as Crassus, and was 
 driven back into Syria. The Parthians 
 made no effbi't to pass that river, which re- 
 mained the boundary between them and 
 
320 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Home. They were content to hold their 
 own dominions. The Romans on their 
 part had come to understand the formidable 
 nature of the Parthian power. 
 
 From this time until the early part of the 
 first century after Christ, Partliian history 
 is unimportant and uneventful. It is 
 simply the recital of a succession of kings, 
 and of the family intrigues and quarrels 
 which distui'bed their reigns. Though the 
 Romans did not undertake any formal 
 war against Parthia during this period, 
 they steadily encouraged and fostered the 
 internal troubles of that country. During 
 this period also Armenia, with the aid of 
 
 DEFEAT OE CKASSSLS. 
 
 the Romans, revolted from Parthia and 
 became tributary to Rome. 
 
 In A. D. 107 Chosroes (Arsaces XXV.) 
 came to the throne. His first act was to 
 re-establish his authority over Arrpenia. 
 This drew upon him the vengeance of 
 !Rome. The Emperor Trajan rapidly over- 
 ran Armenia, and made it a Roman prov- 
 ince almost without striking a blow. Then, 
 at the head of a strong army, he marched 
 into Mesopotamia and Assyria, captured 
 their cities in quick succession, and added 
 those countries to his empire. Wheeling 
 to the southward, he captured Seleuceia, 
 Ctesiphon, and Babylon ; descended the 
 
 Tigris to the sea, and received the submis- 
 sion of Mesene, the Parthian province on 
 the Persian Gulf He pushed his con- 
 quests as far eastward as Susa. Here he 
 was comi)elled to pause by numerous revolts 
 which broke out in the countries he had 
 conquered. He was obliged by these dan- 
 gers to withdraw into Syria, and Parthia 
 recovered all her provinces except Armenia, 
 Mesopotamia, and Assyria, which Trajan 
 held with a strong force. Hadrian, who 
 became Empei'or of Rome in a. d. 117, at 
 once relinquished all the conquests of 
 Trajan and withdrew his army within the 
 line of the Euphrates. Parthia then re- 
 
 _^__— , , ^_,^ ^ sumed her former 
 
 ^ limits, and main- 
 
 ^^ tained friendly 
 relations with 
 Rome until the 
 death of Chosroes, 
 A. D. 121. 
 
 Chosroes was 
 succeeded by his 
 son yologeses II. 
 (ArsacesXXVL), 
 who reigned from 
 
 A. D. 121 to A. D. 
 
 149. He contin- 
 ued the friendly 
 relations his fath- 
 er had established 
 with Rome, and 
 made no effort to 
 deprive her of 
 Armenia. H e 
 was succeeded by 
 Vologeses III., 
 Arsaces XXVII., 
 who is believed to 
 have been his son. 
 This king reigned 
 from A.D.I 49 to A. 
 D. 192. He at first continued on friendly 
 terms with Rome, but in A. d. 161, upon the 
 accession of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
 made an attempt to wrest Armenia from the 
 Romans. He was successful at first ; Armenia 
 was overrun ; a Roman army under Severia- 
 nus, the prefect of Cappadocia, was defeated 
 and its commander slain, and dense masses of 
 Parthians crossed the Euphrates and rav- 
 aged Syria. The Romans, under Verus, 
 now put forth great efforts. The Parthians 
 were driven from Syria and Armenia, and 
 were followed into their own country. 
 Seleuceia Ctesiphon (the Parthian capital) 
 and Babylon Avere taken, and the royal 
 
EARLY HISTORY— THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 321 
 
 palace at Ctesiphou was burned, A. D. 165. 
 Parthia now made peace, and ceded Meso- 
 potamia and restored Armenia to the 
 Romans. 
 
 Vologeses IV. (Arsaces XXVIII.) suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of his father in A. v. 
 192. He became involved in a war with 
 Rome through his support of Pescennius 
 Niger, A. d. 193, and a Roman army en- 
 tered his kingdom, captured and plundered 
 Seleuceia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon, and 
 Avithdrew without serious loss, 
 
 Vologeses IV. died in A. D. 213, leaving 
 several sons, among whom a dispute arose 
 concerning the succession. The crown fell 
 to Vologeses V. (Arsaces XXIX.), who 
 reigned three years. His successor was his 
 brother Artabanus (Arsaces XXX.), the 
 last King of Parthia. His reign lasted 
 until A. D. 226. The Roman Emperor 
 Caracalla, who had sought to pick a quar- 
 rel with his predecessor, was determined to 
 force Artabanus into a war. He demanded 
 the daughter of the Parthian king in mar- 
 riage, and was refused. Caracalla there- 
 upon crossed the Euphrates, A. d. 216, and 
 advancing through Mesopotamia to the 
 Tigris, took Arbela, and forced the Par- 
 
 thians to retire to the mountains. The 
 next year Caracalla was murdered bv 
 order of Macrinus, who succeeded him upoi. 
 the throne. Macrinus undertook to con- 
 tinue the war, but was twice defeated by 
 Artabanus, and was obliged to purchase a 
 peace by the payment of a large sum of 
 money and the surrender of all the Roman 
 conquests east of the Euphrates. The old 
 limits of the Parthian empire were thus 
 restored, and even Armenia came once 
 more under Parthian rule. 
 
 At this moment, when the fortunes of the 
 empire seemed to have been fully restored, 
 it received its death-blow. A formidable 
 insurrection, led by Artaxerxes, the son of 
 Sassan, broke out in the Persian provinces 
 in the southern jmrt of the empire. The 
 Persians defeated the Parthian forces in 
 three great battles, in the third of which 
 Artabanus was slain. These victories made 
 Artaxerxes and the Persians masters of the 
 Parthian dominions. On the ruins of the 
 Parthian empire Artaxerxes erected the 
 new Persian kingdom of the Sassanidse, 
 the history of which will be related in an- 
 other portion of this work. 
 
 -Ti— -l e- g s 
 
 BOOIEC IX"^. 
 THni: HISTORY OF nOMiE 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 nOARLY HISTORY — THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 Position of Italy — Description of the Country — The 
 Alps — The Apennines — Northern and Southern 
 Italy — The Rivers — Ancient Fertility of the 
 Country — The Ancient Political Divisions of 
 Italy — The Original Inhabitants — Settlement of 
 the Italians — The Etruscans — The Romans — 
 Legendary History of Rome — Story of Romulus 
 and Remus — Rome Founded — Seizure of the Sa- 
 bine Women — War with the Latins and Sabines 
 — Peace Restored by the Women— Translation of 
 Romulus — Numa Pompilius — His Laws — End of 
 the Legendary Period — The True Story of the 
 Founding of Rome — Tullus Hostilius King — His 
 Constitutions — Conquers Alba Longa — Ancus 
 Martins — Wars with the Latins— Origin of the 
 Plebs — Rapid Growth of Rome — Tarquinius Pris- 
 ons Increases the Roman Territory and Improves 
 the City — His Changes in the Constitution — Re- 
 ligion of the Romans — Their Gods — Religious 
 Festivals— The Sibylline Books— The Sacred Col- 
 leges—The Priests — Servius Tullius King — His 
 Laws — The Military Organization — New Tribes 
 21 
 
 Instituted — The Walls of Rome — Tarquinius 
 Superbus King — Sets Aside the Servian Constitu- 
 tion — His Tyranny — Lucretia Outraged by Sextus 
 Tarquin — Revolt of the Romans — The Tarquins 
 Driven Out — Royalty Abolished and the Rejjublic 
 Established. 
 
 HE Peninsula of Italy is the centra] 
 and smallest of the three great 
 peninsulas of southern Europe. 
 Its extreme length from the Alps, 
 on the north, to Cape Spartivento, 
 on the south, is 720 miles, and its 
 greatest width, from the Little St. Bernard 
 to the hills north of Trieste, is 330 miles. 
 Its total area is about 90,000 square miles, 
 as the ordinary width of the peninsula is 
 only about 100 miles. It is bounded on 
 the north by the Alps, on the east by the 
 Adriatic, on the south by the Mediter- 
 ranean, and on the west by the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Alps. The peninsula is 
 
322 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 irregular in shape, and its general direction 
 is to the southeast. It has often been com- 
 pared to a boot, the principal portion form- 
 ing the leg, and the southern part the foot. 
 In consequence of this peculiar shape, its 
 coast line is of very great extent. Italy is 
 inferior to Greece in the number of its bays, 
 its harbors, and its littoral islands. The 
 ancient inhabitants of Italy, though to a 
 considerable extent a nautical people, do 
 not take rank with the Greeks in this 
 respect. 
 
 The mountains of Italy consist of two 
 great chains — the Alps and the Apennines. 
 The Alps form a lofty barrier along the 
 whole of the northern and a part of the 
 western border of Italy, and shut it off from 
 the rest of Europe. At their lowest point 
 they rise to an elevation of 4,000 feet above 
 the sea, and from this attain an altitude 
 of 15,000 feet. They are passed only by 
 ten or twelve difficult mountain defiles, 
 which were anciently almost impassable. 
 
 COIN OF BRXJTTH. 
 
 The Alps thus formed a barrier, regarded 
 as insurmountable, which j^rotected Italy 
 from the barbarous nations to the north 
 and west, and left her free to work out her 
 destiny. The Apennines break off from 
 the Alps near Mont Blanc, and run in a 
 generally southeasterly and southerly direc- 
 tion to the extreme end of the peninsula. 
 In northern Italy the range consists of but 
 a single chain, which throws off twisted spurs 
 to the right and the left. In central Italy 
 it becomes more complicated, and sends off 
 its brandies and spurs, of unequal elevation, 
 in various directions, producing a great and 
 most pleasing variety of surface, which is 
 the peculiar charm of Italy. 
 
 The peninsula is naturally divided into 
 northern and southern Italy, the former 
 consisting of the great plain of the Po, and 
 the mountains which enclose it, and the 
 latter of the pensinsula proper. It is usual, 
 however, to subdivide southern Italy by an 
 artificial line drawn from the mouth of the 
 Tifernus to that of the Silarus. The region 
 between this line and northern Italy is 
 culled central Italy, the name of southern 
 
 Italy being restricted to the extreme lower 
 part of the peninsula. Northern Italy, or 
 the region of the Po, is almost all plain, and 
 was not reckoned as a part of Italy until 
 the period of the empire. Italy contains a 
 number of rivers, the principal of which are 
 the Po (the ancient Padus) and the Adige 
 (the ancient Athesis, or Atagis). Of these 
 the Po is the larger. 
 
 The soil of Italy is fertile, and anciently 
 yielded a rich return to the labor bestowed 
 upon it. The climate is varied and delight- 
 ful. The valley of the Po has a temperate 
 climate, which resembles that of central 
 France. Ice forms in the winter in the 
 lakes and the lagoons of Venice. In 
 southern Italy the climate is warmer ; snow 
 falls only on the slopes of the mountains, 
 and the olive, orange and citron ripen in 
 the open air. In the extreme south the 
 plants of the tropics grow luxuriantly. The 
 country is generally healthy, except in the 
 marshy districts. The atmosphere is singu- 
 larly clear, and gives to every object a 
 brightness of coloring and distinctness of 
 outline unknown to the more northern coun- 
 tries of Euroj^e. This imparts to the Italian 
 landscape its peculiar charm. The country 
 is rich in minerals, but has few metals save 
 iron and lead. Its marble is famous the 
 world over. The finest quality is the beauti- 
 ful Carrara marble, which is procured from 
 the Apennines. 
 
 Northern Italy plays no part in Roman 
 history until the formation of the empire. 
 It anciently contained three countries, 
 Liguria, Venetia and Gallia Cisalpina. 
 Central Italy contained six countries, viz. : 
 Etruria, Latium, and Campania, lying west 
 of the Apennines, and Umbria, Picenura, 
 and the country of the Sabines along the 
 Adriatic side of the peninsula. Southern 
 Italy contained four countries, viz. : Lu- 
 cania and Bruttium, on the west, and 
 Apulia and Calabria on the east. Three 
 large islands lay off the Italian coast in the 
 Mediterranean. These were Sicily, Sar- 
 dinia, and Corsica. They were important 
 for their products of the soil as well as their 
 military value. 
 
 In the most ancient times Italy was oc- 
 cupied by five principal races — the Ligur- 
 ians, the Venetians, the Etruscans, the 
 Italians proper, and the lapygians. The 
 Ligurians and Venetians were weak and 
 unimportant races which confined them- 
 selves to the country north of the Apen- 
 nines, and exercised no influence upon the 
 
EARLY HISTORY— THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 323 
 
 general history of Italy. The lapygians 
 were the earliest of the three remaining 
 races to settle in Italy, They appear to 
 have been of Greek origin, as is proved by 
 their language, their worship of Greek 
 gods, and the ease with which they were 
 Hellenized at a later day. They spread 
 themselves over the extreme south of 
 Italy. 
 
 The Italians proper appear to have been 
 the next to settle iu the peninsula. They 
 are believed to have come from the north, 
 and to have pressed heavily upon the half- 
 Greek population of southern Italy. They 
 comprised four principal races, the Um- 
 brians, the Sabines, the Oscans, and the 
 Latins. The first three were closely con- 
 nected, but the Latins were a distinct race. 
 They formed a confederacy of thirty cities. 
 Their country was known as Latiura. 
 
 The Etruscans, or Tuscans, were the most 
 powerful nation of the north, and were an 
 entirely different race from all the other 
 inhabitants of the peninsula. Notwith- 
 standing the researches of modern scholars, 
 little or nothing is known of their origin. 
 The most trustworthy authorities regard 
 them as Pelasgi, a race which spread itself 
 over Greece and Italy in prehistoric times. 
 These people called themselves Ras, or 
 Rasena, while they were named by others 
 Etruscans. Their country was called Etru- 
 ria. They were physically very different 
 from the graceful and slender Italians, being 
 a brawny, stout race, short iu stature, with 
 large hands and thick arms. They were 
 equally marked by their strange and gloomy 
 religion. They were given to auguries, the 
 mystical handling of numbers, and the prac 
 tice of an elaborate and extremely minute 
 ritual. They were evidently a wealthy and 
 luxurious race, and had made a consider 
 able advance in the arts, as their castings 
 in bronze, terra-cotta figures, vases, gold 
 chains, bracelets and other ornaments 
 show ; though it is still an open question 
 how much of these was the product of 
 native genius, and how much was imported 
 from Greece. The massive walls of their 
 city show them to have excelled in archi- 
 tecture. They were the earliest of the in- 
 habitants of Italy to engage in maritime 
 enterprises, and the only early Italian race 
 that showed a marked fondness for them. 
 
 The Romans belonged to the Latin 
 branch of the Italian race. In later times 
 they gave great credence to a tradition that 
 they sprang from a colony of fugitives from 
 
 Troy led by ^neas, upon the fall of that 
 ancient city. Whether such an emigration 
 actually took place or not is immaterial, 
 for it is certain that it exercised no influ- 
 ence upon the ethnic character of the 
 Roman people. Their language and early 
 traditions all prove incontestably that the 
 Romans were of the pure Latin race. 
 
 The legendary history of the founding of 
 Rome is as follows : Among the descendants 
 of Ascanius, the son and successor of -^Eneas, 
 was Procas, the King of Alba Longa. He 
 left his dominions to his two sous, Numitor 
 and Amulius. The latter seized the king- 
 dom, caused the only son of Numitor to be 
 slain and compelled his only daughter to 
 become a vestal. Beloved of Mars, she be- 
 came the mother of twins, Romulus and 
 Remus. Upon the birth of her children 
 
 INTERIOR OF A TOMB. 
 
 she was thrown Avith them, by order of her 
 uncle, into the Tiber. The children were 
 Avashed ashore at the foot of the Palatine 
 Hill, where they were found by a she-wolf, 
 who took them to her cave and suckled 
 them, while a wood-pecker brought them 
 food, until they Avere discovered by one of 
 the royal herdsmen named Faustulus. He 
 reared them Avith his own sous on the Pala- 
 tine Hill, on Avhich the elder, Romulus, 
 founded a city Avhen he came to man's 
 estate, and called it after himself. Finding 
 his people too Aveak, Romulus made his city 
 an asylum for. criminals and fugitives of all 
 kinds, AA'ho flocked to him in large numbers. 
 These needed Avives to make them perma- 
 nent citizens, and the surrounding nations 
 would not give them their daughters in 
 marriage. Romulus accomplished the de- 
 sired result by a stratagem. He arranged 
 a great festival to Avhich he invited the 
 
324 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Latins and the Sabines as spectators. In 
 the midst of the festivities the Romans 
 rushed into the crowd and seized each man 
 a maiden and bore her away. War followed. 
 The Latins were defeated three times. Then 
 Titus Tatius, King of the Sabines, took up 
 the quarrel. Through the treachery of 
 Tarpeia, daughter of the chief commanding 
 the Capitoline fortress, the Sabines gained 
 possession of that post. Tarpeia, attracted 
 by the golden bracelets of the Sabines, 
 agreed to open the gates of the fortress if 
 they would give her " those bright things 
 they wore upon their arras." As they 
 marched into the fortress they threw upon 
 her their bright shields, which they wore 
 upon their arms, and crushed her to death. 
 The Sabines, following up this advantage, 
 attempted to capture the city, but as they 
 were near taking one of the gates a mighty 
 
 THE WOLF OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 stream of water burst out from the Temple 
 of Janus, and swept them away and saved 
 the city. In memoiy of this the Romans 
 always kept the gate of the Temple of 
 Janus open in time of war, that the god 
 might ever be able to go out and assist the 
 people of Romulus, as on this memorable 
 day. Another battle was fought, but was 
 interrupted by the Sabine women who had 
 been carried off by the Romans. These, 
 now reconciled to their lot, threw them- 
 selves between their fathers and brothers 
 and their husbands, and prayed them to 
 cease their quarrel. The result was a last- 
 ing peace. The two people were united, 
 Romulus reigned over the Romans on the 
 Palatine Hill, and Titus Tatius over the 
 Sabines on the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills. 
 
 After the death of Tatius, Romulus reigned 
 alone over the united people. After a 
 reign of thirty years, Romulus was one day 
 reviewing his troops in the field of Mars. 
 Suddenly the sky became darkened and a 
 tempest swept over the earth. When it 
 had ceased Romulus was not to be found. 
 His people mourned him as dead, but he 
 appeared in a glorified form to one of them, 
 and assured him that he had been taken to 
 dwell with Mars, his father, in heaven, and 
 that the Romans would become one day the 
 masters of the world. He himself, under 
 the name of Quirinus, would be their guar- 
 dian. 
 
 There was an interregnum of a year after 
 the translation of Romulus. Then the peo- 
 ple chose Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, 
 esteemed for his wisdom and virtuous char- 
 acter, to be their king. The date of his 
 accession to the throne, ac- 
 cording to the received chro- 
 nology, is B. c. 715. He es- 
 tablished the religion of the 
 Romans upon a firm basis, 
 and gave to it the distinc- 
 tive characteristics by which 
 it is known He was beloved 
 by the nymph Egeria, and 
 from her he drew his in- 
 spiration in his interviews 
 with her in her sacred grove 
 " by the spring that welled 
 out from the rock." These 
 counsels he embodied in his 
 laws. He taught his people 
 habits of industry and peace, 
 and endeavored to plant in 
 their hearts a love of right 
 and justice. His reign was 
 one of peace ; the gates of the Temple 
 of Janus Avere never opened, for the Ro- 
 mans had no enemies to combat. When 
 he died, at the age of eighty years, he was 
 buried under the hill Janiculum, on the 
 opposite side of the Tiber, and the books of 
 his sacred laws and ordinances were buried 
 near him in a separate tomb. 
 
 He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, 
 with whose accession the purely legendary 
 period may be said to end. 
 
 Let us now glance at the facts in the his- 
 tory of Rome which modern scholars re- 
 gard as certain. 
 
 According to the received chronology, 
 Rome was founded in B. c. 753. Modern 
 writers, led by Dr. Mommseu, believe that 
 several tribes, the Romnians, the Leuceres, 
 
EARLY HISTORY— THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 325 
 
 and the Tities, dwelling together in this 
 region, had a common stronghold " on the 
 Roman hills, and tilled their fields from 
 the surrounding villages," and that around 
 this stronghold a city grew up by slow de- 
 grees. "The founding of a city in the 
 strict sense, such as the legend assumes," 
 says Mommsen, " is of course to be reck- 
 oned altogether out of the question. Rome 
 was not built in a day." Whatever may 
 be the correct theory respecting the found- 
 ing of Rome, it is certain that the story of 
 Romulus and his immediate successors be- 
 longs to the domain of fiction. We do not 
 reach the period of certainty until the com- 
 mencement of the reign of TuUus Hostilius. 
 There is good reason to regard this king as 
 a veritable personage and the leading events 
 of his reign as facts. The date of his acces- 
 sion is B. c. 672, according to the received 
 chronology. He 
 conquered Alba 
 Longa, destroyed 
 the city, and 
 transferred its in- 
 habitants to 
 Rome, settling 
 them upon the 
 Coeliau Hill. This 
 conquest doubled, 
 perhaps tripled 
 the Roman terri- 
 tory, and made 
 Rome the princi- 
 pal city of Lati- 
 ura, and the pro- 
 tectress of the 
 Latin league, as 
 a distinct power 
 in alliance with 
 it. The federal 
 army was com- 
 manded alternately by a Roman and a 
 Latin general, and all its conquests were 
 divided equally between Rome and the 
 Latin confederacy, thus giving to Rome a 
 share equal to that of the whole league. 
 
 In the reign of Tullus, some changes were 
 made in the Roman constitution. In order 
 to understand these, we must examine the 
 first constitution under which the early 
 period of Rome had been passed. The 
 government was a monarchy. The head 
 of the state was a king, called "rex," that 
 is "ruler" or "director." He exercised a 
 great, though not an absolute power over 
 the citizens. The monarchy was elective. 
 The death of the king was followed by an 
 
 interregnum, during which the government 
 was administered by the senate or council, 
 whose ten chief men, called "Decern Primi," 
 exercised the royal authority, each in his 
 turn, for five days. The senate elected the 
 king, and the people confirmed their choice. 
 Next to the king were the Patricii, or 
 hereditary nobility, who derived their rank 
 from their descent from noble ancestors. 
 These noble families or houses, or " gentes," 
 were originally one hundred in number, 
 but were subsequently increased to two 
 hundred upon the union with the Sabines. 
 Each was represented by its chief, who was 
 by virtue of his position a member of the 
 senate or council of the king. All the mem- 
 bers of a house had a single clan-name, all 
 might participate in certain sacred rites, and 
 all had certain rights of property in com- 
 mon. All males of full age of the noble 
 
 ANCIENT BANQUET. 
 
 order had the right of attending the "Comi- 
 tia," or public assembly. In this assembly 
 they were divided into ten "Curire," each 
 of which was composed of members of ten 
 houses. Each Curia had its chief, who was 
 called " Curio." The chief of the ten Curi- 
 ones was the presiding officer of the assem- 
 bly, and was called " Curio Maximus." No 
 law could be changed without the consent 
 of both the senate and the assembly. The 
 senate could both discuss and vote public 
 measures ; the assembly could only vote 
 upon them. The assembly determined on 
 peace or war, and was a court of appeal 
 from the decisions of the king or a judge. 
 Besides the patricii there was the mass of 
 
326 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the people, divided into two orders of clients 
 and slaves. The clients were the dejiend- 
 ents of the noble houses. They bore the 
 clan-name of their patron. Though per- 
 sonally free, they had no political power. 
 They usually cultivated the lands of their 
 patrons or carried on a trade under their 
 protection. They followed their patron to 
 war, contributed to his ransom, or to that 
 of his children in case of their captivity, 
 and assisted in defraying the exj^enses of 
 any law-suit in which he might be engaged, 
 or the cost of his serviug in any of the 
 honorable offices of the state. The patron 
 on his part was bound to protect the intei*- 
 ests of his clients, if necessary, at the legal 
 tribunals. The relation of patron and client 
 descended from father to son, and it was 
 considered a great distinction for a noble 
 house to have a numerous clientage. The 
 slaves were situated similarly to those of all 
 countries, but were not numerous in the 
 earlier periods. 
 
 ASSARION. 
 
 The addition by Tullus of the Albans to 
 his subjects increased the patrician order 
 by the union of the Alban nobles. The 
 tribes became three in number, the " gentes " 
 or " houses " three hundred, and the " curiae " 
 thirty. The senate retained its old number 
 at first, the Alban gentes not yet being giv- 
 en the privilege of forming a part of it. 
 The college of Vestal Virgins was increased 
 from four to six, as Rome had now become 
 the home of the Albans, but no other 
 changes were made in the religious organi- 
 zation. 
 
 The successor of Tullus Hostilius was 
 Ancus Martius, who came to the throne, 
 according to the received chronology, b. c. 
 640. He is said to have been one of the 
 Sabines or Titles. He made war upon the 
 Latin towns, conquered several, and trans- 
 ported their inhabitants to Rome, whose 
 power and importance were thus greatly 
 increased. Many of the new settlers be- 
 came clients of the noble houses, but the 
 richer and more independent class refused 
 to assume this position, and at length these 
 became so numerous as to make it necessary 
 to assign them some definite place in the 
 
 state. They were organized by Ancus 
 Martius, according to the belief of the later 
 Romans, into a distinct class of freemen, 
 dependent on the protection of the king, 
 and known as the "Plebs" or Commonalty. 
 They consisted of several elements : 1. Free 
 settlers ; either political refugees, mercenary 
 soldiers, or merchants. 2. Forced settlers, 
 comjDOsed of the conquered people trans- 
 ported to Rome, except those who were ad- 
 mitted into the patrician order, or who be- 
 came the clients of a noble house. 3. Cli- 
 ents whose patrons had been lost by the 
 extinction of the gens to which they were 
 formerly attached. 4. The issue of mar- 
 riages of inequality, or the children of pa- 
 tricians by wives of a lower grade with 
 whom their marriages were illegal, and who 
 could not attain the rank of their fathers. 
 Rome had grown so rapidly that it had be- 
 come necessary to grant a formal recog- 
 nition to this class of freemen at this early 
 period. Ancus settled them upon the Aven- 
 tine Hill, and having thus granted them an 
 entire quarter of the city must unquestion- 
 ably have given them fixed institutions, as 
 he could not have left them without a gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 In the reign of Ancus Rome made rapid 
 strides towards civilization and power. The 
 Roman territory Avas extended to the sea ; 
 the port of Ostia was built ; salt works were 
 established in its vicinity ; a bridge of piles, 
 the "pons sublicius," was built across the 
 Tiber ; the hill Janiculum was strongly for- 
 tified; the low lands about the seven hills 
 were drained by the "Fossa Quiritium ;" 
 and the fii'st prison was erected. 
 
 The successor of Ancus was Lucius Tar- 
 quinius Prisons, whose accession is placed 
 by the received chronology in B. c. 616. 
 His reign extended to B. c. 578. Tarquin- 
 ius was of Etruscan origin, but had long 
 been settled at Rome. He repulsed the 
 Sabines, who had crossed the Anio and 
 threatened Rome itself. He then attacked 
 the Latin towns on the upper Tiber, and in 
 the angle between the Tiber and Anio, and 
 conquered all of them except Nomentum. 
 In the latter part of his reign he invaded 
 the territory of the Etruscans, and gained 
 important advantages over them. By these 
 conquests he added very greatly to the pop- 
 ulation and to the dominions of Rome. He 
 did much also for the improvement of the 
 city. He built the great sewer, called the 
 " Cloaca Maxima," and restrained the over- 
 flow of the Tiber by the erection of a strong 
 
EARLY HISTORY— THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 327 
 
 quay of massive masonry along the left 
 bank of the rivei'. This drain and quay 
 redeemed the marshy valley lying between 
 the Palatine andCapitoline Hills, and here 
 Tarquin erected the Forum, with its sur- 
 rounding rows of porticos and shops. Be- 
 tween the Palatine and Aventine Hills he 
 built the race course known as the Circus 
 Maximus for the amusement of the people. 
 He began the erection of a temple to Ju- 
 piter on the Capitoline Hill, but the work 
 was mainly performed by his son. 
 
 Two important constitutional changes are 
 attributed to Tarquin. 1. He increased the 
 number of the senate from 200 to 300, by 
 adding to it the representatives of the 
 "Gentes Minores" or " Younger Houses," 
 who are supposed to be the " houses " 
 adopted into the patrician order from the 
 Alban nobility upon their removal to Rome. 
 2. He "doubled the equestrian centuries;" 
 or in plainer terras doubled the actual num- 
 ber of patrician " Houses." The number 
 of patrician houses had actually dwindled 
 down to 150. From the noblest of the 
 conquered people, Tai*quin formed three 
 half-tribes of fifty "Houses" each, attach- 
 ing them tt) the old Ramnes, Titles, and 
 Luceres, but on terms of inferiority. 
 
 Before passing to the events of the next 
 century, it will be best to pause here and' 
 examine the I'eligious belief of the Romans, 
 a knowledge of which is necessary to the 
 student of their history. For at least 170 
 years from the foundation of the city the 
 Romans had no images of their gods. 
 Idolatry was a later corruption of their 
 system, which was designed mainly to keep 
 alive the simple virtues of the household, 
 and to regulate the transactions of every- 
 day life by a series of principles pure in 
 themselves. 
 
 The chief gods of the Romans Avere Ju- 
 piter and Mars. The former was the su- 
 preme deity, but the latter was the especial 
 god of this warlike people. Quirinus, un- 
 der which name Romulus was worshipped, 
 was only a duplicate Mars. March, the first 
 month of the Roman year, was sacred to, 
 and named in honor of Mars. The great 
 war festival occupied a portion of this 
 month. This festival was introduced with 
 horse-racing on the 27th of February. Its 
 principal days were known as the day of 
 the shield forger (March 14th), the day of 
 the armed dance at the Comitium (jNIarch 
 19th), and of the consecration of trumpets 
 (March 25th). During the first days of 
 
 the festival, the twelve priests of Mars, 
 chosen from the noblest families, and called 
 Salii or Leapers, marched through the streets 
 singing and dancing and beating on their 
 brazen shields. Wars were begun with this 
 festival. The close of the campaign was 
 followed in the autumn by a second festival 
 in honor of Mars, called the consecration 
 of arms (October 19th). Quirinus also had 
 his festival, the Quirinalia, which was cele- 
 brated on the 17th of February, with simi- 
 lar ceremonies. 
 
 All the days of the full moon were sacred 
 to Jupiter, besides all the wine festivals, 
 and various other days. 
 
 The next festivals in importance were 
 those which related to corn and wine, and 
 marked the various periods of the farmer's 
 year. The first of these was held on the 
 
 COAT OF MAIL. 
 
 15th of April, when sacrifices were offered 
 to Tellus, the nourishing earth. The sec- 
 ond was on the 19th, and sacrifices were of- 
 fered to Ceres, the goddess of germination 
 and growth ; on the 21st, sacrifices were 
 offered to Pales, the patroness of flocks; on 
 the 23d to Jupiter, as the protector of the 
 vines and the vats of the previous year's 
 vintage, which were opened for the first time 
 on this day ; on the 25th, a deprecatory of- 
 fering was made to Rust, the bad enemy of 
 the crops. In May, the twelve priests 
 called the Arval Brothers held a three 
 days festival in honor of Dea Dia, invok- 
 ing her blessing in the maintenance of the 
 fertility of the earth and the giving of pros- 
 perity to the whole Roman territory. In 
 August the harvest festivals were cele- 
 brated ; in October the wine celebrations in 
 honor of Jupiter. In December there were 
 
328 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 two thanksgivings — one in gratitude for 
 the full granaries ; the other, the Saturnalia, 
 or seed-sowing festival, on the 17th. There 
 was a third celebration in this month in 
 honor of the shortest day of the year, which 
 brings in the new sun (December 21st). 
 The close of the ceremonial year was 
 marked by the singular festival called Lu- 
 percalia, or the wolf festival, during which 
 a certain class of priests ran about the city, 
 girdled with the skins of goats, and lashed 
 the sjjectator with knotted scourges ; and 
 by the Terminalia, instituted in honor of 
 Terminus, the god of boundaries or land- 
 marks. 
 
 One of the most thoroughly Roman di- 
 vinities was Janus, the double-faced god of 
 beginnings. The morning, all gates and 
 
 THE PANTHEON — ROME. 
 
 doors, the beginning of all solemnities, and 
 the month of January (which, however, 
 was originally the eleventh mouth of the 
 Roman year), were sacred to him, and he 
 was always invoked before any other god. 
 January, though next to the last month, 
 was dedicated to him because in southern 
 Italy it witnessed the beginning of the la- 
 bors of the husbandman. Sacrifices were 
 offered to him on twelve altars, and prayers 
 at the opening of each day. The first of 
 March, the Roman New Year's Day, was 
 especially sacred to him. That day was 
 supposed to give tone to the whole year, 
 and people were especially careful of their 
 thoughts and conduct. They exchanged 
 gifts and good wishes with their friends, and 
 usually began some work which they in- 
 
 tended prosecuting during the year. The 
 temple of Janus stood at the foot of the 
 Capitoline Hill, between the old Roman and 
 Sabine cities. Armies leaving the city 
 marched out through its gates, and return- 
 ing passed through them into the city. 
 These gates stood open during the contin- 
 uance of war, as has been already stated. 
 
 Vulcan, the god of fire and of the forge, 
 was another of the principal gods of Rome. 
 He was accorded two festivals, the conse- 
 cration of trumpets in May, and one in 
 August called the Volcanalia. 
 
 Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, or the 
 household, was of inferior rank to those 
 named, but was very dear to the Romans, 
 Avho regarded her as the source of their do- 
 mestic happiness and prosperity. Every 
 Roman hearthstone was 
 a shrine to her, and ev- 
 ery meal a sacrifice in 
 her honor. Over the 
 principal entrance of ev- 
 ery dwelling was a small 
 chapel dedicated to the 
 Lares. Here the father 
 of the family performed 
 his devotions upon re- 
 turning home b e f o r e 
 attending to any other 
 duty. The Lares were 
 supposed to be the spirits 
 of good men, and espe- 
 cially of the ancestors 
 of the family. Each city 
 had its protecting divin- 
 ities, or public Lares, 
 which were worshipped 
 in a temple and numer- 
 ous chaj^els, generally 
 located at the intersection of the streets. 
 Their names were kei:)t secret, for the 
 Romans deeply cherished the " belief that 
 the name of the proper tutelaiy spirit 
 of the community ought to remain forever 
 unpronounced, lest an enemy should come 
 to learn it and calling the god by his name 
 should entice him beyond the bounds." 
 Rural Lares and Lares Viales were wor- 
 shipped by travellers. 
 
 The Romans, after their intercourse with 
 the Greeks began, regularly consulted the 
 Delphic oracle, and valued its utterances 
 highly. There was but one Roman oracle 
 — that of Faunus, the Favorable god, on 
 the Aventine Hill.. There were a number 
 of oracles in Latium, but none of them 
 gave an audible response. The will of 
 
EARLY HISTORY— THE REGAL PERIOD. 
 
 529 
 
 the gods was generally ascertained by 
 augury. 
 
 The Sibylline Books, which constituted 
 one of the most precious possessions of the 
 Romans, were believed to have been pur- 
 chased by one of the Tarquins from a mys- 
 terious woman who brought them to Rome 
 and demanded an exorbitant i:)rice for them. 
 There were nine books at first. The king 
 refused to purchase them, and the Sibyl car- 
 ried them away, destroyed three volumes 
 and returned with the other six, for which 
 she demanded the price she had asked for 
 the nine. Tarquin again refused to pur- 
 chase them — she then destroyed three more 
 of the books, and offered him the remain- 
 ing three at the same price. His curiosity 
 was aroused, and he bought them, and found 
 them to contain important predictions as to 
 the future destiny of Rome. They were 
 placed in charge of one of the four sacred 
 colleges, and kept in a stone box under the 
 temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. They were 
 consulted only by order of the senate, and 
 in times of great public calamity. 
 
 The sacred colleges bore an important 
 part in the Roman system. They were 
 three in number. The Augurs were 
 charged Avith the duty of ascertaining the 
 will of the gods from the flight of birds and 
 the appearance of the entrails of victims. 
 The Pontifices, or " Bridge Builders," were 
 the Roman engineers. They were charged 
 with the regulation of the calendar, and it 
 was their duty to see that every festival and 
 religious ceremony and every judicial act 
 took place on the right day. They pro- 
 claimed to the people the time of the new 
 and full moon, and were consulted by all 
 classes as to the propriety of performing 
 important actions on certain days. They 
 kept the " book of annals," and were thus 
 the state historians. The Fetlales, or 
 " Heralds," were charged with the preserva- 
 tion of the treaties concluded with the 
 neighboring nations, and were required " to 
 pronounce an authoritative opinion on al- 
 leged infractions of treaty rights, and in 
 cases of need to demand satisfaction and 
 declare war. They had precisely the same 
 position with regard to international, that 
 the Pontifices had with reference to religious, 
 law ; and were, therefore, like the latter, 
 entitled to point out the law, although not 
 to administer it." 
 
 The priests of especial gods were called 
 Flamens, or "Kindlers," because they 
 OJSered sacrifices by fire. The most impor- 
 
 tant of these was the Flamen Dialis, or 
 priest of Jupiter. Next in rank were the 
 priests of Mars and Quiriuus. Many re- 
 strictions bound the priest to a life of 
 purity and protected his dignity. 
 
 Such were the principal features of the 
 Roman religion in its purely national form. 
 With the beginning of intercourse with the 
 Greeks, Greek ideas crept into the system, 
 and finally many of the gods of Hellas be- 
 came naturalized at Rome. 
 
 The reign of the first Tarquin Avas 
 brought to a close in b. c. 578 by his mur- 
 der by hired agents of the sons of Ancus 
 IMartius, who hoped to secure the crown for 
 themselves. Their efforts were unsuccess- 
 ful, and Tarquin was succeeded by his son- 
 in-law, Servius Tullius, an Etruscan gen- 
 eral, who boldly seized the throne. Having 
 gained some important successes over the 
 Etruscans, Servius resolved to put into 
 effect a series of radical changes in the 
 Roman constitution. 
 
 Until this reign all the j^owers of the state 
 not vested in the king had been reserved 
 to the nobility. Servius decided to extend 
 the franchise to all free citizens. Taking 
 the existing organization of the army as a 
 basis, he formed a new Popular Assembly, 
 which he named the Comitia Centuriata. 
 He divided the entire body of Roman citi- 
 zens into classes according to their wealth, 
 and subdivided these classes into centuries 
 according to the total amount of property 
 represented by the class. Each century, 
 no matter how great the number of persons 
 composing it, had but a single vote in the 
 assembly. " The result was that a de- 
 cidedly preponderating power was given to 
 the richer classes ; but if they differed 
 among themselves, the poorer classes came 
 in and decided the point in dispute." Each 
 citizen owning property was obliged to 
 serve in the array, and his position in the 
 military service was accurately fixed by his 
 rank in civil life, or, in other words, by his 
 wealth. The highest class established by 
 Servius Avere the Equites, or horsemen. It 
 was divided into eighteen centuries. The 
 first six — two for each of the original tribes 
 — were patricians ; the remaining twelve 
 consisted of the wealthier and more power- 
 ful plebeians. 
 
 With the exception of the equites, the 
 Roman soldiers fought on foot. The mass 
 of the people were divided into five classes. 
 The first consisted of eighty centuries, and 
 was made up of those who were able to 
 
330 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 equip themselves in complete brazen armor. 
 These perfectly armed soldiei*s constituted 
 the front rank of the phalanx. Forty of 
 these centuries were formed of young men, 
 from seveuteen to forty-live yeai-s of age, 
 the flower of the Roman infantry The re- 
 maining forty consisted of men over the 
 age of forty-six. These were usually re- 
 served as a garrison for the city. The 
 second class consisted of twenty centuries, 
 as did all the others save the fifth, in which 
 the number of centuries was thirty. The 
 second class fought immediately behind the 
 first. They did not wear the coat of mail, 
 and bore wooden instead of brazen shields. 
 The third class wore no greaves ; the fourth 
 
 ANCIKNT LA.MEO. 
 
 was without shields. The fifth class did not 
 form a part of the phalanx, but served as 
 light-armed infontry, and was armed with 
 javelins and slings. All these classes were 
 required to equip themselves for war. 
 Below them Avere the poorest people, who 
 were only called upon in times of great 
 emergency, when they were armed at the 
 expense of the state. The meeting place of 
 the centuries was without the city walls, on 
 the Field of Mars. 
 
 Until the reign of Servius the only 
 Roman tribes were those of the patrician 
 order — the Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres. 
 Servius now divided the city into four 
 tribes, and the country into twenty-six, 
 constituting each tribe of property-holders, 
 without regard to nobility of rank. The 
 
 place of meeting of the tribes was the 
 Forum, though it is probable that the rural 
 tribes did not enjoy this right until a later 
 period. To each tribe he accorded the 
 right of meeting and of self-government. 
 Each appointed its own tribunes and 
 anliles, and perhaps its judges. By this ar- 
 rangement Servius not only contented the 
 plebeians by giving them the right of self- 
 government, but provided for the pro])er 
 assessment of the land tax, which was levied 
 and collected by the tribunes, and paid by 
 them into the treasury. He provided for 
 the needy plebeians by assigning them a 
 portion of the public lands on the Etruscan 
 side of the Tilior, Avhich had been gained in 
 his early wars. These lands were assigned 
 them in full ownership. This act greatly 
 exasperated the patricians, who had pre- 
 viously leased these lands from the state 
 for the pasturage of their cattle and flocks, 
 and were unwilling to surrender them. 
 
 Servius also extended the limits of the 
 city of Rome. The original " Roma Quad- 
 rata" stood on the Palatine Hill, but the 
 Esquiline, Cwlian and Aventlne Hills were 
 now covered with suburban settlements, 
 while the Sabines occujiied the Capltoline, 
 Quirinal and Viminal Hills. Servius en- 
 closed all these eminences and a considera- 
 ble space beyond them within a new wall. 
 This continued to be the city wall without 
 change for more than eight centuries, until 
 the time of Aurelian. 
 
 Having completed his reforms, Servius 
 determined to secure their continuance by 
 abdicating his royal power, and causing the 
 people, assembled in their centuries, to 
 choose bv their free votes two chief magis- 
 trates who should administer the govern- 
 ment. These were to be elected for a single 
 year only, and at the close of their term of 
 office were to secure the choice of their 
 successors in like manner. But the change 
 from royalty to popular government was 
 not to be eftected so easily and blood- 
 lessly. Before the king could put his re- 
 solve into execution, the members of the 
 patrician order, disgusted by his changes, 
 revolted under the leadership of Tarquin, 
 the son of the first monarch of that name, 
 murdered Servius in the senate house, and 
 placed Tarquin upon the throne. The 
 date assigned to this event is B. c. 534. 
 
 Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was the last 
 King of Rome. He began his reign by 
 setting aside the whole of the Servian con- 
 stitution, and restoring the laws which had 
 
FROM ESTABLISHMENT OF REPUBLIC TO WAR WITH THE VEIL 331 
 
 -existed under the earlier kings. Although 
 he owed his crown exclusively to the pa- 
 tricians, he oppressed them in common with 
 the other classes of the people. He com- 
 pelled the poorer classes to labor uj^on the 
 public works which his father had begun, 
 and those originated by himself. He took 
 away the property of the citizens without 
 consulting the senate, and laid upon all 
 classes, civil and military, labors beyond 
 what was due by law. He built a new 
 system of sewers in the city, and the great 
 Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, 
 and constructed stone seats in the Circus 
 Maximus. He made a treaty of friendship 
 and commerce with Carthage, and gave 
 other evidences of a capacity to rule, but 
 his tyranny increased yearly. Becoming 
 suspicious of the patricians he caused 
 charges to be made against a number of 
 them, and took cognizance of them himself, 
 sentencing some to death, and some to exile 
 ■without the right of appeal. Finally mat- 
 ters were brought to a crisis by a dastardly 
 outrage by his son Sextus upon a noble 
 patrician matron named Lucretia. The 
 relatives of Lucretia appealed to the people 
 to avenge her, and a general revolt ensued. 
 The monarchy was overthrown. Tarquin 
 fled from the city, and he and all his clan 
 were banished from the Roman dominions, 
 B. c. 508. Some modern Avriters have 
 doubted the charges of tyranny brought 
 against Tarquin by the Roman historians ; 
 but, as Mommsen well says, they are 
 proved in the main " by the formal vow 
 Avhich they (the Romans) made, man by 
 man, for themselves and for their posterity, 
 that henceforth they would never tolerate a 
 king;" and "by the blind hatred with 
 which the name of king was ever afterwards 
 regarded at Rome." Even Julius Csesar, 
 centuries later, did not venture to assume 
 the kingly title, though it was thrice 
 offered to him, and Augustus, in setting 
 up an empire, was obliged to avoid the out- 
 ward appearance of a revival of royalty. 
 The king, however, had been charged with 
 the duty of offering certain sacrifices, and 
 the name was accordingly retained in the 
 office of the " king for offering sacrifice." 
 It was enacted that this " king " — " whom 
 they considered it their duty to create that 
 the gods might not miss their accustomed 
 mediator — should be disqualified from hold- 
 ing any further office, so that this official 
 was at once the first in rank and the least 
 in power of all the Romau magistrates." 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RE- 
 PUBLIC TO THE WAR WITH THE VEIL 
 
 The First Consuls — Republican Institutions Intro- 
 duced — Rome Loses Presti<?e by the Establishment 
 of the Republic — Wars with the Latins and Etrus- 
 cans — Perfidy of the Patricians — They Oppress 
 the Common People — Imprisonments for Debt — 
 Secession of the Plebeians — Mons Sacer Occupied 
 by them — Concessions to theju — They Return to 
 Rome — Spurius Cassius Consul — The First Agra- 
 rian Law — It is Nullified by the Patricians — The 
 Plebeians Excluded from the Consulship — Re- 
 venge of the Plebs — The Fabii — Murder of Genu- 
 cius — Yolero Publilius Chosen Tribune — The 
 Publilian Law— Wars with Oscansand Etruscans — 
 Struggle of the Commons for their Rights — Cin- 
 cinnatus — Is made Dictator and Defeats the ^Equi 
 — The First Decemvirs — The Laws of the Twelve 
 Tables — Appius Claudius — He Seizes Virginia, a 
 Roman Maiden — She is Slain by her Father — Re- 
 volt of the Romans — Fall of Appius Claudius — 
 Second Secession of the Plebeians — The Decem- 
 virate Abolished — The Plebs Return to Rome — 
 Measures of Reform — Defeat of the Sabines — The 
 People Accord the Consuls a Triumph in Spite of 
 the Opposition of the Senate — Short-sighted Policy 
 of the Patricians — Third Secession of the Plebe- 
 ians — Concessions to them — Their Return — Ap- 
 pointment of Censors and Military Tribunes — 
 The Census. 
 
 Z^U'Ej Tarquins being expelled, the 
 ^' leaders of the revolution proceeded 
 to lay the foundations of the Ro- 
 man republic. They not only re- 
 stored the constitution of Servius, 
 but added to it. Two consuls, 
 Lucius Junius Brutus, the principal leader 
 of the revolution, and Lucius Tarquinius 
 Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia, were 
 chosen by the free votes of the centuries 
 according to the laws of Servius. Colla- 
 tinus represented the patrician order, but 
 Brutus was a plebeian. The senate, which 
 had fallen away imder Tarquin, was brought 
 up to the ideal number of 300 by the addi- 
 tion of 164 life-members, chosen from the 
 richest members of the order of Equites, of 
 whom many Avere plebeians. Tarquin had 
 suspended the right of appeal. It was now- 
 revived and extended to all freemen. These 
 arrangements produced a spirit of harmony 
 between the various orders of the state. The 
 patricians were not satisfied, however. Their 
 hatred and fear of Tarquin had made it 
 necessary for them to conciliate the plebe- 
 ians in order to secure their powerful aid in 
 the revolution. Hence they made impor- 
 tant concessions to them Avhich they meant 
 to recall at the earliest opportunity. 
 
 The immediate result to Rome of the 
 change from the monarchy to the republic 
 
332 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was a loss of power and prestige in Latium. 
 The internal affairs of the Romans occupied 
 their entire attention for a long period, and 
 left them no time to maintain their suprem- 
 acy. Consequently Rome fell from the 
 first to a very low position among the cen- 
 tral Italian nations. The Latins threw off 
 their dependence, and the Etruscans made 
 war upon Rome. Lars Porsenna, the Etrus- 
 can king, appears to have actually held 
 Rome in subjection for a number of years. 
 Although the Etruscan yoke was ultimately 
 shaken off, the Roman lands west of the 
 Tiber were lost. The hostile Latins and 
 the Sabines and Oscans ravaged the other 
 lands of the Romans without restraint, 
 sweeping away the crops and farm build- 
 ings, and carrying off the cattle. These 
 losses resulted in a general impoverishment 
 of the Romans, the chief suffering naturally 
 falling upon the poorer people, whose little 
 patches of land constituted their sole pos- 
 session and their only means of sujDport. 
 
 As has been stated, the concessions of the 
 patrician order to the common people of 
 Rome at the establishment of the republic 
 were such as they meant to recall at the 
 first opportunity. Their lack of sympathy 
 with the people is strikingly shown by the 
 events now to be related. 
 
 The loss of the lands west of the Tiber, 
 and the ravages of the hostile nations in 
 the Roman territory after the establishment 
 of the republic, had produced a general 
 poverty. At the same time the taxes were 
 increased, and these were levied upon the 
 scale of former assessments and not upon 
 the reduced values prevailing at the time. 
 Besides this the state required the payment 
 at once of the taxes for five years. To 
 meet their needs the poorer classes were 
 obliged to borrow money at exorbitant rates 
 of interest from the rich. The debtor class 
 was unable to discharge its obligations, and 
 the nobles availed themselves of the oppoi'- 
 tunity thus afforded them to put into execu- 
 tion the cruel laws concerning debt, and 
 thereby to increase their own power and 
 diminish that of the commons. The Roman 
 law gave the creditor absolute power over 
 the person of his debtor. He could either 
 appropriate him to his own use or sell him 
 as a slave, and it is believed could even put 
 him to death. Many persons sold them- 
 selves as slaves to discharge their obliga- 
 tions, and thus condemned their posterity 
 to the same fate. Those who refused to do 
 this were seized by their creditors and im- 
 
 prisoned and tortured to make them sign 
 away their liberty. There was scarcely a 
 l^atrician mansion but had its captives thus 
 imprisoned. 
 
 At length, a call being made for troops, 
 the plebeians refused to enroll themselves 
 unless the prisoners for debt were released. 
 This was conceded by the patricians, but 
 the danger had no sooner passed by than 
 the bai'barous measures against the debtor 
 class Avere again put in execution. Driven 
 to despair, the plebeians, in B. c. 494, 
 abandoned Rome in a body, and occupied 
 a hill on the opposite side of the Tiber, 
 known in later times as Mons Sacer, or the 
 Sacred Mount, where they declared their 
 intention to build a city of their own in 
 which they could live under just laws. The 
 patricians now saw their error. They could 
 not afford to have Rome Aveakened by the 
 withdrawal of this large and useful class. 
 They entered into negotiations with the 
 plebeians, and allowed them to dictate the 
 terms upon which they would return to the 
 city. These were, 1. The cancellation of 
 the debts of all persons who could prove 
 themselves insolvent. 2. The release of all 
 prisoners for debt. 3. The appointment of 
 ofiicers called " Tribunes of the Commons," 
 to be annually elected by the people at 
 large, whose persons should be sacred, who 
 should be recognized as magistrates of the 
 nation, and whose especial business should 
 be the protection of the rights of all plebe- 
 ians appealing to them. Two such tribunes 
 were at first appointed. The number was 
 afterwards increased to five, and finally to 
 ten. Two plebeian ^diles were also ap- 
 pointed, whose duties were to superintend 
 the streets, buildings, markets, and the gen- 
 eral peace and order of the city. They had 
 also the superintendence of the public games 
 and festivals, and were judges in minor 
 cases. At a later period they were made 
 the guardians of the decrees of the senate, 
 which were not always safe in the hands of 
 the patricians. The plebeians having won 
 this great battle for popular rights returned 
 to their old homes at Rome. 
 
 In B. c. 485 Spurius Cassius, the consul, 
 proposed to divide certain of the public 
 lands among the plebeians as a means of 
 preventing future suffering. He also pro- 
 posed that the common people when serving 
 in the army should be paid for their services, 
 and that the tithe of produce levied by the 
 state upon the lands leased to the patricians 
 should be applied to this purpose. The 
 
FROM ESTABLISHMENT OF REPUBLIC TO WAR WITH THE VEIL 333 
 
 other consul opposed this measure, and 
 charged Cassius with seeking to gain popu- 
 larity, in order to make himself king. 
 Nevertheless the measure— the First Agra- 
 rian Law — was passed. When Cassius re- 
 tired from office at the end of his year, the 
 patrician influence was powerful enough to 
 secure his condemnation and execution as 
 a traitor. The real crime of Cassius was 
 his generous attempt to protect the poor 
 against the rich. 
 
 The patricians now boldly unmasked 
 their policy. They excluded the plebeians 
 from the consulship, and assei'ted their right 
 to choose these officers themselves, requir- 
 ing the commons simply to ratify their 
 choice. The consuls thus chosen refused to 
 execute the agrarian law. The people had 
 
 EOMAN SHIELDS. 
 
 but one means of redress. They refused to 
 be enrolled in the army, and were protected 
 in their refusal by the tribunes. The con- 
 suls then held their levy outside of the 
 walls of the city, where the tribunes had no 
 jurisdiction. They ordered the confiscation 
 of the landed property of those who refused 
 to enlist, and the commons were thus obliged 
 to enter the army to save their possessions 
 which lay beyond the jurisdiction of the 
 tribunes. Still, though they could be forced 
 into the ranks, they had their revenge. 
 Esteeming the patricians their worst ene- 
 mies, they suffered themselves to be defeated 
 by the Veientiaus. 
 
 For six years the Fabii, the most devoted 
 champions of the aristocracy, had held the 
 consulship. In b. c. 479 Kseso Fabius, 
 being made consul, demanded the execution 
 
 of the agrarian law of Cassius, as he was 
 convinced that a further refusal to do jus- 
 tice to the common people would be pro- 
 ductive of serious trouble. The patricians 
 haughtily refused his demand, and the 
 Fabii abandoned Rome in disgust and 
 formed a little colony in Etruria. Two 
 years later their settlement was over- 
 powered by the Veientians, and every man 
 slain. The execution of the agrarian law 
 being still prevented by the consuls, they 
 were impeached in B. c. 473 by the tribune 
 Genucius. The patricians, alarmed at the 
 danger which threatened them, caused 
 Genucius to be murdered on the night pre- 
 vious to the trial. This action greatly in- 
 creased the popular indignation, and when 
 the consuls ordered a new levy of troops, 
 Volero Publilius, who had served as centu- 
 rion, refused to be enrolled, and appealed 
 to the tribunes for protection. They, 
 alarmed by the fate of Genucius, hesitated, 
 and Volero called on the people to assist 
 him in maintaining his rights. A tumult 
 ensued, and thS consuls and their retinue 
 were driven from the forum. The next 
 year, B. c. 471, Volero was chosen tribune. 
 Until now the tribunes had been chosen by 
 the entire people in the centuries, and the 
 patricians, by controlling the votes of their 
 clients, had been able to secure the return 
 of men of their own selection. Volero now 
 procured the passage of a law which gave 
 to the people the selection of their own 
 champions by requiring that the tribunes 
 should be elected by the plebeians alone in 
 the assembly of the tribes in the forum. 
 This measure is known as the Publilian 
 law, and was an important gain for the 
 cause of the people, but it was so stoutly 
 resisted by the patrician party, under Ap- 
 pius Claudius, one of the consuls, that 
 Rome narrowly escaped a civil war. 
 
 While the two orders were thus engaged 
 in struggling for power within the city, war 
 was being waged against Rome by the 
 Volsce and JEqui, two Oscan nations which 
 had conquered a large part of Latium, and 
 had pushed their advance to within a short 
 distance of Rome itself. At the same time 
 the Veii, or Veientians, an Etruscan peo- 
 ple, had advanced to the opposite side of 
 the Tiber and had threatened the hill 
 Janiculum. The rural population were 
 obliged to fly before these invasions, and 
 they took refuge within the walls of Rome, 
 where a plague broke out and added its 
 horrors to the sufferings of the war. 
 
334 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Within the city party spirit raged so bit- 
 terly as to be often stronger than patriotism. 
 The exiled noble, sent away from Rome, 
 thought himself justified in leaguing with 
 the enemies of his country in order to 
 defeat the commons and extend the power 
 of his order. 
 
 The plague once more broke out at 
 Rome and swept away large numbers of 
 citizens. At the same time the ^qui and 
 Volsci extended their ravages to the walls 
 of the city, and a famine broke out within 
 the walls. All this while the patricians 
 maintained their pretensions unabated, and 
 the commons watched eagerly for an op- 
 portunity to place their rights upon a se- 
 cure footing. These internal troubles 
 weakened Rome so greatly that she could 
 barely maintain herself against the attacks 
 of her enemies. It was evident that a 
 thorough reform was necessary. In B. c. 
 462 Terentilius Harsa, the tribune, proposed 
 the appointment of a board of five patrician 
 and five plebeian commissioners, who 
 should be charged with the task of codify- 
 ing the existing laws, limiting and defining 
 the authority of the consuls, and framing a 
 constitution which should secure jvistice to 
 both orders. The patricians bitterly opposed 
 this measure, and for ten years the opposi- 
 tion to it kept Rome on the brink of ruin. 
 Several times the city came near falling 
 into the hands of the Volscians. Once, a 
 band of slaves, led by a Sabine named Ap- 
 pius Herdonius, seized the capitol and de- 
 manded the restoration of all the exiled 
 citizens. The citizens drove out the in- 
 vaders and regained the capitol. 
 
 One of the most prominent of the exiles 
 was Kseso Quinctius, the son of Lucius 
 Qiiinctius. The father was called Cincin- 
 natus because he wore his hair in long 
 curling locks. Kreso had been banished 
 for his ungovernable violence, and is be- 
 lieved to have been slain in the struggle at 
 the capitol, in which the consul who led the 
 attacking party was also slain. Cincinna- 
 tus was chosen the successor of this consul, 
 and in revenge for the fate of his son, he 
 declared that the law of Terentilius should 
 never pass while he was in oflace, and that 
 he would exercise all his j^ower to prevent 
 the meeting of a properly qualified assem- 
 bly. The senate and the more prudent of 
 the patrician party, seeing that such an ex- 
 ercise of the consul's power would tax the 
 patience of the commons too far, jDrevailed 
 upon him to desist. Cincinnatus, at the 
 
 end of his year of oflice, went back to his 
 farm, which he cultivated himself, though 
 a patrician. Two years later, Rome being 
 hard pressed by the vEqui, b. C. 458, the 
 senate sent to summon Cincinnatus to un- 
 dertake the task of defeating the enemy. 
 The messengers found him at his plow, and 
 formally communicated to him the resolu- 
 tion of the senate creating him Dictator, 
 with absolute power. He accepted the 
 trust, hastened to Rome, raised an army in 
 a single day, marched the following evening 
 against the JEqui, inflicted upon them a 
 crushing defeat, and returned home in tri- 
 umph the next day. He made use of his 
 power, however, to cause the banit^hment 
 of the man who had secured the exile of his 
 son Kseso. Then he surrendered the dic- 
 tatorship and returned to his farm. 
 
 The passage of the law of Terentilius was 
 delayed six years longer, but in b. c. 452 
 the patricians yielded, and ten commis- 
 sioners were chosen. They were all patri- 
 cians, but w^ere men of known moderation, 
 and enjoyed the confidence of both orders. 
 All the powers of the state were intrusted 
 to them for the time. They are known as 
 the first Decemvirs. During the debate 
 upon the bill, commissioners had been sent 
 to Greece to study the laws of the states of 
 that country. These now returned, bring- 
 ing with them a learned Greek, Hermo- 
 dorus of Ephesus, who rendered such im- 
 portant aid to the decemvirs in their task 
 that he was honored with a statue in the 
 Roman Comitium. The code which the 
 decemvirs prepared is known as the " Laws 
 of the Twelve Tables," and became the 
 basis of all Roman law and practice for 
 many centuries. The existing offices of the 
 state were swept away, and a new govern- 
 ment established, consisting of Ten Men, or 
 Decemvirs, half patricians and half ple- 
 beians, in Avhom was lodged the executive 
 power. They were elected by the centuries 
 and confirmed by the patrician assembly, 
 and held office for one year. The pro- 
 visions of the code extended to every de- 
 jiartment of life. They gave satisfaction 
 to all parties, and for several centuries the 
 Romans were content to live under them. 
 
 The change in the form of government 
 did not work so well. The people soon 
 found that they had simply made ten con- 
 suls instead of two, and had swept away the 
 protection which had formerly been af- 
 forded them by their tribunes. Appius 
 Claudius, one of the new decemvirs, made 
 
FROM ESTABLISHMENT OF REPUBLIC TO WAR WITH THE VEIL 335 
 
 his influence over his colleagues so power- 
 ful, that he was really master of Rome. 
 He now became the oppressor of the people, 
 and in the end drove them to rebellion. 
 
 Among the pupils who attended the 
 daily school in the forum was a beautiful 
 maiden named Virginia, who came attended 
 by her nurse. Appius Claudius became 
 enamored of the maiden, and determined 
 to obtain possession of her. He seized her 
 in the forum and declared that she was the 
 slave of one of his clients, that she had been 
 born of a slave woman in his house and sold 
 to the wife of Virgiuius, who had no chil- 
 dren of her own. The friends of Virginia 
 denounced the insolent falsehood, and ral- 
 lied to her rescue in such numbers that the 
 consul's officers were obliged to release her, 
 her friends giving bonds for her appearance 
 at the consular tribunal the next day, 
 where it would be shown that she was the 
 daughter of Virgin! us. Her father, who 
 was a distinguished centurion, was absent 
 with the army before Tusculum. He was 
 at once summoned, rode all night, and 
 reached Rome the next morning. He a\> 
 peared in the forum with his daughter and 
 friends, but to his amazement and indigna- 
 tion Appius declared that the maiden 
 should be considered a slave until proved 
 free, notwithstanding the existence of a law 
 which he had himself proposed, that no one 
 should be deemed a slave until proven such. 
 Seeing that justice was denied him, and 
 knowing well the fate that was in store for 
 his daughter, Virginius drew her aside, 
 under pretence of speaking to her, and 
 snatching up a butcher's knife from one of 
 the stalls of the forum, stabbed her to the 
 heart, exclaiming : " Thus only, my child, 
 can I keep thee free." Then, turning upon 
 Appius Claudius, he cried, "On thy head 
 be the curse of this innocent blood." The 
 consul ordered his instant arrest, but not a 
 hand was raised to stay him. He hastened 
 from the forum to the army at Tusculum, 
 which arose at his appeal, and marched 
 upon Rome. Icilius, to whom Virginia had 
 been betrothed, roused the other army near 
 Fideuffi. The army under Virginius en- 
 tered Rome and marched through the 
 streets to the Aventiue, calling upon the 
 people to elect ten tribunes to defend their 
 rights. The army under Icilius overthrew 
 the decemvirs who were with them, and 
 also elected ten tribunes and marched to 
 Rome, where they joined their comrades. 
 The twenty tribunes chose two of their 
 
 number to act for the rest, and placed a 
 strong garrison in the Aventine. Then the 
 entire plebeian class, accompanied by the 
 army, abandoned the city and occupied the 
 Sacred Mount, where they began the con- 
 struction of a new plebeian city. 
 
 The senate until now had refused to take 
 any action against the decemvirs, but the 
 secession of the plebs compelled them to act. 
 Rome was split in two, and thus divided 
 could not hope to resist her foreign foes. 
 The senate yielded, and the plebeians con- 
 sented to return on condition of the aboli- 
 tion of the decemvirate, B. c. 449. Appius 
 Claudius and his colleagues were I'emoved. 
 He and one of his colleagues were thrown 
 into prison, where they died. The re- 
 mainder fled from Rome, and their prop- 
 erty was confiscated. The decemvirate was 
 succeeded by a government composed of 
 two consuls, who were freely elected by the 
 centuries. The tribunate of the plebs was 
 restored as it had existed previous to the 
 decemvirate, the number of the tribunes 
 being increased to ten. The people were 
 given the right of appeal to the comitia 
 from the sentence of the consuls. The 
 sediles were made the keepers of the decrees 
 of the senate in order to prevent them from 
 being ignored or falsified by the magis- 
 trates. It was furthermore distinctly 
 enacted that the tribunes should have the 
 right to initiate legislation by consulting 
 the tribes on matters of public importance. 
 
 The first consuls chosen under this settle- 
 ment were Valerius and Horatius, patri- 
 cians, who possessed the confidence of the 
 plebs. Their first act was to lead the army 
 against the Sabines, who had been encour- 
 aged by the internal troubles of Rome to 
 invade the Roman territory. They inflicted 
 such a crushing defeat upon them that the 
 Sabines did not renew their efforts against 
 Rome for a century and a half. Return- 
 ing home, the consuls were denied the tri- 
 umphal entry to which they were entitled, 
 by the senate, which, true to its aristocratic 
 spirit, refused to bastow any honors upon 
 the friends of the people. Upon this, the 
 people met in their tribes, and decreed a 
 " triumph " to the consuls in spite of the 
 senate, which was again obliged to yield to 
 the popular will. 
 
 An aristocratic reaction now set in, and 
 the patricians opposed the execution of the 
 new laws so energetically, that the plebs 
 again withdrew from the city, this time seiz- 
 ing the Janiculan Hill across the Tiber, B. 
 
336 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 c. 444. A compromise was again effected 
 and the plebs returned home. A law was 
 passed legalizing marriages between patri- 
 cians and plebeians, and providing that the 
 children of such unions should inherit the 
 rank of their father. The consulate, how- 
 ever, was still closed against the plebeians, 
 and its powers and honors were divided 
 among five persons of unequal rank — two 
 censors and three military tribunes. Ac- 
 cording to Mommsen, the number of these 
 officials Avas eight — two censors and six mili- 
 tary tribunes. These officials were chosen 
 by the free vote of the tribes, but the cen- 
 sors could only be selected from the patri- 
 cian order. The military tribunes might 
 be chosen from either order. The patricians 
 managed to prevent the election of the 
 tribunes for six years, and during this time 
 the censors alone were regularly elected. 
 The choice of tribunes took place for the 
 first time in B. C. 438, and it was only with 
 great difficulty that the people secured their 
 election during the three succeeding years. 
 The excuse of the patricians was that the 
 auspices were irregular or unfavorable. In 
 B. c. 433 jEmilius, having been made dic- 
 tator, caused the passage of a law limiting 
 the term of the censors' office to eighteen 
 months. They were appointed once in five 
 years, and thus the office was vacant during 
 the greater part of the time. The powers 
 of the censors were very great. They 
 caused the general registry of citizens to be 
 made once in five years, immediately after 
 their appointment. The taking of the cen- 
 sus was followed by a ceremonial purifica- 
 tion of the people, called a lustration. 
 Hence the period of five years between the 
 taking of each census was called a lustrum. 
 The censors had authority to erase from the 
 registry the name of any citizen they chose, 
 their power being regulated only by their 
 convictions of duty. They were expected to 
 erase only the names of the unworthy, and 
 they had also the right to add the names of 
 those who in their opinion merited the 
 honor. They were the sole judges of the 
 evidence in the cases brought before them. 
 They punished the citizen who tyrannized 
 over his family, wasted his fortune, or mal- 
 treated his slaves, by degrading him from 
 his rank, whatever that might be ; and such 
 degradation was equivalent to disfranchise- 
 ment in the case of a private citizen. It 
 will thus be seen that their powers were 
 designed for good ; the abuse of them worked 
 erreat trouble in the future. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE WAR WITH THE VEII TO THE 
 EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 
 
 Commencement of the War with the Veii — Capture 
 of Veii by Camillus — Discontents of the Romans 
 — Irruption of the Gauls into Italy — Capture and 
 Destruction of Rome— The Capitol Besieged — 
 "Rome Saved by a Goose" — The City Ransomed 
 — Withdrawal of the Gauls— Successes of Camil- 
 lus — Rome Rebuilt — Errors of the Romans — Hard 
 Terms of the Government — Sufferings of the 
 People — The Licinian Laws — Second Invasion of 
 the Gauls Defeated by Camillus — The First Sam- 
 nite War — The Army Marches upon Rome and 
 Demands Redress for the Plebeians — Concessions 
 by the Government — The Latins Conquered — The 
 Second Samnite War — Defeat of the Romans at 
 the Caudine Forks — Reverses of Rome — She Re- 
 covers from them — The Samnites Conquered — 
 Rome Supreme in Italv — The Latins Conciliated 
 —The ^qui Subdued— The Third Samnite War— 
 Self-Sacrifice of the Consul Decius — Final Con- 
 quest of the Samnites and Sabines — Distress of the 
 Common People of Rome — Curius Dentatus Pro- 
 poses the Second Agrarian Law — Fourth Seces- 
 sion of the Plebeians — The Patricians Yield — The 
 Hortensian Laws — The War with Tarentum — 
 Pyrrhus in Italy — First Conflict between the Ro- 
 mans and the Greeks — The Tarentines find a Mas- 
 ter in Pyrrhus — His Early Successes— Fails to 
 Induce the Latins and Romans to Join him — 
 Rome Refuses to Treat with him — Events of the 
 War — Pyrrhus becomes Disheartened — Goes to 
 Sicily — His Successes there — Returns to Italy — 
 His Disasters — Abandons Italy and Returns to 
 Greece — Conquest of Southern Italy by the Ro- 
 mans — It is Settled with Roman Colonies — Roman 
 Roads — The Appian Way — The Roman Colonial 
 System — The Plebeians Admitted to Political 
 Equality at Rome. 
 
 <-^l^'^ B. c. 405 Rome made war upon 
 ' '^' the Veientians, Avho had harassed 
 her sorely during her period of in- 
 ternal trouble. This war lasted ten 
 years, and was brought to a close in 
 B. c. 392 by the capture of Veii by 
 the dictator Camillus. The continuance of 
 hostilities made it necessary to keep the 
 army in the field during the entire year. 
 This continuous service of the troops gave 
 rise to the employment of a standing army, 
 Avhich soon became an important part of 
 the Roman state. To quiet the discontents 
 of the people the senate made important 
 concessions to them, among which was the 
 doubling of the number of the military 
 tribunes. All disputes were suddenly hushed 
 by a new danger which now burst upon 
 Rome. 
 
 The Gallic hordes which had begun to 
 pour over the Alps about B. c. 400 had con- 
 quered northern Italy and the greater part 
 of Etruria. They now advanced into the 
 valley of the Tiber, in irresistible numbers, 
 defeated the entire armed force of Rome on 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
FROM WAR WITH VEII TO EXPULSION OF PYBBHU8 FROM ITALY. 337 
 
 the banks of the Allia, and advanced to the 
 city. The mass of the people and the fugi- 
 tives from the beaten army took refuge in 
 Veii, while the priests and the vestal vir- 
 gins fled to Caere in Etruria. The noblest 
 of the patricians threw themselves into the 
 capitol, resolved to defend it to the last ex- 
 tremity. The Gauls found the city deserted 
 except by the senators, who had remained 
 to saci'ifice themselves to the infernal gods 
 for their country's safety. They were mas- 
 sacred by the barbarians, who burned the 
 city, and laid siege to the capitol. The 
 siege lasted eight months. Towards its 
 close the Gauls attempted to surprise the 
 garrison by night. The foremost man of 
 their storming party had reached the sum- 
 mit unobserved by the sleeping sentinels, 
 when his movements startled a flock of geese 
 sacred to Juno, which the garrison, although 
 suffering from hunger, had spared. The 
 shrill cries of the geese aroused Marcus 
 Manlius, who rushed forward, hurled the 
 foremost assailant from the clift' and de- 
 feuded it until his comrades could come to 
 his aid and repulse the attack. At length, 
 when the garrison was on the point of star- 
 vation, and when the Gauls, who had lost 
 many men by their intemperate living and 
 their exposure to the malaria, and who were 
 alarmed by the news that the Venetians 
 were attacking their possessions in northern 
 Italy, were anxious to depart, peace was 
 made. The Romans ransomed their city 
 by the payment of a thousand pounds of 
 gold, and the barbarians retired. They 
 were followed by Camillus, who had again 
 been made dictator. He cut off" a number 
 of stragglers, and seems to have recovered 
 a part of the booty carried away by the 
 enemy, but the stories once credited of his an- 
 nihilation of, or even of a great victory over, 
 the Gallic host, must be regarded as fictions. 
 One would naturally suppose that such a 
 calamity as had befallen her would have 
 destroyed the power of Rome in Italy, and 
 doubtless it would had not Rome been but 
 one of many sufferers. The Gauls had 
 not crippled her alone. They had first 
 crushed the Etruscans, and had thus re- 
 lieved Rome from any danger at their 
 hands ; and had then extended their rav- 
 ages to the Umbrians, Sabines, Latins, 
 ^Equi and Volsci, who had all suffered se- 
 verely, and almost as much as Rome. 
 Consequently the enemies of the republic 
 were not in a condition to take advantage 
 of its weakness. 
 
 22 
 
 The immediate result to Rome from the 
 invasion of the Gauls was a wide-spread and 
 general distress. The city was in ruins, and 
 the rural districts were in quite as bad a 
 plight. The first duty was to restore the 
 houses of the city and the dwellings of the 
 farmers. The government provided mate- 
 rials for the roofs, and permitted the people 
 to take wood and stone from the national 
 forests and quarries, exacting from each 
 person thus aided a j^ledge to complete his 
 house within a year. Many were unable to 
 comply with this promise, and thus forfeited 
 their security. The poor were obliged to 
 borrow money at ruinous rates of interest 
 from the rich, to meet the cost of rebuild- 
 ing, and to pay the heavy taxes levied by 
 the state for the purpose of restoring the 
 fortifications and the temples. The rich 
 again became the absolute masters of the 
 poor, and the severe laws against debtors 
 were once more put in general operation. 
 The haste with which the state sought to 
 
 THE CATAPULT, A MACHINE FOR THROWING 
 HEAVY DAKTS. 
 
 secure the restoration of the city was pro- 
 ductive of great confusion. The lines of the 
 former streets could not be traced, as they 
 were covered with rubbish, and the govern- 
 ment took no measures to lay off" others. 
 " Men built their houses where they could, 
 where the ground was most clear of rubbish, 
 or where old materials were most easy to be 
 got. Hence, when these houses came to be 
 joined together by others so as to form streets, 
 these streets were narrow and crooked, and, 
 what was still worse, were often built across 
 the lines of the ancient sewers, so that there 
 was now no good and effectual drainage. 
 This irregularity continued till Rome was 
 again rebuilt after the great fire in the time 
 of the Emperor Nero." Another evil which 
 threatened the city was the general desire 
 
338 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the plebeian class to remain at Veii, 
 where they could live free from the oppres- 
 sion of the patricians. Through the influence 
 of Camillus a general secession was pre- 
 vented, but still the number who refused to 
 return was so great that many Etruscans 
 were settled in the city, provided with 
 Roman lands, and admitted to the rights 
 of citizenship. 
 
 The distress of the people was very great, 
 and Marcus Manlius exerted himself to re- 
 lieve it. Unfortunately he endeavored to use 
 the popularity which he thus gained to 
 advance his own ambitious schemes, and 
 was arrested. The people refused to sen- 
 tence the man who had saved the capitol ; 
 but he was afterwards condemned for trea- 
 son and hurled from the Tarpeian rock. 
 
 At length the 'popular distress became 
 so great that it was evident that it would be 
 
 ROMAN STANDARDS. 
 
 the cause of serious misfortunes to Rome if 
 not alleviated. C. Licinius Stole, a wealthy 
 plebeian, connected with the patrician 
 order by intermarriages, and L. Sextius, 
 also a plebeian, were made tribunes in B. c. 
 376. They proposed a scheme for the re- 
 lief of the general suffering. They sought 
 to remedy first the wide-spread poverty, and 
 secondly the political inequality which bore 
 so hard on their own order. They pro- 
 posed, 1. That the enormous interest which 
 had been paid by the debtor class should be 
 regarded as a payment of an equal part of 
 the principal, and should be deducted from 
 the sum still due. 2. That the balance due 
 upon such debts should be demandable only 
 in instalments which should be spread over 
 the space of three years. 3. For the pre- 
 vention of future poverty they proposed to 
 throw open the public lands to plebeian 
 
 occupation ; that no proprietor should hold 
 more than 500 jugera or about 300 English 
 acres; and that each landholder should 
 employ a certain proportion of free labor 
 in the cultivation of his farm. To remedy 
 the political inequality, they proposed the 
 restoration of the consulship, with the pro- 
 viso that one of the consuls should each 
 year be a plebeian ; and in order to make 
 the gain of the commons still more secure, 
 they proposed to increase the number of the 
 keepers of the Sibylline books to ten, five 
 of whom should be plebeians. The patri- 
 cians bitterly opposed these changes, and it 
 was not until B. c. 367 that they were 
 formally accepted and ratified by the Sen- 
 ate and the Comitia Curiata. The first 
 plebeian Consul under these laws was L. 
 Sextius. At the same time two new offices 
 were established, that of Prsetor, which was 
 restricted to the patrician order, and that 
 of Curule ^dile. The friends of the people 
 now hoped that their rights had been fairly 
 secured to them, but the patricians illegally 
 set aside the Licinian constitution, and for 
 fully twenty years contrived to secure the 
 election of patricians almost exclusively to 
 the consulate. In fourteen of these years 
 there were twenty-one patrician and seven 
 plebeian consuls. As a matter of course 
 the harmony which the Temple of Concord 
 was supposed to represent did not exist be- 
 tween the two orders. The plebeians felt 
 that they had been shamefully cheated, and 
 the patricians were aware that on the 
 slightest occasion the storm which they had 
 so carefully prepared by their unjust and 
 illegal course might break out. They 
 endeavored to avert the danger by making 
 peace with all their neighbors, and thus 
 avoiding the necessity for calling out the 
 army ; but their ambition was too strong to 
 be always controlled, and it at length in- 
 volved them in war with the Samnites, 
 which gave the people the opportunity for 
 which they were watching. 
 
 In the meantime, however, the Gauls had 
 attempted a second invasion of central 
 Italy, in B. c. 367. They were defeated by 
 Camillus. A few years later they again ap- 
 peared and encamped within five miles of the 
 city, but suddenly broke up their camp and 
 marched into Campania without molesting 
 Rome. Returning through Latium, they 
 were attacked and defeated. In b. c. 350 
 they joined the Greek pirates on the coast 
 in plundering the country, and were beaten 
 and driven northward by L. Furius Camil- 
 
FBOM WAR WITH VEII TO EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 339 
 
 lus, the son of the dictator. In B. c. 846 a 
 treaty was made between the Romans and 
 the Gauls, after which they invaded central 
 Italy no more. 
 
 The Samuites had been since a period 
 anterior to the expulsion of the Tarquins 
 settled as conquerors in the possession of the 
 hill country, which rises between the Apu- 
 lian and Campanian plains, and commands 
 them both. The Campanians were a highly 
 civilized, luxurious people, who had adopted 
 Hellenic culture and habits to a consider- 
 able extent, and they dreaded their ruder 
 countrymen of the Samnian hills, who were 
 constantly descending from their heights 
 and ravaging the rich plains of Campania. 
 They therefore sent to Rome and asked aid 
 against the Samnites, offering to become 
 subject allies of Rome if their request was 
 granted. Rome was at peace with Samui- 
 um, but the Campanian offer was too tempt- 
 ing to be rejected. The Samnites were 
 already the chief power in southern Italy, 
 and the only rivals of the Romans in that 
 quarter. To reject the proposed alliance 
 would be to strengthen them ; to accept it 
 would be to about double the Roman terri- 
 tory. A treaty was made with Campania, 
 and two Roman armies were sent into that 
 country, b. c. 343. At the same time the 
 Latin allies of Rome invaded the country 
 of the Peligni, and threatened Samnium on 
 the north. Thus began the First Samnite 
 Wm\ The Romans were successful in their 
 operations, and wintered in Campania. 
 The absence of the troops from home 
 caused considerable suffering to their fami- 
 lies, who were still struggling under the 
 load of poverty, and great dissatisfaction 
 prevailed in the array. 
 
 The next year this disaffection culminated 
 in a mutiny, and the plebeian troops now 
 determined to settle the long quan-el be- 
 tween themselves and the patricians. The 
 consuls endeavored to disband the army by 
 degrees before the mutiny came to an open 
 outbreak, but the army prevented the ex- 
 ecution of this design by rebelling at 
 once, and marching upon Rome, where it 
 made a formal demand for the redress of 
 the grievances of the people. The govern- 
 ment made a hasty levy to oppose the re- 
 bellious troops, but the latter army refused 
 to light, and the patricians were forced to 
 come to terms. After a lengthy negotia- 
 tion, a tribune of the people named Genu- 
 cius secured the enactment of a series of 
 laws which both sides accepted as the basis 
 
 of a reconciliation. The Licinian constitu- 
 tion was practically restored, and the patri- 
 cians were punished for their long violation 
 of it by a provision that while both consuls 
 might legally be plebeians, both could not 
 be chosen from the patrician order. It was 
 also enacted that no plebeian should hold 
 the same office twice within ten years, or 
 two offices within a year. To relieve the 
 general distress all outstanding debts were 
 abolished, and it was made illegal to lend 
 money upon interest. 
 
 During these troubles the Latins had 
 l)een left to carry on the war with the Sam- 
 nites. They were so successful that they 
 declared their independence of Rome. Rome 
 now made peace with Samnium, b. c. 341, 
 and strengthened herself by an alliance with 
 " the Marsian League," a confederation of 
 Sabine towns. Latium secured for allies 
 the Campanians, Sidicinians, and Volscians. 
 The Samnites held aloof from the struggle, 
 and confined their efforts to pushing their 
 frontier forward into the Volscian terx'itory. 
 The war lasted three years, and was really 
 decided by the events of the first campaign. 
 The decisive battle was fought in this cam- 
 paign at the foot of Mount Vesuvius. The 
 Romans attributed their victory to the self- 
 sacrifice of their plebeian consul, Publius 
 Decius, who allowed himself to be slain, as 
 the augurs had declared that the fates de- 
 manded the sacrifice of a general on one 
 side and of an army on the other. The 
 Latins and their allies rallied again, but 
 were easily defeated, and had neither heart 
 nor strength for another effort. The Latin 
 Confederacy was broken up, and the local 
 institutions were everywhere replaced by 
 Roman laws and customs. The Latins 
 being of the same race and language as the 
 Romans, discarded their hostility, which 
 was only temporary, and submitted to the 
 sovereignty of Rome, after a little passing 
 discontent. 
 
 The Romans were prevented, however, 
 from undertaking any important war for 
 the next twelve years by the fii'st discon- 
 tents of the Latins, and by the invasion of 
 Italy by Alexander of Epirus, in B. c. 332. 
 He was a nephew of Alexander the Great, 
 and had come to attack the Samnites. The 
 Romans made a treaty with him, and at the 
 same time prepared to take the field against 
 him if he ventured to attack their possessions, 
 as he surely would have done had he been 
 successful against the Samnites. He was de- 
 feated, however, and slain, in B. c. 326. 
 
340 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Rome was now mistress of Latium and 
 Campania ; had secured her Etruscan fron- 
 tier from immediate attack by treaty, and 
 she now felt strong enough to attempt the 
 conquest of the Samnites, who alone dis- 
 puted with her the possession of southern 
 Italy. The Second Sanmite War began in 
 B. c. 326 and lasted until B. c. 304. It was 
 begun by the aggressions of Rome upon 
 the Samnian territory, and its undisguised 
 object was the attainment of the supremacy 
 in the peninsula, Nearly all the nations 
 of Italy were ranged on one side or the 
 other as allies of the principals. 
 
 For five yeai's the war was prosecuted 
 languidly ; both parties seemed to be reserv- 
 ing their strength. The general advantage 
 at first lay with the Romans, but in B. c. 
 321 the Samnites inflicted upon their ad- 
 versaries one of the most disgraceful defeats 
 ever suffered by a Roman army. The 
 Romans, under the command of the two 
 consuls, were surprised in the Caudine 
 Forks, a mountain pass between Naples 
 and Beneventum, and were defeated with 
 the loss of half their number. The re- 
 mainder surrendered. Pontius, the Sam- 
 nite king, magnanimously spared these 
 prisoners on condition that an honorable 
 peace should be signed by the consuls and 
 the two tribunes of the people who were 
 present with the army. This was done, and 
 the Romans were disarmed, made to " pass 
 under the yoke " in token of surrender. 
 Pontius then released them from captivity 
 and sent them back to Rome. His gener- 
 osity was thrown away, however, for the 
 senate, having gotten back its troojDS, re- 
 fused to be bound by the treaty, on the 
 ground that it was informal. The signers 
 of the treaty were delivered, bound and 
 naked, to Pontius, who refused to receive 
 them, as he did not regard them as respon- 
 sible for the bad faith of the Roman govern- 
 ment. The war went on. 
 
 In B. c. 315 the Samnites gained a second 
 great victory at Lautuke. The cause of 
 Rome now seemed so hopeless that her 
 allies deserted her with but few exceptions. 
 Campania revolted, and the Ausonians and 
 Volscians became allies of Samnium. In 
 B. c. 314, however, the tide turned. The 
 Romans by an extraordinary efl^ort placed 
 a powerful army in the field, and defeated 
 the Samnites so terribly in ihe battle of 
 Cinna that the latter were crushed beyond 
 hope of recovery. The war would have 
 come to an end then but for the efforts of 
 
 the Etruscans, Oscans, and Urabrians, who 
 sought to prevent Rome from becoming 
 supreme in Italy. They acted apart from 
 each other, however, and though they man- 
 aged to prolong the war for ten years more, 
 they were finally defeated in detail, and in 
 B. c. 304 the Samnites were reduced to sub- 
 jection to Rome. The other nations then 
 made peace. Rome was now the first na- 
 tion in Italy. The conquered Samnites 
 were the superiors of the Romans in intel- 
 lectual culture, for the former had long- 
 been subject to the refining influences of 
 Greek civilization, but the latter had vin- 
 dicated their right to the sovereignty of the 
 peninsula. 
 
 In the second year of the war the discon- 
 tents of the Latins broke out into open hos- 
 tilities. The Romans adopted a policy of 
 conciliation, and the discontented part of 
 Latium was incorporated into Rome. To 
 show that this was not a mei'ely nominal 
 union, the Romans made L. Fulvius, the 
 leader of the, rebels, consul for the year. 
 These wise measures thoroughly identified 
 Latium with Rome, and ended the trouble 
 between the Latins and the Eternal City. 
 
 Towards the close of the Second Samuite 
 War the ^qui made war upon Rome. In 
 B. C. 304, as soon as the peace of that year 
 had left them free to act, the Romans in- 
 vaded the territory of the JEqui with 40,- 
 000 men, and in fifty days captured and 
 destroyed forty-one towns. Many of the 
 captives taken were sold into slavery ; the 
 rest were made subject to the Roman 
 ^.uthority. Some years later they were 
 made Roman citizens, and took part in the 
 wars with the Samnites in the ranks of the 
 Roman army. 
 
 The Second Samnite "War closed in B. C. 
 304. The next five years were spent by 
 Samnium in organizing the " League of 
 Italy," a confederation of the Italian states, 
 viz. : the Etruscans, Umbrians, and the 
 Gauls on the north, and the Samnites, Lu- 
 canians, and most of the Greek cities on 
 the south, all animated and bound together 
 by a common hatred of Rome, 
 
 In B. c. 298 the Third ISamnite War be- 
 gan. The Romans invaded both Etruria 
 and Samnium. They defeated the Etrus- 
 cans at Volaterra, and about the same time 
 captured Bovianum and Aufidena in north- 
 ern Samnium. In the next year the Consul 
 Fabius gained a victory over the Samnites, 
 and Decius, the other consul, defeated the 
 Apulians, and Lucania was compelled to 
 
FROM WAR WITH VEII TO EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 341 
 
 submit to Rome. The movements of the 
 next year were unimportant, but in b. c. 
 295 the combined forces of the Gauls, 
 Etruscans, Umbrians and Samnites ad- 
 
 vanced upon Rome. The boldness and de- by the Consul Curius Dentatus, and their 
 
 cision of the Romans now saved them. 
 They retained one army at home to meet 
 the invasion, and sent another into Etruria. 
 The Etruscans and Umbrians, alarmed for 
 the safety of their own country, recalled 
 their forces. The allies then retreated 
 across the Apennines, and were followed 
 and attacked by the second Roman army 
 at Sentinum. A 
 bloody struggle en- 
 sued, and the Consul 
 Decius solemnly de- 
 voted himself to death, 
 as his father had done 
 at Vesuvius. The vic- 
 tory was won by the 
 Romans, who inflicted 
 a loss of 25,000 men 
 upon the allies. The 
 battle was really de- 
 cisive of the war. It 
 broke up the confed- 
 eracy. The Gauls 
 withdrew to their own 
 country, and took no 
 further part in the 
 struggle. Rome now 
 carried on the war 
 separately in Etruria 
 and Samnium. The 
 Samnites resisted 
 bravely, and in b. c 
 292 Pontius, the Sam- 
 nite king, defeated the 
 Roman array under 
 Fabius Gurges. In 
 order to appease the 
 wrath of the Romans, 
 who threatened to de- 
 prive Fabius, who was the consul, of his com- 
 mand, his father Fabius Maximus offered to 
 serve as his lieutenant. The result was a 
 great victory the next year, in which the 
 power of the Samnites was finally broken, 
 and Pontius was taken prisoner. The war 
 languished a little longer, but Samnium was 
 obliged to submit unconditionally. A por- 
 ti<m of the Samnite territory was annexed to 
 Rome, and Samnium thus weakened became 
 a subject ally of the republic. The Romans 
 stained their victory by compelling Pon- 
 tius, who had spared "their whole army 
 twenty-nine years before, to walk loaded 
 
 with chains in the triumph of the consul, 
 and then putting him to death, B. c. 290. 
 In the same year the Sabines, who had 
 espoused the Samnite cause, were conquered 
 
 country, rich in forests of oak, and abound- 
 ing in oil and wine, passed into the posses- 
 sion of the republic. 
 
 These wars, though successful, brought 
 serious suffering to the commons. In order 
 to ransom the prisoners ruinous sacrifices 
 had to be made by their relatives, and the 
 prolonged absence of so many men from the 
 
 KOMAN MATRONS. 
 
 farms brought the agricultural population 
 to the brink of ruin. To relieve the general 
 distress, Curius Dentatus proposed a new 
 agrarian law, which provided for the 
 division of the public lands among the 
 Roman poor. The aristocratic party op- 
 posed this measure with so much bitterness 
 that the life of Curius was in danger, not- 
 withstanding his great services. As the 
 opposition of the patricians increased, the 
 demands of the people rose higher, and at 
 last they seceded from Rome and estab- 
 lished themselves on the Jauiculan Hill. 
 Even then the aristocrats refused to vield. 
 
342 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and only the danger of a foreign war, 
 which seemed imminent, induced the senate 
 to grant the popular demands. Hortensius, 
 a plebeian of ancient family, was appointed 
 dictator. He pi'oposed the famous " Hor-r 
 tensian Laws," which Avere solemnly rati- 
 fied by the vote of the people. He either 
 abolished or made a great reduction in all 
 outstanding debts, allotted seven jugera 
 of land to every citizen, deprived the senate 
 of its veto, and declared the people assem- 
 bled in their tribes to be the supreme legis- 
 lative power, B. c. 286. 
 
 A new danger now burst upon the repub- 
 lic. To reward the Lucanians for their 
 services in the Samnite war, the Romans 
 gave up to them the Greek cities in their 
 territory ; but when, in alliance with the 
 Bruttians, they began the attempt to reduce 
 
 ROMAN CUIRASSES. 
 
 these cities, the inhabitants of Thurii ap- 
 pealed to Rome for protection. Their 
 request was granted, and the Lucanians and 
 Bruttians were forbidden to secure the 
 spoil that had been promised them. The 
 inhabitants of Tarentum, who had long 
 been jealous of the Roman power, and who 
 had been for some time exerting themselves 
 to organize a new coalition against Rome, 
 now took advantage of the anger of the 
 states thus deprived of their prey, to draw 
 them into an alliance with themselves. The 
 efforts of Tarentum were successful. Nearly 
 every nation of Italy was induced to join 
 the league against Rome, and in B. c. 283 
 Rome found herself menaced by the Etrus- 
 cans, Umbrians, and Gauls, in the north, 
 and the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians, 
 in the south. Arretium alone remained 
 faithful to Rome, and was besieged by a 
 
 combined army of Etruscans and Gauls. 
 Metellus, the consul, was sent to its relief, 
 but was beaten and lost his entire army. 
 The Romans then sent ambassadors to re- 
 monstrate with the Senonian Gauls for 
 their violation of the treaty, but these mes- 
 sengers, held sacred by even the most 
 savage tribes,' were brutally murdered. 
 Their fate was sternly avenged. A Roman 
 army, under the Consul Dolabella, invaded 
 and ravaged the territory of the Gauls, 
 burning every village, putting all the men 
 to the sword, and carrying off the women 
 and children into slavery. This tribe was 
 literally erased from the list of Italian 
 nations. The Boian Gauls, alarmed and 
 exasperated by the fate of their brethren, 
 now took up arms to avenge them, and 
 united their forces with those of the Etrus- 
 cans. The combined armies marched at 
 once upon Rome, but were defeated by the 
 Romans with fearful loss at their passage 
 of the Tiber, near the little lake of Vadimo. 
 
 In the south a small Roman army had 
 with difficulty maintained itself in Thurii. 
 In B. o. 282 the Consul Gaius Fabricius 
 Luscinus . raised the siege and defeated the 
 Lucanians in an important battle, which 
 was followed by defeats of the Samnites 
 and Bruttians. These successes broke up 
 tlie coalition in the south, and placed the 
 Romans in possession of an amount of spoil 
 sufficient to defray the entire expense of the 
 war, to allow each soldier a large share, 
 and to leave a surplus in the Roman treas- 
 ury equal to half a million of American 
 dollars. 
 
 Tarentum, the real originator of the war, 
 had taken no part in it, but had contrived 
 to throw all the danger and labors of the 
 struggle upon her allies. Rome was not to 
 be deceived by this appearance of neutrality, 
 and a fleet was sent to cruise around the 
 southern end of the peninsula to watch the 
 Tareu tines. In proceeding to the Adriatic 
 it cast anchor in the harbor of Tarentum, 
 which was still at peace with Rome. The 
 long-cherished hostility of the Tarentines 
 now flamed up, and they proceeded in a 
 mob to the harbor, attacked the Romans, 
 who were unsuspicious of danger, and sunk 
 their vessels. They then marched upon 
 Thurii, expelled the Roman garrison, and 
 severely punished the inhabitants for having 
 submitted to the republic. The Romans, 
 with surprising moderation, offered to re- 
 frain from making war upon Tarentum on 
 condition of the release of the j^risoners 
 
FROM WAR WITH VEII TO EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 343 
 
 taken, the restoration of Thurii, and the 
 surrender of the originators of the attack 
 u^jon the fleet. These terras were rejected, 
 and the Tarentines, in behalf of all the 
 Greek cities of Italy, invited Pyrrhus, King 
 of Epirus, to their aid. The invitation was 
 promptly accepted by Pyrrhus, whose rest- 
 less ambition never allowed hira to remain 
 quiet, and in B. c. 280 he crossed the Adri- 
 atic and invaded Italy with an army of 
 22,500 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, and twenty 
 elephants. The latter were now seen for 
 the first time in Italy. 
 
 Pyrrhus had already won and lost the 
 Macedonian crown for the first time, and 
 his army was disciplined in the Macedonian 
 school. He was himself the most accom- 
 plished general of the time, and his personal 
 character was superior to that of every 
 monarch who then sat on the throne. " He 
 was the first Gi'eek that met the Romans 
 in battle. With him began those direct 
 relations between Rome and Hellas, on 
 which the whole subsequent development 
 of ancient, and an essential part of modern, 
 civilization, are based. The struggle be- 
 tween phalanxes and cohorts, between a 
 mercenary army and a militia, between 
 military monarchy and senatorial govern- 
 ment, between individual talent and na- 
 tional vigor — this struggle was first fought 
 out in the battles between Pyrrhus and the 
 Roman generals ; and though the defeated 
 j)arty often afterwards appealed anew to 
 the arbitration of arms, every succeeding 
 day of battle simply confirmed the de- 
 cision." The Tarentines had supposed that 
 the Epirote king would fight their battles 
 for them and leave them to enjoy the ease 
 which they had secured during the first 
 part of the war ; but Pyrrhus soon showed 
 them that they had found a master instead 
 of a servant. He put a stop to the perform- 
 ances in the circus and theatre, and com- 
 pelled the citizens to do garrison duty day 
 and night. They soon became disgusted, 
 and attempted to make terms with Rome, 
 but Pyrrhus tightened his grasp upon them 
 and treated Tarentum as a conquered city. 
 He also sent a number of the leading men 
 to Epirus as hostages. 
 
 Having secured the city of Tarentum, 
 which provided him with an excellent base 
 of operations, Pyrrhus took the field against 
 the Romans, and with a smaller army de- 
 feated them at Heracla^a, Had not one of 
 the officers of the retreating army wounded 
 an elephant, and thereby thrown the j^ur- 
 
 suing troops into confusion, not a man of 
 the fugitives would have escaped. As it 
 was the Romans lost 15,000 men, 7,000 of 
 whom were killed. Pyrrhus, however, 
 purchased his victory with the loss of 4,000 
 of his best troops and several of his ablest 
 commanders, and he had not the advantage 
 which the Romans possessed of being able 
 to replace his slain. 
 
 Pyrrhus had thus shown himself an able 
 general, and he now proceeded to reap the 
 reward of his victory. Many Italian cities 
 joined him, and the Greek cities, with 
 scarcely an exception, went over to him. 
 He endeavored to recruit his army from the 
 prisoners he had taken in battle, and whose 
 courage he had recognized by his generous 
 treatment of them. He explained to them 
 that this was a frequent practice among the 
 Greeks; but to his surprise not a single 
 Latin or Roman joined him. He " learned 
 that he was fighting not with mercenaries, 
 but with a nation." He appears to have 
 been deeply impressed with this conviction, 
 and with the difficulty of the task he had 
 undertaken, and dropping the role of the 
 warrior, he endeavored to gain his end by 
 the exercise of the acute statesmanshijD of 
 which he was a master. He hoped that 
 their first reverse would so thoroughly dis- 
 hearten the Romans that they would be 
 inclined to accept an honorable peace, and 
 he sought to secure the freedom of the 
 Greek cities of Italy and to protect it by 
 erecting between them and the Roman ter- 
 ritories a series of states of the second and 
 third order as dependent allies of the new 
 Greek power. In plainer terms, he de- 
 manded as the conditions of peace the 
 release of all the Greek towns — and there- 
 fore of the Campanian and Lucanian towns 
 in particular — from allegiance to Rome, 
 and restitution of the territory taken from 
 the Samnites, Dannians, Lucauians, and 
 Bruttians. His demand was sent to Rome 
 by his confidential minister Cineas, a Thes- 
 salian, a master of eloquence, who was 
 charged by the king to lose no opportunity 
 of impressing the Romans with the admira- 
 tion he really felt for their conduct in 
 battle. Cineas performed his part ably, 
 and won over so many of the Romans to his 
 proposals that the senate began to waver. 
 At this juncture Appius Claudius, who had 
 been censor thirty years before, but who 
 was now old and blind, was told of the 
 mission of Cineas, and of his success with 
 the senate. Filled with patriotic indigna- 
 
344 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tion at the mere thought of making peace 
 with a foreign conqueror on Italian ground, 
 the old man caused his attendants to con- 
 vey him in a litter into the senate house, 
 where he burst into such a torrent of elo- 
 quent and indignant denunciations of the 
 proposals of Pyrrhus that the senate rose 
 to a true sense of its duty, and answered the 
 messenger of the Epirote king that Rome 
 never negotiated so long as there were for- 
 eign troops on Italian soil. Cineas was at 
 once conducted from the city, and he went 
 back to Pyrrhus so deef»ly impressed with 
 the manly patriotism of the Romans that 
 he declared to his master that every Roman 
 citizen had seemed to him a king. The 
 war then went on ; Pyrrhus seeking glory 
 only, the Romans fighting for their coun- 
 try. 
 
 Pyrrhus had moved into Campania while 
 these negotiations were in progress. As 
 soon as he received the answer of the senate 
 he advanced upon Rome, intending to act 
 in concert with the Etruscans. To his sur- 
 prise he found the Romans ready to resist 
 him with a fresh army, under the Consul 
 Publius Lsevinus, whom he had defeated at 
 Heraclsea. The Roman commander pro- 
 tected Capua against the king, and put a 
 stop to his efforts to communicate with Ne- 
 apolis. Moreover, the attitude of Rome 
 was so firm that none of her allies of any 
 note — save the Greek cities of southern 
 Italy — ventured to desert her. On his 
 march through the country towards Rome, 
 Pyrrhus encountered no army, but the 
 Latin cities one and all closed their gates 
 against him. The flourishing condition of 
 the country astonished him, and gave him 
 a better idea of the resources of Rome than 
 he had ever had before. The Consul L?e- 
 vinus followed him closely, ready to attack 
 him at the favorable moment, and a second 
 Roman army under the other Consul Tibe- 
 rius Cornucanius, who had just concluded a 
 peace with the Etruscans, marched rapidly 
 from the north to meet the enemy, while in 
 Rome itself a third army was organizing. 
 Pyrrhus advanced to within forty miles of 
 Rome, and then withdrew to Tarentum, 
 where he passed the winter. The Romans 
 also went into winter quarters. The Ro- 
 mans during the winter endeavored to effect 
 an exchange of prisoners, but Pyrrhus re- 
 fused to consent to the measure. He gener- 
 ously allowed all his captives to return home 
 to take part in the saturnalia on their word 
 of honor to return after the holidays if 
 
 peace were not made before. Ko treaty 
 being effected they fulfilled their promise. 
 
 In B. c. 279 Pyrrhus gained a second 
 victory, this time at Ausculum, in Apulia. 
 He brought into the field, besides his Mace- 
 donian troops, upwai'ds of 50,000 Italians 
 provided by his allies. The Romans were 
 driven from the field, but their army was 
 neither demoralized nor broken up. It was 
 plain to Pyrrhus that he might go on 
 achieving such victories, but as each pro- 
 duced a diminution of his Macedonians, the 
 only troops upon whom he could dejiend, 
 while the Romans filled the gaps in their 
 ranks with fresh levies, the more victoi'ies 
 he should gain the weaker he would be in 
 the end. The courage and patience of the 
 Romans were barriers against which he 
 dashed his army in vain. His allies, ex- 
 cept the Samnites, were of no use to him, 
 and he despised them. Still his military 
 honor did not allow him to abandon the 
 struggle just yet. The next year an oppor- 
 tunity presented itself to him to withdraw 
 from the peninsula, and he was so thor- 
 oughly disgusted with the results of the war, 
 that he at once embraced it. 
 
 The wife of Pyrrhus was the daughter of 
 Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse, and his 
 son the grandson of Agathocles, and both 
 were the natural heirs of that monarch. 
 Agathocles having been murdered, and 
 Syracuse being hard pressed by the Cartha- 
 ginians, the inhabitants of that city invited 
 Pyrrhus to come to their aid. They con- 
 soled themselves with the reflection that if 
 Syracuse was destined to lose her freedom, 
 she might, under the Epirote king, become 
 the capital of a great Hellenic empire of the 
 west. Pyrrhus accepted the invitation, and 
 left Italy for Sicily in B. c. 278, leaving 
 garrisons in Locri and Tarentum. Previous 
 to his arrival the Carthaginians entered into 
 an offensive and defensive alliance with 
 Rome, and just before his departure from 
 Italy Pyrrhus made another unsuccessful 
 effort to secure peace with the Romans. 
 Reaching Sicily he drove back the Cartha- 
 ginians, and reduced them to such straits 
 that they offered to make peace, notwith- 
 standing their alliance with Rome, offering 
 him ships and money which he sorely 
 needed. Pyrrhus haughtily rejected their 
 offer ; but his good fortune was brought to 
 a sudden close by a defeat which he suffered 
 at Lilybseum. He remained two years 
 altogether in Sicily, and at one time it 
 seemed that he was about to succeed in his 
 
FEOJr WAR WITH VEII TO EXPULSION OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 345 
 
 plans ; but he was seized with his old rest- 
 lessness, and was hurt by the complaints of 
 his Italian allies, who accused him of de- 
 serting them, and rashly returned to Italy 
 near the close of B. c. 276. On his voyage 
 his fleet was attacked by the Carthaginians, 
 who captured a number of his ships. His 
 Sicilian conquests immediately rebelled 
 against him. Landing in Italy Pyrrhus 
 attempted to take Rhegium, but was de- 
 feated. He succeeded in seizing Locri, 
 which had massacred its Epirote garrison 
 in his absence. He inflicted a severe pun- 
 ishment upon the inhabitants, and plun- 
 dered the rich treasury of the temple of 
 Persephone to replenish his own exhausted 
 military chest. He then marched to Ta- 
 rentum, where he arrived with 20,000 in- 
 fantry and 3,000 cavalry. These were 
 mostly Italian mercenaries ; nearly all of 
 the tried veterans he had brought from 
 Epirus having perished in his wars. The 
 money taken from the Locrian temple was 
 sent to Tarentum by ship, but the vessel 
 was driven back by a storm upon the coast 
 of Locri. Pyrrhus, believing that he had 
 aroused the wrath of the goddess by his 
 sacrilege, restored the treasure to the tem- 
 ple, and put to death the men who had 
 urged him to the act. A little later he was 
 defeated at Beneventum by the Consul 
 Curius Dentatus, and towards the close of 
 the year he abandoned the war and returned 
 to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, 
 B. C. 275. The Romans now proceeded to 
 reconquer southern Italy. In B. C. 272 
 Tarentum was taken, and Lucania and 
 Bruttium were forced to submit. Phegium 
 Avas taken by storm in B. c. 270, and by 
 the close of B. c. 265 all southern Italy had 
 been conquered, and Rome was supreme 
 mistress of the peninsula from the Macra 
 to Tarentum and Rhegium. 
 
 The successful termination of these wars 
 greatly increased the wealth of the Romans, 
 and consequently made a change in their 
 style of living The state property of the 
 conquered nations went to the Roman state. 
 It consisted principally of public lands, 
 valuable forests, mines, quarries, and fish- 
 eries. The senate now granted to each free 
 Roman a sum of money or seven jugera of 
 land, as he elected. 
 
 In order to hold her new territories Rome 
 planted them with colonies. This system 
 is said to have been begun as early as the 
 days of the Tarquins, but it now received a 
 powerful impetus by the great growth of the 
 
 Roman power. Several centuries later these 
 colonies extended from the western coast of 
 Europe to the Euphrates. They were of 
 two kinds, " Roman " and " Latin." In the 
 colonies of " Roman citizens," the inhabi- 
 tants retained all their rights as citizens of 
 Rome, they voted in the assembly, and were 
 eligible to any public office to which they 
 could be chosen if residents of Rome. In 
 the Latin colonies, the inhabitants lost their 
 rights as citizens of Rome, such as the right 
 to vote and hold office, but retained the rest 
 of their citizenship. The colonies were 
 planted thickly through the peninsula, and 
 as their interests lay with Rome rather than 
 with the country in which they were located, 
 they formed the great bulwarks of Roman 
 power in Italy. 
 
 The colonies were connected with the 
 capital by a system of roads, of which the 
 first was the famous Appian Way, a solid, 
 paved highway of such excellent construc- 
 tion that much of it remains to the present 
 day. It was built at the instance of Ap- 
 pius Claudius, " the Blind," between the 
 years B. c. 310-306. It left Rome by the 
 Porta Capena or Gate of Capua, and pass- 
 ing through Aricia, Velitrse, Setia, Tarra- 
 cina, Minturnse, Sinuessa, and Casiliuum, 
 reached Capua, from which it was continued 
 about B. c. 291 to Venusia, and later on to 
 Brundusium. As time passed on, other 
 roads Avere built to other parts of the pen- 
 insula. Wherever Rome extended her 
 power, a well-built road was constructed 
 connecting the principal points of the coun- 
 try with some centre from which communi- 
 cation could be maintained with the Eter- 
 nal City, so that it became a popular saying 
 that "All roads lead to Rome." 
 
 The system by which the Romans main- 
 tained their authority over the conquered 
 Italian states was very complex. In the 
 management of her colonies, Rome granted 
 them the right of self-government. They 
 elected their own officers, and administered 
 their own internal affairs. Every foreign 
 city under Roman rule was regarded as a 
 separate state, " and was placed on a certain 
 definite footing with regard to the central 
 community. The most highly favored were 
 the fcederatce civitates — states that had sub- 
 mitted to Rome upon terms, varying, of 
 course, in different cases, but in all imply- 
 ing the management of their own affairs, 
 the appointment of their own governors, 
 and the administration of their own laws. 
 Next to these in advantage of position were 
 
346 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the vmnicipia, foreign states which had re- 
 ceived all the burthens together with some 
 or all the rights of Roman citizenship. 
 Last of all came the dedititii, natives of 
 communities which had surrendered them- 
 selves to Rome absolutely, and which had 
 all the burthens without any of the rights 
 of citizens. Roman law was administered 
 in these communities by a governor ap- 
 pointed by Rome." Certain rights were 
 reserved to Rome, which she esteemed suffi- 
 cient for the protection of her sovereignty. 
 She had the sole power to make Avar or 
 peace ; she alone might receive embassies 
 from foreign powers, make treaties, or coin 
 monev. She had also the right to demand 
 
 GEESE OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 of her subject allies such troops, and the 
 money for their equipment and support, as 
 she needed in time of war. The property 
 of the conquered states passed to her, as has 
 been stated, and by B. c. 267 the public 
 domain had increased so largely that it was 
 necessary to appoint four " Italian quaestors" 
 to collect the revenue from it. They were 
 " the first Roman functionaries to whom a 
 residence and a district out of Rome were 
 assigned by law." 
 
 This period also witnessed the destruction 
 of the last vestiges of patrician supremacy, 
 and the admission of the plebeians to full 
 political equality with that order. In B. c. 
 339 a law proposed by Publilius Philo had 
 thrown open one place in the censorship, 
 and the prsetorship (most probably) to the 
 plebeians. A law of Ovinius, the date of 
 which is uncertain, gave to all ex-consuls, 
 praetors, and curule sediles, a right to seats 
 in the senate. In b. c. 300 the Ogulnian 
 law increased the number of pontiifs and 
 augurs, and provided that half of each 
 should be plebeians. These changes were 
 in full operation at the period we are now 
 considering, and exercised a marked influ- 
 
 ence ujDon the prosperity of the Romans. 
 United and contented at home, they were 
 able to show a solid front to Pyrrhus, and 
 ultimately to triumph over him and to ex- 
 tend their power throughout Italy. Indeed 
 the efforts of the censors had to be exerted 
 to check the power of the commons. Ap- 
 pius Claudius, "the Blind," about B. c. 312, 
 had extended the right of suffrage, which 
 had hitherto rested upon the double qualifi- 
 cation of free birth, and the ownership of a 
 tract of freehold land, to two classes, each 
 very numerous — freedmen who had been 
 born slaves, and those Avho owned no land 
 at all. Instead of assigning them to the 
 tribes of the city, where they properly be- 
 longed, he spread them 
 through all or nearly all the 
 tribes in order to enable them 
 to control the elections. His 
 successors in the censorship 
 succeeded in rescuing Rome 
 from the danger of mob rule 
 by confining these voters to 
 four out of the thirty-one 
 tribes, and these located in 
 the city. By the first years 
 of the third century before 
 Christ the matter had been 
 arranged. In this century 
 also the Romans began to use 
 a silver currency ; hitherto their coins had 
 been made of copper. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE. 
 
 The Wealth of the Romans Increased by their Wars 
 — The Republic Adopts War as a Means of Ac- 
 quiring Riches and Territory — The Conquest of 
 Carthage Resolved upon — A Pretext tor War 
 Found — The First Punic War begun — The Cartha- 
 ginians Defeated in Sicily — Roman Expedition to 
 Africa — The Home Territory of Carthage Ravaged 
 ^Defeat and Capture of Regulus — Loss of the 
 Roman Fleet — Roman Reverses in Sicily — The 
 Carthaginian Fleet Harasses the Italian Coast — 
 The People of Rome Build a Fleet— :^ttle of 
 ^gusa — Sicily and the Neighboring Islands Con- 
 quered by the Romans — Humiliation of Carthage 
 —Close of the War— Rome a great Naval Power 
 —The Romans Seize Sardinia— The Illyrian Pi- 
 rates Exterminated — Conquest and Annexation of 
 Cisalpine Gaul by Rome— The Roman Territory 
 Extended Northward to the Alps— The Cartha- 
 ginians in Spain— Their Wise Policy— Hannibal 
 —He Succeeds to the Command in Spain— The 
 Second Punic War— Hannibal Resolves to Invade 
 Italy— Crosses the Alps— Defeats the Romans at 
 the'Trebia and at Lake Trasimene— Fabius in 
 Command of the Roman Army — His Wise Policy 
 —Battle of CannK— HannibafMaster of Southern 
 Italy — Firmness of Rome — Hannibal Winters at 
 
THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE. 
 
 547 
 
 Capua — Victories of the Seipios in Spain — Mar- 
 cell us takes Syracuse — Defeat and Death of the 
 Seipios in Spain — The Younger Scipio Succeeds 
 thein— He Defeats Hasdrubal — Hasdrubal Ordered 
 to Italy — Crosses the Alps and Pinters Northern 
 Italy — His Error — Hannibal Moves toCanusiuin 
 and awaits the Arrival of his Brother — Hasdrubal 
 Defeated and Slain by the Romans — His Head 
 thrown into Hannibal's Camp — Retreat of Han- 
 nibal — Scipio Conquers Spain — Sails to Africa and 
 Attacks Carthage — Battle of Zaraa — Carthage 
 Conquered and made Tributary to Rome — Wars 
 of Rome in Greece and Asia Minor — Conquest of 
 Sardinia — Greece Conquered by Rome — The Third 
 Punic War — Final Conquest and Destruction of 
 Carthage. 
 
 )HE earlier wars of Rome had brought 
 pecuniary distress to her citizens. 
 The war with Pyrrhus and those 
 which followed it had actually in- 
 creased the wealth of the people. 
 They began to regard war as a 
 means of profit, and after the subjugation 
 of sout^iern Italy, they sought a new quarrel 
 for the deliberate purpose of increasing their 
 riches. The wealthy republic of Carthage 
 seemed to promise the most plunder, and as 
 Rome had been forced by the necessities of 
 her late struggle to become to some extent a 
 naval power, it was decided to attack Car- 
 thage. A pretext for war was soon found. 
 Under the pretence of aiding the Mamer- 
 tines against Hiero of Syracuse, the Cartha- 
 ginians had gotten possession of the citadel 
 of Messana. The Mamertines appealed to 
 Rome for help, and an alliance was made 
 with them, notwithstanding their disrepu- 
 table character. An expedition was de- 
 spatched to their aid, and C. Claudius, the 
 commander of the vanguard, succeeded in 
 crossing with his troops from the mainland 
 to Sicily. A little later he seized the Cartha- 
 ginian Admiral Hauno in a pul)lic assembly 
 in Messana, and in order to gain his liberty 
 Hanno removed the Carthaginian garrison 
 from the citadel, surrendered it to the Ro- 
 mans, and left Messana with his fleet. Upon 
 his return home he was crucified by order 
 of the Carthaginian government, and an- 
 other o^cer of the same name was put in 
 command of the fleet. At the same time 
 Carthage declared war against Rome, B. c. 
 264. The struggle which now ensued is 
 known as the First Punic War. 
 
 The Romans succeeded in throwing a 
 force of 20,000 men into Sicily, to which 
 island the war was at first confined. In b. c. 
 262 they inflicted a crushing defeat upon 
 the Carthaginians, and captured Agrigen- 
 tum. About the same time a Carthaginian 
 galley was driven ashore on the Italian 
 
 coast, and furnished the Romans with a 
 model, upon which they improved, and soon 
 had a powerful fleet at sea, with which in 
 the next two years they won important suc- 
 cesses. In B. c. 256 a fleet of 330 ships, 
 and an army of 40,000 men, under the Consuls 
 Manlius and Regulus, sailed from Italy to 
 Africa, defeating a superior Carthaginian 
 fleet on the way, and landed near Carthage 
 without opposition. They ravaged the 
 Carthaginian territory ; sent 20,000 cap- 
 tives, many of whom were of the highest 
 rank, to the slave markets of Rome, and 
 took an immense booty. The next year, 
 
 Regulus being left in Africa with an in- 
 ferior force, the Carthaginians took heart, 
 and defeated him with the loss of the greater 
 part of his army. Among the few prisoners 
 taken was Regulus himself. Immediately 
 after the battle a Roman fleet was despatched 
 to bring back the survivors, which task 
 it accomplished after defeating the Cartha- 
 ginian fleet off* the Hermaean promontory, 
 with a loss of 114 ships. On the return to 
 Italy the fleet was overtaken by a violent 
 storm, in which 270 ships with all on board 
 were lost. Only 80 ships escaped. 
 
 The Carthaginians were so elated at this 
 
348 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 disaster that they ventured to renew the war 
 in Sicily, expecting to find that island an 
 easy conquest, but the Romans met them 
 with a strong army, and in the spring of 
 B. c. 254 sent a new fleet of 300 first-class 
 ships to the Sicilian waters. The next year 
 was one of disaster at sea, 150 ships being 
 lost in a storm, and the Avar languished 
 until B. C. 250, when the Consul Csecilius 
 Metellus won a brilliant victory over the 
 Carthaginians under the walls of Panorraus, 
 capturing the entire Punic force of war ele- 
 phants, 120 in number. This loss obliged 
 the Carthaginians to quit the open field and 
 retire to their fortresses, which were besieged 
 by the Romans. For the next seven years 
 the war went on, the Carthaginians iDciug 
 generally successful. The exploits of Ham- 
 ilcar Barca, the Carthaginian leader, 
 
 LEGIONAEY SOLDIERS. 
 
 greatly disheartened the Romans, and 
 caused them severe suffering, as he ravaged 
 the Italian coast at will, meeting with hardly 
 any resistance. The Romans could bring 
 forward no leader capable of defeating him, 
 and the senate made scarcely an effort to re- 
 sist the enemy. At last in b. c. 242 the 
 citizens of Rome took the matter in their 
 own hands, and by one of the most magnifi- 
 cent efforts of patriotism ever exhibited, 
 brought the war to a close. In the twenty- 
 third year of this exhausting war, they built 
 and equipped a fleet of 200 first-class ships, 
 manned by 60,000 sailors, and presented it to 
 the state. The command was given to the Con- 
 sul Gaius Lutatius Catulus. He drove the in- 
 ferior force of the Carthaginians before him, 
 reached Sicily, and seizing the harbors of 
 Lilyboeum and Drepaua, laid siege vigor- 
 
 ously to those places by land and sea. 
 Carthage hastily despatched a fleet to Sicily, 
 which arrived off" Drepana in the spring of 
 b. c. 241. The Romans at once sailed out 
 to attack them, brought them to action off" 
 the little island of ^gusa, now Favignano, 
 and defeated them, sinking fifty and cap- 
 turing seventy of their ships. The Cartha- 
 ginians were so disheartened by this reverse 
 that they consented to make peace, to aban- 
 don Sicily and all the neighboring islands, 
 to pay an indemnity of 2,000 talents, or 
 $2,400,000, and release all the Roman pris- 
 oners without ransom. 
 
 Thus closed the first Punic war, after a 
 duration of nearly twenty-four years. It 
 was a great gain for Rome. Carthage was 
 expelled from Italian waters, and Rome 
 had grown into a first-class naval power. 
 
 In B. c. 238, Carthage being embarrassed 
 by a mutiny of her mercenary troops, Rome 
 seized the island of Sardinia, and not only 
 refused to surrender it upon the demand of 
 Carthage, but threatened to renew the war. 
 Carthage, in no condition for such an en- 
 counter, consented to the cession of the 
 island, and paid a fine of 1,200 talents for 
 her remonstrance. In B. c. 227 Rome, 
 encouraged by her success in Sardinia, an- 
 nexed Corsica. In order to govern these 
 islands and Sicily, she placed them under 
 proconsuls, which officials were at once 
 governor, commander-in-chief, and supreme 
 judge. A proconsul was appointed for 
 Sicily and another for Sardinia and Corsica. 
 This was the beginning of this important 
 branch of Roman rule. 
 
 A year or two previous the cities of 
 Greece on the Adriatic coast besought aid 
 from Rome against the Illyrian pirates, 
 from whose ravages they had suffered 
 severely. In B. c. 230 Rome sent an em- 
 bassy to the Illyrians to demand a cessation 
 of their outrages. The ambassadors were 
 murdered, and war was at once declared by 
 Rome. The next year a fleet of 200 ships 
 was sent into the Adriatic and the pirates 
 were exterminated. More important results 
 to Rome were the establishment of Roman 
 power over a part of Illyria and Dalmatia, 
 and of a Roman protectorate over the 
 Greeks of Apollonia, Epidamnus, and Cor- 
 cyra. In return for these services the 
 Romans were admitted by the Greeks to 
 participation in the Isthmian Games and 
 the Eleusinian Mysteries. What was more 
 important to Rome was, that she had ac- 
 quired a footing on the opposite side of the 
 
THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE. 
 
 349 
 
 Adricatic, and the right to interfere in the 
 affairs of Greece. 
 
 During these years troubles had been 
 going on with the Gauls and Ligurians in 
 northern Italy. They made war upon 
 Rome in B. c. 238, but were obliged to 
 make peace at the cost of some of their 
 lauds two years later. In B. c. 232 Rome, 
 being determined to put an end to the 
 power of the Gauls, which measure would 
 free her from a constant danger in that 
 quarter, and at the same time extend her 
 territory, began to push her colonies into 
 the country of the Senouian Gauls. These 
 colonies were pushed forward so steadily, 
 and made so numerous in the next seven 
 years, and the purpose of Rome became so 
 clear, that the Gauls were obliged to take 
 up arms. War began in B. c. 225, the 
 Senonian Gauls beiug aided by their kin- 
 dred beyond the Alps. The struggle lasted 
 three years, and though at one time the 
 Gallic army advanced as far as Clusium 
 and threatened the Eternal City Avith the 
 fate that had been inflicted upon it by 
 Brennus, the Gauls were utterly routed iu 
 a great battle near Telamon in Etruria. 
 The result of the war was that all Cisalpine 
 Gaul was conquered and annexed to the 
 Roman dominions. In order to hold it, it 
 was planted thickly with colonies, which 
 were connected with Rome by the great 
 military road and its branches, known as 
 the Flaminian Way. Rome was now mis- 
 tress of all Italy, from the great wall of the 
 Alps to the southern coast of Sicily, and 
 from sea to sea. 
 
 During all this while Carthage, which 
 had submitted to Rome only from necessity, 
 and had consented to the aggressions of her 
 rival only because of her inability to pre- 
 vent them, had been energetically seeking 
 to retrieve her losses and prepare for a re- 
 newal of the war, which she meant to bring 
 about as soon as she was ready for it. As 
 a means of increasing both her power and 
 wealth, Hamilcar began in B. c. 236 the 
 conquest of the Spanish peninsula. In B. c. 
 238, at his death, the work was taken up 
 by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, and carried 
 on with vigor and intelligence. These 
 commanders not only sought to bring Spain 
 under the control of Carthage, but exerted 
 themselves at the same time to raise it to a 
 condition which would enable it to become 
 a useful ally. Towns were built, commerce 
 and trade were fostered, the natives were 
 taught the arts of civilization, especially 
 
 agriculture, and were trained as soldiers, 
 and the newly-discovered silver mines were 
 worked successfully. Thus the resources of 
 Spain were developed and the country 
 placed in possession of a prosperity greater 
 than it had ever known before, and the 
 revenue derived from it not only defrayed 
 all the expenses of the province, but yielded 
 a large surplus which went into the Car- 
 thaginian treasury. 
 
 An important change made in the Car- 
 thaginian system at the close of the first 
 Punic war was the appointment of Hamil- 
 car to the chief command of the army for 
 an indefinite period, and the relinquishment 
 to the army of the right to select his suc- 
 cessor. He was slain iu battle with the 
 natives, b. c. 227, and was succeeded by his 
 son-in-law Hasdrubal, who perished by the 
 hand of an assassin iu b. c. 220. The Car- 
 thaginian army at once chose Hannibal, 
 the eldest son of Hamilcar, to be their suc- 
 cessor, and the home government was 
 obliged to confirm the choice. 
 
 The new general was a young man who 
 had not yet completed his twenty-ninth 
 year; but, though young, he was a tried 
 soldier. His first recollections were of war. 
 He had accompanied his father to Sicily 
 when a mere child, and had witnessed the 
 agony of that brave commander when com- 
 pelled to consent to the disgraceful peace 
 which closed the first Puuic war. At the 
 age of nine he had gone into Spain with his 
 father, who had taken him before the altar 
 of his country's gods and made him swear 
 undying hatred to Rome. He had thus 
 been trained to regard himself as the 
 avenger of his country's wrongs, and he 
 had been carefully prepared for his mission. 
 Though the greater part of his life had been 
 passed in the camp, his education was not 
 neglected. Besides such culture as belonged 
 to the Phoeniciaus of rank in his day, he 
 was well acquainted with the Greek lan- 
 guage. He was light and firmly built in 
 body, an excellent runner, swordsman, and 
 rider, and possessed of a remarkable power 
 for enduring fatigue, hunger, and loss of 
 sleep. He soon distinguished himself in the 
 army, and was fighting by his father's side 
 when the latter was slain. His brother-in- 
 law gave him the command of the cavalry, 
 and he quickly won the confidence of the 
 army by his great skill as a leader and his, 
 brilliant personal courage, and when Has- 
 drubal was killed the troops turned in- 
 stinctively to Hannibal as their natural 
 
350 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 leader. He was one of the noblest as well 
 as one of the most gifted characters of his 
 day. "The power which he wielded over 
 men is shown by his incomparable control 
 over an army of various nations and many 
 tongues — an army which never in the worst 
 times mutinied against him. He was a 
 great man ; wherever he went he riveted 
 the eyes of all." 
 
 Hannibal's first care was to complete the 
 establishment of the Carthaginian power in 
 Spain, and to train his army for the great 
 enterprise for which he destined it by 
 waging war for two years against the native 
 Spanish tribes. He understood the pecu- 
 liar weakness of Carthage in a defensive 
 war, and he determined from the first to 
 attack Rome in her own dominions and 
 prevent her from assailing the home terri- 
 tory of her rival. At length, believing 
 that the hour had come, he deliberately 
 forced a quarrel with Rome. The Greek 
 city of Saguntum had placed itself under 
 Roman protection. Hannibal attacked it, 
 and captured it after a siege of eight 
 months. He then sent the spoil to Car- 
 thage for distribution. The Romans de- 
 manded the surrender of Hannibal and the 
 restoration of Saguntum. The reply of 
 Carthage was a declaration of war. Thus 
 began the Second Punic War, B. C. 219. 
 
 Hannibal, like his father and brother-in- 
 law, held the supreme command both in 
 Spain and in Africa, and upon him devolved 
 the defence of both countries. He had de- 
 termined at the outset to secure both by 
 invading Italy. His army was devoted to 
 him, and as he had not a navy sufiicient to 
 cope with the Romans, he determined to 
 invade Italy from the land. The Gauls 
 had taught him by their repeated passages 
 of the Alps that the great barrier could be 
 crossed, and he resolved to enter the enemy's 
 country from that quarter. Leaving his 
 brother Hasdrubal in command of Spain, 
 and having offered sacrifices to the Tyrian 
 Hercules at the distant shrine of Gades, 
 Hannibal set out from Carthagena in the 
 spring of B. c. 218, at the head of an army 
 of 90,000 foot, 12,000 horse, and thirty- 
 seven elephants. Two-thirds of the troops 
 were Africans, and the remainder Spaniards 
 — all subjects of Carthage. Hannibal 
 placed no reliance upon his elephants, but 
 carried them merely for the moral effect he 
 expected them to produce upon the Gauls. 
 The Spanish tribes between the Ebro and 
 the Pyrenees resisted his march, but were 
 
 conquered, and a detachment of 11,000 
 men was left to keep them quiet. Arrived 
 at the Pyrenees, Hannibal sent a portion 
 of his force back home — a measure on 
 which he had been resolved from the first, 
 in order to show the remainder how confi- 
 dent he was of success. He retained a force 
 of 50,000 foot and 9,000 cavalry. With 
 these troops and his elephants he continued 
 his march through the territory of the 
 friendly Gauls to the Rhone. 
 
 The Romans in the meantime had been 
 busy preparing an expedition against Car- 
 thage. When in readiness the troops des- 
 tined to take part in it were called off to 
 suppress an insurrection in the plain of the 
 Po. When they returned it was decided 
 to send them into Spain under the Consul 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio, to assist the allies 
 of Rome in that quarter. On the voyage 
 Scipio touched at Massilia, which was in 
 alliance with Rome, and to his astonish- 
 ment learned that Hannibal was already 
 on the banks of the Rhone. He therefore 
 abandoned the expedition to Spain, and, 
 aided by the Celtic tribes of the lower 
 Rhone, who were friendly, undertook to 
 keep his enemy on the right bank of that 
 river ; but Hannibal succeeded in passing 
 his army over the Rhone by means of rafts 
 and such boats as could be found, before 
 Scipio could reach him. He crossed the 
 river near the modern town of Orange, 
 about twenty miles above Avignon. Once 
 over the Rhone it was impossible to prevent 
 the Carthaginian army from reaching the 
 Alps. Hannibal had expected to find no 
 lack of guides among the natives, and he 
 was not disappointed in this expectation. 
 He chose the pass now known • as the Little 
 St. Bernard, which, though the highest and 
 longest, was the easiest of the ancient 
 routes across the Alps, and permitted him 
 to transport the baggage and stores of the 
 army. His passage occupied fifteen days 
 and was full of dangers and difficulties, for, 
 besides overcoming the natural perils of the 
 route, the Carthaginian leader had to fight 
 his way through the territory of hostile 
 tribes. At length, however, he overcame 
 all his difficulties and descended into the 
 plain of the Po, but with only half of the 
 59,000 men who had crossed the Pyrenees 
 with him. Whatever may have been the 
 faults of his plan, his passage of the Alps 
 stamped him as a great general. 
 
 Hannibal was welcomed as a deliverer by 
 the Insubrian Gauls, who embraced this 
 
THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE. 
 
 351 
 
 opportunity to get rid of their Roman 
 masters. He spent a brief period in tlieir 
 territory to rest his troops, and then pressed 
 on to the Ticinus, to meet the Roman army 
 which had been assembled to oppose him 
 under Scipio. He defeated the consul on 
 the banks of that river, and in December 
 of the same year routed the armies of the 
 two consuls, Scipio and Tiberius Sempro- 
 nius (commanded by the latter in conse- 
 quence of a wound of Scipio) on the banks 
 of the Trebia. This victory made the Car- 
 thaginian master of northern Italy, and he 
 was joined at once by all the Gauls, who 
 had until now held aloof to watch the issue 
 of the conflict. In spite of these successes, 
 however, he was greatly hampered by the 
 sufferings of his African and Spani-sh troops, 
 who were unable to stand the unusual cold 
 of the winter. 
 
 The next spring, B. c. 217, he crossed the 
 Apennines, passed the difficult marshes of 
 the Arno in safety, and pressed on into the 
 heart of Italy, thus anticipating the move- 
 ment of the Consul Gains Flaminius, who 
 intended to dispute with him the passage 
 of the Apennines. Failing to prevent this, 
 Flaminius awaited him at Arretium. The 
 consul was an arrant braggart, who re- 
 garded himself as more than a match for 
 Hannibal ; but the latter soon undeceived 
 him. Instead of attacking Flaminius, he 
 marched j^a^t him, and laid waste the coun- 
 try along his route, and at the same time, 
 by his taunts, stung the consul into leaving 
 his strong position and following him. 
 Fully infoi'med of his adversary's move- 
 ments, Hannibal selected his field of battle 
 — " a narrow defile between two steep 
 mountain walls, closed at its outlet by a 
 high hill, and at its entrance by the Trasi- 
 mene lake." When Flaminius sought to 
 dislodge him from this position, he turned 
 upon him and demolished his army. There 
 W'as no battle ; it was a mere rout. Not- 
 withstanding the bravery of the legions, the 
 Roman army was almost annihilated, 
 Flaminius himself being among the slain ; 
 and 15,000 were made prisoners. All 
 Etruria Avas lost and the road to Rome was 
 open. The Romans broke down all the 
 bridges over the Tiber and made Quintus 
 Fabius Maximus dictator, with full powers 
 to meet the emergency. Hannibal, how- 
 ever, did not advance upon Rome, but 
 turned aside into Apulia to rest and recruit 
 his army. He sought to detach the Italian 
 nations from the Roman alliance by re- 
 
 leasing the prisoners belonging to them that 
 he had taken, and sent them away without 
 ransom. His efforts were in vain, however ; 
 the Italian towns closed their gates against 
 him, and not one joined him. He also 
 undertook and successfully carried out in 
 the month which elapsed between his great 
 victory and the resumption of active opera- 
 tions, the entire reorganization of his army 
 upon the Roman method. The arms taken 
 in battle provided him with the means of 
 equipping his troops, and the hazardous 
 undertaking was accomplished Avith en- 
 tire success in the very presence of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Fabius, upon taking command of tne 
 Roman army, put in execution a plan of 
 operations entirely different from that pur- 
 sued by his predecessor. He was deter- 
 mined to avoid a pitched battle with the 
 invaders, whom he hoped to be able to wear 
 out by starvation, dependent as they were 
 on foraging for their supplies. He seems 
 
 ROMAN BATTERING-RAM AND TOWER. 
 
 to have thought that Hannibal would not 
 dare to advance as long as he held the Ro- 
 man army intact ; but he was soon made 
 aware of his error in this respect by the 
 Carthaginian, who eluded him and de- 
 scended into the rich plains of Campania. 
 He had formed connections in Capua, the 
 most important city of the republic except 
 Rome, and he was hopeful that the Cam- 
 panians would revolt from the Roman alli- 
 ance and join him ; but he was disappointed, 
 and he was forced to content himself with 
 ravaging the country and collecting pro- 
 visions for the supply of his army during 
 the coming Avinter. During all this AA'hile, 
 the Roman army, under its cautious leader, 
 Avas forced to look doAvn from the hills upon 
 the depredations of Numidian ca\'alry, Avho 
 harried the country Avith fire and sword 
 under their very eyes. The army Avas bit- 
 
352 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 terly incensed against Fabius, and de- 
 manded to be led to battle. At length 
 Fabius seemed to have secured the oppor- 
 tunity for which the troo^js were so impa- 
 tient. He seized the road leading by 
 Casilinum (the modern Capua), and lined 
 the heights commanding it with his troops, 
 and flattered himself that he had intercepted 
 the retreat of his enemy. Hannibal, who 
 had mastered the character of Fabius, now 
 secured his safety by a characteristic strata- 
 gem. He waited until night, and sent his 
 light troops to climb the heights. They 
 drove before them a number of oxen, each 
 of whom bore a lighted brand on each 
 horn, so that it seemed to the Romans that 
 their enemy was marching over the heights 
 by torchlight. Fabius at once withdrew 
 the force he had posted to hold the road, 
 and followed what he supposed to be Han- 
 nibal's army. The latter, as soon as he 
 
 SCIPIO AFKICANUS. 
 
 found the road clear, marched his army 
 rapidly by the point of danger, and the 
 next morning extricated his light troops 
 from their position on the heights, and in- 
 flicted a sharp loss upon the Romans. He 
 then withdrew into Apulia, well-pro- 
 visioned for the winter. 
 
 The policy of Fabius, though utterly dis- 
 tasteful to the Romans, was vindicated by 
 the results of the next spring, B. c. 216. 
 An army of nearly 90,000 men, under the 
 Consuls TEmilius Paulus and Terentius 
 Varro, was sent into Apulia. It was de- 
 feated by Hannibal near the little town of 
 Caun^, with a loss of from 40,000 to 50,000 
 men killed, among whom were the Consul 
 al^milius and eighty senators. The remain- 
 der of the troops were either fugitives or 
 prisoners, except a small band under Varro, 
 which had secured its retreat in good order. 
 
 It was the most terrible reverse Rome had 
 ever suffered, and had been inflicted by an 
 inferior force. It threw all of southern 
 Italy into Hannibal's hands. With the 
 exception of the Roman colonies and the 
 Greek cities held by Roman garrisons, every 
 town surrendered to him. Capua threw 
 open its gates at his approach, and became 
 his quarters for the winter. Philip V. of 
 Macedon, and Hieronymus of Syracuse, 
 became the allies of Carthage and compelled 
 the Romans to divide their forces to meet 
 them. Hannibal regarded his ultimate 
 success as assured. Perhaps it would have 
 been had Carthage pursued a less selfish and 
 ungenerous policy in her treatment of the 
 only man who was capable of defeating 
 Rome. 
 
 The conduct of Rome at this crisis of her 
 fate was admirable. By the greatest exer- 
 tions another army was put in the field to 
 face Hannibal, and Macedon and Syracuse 
 were kept too much engaged at home to be 
 able to send assistance to him. The Greek 
 cities and the Roman colonies, undismayed 
 by the result of Caunse, kept their gates 
 closed against the Carthaginians, and it was 
 clear that Hannibal had gained every ad- 
 vantage which could be won without a new 
 display of foi'ce. Moreover, new generals 
 had succeeded to the control of the Roman 
 armies. Led by such able commanders as 
 Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Marcus 
 Valerius, and, above all, by Marcus Clau- 
 dius Marcellus, who became the controlling 
 spirit of the war, the Romans were able 
 during the year B. c. 215 to defeat Hannibal 
 under the walls of Nola, and to throw him 
 on the defensive. His troops, weakened by 
 their luxurious life in Capua during the 
 previous winter, were no longer able to beat 
 the Romans, and he was compelled to own 
 that if he was to succeed in the conquest of 
 Italy, he must have heavy reinforcements 
 from Africa and Spain. Hasdrubal, how- 
 ever, had been beaten by the Scipios on the 
 Ebro in Spain, and was so hard pressed 
 there that the men and supplies raised in 
 Carthage for Hannibal were sent to him, as 
 it was of the first importance to hold Spain. 
 In B. c. 215 Hieronymus of Syracuse was 
 killed, and in B. c. 212 Syracuse was cap- 
 tured by Marcellus after a siege of two years. 
 In Spain Hasdrubal had made a gallant 
 struggle against the Scipios — Cneius and 
 Publius — who endeavored to wrest that 
 peninsula from Carthage. They had grad- 
 ually succeeded in getting the better of 
 
THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE. 
 
 353 
 
 him, and Imd 'almost forced him out of 
 Spain, but in b. c. 212 he succeeded in in- 
 flicting upon them a terrible defeat, in 
 which both of them were slain. Gaius 
 Claudius Nero, an able but unpopular 
 officer, was sent to succeed them with a re- 
 inforcement of 12,000 troops. He suc- 
 ceeded in restoring the balance of arms, but 
 he could not win over allies to Rome, 
 though he came near capturing Hasdrubal 
 in B. c. 210, and the next year the senate 
 sent Publius Scipio, the son of the consul 
 of that name who had fallen in Spain, to 
 succeed him. The younger Scipio was the 
 first of a long line of great Roman generals, 
 and he soon showed his abilities by reducing 
 Hasdrubal to severe straits, and taking his 
 capital of Carthagena. In B. c. 208 he de- 
 feated Hasdrubal in Adalusia. Hasdrubal 
 had received orders to march through Gaul 
 into Italy to the aid of Hannibal, and after 
 this last battle he left Spain in the hands 
 of two of his subordinates, and set out on 
 his march. He fought his way to the 
 northern coast of Spain, crossed the Pyr- 
 enees at their western end, and entered 
 Gaul. He advanced to the Alps without 
 meeting any resistance. He was joined by 
 many of the Gauls, so that his army in- 
 creased as he advanced. He passed the 
 Alps by his brother's road, and in the 
 spring of B. c. 207 descended upon the 
 plain of the Po. He had not been expected 
 so soon in Italy, and the Romans were 
 unprepared to meet him. Had he marched 
 promptly upon Rome he might have cap- 
 tured the city and decided the war, but he 
 turned aside to besiege Placeutia, and his 
 letter stating his plans fell into the hands 
 of the Consul Kero. 
 
 In the meantime Hannibal, who had 
 spent the time since the battle of Cann?e in 
 completing the conquest of southern Italy, 
 began to move to the north as soon as he 
 heard of his brother's passage of the Alps. 
 He was closely followed by Nero with an 
 army of 40,000 men, but it seems clear that 
 the Carthaginian was not hampered in his 
 movements by this force, as he eluded it by 
 one of his characteristic flank marches 
 whenever he saw fit to do so. Reaching 
 Canusium, he halted to await a despatch 
 from his brother providing for the junction 
 of their forces. This letter was intercepted 
 by the Roman outposts and carried to 
 Nero. It revealed Hasdrubal's intention 
 to move southward by the Flaminian road, 
 and named Narnia as the point where he 
 23 
 
 hoped to join Hannibal. Nero at once 
 despatched a column of 8,000 men from his 
 army to Narnia to secure that place, and 
 with a force of 7,000 picked troops he left 
 his camp and hastened to Sena Gallica, 
 where the other consul, ]\Iarcus Livius, was 
 awaiting the advance of Hasdrubal. Both 
 consuls then marched upon Hasdrubal, 
 whom they found crossing the Metaurus, 
 forced him to battle, and after a severe 
 struggle, defeated him. The Carthaginian 
 army was destroyed, and Hasdrubal, scorn- 
 ing to survive his disaster, plunged into the 
 Roman ranks, and met a soldier's death. 
 Nero then marched rapidly back to Canu- 
 sium, where he found Hannibal, as he had 
 expected, waiting anxiously for a message 
 from his brother. Two weeks had elapsed 
 since the camp had been formed there, and 
 still no tidings had come from Hasdrubal. 
 The consul brought the message with him. 
 It was the gory head of Hasdrubal, which 
 he ordered to be thrown into Hannibal's 
 camp, repaying in this brutal manner the 
 generosity of the Carthaginian hero, who 
 had given honorable burial to Paulus, 
 Gracchus, and Marcellus. Hannibal in- 
 terpreted the message aright. All was 
 lost. He abandoned his camp and re- 
 treated into the country of the Bruttians, 
 whose mountain fastnesses enabled him to 
 maintain his position in the peninsula, and 
 whose ports afforded him the means of 
 withdrawing from that country. For three 
 years he held this position, but the events 
 of the war in Italy were unsuccessful. 
 
 During this time Scipio had retrieved 
 his error of permitting Hasdrubal to leave 
 Spain by the conquest of that country. In 
 B. c. 20'! he resolved to attack the home 
 territories of Carthage, and sailed from Italy 
 for Africa with 30,000 men, 40 ships of 
 war, and 400 transports, and, meeting no 
 enemy on his passage, landed near Utica. 
 He found the Carthaginians supported by 
 a force of 50,000 Libyan infantry, and 
 10,000 cavalry, under Syphax, a native 
 king, and he was obliged to confine himself 
 to the coast. The next year, B. c. 203, he 
 surprised the Carthaginian camp and de- 
 feated their army. A few weeks later they 
 were reinforced by a force of Macedonian 
 and Spanish auxiliaries, and were again 
 defeated by Scipio. They could keep the 
 field no longer after these defeats, and 
 Hannibal was recalled from Italy to save 
 Carthage. Without a murmur^or a re- 
 proach for the treatment lie had received 
 
354 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 from his government, Hannibal returned to 
 Carthage, and endeavored to execute the 
 task assigned him. He collected an army 
 and met Scipio at Zama in the spring of 
 B. C. 202. He found in him an abler ad- 
 versary than he had yet encountered. In 
 spite of his skilful conduct of the battle and 
 the bravery of his veterans, Hannibal was 
 defeated, his army was annihilated, and he 
 fled with a handful of men to Hadrume- 
 tum, Carthage was now at the mercy of 
 Kome, and peace Avas made in b. c. 201. 
 Carthage surrendered all her territories be- 
 yond the limits of Africa and restored all 
 the lands taken from Numidia, whose king, 
 Massinissa, had been a valuable ally of 
 
 KOMAN GALLEYS. 
 
 Scipio in the last campaign of the war. 
 Her fleet and elephants were also given up 
 to the Romans, and she agreed to pay a 
 yearly tribute of 200 talents, and bound 
 herself to engage in no war without the con- 
 sent of Rome. In other words, Carthage 
 lost her independence, and became a tribu- 
 tary of Rome. Returning home, Scipio 
 was received with enthusiasm, and was hon- 
 ored with the most splendid triumph the 
 city had ever witnessed. He received the 
 surname of Africanus, in memory of his 
 conquest. 
 
 By the successful result of the second 
 Punic war Rome not only removed from 
 
 her path a formidable rival, but gained the 
 complete supremacy of the western Medi- 
 terranean. A Roman protectorate was es- 
 tablished over the native African tribes, 
 and the independent state of Syracuse was 
 added to the Roman province of Sicily. 
 The principal part of Spain was added to 
 the Roman domain, and the wealth of the 
 republic was greatly increased. The revolt 
 of the southern Italian states was severely 
 punished. In all Italy, except in Latium, 
 the native races were depressed, aud a 
 Latin dominion was established over the 
 entire peninsula. The war with the Cis- 
 alpine Gauls went on after the defeat of 
 Carthage, but, by b. C. 191, they were en- 
 tirely and finally 
 subdued, and be- 
 came Latinized 
 with a facility 
 which is surpris- 
 ing even in this 
 race. 
 
 While occupied 
 with the Gauls, 
 Rome was also 
 I'Dgaged in her 
 second war with 
 Philip v., of 
 Macedon, the 
 events and re- 
 sults of which 
 have been related 
 in the Greek his- 
 tory of this period. 
 This W" a r was 
 ended in b. c. 197. 
 It was followed by 
 the attempt of An- 
 tiochus the Great 
 of Syria to add 
 Macedonia and 
 Asia Minor to his 
 dominions. This struggle and the victories 
 by which the Romans chased Antiochus out 
 of Europe and Asia Minor, and brought 
 him to their feet as a suppliant for mercy, 
 have also been related in the Greek and 
 Syrian histories of this period. By her 
 victories Rome gained not a single inch of 
 territory for herself, but gave all the con- 
 quered and surrendered territory to her 
 allies, Pergamus and Rhodes. She was but 
 carrying out a wise policy, which was to 
 make it apparent to all the Eastern nations 
 that her friendship was as profitable as it 
 was powerful ; and her influence and the 
 terror of her name were spread far and 
 
THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE. 
 
 355 
 
 wide — results more valuable than the mere 
 acquisition of territory. 
 
 During this period four other wars were 
 carried on in western Europe. The Spanish 
 peninsula was not yet entirely subdued, and 
 the brave resistance of the inhabitants of 
 Lusitania (Portugal) gave constant em- 
 ployment to a Roman army ; wars Avere also 
 maintained with the mountain tribes of Li- 
 guria, and with Sardinia and Corsica. 
 Sardinia was conquered by Sempronius 
 Gracchus about b. c. 176. He brought so 
 many captives to Rome for sale as slaves, 
 that the term " Sardinians for sale " became 
 a synonym for cheapness. 
 
 The final wars in Greece, which resulted 
 in the conquest of Macedonia and the sup- 
 pression of the Achaean League, have been 
 related, and the narrative need not be re- 
 peated here. By the final defeat of the 
 Macedonian army at Pydna it was made 
 plain to the world that the Roman army 
 had no equal, and that it was useless to 
 contend with it. Rome was now mistress 
 of the world, having extended her power 
 over Egypt as Avell as Asia by assuming the 
 protectorate of that kingdom. None of the 
 civilized nations dared to resist her com- 
 mands. 
 
 Rome was fully aware of her power, but 
 was not satisfied with it. Eighteen un- 
 eventful years passed away, marked only 
 by petty wars with the Alpine and Spanish 
 tribes, and then the senate began the execu- 
 tion of the great design which made the 
 Roman empire and the civilized world one 
 and the same. As the first step in this di- 
 rection, it was agreed to destroy Carthage, 
 the only city which, though reduced and 
 ■weakened, was felt to be the rival of Rome. 
 Carthage had more than faithfully com- 
 plied with the conditions of the peace, and 
 Rome had not the slightest cause for a re- 
 newal of war with her. It was resolved to 
 make a pretext, but as Carthage had 
 readily sacrificed everything in the interests 
 of peace, it ■was difiicult to manufacture a 
 plausible ground for a quarrel. The bitter 
 hati'ed of Rome to her rival was well exem- 
 plified by Cato, the sternest of Roman 
 censors. When called upon for his vote in 
 the senate on any question ■whatsoever, his 
 invariable answer was, "I vote that Car- 
 thage no longer be." His answer suggested 
 a pretext for war. The senate ordered the 
 Carthaginians to destroy their city and re- 
 move to a site ten miles distant from the 
 sea. The Carthaginians read the design of 
 
 the Romans in this demand, and natui*ally 
 refused to commit the national suicide re- 
 quired of them. Rome at once declared 
 war against Carthage, B. c. 149, Thus 
 began the Third Punic War. 
 
 The Carthaginians maintained the un- 
 equal struggle for four years, for they 
 fought with the courage of despair. There 
 was no time at which they might have en- 
 tertained a reasonable hope of success. 
 They had no ships and were almost without 
 arms, for, before stating the ultimatum of 
 the senate, the Roman commanders in 
 Africa had demanded and received the sur- 
 render of armor and ■sveapous for 200,000 
 men as a measure of peace ; and the Car- 
 thaginians had no allies. Yet, with a zeal 
 and energy worthy of all admiration, these 
 heroic people set to work to make up their 
 deficiencies. 
 
 Catapults for the defence of the walls, 
 and armor and arms for the troops were 
 made ; public buildings were toi'u down to 
 provide wood and metal ; and all classes 
 and both sexes worked day and night to 
 complete these instruments. The women 
 cut off" their long hair and gave it to make 
 cords for the catapults, and in a marvel- 
 lously short time the walls and their defend- 
 ers were once more armed. All this while 
 the Roman army lay at Utica, so that the 
 work ■was carried on in the very face of the 
 enemy. At length the Romans advanced, 
 exjiecting to find the city defenceless. To 
 their amazement they saw the walls armed, 
 and lined with defenders ready to fight to 
 the death. An assault being impossible, 
 the siege of Carthage was begun by land 
 and sea. In the third year of the war and 
 of the siege, the Carthaginians built a fleet 
 of 120 ships in their blockaded jiort, and 
 cut a canal from the harbor across the land 
 to the sea, and thus got their galleys to the 
 ocean. Had they attacked the Roman fleet 
 at once, which was at the moment of their 
 appearance totally unprepared to meet them, 
 the Carthaginians would most likely have 
 destroyed it, but they contented themselves 
 with a mere demonstration and retired. 
 When they returned three days later to 
 offer battle, the Romans were ready for 
 them, and they were driven back, and 
 crowding together into the canal inflicted 
 such damage upon each other that it was 
 equivalent to a defeat. 
 
 During the winter of B. c. 147-146, 
 famine and pestilence made such sore rav- 
 ages among the defenders of the city that 
 
356 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ■when the first assault was made in the 
 spring of B. c. 146, they were unable to 
 defend the walls with their accustomed 
 vigor, and the inner port was gained. Six 
 days of hard fighting were still necessary, 
 however, to bring the Romans to the foot 
 of the citadel walls. The Consul Scipio 
 JEniilianus ordered the city to be fired in 
 every direction, and large numbers of the 
 people concealed in the houses perished in 
 the flames. The defenders of the citadel 
 then surrendered. The Carthaginian com- 
 mander, Hasdrubal, had taken refuge with 
 his family in the temple of the God of Heal- 
 ing. When it was fired by some of the 
 Roman deserters who had taken refuge 
 there with him, and who preferred death 
 here to falling into the hands of their coun- 
 trymen, Hasdrubal fled from it, and casting 
 himself at the feet of Scipio begged for his 
 life, Avhich was granted him. His noble 
 wife, beholding his cowardice from the roof 
 of the burning temple where she Avas stand- 
 ing with her two children, called to him, in 
 an agony of shame at his disgrace, to be 
 careful to save his life, and then sprang 
 with her children into the flames. The city 
 was utterly destroyed. A tenth-part only 
 of the population survived — about 30,000 
 men and 25,000 women. These were mostly 
 sold into slavery. The ruins of the city 
 alone remained standing, and the senate 
 sternly ordered Scipio to destroy even these. 
 They were set on fire, and burned for seven- 
 teen days, until no trace of the city was left, 
 except the heap of ashes which marked 
 where Carthage once stood. Scipio was 
 horror-struck at his own work. The Car- 
 thaginian territories were reorganized by 
 the Romans as the province of Africa, of 
 which Utica was made the capital. It be- 
 came a noted resort of Roman merchants 
 and ships, and these succeeded to the flourish- 
 ing commerce once enjoyed by Carthage. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE 
 TO THE DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 Final Conquest of Greece — It becomes a Eoman 
 Province — Wars in tlie Spanish Peninsula — Lusi- 
 tania Subdued and made a Pioman Province — The 
 Numantines Conquered — The Romans Gain Per- 
 gamus and become Supreme in Asia Minor — Rapid 
 Increase of the Population of Rome — Proportion- 
 ate Growth of Pauperism — Reasons for it — Politi- 
 cal Corruption^The First Servile War — Efforts 
 to Remedy the Political and Social Troubles at 
 Rome — Tiberius Gracchus— He Proposes an Agra- 
 rian Law — His Measures Carried — Op])osition to 
 the Law — Murder of Tiberius Gracchus — Scipio 
 
 JEmilianus Murdered — Discontents of the Latins 
 and Italians — Caius Gracchus — ^Is made Tribune — 
 His Measures to Improve the Condition of the 
 People — The " Sempronian Granaries " — The 
 Pauper Population of Rome Increased — Unpopu- 
 larity of the Proposal to Extend the Roman Citi- 
 zenship to all the Italians — Downfall of Gracchus 
 — His Murder — The Plebs talie a Lesson in Vio- 
 lence from the Aristocracy — The War with Jugur- 
 tha — Rise of Caius Marius — Brings the Jugurthine 
 War to a Close — Is Re-elected Consul — Invasion 
 of Gaul by the Cimbrians and Teutons — They De- 
 feat the Roman Armies — Marius is sent Against 
 them and Defeats them — The Cimbri Enter Italy, 
 and are Exterminated by Marius — Ambition of 
 ^larius — His Opportunities and his Hesitation — 
 The Second Servile War — Murder of Drusus — The 
 Social War — Concessions of Rome to the Italians 
 — Rivalry of Marius and Sulla— The Final Rup- 
 ture between them — The First Civil War — Tri- 
 umph of Sulla and Flight of Marius — Cinna Driven 
 from Rome — Return of Marius — He Captures 
 Rome — The Marian Massacre — Seventh Consul- 
 ship and Death of Marius — Sertorius Slaughters 
 the Marian Assassins. 
 
 URING the third Punic war, Rome 
 had been called upon to suppress 
 an outbreak in Greece. A pre- 
 tender, who claimed to be the son 
 of Perseus, the last King of Mace- 
 donia and Greece, raised the stand- 
 ard of revolt in Macedonia, invaded Thes- 
 saly, and defeated the Romans in a pitched 
 battle in b. c. 149. The next year, how- 
 ever, he was himself defeated and made a 
 prisoner by Metellus. Availing herself of 
 the opportunity thus afforded, Rome re- 
 duced Macedonia to the form of a province. 
 In the same year the war with the Achsean 
 league broke out, as has been related else- 
 where. It was closed in B. c. 146 by the 
 Consul L. Mummius, who captured Corinth, 
 and plundered and destroyed it. A curse 
 was pronounced upon whomsoever should 
 rebuild it. Corinth was rich in works of 
 art. The greater part of these were sent to 
 Rome by Mummius to adorn that city. 
 
 In Spain the war still went on. The 
 native tribes of the Spanish peninsula were 
 hardy, brave, and devoted to their freedom, 
 and their country was easily defended in 
 consequence of its natural strength. In the 
 northern and western portions of the penin- 
 sula the native tribes still maintained a 
 gallant resistance to the Romans, who found 
 it almost impossible to subdue them. The 
 Lusitanians were especially noted for their 
 bravery and their unconquerable spirit. 
 They even inflicted a stinging defeat on 
 the prsetor Servius Sulpicius Galba in b. c, 
 151. The next year Galba avenged him- 
 self by an act of the most infamous treachery. 
 He made a treaty with three Lusitanian 
 
FROM DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 tribes on the right bank of the Tagus, and 
 promised to transfer them to better settle- 
 ments. Trusting to his plighted word, the 
 Lusitanians, to the number of 7,000, came 
 to him to receive the promised lands. They 
 •v\-ere separated into tliree divisions, disarmed, 
 and a pt)rtic)U of them Avas massacred ; the 
 remainder were sold into slavery. 
 
 Among those "who escaped from the 
 treacherous Galba was a man named Viria- 
 thus, of humble origin, but of great daring. 
 His countrymen now chose him as their 
 leader. His great bravery and skill won 
 their admiration, and his simple, frugal 
 habits, unaffected manner, and unbounded 
 generosity to his countrymen aroused their 
 enthusiasm, and he was universally ac- 
 knowledged as their king. "It seemed as 
 if in that thoroughly prosaic age one of the 
 Homeric heroes had appeared." He de- 
 feated the Romans in seven well-contested 
 battles, and in the last of these compelled 
 the Roman general, Servilianus, to surren- 
 der with his whole army. He made a gen- 
 erous use of his victory, and concluded a 
 peace with the Roman commander by Avhich 
 the community of the Lusitanians was rec- 
 ognized as sovereign, and Viriathus ac- 
 knowledged as king. The Romans prom- 
 ised to respect the kingdom of Viriathus, 
 who, on his part, agreed to be their friend 
 and ally. The senate ratified these terms, 
 but with the deliberate intention of break- 
 ing them. The fii'st pretext Avas made use 
 of to rencAv the Avar. When Viriathus sent 
 trusted messengers to remonstrate against 
 the rupture of the treaty and to propose 
 terms of peace, the consul bribed the envoys 
 to murder their chief, and the Lusitanian 
 hero Avas stabbed in his sleep by his most 
 trusted friends. The Lusitanian array ac- 
 corded their dead king a superb funeral, 
 and went on with the war, but within a year 
 it Avas decisively defeated and obliged to 
 surrender, and Lusitania (Portugal) became 
 a province of Rome. 
 
 The Avar still Avent on against Isumantia 
 in the north of Spain, the Romans supple- 
 menting the efforts of their armies Avith the 
 usual perfidy of their commanders. The 
 Avar continued for six years, and Avas finally 
 brought to a close by Scipio -^milianus, 
 Avho starA'ed Kumantia into submission. 
 Reduced to despair, the Numantines asked 
 a few days delay in order that those Avho 
 preferred to die rather tlian surrender, 
 might end their Ha'CS, a privilege of Avhich 
 not a few availed themselves. The remain- 
 
 der then yielded up their city. Scipio 
 chose fifty of the most eminent surviA'ors to 
 adorn his triumph, and sold the rest into 
 slavery. The city Avas then levelled with 
 the ground, and its territory distributed 
 among the neighboring tribes. AVith the 
 exception of the northern coast, all the 
 Spanish peninsula Avas now in the hands of 
 the Romans. It Avas diA'ided into three 
 provinces. Hither and Farther Spain, and 
 Lusitania. Although the Lusitanian moun- 
 tains continued for long years to be infested 
 with brigands, a state of affairs Avhich made 
 it necessary for the farm-houses in this re- 
 gion to be built like fortresses, capable of 
 defence in case of need, Spain eA'entually be- 
 came the most flourishing and best organized 
 country subject to Rome ; the population 
 Avas numerous, and the country Avas rich in 
 corn and cattle. 
 
 About the same time the Romans came 
 into the possession of the kingdom of Per- 
 gamus, by the bequest of Attains III., the 
 last king Though the legacy Avas dis- 
 puted by Aristonicus, his opposition was 
 speedily crushed, and Pergamus was organ- 
 ized into the "proAnnce of Asia." The 
 Greater Phrygia was detached and given to 
 Mithridates IV., of Pontus, for his assist- 
 ance in the Avar against Aristonicus. Thus 
 Rome acquired the greater part of Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 ToAvards the middle of this century Rome 
 reached a point at Avhich her foreign Avars 
 became fcAV and unimportant, and her in- 
 ternal affairs demanded all her attention. 
 The old trouble of the poverty of the 
 masses now loomed up again, and more 
 dangerously than ever. During the long 
 period of Avar Avhich elapsed between the 
 close of the Second Samnite War and the 
 final settlement of northern Italy, from B.C. 
 303 to 177, the repeated and heavy losses in 
 battle had kept the population sufficiently 
 decimated to prcA'ent the pressure of poverty 
 fi'om being very generally felt. By the 
 latter date (b. c. 177) these exhausting 
 Avars ceased, and the pojiulation began to 
 increase rapidly. In B. c. 173 the number 
 of adult male Roman citizens Avas only 
 269,015 ; by b. c. 136 this number had in- 
 creased to over 320,000 : and in B. c. 125 it 
 was 390,736 ; and in b. c. 114 it was 394,- 
 336. The result Avas that the labor market 
 of Rome became overcroAvded ; no ncAV 
 colony had been sent out since b. c. 177, no 
 more plunder from conquered countries re- 
 mained to be distributed, and as the lands 
 
358 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Italy had all been assigned, and all the 
 neighboring nations had been conquered, no 
 further relief was to be expected from that 
 source. With the increase of the popula- 
 tion poverty became more wide-spread and 
 deeper. The Licinian laws, which required 
 the employment of a certain amount of free 
 labor by landholders and restricted the 
 amount of land held by a single proprietor, 
 had been long disregarded in both particu- 
 lars. The lands of the public domain had 
 been taken up by capitalists, and had thus 
 fallen into the hands of a small class, who 
 preferred to cultivate them by slave labor, 
 which was cheaper to them. The difficulty 
 of earning a living at Eome was becoming 
 greater every day, and the only means of 
 acquiring wealth there lay in the occu^Dation 
 and cultivation of the public lands on a 
 large scale, in the farming of the revenue, 
 or the government of the provinces. These 
 sources of wealth, however, were absolutely 
 controlled by the ruling class, who as- 
 signed them only to the members of their 
 own order ; and so it had come to pass that 
 the rich were growing richer while the poor 
 were sinking deejDcr into poverty. It is 
 true that the franchise was constantly being 
 conferred upon freedmcn, and that, now 
 that the distinctions between the two great 
 orders of the state were ended, many ple- 
 beian houses had become noble through 
 their members having held high offices in 
 the state, but the number of these was com- 
 j)aratively small, and they soon found that 
 their new interests were identical with those 
 of the patricians rather than with those of 
 the order from which they bad sprung. 
 The common ties of wealth and future gains 
 in riches and power united them. On the 
 other hand the market was crowded with 
 slaves, who could be purchased at so low a 
 rate that free labor was being driven into 
 beggary. To make the matter worse, the 
 mass of the voters bad become accustomed 
 to being bribed by actual gifts of money, by 
 distributions of corn, or by the exhibitions 
 of splendid games at the private cost of the 
 magistrates. This systematic training in 
 corruption had made the populace ready to 
 follow the bidding of any demagogue who 
 should promise them relief from the evils 
 which were evident to all. Moreover, it 
 was plain that the sympathy of the troops 
 was with their suffering fellows-citizens 
 rather than with the government, and that 
 in the event of a popular outbreak the army 
 could not be relied upon. Let the people 
 
 be driven by hunger and despair to rebel- 
 lion, and there were certain allies ready to 
 join them — the immense mass of slaves 
 whose brutal treatment kept them always 
 ripe for revolt. The wisest of the Roman 
 leaders recognized these elements of danger, 
 but the bulk of the nobles shut their eyes 
 to it; and, intent only upon their own self- 
 ish interests, defeated the few remedies pro- 
 posed. 
 
 A foreshadowing of the danger wdiich 
 threatened Rome was given in the First 
 Servile War, which broke out in Sicily in 
 B. c. 134, and continued for two years. 
 Two hundred thousand slaves, driven to 
 despair by their treatment, rose in rebellion, 
 and scourged the beautiful island of Sicily 
 by their revengeful acts. Their revolt was 
 with difficulty sujipresscd, and at one time 
 it seemed likely to spread to the mainland 
 of Italy. In several places, especially at 
 Minturnse and Sinuessa, servile outbreaks 
 were attempted, but were promptly sup- 
 j)ressed. 
 
 Among those who recognized the existing 
 evils, and most earnestly sought to remedy 
 them, was a member of one of the noblest 
 of the plebeian houses, Tiberius Sempronius 
 Gracchus, a grandson of Scipio Africanus, 
 and a tribune of the people. In B. c. 133 
 he proposed a series of measures which 
 sought to relieve the existing distress among 
 the Roman citizens, and to im])rove the 
 general condition of Italy by substituting 
 free labor for that of the slaves in the culti- 
 vation of the soil, and thus giving employ- 
 ment to the bulk of the poorer class of 
 freemen. He proposed, 1. To revive the 
 long-neglected Licinian laws, and to limit 
 the amount of land which a man might 
 legally hold to 600 jugera, with a provision 
 allowing him to hold 250 jugera additional 
 for each adult unemancipated son. 2. The 
 appointment of a permanent commission of 
 three members to enforce this law. 3. The 
 division among the poorer citizens of the 
 lauds of the state which would become va- 
 cant by the enforcement of the first measure. 
 4. The compensation of the large land- 
 holders thus dispossessed for their losses in 
 improvements, etc., by making them abso- 
 lute owners of the 500 jugera of land 
 assigned them. 5. The proviso that the 
 new enactments when once made should be 
 inalienable. 
 
 There seems no reason to doubt that 
 Gracchus was influenced by pure patriotism 
 in joroposing these measures. They were 
 
FROM DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 559 
 
 fiercely opposed by the nobles, however, 
 and their author was bitterly denounced. 
 By the disregard of the Licinian laws many 
 of the nobles and wealthier Italians had 
 become holders of amounts of land largely 
 in excess of the maximum limit proposed. 
 These lands had been in the possession of 
 such families for years, and great expense 
 had been incurred in erecting buildings 
 upon them, and the proj)erty had been 
 transferred and used as though the holders 
 were its absolute owners. The opposition 
 to the laws was led by Octavius, a tribune, 
 the colleague of Gracchus. When the 
 measures were proposed in the assembly of 
 the tribes, Octavius interposed his veto, 
 and prevented the vote from being taken. 
 In the hot dispute which ensued, Gracchus 
 vinfortunately lost his moderation, and ap- 
 pealed to the people to depose Octavius, 
 which measure was carried. The laws 
 were then passed by the tribes, and a com- 
 mission of three, consisting of Gracchus, 
 his brother Caius Gracchus, and his father- 
 in-law Appius Claudius, was appointed to 
 see to the enforcement. 
 
 The work of resuming the control of the 
 public lands and redistributing them Avas 
 begun. It proved a more difficult task 
 than Gracchus had imagined. He had to 
 meet not only the constant and uncea.-^ing 
 hostility of the aristocracy, who declared 
 that while they could not prevent the en- 
 forcement of the law, its author should not 
 escape their vengeance, but also the increas- 
 ing demands of the people, which forced 
 him to measures of a more revolutionary 
 nature. The Romans had just become the 
 masters of the kingdom of Pergamus, which 
 came to them with a full treasury. Grac- 
 chus proposed to the people that the Per- 
 gamene ti^easures should be distributed 
 among the new landholders for the purpose 
 of supplying them with funds to provide 
 their lands with implements and stock, and 
 based his proposition on the assertion that 
 the citizens of Rome had the right to decide 
 upon the disposition of the treasures which 
 came to them under such circumstances. 
 He is said to have proposed to shorten the 
 term of military service, to take from the 
 senators their exclusive right to act as civil 
 jurymen, and to admit the Italian allies to 
 the Roman citizenship. Matters were now 
 at a crisis. When the election for tribunes 
 for the ensuing year came on, the aristo- 
 cratic party, roused to fury, sought by all 
 means in their power to prevent the re- 
 
 election of Gracchus. Finding this impos- 
 sible, the senators, headed by Publius 
 Scipio Nascia, attacked Gracchus and his 
 friends in the senate-house. Gracchus was 
 slain on the steps of the capitol as he en- 
 deavored to escape, and three hundred of 
 his supporters fell with him. His enemies 
 barbarously refused to allow his body to 
 receive decent burial, but flung it into the 
 Tiber. 
 
 Political assassinations rarely accomplish 
 their object ; it was so in this case. The 
 people were horror-struck at the open mur- 
 der of one of their tribunes. So bold an 
 outrage had never been committed before 
 by the nobles, and the people were more 
 than ever determined that the work of the 
 reformer should go on. The party in the 
 senate favorable to the reforms now came 
 into power in that body, and by order of 
 the senate the work of redistributing the 
 lands was resumed. In B. c. 129 Scipio 
 ^milianus, who had been one of the first to 
 recognize the need of reform, and who was 
 a sincere friend of the people, seeing that 
 the lack of moderation on the part of the 
 agrarian commission was really defeating 
 the object of the law, and stirring up fresh 
 discontents, proposed and carried a meas- 
 ure which removed the distribution from 
 the hands of the commission, and intrusted it 
 to the consuls. He joaid with his life for 
 his effort to control the reform. He was 
 found murdered in his bed on the morning 
 of the day he had appointed for an oration 
 before the senate respecting the rights of 
 the Latins in the matter of the distribution 
 of the lands. The murder was undoubtedly 
 an act of the Gracchan party, and a most 
 ill-advised one, as he Avas more their friend 
 than their foe. The popular party opposed 
 an investigation of the crime, and the aris- 
 tocracy feeling that they had lost an oppo- 
 nent rather than a friend, were not unAvilling 
 that the matter should sleep. The loss to 
 Rome Avas great. In Scipio ^milianus 
 perished " the first statesman and first gen- 
 eral of his age," and one of the purest and 
 most disinterested public men the republic 
 ever produced. The senate, sustained by 
 the general indignation of the more mod- 
 erate citizens at the murder of Scipio, now 
 suspended the operation of the disputed laAV. 
 This did not amount to much of a gain, 
 however, as the lauds were nearly all dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 A ncAV trouble was now created by the 
 claims of the Latins and Italians to the 
 
360 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 franchise. These claims were advocated by 
 some of the popular leaders, who believed 
 that such an accession to the tribes would 
 enable them more effectually to control the 
 senate. The claims were presented to the 
 senate in the form of a law to which its as- 
 sent was asked by Q. Fabius Flaccus, the 
 consul, in B. c. 125. By sending him on a 
 foreign mission the senate contrived to avoid 
 the necessity of acting upon the measure. 
 The town of Fregellse vented its disappoint- 
 ment in an open i-evolt. The outbreak was 
 quelled, the walls of the city were destroyed, 
 and it was deprived of all its privileges and 
 reduced to the I'ank of a village. This se- 
 vere punishment frightened the other Latin 
 and Italian towns into submission. 
 
 In the meantime Caius Gracchus, the 
 younger brother of the murdered Tiberius, 
 appeared in Rome. He had been detained 
 in Sardinia as quifistor by the government, 
 but had been recalled on the charge of being 
 one of the instigators of the revolt of Fre- 
 gellse. He was triumphantly acquitted of 
 this charge, and was joyfully greeted by the 
 popular party, who made him their tribune 
 by an unusually large vote. For 'the first 
 time in many years the commons had a great 
 man for a leader. Caius was in every re- 
 spect the superior of his brother, and his 
 measures, "while more revolutionary and 
 varied than those of Tiberius, were at the 
 same time more statesmanlike, and better 
 calculated to remedy the evils they attacked. 
 His chief objects were to relieve the poorer 
 classes, and to humble the senate, to benefit 
 his friends and avenge himself on his ene- 
 mies. His measures may be thus stated : 
 1. A renewal of the agrarian law of Ti- 
 bei'ius Gracchus, with certain modifications. 
 Caius diminished the size of the allotment, 
 and provided that the landholders should 
 be regarded as the owners of the lands on 
 condition of paying an annual quit-rent to 
 the state. He required that good character 
 should be an indispensable condition to 
 holding lands. 2. The state was required 
 to sell corn to each citizen who should apply 
 for it, at half the usual price. This was a 
 most dangerous measure, but may have been 
 justified by the urgent necessity of reliev- 
 ing the prevailing suffering. 3. The mini- 
 mum age of enlisted men was fixed at sev- 
 enteen years, and the state was required to 
 provide the soldier's equipment which had 
 formerly been deducted from his pay. 4. 
 The equites or knights were assigned the 
 exclusive privilege of furnishing juries. By 
 
 this measure the knights were elevated into 
 a distinct order. 5. The senate was re- 
 quired to determine the consular provinces, 
 and leave it to the consuls to decide among 
 themselves, by agreement or by lot, which 
 province each should administer. 6. The 
 assessment of taxes for the new province of 
 Asia was confided to the Roman censors. 
 7. The management of the public roads of 
 the Italian peninsula was confided to the 
 tribunes of the people. 8. The planting of 
 colonies at Capua, Tarentum, and elsewhere 
 in Italy, at Carthage and in Gaul. 
 
 By the last measure Caius sought to af- 
 ford an outlet to the overcrowded popula- 
 tion of Rome. A colony of 6,000 persons 
 was sent to Carthage to build a city on the 
 deserted site of the Punic metropolis ; and 
 another colony was sent to Aquse Sextise 
 (the modern Aix) in southern Gaul. Thus 
 Caius may be said to have given new life to 
 the colonial system of Rome, as he was cer- 
 tainly the originator of its extension into 
 the provinces. 
 
 His second measure, while it may have 
 been justified by the existing distress, was 
 not productive of such happy results. The 
 law limited the distribution of grain to resi- 
 dents of the city. An extensive series of 
 storehouses, called the " Sempronian Grana- 
 ries," was erected to meet the demand which 
 set in. The law also caused the flocking to 
 Rome of all the poor and incapable people 
 from the surrounding country, who became 
 residents of the city. Caius had designed 
 this in order that he might thus increase the 
 number of his friends, and be able to con- 
 trol the elections. He was successful, but 
 the measure had a more far-reaching con- 
 sequence. It filled Rome with a lazy, half- 
 fed, and troublesome mob, which for cen- 
 turies proved a real danger to the city. 
 
 By giving the censors the right to tax the 
 province of Asia, it was made necessary to 
 farm out the revenues of that province to a 
 new class which now arose to supply the 
 need for it. The privilege of collecting the 
 taxes was sold to the highest bidder. The 
 class thus charged with this collection be- 
 came unpleasantly conspicuous in the future 
 history of Rome under the name of " Pub- 
 licans." 
 
 Caius desired to extend the Roman citi- 
 zenship to all free Italians, and would have 
 done so had he dared, but the mere proposal 
 of it was fatal to his influence. Both the 
 aristocracy and the commons were unwill- 
 ing to grant this extension of the franchise. 
 
FROM DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 561 
 
 and the latter, alarmed by the proposal, 
 gave heed to the tales with which the former 
 endeavored to poison their minds against 
 Caius. Livius Drusus, the colleague of 
 Caius, was encouraged by the senate to sup- 
 plant him in the favor of the fickle popu- 
 lace, by proposing still more jiopular meas- 
 ures, whicli, however, were never meant to 
 be adopted. He proposed that the land- 
 holders should 
 be released from 
 the quit- rent 
 imposed upon 
 them by Caius, 
 and that there 
 should be estab- 
 lished twelve 
 Italian colonies, 
 each of 3,000 
 colonists, for 
 the i-)lanting of 
 which the peo- 
 ple might nomi- 
 nate suitable 
 men. The peo- 
 ple ratified these 
 laws as readily 
 as they had done 
 those of Caius, 
 and when he of- 
 fered himself as 
 a candidate for 
 the tribunate in 
 B. c. 121, de- 
 feated him. 
 
 In the mouth 
 of December, B. 
 c. 121, Caius 
 ceased to be 
 tribune by the 
 expiration of his 
 term of office. 
 The new consuls 
 were bitterly op- 
 posed to him, 
 and the aristoc- 
 racy were de- 
 termined to get 
 rid of him as speedily and as summarily as 
 they had disposed of his brother. They 
 began by attacking his establishment of 
 the colony of Junonia on the site of 
 Carthage, the most unpopular, but still 
 the wisest of his measures. It was now 
 asserted that the African hyenas had 
 dug up the newly planted boundary stones 
 of the colony. The augurs, when consulted, 
 declared that such signs ought to constitute a 
 
 solemn warning against seeking to build a 
 city or a site accursed by the gods. The 
 senate, following out the programme, for- 
 bade the establishment of the Junonian 
 colony. In the assembly convoked for the 
 purpose of confirming this law, Caius Grac- 
 chus endeavored to secure its defeat. In 
 the intense excitement which prevailed, an 
 attendant of the pi-iests was slain while the 
 
 A KOMAN HALL OF JUSTICE. 
 
 auguries were being taken. This brought 
 matters to a crisis. The next day the aris- 
 tocratic party occupied the forum and senate 
 house, armed, and the capitol was filled with 
 the Cretan mercenaries of the army. Caius 
 and his followers, finding a conflict inev- 
 itable, though he had earnestly endeavored 
 to give no occasion for it, retired to the 
 Avcntine, the old stronghold of the plebs. 
 By threats and promises the consul induced 
 
362 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the commons to desert their leader, and of- 
 fered a reward for his head. When the 
 ranks on the Aveutiue had been thinned 
 sufficiently, the nobles and the Cretans, as- 
 sisted by the slaves, stormed the mount, and 
 put to death all whom they found there, 
 about 250 persons of humble rank. Caius 
 was pursued, overtaken and slain, as was 
 also his former colleague, Marcus Flaccus. 
 The aristocrats then wreaked their ven- 
 geance upon the adherents of Caius by caus- 
 ing 3,000 of them to be strangled in prison 
 by order of the senate. The memory of 
 the Gracchi was officially proscribed. Cor- 
 nelia, their mother, "was forbidden to wear 
 mourning for Caius, The people paid 
 little heed to the mandates of the govern- 
 ment, however, and cherished the memory 
 of the brothers, espe- 
 cially that of Caius, and 
 in spite of the precau- 
 tions of the police, paid 
 almost religious hon- 
 ors to the spots conse- 
 crated by their life- 
 blood. 
 
 Kor were the Grac- 
 chi without their aven- 
 gers. The corruption 
 of the aristocracy in- 
 creased every day, and 
 became so apparent 
 that they began to lose 
 the power they had 
 gotten so iniquitously. 
 The commons, perceiv- 
 ing what success had 
 attended the use of violence and armed tu- 
 mult in the hands of the aristocrats, soon be- 
 gan to turn these weapons against them, and 
 ere long found leaders who more than im- 
 \ j)roved upon the lessons of their aristocratic 
 ^teachers. As far as the corruption was con- 
 cerned, however, both classes were at fault. 
 If foreign princes bought their crowns from 
 the nobles, the latter bought their offices 
 from the people. 
 
 This state of affiiirs was made painfully 
 prominent by the Jugurthine war, which 
 began in B.C. 111. Massinissa, the Numid- 
 ian king, who had been the ally of the Ro- 
 mans in the second Punic war, had been 
 rewarded for his services by the gift of the 
 major part of the territories of Carthage. 
 His son Micipsa, caring little for power, 
 had placed the contnjl of his kingdom in 
 the hands of his nephew Jugurtha, whom 
 he raised to a footing of equality with his 
 
 A EOMAN SLING EK. 
 
 own sons Adherbal and Hiempsal. At his 
 death he divided the civil and military 
 offices between the three princes. Neither 
 was satisfied with the will. The two sons 
 of the old king disputed Jugurtha's right 
 to any share in the government, while the 
 latter boldly claimed it all. During the 
 quarrel, Hiempsal was assassinated, and a 
 civil war ensued between Jugurtha and Ad- 
 herbal, in which the latter was beaten by 
 his cousin, who was a brilliant and compe- 
 tent leader, and a master of intrigue, hav- 
 ing learned the latter art and his trade as a 
 soldier in the Roman service, Adherbal 
 escaped to Rome, and appealed to the senate 
 to reinstate him in his authority, Jugurtha, 
 knowing that every senator had his price, 
 sent his envoys to Rome and supplied them 
 with funds, which they used so well that the 
 senate not only refused the demand of Ad- 
 herbal to be jiut in the place of Jugurtha, 
 but blamed him for the murder of his 
 brother. A division of the Numidian king- 
 dom was made by Roman commissioners, 
 Jugurtha was given the better part, com- 
 prising the region afterwards called Mau- 
 ritania ; Adherbal received Cirta, the capital 
 and a sandy tract stretching into the eastern 
 desert, Jugurtha, dissatisfied with this ar- 
 rangement, made war upon his cousin, took 
 his territory from him, put him to death, 
 and massacred the iuliabitants of Cirta, 
 many of wliom w^ere Italians. War was at 
 once declared by Rome, and an army was 
 sent into Numidia, which won so many suc- 
 cesses that Jugurtha found it expedient to 
 make peace. His gold was his great argu- 
 ment, and it was used liberally. He was 
 obliged to surrender unconditionally, but bis 
 kingdom was restored to him on payment 
 of a slight fine. The j)opular indignation 
 obliged the Roman government to investi- 
 gate the manner in which the peace had 
 been obtained, and Jugurtha was summoned 
 to Rome to answer concerning it. He 
 obeyed. His cousin Massiva took advan- 
 tage of his presence to advance his claim to 
 the crown. Jugurtha caused him to be as- 
 sassinated in Rome, and assisted the mur- 
 derer to escape. The senate, enraged at this 
 insult, cancelled the peace, and dismissed 
 Jugurtha at once. He quitted Rome with 
 the sarcastic but true remark, "If I had 
 gold enough, I would buy the city itself" 
 
 The war went on. Jugurtha's gold now 
 demoralized the army as it had done the 
 government, and the Roman generals suf- 
 fered themselves to be defeated and made a 
 
FROM DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 363 
 
 peace, by the terms of which Numidia was 
 evacuated. Rome refused to acknowledge 
 the treaty, and banished the defeated gen- 
 erals. The native tribes of Africa, believ- 
 ing that in Jugurtha they had found a 
 deliverer from the dominion of Rome, ral- 
 lied to his standard in strong force. 
 
 Rome was now in earnest, however. A 
 brave, able, and determined general, Quintus 
 Metellus, was given the command of the 
 array in Africa, and among the lieutenants 
 assigned him was Caius Marius, a farmer's 
 son, who had risen by his gallantry and 
 talents from the ranks. Marius was a 
 favorite with the troops, to whom he en- 
 deared himself by sharing their hardships 
 and dangers. Metellus found an able 
 adversary in Jugurtha, and the war dragged 
 along so slowly that the Roman people 
 began to suspect, most unjustly, that he 
 also had been bought by the Numidian 
 king. Marius, whose ambition now began 
 to show itself, returned home in B. c. 107, 
 and availed himself of this suspicion against 
 Metellus to secure his own election to the 
 consulship. The people also decreed that 
 he should be commander of the African 
 army. Marius, however, did not make 
 much greater head against Jugurtha than 
 Metellus. TKe war went on, and was only 
 brought to a close by the arts of Sulla, who 
 in B. c. 105 persuaded the Mauritanian 
 King Bocchus,the father-in-law of Jugurtha, 
 to surrender the Numidian king to the 
 Romans. Bocchus accepted the offer, and 
 lured Jugurtha into an ambush, where he 
 was captured by Sulla and delivered to 
 Marius. The captive king was taken to 
 Rome, where he was made, with his two 
 sons, to adorn the triumph of Marius. He 
 was then thrown into a dungeon, where he 
 died in a few days from cold and hunger. 
 
 Marius was regarded by the people as 
 the conqueror of Jugurtha, and in spite of 
 the jjrohibition of the law was re-elected 
 consul in b. c. 104, and held that office for 
 five consecutive years. 
 
 A great danger threatened Rome before 
 the close of the Jugurthine war. The 
 savage tribes of the north of Europe — the 
 Cimbri and Teutones, tribes partly Celtic 
 and partly German — moved down from the 
 region beyond the Rhine and the Danube, 
 and overran the district between those 
 rivers and the Alps. As early as b. c. 113 
 a horde of the Cimbri passed the Alps, 
 entered Istria, and defeated PapiriusCarbo, 
 the consul. In b. c. 109 the Cimbri ap- 
 
 peared on the borders of southern Gaul, 
 and demanded that lands should be assigned 
 them. The Consul Silanus answered by 
 attacking them, but he suffered a terrible 
 defeat and lost his camp. They did not 
 follow up their victory, but applied them- 
 selves to the task of reducing the neighbor- 
 ing tribes. Three Roman armies were sent 
 against them, one in b. c. 107 and two in 
 B. c. 105, but all three were defeated with 
 heavy loss In the last of these battles the 
 Roman army, 80,000 strong, was defeated 
 on the Rhone near the modern town of 
 Orange, and Italy seemed at the mei'cy of 
 the barbarians, who had but the Alps be- 
 tween them and the Roman territory. 
 They turned aside into Spain, however, but 
 were driven back across the Pyrenees by 
 the Celtiberiaus, B. c. 104. Returning into 
 Gaul, they spread rapidly over the western 
 part of that region towards the Seine. 
 They were joined in B. c. 103 by the Teu- 
 tones, a kindred tribe from the region of the 
 Baltic, and the Helvitii from the Swiss 
 Alps. The combined tribes now arranged 
 a systematic invasion of Italy. The Teu- 
 tones undertook to invade Italy by way of 
 Provence and the western passes of the 
 Alps, while the Cimbri entered Switzerland 
 and sought the eastern passes, with which 
 they were acquainted. 
 
 Marius in the meantime had been sent to 
 southern Gaul with a large army, and was 
 accompanied by Sulla as his legate. It 
 was all important to beat the two invading 
 columns in detail and prevent their junc- 
 tion. For this purpose Marius threw his 
 army upon the advancing host of the Teu- 
 tones near the modei'n town of Aix, and 
 gained a great victory over the savages in 
 the summer of b. c. 102. The Teutones 
 were utterly destroyed as a nation ; 150,000 
 men and a large number of women Avere 
 slain, and 90,000 wei'e made prisoners and 
 sold into slavery. Gaul was thus entirely 
 freed from the enemy. 
 
 The Cimbri crossed the Alps by the 
 Brenner Pass, and advanced into the valley 
 of the Po. The Consul Catulus endeavored 
 to drive them back, but was routed. The 
 Cimbri were so well pleased with the rich 
 country around them that, instead of follow- 
 ing up their advantage, they went into 
 winter quarters. This delay gave Marius 
 time to march from Gaul to the aid of his 
 colleague, whom he joined in the spring of 
 B. c. 101. Upon the resumption of their 
 advance bv the Cimbri, in the summer of 
 
364 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that year, they were met by the combined 
 armies of Marius and Catulus, aud were 
 defeated as decisively as their brethren had 
 been by the former in Gaul. Their slain 
 amounted to 140,000, aud the remainder of 
 the nation, 60,000 in number, were made 
 prisoners and sold as slaves. Italy was 
 safe. " The human avalanche which for 
 thirteen years had alarmed the nations 
 from the Danube to the Ebro, from the 
 Seine to the Po, rested beneath the sod or 
 toiled under the yoke of slavery." 
 
 Marius was honored Avith a magnificent 
 triumph, in which he was hailed as the de- 
 liverer of Rome in the most flattering terms. 
 He was chosen consul for the sixth consecu- 
 tive time in defiance of the constitution. 
 Had he been a statesman as well as a great 
 general he might have accomplished then 
 what Julius Ctesar did in the next century, 
 and have made himself monarch of the 
 Romans. His ambition was equal to the 
 attempt, but his judgment and firmness 
 were not. Indeed he does not seem to have 
 understood exactly what position he wanted, 
 or how to attain it. He chose as his most 
 intimate friends and counsellors two worth- 
 less demagogues, Glaucia and Saturnius, 
 who were encouraged by his countenance 
 to attempt the passage of laws which were 
 utterly distasteful to all the better class of 
 Romans. Metellus opposed these measures 
 and was driven into exile. Marius lent 
 himself to the persecution of his old general, 
 and thus drew upon himself the enmity of 
 the senate and its adherents. The meas- 
 ures of the tribune Saturnius had already 
 produced severe riots in the city. When 
 the consular election came on the trouble 
 increased. Mummius, the government can- 
 didate for the consulate, was beaten to 
 death by the partisans of Glaucia and 
 Saturnius, who were then declared public 
 enemies by the senate. They seized the 
 capitol ; but Marius, being afraid to risk 
 his popularity by defending them further, 
 joined the senate against them. Trusting 
 to his protection, they surrendered, aud 
 were confined by him in the Curia Hostilia. 
 While he was endeavoring to secure them 
 a regular trial, they were attacked by the 
 partisans of the senate aud slain, B. c. 
 100. 
 
 In B. c. 102 a second servile war broke 
 out in Sicily. The slaves, driven to despair 
 by the cruelty with which they were treated, 
 took arms against their masters, whom they 
 outnumbered. W^ith the aid of the repub- 
 
 lic they were crushed after a struggle of 
 three years, b. c. 99. 
 
 The fall of Saturnius was really the fail- 
 ure of Marius to overturn the government. 
 A great general, but a poor statesman, he 
 had used the wrong instruments to accom- 
 jilish his ends, and had succeeded only in 
 rendering himself unpopular. Quintus 
 Metellus was recalled from banishment, and 
 Marius, unwilling to witness the triumph 
 of his rival, went on a journey to the East, 
 ostensibly for the pui'pose of fulfilling a vow 
 there. On his return he found himself 
 deserted by the friends who had fawned 
 upon him in his prosperity. Yet, having 
 tasted the sweets of power, he was deter- 
 mined to become master of Rome. An 
 oracle had promised him seven consulships, 
 and he endeavored to profit by his experi- 
 ence and decide upon a surer plan of achiev- 
 ing his destiny. 
 
 In the meantime another reformer arose 
 to trouble Rome. He was M. Livius 
 Drusus, the son of him who had opposed 
 Caius Gracchus. He was a man of .good 
 intentions but of small ability, and he un- 
 dertook to remedy the evils from which the 
 state was suftering by reconciling the Seua- 
 torian with the Equestrian Order at Rome, 
 and doing justice to the Latins. He pro- 
 posed, therefore, to deprive the equites or 
 kuights of the judicial power which they 
 had abused, and restore it to the senate, 
 and to admit all the Italians to the fran- 
 chise. He succeeded in procuring the pas- 
 sage of a law which divided the right to 
 furnish " judices " between the knights and 
 the senate, but his bill to admit Italians to 
 the franchise was stubbornly resisted, and 
 the reformer himself was assassinated at his 
 own door. The aristocrats had had recourse 
 to their usual mode of warfare, but this 
 time their blow was struck at one of their 
 own order, b. c. 91. 
 
 The murder of Drusus was the signal for 
 the civil war he had striven to avert. With 
 him perished the last hope of the Italians 
 that Rome would amicably settle their just 
 claims. There was nothing left but to sub- 
 mit or rebel. They chose the latter alter- 
 native, and eight nations — the Marsi, Mar- 
 rucini, Peligni, Vestini, Picentini,Samnites, 
 Apuli, and Lucani — took up arms, entered 
 into a close alliance, formed a federal re- 
 public, which they named " Italia," and 
 chose Corfinium, in the Pelignian Apen- 
 nines, as their capital. Thus began the 
 " Social War." They chose Pompsedius 
 
FROM DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO DEATH OF MARIUS. 
 
 365 
 
 and Papius to be consuls. For a while it 
 seemed as though the allies would be suc- 
 cessful, aud that Rome would be reduced to 
 a petty state. Lucius Caesar, one of the 
 consuls, Papei'ua, his legate, and Postumias, 
 the prsetor, were defeated ; Campania Avas 
 overrun by the allies ; aud Csepio, the con- 
 sul, was defeated and his army destroyed in 
 that region within a few mouths. Negotia- 
 tions were then opened with the people of 
 northern Italy, and it seemed that the whole 
 peninsula would be drawn into the revolt. 
 
 Rome met the danger with an adroit 
 concession, as her armies Avere unable to 
 crush the rev^olt. A measure known as the 
 "Julian LaAv" was adopted, conferring the 
 Roman citizenship on all the Italians Avho 
 had taken no part in the war, and on all 
 Avho should withdraw from it. The measure 
 was perfectly successful. It prevented fur- 
 ther accessions to the ranks of the allies, 
 and raised up a powerful peace party amoug 
 them which clamored for an acceptance of 
 the reconciliation offered by the " Jvilian 
 Law." Oue by one the allies dropped away 
 from the confederacy, and as it grew weaker 
 the Romans began to be successful again. 
 Sulla and the elder Pompey recovered 
 Campania, and the capital of the allies was 
 captured. At last only Samnium and Lu- 
 cania remained in arms, and Rome once 
 more tried the policy of concession. By 
 granting all that the allies had ever claimed, 
 these two nations were won over, and the 
 ^' Social War " came to an end, B. c. 88. 
 
 During this struggle Marius had served 
 as legate to the Consul Rutilius in the first 
 year, Avhich was so full of disaster to Rome, 
 and his slow and cautious policy had added 
 nothing to his credit. The honors had been 
 carried off by Sulla, who in the campaigns 
 of B. c. 89 and 88 had showu himself an 
 able leader. Consequently, when the in- 
 vasion of Asia Minor by Mithridates of 
 Pontus demanded that a vigorous aud com- 
 petent general should be sent against him, 
 Sulla, who was now consul, Avas assigned 
 the command. The old friendship Avhich 
 once existed betAA^een Marius and Sulla had 
 long ago given place to mutual jealousy. 
 Marius bitterly resented the appointment 
 of Sulla to his ncAV command, and now set 
 to AA'oi'k to neutralize the action of the 
 senate. The government, Avith its usual 
 bad faith, AA'as endeavoring to render abor- 
 tive the concession of citizenship to the 
 Italians by confining them, in spite of their 
 vast numbers, to eight tribes. Marius now 
 
 induced Publius Sulpicius Rufus, the tri- 
 bune, to propose a law requiring the dis- 
 tribution of the new citizens among all the 
 tribes. This arrangement would enable 
 them to outnumber the old citizens, and 
 they AA'Ould naturally support Marius as 
 their champion. The consuls endeavored 
 to defeat the measure, but Marius and 
 Rufus held the forum Avith an armed force 
 and compelled the jmssage of the law. The 
 vote conferring the command of the army 
 on Sulla Avas reversed, and Marius was 
 elected in his place, b. c. 88. The issue 
 was thus sharply joined betAveen the rivals. 
 
 Sulla was not the man to submit tamely 
 to this outrage, and he had the advantage 
 of being able to appear as the chamj^iou of 
 the laAv. He appealed to his troops to sus- 
 tain him, and at their head marched upon 
 Rome. Marius had not expected such 
 boldness from his rival, and was unprepared 
 to meet it. Sulla became master of Rome, 
 silencing opposition by threatening to burn 
 the city over the heads of the people if re- 
 sistance Avere offered. Marius Avas defeated 
 and obliged to fly for his life. He passed 
 through a series of romantic and stirring 
 adventures, and at last reached Africa, an 
 almost deserted fugitive. 
 
 Sulla, noAV master of Rome, put Rufus to 
 death, repealed his laAvs, and put in force 
 various measures calculated to strengthen 
 the nobility. He Avas obliged to quit Rome 
 soon afterwards to take command of the 
 army in the east. His departure Avas in- 
 stantly followed by a civil AA-ar. The peo- 
 ple elected Cinna consul, and he endeavored 
 to restore the laws of Rufus and to recall 
 Marius. The aristocratic party flcAV to 
 arms, and Cinna Avas driven from the city. 
 He appealed to the army, aud having Avon 
 the support of the troops and of the great 
 mass of Italians, invited Marius to return 
 from Africa, and marched upon Rome, 
 captured the city, and began the execution 
 of a policy of vengeance, b. c. 87. Marius, 
 returning to the city, Avas associated with 
 Cinna in the consulship. The friends of 
 Sulla were butchered. As ]Marius Avalked 
 through the streets, attended by his guards, 
 they cut doAvu all Avhom he did not salute; 
 and lists of those whom it Avas desirable to 
 remove AA^ere made out every day, and 
 given to assassins Avho had orders to de- 
 spatch the persons named in the lists. The 
 houses of the victims were plundered and 
 their families given up to dishonor. Such 
 a reign of terror had never been known in 
 
366 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Rome ; and j\Iarius wreaked his vengeance 
 upon the nobility to his heart's content. 
 In contempt for the hiw, he and Cinna 
 declared themselves consuls for the 
 year B. C. 86, without submitting to the 
 usual form of election. Marius, deeply 
 superstitious at heart, had now fulfilled the 
 prediction of the oracle ; and had entered 
 upon his seventh consulship. He did not 
 live to enjoy it long, however, but died 
 eighteen days later, at the age of seventy- 
 one, hurried to his end by his tardy re- 
 morse for his outrages upon his country. 
 He left behind him his baud of assassins, 
 who, even after his death, attempted to con- 
 tinue their bloody work. Sertorius called 
 them together under pretence of giving 
 them their pay, and, having surrounded 
 them with his troops, cut them down to a 
 man. More than four thousand are said to 
 have been slain. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF MARIUS TO THE 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Cinna in Po\rer at Eonie — Threats of Sulla — The 
 First Mithridatic War — Return of Sulla — The 
 Second Civil War — Triumi)li of Sulla — Captures 
 Rome — Dictatorship of Sulla — The Proscrii>tion — 
 Measures of Sulla — His Retirement and Death — 
 Revolt of Sertorius in Spain — His Murder — Pom- 
 pey Puts Down the Revolt — Gladiatorial War — 
 Spartacus — Crassns and Pomjiey Consuls — They 
 Change their Politics — Their Reform Measures — 
 Cicero — Pompey Subdues the Cilician Pirates — 
 PompeySent into Asia — He Conquers Mithridates 
 and Tigranes and Adds Syria and Pontus to the 
 Roman Dominions — Returns to Rome — Cataline's 
 Conspiracy — Pompey Distrusted by the Senate — 
 His Moderation— Is Driven into Hostility to the 
 Senate — Julius CiBsar — His Career and Services — 
 Character of Cicsar — The First Triumvirate — Ban- 
 ishment of Cicero — Cato Sent to Cyprus — Con- 
 quest of Gaul by C«sar— Invades Germany — The 
 War with Parthia— Defeat and Death of Crassus 
 — Quarrel of Csesar and Pomjiey — The Senate 
 Sides with Pompey — Csesar Driven into Hostile 
 Measures by the Senate — His Position — Ap])eals 
 to his Troops to Aid him — Crosses the Rubicon — 
 Pompey's Troops Desert to Cajsar — Pompey Re- 
 tires into Greece — Ctesar Master of Italy — His 
 Moderation — Establishes his Authority in Italy — 
 Subdues Spain — Follows Pompey to Greece — Bat- 
 tle of Pharsalia — Flight of Pompey — He Reaches 
 Egypt — His Murder — Caesar in Egypt — Estab- 
 lishes his Authority in tliat Country, Asia Minor, 
 and Africa — Returns to Rome — Is Made Dictator 
 for Life — Great Designs of Cwsar — W^hat he Ac- 
 complished — Conspiracy Against him — His Mur- 
 der — Its EtFect upon Rome— Mark Antony Se- 
 cures the Power — Arrival of Octavius Csesar — 
 Claims his Inheritance — Antony Repairs to Gaul 
 — Rapid Rise of Octavius to Power — Forms with 
 Antony and Lepidus the Second Triumvirate — 
 Battles of Phillippi — Division of the Roman Do- 
 minions Between the Triumvirs — Octaviau Tri- 
 
 umphs Over Lepidus and Secures the Undivided 
 Rule of Rome — Antony's Failure in the East — His 
 Debauchery — Octavian Makes War upon him — 
 Battle of Actium— Flight of Antony with Cleo- 
 patra — Octavian Conquers Egypt — Death of An- 
 tony and Cleopatra — Egypt Made a Roman Prov- 
 ince — Return of Octavian to Rome — He Estab- 
 lishes the Roman Empire on the Ruins of the 
 Republic. 
 
 HE death of Marius left Cinna sole 
 consul. He held that position un- 
 til B. c. 84, nominating himself, 
 and associating with him whomso- 
 ever he saw fit. Yet he did 
 nothing, and his government ac- 
 complished nothing. Sulla was outlawed, 
 and a successor appointed in his place. 
 At length a letter was received from Sulla, 
 announcing the successful close of the war 
 against Mithridates, and his speedy return 
 to Italy. He stated that while he would 
 protect the new citizens in their rights, he 
 intended to secure the punishment of the 
 authors of the revolution. Cinna was 
 frightened out of his inaction by this letter, 
 and undertook to march against Sulla, but 
 his troops mutinied and murdered him at 
 Ancona. The Consul Carbo, the colleague 
 of Cinna, now abandoned the attempt to 
 cross the Adriatic into Greece, and pre- 
 pared to meet Sulla on his arrival in Italy. 
 During all these years the war against 
 ]\Iithridates had been successfully waged by 
 Sulla, and the brilliant eflJbrts of the 
 Pontic monarch to stay the march of 
 Roman conquest in the East had been de- 
 feated. The events of this war have been 
 related in the histoiy of Pontus, and may 
 be passed over here. 
 
 Sulla regained Greece, Macedonia, and 
 Asia ]\Iinor, compelled Mithridates to sue 
 for peace and granted it upon the most 
 humiliating terms. He had defrayed the 
 cost of the war mainly from his private re- 
 sources, and had deferred the settlement of 
 his personal quarrel until after the defeat 
 of the foreign enemy. He now returned 
 to redress his own grievances with the pres- 
 tige of his great victories, with a vast sum 
 of money taken from the enemy, and at the 
 head of an army enthusiastically devoted 
 to him. He was unquestionably the first 
 of living generals, and his troops were ac- 
 customed to victory. Still, while confident 
 of success, he did not underrate his enemy. 
 He knew the INIarian faction to be formida- 
 ble, and while he despised the_ Roman mob, 
 he justly appreciated the power of the 
 Italians, who constituted the chief strength 
 of the party opposed to him. By his de- 
 
FROM DEATH OF MARIUS TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 367 
 
 claration that he intended to respect the 
 rights of the new Italian citizens he suc- 
 ceeded in securing their neutrality at the 
 opening of the struggle, 
 
 Sulla landed at Brundusiuni with 40,000 
 men in b. c. 83, and was joined almost at 
 once by Metellus Pius, Crassus, and Pom- 
 pey. He defeated the army of Consul 
 Norbanus near Capua, and won over the 
 troops of Scipio to his standard. Then, 
 going into winter-quarters in central Italy, 
 he devoted the winter to strengthening his 
 cause. In the spring of B. c. 82, the 
 Marian party put an army of 200,000 men 
 in the field, commanded by the new con- 
 suls, Carbo and Marius the younger. Carbo 
 took position at Clusium, in Etruria, as 
 that region was friendly to his party. 
 Sulla turned upon his younger opponent, 
 Marius, defeated him in the great battle 
 of Angiportus, and forced him to retreat to 
 Prseneste, where he left a force to blockade 
 him. Then, marching through Rome, 
 which was undefended, he attacked Carbo 
 in his intrenched position, but fiiiled to 
 carry it. Young Marius, in the meantime, 
 succeeded in inducing the Lucanians and 
 Samnites to espouse his cause. They sent 
 a force to the assistance of the Marians, 
 which being unable to reach Prseneste, 
 joined Carbo, whose unskilful operations 
 resulted in the repeated defeat of the army 
 under him. The decisive battle was fought 
 at the Colline Gate of Rome. The rem- 
 nants of Carbo's army, reinforced by the 
 Italians under Telesinus, attacked Rome 
 with the deliberate intention of destroying 
 it. After a desperate struggle they were 
 routed by the troops of Sulla and Crassus. 
 Four thousand prisoners were captured, 
 and these were taken, by Sulla's orders, to 
 the Campus Martins and put to death. 
 
 Sulla was now master of Rome, and the 
 aristocratic faction was triumphant. A 
 bloody vengeance was taken upon their 
 enemies. The leaders of the late war and 
 every relative of Marius, as far as they 
 could be found, were put to death. Lists 
 of the " proscribed " were made out, and 
 any friend of Sulla was permitted to add to 
 them. As the wealth of the victim went to 
 his accuser, avarice was frequently the 
 cause of the accusation. It is said that 
 3,000 persons perished at Rome, 12,000 at 
 Prseneste, " and numbers not much smaller 
 at other Italian cities Avhich had favored 
 the Marians." The cruelties of Marius 
 were more than equalled. 
 
 For three years Sulla remained master 
 of the Roman state, first without any title, 
 and then as dictator with unlimited power. 
 He made a number of radical changes in 
 the constitution, or more properly put in 
 force a new constitution which was framed 
 after his peculiar views and designed to 
 sti'engthen his own order. Though his 
 private character was notoriously bad, Sulla 
 recognized the true source of the troubles 
 of the state in the utter corrujition of the 
 people. He therefore undertook the hope- 
 less task of reforming his countrymen by a 
 series of severe enactments against crime 
 and luxury, which were from the first prac- 
 tically disregarded. With respect to the 
 government, he began by degrading the 
 office of tribune of the plebs by stripping it 
 of all its powers except that of protecting 
 the persons of citizens against the other 
 magistrates, and disqualifying the tribunes 
 for the consulship. The senate was given 
 the exclusive right of initiating legislation, 
 and was once more placed in possession of 
 the sole judicial power. The practice of 
 electing any one to the office of pontiff or 
 augur was abolished, and it was ordained 
 that all candidates for the higher offices 
 should be obliged to pass through the lower 
 grades in regular succession and with fixed 
 intervals of time between them. The senate 
 was reorganized by the addition of 300 of 
 Sulla's warmest partisans. The tribes were 
 " purified " by the rejection of all Italians 
 who had aided the Marian cause, and 10,000 
 slaves Avere liberated and given the fran- 
 chise. The confiscated lands of the Marians 
 were distributed among the veterans of 
 Sulla, in many cases to the damage of the 
 industry of the country. 
 
 After having held the dictatorship for 
 three years, Sulla, to the surprise of every 
 one, resigned it, and retired to his country- 
 seat at Puteoli, B. c. 79. He devoted the 
 remainder of his life to recreation and the 
 comi)osition of his memoirs. He died the 
 next year, and was honored with the grand- 
 est funeral Italy had ever witnessed. Well 
 might the senate mourn him ; he had de- 
 stroyed popular government, and restored 
 the rule of the nobility. 
 
 But even the aristocratic party found his 
 sweeping changes too great for them. The. 
 abolition of the election of pontiffs and 
 augurs, and the law of succession in the 
 offices of the state, placed an effectual check 
 upon the ambition of the nobles, who coveted 
 these honorable places, and objected to the 
 
368 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 slow process by which they were now at- 
 tained. In the year of Sulla's death, Lep- 
 dus, the consul, endeavored to procure the 
 abolition of his laws, but failed. The time 
 for the full reaction had not yet arrived. 
 
 The Marian factions in Sicily and Africa 
 were crushed by Cneius Pompey, during 
 the life of Sulla. In b. c. 77 Pompey Avas 
 sent into Spain as proconsul, to put down 
 the revolt of Sertorius. Sertorius was the 
 ablest and the most upright of the Marian 
 leaders, and had been given the command 
 in Spain by Cinna chiefly to get him out of 
 the way. During the Sullan proscription, 
 many of the fugitive Marians repaired to 
 him, and took service under him. Sulla's 
 proconsul Annius drove him out of Spain, 
 and he took refuge in Africa. At the in- 
 vitation of the Lusitaniaus he returned in 
 B. c. 81, at the head of a Libyan and Moor- 
 ish force, and, defeating Sulla's forces on 
 the Guadalquivir, made himself master of 
 Spain. When Pompey arrived he had 
 wrested almost the entire peninsula from 
 the Romans. Even Pompey found it im- 
 possible to defeat him, and the war con- 
 tinued for five years more. At length, in 
 B. c. 72, Sertorius was murdered by Per- 
 perna, one of his officers, who assumed the 
 command of his army. Pompey defeated 
 the murderer in the first engagement which 
 followed, and captured him. It had been 
 the design of Sertorius to restore the power 
 of the Marians at Rome, and Perperna en- 
 deavored to secure his life by betraying the 
 plans of this party in Rome ; but Pompey 
 put him to death. The war was soon ended, 
 and Spain was brought once more under 
 Roman rule. ^ 
 
 Before the close of the Spanish war, a 
 most formidable insurrection of the Gladia- 
 tors broke out in Capua, in b. c. 73, under 
 the leadership of Spartacus, a Thracian 
 chief. He was joined by a large number 
 of slaves and outlaws, and his force was in- 
 creased to 100,000 men. He defeated four 
 armies sent against him, and for two years 
 ravaged Italy, and even threatened Rome 
 itself. In B. c. 71 the Praetor Crassus was 
 given the command of the army operMiug 
 against him, and in six months brought the 
 war to a successful close. The last remnant 
 was beaten by Pompey, who came up with 
 it on his return from Spain. The prisoners 
 taken by Crassus, to the number of 6,000, 
 were crucified along the Appian Way. 
 
 Returning to Rome, Crassus and Pompey 
 demanded the consulship as the reward of 
 
 their services. The Sullsean constitution 
 forbade their election, as they had not 
 passed through the requisite grades ; but 
 their services were too eminent, and they 
 were too powerful for their demand to be 
 refused. Consequently the laws of Sulla 
 were set aside, and on the 1st of January, 
 B. c. 70, Crassus and Pompey became con- 
 suls for the year. Until now they had been 
 among the most devoted followers of Sulla, 
 but uj)on entering ujion their office, they 
 changed their politics. It may be that they 
 were convinced that a constitution so purely 
 oligarchical could not be maintained ; and 
 it seems very evident that they were con- 
 vinced that their own interests demanded 
 its abrogation. They determined, therefore, 
 to secure the support of the middle class, 
 which would be very apt to bring with it 
 that of the lower orders, and to crush the 
 power of the aristocracy. Crassus, an emi- 
 nently respectable man, and very rich, was 
 easily led by his more daring and gifted 
 colleague to take the desired stand. The 
 consuls then proceeded to inaugurate their 
 reforms. The tribunes were given back 
 their old ])owers of which Sulla had de- 
 prived them, and the judicial power was 
 again distributed in equal proportion be- 
 tween the senate, the knights, and the tri- 
 bunes of the treasury, a class of moneyed 
 men who collected the revenues and paid 
 the wages of the troops. The government 
 was jDurified of its grosser corruptions, partly 
 by prosecutions, and partly by a revival of 
 the office of censor, which Sulla had abol- 
 ished. The senate was purged by the ex- 
 pulsion of sixty-four of its members. The 
 senate and the nobility stubbornly resisted 
 these measures, but were at length obliged 
 to yield. 
 
 The movement for reform in the govern- 
 ment won to the support of the consuls the 
 first lawyer and greatest orator of Rome, 
 Marcus Tullius Cicero. He came into 
 prominence in the prosecution of Verres for 
 the misgovernment of Sicily. By his un- 
 tiring energy and his superb eloquence the 
 guilt of Verres was established, and the 
 criminal was driven into exile. More than 
 this, Cicero so thoroughly exposed the 
 rottenness of the system of provincial gov- 
 ernment that the senatorial party Avere left 
 without defence, and were obliged to yield. 
 
 At the end of his term of office, Pompey 
 declined to accept the government of a 
 province as was usual with the retiring con- 
 suls, but remained quietly at Rome, taking 
 
FROM DEATH OF MARIUS TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 369 
 
 no part in public affairs, but awaiting the 
 course of events. He was soon called upon 
 to render the state another service. Since 
 the destruction of the naval power of Car- 
 thage, Egypt and Syria, the Ciliciau pirates 
 had become the lords of the Mediterranean. 
 They had their strongholds on the Ciliciau 
 coast, from which their ships ravaged the 
 shores of Italy, swept the Mediterranean of 
 merchantmen, plundered the Italian ports, 
 and even extended their depredations as 
 far inland as the Appian Way. Pompey 
 was sent against them in b. c. 67, with un- 
 usual powers. He was given supreme au- 
 thority over all the coasts of the Mediterra- 
 nean and for a distance of fifty miles inland. 
 In three months he swept the pirates from 
 the sea, broke up their strongholds, and by 
 his merciful and politic treatment of them 
 converted many of the outlaws into peace- 
 able and useful settlers in the Italian towns. 
 
 Returning from the war with the pirates, 
 Pompey, on the motion of Manlius and 
 Cicero, was intrusted with the command of 
 the army in Asia, operating against Mitli- 
 ridates. He was placed in supreme con- 
 trol of the entire east " until he had brought 
 the Mithridatic war to an end." He set 
 out for his new command in B. c. 66, and 
 in two years brought the war to a glorious 
 conclusion, driving Mithridates into the 
 regions beyond the Caucasus. He also 
 compelled the Arinenian King Tigranes to 
 surrender Syria, of which he made himself 
 master without a blow, and converted it 
 into a Roman province. Proceeding south- 
 ward, through Coele-Syria, he captured 
 Jerusalem, and generously spared the Tem- 
 ple and its treasures, but won the enmity 
 of the Jews by entering the Holy of Holies. 
 He then made war against the Idumseans, 
 but did not continue the campaign, as the 
 death of Mithridates closed the war. Pompey 
 then spent the remainder of the year in or- 
 ganizing Bithynia and Pontus as Roman 
 provinces, and settling the affairs of the 
 neighboring nations. He allowed Pharna- 
 ces, the son of Mithridates, to retain the 
 Crimea, bestowed Cappadocia upon Ario- 
 barzanes, increased the territories of Galatia, 
 and made Hyrcanus King of Judaea. Over 
 all these countries the Roman supremacy 
 was established. In b. c. 61 Pompey re- 
 turned to Rome, and enjoyed one of the 
 most splendid triumphs the city had ever 
 witnessed. 
 
 Before his arrival, Rome had narrowly 
 escaped a civil war. Lucius Sergius Cati- 
 
 24 
 
 liua, a man of noble birth, but a broken- 
 down profligate, drew to himself a follow- 
 ing of adventurers and disreputable persorls, 
 and oi'ganized a conspiracy for the over- 
 throw of the government. He expected to 
 be supported by all the disaffected Italians, 
 and by the criminals, slaves, and gladiators, 
 and counted on the tacit acquiescence of 
 the Marian party. The conspiracy was dis- 
 covered by the vigilance of Cicero, who was 
 then consul, and he denounced Catiline so 
 mercilessly before the senate that the con- 
 spirator fled from the city into Etruria, 
 where he rallied his followers. "War fol- 
 lowed. Catiline was defeated and slain in 
 battle by the Proconsul Antonius, in b. c. 62. 
 The return of Pompey with the prestige 
 of his great success, immediately after the 
 suppression of Catiline's revolt, greatly 
 
 M. TULLITJS CICERO. 
 
 alarmed the senate and the aristocratic 
 party, who feared he would follow the ex- 
 ample of Sulla ; but he quieted their fears 
 by disbanding his army as soon as he 
 reached Italy, and i:)roceeded to Rome ac- 
 companied by only a few friends. His 
 triumphal procession, which could not be 
 refused him, occupied three days in passing 
 through the city, though the army took no 
 part* in it. When he demanded a second 
 consulship for himself, allotments of land 
 for his veterans, and the confirmation of his 
 acts while in command in the East, he was 
 met with a blunt refusal from the senate. 
 The aristocratic party had determined to 
 punish him for his appointment to the com- 
 mand in the East against their wishes ; and 
 with their usual short-sightedness they sim- 
 ply drew ruin upon themselves. 
 
370 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 A new power had arisen in Rome during 
 the absence of Pompey in Asia. The con- 
 trol of affairs had fallen into the hands of 
 three men, Cicero, Oato, and Caius Julius 
 Csesar. Crassus was too insignificant and 
 indolent to count for much ; his only power 
 lay in his wealth. Cicero was bold, daring, 
 and the first orator in the world. Cato, a 
 
 Cinna. Sulla had at the first recognized 
 his abilities, and had been with difficulty 
 persuaded to exempt him from the pro- 
 scription. He granted his pardon with the 
 prophetic remark : " That boy will some 
 day be the ruin of the aristocracy, for I see 
 in him many Marii." Caesar was now up- 
 wards of thirty years old, having been born 
 
 JULIUS CESAR. 
 
 descendant of the old censor who had 
 spurred Rome on to destroy Carthage, was 
 a man of the same stern mould. He was 
 the leader of the senatorial party. 
 
 Csesar was the acknowledged chief of the 
 Marian party, and was regarded by the 
 people as their champion. He was the 
 nephew of Marius and the son-in-law of 
 
 in B. c. 100. Since the age of seventeen he 
 had identified himself with the popular 
 party, and, more than his noble birth, he 
 prided himself on being the nephew of 
 Marius by the marriage of his aunt Julia to 
 that leader. He had seen his first service 
 in the army at the siege of Mitylene, and 
 had won a civic crown for saving a citizen. 
 
FROM DEATH OF MARIU8 TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE 371 
 
 Returning to Rome, he had distinguished 
 himself by his speeches against Dolabella, 
 whom he indicted for extortion in Macedo- 
 nia. He then repaired to Rhodes to study 
 eloquence under Molo, the preceptor of 
 Cicero. On his way he was captured by 
 the Cilician pirates. Redeemed by a heavy 
 ransom, he collected a few ships, attacked 
 his captors, made them prisoners, and cru- 
 cified them. About B. c. 74, hearing that 
 he had been chosen one of the poutifices, he 
 repaired to Rome, where he spent the next 
 seven years, without taking any part in 
 politics, but winning many friends by his 
 engaging manners. In B. c. 67, when 
 Pompey sailed against the pirates, Csesarwas 
 made Quaestor. In the same year his aunt 
 Julia, the widow of Marius, died. Caesar 
 pronounced a noble oration over her re- 
 mains, and in her funeral procession carried 
 the waxen image of Marius in defiance of 
 the law. In b. c. 65 he was made Curule 
 -^dile, and increased his popularity by the 
 magnificence, with which he celebrated the 
 public games. As curator of the Appian 
 way he rendered a more substantial service 
 by repairing it at his own expense. Sulla 
 had caused the removal of the Cirabrian 
 trophies and the statues of Marius, and the 
 republic possessed no memorial of the ser- 
 vices of her greatest soldier. Caesar now 
 ventured to restore them in a single night. 
 The next morning the citizens flocked to 
 behold them, and the old soldiers of Marius 
 burst into tears of joy at the sight. As 
 Csesar had not actually violated the law, 
 the senate was not able to prosecute him for 
 his act, and from this moment the people 
 idolized him as their chief Honors now 
 came to him rapidly. In b. c. 63 he be- 
 came pontifex maximus ; in 62, prtetor ; 
 and in 61 he obtained the government of 
 Farther Spain. Here he displayed his 
 great military genius by the conquest of 
 Lusitania, and won the enthusiastic devo- 
 tion of his troops. Though absent from 
 Rome, Caesar's influence did not Avane, and 
 he continued to direct the movements of his 
 party. His Spanish government also fur- 
 nished him with the means of paying a 
 large part of his debts. 
 
 He was now thirty-nine years old, and 
 the dawn of his great career had come. A 
 model of manly beauty, he was conscious 
 of his personal attractions, and was ac- 
 cused of foppishness by his enemies. He 
 had preserved through all his early dissipa- 
 tions the perfect bodily vigor which served 
 
 him so well in after life, and he had now 
 taken up habits of temperance. He Avas a 
 master of fencing, riding and swimming, 
 and his capacity for performing sudden and 
 arduous journeys Avas remarkable For the 
 sake of gaining time he usually travelled by 
 night. His mental vigor rivalled that of 
 his body. His power of intuition Avas as- 
 tonishing, and his memory Avas faultless; he 
 never forgot anything. But Avhat endeared 
 him above all to his friends Avas his Avarm, 
 generous heart, which never turned against 
 a friend, but was ever faithful through good 
 and evil fortune. Nor was this from cal- 
 culation. Caesar loved his friends ; no 
 partisan of his ever had cause to complain 
 of his coldness or ingratitude ; and their 
 feelings for him Avere evinced by their pas- 
 sionate outburst of grief at his death. He 
 cherished the purest veneration for his 
 mother during her Avhole life, and he bore 
 an honorable affection for his Avives and his 
 daughter Julia, which were not without 
 their rcAvard. 
 
 Like all men of genius, Caesar was capa- 
 ble of sujireme angei', but he ruled his tem- 
 per perfectly. He Avas an eminently prac- 
 tical man, and, discarding mere theories, 
 rarely failed to seize upon the best and 
 most suitable measure in the conduct of his 
 operations. He neA'^er sought to hasten 
 events, but waited Avith the calmness of 
 genius the proper moment for the execution 
 of his designs. WhateA'er he undertook 
 was marked by clearness of judgment, un- 
 faltering firmness, and a perfect independ- 
 ence of action, Avhich no faA'orite or mis- 
 tress could control. As a general he was 
 quick in conception, rapid in execution, 
 with unerring genius detecting the weak- 
 ness of his enemy, and striking every bloAV 
 in its true place. He shared the dangers 
 and hardships of his troops, and was their 
 generous friend and comrade, as Avell as 
 their inflexible commander. Ko Avonder 
 then that victory folloAved Avhere Caesar 
 led. 
 
 Such a man was of necessity a great 
 statesman. " From his early youth Caesar 
 Avas a statesman in the deepest sense of the 
 term, and his aim Avas the highest AA'hich 
 man is allowed to propose to himself — the 
 political, military, intellectual and moral 
 regeneration of his OAvn deeply decayed na- 
 tion, and of the still more deeply decayed 
 Hellenic nation, intimately akin to his 
 OAvn." His measures, Avhile they seemed at 
 times to affect the present only, looked far 
 
372 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 into the future, and, though cut down at 
 the very entrance upon his great mission, 
 he lifted the world up out of its degrada- 
 tion and made it greater and nobler for his 
 having lived in it. Amid all the gloom 
 which enshrouds the history of this dim 
 period, this great, grand figure stands out 
 boldly, the most illustrious warrior, the 
 most gifted statesman, the most perfect 
 man of the ancient world. 
 
 It was to this man that Pompey turned 
 for aid when denied by the senate the just 
 price of his great services. Csesar had for 
 some time been seeking to detach him from 
 the aristocratic party, and Pompey, sore 
 from the injustice with which he was 
 treated, accepted the offer. A private ar- 
 rangement was effected between Caesar, 
 Pompey and Crassus, known as the Trium- 
 virate, which enabled them to control the 
 course of affairs at Rome. The first result 
 
 of this agree- 
 ment was the 
 election of Cae- 
 sar to the con- 
 sulate in B. C. 
 59. He at 
 once brought 
 forward a law 
 for dividing 
 the rich pub- 
 lic lauds of 
 Campania 
 among the Ro- 
 man poor and' 
 the veterans 
 of Pompey. The senate resisted bitterly, 
 but was forced to submit, and the lands 
 were divided. Pompey 's acts in Asia were 
 ratified, and the knights were won over to 
 the triumvirate by granting them more 
 favorable terms in the farming of the 
 revenues of Asia. The alliance between the 
 leaders was strengthened by the marriage 
 of Pompey to Julia, the daughter of Csesar. 
 Csesar, whose wife, Cornelia, had been dead 
 for some years, married Calpurnia, the 
 daughter of Piso. At the close of his term 
 of office, Csesar, who had been more of a 
 dictator than a simple consul, obtained for 
 himself the government of the two Gauls 
 and of Illyricum for a term of five years, 
 with instructions to "protect the friends 
 and allies of the Roman people." He 
 chose this position as it enabled him to 
 build up a great military renown, to win 
 the army more thoroughly to him, and to 
 be at the same time near enough to Rome 
 
 POMPEY THE GREAT. 
 
 to be able to seize the advantages that 
 might arise there. He was now forty years 
 old. Previous to his departure Cicero was 
 banished, and Cato was sent to deprive 
 Egypt of Cyprus and to convert it into a 
 Roman province, an actual exile since he 
 was confessedly unsuited to the task. The 
 senate was thus deprived of its leaders. 
 
 A few days after the departure of Cicero 
 from Rome, Csesar received news from Gaul 
 which compelled him to set out in haste 
 for his province. Geneva, the extreme 
 outjaost of transalpine Gaul, was threatened 
 by a strong body of Helvitians, who were 
 advancing upon it for the purpose of cross- 
 ing the Rhone at that point, and seeking 
 new settlements in western Gaul. In eight 
 days Csesar reached Geneva. He secured 
 the passage of the river by means of fortifi- 
 cations, and compelled the Helvitii to pass 
 into Gaul by a longer route over the Jura. 
 Then, following them across the Arar (or 
 Saone) he inflicted a terrible defeat upon 
 them at Bibracte (Antun in Burgundy) 
 and compelled the survivors to return to 
 their own country. They had begun their 
 movement 368,000 strong, men, Avomen and 
 children. Less than a third went back. 
 
 Immediately after this victory Csesar was 
 implored by the -<iEdni and Gauls to help 
 them against the Sequani, a Celtic tribe, 
 dwelling north of the Helvitii, who had 
 passed the Rhine and threatened to overrun 
 all Gaul. They were led by their prince, 
 Ariovistus, a gigantic German, who was 
 esteemed invincible, and the men of the 
 tribe themselves were all of such huge 
 stature and so numerous, that the Roman 
 army became panic-stricken at the mere 
 prospect of engaging them. It required all 
 Caesar's genius to restore their confidence, 
 and at length he shamed them into firm- 
 ness by telling them that if they all de- 
 serted him, he would make the fight with 
 the Tenth Legion alone. A desperate 
 battle ensued near Bale, in which the Ger- 
 mans were defeated and driven across the 
 Rhine. Ariovistus himself fled over the 
 river in a boat. 
 
 In B. c. 57 Csesar invaded the territory 
 of the Belgse, north of the Seine, and after 
 a stubborn campaign conquered it. The 
 next year he built a fleet and reduced 
 Brittany, which had given him considerable 
 trouble; and in the same year chastised the 
 maritime tribes. In three campaigns he 
 had conquered the whole of Gaul, from the 
 Rhine and Mount Jura to the Atlantic. 
 
FROM DEATH OF MARIUS TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 373 
 
 Caesar spent his winters at his head- 
 quarters in Cisalpine Gaul, from which he 
 could control the affairs of his party in 
 Italy. In the winter of B. c. 56 he recon- 
 ciled Pompey and Crassus, who were on the 
 point of taking up arms against each other. 
 He succeeded in bringing about a settle- 
 ment of their quarrel at interviews held 
 with them at Lucca and Ravenna, and ar- 
 ranged a plan of future operations for the 
 three. He advised them to seek the con- 
 sulship the next yeai-. At the expiration 
 of their term of office, Pompey was to re- 
 ceive the government of Spain, Crassus that 
 of Asia, and the proconsular rule of Csesar 
 over Gaul was to be continued for another pe- 
 riod of five years. Csesar thus seemed to 
 choose for himself the least advantageous po- 
 sition, but in reality it was that which enabled 
 him to carry out the task to which he had 
 devoted his life — the civilizing and harmo- 
 nizing of Europe. More than this, he de- 
 sired to be near Rome, when the course of 
 events should compel him to take the de- 
 cisive step. 
 
 In B.- c. 55 the Germans again crossed 
 the Rhine in considerable force. Csesar 
 defeated them on the left bank of that 
 river, and then threw a bridge over the 
 stream near Coblenz, and crossing into 
 Germany inflicted a severe punishment 
 upon the tribes of that region. In the late 
 autumn of the same year he undertook a 
 reconnoitring expedition into Britain, and 
 obtained hostages from the tribes. The 
 senate ordered a thanksgiving of twenty 
 days for his victories, in spite of the opposi- 
 tion of Cato and the enemies of the great 
 soldier. In B. c. 54 Csesar invaded Britain 
 a second time, and conquered the southern 
 part of England. He took hostages of the 
 native tribes, imposed tribute upon them, 
 but established no garrisons to hold the 
 island. In the winter of this year a revolt 
 broke out in Gaul. A strong Roman de- 
 tachment was defeated, and another, under 
 Quintus Cicero, the brother of the orator, 
 was in danger of a similar fate. Csesar at 
 once marched to Cicero's assistance, de- 
 feated a Gallic force of 60,000 warriors, and 
 restored order to the country. The Ger- 
 mans having aided the Gallic revolt, he in- 
 vaded their country again in the summer 
 of B. c. 53 ; but the dread of his arms had 
 now become so widespread that the Ger- 
 mans fled to the hills without offering any 
 resistance. In B. c. 52 all central Gaul 
 rose against Csesar, led by the daring chief- 
 
 tain Vircingetorix, King of the Averni. By 
 a series of daring and brilliant movements, 
 and several hard-fought battles, Csesar 
 crushed out the rebellion and made its 
 leader prisoner. By the year b. c. 50 he 
 had succeeded by his wise and firm rule in 
 bringing all of Gaul under Roman domin- 
 ion and giving it something of a settled 
 government. 
 
 In the meantime matters had hastened to 
 a crisis at Rome. Crassus, ambitious of 
 military glory, set out for his eastern gov- 
 ernment at the expiration of his consulship, 
 and after plundering the Jewish and other 
 temples to pi'ocure the funds for his project, 
 plunged into a reckless and unprovoked 
 war with Parthia. He was quickly de- 
 feated and was treacherously slain by the 
 Parthians. The death of Crassus left Pom- 
 pey the sole representative of the triumvirate 
 at Rome. He had now become thoroughly 
 jealous of Csesar, and no longer pretended 
 any friendship for him. He had not de- 
 parted for Spain, but had remained at 
 Rome to advance his interests, governing 
 his province through his legates. He allied 
 himself closely with the aristocratic party, 
 and applied himself to the task of crushing 
 and disgracing Csesar. His wife, Julia, the 
 daughter of Csesar, was dead, and there was 
 no longer any tie existing between the 
 rivals. A law was passed by the senate re- 
 quiring Csesar to surrender his proconsul- 
 ship, and return to Rome as a simple citi- 
 zen, before standing for the consulate. To 
 have done this would have been to place 
 himself in the power of his enemies. Cato 
 openly boasted that he would prosecute 
 Csesar as soon as he laid down his com- 
 mand. Not content with this, the enemies 
 of Csesar proceeded to compel him to take 
 some decisive step. On pretence of pro- 
 viding troops for a war with Parthia, Pom- 
 pey and Csesar were required to furnish 
 each a legion to be sent to Asia. Pompey 
 had some time previous loaned a legion to 
 Csesar, and he now demanded its return for 
 this service. By this shrewd trick he de- 
 prived his rival of two legions. Csesar 
 promptly dismissed the two legions, giving 
 to each man the rewards that would have 
 been his at the triumphal entry of the army 
 into Rome. These troops were stationed at 
 Capua within immediate reach of Pompey. 
 Curio, a friend of Csesar, now proposed that 
 both Csesar and Pompey should disband 
 their armies, but the senate refused to act 
 upon the proposition. Csesar wrote to the 
 
374 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE 
 
 T7^ 
 
 WORLD. 
 
 senate, expressing his willingness to disband 
 his forces if Pompey would do likewise; 
 but the only result of this offer was a decree 
 of the senate that Csesar should uncondi- 
 tionally disband his army by a fixed day, 
 on pain of being declared a public enemy. 
 Mark Antony and Cassius, the tribunes, 
 vetoed the measure, but their veto was set 
 aside, and they fled the next day to Csesar's 
 camp at Ravenna. 
 
 Csesar was left no alternative. His en- 
 emies in their eagerness to destroy him had 
 decided his course for him. Moreover, he 
 knew that to submit would be to yield his 
 country to incompetent men. Rome was a 
 free government only in name, and was 
 rotten to the core. The men who sought to 
 brand Caesar as an outlaw were false to the 
 spirit of their laws, and sought only their 
 selfish interests. Csesar was the real cham- 
 pion of freedom, and upon his decision 
 depended the very existence of the Roman 
 state. A few days before, wai'ned by the 
 threatening aspect of affairs, he had hurried 
 the thirteenth legion forward to Ravenna. 
 Upon receiving the tidings of the tribunes 
 who sought his protection, he resolved to 
 march upon Rome at once and end the 
 struggle. There was no other course for 
 him to pursue. To save Rome it was neces- 
 sary for him to overturn the worthless gov- 
 ernment in power. He drew ujj the thir- 
 teenth legion, and unfolded the state of 
 affairs to them. " There spoke," says 
 Mommsen, " the energetic and consistent 
 statesman, who had now for nine and 
 twenty years defended the cause of freedom 
 in good and evil times ; who had braved for it 
 the daggers of assassins and the executioners 
 of the aristocracy, the swords of the Ger- 
 mans, and the waves of the unknown ocean, 
 without ever yielding or wavering; who 
 had torn to pieces the Sullan Constitution, 
 had overthrown the rule of the senate, and 
 had furnished the defenceless and unarmed 
 democracy with protection and with arms 
 by means of the struggle beyond the Alps. 
 And he spoke, not to the Clodian public 
 whose republican enthusiasm had been 
 long burnt down to ashes and dross, but to 
 the young men from the towns and villages 
 of northern Italy, who still felt freshly and 
 purely the mighty influence of the thought 
 of civic freedom ; who were still capable of 
 fighting and of dying for ideals ; who had 
 themselves received for their country in a 
 revolutionary way from Csesar the burgess 
 rights which the government refused to 
 
 them ; whom Csesar's fall would leave once 
 more at the mercy of the fasces, and who 
 already possessed practical proofs of the 
 inexorable use which the oligarchy proposed 
 to make of these against the Transpadanes." 
 The troops felt the truth and justice of 
 Csesar's appeal, and resolved to follow him 
 to the death. Csesar had but one legion 
 with him, but the rest of the army was 
 hurrying from Gaul by forced marches. 
 At the head of the thirteenth legion he 
 crossed the Rubicon, a little stream sep- 
 arating his province from Italy, and ad- 
 vanced rapidly upon Rome. The senate 
 fled in dismay, leaving the funds of the 
 treasury behind. The troops of Pompey 
 deserted by the thousand, more than half of 
 the ten legions under his command going 
 over to Csesar. Pompey threw himself into 
 Brundusium, to which place Csesar followed 
 him. Seeing the impossibility of resisting 
 his rival in Italy, the " eminently respectable 
 Pompey " crossed over to Greece with the 
 25,000 men who remained faithful to him. 
 He had contemplated this step from the 
 first, hoping to be able to bring the entire 
 power of the East against Csesar in Italy, 
 and crush him in the end. In so doing he 
 surrendered to his rival the immense moral 
 advantage of occupying the seat of govern- 
 ment and ruling from Rome. 
 
 Csesar, now master of Italy and Gaul, 
 and of Sardinia and Sicily, devoted his first 
 efforts to establishing his authority over the 
 peninsula. He astonished his enemies by 
 the moderation and justice of his course. 
 He respected the property of his absent 
 enemies, compelled his troops to conduct 
 themselves as the fellow-citizens of the 
 Italians and Romans, and not as their con- 
 querors, and he won over the mass of the 
 peoi^le, and especially the moneyed class, by 
 the wise course which he pursued. 
 
 Italy being quieted, and his authority 
 being submitted to, Csesar passed into Spain, 
 which remained faithful to Pompey, who 
 had still seven legions there. He conquered 
 it in a brilliant and severe campaign of 
 forty days, and returned by way of Gaul, 
 receiving on the march the submission of 
 Massilia, which had held out stubbornly 
 against his lieutenants, B. c. 49. During 
 his absence he had been named dictator. 
 He accepted the post, but held it only for 
 eleven days. During this period he was 
 elected consul, and passed laws restoring all 
 the exiles banished by Sulla except Milo, 
 and providing for the relief of debtors. He 
 
FROM DEATH OF MABIUS TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 375 
 
 took the first step in his great scheme of 
 consolidating the provinces by extending 
 the full Roman citizenship to the Gauls. 
 Seeing that Pompey would not invade 
 Italy, he crossed over to Greece with his 
 army from Brundusium. Pompey 's naval 
 commanders allowed him to land in Ejjirus 
 without opposition, and Ca3sar succeeded in 
 drawing his rival into the interior of Thes- 
 saly, where the latter could derive no advan- 
 tage from his fleet, and forced him to a 
 decisive battle at Pharsalia, on the 9th 
 of August, according to the Roman calen- 
 dar, B. c. 48, Pompey was defeated with a 
 loss of 15,000 slain, and fled from the field ; 
 the next day 20,000 of his troops surren- 
 dered to Ca3sar. Greece promptly sub- 
 initted to the conqueror, and many of the 
 fugitive aristocracy of Rome made their 
 peace with him. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
 which was now governed by the young 
 Ptolemy XIII., who had driven his sister 
 and Avife, Cleopatra, into Syria. The 
 Egyptian king was ruled by three Greek 
 adventurers, who, fearing that Pompey 
 would seek to make himself master of the 
 kingdom, determined on his murder. The 
 defeated general arrived off Alexandria 
 with a few ships and a small force of troops, 
 4ind announced his intention of landing. 
 The Egyptians sent out a small boat for 
 him, pretending that the water was too 
 shallow for the ship to come near the shore. 
 Pompey entered the boat alone, encouraged 
 by recognizing in one of the crew an 
 officer who had formerly served under 
 him. As he was about to step from it on 
 reaching the shore, he was set upon and 
 stabbed. Pie covered his face with his 
 mantle, and fell without a struggle. A few 
 days later Cajsar arrived in pursuit of Pom- 
 pey, bringing with him a force of 4,000 
 men. The ghastly head of Pompey was 
 shown him, but he turned away weeping, 
 and gave orders for the execution of the 
 assassins. He spent five months at Alex- 
 andria, regulating the affliirs of Egypt, and 
 replaced Cleopatra, to whose charms he was 
 not insensible, on the throne. This was an 
 unpopular measure, and involved him in a 
 struggle with the Alexandrians. In one of 
 the battles on the Nile, his ship was sunk, 
 and he was obliged to swim for his life to 
 another, holding his "Commentaries" on 
 Gallic war above his head, and his coat of 
 mail between his teeth. He was successful at 
 last, however. Ptolemy was drowned in the 
 Nile, and Cleopatra's rule was established. 
 
 Leaving Egypt, Csesar hastened to Asia 
 Minor, where in a campaign of five days he 
 defeated Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates 
 of Pontus, who was seeking to recover his 
 father's dominions. Then proceeding to 
 Africa, he marched against the remnant of 
 the Pompeian party, who had set up their 
 senate and government at Utica, and 
 though defeated by them in the battle of 
 Ruspina, b. c. 47, he routed them in the 
 greater battle of Thapsus, the next year. 
 Cato, Scipio, and the King of Numidia 
 committed suicide, and Africa submitted to 
 the conqueror. In B. c. 45 he was obliged 
 to repair to Spain to suppress a new revolt 
 of the Porapeians. He was successful, but 
 the settlement of Spain after the final vic- 
 tory was a difficult task and occupied him 
 six months. 
 
 Ctesar returned to Rome for the fourth 
 time since the commencement of the civil 
 war, about the end of May, B. c. 46. Not- 
 withstanding all his victories he had never 
 triumphed before. He now enjoyed a 
 triumph of four days — one for Gaul, one 
 for Egypt, one for Pontus, and one for 
 Numidia. The victories of Ilerda (in 
 Spain) and Pharsalia were not commemor- 
 ated, as they were won in civil strife. 
 After the splendid shoAvs were over each of 
 the soldiers and every poor Roman received 
 a gift of money and grain. 
 
 The work of the conqueror being now 
 ended, that of the statesman began. He 
 was made dictator for ten years and censor 
 for three years, or in other words, absolute 
 master of Rome. Though the forms of the 
 republic were preserved, Rome was now a 
 military monarchy, whose supreme law was 
 the will of its great ruler ; for after the last 
 Spanish campaign he was made dictator 
 and censor for life, with the power to make 
 peace or Avar Avithout consulting the senate, 
 and the right of naming his successor. His 
 j^erson Avas declared sacred — to plot against 
 him Avas treason. 
 
 In the brief period during which he held 
 the dictatorship he inaugurated a series of 
 measures Avhich Avere at once populai*, judi- 
 cious, and moderate. He increased the 
 senate to 900 members, and chose the new 
 senators from the provinces as Avell as from 
 Rome; he confined the judicial poAver once 
 more to the senate and the knights ; he 
 conferred the full Roman citizenship upon 
 the entire population of Transpadane Gaul, 
 and upon many communities in Transalpine 
 Gaul, in Spain, and elsewhere, and in every 
 
376 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 possible way endeavored to break down the 
 distinctions between Rome and tlie prov- 
 inces, and to make the empire a harmonious 
 whole. He rewarded his veterans with 
 lands beyond the sea. He rebuilt Carthage 
 and Corinth, and thus revived a valuable 
 commerce which the selfish j^olicy of the 
 republic had destroyed. He thinned out 
 the poorer population of Rome by planting 
 80,000 of the people in colonies in Europe, 
 Africa, and Asia. He gave freedom to all 
 professors of the liberal sciences, and en- 
 deavored to promote the cause of education 
 in every part of the Roman dominions, and 
 to civilize the world by the power of learn- 
 ing rather than by force. He arranged a 
 settlement between the debtor and creditor 
 classes on a basis which both acknowledged 
 as liberal and just, and "which left finan- 
 cial honesty untouched." He revived the 
 
 M. JXTNIITS BRUTUS. 
 
 old Licinian law requiring the employment 
 of a certain amount of free labor in the cul- 
 tivation of the lands. He encouraged an 
 increase in the free jjopulation by granting 
 exemptions to those who had as many as 
 three children. He reformed the calendar, 
 which had fallen into such confusion as to 
 be worthless, by adding ninety days to the 
 old Roman year, and adapting the new 
 system to the sun's course ; making the 
 Roman year consist of 365 days, with an 
 additional day every fourth year. This 
 was a vast service to his country and to the 
 world, and the senate gratefully ordered the 
 month of his birth to be called July from 
 his clan name. He proposed the codifica- 
 tion of the Roman laws, a much needed 
 work; presented a plan for changing the 
 course of the Tiber so as to drain the Pon- 
 tine marshes, and ""thus give to the city a 
 large tract of laud available for building ; 
 
 and proposed'to connect Rome with Terra- 
 cina, a larger and more convenient port 
 than Ostia.V All this wonderful legislative 
 activity was crowded into a period of five 
 years, the greater portion of which was de- 
 voted to important foreign wars. 
 
 Caesar was about to undertake another 
 foreign war by invading Parthia, to avenge 
 the death of Crassus, when his own career 
 was suddenly brought to a close. His ene- 
 mies charged that he intended to make 
 himself king before his departure, and a 
 conspiracy was organized against him. It 
 was composed chiefly of his personal ene- 
 mies, who succeeded in winning over to 
 their side several honest republicans, who 
 were influenced by their belief that the 
 death of Csesar would restore the freedom 
 of the state. Unlike him they failed to 
 perceive that the possibility of a republic in 
 Rome had passed by. Caesar " was mon- 
 arch, but he never played the king. Csesar 
 was monarch, but he was never seized with 
 the giddiness of the tyrant." At the festi- 
 val of the Lupercalia (February 15), B. c. 
 44, Mark Antony oflTered Csesar the crown, 
 but he declined it. He received many 
 warnings of the danger which threatened 
 him, but his great soul could not suspect 
 the Roman people, and he was too true a 
 man to play the coward. On the 15th of 
 March he repaii-ed to the senate house, and 
 had just taken his seat when the conspira- 
 tors set upon him and stabbed him. The 
 first blow was given by Casca. He defended 
 himself with his stylus, wounding one of the 
 assassins, hurling back another, and dis- 
 arming a third. At this moment Brutus, 
 whom he had loved and trusted and loaded 
 with favors, struck him. This ingratitude^ 
 seemed to paralyze his arm ; he ceased his. 
 resistance, and exclaiming reproachfully,, 
 "And thou, Brutus," covered his face with 
 his toga and fell at the foot of Pompey's- 
 statue, pierced with wounds. So died the 
 greatest of the Romans. 
 
 Brutus, the organizer of the conspiracy, 
 raising aloft his bloody dagger, cried to 
 Cicero, " Rejoice, father of our country, for 
 Rome is free!" Alas for the honest but 
 short-sighted enthusiast. He had slain his 
 country in killing Caesar, for he had de- 
 stroyed the only man capable of carrying 
 Rome through the dangers into which the 
 deep-seated corruption of the Roman people 
 had plunged her. The death of one man 
 could not change the nation. It needed a 
 strong arm to protect it against the eflfecta. 
 
FR03f DEATH OF MABIUS TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 377 
 
 of its own corruption, and the conspirators 
 had stricken that down. 
 
 The conspirators had hoped that the 
 people would come at once to their support, 
 but the Romans were thrown into utter 
 consternation by the murder. All classes 
 feared that Csesar's death would be followed 
 by a i-eturn of proscription and revenge. 
 This hesitation gave Mark Antony time to 
 possess himself of Ctesar's papers and treas- 
 ures. He was now sole consul, and he ex- 
 erted himself to prevent the assassins from 
 profiting by their crime. He was aided by 
 the procrastination of the conspirators, who 
 failed to act with the decision their course 
 required. Antony pronounced a noble 
 funeral oration over the dead body of 
 Caesar, and in the course of it exhibited the 
 will of the dictator, in which the Roman 
 people were generously remembered, and 
 succeeded in turning the crowd against the 
 murderers. By securing the co-operation 
 of Lepidus, who had been the chief of 
 Csesar's cavalry, and by entering into nego- 
 tiations with the assassins, and professing 
 to recognize the authority of the senate, 
 Antony made himself actual master of 
 Rome. Brutus and Cassius and their asso- 
 ciates, fearing that he meant to destroy 
 them, left Rome and appealed to the prov- 
 inces to support them. Antony seemed on 
 the point of realizing all his ambitious 
 hopes, when there suddenly appeared a 
 rival on the scene. 
 
 In his last Avill and testament Caesar had 
 named the grandson of his sister Julia, C. 
 Octavius, as his heir and son by adoption. 
 The young man had been educated with 
 great care under the eye of the dictator, 
 who was much attached to him. He was 
 absent from Rome at the time of his uncle's 
 murder, but as soon as informed of it has- 
 tened to the city to claim his inheritance. 
 Coming into possession of Csesar's estate, he 
 distributed with scrupulous care the legacies 
 left by the dictator to the troops and people, 
 and so increased his popularity. Cicero 
 enrbraced his cause, and in a series of ox'a- 
 tions known as the " Philippics," he de- 
 stroyed the popularity of Antony, forced 
 him to quit Rome, and freed the senate 
 from his influence. Antony repaired to his 
 province of Cisalpine Gaul and began the 
 third civil war by laying siege to Mutina, 
 which was held by Deciraus Brutus. An 
 army under the new consuls was sent 
 against him, and at Cicero's instance Octa- 
 vius was made prsetor and associated with 
 
 the consuls in the command of the troops. 
 Antony was defeated in two battles and 
 driven across the Alps, two of his legions 
 deserting to Octavius, B. c. 44-43. These 
 victories were purchased at the cost of the 
 lives of the consuls. Octavius being left 
 sole commander of the army, which had 
 transferred its love for his uncle to him^ 
 allowed Antony to escape, bluntly refusing 
 to pursue him. He claimed the whole 
 merit of the war, and sent a detachment of 
 his troops to demand the consulship for 
 himself The senate refused his demand,, 
 and he at once marched upon Rome, plun- 
 dering the country as he went. Sustained 
 by his legions, he compelled the senate to 
 confer the supreme power upon him, al- 
 though he was but nineteen years of age. 
 He called himself consul, and associated his 
 cousin Quintus Pedius with him as his col- 
 league. He caused the senate to confirm 
 his adoption by his uncle, and to indict the 
 murderers of Csesar. As all these had fled 
 from Rome at his approach, he had them 
 condemned in their absence, and a similar 
 sentence passed upon Sextus Pompey. 
 Octavius was made sole commander of the 
 forces of the republic, with power to make 
 war or peace with Antony and Lepidus, 
 who had now united their forces. The lat- 
 ter policy suited him best at present, as he 
 needed the aid of his rivals to defeat the 
 party of Brutus and Cassius. An interview 
 between the three commanders was held on 
 a small island in the river Reno, and re- 
 sulted in the organization of the " Second 
 Triumvirate," B. c. 43. By this arrange- 
 ment Csesar Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 
 agreed to share the government of the 
 Roman dominions between them for five 
 years. A proscription on a large scale was 
 agreed upon and put in execution, partly 
 to strike terror to their enemies and partly 
 to enable the triumvirs to carry on the wai\ 
 It was one of the cruellest campaigns of 
 murder that had ever been waged in Italy,, 
 and among the victims was the orator 
 Cicero, who, though a friend of Octavian 
 (as he was now called), was sacrificed ta 
 the hatred of Antony. The property of the 
 murdered man was invariably seized. Oc- 
 tavian and Antony then crossed the Adri- 
 atic into Greece at the head of 120,000 
 men, and defeated Brutus and Cassius in 
 two battles at Phillippi, in November, B. c. 
 42. Brutus and Cassius both committed 
 suicide. 
 
 The death of Brutus and Cassius com- 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 pleted the destruction of the republic. Nei- 
 ther of the triumvirs wished to restore it ; 
 the struggles of each were now directed 
 solely to obtaining the mastery over his 
 rivals. The immediate cousequeuce of the 
 battle of Phillippi was a new distribution of 
 the empire between the three. Antony re- 
 ceived the East, Octavian Italy and Spain, 
 aud Lepidus Africa. The division had 
 hardly been made, however, before the par- 
 ties to it began to quarrel over it. The j)o- 
 sition of Octavian was rendered difficult by 
 the attitude of Sextus Pompey, who had 
 made himself master of Sicily, and inter- 
 cepted the supplies of Rome, and also from 
 the despair of the Italians, numbers of 
 whom were driven from their lands to make 
 room for the veterans. Many of the veter- 
 ans, disappointed in not receiving as much 
 as they had expected, turned against Oc- 
 tavian. Antony took advantage of these 
 troubles to plot against his rival. Though 
 absent in the East, his interests were con- 
 fided to his wife Fulvia and his brother 
 Lucius. These attempted to raise a revolt, 
 but were soon obliged to submit. A new 
 arrangement between Antony and Octavian 
 followed. Antony was obliged to give up 
 a part of the East, and Octavian received, 
 in addition to Italy and Spain, both of the 
 Gauls and Illyricum, or, in other words, 
 the whole West. Fulvia having died, An- 
 tony married Octavia, the widowed sister of 
 his colleague. In b. c. 39 this arrange- 
 ment was modified by the admission to the 
 agreement of Sextus Pompey, who was 
 given Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, on con- 
 dition of his supplying Rome with grain. 
 He failed to execute his part of the agree- 
 ment, and in B. c. 38 Octavian made war 
 upon him, and after a struggle of two years 
 defeated him, and compelled him to fly to 
 Asia, thus adding the Western islands to 
 his own dominions. The land forces of 
 Pompey, which were considerable, trans- 
 ferred their allegiance to Lepidus, Avho as- 
 sumed the title of Imperator. Octavian 
 boldly entered the camp of his rival, and 
 appealed to the troops to join him. His 
 eloquence was successful ; the entire army 
 went over to him. Octavian degraded Lepi- 
 dus from his triumvirship, but spared his 
 life and allowed him to retain his office of 
 pontifex maximus, with which arrangement 
 Lepidus was content. 
 
 Antony was now the only rival left to 
 Octavian, and had mortally affronted 
 him by abandoning his wife Octavia, aud 
 
 by giving himself up to the allurements of 
 the beautiful Egyptian Queen Cleopatra. 
 In setting out for his war against the Par- 
 thians, in B. c. 37, Antony had left his wife 
 in Italy, and soon after arriving in Asia 
 was joined by Cleopatra, whose slave he 
 continued to be until his death. During 
 the years B. c. 36, 35 and 34, Antony con- 
 ducted the war against the Parthians in a 
 feeble and halting manner, winning but few 
 successes, and no honors. He devoted the 
 autumn of 34 to debauchery and pleasure. 
 He bestowed crowns upon his children by 
 Cleopatra, aud gave to her the Roman 
 provinces of Coele-Syria and Cyprus. Oc- 
 tavian, who had spent these years in con- 
 solidating his power, and extending his do- 
 minions in the region of the western Alps, 
 had become as popular with the Romans as 
 he was once feared. He greatly increased 
 his popularity by adorning and improving 
 the city of Rome. He had long sought a 
 pretext to attack Antony, and he was now 
 furnished with one by the treasonable con- 
 duct of the latter in alienating the Roman 
 territory by his gifts to Cleopatra. War 
 was declared against Antony and Cleopatra 
 in B. c. 32. The first year was uneventful. 
 Antony had collected a powerful army and 
 fleet from the East, and was superior in 
 force to his rival, but his indecision and 
 slavish infatuation for Cleopatra disgusted 
 his followers, and he found himself the 
 leader of a half mutinous army. His offi- 
 cers and men deserted in large numbers to 
 Octavian, who received them kindly, and 
 Antony became so disheartened that he 
 formed the fatal resolution of deserting his 
 forces and flying to Egypt with Cleopatra. 
 With this deliberate intention he put to sea 
 with his fleet from the coast of Epirus, on 
 which his army was encamped. He en- 
 countered the fleet of Octavian ofl" Actium 
 on the 2d of September, B.C. 31. A battle 
 ensued, the advantage being at first with 
 Antony, whose ships were more formidable 
 than those of his rival. In the midst of the 
 fight Cleopatra, with sixty Egyptian ships, 
 drew oflfand sailed for Egypt. Seeing this, 
 Antony sprang from the deck of his flag- 
 ship to a swift galley, and followed the 
 queen. His fleet, thus deserted by its com- 
 mander, was defeated by the inferior vessels 
 of Octavian. A few days later, the flight 
 of Antony becoming known to his army, 
 it surrendered to Octavian. Octavian fol- 
 lowed his rival to Egypt, defeated his forces 
 and reduced the Egyptian queen to such 
 
FBOM DEATH OF MAlllUS TO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 179 
 
 straits, that she offered to betray her lover 
 as the price of her crown ; but her offer was 
 declined, as Ciesar sought the conquest of 
 Egypt as well as revenge upon Antony. 
 Defeated before Alexandria, and deserted 
 by all his followers, Antony ended his life 
 by suicide, and Cleopatra, seeing that Csesar 
 
 could not be moved 
 
 by her Aviles, followed 
 the example of her 
 lover. Egypt sub- 
 mitted and became 
 a Roman province. 
 In B. c. 29 Octavian 
 returned to Rome, 
 where he celebrated 
 a triple triumj^h. 
 He was supreme and 
 undisputed master of 
 the world ; and in 
 token of the univer- 
 sal peace which 
 reigned throughout 
 his dominions, the 
 brazen gates of the 
 temple of Janus were 
 shut — for the third 
 time since the found- 
 ing of Rome. 
 
 Octavian now set 
 up on the ruins of the 
 old Roman common- 
 wealth an imperial 
 monarchy under the 
 forms of a rejiublic. 
 He dated his empire 
 from the day of Ac- 
 tium, the victory 
 which made him 
 master of the world. 
 He was thirty-two 
 years of age at this pe- 
 riod, and he reigned 
 for forty-five years. 
 This long reign ena- 
 bled him to establish 
 securely the empire 
 he founded, and to 
 settle it so firmly 
 that it survived for 
 centuries in spite of the great trials to which 
 it was subjected. His prudence and sa- 
 gacity enal)led him to avoid the errors of 
 his uncle Julius, and to secure the supreme 
 power in his own hands while appearing to 
 conform strictly to the forms of the law. 
 He thus conciliated the republicans, who 
 believed they saw the republic revived un- 
 
 der his rule, and delighted the monarchists, 
 who beheld their dearest wishes realized 
 in him. He prudently avoided assuming 
 the title of dictator, or the rank or state 
 of a king. He lived as a wealthy senator 
 in his mansion on the Palatine Hill, and 
 when he went abroad it Avas without the 
 
 OCTAVIAN VIEWING THE DEAD BODY OF ANTONY. 
 
 pomp or the retinue of a monarch. Yet in 
 spite of this apparent regard for republican 
 forms, he was absolute master of the em- 
 pire, and he attained this end by uniting 
 in his own person the most important offices 
 of the state, which had previously been 
 held by different individuals. His most 
 usual title was that of "Imperator," which 
 
380 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 had formerly been borne by the consular 
 generals during their official terras. As 
 imperator or "Commander-in-chief," he had 
 command of all the provinces. As " Prince 
 of the Senate " he possessed the right of 
 proposing laws to that body, which it 
 promptly ratified. As Pontifex Maximus 
 he was supreme in sacred affairs. As per- 
 petual Tribune, Consul, and Censor, he was 
 possessed of all the powers belonging to 
 those offices. The senate conferred upon 
 him the agnomen of Augustus, which was 
 made hereditary in his family, but which 
 brought with it no accession of power. 
 
 The senate continued to exist, nominally 
 a check upon Augustus, but in reality his 
 creature. All the bolder leaders had per- 
 ished during the civil war, and the survivors 
 cared more for the favor of the emperor 
 than for their own rights or independence. 
 The senators were 600 "in number, and Avere 
 composed of Ihose j)ersons whom Augustus, 
 when censor, had suftered to remain, and 
 of those whom he now appointed to the 
 senatorial dignity. It comprised not only 
 Romans and Italians, but also, to a certain 
 extent, provincials. The latter were obliged 
 to reside in Italy, and in later times were re- 
 quired to be landholders in Italy, No one 
 could obtain a seat in it without beiug pos- 
 sessed of a property qualification, which was 
 first placed by Augustus at 400,000 sesterces, 
 and gradually advanced to 1,200,000 sester- 
 ces. Nominally the senate retained its old 
 powers and privileges. According to the legal 
 fiction of the times, the emperor derived his 
 authority from it, and it was recognized as 
 the ultimate seat of the civil j)ower and au- 
 thority, and Augustus was always most 
 scrupulous to obtain its assent to his meas- 
 ures; an easy task, since all the senators 
 were entirely subservient to him. At a 
 later period the powers of the senate became 
 insignificant and the emperors became abso- 
 lute despots. 
 
 The wisdom of Augustus left to the Ro- 
 man people some remnants of their ancient 
 privileges. The consuls and one-half of 
 the other magistrates were nominated by 
 the emperor, but the remaining magistrates 
 were elected from among candidates whom 
 the emperor approved. "Legislation fol- 
 lowed its old course, and the entire series of 
 the 'Leges Julise' enacted under Augustus, 
 received the sanction of both the senate and 
 the centuries. The judicial rights alone of 
 the people were at this time absolutely ex- 
 tinguished, the prerogative of pardon which 
 
 the emperor assumed taking the place of 
 the 'provocatio ad populum.' But the 
 tendency of the empire was, naturally, to 
 infringe more and more on the remaining 
 popular rights ; and, though a certain show 
 of election, and a certain title to a share in 
 legislation, were maintained by the great 
 assemblies up to the time when the empire 
 fell, yet practically from the reign of Ti- 
 berius the people ceased to possess any real 
 political power or privilege." 
 
 The vast extent of the empire and the 
 multiplicity of its affairs made it necessary 
 that the emperor should have the assistance 
 of others in its government. He therefore 
 called to his aid a regularly constituted 
 council of state, in which all important af- 
 fairs of state and all legislative measures 
 were discussed and prepared. The council 
 was composed of the chief annual magis- 
 trates and fifteen seliators chosen by the 
 senate for a term of six months. 
 
 The old offices were continued, and new 
 ones instituted. The principal of the latter 
 wei'e those of prefect of the city, and com- 
 mander of the praetorian guard. The prae- 
 torian guard Avas a force of 10,000 picked 
 men who were quartered in the city for the 
 protection of the emperor's person. In the 
 later years of the empire, as we shall see, 
 it played an important and unlooked-for 
 part in Roman history. 
 
 The boundaries of the empire founded 
 by Augustus may be generally stated as 
 follows : The northern boundary consisted 
 of the British Channel, the German Ocean, 
 the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine ; 
 the eastern of the Euphrates and the desert 
 of Syria ; the southern of the great desert 
 of Africa ; and the western of the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Its area Avas about a million and a 
 half square miles, and included the coun- 
 tries now called Portugal, Spain, France, 
 Belgium, Western Holland, Rhenish Prus- 
 sia, portions of Baden, Wurtemberg, nearly 
 all of Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, the Tyrol, 
 Austria proper, Western Hungary, Croatia, 
 Slavonia, Servia, Turkey in Europe, Greece, 
 Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Idumsea, 
 Egypt, the Cyreuaica, Tripoli, Tunis, Alge- 
 ria, and nearly all of Morocco. The em- 
 pire, exclusive of Italy, was divided into 
 twenty-seven provinces. These were of two 
 kinds. Those which were at peace, and did 
 not require the exercise of the military 
 power, were called senatorial provinces, 
 and were governed by proconsuls appointed 
 by the senate, the emperor's nominee of 
 
THE EMPIRE— FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAGABALUS. 
 
 381 
 
 course being confirmed. Those in which 
 the presence of an army was required were 
 imperial pi'ovinces, and were governed 
 either by the emperor in person or by his 
 lieutenants. The frontier provinces nearly 
 all required the constant exertions of the 
 army either to maintain them against the out- 
 side barbarians or to hold them in submission. 
 The army, upon whose good will the em- 
 peror depended largely for his support, con- 
 sisted of 175,000 Italian soldiers, divided 
 into twenty-five legions of 7,000 men each, 
 infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The prov- 
 inces supplied an equal number of auxili- 
 ary troops, making the total force of the 
 standing army 350,000 or 360,000 men- 
 hardy veterans all, armed, equipped, and 
 disciplined after the best known method. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE EMPIRE — FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAGA- 
 BALUS. 
 
 Rome the ilistress of the World— Reign of Augustus 
 — Wars with the Germans — Successes of Drusus 
 and Tiberius — Defeat of Varus — Grief of Augustus 
 — Improvement of Rome — Glories of the Reign of 
 Augustus — Tiberius Emperor — First Years of his 
 Reign — Jealous of Gernianicus — Cruelties of Ti- 
 berius — Sejanus — His Crimes — Tiberius Retires to 
 Caprese — Fall of Sejanus — Tyranny of the Empe- 
 ror—Growth of Christianity — Caligula Emperor — • 
 His Cruel and Shameful Reign — Reign of Claudius 
 —Conquest of Britain by the Romans — Nero Em- 
 peror — His Profligacy and Cruelty — The Burning 
 of Rome — Persecution of the Christians — Revolt 
 of the Provinces — Death of Nero — Rome Rebuilt — 
 Reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius — The Jewish 
 War — Vespasian Emperor — Revolt of the Ger- 
 mans — Jerusalem Taken — Titus Emperor — His 
 Reign — Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii 
 — Cruel Reign of Domitian — Nerva's Good Reign 
 — Trtijan Emperor — Spread of the Christian Reli- 
 gion — Vigorous Measures of Trajan — His Reforms 
 — Subdues Dacia — The Parthian War — His Death 
 — Hadrian Emperor — His Peaceful Reign — His 
 Journeys — His Cruelties — His Wish for Deaths 
 Reign of Antoninus Pius — Marcus Aurelius — His 
 Wars — Persecutes the Christians — Commodus 
 Emperor — His Disgraceful Reign — Decline of the 
 Empire — Pertinax Emperor — The Prjetorians Sell 
 the Im|)erial Dignity to Didius Julianus — Severus 
 made Emperor— He Destroys the Power of the 
 Prffitorians— His Wars in Parthia and Britain — 
 Caracal la Emperor — His Cruelties — Is Murdered 
 — Macrinus Succeeds to the Throne — Is Defeated 
 by the Parthians — His I^Iurder — Elagabalus made 
 Emperor — His Shameful and Dissolute Reign — 
 His Murder. 
 
 <^^,^HE history of the ancient world is 
 
 now that of the Roman empire. 
 Whichever way the student may 
 turn his gaze he will see nothing 
 but Rome. The whole of the then 
 known world, except the Parthian 
 
 empire, is embraced within the Roman do- 
 minions. 
 
 The reign of Augustus continued through 
 the first fourteen years of the first century 
 after Christ. The whole period of forty- 
 five years from the battle of Actium to the 
 death of the emperor was mainly one of 
 peace. A few wars mark this reign, how- 
 ever, and must be" noticed. Northern and 
 northwestern Spain were completely subju- 
 gated between B. c. 27 and B. c. 19, partly 
 by Augustus in person and partly by 
 Agrippa and Carisius. In B. c. 24 JElius 
 Gallus attempted to conquer the spice re- 
 gions of Arabia, but failed. Drusus and 
 Tiberius, the step-sons of the emperor, in 
 B. c. 16 and 15 reduced the region between 
 the Lombardo-Venetian plain and the upper 
 Danube. The tribes of the middle and 
 lower Danube were also conquered, but with 
 greater difficulty, and only after frequent 
 revolts — between B. c. 12 and A. D. 9. 
 
 The most important of these wars was 
 that waged by Augustus against the Ger- 
 mans. The comparative ease with which 
 the Gauls and tBe tribes dwelling south of 
 the Danube had been conquered, encour- 
 aged Augustus to believe that the great re- 
 gion of central Europe, between the Danube 
 and the Baltic, could be subdued as easily. 
 The conquest of this region would have 
 advanced the Roman frontier to the Vistula 
 and the Dneister, and would have been an 
 important gain in a military point of view. 
 In B. c, 12 Augustus began a series of sys- 
 tematic attacks upon the German tribes 
 east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, 
 his object being the entire subjugation of 
 these races. Until b. c. 9 the Roman armies 
 were commanded by Drusus, but upon the 
 death of that prince the command passed 
 to Tiberius. Germany was overrun by the 
 vast armies of the Romans, aided by their 
 fleets, which reduced the coasts and the 
 banks of the navigable rivers. Forts were 
 erected to hold the country in subjection, 
 and the Roman language and laws were in- 
 troduced. Augustus congratulated himself 
 upon the complete subjugation of the region 
 between the Rhine and the Elbe. The sub- 
 mission of the Germans, however, was only 
 nominal ; their spirit was unsubdued, and 
 they were patiently watching a favorable 
 opportunity to regain their independence. 
 From A. D. 4 to a. d. 8 the Germans re- 
 mained quiet and apparently submissive. 
 Towards the close of this period Tiberius 
 was succeeded by Quintilius Varus, who 
 
THE EMPIBB-FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAGABALUS. 
 
 383 
 
 had been Governor of Syria. He discon- 
 tinued hostile operations, and applied him- 
 self to the organization of his province, for- 
 getting however the difference between the 
 free-spirited Germans and the slavish Sy- 
 rians, whom he had ruled Avith a hand of 
 ^iron. His measures were harsh and oppres- 
 sive, and drove the Germans into rebellion. 
 The revolt was lead by Arniinius (Herman), 
 a prince of the Cherusci, who had been 
 educated at Rome, and who was well ac- 
 quainted with the Roman tactics. Although 
 he had been made a Roman citizen and a 
 knight, his German patriotism was undi- 
 minished, and he had long contemplated 
 the re-establishment of his country's free- 
 dom. When all his plans were in readi- 
 ness, he caused Varus to be informed that 
 a tribe in the north had revolted. Varus 
 was then in the country of the Cherusci, 
 near the Weser, and he at once set out at 
 the head of a large array to punish the 
 rebels. Armiuius allowed him to penetrate 
 with his legions into the depths of the Teu- 
 toburg wood, the difficulties of which were in- 
 creased by the mai'shy nature of the ground, 
 the result of heavy rains ; and then suddenly 
 attacked him with the dense masses of Ger- 
 man warriors with which he had skilfully 
 surrounded his force. Whichever way the 
 Romans turned, the wooded heights were 
 alive with the Germans, and escape was 
 impossible. The battle was changed into a 
 massacre ; three entire legions were de- 
 stroyed, and the few survivors were sacri- 
 ficed upon the altars of the gods of the con- 
 querors. Varus was wounded, and fell 
 upon his sword to avoid being captured. 
 It was the most terrible defeat the Roman 
 arms had ever met with ; and utterly de- 
 stroyed the power of Rome in Germany. 
 The Roman garrisons were speedily over- 
 come and were put to the sword, and in a 
 few weeks not a Roman remained alive in 
 all Germany. The independence of that 
 country was firmly established, never to be 
 lost again. Though the Romans the next 
 year renewed the war under the command 
 of Tiberius, they did not venture upon any- 
 thing more than mere retaliatory incursions 
 across the Rhine. Germanicus, between 
 A. D. 12 and 14, pursued a similar policy, 
 but no attempt at conquest or permanent 
 occupation was made. The news of the 
 disaster to the army of Varus struck Rome 
 with terror. Augustus, now an old man, 
 gave way to the wildest grief, and for 
 months would burst out into bitter lamen- 
 
 tations, crying in useless grief, " Quintilius 
 Varus, give me back my legions ! " By 
 his will, which was adopted as the policy 
 of his successors, the Rhine was regarded as 
 the Roman frontier in this quarter, and so 
 continued until the Germans themselves 
 swept over it, and upon the ruins of the 
 empire of Augustus laid the foundations of 
 the states of modern Europe. 
 
 Apart from these wars the reign of Au- 
 gustus was one of peace and prosperity. 
 The internal tranquillity of Rome was 
 never disturbed. The revolutionary el- 
 ements had exhausted themselves in the 
 civil war, and the prudent and far-seeing 
 management of the emperor prevented new 
 causes of trouble from arising. The Ro- 
 mans were consoled for their lost liberties 
 by the rapid increase of prosperity which 
 the wise administration of the emj^eror 
 brought to them, and by the distribution 
 of supplies in times of necessity. The city 
 of Rome was so much improved by the erec- 
 tion of new and stately edifices that Augus- 
 tus could boast with truth that he "had 
 
 PENNY (denarius) OF AUGUSTUS. 
 
 found Rome of brick and left it of marble." 
 Commerce elxpanded with wonderful activ- 
 ity under him ; all the arts of peace flour- 
 ished ; great improvements were made in 
 agriculture, and the productiveness of the 
 soil was increased in Italy and the prov- 
 inces ; and Rome reached her highest point 
 of material prosperity in this reign. Au- 
 gustus was also a wise and munificent 
 patron of literature and art. Virgil, 
 Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, Varius, 
 and Livy graced his court, and so brilliant 
 were the intellectual achievements of this 
 period that men have since termed the 
 brightest epoch of the literature of a nation 
 its Augustan age. 
 
 But the happiness of Augustus was con- 
 fined entirely to his public life, and did not 
 extend to his domestic relations. Person- 
 ally he was a suflferer from ill-health, an 
 affliction which marked the greater portion 
 of his life. He ardently desired to be suc- 
 ceeded by an heir of his own blood, but 
 though thrice married he had but one child, 
 a daughter, Julia, who disgraced him by 
 her excesses. The connections from whom 
 
384 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 he would have chosen his successor were 
 removed by death, aud he was compelled 
 from necessity to select as his heir his step- 
 son Tiberius, whom he disliked. He re- 
 ■quired Tiberius to adopt as his heir the 
 young Germanicus, the son of Drusus, the 
 brother of Tiberius, and bestowed upon 
 Germanicus the hand of his grand-daughter 
 Agrippina. A son was born to this union 
 during the life of Augustus, and subse- 
 quently ascended the throne as Caligula. 
 
 Augustus died in A. D. 14, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his step-son Tiberius, with the 
 entire consent of the senate and Roman 
 people. The only opposition to the new 
 sovereign proceeded from the army, which 
 desired to elevate its idolized leader, Ger- 
 manicus, to the purple, but that prince, 
 either from generosity or lack of ambition, 
 refused to countenance the treason, and 
 thus secured the undisputed accession of his 
 uncle. In spite of this, however, Tiberius 
 chose to regard him as a rival, and rewarded 
 his fidelity with a hostility which was so 
 open that it soon became apparent to the 
 
 DENARIUS OF TIBERIUS CiESAK. 
 
 courtiers that the shortest way to the favor 
 of the emperor was to injure Germanicus 
 either by word or deed. 
 
 For the first twelve years after his acces- 
 sion, a. D. 14-26, Tiberius reigned at Rome, 
 and pursued a policy which was mild by 
 comparison with his subsequent acts. 
 During the first years of this period, Ger- 
 manicus was engaged in conducting the war 
 against Arminius in Germany. After sev- 
 eral defeats he Avon some successes over the 
 German leader, and in A. d. 17 was recalled 
 to Rome, ostensibly to receive the honor of 
 a triumph, but really to put an end to his 
 success. He Avas met at a distance of 
 twenty miles from the city by a crowd of 
 Roman citizens, who thronged out to meet 
 him. This evidence of the great popularity 
 of the young prince so alarmed Tiberius 
 that he removed him from his command, 
 and sent him to conduct the Avar in Asia. 
 With him to his new field of operations 
 Avent Piso, an unscrupulous favorite of the 
 emperor, who Avas charged Avith the task of 
 thwarting the efforts of his leader and bring- 
 ing him into disgrace. In spite of this 
 
 drawback, Germanicus succeeded in settling 
 the affairs of Armenia and organizing Cap- 
 padocia and Commagene as Roman prov- 
 inces. He died in A. d. 19, near the Syrian 
 Antioch, believing himself to have been 
 poisoned by Piso. 
 
 Tibei'ius was fully conscious of his utter 
 unfitness for the lofty position he occupied, 
 but his jealousy of all the members of the 
 Julian house and of his own relatives was 
 so great that he was afraid to call any of 
 them to his assistance in the difficult 
 task of governing his empire. He Avas 
 equally distrustful of all the great patri- 
 cians, in each of Avhom he saAv a riA'al. 
 He therefore abolished the council of state 
 of Augustus, and undertook the manage- 
 ment of the empire unaided. Finding this 
 task too great for him, he selected an as- 
 sistant Avhose abilities he believed Avould 
 make him useful, AA'hile his position Avas too 
 insignificant to render him dangerous. His 
 choice fell upon -3illius Sejanus, a Volsiniau 
 knight. He made him " Praetorian Pre- 
 fect," and trusted him so entirely that Se- 
 janus soon acquired the most unbounded 
 influence over him. This man, whom Ti- 
 berius believed too obscure to be dangerous, 
 appears from the moment of his accession 
 to have conceived the ambitious design of 
 becoming master of the empire. His first 
 step was to seduce Livilla, the Avife of 
 Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and Avith her 
 aid he removed Drusus by poison, A. D. 23. 
 His crime being undiscovered, he had the 
 audacity to ask the emperor's permission to 
 marry Livilla. This bold request opened 
 the eyes of Tiberius to the ambition of his 
 favorite, but, though he refused to alloAV the 
 marriage, he continued to submit himself 
 to the influence of Sejanus. He was per- 
 suaded by Sejanus to retire to the island of 
 Caprejfi, in the most delightful part of the 
 Mediterranean, and leave the control of the 
 empire in the hands of the favorite. Left 
 master of Rome, Sejanus exerted himself to 
 remove all the obstacles to the realization 
 of his ambition. First of all it was neces- 
 sary to destroy the remaining members of 
 the family of Augustus. By intrigue and 
 falsehood he procured the consent of the 
 emperor to the arrest and imprisonment of 
 Agrippina, the AvidoAV of Germanicus, and 
 her sons, Nero and Drusus. By continually 
 urging the subject, he induced Tiberius to 
 sanction his marriage Avith LiAnlla, and 
 Avas formally betrothed to her, aud at the 
 same time Avas made joint consul with the 
 
THE EMPIRE— FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAOABALUS. 
 
 385 
 
 emperor. Tiberius now suddenly changed 
 his course. The ambition of his favorite 
 alarmed him, and his favors ceased. Se- 
 janus quickly detected the evidences of the 
 changed feelings of his master, and to secure 
 his own safety organized a plot for the 
 murder of the emperor. It was detected, 
 and the favorite was arrested, degraded 
 from his command, and put to death, A. D. 
 31. 
 
 The treachery of the only man whom he 
 had trusted embittered Tiberius against the 
 whole human race, and he became more 
 suspicious than ever. He did not return to 
 Rome, but remained in the magnificent re- 
 treat he had constructed in the Mediterra- 
 nean, dwelling " in the dreadful privacy of 
 some fabled deity, and was only felt at the 
 farthest ends of his empire by the unhappi- 
 ness he occasioned." Learning for the first 
 time that his son Drusus had been mur- 
 dered, he became alarmed for his own 
 safety, and influenced by a desire for re- 
 venge as well as the wish to remove all 
 whom he considered dangerous to himself, 
 he inaugurated a reign of terror such as 
 Rome had never seen before. Livilla, the 
 betrothed wife of Sejanus, Agrippina, Nero, 
 Drusus, and all the relatives of Germanicus, 
 were put to death ; hundreds of patricians 
 of both sexes were massacred, and even 
 little children were numbered among the 
 victims of the cruel tyrant. In the seclu- 
 sion of his island retreat, Tiberius gave 
 himself up " to strange and unnatural 
 forms of profligacy." He died there in 
 A. D. 37, at the age of seventy-eight. 
 
 In this reign the last vestige of the liber- 
 ties of Rome disappeared. The emperor 
 withdrew from the tribes the appointment 
 of magistrates, and henceforth all these 
 were appointed by the crown. He also 
 extended the penalties of treason to words 
 and even thoughts. Augustus had scru- 
 pulously conformed to the requirements 
 of the criminal laws in the removal of those 
 who were obnoxious to him, but Tiberius 
 at a blow struck down the right of trial, 
 and his victims were executed upon his own 
 order alone. He quartered the prsetorian 
 guard in a camp immediately without the 
 walls of Rome, for the purpose of overawing 
 X^ the citizens into submission to his tyranny. 
 -•> While the Roman world was plunged in 
 terror by the cruelties of Tiberius, there 
 was growing up in a distant part of the 
 empire the influence which was to change 
 the destiny of the whole world. Jesus 
 
 Christ grew up to manhood in the latter 
 part of the reign of Augustus and in the 
 first years of that of Tiberius. In a. d. 
 27, at the age of thirty, he began his public 
 ministry, in a. d. 29 he was crucified at 
 Jerusalem, by order of the Roman gover- 
 nor, Pontius Pilate, and three days later 
 gave the conclusive proof of his divinity by 
 his triumphant resurrection from the dead. 
 Forty days later he ascended to heaven, 
 leaving his apostles to complete the great 
 work of Christianizing the world in his 
 name. His earthly career thus extended 
 over a period of thirty-three years, and 
 closed about the time when the power of 
 Sejanus had reached its culminating point. 
 In the latter years of the reign of Tiberius 
 the first missionaries of the cross began 
 their labors, going out from Jerusalem to 
 the surrounding country, preaching the 
 story of the crucified Christ, and laying the 
 foundations of that great revolution which 
 was to conquer even Rome itself The 
 year of the death of Tiberius witnessed a 
 still more momentous event in the miracu- 
 lous conversion of Saul of Tarsus to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 Tibex'ius died without naming a successor, 
 but the senate, soldiers, and people unani- 
 mously chose one in Caius Ctesar, the only 
 surviving son of Germanicus and Agrij^- 
 pina. He is better known as Caligula, a 
 nickname bestowed upon him in his child- 
 hood by the legions in Germany, whose pet 
 he was, in consequence of the little military 
 boots (caligce) which he Avore to please 
 them. He was twenty-six years old when 
 he came to the throne, and was regarded by 
 all as a young man of amial)le and generous 
 disposition. He soon undeceived his people, 
 and degenerated rapidly into a cruel and 
 whimsical tyrant. At his accession the 
 imperial treasury contained a surplus of 
 over one hundred million dollars ; but he 
 squandered this immense sum in a few 
 months, and to supply his wants he resorted 
 to oppressive taxation and to an arbiti-ary 
 use of the laws concerning treason. The 
 estates of the attainted persons being for- 
 feited to the crown, it soon became appar- 
 ent that to be a traitor in the eyes of the 
 emperor it was only necessary to be rich. 
 Executions and suicides Avere numerous, 
 and the cruelty and wantonness of the em- 
 peror increased with each fresh victim. 
 He had a peculiar way of nodding with his 
 head or pointing with his finger at those 
 whose death he wished. His executioners 
 
386 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 at once seized and despatched the victims. 
 He kept a box of a poisonous compound, 
 which he offered to the more distinguished. 
 These were expected to use the poison as 
 snuff is taken. AVhoever took a pinch died 
 of the effects of the drug. Those who re- 
 fused it were executed for treason. A 
 monster of pi-ofiigacy, Caligula lived in 
 open incest with his sister Drusilla until 
 her death in A. D. 38. About this time he 
 was seized with a severe illness which un- 
 settled his reason, and the Roman world 
 had a madman for its master. He pro- 
 claimed himself a god, and built a temple 
 to his honor as Jupiter Latiaris, and so low 
 had the once proud patricians of Rome 
 sunk that they contended for the privilege 
 of ministering at this shrine. At the pub- 
 lic games, when the supply of criminals 
 was insufficient, spectators taken at random 
 from the crowd were seized by order of the 
 emperor and thrown to the beasts, and that 
 they might not shock him with their dying 
 curses, their tongues were cut out. At last 
 this brief but terrible period of suffering 
 was brought to a close by the murder of 
 Caligula by two of his guards whom he had 
 insulted beyond endurance, A. D. 41. 
 
 The sudden end of Caligula not only left 
 the empire without a ruler, but also without 
 any known means of choosing one. The 
 senate claimed the right to nominate the 
 successor to the throne, but instead of acting 
 promptly, engaged in a long debate as to 
 the proper course to be pursued. The 
 praitorians, aware of the hesitation of the 
 senate, settled the matter by proclaiming 
 Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, emperor, 
 and the senate did not dare to refuse to 
 ratify the choice of the troops. This bold 
 action settled the mode of procedure, and 
 for more than half a century afterwards the 
 emperor was chosen by the praetorians, and 
 the senate was obliged to confirm the nom- 
 ination. 
 
 Claudius had been found by the soldiers 
 hidden in the palace, alarmed by the death 
 of his nephew, and had been literally forced 
 into the purple. From his childhood he 
 had been regarded as half-witted, and had 
 been kept out of public life. Shy, weak, 
 and awkward, he was in every way unfitted 
 to rule such an empire, especially at the 
 period of its greatest corruption. Still, as 
 he was honest and well-meaning, his reign 
 might have been creditable had he been 
 left to rule alone ; but from the first he was 
 under the control of his wives and his favor- 
 
 ites, who took advantage of his weakness ta 
 carry out their own infamous designs. 
 Messalina, the infamous wife of Claudius, 
 was a monster of wickedness, whose name 
 has become a synonym for vice in woman. 
 She gratified her jealousy and hatred of the 
 patricians at the expense of some of the 
 noblest lives in Rome. She had the auda- 
 city to go through the forms of a public 
 marriage with one of her paramours, al- 
 though the emperor was living. At last 
 she was executed for her crimes by order 
 of Claudius, and a law was passed by the 
 senate enabling the emperor to marry his 
 niece Agrippina. It was the good fortune 
 of this princess to be the successor of Mes- 
 salina, and her reputation is improved by 
 contrast with that of her predecessor. That 
 she was not wholly bad is shown by her 
 recall of Seneca from exile. She made him 
 the tutor of her son Nero, and advanced to 
 power the honest Burrhus, and also pro- 
 tected many of the accused nobles. At 
 last, however, fearful of being punished for 
 her crimes, Agrippina, with the assistance 
 of the emperor's physician, put an end to 
 the life of Claudius by poison, A. D. 54. 
 
 The reign of Claudius is not memorable 
 for its crimes alone. In A. D. 44 the island 
 of Britain was conquered, partly by Aulus 
 Plautius and partly by Claudius in person. 
 The whole country as far north as the line 
 of the Dee and the Wash was subdued and 
 brought under the influence of civilization. 
 The Romans " improved as well as con- 
 quered. They made roads and built 
 bridges and cut down woods. They estab- 
 lished military stations which soon became 
 centres of education and law. They deep- 
 ened the Thames, and commenced those 
 enormous embankments of the river; to 
 which, in fact, London owes its existence, 
 without being aware of the labor they be- 
 stowed upon the work." 
 
 Claudius was succeeded by his stepson 
 Nero, who had married his daughter Octa- 
 via. Nero was the son of Agrippina, who 
 had persuaded the emperor to nominate 
 him his heir in place of his own son Britan- 
 nicus. Immediately upon the death of 
 Claudius Agrippina presented Nero to the 
 prsetorians, who hailed him as emperor. 
 Their choice was promptly confirmed by 
 the senate. 
 
 The opening of the reign of Nero was full 
 of promise, and for five years the Romans 
 had cause to congratulate themselves upon 
 their change of rulers. The oppressive 
 
THE EMPIRE— FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAQABALUS. 
 
 387 
 
 taxes of the former reign were remitted, 
 and the poor and meritorious were assisted 
 by grants of lands. The delators, an in- 
 famous class of people, who earned their 
 living by accusing others of crime, were 
 suppressed. Armenia was conquered, and 
 the country along the lower Rhine was im- 
 proved by the erection of dykes to prevent 
 inundations. These wise measures were 
 due to Burrhus and Seneca, the able and 
 incorruptible ministers of the emperor. 
 Nero himself was from the first a cruel 
 tyrant and a sensual profligate. He poi- 
 soned his foster-brother, Britannicus, in the 
 second year of his reign (a. d. 55). A 
 little later he banished his mother and gave 
 himself up to amusement and debauchery, 
 and about A. D. 58 passed under the baleful 
 influence of an infamous woman named 
 Poppsea Sabina, the wife of Otho, who be- 
 came his mistress. At her instigation 
 Nero murdered his mother (a. d. 59), and 
 then his wife, Octavia (a. d. 62), whom he 
 had previously repudiated. He murdei'ed 
 the faithful Burrhus, drove Seneca from his 
 court, and gave free rein to his baser pro- 
 clivities. He encouraged delation, and re- 
 filled his depleted treasury with the wealth 
 of his victims. Forced contributions were 
 also levied upon the people. He openly 
 encouraged the most abominable of vices, 
 and shocked his subjects by publicly en- 
 gaging in the performances of the circus 
 and the theatre. He took part in the 
 vocal performances of the Isthmian Games, 
 and caused one of the singers to be put to 
 death because his voice drowned his own. 
 In A. D. 64 a terrible conflagration de- 
 stroyed ten of the fourteen "regions," or 
 wards, of the city of Rome. Nero watched 
 the progress of the flames from a tower on 
 the Esquiline, and chanted the " Sack of 
 Troy " in the dress of an actor. He mani- 
 fested the most heartless indifierence to the 
 sufferings of his subjects. Though he was 
 believed to have ordered the firing of the 
 city in consequence of his disgust with its 
 narrow and winding streets, he charged the 
 crime upon the Christians, who had now 
 become quite numerous in Rome, and inau- 
 gurated the cruel persecution of the follow- 
 ers of Jesus Christ, which disgraced the 
 empire until the reign of Constantine. He 
 also persecuted the Jews with equal 
 severity. 
 
 The next year a conspiracy against the 
 life of the emperor was detected and cruelly 
 punished. Fear now drove Nero ou to 
 
 greater barbarity. By a series of execu- 
 tions and assassinations, which followed 
 each other in quick succession, he removed 
 the richest and most powerful and the 
 most virtuous of the Romans, and all the 
 descendants of Augustus. At last his ven- 
 geance extended to the commanders of his 
 armies in distant countries. Corbulo, the 
 conqueror of Armenia, was arrested and 
 executed, and Rufus and Scribonius, the 
 commanders of the army in Germany, 
 avoided a public execution only by taking 
 their own lives. It now became clear to 
 the other commanders that they could 
 escape a similar fate only by rebellion. 
 
 THE EMPEROR VITELLITJS. 
 
 They therefore rose in insurrection simul- 
 taneously in Germany, Gaul, Africa, and 
 Spain, and chose Galba, the governor of 
 Hither Spain, as emperor. Nero was at 
 once deserted by the praetorians and his 
 courtiers. He fled to the cottage of a 
 former slave near the city, where, after 
 spending a night of terror, he caused a 
 slave to despatch him in time to avoid 
 being seized by a troop of horse sent in pur- 
 suit of him. He died on the 9th of June, 
 A. D. 68, at the age of thirty, and in the 
 fourteenth year of his reign. 
 
 During this reign the Britons rebelled 
 under the leadership of their heroic Queen 
 Boadicea, a. d. 61, but were subdued by 
 Suetonius Pauliuus. The province of 
 Judsea was also driven into rebellion in 
 consequence of the oppressive government 
 
388 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Gessius Florus. The Jewish war began 
 in A. D. 66, and Nero despatched Vespasian, 
 his ablest commander, to direct it. Ves- 
 pasian conducted the struggle with firm- 
 ness and ability, as well as with great 
 severity, and at the death of Nero had 
 made himself master of nearly the whole 
 of Palestine. 
 
 The only creditable act of the latter part 
 of Nero's reign was the rebuilding of Rome 
 upon a more regular and substantial plan. 
 The streets were made broader and 
 straighter, the houses were constructed of 
 stone, made fire-proof, and separated from 
 each other by alleys or lanes of considera- 
 ble wddth, and an abundant supply of pure 
 water was introduced into each dwelling. 
 The imperial palace having been destroyed 
 by the fire, Nero built his famous " Golden 
 House," on a scale of magnificence and 
 magnitude never before witnessed in Rome. 
 
 S. Sulpicius Galba, the successor of 
 Nero, was upwards of seventy years old at 
 
 COIN OF VESPASIAN. 
 
 the time of his elevation to the purple. 
 He was a man of sterling integrity, a 
 Roman of the old school, and his simple 
 habits and the rigid economy which he in- 
 troduced into the management of the pub- 
 lic funds disgusted the praetorians and the 
 people. Having adopted Piso Licinianus 
 as his successor, he alienated Otho, the 
 favorite of Nero, who had hoped to secure 
 this honor, and the latter headed an insur- 
 rection. Galba and Piso were slain, and 
 the servile senate at once acknowledged 
 Otho as emperor, January 15th, A. d. 69. 
 
 M. Salvius Otho was the husband of 
 Poppsea, the infamous mistress of Nero. 
 He was a worn-out debauche, who had run 
 through almost every form of vice, and was 
 in no way fitted for the position he had 
 seized. His elevation was disputed by the 
 legions in Germany, who proclaimed their 
 commander, Vitellius, emperor. A battle 
 was fought between the rivals at Bedri- 
 acum, near the confluence of the Adda and 
 
 the Po. Otho was defeated, and at once 
 ended his life by suicide, after a reign of 
 three months, April 16th, A. D. 69. 
 
 Vitellius was as much of a profligate as 
 Otho, and lacked the personal courage of 
 his rival. He owed his success entirely to 
 the efforts of his generals, and upon coming 
 to the throne he promptly gave evidence of 
 the incapacity and utter worthlessness 
 which in the end cost him his crown. A 
 few mouths after his accession, Vespasian, 
 who had conquered nearly all of Palestine, 
 and had brought the Jewish war to its last 
 stage, raised the standard of revolt. He 
 was suj)ported by the legions in the East 
 and by the better classes of the empire in 
 general. Proceeding to Alexandria, he 
 seized Egypt, " the granary of Rome," and 
 sent his generals, Antonius Primus and 
 Mucianus, to reduce Italy. Antonius de- 
 feated the forces of Vitellius in the battle 
 (the second) of Bedriacum. This victory 
 really decided the contest, though the war 
 was prolonged several months by the sol- 
 diers of Vitellius, who would not allow 
 their leader to abdicate. The army of 
 Vespasian a little later stormed and took 
 Rome, and having captured Vitellius, put 
 him to death, December 21st, A. D. 69. 
 
 T. Flavius Vespasian dated his reign 
 from July, A. D. 69. He proved the ablest 
 and best ruler Rome had had since Augus- 
 tus — "a ruler who knew how to combine 
 firmness with leniency, economy with liber- 
 ality, and a generally pacific policy with 
 military vigor upon proper occasion." 
 Under his vigorous administration the em- 
 pire regained a great degree of its lost 
 power and prestige. At the beginning of 
 his reign a dangerous revolt broke out in 
 Germany, under Civilis, who aimed at es- 
 tablishing an independent state beyond the 
 Rhine. The movement spread to eastern 
 Gaul, and Sabinus and Classicus were in- 
 duced by Civilis to proclaim a Gallic em- 
 pire. The Gauls refused to participate in 
 the revolt, and that province was easily 
 quieted by Cerialis, the general of Vespa- 
 sian, who then passed into Germany and 
 drove Civilis across the Rhine, a. d. 69-70. 
 Upon leaving Judaea, Vespasian had 
 committed the prosecution of the war to 
 his elder son Titus. In a. d. 70 Titus ad- 
 vanced to Jerusalem and laid siege to the 
 city, which he captured and destroyed after 
 one of the most memorable and terrible 
 sieges in history. The inhabitants were 
 massacred or sold into slavery, and the na- 
 
THE EMPIRE— FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAGABALUS. 
 
 389 
 
 tional existence of the Jews was brought to 
 an end. 
 
 In Britain the boundary of the Roman 
 dominions was advanced by Agricola, who 
 was made governor in A. d. 78, from the 
 line of the Wash and Dee to that of the 
 Solway Frith and the Tyne, and was main- 
 tained by the establishment of a chain of 
 forts across the isthmus which unites Eng- 
 land with Scotland. 
 
 At home the wisdom and success of Ves- 
 pasian were manifest. The finances were 
 rescued from the confusion into which they 
 had fallen, and were placed upon a stable 
 basis ; the discipline of the army was re- 
 stored to its old standard ; and education 
 and literature were encouraged by the pa- 
 tronage of the state. The great public 
 works of the 
 emperor gave 
 employment to 
 the laboring 
 class. He con- 
 verted the space 
 enclosed by 
 Nero for his 
 own use, into 
 public grounds, 
 and in a por- 
 tion of it erect- 
 ed the Flavian 
 A m p h itheatre 
 or Coliseum. 
 He died in A. d. 
 79. 
 
 Previous t o 
 his death Ves- 
 pasian had as- 
 sociated his sou 
 Titus with him 
 
 in the empire, and at his father's decease 
 Titus succeeded to the sole sovereignty with- 
 out opposition. He was sincerely and un- 
 ceasingly devoted to the happiness of his peo- 
 ple, and though careless in his expenditures 
 and possessed of grave personal faults, he 
 must be classed among the good emperors. 
 He is said to have exclaimed one evening 
 upon remembering that he had performed 
 no useful act that day, that he had " lost a 
 day." During his reign occurred the great 
 eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed the 
 beautiful and wealthy cities of Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum. A terrible fire raged three 
 days and nights at Rome, and was followed 
 by a destructive pestilence. Titus gener- 
 ously made the pecuniary loss his own, and 
 sold even the ornaments of his palace to 
 
 defray the cost of rebuilding the burned 
 district. In September, A. d, 81, his life was 
 brought to a close by a fever. Just before 
 his death he named his younger brother 
 Doraitian his successor. 
 
 The accession of Domitian met with no 
 opposition, all classes being favorably dis- 
 posed towards him because of the virtues of 
 ins father and brother. He soou gave evi- 
 dence that he was a very different man from 
 either. He was of a morose and jealous 
 disposition, and by long indulgence of these 
 faults had inclined his nature to cruelty. 
 In the first year of his reign a war with the 
 Dacians broke out in their invasion of 
 Moesia. They defeated a Roman legion 
 and ravaged the province. In a. d. 86 Do- 
 mitian sent an army into Dacia to avenge 
 
 RUINS OF THE COLISEUM, AT ROME. 
 
 this insult, but it was defeated. The next 
 year the Romans were victorious. In a. d. 
 90 a treaty of peace was made with the 
 Dacians, by which Rome agreed to pay au 
 annual tribute as the price of the exemp- 
 tion of Moesia from invasion. Domitian 
 was not much more successful in Germany. 
 He crossed the Rhine in A. D. 84, and won 
 some trifling successes over the Chatti ; but 
 in A. D. 87 his attack upon the Marcomanni, 
 the Quadi and the Sarmatse was repulsed. 
 These failures increased his natural savage- 
 ness, and rendered him a monster of cruelty. 
 He revived the system of false accusations, 
 forfeitures, and death penalties that had 
 brought about the fall of Nero. He was 
 even more cruel and unsparing than that 
 tyrant, and at length, in the sixteenth year 
 
390 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of his reign, was murdered by the freedmen 
 of the palace, who were driven to this step 
 by their own danger, September 18th, 
 A. D. 96. 
 
 The cruelties of Domitian had so discred- 
 ited the hereditary principle, that the senate 
 now asserted a right which it had not exer- 
 cised since the days of Augustus, and named 
 the successor of the murdered emperor. 
 The praetorians made no objection to this 
 act, but contented themselves with demand- 
 ing the punishment of the assassins of Do- 
 mitian. 
 
 M. Cocceius Nerva, the emperor chosen 
 by the senate, was about sixty-six years old, 
 and a man of mild character, and of aver- 
 age abilities. He replaced the bloody rule 
 of Domitian with a government of great 
 gentleness. The extravagance which had 
 
 PORTION OF BAS-EELIEF ON AECH OF TITUS, COM- 
 MEMORATING THE CAPTURE OP JERUSALEM. 
 
 marked the previous reign gave way to 
 economy in every branch of the govern- 
 ment, and the i:)ractice of delation and con- 
 fiscation was abolished. Being childless 
 himself, he selected with the sanction of the 
 senate his successor in the person of M. 
 TJlpius Trajanus, and adopted him with the 
 usual ceremonies. This act decided the 
 future policy of the sovereign, and it be- 
 came a recognized principle of the govern- 
 ment that the emperor should select from 
 out the whole population of the empire the 
 Roman most fit for the place, and adopt 
 him as his son and successor. Nerva died 
 in A. D. 98, and his adopted son was at once 
 recognized as emperor. 
 
 During this century the spread of the 
 doctrines of the Christian religion was most 
 
 marked. From Jerusalem as a centre the 
 missionary apostles went out to the eastern 
 nations preaching their wonderful faith and 
 establishing the Church of Christ. Barna- 
 bas and Saul taught the faith at Antioch in 
 Syria, and there the disciples were first 
 called "Christians." Then followed the 
 journeys of St. Paul by which he carried 
 Christianity into Asia Minor and into 
 Greece, and finally to Rome itself, whither 
 he went as a prisoner and a martyr in the 
 reign of Nero. The rapid growth of the 
 new faith excited the alarm of the Romans. 
 Nero attempted to check the spread of 
 Christianity by a severe persecution of its 
 followers. This policy of persecution was 
 continued by his successors, but in spite of 
 it the new faith continued to spread. 
 
 Trajan, the new emperor, was a native of 
 the colony of Italica in Spain. His father 
 had been consul and proconsul, and he him- 
 self had been bred in the camp, and had 
 served with distinction under his father. 
 In A. D. 91 he was made consul under Do- 
 mitian, and commanded the province of 
 Lower Germany under that emperor and 
 under Nerva. He was regarded as the ablest 
 man in Rome at the time of his accession 
 to the throne, and was accepted with joy by 
 both the senate and the army. The Ro- 
 mans always regarded him as the best of 
 their emperors. His faults were chiefly a 
 too great fondness for wine and for sen- 
 sual pleasures ; but his good qualities were 
 numerous and brilliant. "He was brave, 
 laborious, magnanimous, simple and unas- 
 suming in his habits, affable in his man- 
 ners, genial ; he knew how to combine 
 strictness with leniency, liberality with 
 economy, and devotion to business with so- 
 ciability and cheerfulness. And if we may 
 thus consider him, in a qualified sense, 
 'good,' we may certainly without any re- 
 serve pronounce him ' great.' Both as a gen- 
 eral and as an administrator he stands in 
 the front rank of Roman rulers, equalling 
 Augustus in the one respect, and nearly 
 equalling Julius in the other." His indus- 
 try was untiring. He conducted the gov- 
 ernment almost alone, carrying on a volu- 
 minous correspondence with the governors 
 of the provinces, and furnishing each with 
 instructions for the management of his 
 province. He suppressed delation with a 
 stern hand, and scrupulously respected the 
 rights of the senate, allowing the members 
 freedom of speech, and treating them as his 
 equals in social intercourse. His financial 
 
THE EMPIRE— FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAOABALUS. 
 
 391 
 
 administration was eminently successful, 
 and was conducted with so much wisdom 
 and prudence that it was never found neces- 
 sary to resort to increased taxation or con- 
 fiscations. Yet the public treasury was al- 
 ways kept so full that the emperor never 
 lacked the funds for his military expedi- 
 tions, his great public works, or his measures 
 for the relief of his distressed subjects. He 
 improved the poor law of Nerva by extend- 
 ing and systematizing its provisions ; he re- 
 lieved the embarrassments of proprietors of 
 
 he spent scarcely anything upon himself, 
 and amidst all his numerous engagements 
 found time for the patient hearing of the 
 many appeals made to him from the lower 
 courts. In literature the reign of Trajan 
 ranks next to that of Augustus Tacitus, 
 the great historian, the younger Pliny, 
 Plutarch, Suetonius, and the slave philos- 
 opher Epictetus. lived under his beneficent 
 rule. 
 
 The only error of his reign was the desire 
 of Trajan to be known to future ages as a 
 
 ARCH OF TRAJAN— KOMK. 
 
 encumbered estates by loaning them money 
 at a low rate of interest ; he caused the 
 ravages made by earthquakes and tempests 
 to be repaired without delay ; founded colo- 
 nies ; constructed military roads in various 
 parts of the empire ; erected bridges over 
 the Rhine and the Danube; and adorned 
 Rome and the provincial towns with useful 
 and ornamental works. In Rome the prin- 
 cipal of these structures were the great 
 Forum, and the Ulpian Library. While 
 so liberal in his treatment of his subjects, 
 
 conqueror. The period of conquest had 
 passed, and the emperor would have done 
 well to have regarded the Rhine, the Dan- 
 ube, and the Euphrates as the boundaries 
 of the empire, as Augustus had sagely ad- 
 vised his successors. Trajan, however, 
 chafed under tiie disgraceful tribute which 
 Domitian had pledged to the Dacians, and 
 in A. D. 101, made war upon Dacia, which 
 was conquered by A. D. 103. Hard terms 
 were imposed by Rome, and the next year 
 the Dacians revolted. Trajan at once took 
 
392 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the field, and by a. d. 105 completely sub- 
 dued the country, which was made a Roman 
 province, and was held down by a line of 
 forts. Returning to Rome the emperor 
 celebrated his triumph with gaznes which 
 
 TRAJAN'S COLUMN— KOME. 
 
 lasted for 123 days, during which 11,000 
 wild beasts, and 10,000 gladiators, chiefly 
 Dacian prisoners, are said to have been 
 slain. 
 
 Towards the close of this reign the gen- 
 erally unsettled aflfairs of the East induced 
 
 Trajan to go to war with Parthia. The 
 pretext for the quarrel was the claim of 
 Rome to direct the affairs of Armenia, 
 which was disputed by Parthia. The war 
 began in A. D. 115 Avith the invasion of 
 Armenia by the emperor in person. That 
 province was quickly subdued, and Trajan 
 carried his victorious arms as far as Susa. 
 The result of the war was the addition to 
 the Roman territory of the provinces of 
 Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Tra- 
 jan died in Cilicia, in A. D. 117, on his re- 
 turn from the East, and his ashes were con- 
 veyed to Rome in a golden urn, and buried 
 under the column which is called by his 
 name. 
 
 He was succeeded by his adopted son 
 Hadrian, who was distantly related to him, 
 and had served under him with distinction. 
 Hadrian was forty-two years old at this 
 time, and was childless. In many respects 
 he resembled Trajan. He was genial in his 
 disposition, afiable in manner, and liberal 
 in character. He expended the public 
 funds lavishly in the service of the state 
 and the improvement of the empire, but 
 managed the finances with such skill that 
 his treasury was never exhausted. Though 
 he ruled with a firm hand, he was moderate 
 in all things, and scrupulously maintained 
 the forms of a free government. He re- 
 sembled Trajan also in his capacity for and 
 devotion to business, and never allowed his 
 love of pleasure to interfere with his official 
 duties. He was a liberal patron of the arts, 
 and a wase friend to literature. Like the 
 majority of men of his day he was lax in 
 his morals, but he never suffered himself to 
 be drawn into a scandal He was more 
 irritable than Trajan, and more jealous, but 
 he atoned for these faults by preferring the 
 triumphs of peace to those of Avar, and by 
 wisely devoting himself to the improvement 
 of his dominions without caring to extend 
 them. He sought faithfully to promote the 
 good of all his subjects. 
 
 Hadrian began his reign by voluntarily 
 evacuating the provinces of Armenia, Meso- 
 potamia, and Assyria, which had been won 
 by Trajan, but which he kncAV could not be 
 maintained except at a greater cost of life 
 and treasure than they were worth. In 
 order to acquaint himself with the needs of 
 his subjects, he visited the various portions 
 of his dominions, and resided for prolonged 
 periods at the various provincial capitals. 
 Eboracum (York), in Britain, Athens, 
 Antioch, and Alexandria, were in turn the 
 
THE EMPIRE—FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAGABALUS. 
 
 393 
 
 residence of the emperor, who spent fifteen 
 out of his twenty-one years in these provin- 
 cial progresses. He made no difference be- 
 tween the various races over which he ruled, 
 and wherever he went he left some memento 
 of his presence in the great works which he 
 loved to construct. All parts of his do- 
 minions were thus benefited. His reign 
 was an almost unbroken period of peace 
 and prosperity. 
 
 The only wars which occurred during 
 this reign were one with the Roxolani in 
 A. D. 118, and a revolt of 
 the Jews under Bai'cochebas 
 in A. D. 131. This struggle 
 lasted until A. d. 135, and 
 ended in the defeat of the 
 Jews, and their absolute 
 banishment from Palestine, 
 The site of Jerusalem was 
 made a Roman colony un- 
 der the name of -lElia Capi- 
 tolina, and the Christians, 
 who had been banished by 
 Titus, were freely admitted 
 to it by Hadrian. 
 
 We have spoken of the 
 excellence of Hadrian's 
 character. It is necessary 
 to dwell upon the darker 
 shades. With the advance 
 of age his natural irritability 
 of temper and jealousy were 
 increased by indulgence of these vices. Hebe- 
 came regardless of human life, and put men 
 to death for small offences. He caused an 
 architect to be executed for venturing to 
 criticise some statues designed by himself. 
 As he grew older, Hadrian became " more 
 reckless of the pain he gave. He had a 
 brother-in-law ninety years of age, and there 
 was a grandson of the old man aged eigh- 
 
 The old man, just before he died, protested 
 his innocence, and uttered a revengeful 
 prayer that Hadrian might wish to die and 
 find death impossible ! " The imprecation 
 was fulfilled! The emperor, tormented 
 with disease, lingered long after he wished 
 for death, and begged his slaves to kill him. 
 He even stabbed himself with a dagger, but 
 still death did not come to his relief. He 
 did not die until b. c. 138. In spite of his 
 faults, however, Hadrian justly takes rank 
 as one of the greatest and best of the em- 
 
 COIN OF THE EMPEROK HADRIAN. 
 
 teen. He had them both executed on proof 
 or suspicion of a conspiracy. The popular 
 feeling was revolted by the sight of the 
 mingled blood of the two sufferers so nearly 
 related, at the opposite extremities of life. 
 
 MOLE OF HADRIAN— KOMi;. 
 
 perors. "To have combined for twenty 
 years unbroken peace with the maintenance 
 of a contented and efficient army ; liberal 
 expenditure with a full exchequer, replen- 
 ished by no oppressive or unworthy means ; 
 a free-speaking senate with a firm and 
 strong monarchy, is no mean glory." 
 
 The wisdom of Hadrian was never more 
 strikingly exhibited than in the choice of 
 his successor, T. Aurelius Antoninus, 
 or, as he is better known, Antoninus 
 Pius. His reign of twenty-three years 
 was uneventful, but it was peaceful 
 and prosperous. He continued the 
 liberal policy of Trajan and Hadrian, 
 and watched over the happiness and 
 welfare of his subjects with a father's 
 care. He was the first of the em- 
 perors who protected the Christians. 
 In Britain the Roman boundary was 
 advanced to the Clyde and the Forth, and 
 secured by the erection of a barrier known 
 as the "Wall of Antoninus," extending 
 across the district between those waters. 
 Antoninus died in A. t>. 161, and was sue- 
 
394 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ceeded by his adopted son, Marcus Aure- 
 lius. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius was forty years old at 
 the death of his adoptive father, to whom 
 he was sincerely attached, and whose name, 
 Antoninus, he assumed. Personally, he 
 was one of the best of the emperors, loving 
 religion, justice and peace, and honestly 
 seeking to advance the welfare of his sub- 
 jects. He was a man of pure life and 
 simple habits, and combined in his charac- 
 ter all the virtues of the heroic age of 
 Rome. He was kind and affectionate in 
 disposition, and in mental capacity he was 
 one of the foremost of the Caesars. Yet his 
 
 COIN OF ANTONINUS PIUS. 
 
 reign was one of misfortune. His wife, 
 Faustina, the daughter of Antoninus, was 
 noted for her dissoluteness, and his eldest 
 son and daughter died during their child- 
 hood. He associated Lucius Verus with 
 him in the empire, and the conduct of that 
 unworthy prince caused him great grief 
 and anxiety. Though he desired a peace- 
 ful reign, he was involved in war during 
 the whole of his rule. The Parthians re- 
 newed the war for the possession of Arme- 
 nia in A. D. 161, the year of his accession. 
 It continued for five years, the Parthians 
 being at first successful; but they were at 
 length driven from Armenia, and the Par- 
 thian territory was invaded by the Roman 
 commanders. Peace was made at the 
 prayer of the Parthians in A. d. 166, and 
 Mesopotamia was ceded to Rome, and Ar- 
 menia restoi'ed to its former position of 
 semi-independence. Thus the Roman 
 boundary was advanced to the Tigris. In 
 A. D. 167, the barbarians north of the Dan- 
 ube, pressed upon by the advancing Avave of 
 agreatScythic migration, were forced across 
 that river into the Roman territory. Both 
 emperors took the field against them, and 
 drove them back at first. The next year 
 Verus died, and freed Aurelius from one of 
 his troubles. From this time until the pe- 
 riod of his death, in A. D. 180, Aurelius was 
 constantly engaged in efforts to beat back 
 the barbarians and secure the frontier 
 
 against their incursions. He was success- 
 ful in many battles, but he did not succeed 
 in effectually repelling the northern na- 
 tions, and crippling them to an extent 
 which would compel them to cease their 
 attacks. That was a task beyond his 
 power. The pressure of these nations upon 
 the Danubiau tribes was so great that they 
 could not remain within their own limits, 
 and Rome had entered too surely upon her 
 decline to accomplish an undertaking which 
 would have been a serious one in the days 
 of her early vigor. -<. 
 
 Though so admirable in other respects, 
 Aurelius was one of the severest persecutors 
 of the Christians. From his youth he had 
 been a devoted follower of the doctrines of 
 the Stoic philosophy, and it is possible that 
 he was influenced in his treatment of the 
 Christians by the advice of the harsh and 
 arrogant members of that sect who sur- 
 rounded him. During his reign Justyn 
 Martyr suffered martyrdom at Rome, Poly- 
 carp at Smyrna, and at Lyons and Vienna 
 large numbers of Christians sealed their 
 faith with their blood. " But," as an emi- 
 nent divine well says, " the persecution of a 
 sect so small and so obscure as the Chris- 
 tian was at that time, is scarcely percepti- 
 ble as a diminution of the sum of human 
 happiness secured to the world by the gen- 
 tleness and equity which regulated all his 
 actions." Aurelius 
 died in Pannouia in 
 A. D. 180. 
 
 Commodus, the 
 second son of Aure- 
 lius, had been asso- 
 ciated with his 
 father in the gov- 
 ernment at the age 
 of fifteen. Aurelius 
 was tenderly at- 
 tached to him, and 
 allowed his affection 
 to outweigh h i s 
 judgment in this 
 selection of a sue- ' 
 cessor. At the death of Aurelius, Com- 
 modus became sole emperor. He was 
 but eighteen years of age, and was but 
 a weak and self-indulgent boy, easily 
 influenced by his favorites. His first 
 act was to buy a disgraceful peace of the 
 Marcomanni and Quadi, after which he 
 went back to Rome. For three years he 
 reigned well, following the system marked 
 out by his father, but at the end of this 
 
 THE EMPEKOB COMMODUS. 
 
THE EMPIRE— FROM AUGUSTUS TO ELAGABALUS. 
 
 395 
 
 time the natural ferocity of his nature was 
 aroused by the discovery of a plot to mur- 
 der him, A. D, 183. Many of the senators 
 were implicated in the conspiracy. Com- 
 modus, tearful of another similar attempt, 
 plunged into the most reckless cruelties. 
 All persons who were unfortunate enough 
 to gain his hostility were put to death. 
 Delation was revived in its worst form, and 
 the property of the victims went to enrich 
 the imperial treasury. Justice was bought 
 and sold. The emperor, caring nothing 
 for the administration of the public affairs, 
 gave himself up to the lowest pleasures. Vain 
 of his physical strength, he called himself 
 "the Roman Hercules," and exhibited him- 
 self in the amphitheatre in contests with 
 weak opponents, whom he slew without 
 mercy. At length, after a reign of twelve 
 years and nine months, he was strangled in 
 his bed-room by one of his mistresses and 
 two of his officers, whom he had marked 
 for death, A. D. 192. 
 
 Under Commodus the decline of the em- 
 pire, which had begun as early as the reign 
 of Galba, and had only been arrested by 
 the five good emperors, proceeded with 
 frightful rapidity. The discipline of the 
 army was almost entirely destroyed. The 
 troops deserted their standards by hun- 
 dreds, and either united with the provin- 
 cials and settled down into an agricultural 
 life, or organized themselves into banditti 
 and plundered the country without restraint. 
 "Meanwhile, population was declining, and 
 production consequently diminishing, while 
 luxury and extravagance continued to pre- 
 vail among the upper classes, and to ex- 
 haust the resources of the state. Above 
 all, the general morality was continually 
 becoming worse and worse. Despite a few 
 bright examples in high places, the tone of 
 society grew everywhere more and more 
 corrupt. Purity of life, except among the 
 despised Christians, was almost unknown. 
 Patriotism had ceased to exist, and was not 
 yet replaced by loyalty. Decline and de- 
 crepitude showed themselves in almost every 
 portion of the body politic, and a general 
 despondency, the result of a consciousness 
 of debility, pervaded all classes. Never- 
 theless, under all this apparent weakness 
 was an extraordinary reserve of strength. 
 The empire, which under Commodus seemed 
 to be tottering to its fall, still stood, and 
 resisted the most terrible attacks from with- 
 out for the further space of two full centu- 
 
 The assassins of Commodus hastened to 
 the house of Pertiuax, the prsefect of the 
 city, and informing him of their bloody 
 deed, offered him the crown. He was an 
 old man, of unblemished character, and 
 was one of the few remaining friends of 
 Marcus Aurelius. Very naturally he 
 shrank from accepting the dangerous honor 
 offered him, but his scruples were at length 
 overcome. The prsetorians, yielding to the 
 entreaties of their commander, who was one 
 of the murderers of Commodus, sullenly 
 accepted him ; but the senate, overjoyed at 
 the elevation of one of their own order, 
 hailed him with outspoken pleasure. The 
 treasury was empty, and the economy 
 which Pertinax endeavored to introduce 
 into the administration of the government 
 aroused the hostility of the avaricious prse- 
 torians, and of the citizens who clamored 
 
 THE EMPEKOR SEVEKUS. 
 
 for shows, and the prsetorians rose in open 
 mutiny against the emperor and murdered 
 him on the 28th of March, A. D. 193, after 
 a reign of less than three months. 
 
 The prsetorians now put the imperial 
 dignity up at auction, and sold it to Didius 
 Julianus, a wealthy senator, for more than 
 fifteen millions of dollars. The senate, 
 afraid to oppose the will of these trooj^s, 
 acknowledged Julianus, and be reigned for 
 about two months at Rome, but his author- 
 ity was never acknowledged in the prov- 
 inces. In Britain, Pannonia, and Syria, 
 the armies, disgusted at the conduct of the 
 prsetoi'ians, set up their respective leaders — 
 Albinus, Severus, and Niger — as emperors. 
 Of these Severus was not only the most 
 energetic, but he was the nearest to Rome. 
 He at once passed the Alps and marched 
 upon Rome. His emissaries won over the 
 
396 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 praetorians, after which the senate did not 
 dare to resist him. Didius Juliauus was 
 seized and put to death, and Severus en- 
 tered Rome. 
 
 The first act of Severus, after obtaining 
 possession of the capital, was to break the 
 power of the prsetorians. He caused them 
 to be disarmed and banished them to a dis- 
 tance of 100 miles from Rome. He then 
 turned upon his rivals. He pacified Al- 
 binus, w^ho was still in Britain, by promis- 
 ing to declare him his successor, and then 
 marched against Niger, whom he defeated 
 in two decisive battles at Cyzicus and Issus, 
 in Asia, and captured him and put him to 
 death. He then broke openly with Albinus, 
 who invaded Gaul, but was defeated and 
 slain near Lyons. Severus was now sole 
 emperor, and he soon taught his subjects 
 that in him they had found a master. He 
 was stern and cruel in character, and sig- 
 nalized his success by putting to death 
 forty-one senators and a number of rich 
 provincials, whose only crime was that they 
 had supported his rivals. Under Severus 
 the empire became a military despotism, 
 and the senate was not only shorn of its 
 powers, but openly insulted. The prsetorian 
 guard was replaced by a body of 40,000 
 picked troops, which formed the garrison 
 of Rome and acted as the body-guard of the 
 emperor. The chief of this force — the 
 praetorian prefect — became the second per- 
 son in the empii-e. He not only commanded 
 the garrison of the city, but was intrusted 
 with tlie control of the finances, and with 
 certain legislative and judicial powers. 
 He thus became a not insignificant rival of 
 the sovereign himself. 
 
 Severus was an able general and he un- 
 dertook to improve the discipline of the 
 army, but without much success. In A. d. 
 197 he became engaged in a war with 
 Parthia, which was brought to a successful 
 close the next year by the capture of Ctesi- 
 phon, the Parthian capital. Adiabene was 
 conquered and made a dependency of the 
 empire. 
 
 In A. D. 208 the troubles in the island 
 of Great Britain became so great as to re- 
 quire the presence of the emperor. He 
 drove back and punished the Caledonians 
 who were pressing southward, and advanced 
 the Roman border in this quarter. He was 
 accompanied in this expedition by his son 
 Caracalla, who here gave a striking instance 
 of the ferocity of his disposition. He at- 
 tempted to murder his father in open day. 
 
 and was stealing upon the old man when a 
 cry from the troops caused Severus to turn 
 suddenly. As his stern gaze fell upon Car- 
 acalla the weapon dropped from the hand 
 of the would-be parricide. To the amaze- 
 ment of the spectators the emperor foi'gave 
 his son, but put all whom he named as his 
 accomplices to death with cruel sufferings. 
 The last years of Severus were troubled 
 by the hatred which his two sons, Caracalla 
 and Geta, bore each other, and which was 
 scarcely restrained by their common de- 
 pendence upon him. In order that neither 
 might be left at the mercy of the other, he 
 named both as his successors, and is said to 
 have given them this parting advice : " Be 
 generous to the soldiers and trample on all 
 beside." He died at York in a. d. 211, at 
 the age of sixty-five, after a reign of eigh- 
 teen years. 
 
 Severus was succeeded by his sons Cara- 
 calla and Geta. They reigned together for 
 a year, hating and suspecting each other 
 most bitterly. At the end of that time an 
 attempt was made to settle their quari-el by 
 a division of the empire. This failing, 
 Caracalla murdered his brother in the arms 
 of their mother, A. D. 212, and became sole 
 emperor. He was a cruel monster, and his 
 conduct can be explained only upon the 
 supposition that he was mad. To drown 
 the reproaches of his conscience, Caracalla 
 undertook to remove from the world all 
 that could remind him of his murdered 
 brother. Under the title of " friends of 
 Geta," 20,000 persons, including a daughter 
 of Marcus Aurelius, a son of Pertinax, a 
 nephew of Commodus, and the great jurist 
 Papinian, were put to death. Still the 
 conscience of the emperor gave him no 
 rest, and he left Rome and began a series 
 of aimless wanderings through the prov- 
 inces, in which the rest of his life was 
 passed. He proved himself the common 
 enemy of mankind. Wherever he went he 
 grievously oppressed the peoj)le and marked 
 his progress by his cruelties. In Alexan- 
 dria, being angered at some trifling matter, 
 he caused a general massacre of the citizens 
 to be begun, in which many thousands lost 
 their lives. There was scarcely a province 
 of the empire into which he did not carry 
 his atrocities. Knowing himself to be 
 hated by his subjects, he sought to retain 
 the favor of his troops by distributing 
 among them large rewards and relaxing 
 their discipline. Towards the close of his 
 reign he undertook the conquest of Parthia. 
 
BEIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVEBUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 397 
 
 Establishing his head-quarters at Edessa, in 
 Mesopotamia, in A. D. 214, he crossed the 
 Tigris, captured Arbela, and by A. d. 216 
 had driven the Parthiaus into their moun- 
 tain fastnesses. He intended to continue 
 the war the next year, but before the cam- 
 paign could be opened he was murdered by 
 Macrinus, the prcetorian prefect, who was 
 driven to this step to save his own life, 
 A. D. 217. 
 
 The army, after some hesitation, pro- 
 claimed Macrinus emperor, and he was 
 acknowledged by the senate. He began his 
 reign by endeavoring to undo the evil acts 
 of Caracalla, and being defeated by the 
 Parthian monarch, he withdrew from the 
 war and purchased a jDeace. His reforms 
 in the administration of the government 
 proved unacceptable to the army, which 
 had grown accustomed to the recliless ex- 
 penditures of Caracalla, and a plot was 
 foi'med against him, Avhich was fomented 
 by Julia Moej^a, the sister of the mother of 
 Caracalla, who persuaded one division of 
 the army to accept as emperor her grandson 
 Avitus, or Bassianus, whom she declared to 
 be a son of Caracalla. A struggle ensued, 
 which was decided by the cowardice of 
 Macrinus, who abandoned the field while 
 the battle was still doubtful. He was pur- 
 sued by the forces of his rival, cajjtured, 
 and carried to Antioch, where he was put 
 to death. His son Diadumenus, whom he 
 had designated as his successor, shared the 
 same fate, A. i). 218. 
 
 Bassianus, the newly proclaimed em- 
 peror, was a Syrian youth of fourteen years, 
 and at the time of his elevation to the 
 throne was high priest of the Syrian sun- 
 god, Elagabalus, in the great temple at 
 Emesa (Hems). He assumed his descent 
 from Severus and Caracalla as an un- 
 doubted fact, and took the name of Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus. He is more generally 
 known as Elagabalus. His claims were 
 submitted to by the Romans and were 
 recognized by the senate. His brief reign 
 of four years was the most disgraceful in 
 Roman history, for the emperor himself 
 was the most contemptible of mortals. He 
 was addicted to the lowest forms of the 
 most sensual vices, and, possessed of no 
 talent of any description, cared for nothing 
 but gluttony and debauchery. He painted 
 his face, wore the dress of a woman, and 
 paraded his vices openly before the gaze 
 of the public. The grave ceremonies of the 
 Roman religion were replaced with the in- 
 
 famous orgies of Syria. Becoming ena- 
 mored of a vestal virgin, he tore her from 
 her sacred seclusion and compelled her to 
 become one of his wives. The extrava- 
 gance of the emperor rapidly exhausted the 
 resources of the empire. " His floors were 
 spread with gold dust. His dresses, jewels, 
 and golden ornaments were never worn 
 twice, but went to his slaves and parasites. 
 He created his grandmother a member of 
 the senate, with rank next after the consuls, 
 and established a rival senate, composed of 
 ladies, presided over by his mother. Their 
 jurisdiction was not very hurtful to the 
 state, for it only extended to dresses and 
 precedence of ranks, and the etiquette to 
 be observed in visiting each other." 
 
 For four years the Romans submitted 
 patiently to this contemptible creature. 
 His grandmother, seeing that his own vices 
 must soon destroy Elagabalus, persuaded 
 him to adopt his cousin, Alexander Severus, 
 as his successor. The virtues of this prince, 
 which were in such marked contrast with 
 the contemptible vices of the emperor, won 
 him the favor of the pi-setorians, and also 
 drew upon him the jealousy of the sov- 
 ereign. Afraid to strike at Alexander 
 openly, the emperor endeavored to remove 
 him by assassination. The praetorians, 
 seeing that the life of Alexander could be 
 saved only by the death of the emperor, 
 mutinied against Elagabalus, and slew him, 
 A. D. 222. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEV- 
 ERUS TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander Severus Made Emperor — His Good 
 Reigu — Fall of Parthia and Rise of the Modern 
 Kingdom of Persia — Wars between Rome and 
 Persia — The Germans in Gaul — Maximin Em- 
 peror — His Cruelties — Gordian Emperor — Reigns 
 of Philip and Decius — Gallus and ^milian — Va- 
 lerian Emperor — Wars with the Barbarians — The 
 Persian War — Valerian Defeated and Made Pris- 
 oner — Gallienus — The Kingdom of Palmyra — 
 Claudius — Aurelian Emperor — His Vigorous 
 Reign — Captures Palmyra — Zenobia — Murder of 
 Aurelian — Tacitus Emperor — Reigns of Florian 
 and Cams — Diocletian Emperor — His Vigorous 
 Measures — Destroys the Power of the Legions— Di- 
 vides the Imperial Authority — A Great Change — 
 Carausins and Constantius — Maximian Africa — 
 Diocletian Subdues the Egyptian Revolt — War 
 with Persia — Persecution of the Christians — Dio- 
 cletian Retires from the Throne — Constantine tlie 
 Great — He Establishes his Authority Over the 
 Whole Empire — Makes Christianity the Religion 
 of the Empire— The Council of Nicsea — Founds 
 
398 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Constantinople — Reorganization of the Empire — 
 His Wars with tlie Barbarians — Constans — Con- 
 stantius — His War with Persia — Julian the 
 Apostate — Failure of his Effort to Destroy Chris- 
 tianity — His Death — Jovian Emperor — Valen- 
 tinian — Events of his Reign — Valens — Move- 
 ments of the Barbarian Tribes — Gratiau and 
 Valentinian II. — Theodosius the Great — He Sup- 
 presses Paganism — Tlie Emperor and St. Ambrose 
 —The Empire Divided— Revolt of the Goths— The 
 Goths in Italy — Defeated by Stilicho — Gladiato- 
 rial Combats Forbidden — The Vandals Invade 
 Italy — They Settle in Western Europe — New In- 
 vasion of the Goths — Alaric Captures Rome — 
 Plunders it — Death of Alaric — The Goths in Spain 
 — Reign of Valentinian III. — The Huns in Italy 
 — Attila — Battle of Chalons — Defeat of the Huns 
 — The Vandals Plunder Rome — Ricimer — The 
 Mock Emperors — Ra])id Decline of the Western 
 Empire — Augustulus Emperor — Fall of the West- 
 ern Empire — Establishment of the Kingdom of 
 Italy — Establishment of the Teutonic Nations at 
 the Fall of the Empire. 
 
 LEXANDER SEVERUS was a 
 different man from his cousin. He 
 was the son of Mammsea, the 
 younger daughter of Moesa, and 
 had been carefully educated by bis 
 mother. He was a prince of pure 
 and blameless morals, but he did not pos- 
 sess sufficient energy of character to stem 
 the tide of corruption that was sweeping 
 the empire to its doom. During his whole 
 reign he shrank from the task of ruling his 
 dominions, and submitted himself to the 
 direction of his mother. The tendency of 
 this reign was for good. The example of 
 the young emperor was excellent, and the 
 influence of his mother was elevating, but 
 neither were sufficiently strong to carry out 
 the reforms which they attempted. Still 
 this period forms a pleasing contrast wdth 
 that which immediately preceded it. The 
 wisest and most virtuous men were ad- 
 vanced to the |)osts of honor and trust ; the 
 senate was treated with a respect and con- 
 sideration which it did not deserve ; and an 
 honest efibrt was made to administer the 
 government upon principles of purity and 
 economy. 
 
 In the meantime a great change had 
 taken place in the eastern world. The Par- 
 thian empire had been destroyed, and the 
 modern kingdom of Persia had been 
 founded by Artaxerxes. This monarch 
 aimed at regaining all the dominions of 
 Darius I., and demanded of Alexander the 
 instant evacuation of all the Roman posses- 
 sions in Asia. The emperor replied by 
 leading his army across the Euphrates in 
 A. D. 231. In the brief war which followed 
 Alexander claimed to be entirely success- 
 ful, but it would seem that he was barely 
 
 able to hold his eastern dominions. The 
 Persian king on his part was so crippled by 
 the contest that he was unable to attempt 
 the expulsion of the Romans from Asia, and 
 peace was made in A. D. 232. 
 
 A new danger now arose on the Rhine. 
 The German tribes, about A. d. 234, passed 
 that stream and invaded Gaul. Alexan- 
 der hastened to meet them, but before he 
 could begin operations against them, he 
 was slain, together with his mother, by his 
 mutinous troops, A. D. 235. 
 
 Maximin, the leader of the mutiny, was 
 proclaimed emperor by the troops. He 
 had risen from the station of a Thracian 
 peasant to the command of a legion, and 
 though possessed of courage and military 
 ability, was in other respects an illiterate, 
 coarse, and brutal ruffian. He was guided 
 during the first three years of his reign by 
 no policy but that of hatred of the nobles 
 and covetousness toward the rich. His extor- 
 tions at last drove the people of Africa into 
 rebellion, and in A. D. 238 they rose against 
 him, and crowned their proconsul Gordian 
 and his son emperors. The senate, with an 
 almost incredible boldness, ratified the 
 choice. Maximin was at this time in winter 
 quarters on the Danube, and he at once 
 marched upon Rome, hoping to crush his 
 rivals by his promj)tness. The two Gordi- 
 ans were defeated and slain in Africa within 
 a month after their rebellion, but the sen- 
 ate, with unusual vigor, supplied their 
 places with two of their own body, Pupienus 
 and Balbinus. The new emperors, unable 
 to meet Maximin in the field, laid waste the 
 open country and garrisoned the towns, 
 hoping by this plan to weary out their rival. 
 Detained by the resistance of Aquileia, 
 Maximin began to vent his anger upon his 
 own troops, who rose against him and 
 killed him, together with his son, in May, 
 A. D. 238. 
 
 The murder of Maximin, so far from 
 settling the quarrel, simply changed its 
 character. It now became a struggle be- 
 tween the senate and the legions for the 
 right to name the emperor. The latter 
 settled the matter by murdering Pupienus 
 and Balbinus within six weeks of the death 
 of Maximin, and elevating to the purple the 
 younger Gordian, the grandson and nephew 
 of the princes of that name who had headed 
 the African revolt. 
 
 Gordian was a mere tool of his ministers, 
 being only twelve years of age. He fell at 
 length under the influence of Timesitheus, 
 
BEIQN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 399 
 
 the praetorian prefect, an able officer, who 
 married him to his daughter. During the 
 life of Tiraesitheus the authority of the em- 
 pire was vigorously maintained, the eastern 
 frontier was held successfully against the 
 attacks of the Persians, and an insurrection 
 in Africa was quelled. Ou his return from 
 the Persian war, Timesitheus was assassi- 
 nated by Philip " the Arabian," who suc- 
 ceeded to the command of the guard. He 
 procured the death of Gordian at the hands 
 of his troops, and was made emperor in his 
 place, A. D. 244. 
 
 Philip was a native of Bostra in Arabia. 
 He began his reign by concluding a peace 
 with Persia. The next year he defeated 
 the Carpi on the middle Danube, and in 
 A. D. 248 celebrated the " Secular Games " 
 with great magnificence, in honor of the one 
 thousandth anniversary of the founding of 
 Rome. The Syrians, discontented with the 
 rule of Philip, set up a mock emperor 
 named Jotapianus, while the legions in 
 Mcesia and Pannonia proclaimed Marinus. 
 Both of these leaders lost their lives speed- 
 ily, but the mutiny of the army continuing, 
 Philip sent a senator named Decius to bring 
 the troops to obedience. The soldiers, be- 
 lieving that in spite of his promises Philip 
 would never forgive their conduct, com- 
 pelled Decius to assume the purple by the 
 threat of death in case of his refusal. 
 The rebels then marched into Italy, de- 
 feated and slew Philip at Verona, in A. D. 
 249, and Decius ascended the throne with- 
 out opposition. 
 
 Decius, made emperor against his will, 
 reigned but two years. During this brief 
 period, he endeavored to restore the purity 
 of religion and morals among the Romans, 
 but without success. With the hope of ac- 
 complishing the latter object he instituted 
 a severe persecution of the Christians, A 
 general massacre of the followers of this 
 religion took place in Alexandria, and 
 the bishops of Antioch, Jerusalem, and 
 Rome suffered martyrdom. In A. D. 250 
 the chief event of the reign occurred. The 
 Goths, attracted by the riches of the empire, 
 swept over the border in large force, rav- 
 aged Dacia and Moesia, and invaded 
 Thrace. Decius attempted to check their 
 advance, but was defeated, and the next 
 year attempted to retrieve his ill-fortune, 
 but was beaten in a great battle in Moesia, 
 and slain, together with his son, whom he 
 had associated in the empire. 
 
 The army now consented to allow the 
 
 senate to regulate the succession. That 
 body nominated Gallus, one of the generals 
 of Decius, and Hostilianus, the young son 
 of Decius. Volusianus, the son of Decius, 
 was also associated in the imperial dignity. 
 Gallus was really the emperor, his age and 
 experience placing him far above his col- 
 leagues. His first act was to purchase a 
 peace from the Goths by the payment of an 
 annual tribute on condition of their abstain- 
 ing from invading the Roman dominions. 
 This act cost him his popularity at Rome, 
 and the discontent thus aroused was in- 
 creased by the calamities which now came 
 crowding thick and fast upon the empire. 
 A destructive pestilence raged in Rome, and 
 spread over nearly the whole of the Roman 
 dominions. Hostilianus was among the 
 victims. A fresh invasion of the barbari- 
 ans scourged the provinces south of the 
 
 THE EMPEROR GALLIENUS. 
 
 Danube. -^miliauus, the governor of 
 Pannonia and Moesia, having repelled this 
 invasion, was proclaimed emperor by his 
 troops. He at once advanced ujjon Rome. 
 Gallus and his son took the field against 
 him, but were murdered by their own 
 troops, and JEmilian was at once acknowl- 
 edged by the senate, a. d. 253. 
 
 TEmilian's elevation to the purple was 
 contested by Valerian, who was acknowl- 
 edged to be the best and most competent 
 man of the time. He had been sent by 
 Gallus to bring the legions of Gaul and 
 Germany to his assistance. Arriving too 
 late to save Gallus, he turned his arms 
 against ^milian, and defeated him after a 
 reign of three months. The emperor per- 
 ished in the conflict. 
 
 Valerian was promptly acknowledged by 
 the senate and people. He was sixty years 
 of age, and was too old to grapple with the 
 
400 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dangers which now burst upon his country, 
 consequently his reign was one of disaster. 
 The barbarians had lost their fear of the 
 Roman name, and now made the rapidly- 
 declining empire painfully conscious of 
 their power. The Franks from the lower 
 Rhine, and the Alemanui from southern 
 Germany, ravaged Gaul, Italy, and Spain, 
 and even crossed the straits of Gibraltar 
 and extended their depredations to Africa. 
 The fleets of the Goths, constructed in the 
 forests of the Black Sea, spread terror along 
 the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece. Nu- 
 merous cities, among which were Cyzicus, 
 Chalcedon, and Ephesus, were captured by 
 them and given to the flames. Corinth and 
 Athens were also taken by them. In the 
 East, Persia, under its new mouarchs, the 
 Sassanidse, advanced its territory steadily 
 to the northwest at the expense of the Ro- 
 man empire. Sapor, the seqond king of 
 the dynasty, conquered Armenia, and in- 
 vaded Mesopotamia. Valerian took the 
 field against him, but was defeated near 
 Edessa and made a prisoner, a. d. 260. 
 Sapor refused all oflers of ransom for his 
 illustrious captive, and kept him loaded 
 with chains, but clad in the purple, a con- 
 stant prisoner at his court — a spectacle 
 never before witnessed in the world's his- 
 tory. 
 
 In A. D. 254 Valerian had associated his 
 son Gallienus in the empire, and upon his 
 father's capture, Gallienus became sole em- 
 peror. During his sole reign of eight years 
 the disasters which have been enumerated 
 continued without cessation. The emperor, 
 says Gibbon, " was a master of several curi- 
 ous but useless sciences, a ready orator, an 
 elegant poet, a skilful gardener, ain excel- 
 lent cook, and a most contemptible prince." 
 He could do little more than attempt the 
 defence of Italy against the pretenders who 
 sprang up in various parts of the empire, 
 and who are usually called " The Thirty 
 Tyrants." They had for the most part 
 brief and inglorious reigns, and their king- 
 doms usually perished with them. There 
 were two important exceptions to this rule. 
 A monarchy was established in Gaul by 
 Posthumus, which lasted for seventeen 
 years under four successive princes. In the 
 East, Odenathus established an independent 
 kingdom at Palmyra, in A. D. 264, and ex- 
 tended his rule over Syria and the adjacent 
 countries. He was murdered in A. d. 267, 
 and was succeeded by his widow Zenobia. 
 Gallienus found it impossible to contend 
 
 against the dangers which menaced him, 
 and fortunately for the empire was slain 
 near Milan by his own troops, in A. D. 
 268. 
 
 The troops conferred the imperial dignity 
 upon Claudius, one of their generals, whose 
 wisdom and firmness arrested for a while 
 the work of destruction which was going on 
 in the empire. He conquered the Ale- 
 manui and drove them out of Italy, in A. D. 
 268, and vanquished the Goths in Moesia in 
 the next year. He died in A. d. 270, at 
 Sirmium, after a short but glorious reign 
 of two years, in which he succeeded in 
 ridding the empire of the worst of its dan- 
 gers, and giving it a new lease of life. On 
 his death-bed he recommended as his suc- 
 cessor, Aurelian, one of his generals, whom 
 he considered most competent to the task 
 of completing the work he himself had 
 begun. 
 
 Aurelian, like his predecessor, was a sol- 
 dier of fortune. He was of humble origin 
 but was in every way worthy of the high 
 station to which he had risen. His reign 
 lasted only about four years and nine 
 months, but was one of the most brilliant 
 in the history of Rome. He put an end to 
 the Gothic war by routing their army in 
 Pannonia in A. d. 270, and chased the Ger- 
 mans out of Italy. He revived the rigid 
 discipline of the army, and thus rendered 
 it capable of the successes which it won. 
 It was his policy to reunite the scattered 
 fragments of the empire, and he made war 
 for this purpose on the kingdom of Pal- 
 myra, which was ruled by Zenobia as re- 
 gent for her son, A. D. 272. The next year 
 he brought the war to a close by the cap- 
 ture of Palmyra, and the overthrow of the 
 kingdom. Zenobia was made a prisoner, 
 and Palmyra was treated with leniency. It 
 revolted as soon as Aurelian had returned 
 to Europe, but was subdued and destroyed. 
 Zenobia was transferred to Italy, where she 
 passed a more useful, if a less brilliant, life 
 as a Roman matron. In the west Tetricus 
 had enlarged the kingdom of Posthumus 
 by the addition of Spain and Britain. Au- 
 relian now turned against this kingdom, and 
 in A. D. 274 succeeded in reducing it to his 
 authority. Previous to these wars Aurelian, 
 in order to secure the capital against a sud- 
 den attack of the barbarians, who had 
 shown that they could enter Italy at pleas- 
 ure, fortified Rome with a new wall which 
 enclosed the suburbs that had sprung up 
 beyond the wall of Servius Tullius. He 
 
 y 
 
REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 401 
 
 relinquished to the Goths and Vandals the 
 outlying province of Dacia, which, since 
 Trajan added it to the empire, had been 
 more of a burden than a profit. The Ko- 
 nian inhabitants were removed south of the 
 Danube. Having destroyed the kingdom 
 of Tetricus, Aurelian was about to proceed 
 to the East to make war upon the Persians, 
 when he was assassinated by several of his 
 officers, who had been instigated to the 
 crime by his private secretary, A. D. 275. 
 
 The army was indignant at the murder 
 of Aurelian, and the troops, refusing to 
 allow any of their officers to assume the 
 pur[)le, applied to the senate to appoint a 
 new emperor, and waited patiently for six 
 months for the response of that body to 
 their appeal. At length the 
 senate named M. Claudius 
 Tacitus, a senator of great 'i. 
 
 wealth and pure character, ^ 
 
 but a man too far advanced in 
 life for the dignity. Tacitus 
 endeavored to decline the 
 honor, pleading his age and in- 
 firmities, but the senate would 
 not listen, and he assumed the 
 purple. He reigned for six or 
 seven months, during which his 
 acts were directed to the re- 
 vival of the reign of morality 
 and law which had marked the 
 earlier republic. Being called 
 away to the East by the dis- 
 affection of the army in that 
 quarter, he sank under the 
 fatigues of the journey, and 
 died in a. d. 276. 
 
 Florian, the brother of Taci- 
 tiis, assumed the imperial dig- 
 nity upon the receipt at Rome of the 
 news of the death of the emperor, and 
 the eastern army invested their general, 
 M. Aurelius Probus, with the purple. A 
 civil war now seemed imminent, but it 
 was averted by +he refusal of Floriau's 
 troops to fight their comrades. Three 
 months later he was assassinated by them, 
 and Probus was left sole emperor. He was 
 an able general and a j^rudent and vigorous 
 monarch, sincerely devoted to the welfare 
 of his subjects, which he believed he could 
 accomplish as well by the arts of peace as 
 by conquest. He drove the Germans from 
 the region of the Keckar and the Elbe ; 
 subdued the Sarmatians ; and compelled 
 the Goths to sue for peace. He made his 
 power so dreaded in the East that Egypt 
 26 
 
 submitted, and the Persians sought his alli- 
 ance. He endeavored to secure the frontier 
 of the empire by settling it with colonies of 
 barbarians, who, becoming civilized, served 
 as a defence against their less civilized 
 brethren. He also attempted to drain the 
 marshy lands, and to improve the agricul- 
 tural system. In the pursuit of this latter 
 object, he employed his troops in agricultu- 
 ral labors, which so disgusted them that 
 they rose against him and murdered him, 
 A. D. 282. 
 
 Cams, the praetorian prefect, was made 
 emperor by the troops. He proclaimed 
 his two sons, Carinus and Numerianus, 
 "Cccsars," and associated the former in the 
 empire. Leaving Carinus to govern the 
 
 THE WALLS OF KOME— THE OSTIAN GATE. 
 
 West, Carus departed for the East, taking 
 with him his younger son. He passed into 
 lllyricum, where he defeated the Sarmatians, 
 and then invaded the Persian dominions. 
 He quickly subdued Mesopotamia, and cap- 
 tured the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, 
 the old Parthian capital. He crossed the 
 Tigris, and seemed on the point of destroy- 
 ing the Persian kingdom, when he died, from 
 disease according to some writers, from a 
 stroke of lightning according to others, a. d. 
 283. The superstitious fears of the llonum 
 troops w-ere aroused by the sudden death of 
 the emperor, and they obliged Numeriauus 
 to retreat within the limits of the Roman 
 dominions. On the march he was assassi- 
 nated by his father-in-law, who ho])ed to 
 seize the tlirone, but the legions upon the 
 
402 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 discoveiy of the crime invested Diocletian, 
 the commander of the body-guard, with the 
 purple. He slew the murderer of Nume- 
 rian with his own hand, and marched west- 
 ward. Carinus, in the meanwliile, was dis- 
 gusting the western world by his profligacy. 
 Hearing of the advance of Diocletian, he 
 put himself at the head of a large army 
 and marched to meet him. A battle was 
 fought in Moesia. The army of Diocletian 
 was defeated, but Carinus was slain in the 
 moment of victory by a tribune whom he 
 had grievously wronged, and his troops ac- 
 knowledged Diocletian as emperor. A, D. 285. 
 The accession of Diocletian marks a new 
 period iu the history of the empire. Until 
 now, since the death of Commodus, the 
 authority of the emjieror had been ham- 
 
 GEEEK AND KOMAN CUIKASSES. 
 
 pered by the insolence of the legions, who 
 claimed the right to set up and pull down 
 the sovereign at will, and by the powers 
 legally appertaining to the senate. Thus 
 the army had inaugurated a tyranny which 
 was unendurable, and which would have 
 destroyed the Roman state long before had 
 not the danger with which the barbarians 
 constantly threatened it, made the troops 
 willing to submit to some form of discipline. 
 Under Diocletian's vigorous rule a change 
 was made. The authority of the govern- 
 meut was strengthened, and the army was 
 taught its true position as the servant of the 
 state. The reforms begun by Diocletian 
 were not completed until the reign of Con- 
 stantine. Though they resulted in the 
 strengthening of the authority of the sover- 
 eign, and gave a new vigor for the time to 
 
 the state, they tended very greatly to the 
 division of the empire, which was already a 
 question of time. 
 
 Having secured his authority, Diocletian, 
 in A. D. 286, began the first of the measures 
 by which he hoped to counteract the exist- 
 ing evils. He associated with him in the 
 empire one of his generals named Maxim- 
 ian,who had risen from the ranks, and who 
 was little more than a good general. The 
 two emperors took each the title of Augus- 
 tus. In A. D. 292 Diocletian appointed two 
 " Csesars," who were to stand iu the relation 
 of sons and successors to the Augusti. 
 Galerius was chosen by Diocletian, and 
 Constantius by Maximian. They were 
 younger than their patrons, and were able 
 generals. Accepting the dignity conferred 
 upon them, they repudiated their own wives 
 and married respectively the daughter and 
 the stepdaughter of their patrons. " Dio- 
 cletian now went a step further, and divided 
 the empire between the four sovereigns. 
 He reserved to Maximian and himself the 
 more settled provinces, and bestowed upon 
 the Csesars those Avhich required the pres- 
 ence of younger and more active men. He 
 assigned to Constantius the provinces of 
 Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the task of 
 defending the lower Rhine against the 
 Germans; to Galerius the Danubian prov- 
 inces, Noricum, Pannonia, and Moesia ; and 
 to Maximian Italy and Africa. For him- 
 self he retained Thrace, Macedon, Egypt, 
 and the East. It was understood, as the 
 basis of this settlement, that the unity of 
 the empire was to be preserved. The 
 Csesars were to regard the Augusti as their 
 superiors, and Maximian was to be guided 
 by the influence of Augustus. This very 
 complex arrangement worked well during 
 the lifetime of Diocletian, whose influence 
 was sufficient to maintain harmony in the 
 government. 
 
 The results of the ncAv system were 
 marked. " Power passed away from the 
 hands of the soldiers, and tended to become 
 dynastic ; the principle of association, 
 adopted on a wide scale, gave stability to 
 the government ; the helm of the state was 
 grasped by firm hands, and various new 
 arrangements were made, all favorable to 
 absolutism. Such restraint as the senate 
 had up to this time exercised on the despotic 
 authority of the emperors — a restraint 
 slightest, no doubt, in cases where it was 
 most needed, yet still in the worst case not 
 wholly nugatory — was completely removed 
 
REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 403 
 
 by the departure of the court from Rome, 
 and the erection of other cities — Nicomedia, 
 Milan, Constantinople — into seats of gov- 
 ernment. When Rome was no longer the 
 capital, the Roman senate became a mere 
 municipal body, directing the affairs of a 
 single provincial town ; and as its lost priv- 
 ileges were not transferred to another as- 
 sembly, the emperor remained the sole 
 source of law, the sole fountain of honor, 
 the one and only principle of authority." 
 To guard against the interference of the 
 prsetorians, who from their fortified camp 
 at Rome had for so long been able to dic- 
 tate terms to the sovereign, Diocletian re- 
 duced their numbers, intending to suppress 
 them at length — a task finally performed 
 by Constantino. "Above all, the multipli- 
 cation of emperors and the care taken to 
 secure the throne against such an occur- 
 rence as a vacancy, . . . placed the 
 imperial authority almost beyond the risk 
 of danger from military violence." 
 
 In A. D. 286 a revolt broke out in Britain. 
 Carausius, a naval chief, being intrusted 
 with a large fleet for the defence of the 
 coasts of Britain and Gaul, rebelled against 
 the emperor, and having won over the 
 troops in Britain, seized that island and set 
 up an independent kingdom. He increased 
 his navy by building new ships, and made 
 himself master of the western seas. Dio- 
 cletian and Maximian made energetic but 
 fruitless attempts to reduce him to submis- 
 sion, but were at length compelled to accept 
 him as their colleague in the empire, with 
 the title of Augustus, A. D. 287. Constau- 
 tius being made Ctesar, and assigned the 
 western provinces, made war upon Carau- 
 sius in A. D. 292. He took Boulogne after 
 a long siege, and prepared to invade Britain, 
 when Carausius was slain by his chief 
 officer Allectus, A. d. 293. In a. d. 296 
 Constantius landed in Britain, defeated 
 Allectus, and restored the Roman authority 
 over the island. The next year he drove 
 the Germans out of Gaul. He settled his 
 prisoners in colonies on the lands which 
 they had laid waste. A revolt having 
 broken out in Africa, Maximian proceeded 
 to that province and restored order. About 
 the same time Alexandria was taken by 
 storm by Diocletian, and a rival emperor 
 who had held it against him was put to 
 death. The inhabitants were punished by 
 a massacre in which several thousand were 
 killed. Galerius for many years was occu- 
 pied in defending the Danubian frontier, 
 
 which he did w'ith credit. In A. D. 297 he 
 passed over to the East and invaded Persia. 
 He was at first defeated with heavy loss, 
 but at length collecting a new army, he 
 defeated the Persian King Narses so sig- 
 nally that he was forced to make peace on 
 terms advantageous to the Romans, A. d. 
 298. 
 
 The evils of the system of Diocletian be- 
 gan to manifest themselves towards the 
 close of his reign. The establishment of 
 four imperial courts instead of one, and the 
 consequent multiplication of officials and 
 of armies, necessarily increased the rate of 
 taxation, already very heavy. The {)rov- 
 inces were almost crushed beneath the 
 weight of the imposts laid upon them, and 
 the taxes were wrung from the people with 
 the greatest difficulty. It was generally 
 necessary to employ violence, and some- 
 times torture, for this purpose. Con- 
 sequently industry sank beneath this system 
 which deprived it of all its earnings ; pi:o- 
 duction diminished steadily, and the prices 
 of all commodities rose. Diocletian en- 
 deavored in A. D. 301 to check this evil by 
 fixing by a decree the maximum price for 
 all the necessities and many of the luxu- 
 ries of life. As a matter of course, this 
 violent interference with the natural laws 
 of trade defeated its object. It simply 
 made worse the evils it sought to remedy. 
 
 Towards the close of his reign, Diocle- 
 tian, alarmed by the rapid spread of Chris- 
 tianity, which had been embraced by fully 
 one-half of his subjects, determined to strike 
 a blow at it which he believed would de- 
 stroy it. In A. D. 303 he issued an edict 
 requiring uniformity of worship throughout 
 the empire. The Christians were noted as 
 the most orderly, industrious, and faithful 
 subjects of tlie emperor. Their refusal to 
 comply with the order to deny their faith 
 placed them beyond the pale of the law, 
 and a war of extermination was waged 
 against them. Thousands were slain in 
 every province, their property was confis- 
 cated, and their churches destroyed. Only 
 in the extreme West, under the authority 
 of the more enlightened Constantius, were 
 the Christians safe from the malice of their 
 enemies. Yet so far from destroying them, 
 the persecutions to which they were sub- 
 jected proved a powerful agency for the 
 spread of their faith, and their ranks were 
 filled up with new converts as fast as 
 thinned by the deaths of the martyrs. 
 
 In A. D. 305 Diocletian, weary of the 
 
404 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cai'es and trials of his high state, abdicated 
 his throue, aud compelled Maximiau to do 
 likewise. By this act, Galerius aud Con- 
 stantius became Augusti. Galerius imme- 
 diately appointed Maximin aud Severus 
 CsBsars. The appointmeut gave great offence 
 to the legions in Britain, who resented it as 
 depriving their own leader, Coustautius, of 
 the choice of his successor. Upon his death, 
 in A. D. 306, they proclaimed his sou, Con- 
 stantine, his successor. This infringement 
 of the new order of affiiirs was coudoued 
 by Galerius from the lack of the power to 
 resist it. He recognized Constantine as 
 Csesar, and advanced Severus to the rank 
 of Augustus, thus preserving the organiza- 
 tion of the imperial college. Constantine 
 retained his father's dominions in the West ; 
 Severus had Italy and Africa; Maximin, 
 Syria and Egypt; and Galerius retained 
 for himself the whole region between Gaul 
 and Syria, or about three-fourths of the 
 empire. 
 
 The loss of the prestige and privileges 
 of Rome by the division of the empire and 
 the erection of new capitals, had given 
 serious otil'uce to the Italiaus. These dis- 
 contents broke out in open rebellion in 
 A. D. 307. The senate appointed Maxen- 
 tius, the son of Maximian, emperor, and 
 Maximian, joining his son, resumed the rank 
 of Augustus, which he had laid aside at the 
 command of Diocletian. Severus hastened 
 to Rome, and attempted to quell the revolt, 
 but Avas abandoned by his troops and 
 forced to end his life by suicide. Maxen- 
 tiusand Maximian, having allied themselves 
 with Constantine, were also able to defeat 
 the large forces with which Galerius sought 
 to reduce Italy, and to compel him to with- 
 draw to the East. In a. d. 309 a compro- 
 mise was arranged by w^hich the empire 
 Avas ruled by six emperors, Constantine, 
 Maximian, and Maxentius in the West, and 
 Galerius, Maximin, and Licinius, in the 
 East. Licinius had been made Csesar by 
 Galerius upon the death of Severus. 
 
 This arrangement lasted only a few years. 
 It was first disturbed by a quarrel between 
 Maxentius and his father. Maximian 
 was obliged to fly to the court of Constan- 
 tine, wlio had married his daughter. He 
 was well received at first, but at length, 
 being detected in a plot to overthrow his 
 son-in-law, was put to death in A. d. 310. 
 The next year Galerius, who had proved as 
 cruel a persecutor of the Christians as Dio- 
 cletian himself, died at Nicomedia. The 
 
 Roman world was thus left in the hands of 
 four emperors, Constantine in the West, 
 Maxentius in Italy and Africa, Licinius in 
 lllyricum and Thrace, and Maximin in 
 Egypt and Asia. Maxentius alienated his 
 subjects by his cruelties aud extortions, and 
 they appealed to Constantine to drive him 
 from the throne and unite Italy and Africa 
 to his own dominions. Constantine had 
 proved himself. an able general by his suc- 
 cessful resistance of the Franks and Ale- 
 niauni, whom he kept out of Gaul, and his 
 generous protection of the Christians had 
 won him the gratitude and afiection of 
 their brethren in all j^arts of the empire. 
 He endeavored to avoid the war, but find- 
 ing that Maxentius was preparing to invade 
 Gaul, he anticipated him, and entered Italy 
 at the head of 40,000 men, passing the 
 Alps by way of Mont Cenis without resist- 
 ance. The struggle Avas decided by the 
 vigor and rapidity of Constantine's move- 
 ments. He defeated his adversary in two 
 battles — one near Verona and the other at 
 the Colline Gate — and made himself master 
 of Rome and Italy, Maxentius having been 
 droAvned in the Tiber duriug the last battle. 
 Constantine promptly applied himself to 
 the consolidation of his dominions. His 
 first act Avas to disband the prsetorian 
 guard, Avhich Maxentius had increased to 
 80,000 men. By thus scattering this force, 
 he deprived the senate of the last shred of 
 its dignity, and Rome of the power of re- 
 sisting his will, A. D. 312. 
 
 The next year a war broke out in the 
 East betAveen Licinius and Maximin. The 
 latter Avas defeated iu a great battle near 
 Heracleia, and shortly afterwards commit- 
 ted suicide, leaving Licinius sole master of 
 the East. Not satisfied Avith this success, 
 Licinius sought to drive Constantine from 
 the West, and by his intrigues for this pur- 
 pose proA'^oked a Avar with his rival, in 
 A. D. 314. Licinius was defeated, and 
 obliged to cede Pannonia, Illyricum,Moesia, 
 Macedonia, and Greece to Constantine, 
 A. D. 315. A peace of nearly seven years 
 folloAved, which Avas broken by the ambi- 
 tion of Constantine, Avho Avas resolved to 
 become master of the whole empire. Licin- 
 ius was once more defeated, and, falling 
 into the hands of the conqueror, was put to 
 death, A. d. 322. 
 
 Constantine, Avho had well earned his 
 title of " the Great," Avas now sole master 
 of the reunited empire. He signalized his 
 success by the most important event of his 
 
BFAON OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 405 
 
 reign — the establishment of Christianity as 
 the religion of the state. In A. d. 313 he 
 had issued a decree, known as the Edict of 
 Milan, guaranteeing to the Christians equal- 
 ity with his other subjects and protection 
 in all their rights. He declared subse- 
 quently to Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea, 
 according to that writer, that in one of his 
 marches in the campaign against Maxen- 
 tius, he had seen Avith his own eyes the 
 luminoi's trojDhy of the cross, placed above 
 the meridian sun, inscribed with these words, 
 " By this. Conquer." This amazing object 
 in the sky astonished the whole army as 
 well as Constantiue, who was yet undeter- 
 mined in the choice of a religion. His 
 astonishment was converted into faith by a 
 vision which was vouchsafed to him the 
 following night. " Christ appeared before 
 his eyes ; and displaying the same celestial 
 sign of the cross, he directed Coustantine to 
 frame a similar standard, and to march, 
 with an assurance of victory, against Max- 
 entius, and all his enemies." This story 
 rests simply upon the authority of Eusebius, 
 who claims to have received it from the lips 
 of the emperor. The father of Coustantine 
 had always shown favor to the Christians, 
 whose virtues he valued and honored, and 
 the son had grown up to regard their doc- 
 . trines with such favor that it is not surpris- 
 ing that he came at length to embrace them. 
 He did not at once seek baptism, but openly 
 proclaimed his adoption of the Christian 
 doctrines, and in A. D. 324 took the deci- 
 sive step of making Christianity in a cer- 
 tain sense the religion of tlie state, by advis- 
 ing all his subjects to imitate without delay 
 the example of their sovereign, and to em- 
 brace the divine truth of Christianity. At 
 the same time he allowed his pagan subjects 
 to exercise their religion unmolested, but 
 the example of the emperor, and the hope 
 of gaining his favor, induced thousands to 
 abandon paganism and accept the new 
 faith. "As the lower ranks of society are 
 governed by imitation, the conversion of 
 those who possessed any eminence of birth, 
 of j^ower, or of riches, was soon followed by 
 dependent multitudes. The powerful in- 
 fluence of Coustantine was not circum- 
 scribed by the narrow limits of his life or 
 of his dominions. The education which he 
 bestowed on liis sons and nephews secured 
 to the empire a race of princes whose faith 
 was still more lively and sincere, as they 
 imbibed, in their earliest infancy, the spirit, 
 or at least the doctrine of Christiauit}'. 
 
 War and commerce had spread the knowl- 
 edge of the gospel beyond the confines of 
 the Roman provinces ; and the barbarians, 
 who had disdained an humble and pro- 
 scribed sect, soon learned to esteem a re- 
 ligion which had been so lately embraced 
 by the greatest monarch and the most civil- 
 ized nation of the globe." Coustantine did 
 not seek baptism until near the close of his 
 life, but he presided over the first general 
 council of the church, which was held at 
 Nicsea in Bithynia, by his authority, in A. d. 
 325. He did not relinquish the claim, 
 which the Roman sovereigns had always 
 maintained, of the right to direct religious as 
 well as secular matters. He treated the 
 members of the council with every mark of 
 reverence, but refused to allow the perse- 
 cution of Arius and his followers, who were 
 condemned by the council. He put a stop, 
 however, to all the immoral rites of pagan- 
 
 CONSTANTIXE AXD FALSTA. 
 
 ism, and enacted severe laws against im- 
 moral practices, which paganism had suf- 
 fered, if it had not sanctioned. 
 
 Under Coustantine the final stroke was 
 given to the ancient capital of the empire. 
 Rome ceased to be the seat of government, 
 which was removed to the new city built by 
 the emperor on the ruins of the Greek By- 
 zantium, and called in his honor, Constan- 
 tinople. Constantino divided the empire 
 into four Prefectures, namely, Gaul, which 
 included Spain and Britain ; Italy, which 
 embraced also Africa, Rha)tia, Pannonia, 
 Noricum, and Dalmatia ; Illyricum, in 
 which were Dacia and Macedonia ; and the 
 East, which included Egypt, Thrace, and 
 all the Roman dominions in Asia. Each 
 of these prefectures was divided into dioceses, 
 and each diocese into proconsular govern- 
 ments. This subdivision of the empire ne- 
 
406 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cessitated the creation of three grades of 
 officials, who constituted the nobility of the 
 realm. The old republican forms of gov- 
 ernment had long since disappeared, and 
 Constantino made no effort to revive them. 
 The court was organized upon a plan more 
 akiu to the forms of the Orient than of the 
 West. Between the monarch and the peo- 
 ple a vast number of officials intervened. 
 The army was reorganized by increasing the 
 number and reducing the strength of the 
 legions. The standing army on duty on the 
 frontiers numbered about 645,000 men, and 
 as the Roman citizens had lost their taste 
 for war, this force was composed mainly of 
 barbarian mercenaries. 
 
 Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, 
 had been named Ciesar at the age of seven- 
 teen. He was exceedingly popular with 
 the people, and this popularity drew upon 
 him the jealousy of his father, who sus- 
 pected him of treasonable designs. His 
 suspicion also embraced his nephew Lici- 
 nius, and the two young men were brought 
 to trial and put to death in A. D. 326. 
 AVhether they were guilty of actual treason, 
 or were simply the victims of a causeless 
 jealousy, it is now impossible to determine. 
 
 The last years of Constantine were har- 
 assed by the aggressions of the barbarians 
 north of the Danube. The Goths attacked 
 the Sarmatians, Avho begged aid of the Ro- 
 mans. Constantino took the field in person 
 against the Goths, and gained a great vic- 
 tory over them. The Sarmatians were dis- 
 satisfied Avith the division of the spoils, and 
 revenged themselves by making predatory 
 incursions into the Roman territory. Con- 
 stantine punished them by allowing the 
 Goths to defeat them. This disaster was 
 followed by a servile insurrection, which 
 compelled the Sarmatians to quit their own 
 territories and take refuge within the em- 
 pire. The emperor assigned lauds in Italy, 
 Macedonia, Thrace, and Pannonia to some 
 300,000 of them, a. d. 334. In the hope 
 of securing peace for the empire, Constan- 
 tino now created his third son Constaus and 
 his nephew Dalmatius Csesars, and another 
 nephew Hannibalianus Rex. He divided 
 the administration of the different portions 
 of the empire between his three sons and 
 these nephews, and died at Nicoraedia on 
 the 22d of May, A. d. ^37, after a reign of 
 nearly thirty-one years. 
 
 Immediately upon the death of Constan- 
 tine, Constantius, his second son, seized the 
 capital, and put to death all those whose 
 
 rank or abilities made them at all danger- 
 ous as rivals. Only two of his cousins, 
 Gallus and Julian, escaped. The em- 
 pire was then divided between the three 
 sons of Constantine. Constantine II., the 
 eldest, received the capital and Gaul, Spain 
 and Britain ; Constantius, Thrace and the 
 East ; and Constans, Italy, Africa, and West- 
 ern Illyricum. Constantine, discontented 
 with his share, endeavored to wrest the do- 
 minions of his brother Constans from him, 
 but was defeated and slain near Aquileia. 
 Constans added the provinces of Constan- 
 tine to his own, and for ten years reigned 
 over two-thirds of the dominions of his 
 father (a. d. 340-350). At the end of this 
 time he was overthrown by one of his gen- 
 erals named Magnentius, and slain. Con- 
 stantius in the meantime had been engaged 
 in a disastrous war with Persia. Upon the 
 death of Tiridates, King of Armenia, a 
 "friend of the Romans," who had estab- 
 lished Christianity in his dominions, the 
 Armenians revolted, and admitted the Per- 
 sians into their country as friends and allies. 
 The Romans were defeated in nine pitched 
 battles by the Persians, who aimed at noth- 
 ing less than the recovery of the five prov- 
 inces beyond the Tigris ceded to Rome by 
 Persia in the reign of Galerius. They were 
 less successful iu their siege operations, and- 
 the strong city of Nicibis withstood three 
 memorable sieges and remained in the hands 
 of the Romans. The Persian cavalry 
 spread their ravages as far westward as the 
 Mediterranean, and in one of their raids 
 captured and plundered Antioch. About 
 this time the eastern provinces of Persia 
 were invaded by the Massagetse, a Scythic 
 tribe, and Sapor, the Persian king, con- 
 cluded a truce with the Roman emperor, in 
 order to give his attention to this new dan- 
 ger. This relief was equally grateful to 
 Constantius, whose presence was needed in 
 the West, where, in addition to Magnentius, 
 Vetranio, the commander of the legions in 
 Illyricum, had set himself up as emperor. 
 Proceeding to the region of the Danube, 
 Constantius, by his vigorous movements 
 during the next three years, put down all 
 opposition to his rule. He compelled Ve- 
 tranio to abdicate his throne and retire into 
 private life, A. d. 350. Then turning upon 
 Magnentius he defeated him twice, at Mursa 
 in Pannonia in A. D. 851, and at Mount 
 Seleucus in Gaul, A. D. 353. After this 
 last defeat Magnentius killed himself Thus, 
 sixteen years after the death of Constantine 
 
BEIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVEBUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 407 
 
 the Great, his scattered dominions were 
 united under the sole rule of his most capa- 
 ble son. 
 
 The eight years of the sole rule of Cou- 
 stautius were passed in a constant struggle. 
 The war with Magnentius had greatly ex- 
 hausted the military force of the empire, 
 and the barbarians, having been encouraged 
 in some instances by Constantius himself to 
 viohite the territory of his rivals, had ceased 
 to respect the frontiers. At the same time 
 Sapor, the Persian king, poured his troops 
 into the province of Mesopotamia. The 
 emperor met these troubles as well as might 
 be, and though the provinces suffered re- 
 peatedly from hostile invasions, yet no 
 part of the Roman territory was perma- 
 nently occupied by the enemy. He defeated 
 the Quadi and followed them into their own 
 territoiy in A. D. 357 ; in a. d. 359 compelled 
 the Sarmatians to receive a king devoted to 
 his interests ; and in A. D. 360 prevented 
 the Persians from occupying the country 
 they overran with their armies. 
 
 Having no relatives but his two cousins 
 Gallus and Julian, Constantius in a. d. 350 
 drew the former from the retirement in 
 which he had- compelled him to live, con- 
 ferred upon him the rank of "Caesar," and 
 assigned him the government of the East. 
 Utterly unfit for such a position, Gallus 
 shamefully abused his trust, and in A. D. 
 354 was recalled and put to death by order 
 of the emperor. The next year Julian, the 
 half-brother of Gallus, was recalled from 
 Athens, where he had been engaged in the 
 study of philosophy, made "Coesar," and 
 intrusted with the government of Gaul. 
 This was done at the instance of the Em- 
 press Eusebia, but the emperor was from 
 the first distrustful of Julian, and treated 
 him with harshness. Julian proved him- 
 self in every way suited to the important 
 trust assigned him. He was a ruler of gen- 
 uine ability and almost irreproachable 
 morals. He deieated the Alemanui and 
 Franks in a number of battles within three 
 yeais after his entrance upon his govern- 
 ment, and drove them from their conquests 
 in Gaul to the right bank of the Rhine. 
 He then made three invasions of their 
 country, ravaged Germany far and wide, 
 released 20,000 captive Romans, and re- 
 turned to Gaul laden with booty. He re- 
 built the Gallic cities which the barbarians 
 had destroyed, made Paris his winter resi- 
 dence, and adorned it with a palace, a the- 
 atre, and baths ; and promoted agriculture. 
 
 manufactures and commerce. His success 
 but increased the jealousy of the emperor, 
 who recalled the troops, hoping to ruin Ju- 
 lian by leaving him without the force 
 necessary to maintain his position. The 
 legions refused to obey the imperial man- 
 date, and proclaimed Julian their emperor, 
 A. D. 360. Finding an arrangement with 
 Constantius impossible, Julian marched 
 eastward to decide the struggle with arms. 
 The sudden death of Constantius in A. d. 
 361 prevented a civil war, and Julian was 
 at once acknowledged with joy by the whole 
 empire. 
 
 The first care of the new emperor was to 
 retrench the luxury and extravagance of 
 the court, and punish the oflBcials of the 
 previous reign who had been guilty of op- 
 pressing the people. He also dismissed the 
 10,000 spies, who had formed a portion of 
 the government since the reign of Constan- 
 tine the Great. He had not sought the 
 purple, and his philosophic training made 
 him care little for the outward ceremonies 
 of his position. He styled himself simply 
 the " Servant of the Republic," and main- 
 tained an admirable simplicity and frugality 
 in his daily life. Yet, though so admirable 
 in character, he stained his reign, and belied 
 his philosophic principles by a petty and 
 useless persecution of the Christians A 
 pagan from conviction, he was also incensed 
 against his Christian cousins, who had mur- 
 dered all his family, and he extended his 
 hatred to their religion as well as to their 
 persons. He openly renounced Christianity, 
 and placing himself and his empire under 
 the protection of the "Immortal Gods," 
 made paganism once more the religion of 
 the state. It was too late, however, to at- 
 tempt to destroy Christianity. It had taken 
 too deep a root in the soil of the empire, 
 and the emperor could have won a partial 
 success only by a civil Avar of the most re- 
 volting description ; and had he been suc- 
 cessful he would simply have imposed upoa 
 his people a morality less pure than that 
 Avhich he sought to destroy. With the hope 
 of overturning the prophecies of Christ, and 
 discrediting the Christians, Julian gave the 
 Jews permission to return to Jerusalem and 
 to rebuild their Temple. The Jews flocked 
 from all parts of the world to their holy 
 city, and engaged in the work with enthu- 
 siasm, but their efforts were thwarted by 
 the sudden bursting forth of flames from 
 the ruins of the Temple destroyed by Titus, 
 which compelled them to abandon the 
 
408 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 effort in despair. Though he endeavored 
 to weaken and degrade the Christians by 
 numerous disabilities which he imposed 
 upon them, the emperor refused to go to 
 the length advised by the pagan zealots 
 who surrounded him, and finally proclaimed 
 toleration to all forms of belief. 
 
 In the East the Persians were becoming 
 more troublesome than ever, and in the 
 spring of A. d. 363 Julian invaded Persia 
 at the head of a large army. His intention 
 was to destroy the PcMsiun empire, but the 
 forces at his command were inadequate to 
 this task. He defeated the Persians near 
 Ctesiphon, but was unable to advance 
 farther. A series of disasters which now 
 befell him compelled the emperor to retreat. 
 This movement was accomplished in the 
 face of the greatest dangers, the army hav- 
 ing literally to fight its way back to Nisibis. 
 In one of the numerous encounters of this 
 march Julian was mortally wounded. He 
 died the next day, A. D. 363, after a reign 
 of about twenty months. 
 
 The army, thus left without a leader, 
 elevated Jovian, the commander of the im- 
 perial body-guard, and a Christian, to the 
 throne. He conducted the retreat with 
 skill, and purchased the safety of the army 
 by making peace with the Persians, by 
 ceding to them the five provinces east of 
 the Tigris. Upon his return to the capital 
 of the empire he issued an edict re-establish- 
 ing Christianity as the religion of the state, 
 and proclaimed universal tolerance. He 
 died in February, A. D. 364, after a reign 
 of eight months. 
 
 An interregnum often days followed the 
 death of Jovian. At the end of this time 
 the civil and military officers of the empire 
 met at Nic?ea, and proclaimed Valentinian 
 emperor. He was a Christian, and a brave 
 and skilful general, who had distinguished 
 himself in the campaigns against Persia 
 and the western barbarians. The army 
 ratified the choice, but required the new empe- 
 ror to associate a colleague in the government 
 in order to secure the succession in case of 
 his death. He conferred the purple on his 
 younger brother Valens, and bestowed upon 
 him the government of the East, from the 
 lower Danube to the Persian border. The 
 rest of the empire he reserved for himself, 
 making Milan his capital, but removing 
 his head-quarters, as occasion required, to 
 Treves and Rheims. From these centres 
 he ruled his dominions firmly, and in the 
 main well. He inflicted sharp defeats upon 
 
 the Alemanni upon the Rhine, and the 
 Quadi upon the Danube, and secured the 
 lines of those rivers by the erection of a new 
 system of forts. The Picts and Scots having 
 passed the wall of Antoninus and committed 
 great ravages in southern Britain, an ex- 
 pedition was sent against them under Theo- 
 dosius, the father of the future emperor of 
 that name, and they were dri.ven back. A 
 little later the same commander won a great 
 naval victory among the Orkneys over the 
 piratical Saxons, who were ravaging the 
 western coasts of Europe. A revolt having 
 broken out in Africa under Firmus, an 
 able Moorish chief, Theodosius was sent to 
 quell it, and accomplished this task with 
 entire success, re-establishing the Roman 
 authority over Numidia and Mauritania. 
 As early as A. D. 367 Valentinian associated 
 his son Gratian in the empire as his succes- 
 sor, but gave him no share in the govern- 
 ment. Dying on the 17th of November, 
 A. D. 375, he left him his crown. 
 
 During all this while Valens reigned in 
 the East. Weaker in character than his 
 brother, his reign was one of misfortune. 
 In the year after his accession Procopius, a 
 kinsman of the Emperor ' Julian, seized 
 Constantinople, and held it for several 
 months as emperor, A. D. 365. A war fol- 
 lowed, which was terminated by the capture 
 of Procopius and his execution in the camp 
 of Valens. An unimportant campaign was 
 conducted against Persia in A. D. 371. The 
 great event of this reign, however, was the 
 irruption of the Huns into Europe, by which 
 the Goths were driven across the frontier 
 into the Roman dominions. The Huns 
 appear to have been a Turanian people 
 from the steppes of northern or central Asia, 
 and were a fiercer and more relentless foe 
 than the Romans had yet encountered 
 among the barbarian nations. They were 
 probably either Mongols, Turks, or Oigurs. 
 They had already given China so much 
 trouble that the Great Wall had been 
 erected on the Mongolian frontier to check 
 their ravages. About A. D. 370, they 
 moved to the westward, and entered Europe 
 along the northern shore of the Black Sea, 
 appearing first in the region between the 
 Volga and the Don. Thence they passed 
 on to attack the powerful Gothic kingdom 
 of Hermanric, which stretched from the 
 Danube and Euxine to the Biiltic, compris- 
 ing southwestern Russia, Poland, eastern 
 Prussia, and extending over various cognate 
 tribes, of which the two most important were 
 
REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVEBUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 409 
 
 the Ostrogoths (or eastern Goths), and the 
 Visigoths (or western Goths). The Goths 
 were overcome and driven from their coun- 
 try by the Huns. The Visigoths, and some- 
 what later the Ostrogoths, sought and ob- 
 tained leave to cross the Danube, and settle 
 in Moesia as subjects of the Roman empei'or. 
 A million of Visigoths alone are said to 
 have crossed the river. As a matter of 
 course the feeding of this immense multi- 
 tude was a task of great difficulty, and the 
 Roman commissioners charged with it 
 seized the occasion to enrich themselves at 
 the expense of their duty. The ill-treat- 
 ment which they received changed the 
 Goths from suppliants to enemies of Rome, 
 and they marched in force upon Marciauo- 
 ple, defeated the Roman army, and ravaged 
 Thrace with fire and sword. Valens took 
 the field against them, and was defeated and 
 slain with two-thirds of his army in a great 
 battle near Adrianople, A. D. 378. 
 
 In the meantime Valentinian I. had been 
 succeeded by his son Gratian, who asso- 
 ciated in the government his infant brother, 
 Valentinian II., then five years of age. 
 Upon the death of Valens, Gratian selected 
 for a colleague one of his ablest generals, 
 named Theodosius, to whom he assigned 
 the East, adding to it the province of II- 
 lyricum, A. D. 379. As for Gratian him- 
 self, his first years, which were passed under 
 the influence of the instructors of his youth 
 (he was but seventeen at the time of his ac- 
 cession to the throne), were full of promise, 
 but when he came to manhood his natu- 
 rally weak and indolent character asserted 
 itself. He was devoted to hunting, and 
 gave to this pastime the hours which should 
 have been spent in the business of the state. 
 The power of the government passed into 
 the hands of unworthy favorites, who 
 cruelly abused the confiidence of the em- 
 peror. The army, neglected by the sover- 
 eign, came to despise him, and it was not 
 long before rebellion raised its head. The 
 British legions invested Maximus with the 
 purple. He crossed over to Gaul, intend- 
 ing to contest the crown with Gratian, but 
 the Gallic legions deserted to him, and 
 Gratian, left alone, fled from Paris to 
 Lyons, where he was captured and put to 
 death, A. D. 383. 
 
 Maximus now entered into an agreement 
 with Theodosius. The eastern emperor 
 consented to acknowledge the imperial dig- 
 nity of the usurper, who, on his part, con- 
 sented to recognize the title of Valentinian 
 
 II., and to leave him in peaceful possession 
 of his Italian provinces. In a. d. 387, 
 however, Maximus broke his agreement, 
 invaded Italy and drove Valentinian to 
 take refuge with his uncle, Theodosius. 
 That great sovereign, after some hesitation, 
 embraced his nephew's cause, married his 
 sister Galla, defeated Maximus in Panno- 
 nia, and restored Valentinian to his throne, 
 A. D. 388. 
 
 Valentinian II. Avas now eighteen years 
 old, and, like his brother Gratian, was 
 weak and indolent. He allowed himself to 
 fall under the influence of one of his offi- 
 cers, a Frank named Argobastes, who made 
 him a mere puppet. Becoming painfully 
 conscious of his true position, Valentinian 
 attempted to remove his too powerful sub- 
 ject, but without success. Argobastes re- 
 fused to submit to the orders of the emperor, 
 and a few days later murdered his master, 
 and set up a tool of his own, one Eugenius, 
 as empei'or, A. D. 392. Theodosius col- 
 lected an army to avenge his nephew, and 
 invaded the Avestern provinces. He de- 
 feated Eugenius near Aquileia, and be- 
 headed him, A. D. 394. Argobastes was 
 forced to fly for his life, which he termi- 
 nated soon afterwards by suicide. 
 
 During the reigns of Gratian, Maximus, 
 Valentinian II. and Eugenius in the We.^t, 
 the East w^as ruled by the firm hand of The- 
 odosius I., who justly deserves the title of 
 " the Great." He began his reign in A. D. 
 379, and at once applied himself to the task 
 of resisting the Visigoths, who had brought 
 his portion of the empire to the brink of 
 ruin. In the five years succeeding his ac- 
 cession to the throne his great military 
 genius and remarkable qualities as a ruler 
 enabled him not only to compel the sub- 
 mission of this dangerous race, but to con- 
 vert them into useful subjects, and to em- 
 ploy their arms against the other enemies of 
 his throne. Large colonies of Visigoths were 
 settled in Thrace, and of Ostrogoths in Asia 
 Minor, and 40,000 of their best warriors 
 took service in the Roman army. It has 
 been thought by some that Theodosius 
 committed a great error in permitting these 
 settlements, as the Goths were not yet suffi- 
 ciently civilized to amalgamate with the 
 other subjects of the state. The emperor, 
 however, had simply a choice of evils. To 
 have refused the Goths settlements would 
 have driven them to despair, and " more was 
 to be feared from their despair than even 
 from their fickleness and turbulence." As 
 
410 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 long as he lived, Theodosius proved himself 
 perfectly competent to manage the barba- 
 rians, and had his successors possessed but 
 a tithe of his genius, the Goths might have 
 been made the chief strength of the empire 
 instead of being permitted to become its 
 chief danger. 
 
 Until this reign the practice of pagan 
 rites had been tolerated by the emperors. 
 Theodosius issued an edict positively pro- 
 hibiting any and all of these ceremonies 
 on pain of death, and shut up the heathen 
 temples and confiscated their endowments. 
 In Egypt the natives fondly believed that 
 Serapis would signally avenge any profana- 
 tion of his shrine, but when a Roman sol- 
 dier entered the temple of that god at 
 Alexandria, and struck the idol a blow in 
 the face with his battle-axe, the eyes of the 
 people were opened, and they came to the 
 conclusion that a god who could not defend 
 himself was not worthy of worship. Theodo- 
 sius also enacted severe laws against the 
 Arians and other heretical Christian sects, 
 who had been condemned by the Councils 
 of Nice (a. d. 325) and Constantinople 
 (a. d. 381). They were compelled to sur- 
 render their churches and vacate their sees, 
 and were forbidden to preach, to ordain 
 ministers, or even to assemble for public 
 worship, and all their property was trans- 
 ferred to the orthodox. The penalties at- 
 tached to these laws were fines and exile. 
 The code of Theodosius is hardly a fair test 
 of his administration, as it is a notorious 
 fact that the acts of the emperor were far 
 more merciful than his laws. 
 
 The power of the church at this period is 
 exhibited by the famous encounter between 
 the emperor and St. Ambrose, the bishop 
 of Milan. A tumult having arisen in the 
 Circus of Thessalonica, during which a 
 Gothic general and several officers lost 
 their lives, the emperor punished it by an 
 indiscriminate massacre of tlie Thessalo- 
 nians, in which the innocent were slain 
 with the guilty. The court was at this 
 time residing at Milan. When the em- 
 peror repaired to church, he was met at the 
 door by St. Ambrose, who refused to allow 
 him to take part in any of the sacred ser- 
 vices until he made a public confession of 
 his guilt. After remaining under this in- 
 terdict for eight months, Theodosius ac- 
 knowledged his crime in the presence of the 
 congregation, in the garb of a penitent, and 
 was received again into the communion of 
 the church at Christmas, A. D. 390. 
 
 Theodosius did not long survive his vic- 
 tory over Eugenius and the reunion of the 
 East and West under his sole rule. He 
 died at Milan, January 17th, a. d. 395, 
 after a reign of nearly sixteen years. He 
 divided his dominions between his two sons. 
 To Arcadius, the elder, he gave the East ; 
 and to Honorius, the younger, the West. 
 The latter prince, who was only eleven 
 years old, he committed to the guardian- 
 ship of the Vandal general, Stilicho, who 
 had married his niece. 
 
 The division of the empire between the 
 sons of Theodosius marks the real separa- 
 tion of the East from the West. Hitherto 
 the two portions of the empire had been 
 held together by an idea, if nothing else, 
 that they still formed one single state, and 
 there had been some show of an interest 
 common to both. From the death of Theo- 
 dosius, however, this feeling was replaced 
 with one of mutual jealousy and distrust. 
 The breach thus ojaeued between the two 
 branches of the empire widened daily. 
 
 The real rulers of the empire were Ru- 
 finus, the Prefect of the East, and Stilicho, 
 the guardian of Honorius. These leaders 
 bore a mortal hatred to each other, which 
 soon came to an open conflict, which was 
 terminated by the assassination of Rufinus 
 at the instigation of Stilicho, A. D. 395. 
 Stilicho was now the most important person 
 in the empire, and the object of the jeal- 
 ousy and dislike of Arcadius and his favor- 
 ites. 
 
 Soon after the death of Theodosius the 
 Great the Goths revolted from their alle- 
 giance to the empire. They were led by 
 their famous chieftain Alaric, and in the 
 summer of A. D. 395 invaded Macedonia, 
 and in the course of this and the next year 
 ravaged nearly the whole of Greece. Stil- 
 icho marched against Alaric and compelled 
 him to retreat. The jealousy of Arcadius 
 now prompted him to baffle Stilicho by 
 making a treaty Avith Alaric, and creating 
 him master-general of eastern Illyricum. 
 Stilicho was commanded to withdraw from 
 the dominions of Arcadius, and he obeyed. 
 He passed the remainder of the century in 
 crushing a revolt in Africa. In A. D. 398 
 he married his daughter Maria to his 
 nephew, the young Emperor Honorius. 
 
 The appointment of Alaric to the master- 
 generalship of Illyricum showed Stilicho 
 that the western provinces of the empire 
 were in danger from the ambition of that 
 abl^ and unscrupulous chieftain, and he was 
 
REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE 411 
 
 convinced that the eastern emperor, in 
 order to save his own dominions from the 
 ravages of the barbarians, was secretly en- 
 couraging them to attack those of his 
 brother. About the begiuuing of this cen- 
 tury Alaric was elected King of the Visi- 
 goths by his coun- 
 trymen. Tempted 
 l)y the beauty and 
 Avealth of Italy, he 
 crossed the Alps 
 in A. D. 402, and 
 appeared under the 
 walls of Milan be- 
 fore Stilicho could 
 assemble an army of 
 sufficient strength 
 to meet him. Ho- 
 norius took refuge 
 in the impregnable 
 fortress of Raven- 
 na, and Stilicho 
 hastily crossed the 
 Alps in midwinter 
 to collect an army 
 in the western pro- 
 vinces. Such was 
 his energy that he 
 was back in Italy 
 early in the spring 
 of A. D. 403, at the 
 head of a power- 
 ful army, with 
 which he inflicted 
 a crushing defeat 
 upon the Goths in 
 the neighborhood 
 of Pollentia, about 
 twenty-five miles 
 from Turin, on the 
 29th of March. The 
 Gothic infantry 
 was almost totally 
 destroyed, but Ala- 
 ric, Avith a daring 
 a n d resolution 
 worthy of admira- 
 tion, drew off his 
 cavalry compara- 
 tively uninjured, 
 and marched 
 
 rapidly upon Rome, hoping to capture 
 it by a conp de main. Stilicho fol- 
 lowed him hard, and prevented the ex- 
 ecution of this design, but wisely tliinking 
 moderation the better policy, offered the 
 Gothic sovereign peace, a safe retreat, and 
 a pension, upon condition of his withdrawal. 
 
 Alaric was obliged by the Gothic chieftains 
 to accept these terms, and a treaty havino- 
 been concluded, led back the remnant of his 
 forces to lllyricum. 
 
 The retreat of the barbarians was cele- 
 brated in Rome with great rejoicings. In 
 
 THE E.Ml'KltOR HONOKIUS PUTS A STOP TO GLADIATORIAL COMBATS. 
 
 the midst of the games, Telemachus, a 
 Christian monk, sprang into the arena, and 
 raising the cross above his head, commanded 
 the gladiators in the name of their crucified 
 Lord to cease their inhuman sport. The 
 enraged multitude stoned him to death, but 
 a little later, overwhelmed with remorse for 
 
412 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 their crime, acknowledged him a martyr. 
 Honorius took advantage of the occasion to 
 prohibit human combats in the amphi- 
 theatre. The emperor now transferred the 
 seat of government from Milan to Ravenna, 
 which, situated in the midst of an impass- 
 able morass, crossed only by a causeway 
 which could be destroyed at will, was im- 
 pregnable. Ravenna continued to be the 
 capital of Italy until the middle of the 
 eighth century. 
 
 In A. D. 405 a new host of barbarians 
 burst into Italy. The Vandals, a Slavonian 
 race, from the plains of the Vistula, under 
 the leadership of their chieftain Radagaisus, 
 or Radegaste. moving south westward, wei'e 
 joined on the march by the Suevi and Bur- 
 gundians, who were Germans, and by the 
 Alani, who were Scythians. They passed 
 the Alps, the Po, and the Apennines 
 without opposition, and ravaged with lire 
 and sword the region between the Alps and 
 the Arno, while Stilicho was exerting him- 
 self to collect an army to oppose them. 
 Radegaste was simply a savage leader of 
 bai'bai'ians, and his only object was to de- 
 stroy. He had sworn a solemn oath to lay 
 Rome in ashes, and to sacrifice the senators 
 to his gods. Detained before Florence by 
 the stubborn resistance of that city, he re- 
 frained from moving southward until he had 
 reduced it. This delay gave Stilicho time 
 to come up with the army he had collected. 
 By his superior generalship he defeated the 
 formidable host of the barbarians, slew 
 Radegaste, and compelled the remnant of 
 his army, about 100,000 sti-ong, to withdraw 
 from Italy. The barbarians passed into 
 Gaul, in A. D. 406, and settled themselves 
 in the region which was afterwards called 
 Burgundy. They drove out the possessors 
 of the soil, and ravaged the country with 
 fire and sword befoi-e settling permanently 
 upon it. This great movement marks the 
 downfall of the Roman authority in this 
 quarter, never to be re-established. In A. d. 
 407 Britain was lost to the empire by the 
 revolt of tlie legions in that island, who set 
 up and murdered two emperors of their 
 own, and finally elevated to the throne 
 one of their leaders named Coustantine. In 
 A. D. 408 and 409, Coustantine extended 
 his dominion over that portion of Gaul 
 which had escaped the barbarians, and over 
 Spain. 
 
 In A. D. 408 the empire suffered an irre- 
 parable loss in the death of its greatest 
 general, Stilicho. Despising the weakness 
 
 of Honorius, Stilicho had conceived the 
 design of removing him and bestowing the 
 throne upon his own sou Eucherius. Ho- 
 norius was easily induced by the enemies of 
 Stilicho to C(msent to his death, and he was 
 seized and executed. His death deprived . 
 the empire of the only man who was capa- 
 ble of managing or contending with the 
 barbarians. The folly of those who suc- 
 ceeded him in the confidence of the emperor 
 soon precipitated the struggle he had sought 
 to avert, and gave Alaric the pretext he 
 had so long sought for war. Not content 
 with this, they alienated the only army 
 that was capable of contending with the 
 Goths by a general massacre of the families 
 of the foreign auxiliaries, who had been 
 left in the Italian cities as hostages for the 
 faithful service of these troops. The for- 
 eign troops swore vengeance upon the mur- 
 derers of their wives and children, and 
 invited Alaric to invade Italy, promising 
 to join him in the attempt. The Gothic 
 king was not slow to accept the invitation, 
 and at once crossed the Alps, marched 
 upon Rome, and closely invested the city. 
 Reduced to extremities, and left to them- 
 selves by the emperor, the senate purchased 
 the safety of the city, and induced Alaric 
 to retire by the payment of an enormous 
 ransom. The Gothic king then withdrew 
 into Tuscany, where he intended to pass the 
 winter. He also attempted to come to au 
 arrangement Avith Honorius, but being 
 grossly insulted in the course of the negoti- 
 ation, he broke off the matter, marched 
 upon Rome, and seizing the port of Ostia, 
 where the grain for the use of the capital 
 was stored, starved Rome into an uncondi- 
 tional surrender. Alaric made Attains, the 
 prefect of the city. Emperor of the West, in 
 the place of Honorius, and was himself 
 created by Attains master-general of the 
 Roman armies. Heraclian, the Count of 
 Africa, by preventing the exportation of 
 grain and oil to Rome, served the cause of 
 Honorius Avell, and introduced famine and 
 discontent into Rome. Attains seeking to 
 make himself independent of Alaric, was 
 dethroned by him, a. d. 410. Alaric now 
 sought again to come to terms with Hono- 
 rius, but was a second time met with insult, 
 and at once turned about and marched 
 upon Rome, the gates of which were opened 
 to him by night by the slaves, August 10th, 
 A. D. 410. The city was given up for five 
 days to murder and pillage, and during 
 this period the 40,000 slaves which it cou- 
 
BEION OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 413 
 
 taiued repaid in full the wrongs they had 
 suffered at the hands of their masters. 
 Rome was full of wealth and of rare and 
 costly articles, such as gold, silvei*, jewels, 
 silks, Grecian sculptures, and the choicest 
 spoils of conquered countries. These Avere 
 remorselessly seized and carried off by the 
 Goths, and much that could not be removed 
 was destroyed. Only the churches and 
 their property were spared, for Alaric, who 
 was himself a Christian, declared that he 
 made war upon the Romans, not upon the 
 apostles. 
 
 At length the Goths withdrew from 
 Rome, and marching along the Appian 
 way, overran southern Italy, contemplating 
 the conquest of Sicily and Africa. A fleet 
 was constructed for the passage of the Med- 
 iterranean, but Avas destroyed by a storm, 
 and the expedition was suddenly terminated 
 by the death of Alaric. The waters of the 
 Busentius were diverted from their channel 
 by the labor of the captive Romans, and in 
 the vacant bed a se2:)ulchre was constructed 
 and adorned with the spoils and trophies of 
 Rome. In this tomb the body of Alaric 
 was laid, and the waters were turned back 
 into their course. The prisoners engaged 
 in the work were then inhumanly massa- 
 cred lest they should reveal the secret of 
 the tomb, A. D. 410. 
 
 Alaric was succeeded by his brother-in- 
 law Adolphus, who, after ravaging southern 
 Italy for two years, made peace with Ho- 
 norius, married Placidia, the sister of the 
 empei'or, and retired into Gaul, from which 
 he passed into Spain, which had been over- 
 run by the Vandals in A. d. 409. He 
 drove out this race and took possession of 
 the country, founding the Visigothic mon- 
 archy as a dependency of the Western em- 
 pire, A. I). 414. This state of dependency 
 was continued for about four years, until 
 the time of Theodoric I., A. D. 418, when 
 the kingdom became entirely independent. 
 The Vandals were driven by Adolphus 
 into the southern part of Spain, which came 
 to be known as Vandalusia or Andalusia. 
 
 Previous to this conquest, Constantine, 
 the British pretender to the imperial 
 throne, had been driven out of Spain and 
 captured and ])ut to death in Gaul by Con- 
 stautius, one of the generals of Honorius. 
 A little later Britain passed forever from 
 under the Roman dominion. 
 
 Upon the death of Adolphus, Honorius 
 bestowed his sister Placidia, the widow of 
 the Gothic king, upon Constantius, and as- 
 
 sociated him in the empire. Constantius 
 died after a reign of seven months, and 
 Placidia, becoming involved in a quarrel 
 with Honorius, fled to Constantinople and 
 took refuge with her nephew Theodosius 
 II., Emperor of the East. A few months 
 later Honorius died, after a reign of twenty- 
 eight years, during which he did nothing 
 that was not contemptible, A. D. 423. The 
 throne was usurped by John, the principal 
 secretary of Honorius. Theodosius 11. sent 
 a fleet and army to dethrone the usurper 
 and enforce the claims of his cousin Valen- 
 tinian, the son of Placidia. This was easily 
 accomplished, as John had no hold upon 
 the people or troops of his empire. He was 
 made prisoner, and was beheaded at Aqui- 
 leia, A, D. 425. 
 
 Valentinian III. was but six years of 
 age. During the next twenty-five years 
 the empire was governed by his mother 
 Placidia as regent. Committed at this 
 critical period to the weak hands of a 
 woman and a child the empire fared badly, 
 as will be seen, and made rapid strides in 
 its progress of disintegration. The military 
 command Avas intrusted to Aetius and 
 Boniface, the latter of whom governed the 
 province of Africa. Had they united their 
 abilities they might have accomplished 
 much for the state, but they were divided 
 by the jealousy with which Aetius regarded 
 Boniface. Driven into rebellion by the 
 intrigues of Aetius, Boniface invited the 
 Vandal King Genseric to cross from Spain 
 into Africa to his assistance. Genseric 
 promptly accepted the invitation, entered 
 Africa with 5(3,000 men, and was at once 
 joined by the Moors and the Donatists, who 
 hailed him as a deliverer. He at once 
 turned his arms against both Boniface and 
 the Romans, defeated them, and made him- 
 self master of Africa, and by A. D. 439 
 succeeded in establishing a Vandal king- 
 dom on the northern shore of the African 
 continent, with Carthage for his capital. 
 
 The state of the Western empire was now 
 sad indeed. Africa had been Avon by Gen- 
 seric ; Britain was irrevocably lost, and for 
 forty years was without any government but 
 that of the clergy, the nobles, and the 
 magistrates of the toAvns ; the provinces of 
 Pannonia, Noricum, and Dalmatia had 
 been ceded to the Eastern empire in return 
 for the assistance rendered by Theodosius 
 in overthrowing the usurper John ; south- 
 western Gaul had passed into the hands of 
 the Goths ; the Burgundians had occupied 
 
414 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 eastern Gaul ; and the Franks were masters 
 of northern Gaul. Of all Gaul, only a 
 small tract in the south remained in pos- 
 session of the empire, which, with this 
 exception, was now limited to Italy, Vinde- 
 licia, and Rhsetia. 
 
 Between A. D. 435 and 450 Aetius de- 
 fended Roman Gaul with vigor against 
 the Visigoths on the one side and the 
 Franks on the other. In the latter year 
 the Franks sought the assistance of Attila, 
 King of the Huns. This powerful chieftain 
 traced his descent from the ancient Huns 
 who had formerly contended with the mon- 
 archs of China. " His features bore the 
 stamp of his national origin ; and the por- 
 trait of Attila exhibits the genuine deform- 
 ity of a modern Calmuck ; a large head, a 
 swarthy complexion, small deep-seated eyes, 
 a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a 
 beard, broad shoulders, and a short, square 
 body of nervous strength, though of a dis- 
 proportioned height. The haughty step 
 and demeanor of the King of the Huns 
 expressed the cousciousness of his superior- 
 ity above the rest of mankind ; and he had 
 a custom of fiercely rolling his eyes, as if 
 he wished to enjoy the terror which he in- 
 spired. He had gradually concentrated 
 upon himself the awe and fear of the whole 
 ancient world, which ultimately expressed 
 itself by affixing to his name the well- 
 known epithet of the Scourge op God. 
 Yet this savage hero was not inaccessible 
 to pity; his suppliant enemies might con- 
 fide in the assurance of peace or pardon ; 
 and Attila was considered by his subjects 
 as a just and indulgent master." He had 
 extended his kingdom over the immense 
 region lying between tlie Baltic and the 
 Black Seas, and the Rhine and Volga. 
 He could bring into the field an army of 
 700,000 men, officered by the numerous 
 barbarian kings who had become his vas- 
 sals, and had made himself literally the 
 possessor of the entire barbaric power of 
 Europe. During the nine years previous 
 to his appearance in the West, he had been 
 ravaging the Eastern empire, extending his 
 depredations up to the very walls of Con- 
 stantinople, and only withdrew upon the 
 promise of an exorbitant annual tribute 
 and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds 
 of gold. In A. D. 451 he set out from his 
 capital in Hungary for the invasion of the 
 Western empire, upon the pretext of assist- 
 ing a Frankish king who had solicited his 
 aid. Upon reaching the Rhine he was 
 
 joined by the Franks. The combined host 
 then entered Gaul and advanced to Orleans, 
 and formed the siege of that place. 
 
 In the meantime the Gothic king, Theo- 
 doric, who had established the independence 
 of his kingdom, had entered into an alli- 
 ance with the Romans as the only means 
 of checking the ambitious Hun, who as- 
 pired to the dominion of the whole world. 
 Though an old man, Theodoric took the 
 field in person, and the Goths rallied with 
 enthusiasm to the standard of their sover- 
 eign. Their example determined several 
 tribes or nations that seemed to fluctuate 
 between the Huns and the Romans. These 
 nations, uniting their forces with the Roman 
 army under Aetius, marched into Gaul to 
 join the issue which was to decide whether 
 Europe should be Teuton or Tartar. They 
 arrived before Orleans just as Attila had 
 reduced that city to the last extremity, and 
 had effected an entrance into one portion of 
 the town. On the approach of the allied 
 army, Attila raised the siege and withdrew 
 his troops across the Seine to the vicinity of 
 Chalons, where the great plains gave him 
 an opportunity of using his Scythian cav- 
 alry to advantage. The allies followed 
 him, and a great battle ensued near Cha- 
 lons, which is memorable not only for the 
 vast interests staked upon it, but also for 
 the number of troops engaged in it, who 
 numbered over one million. The slain on 
 l)oth sides are variously estimated at from 
 162,000 to 800,000 men. The battle was 
 opened by the attack of the Visigoths, and 
 continued all day. Theodoric was slain, 
 but the contest was decided by the valor 
 and skill of the Gothic troops led by his 
 son Torsimond, and the Huns were saved 
 from a total defeat only by the approach of 
 night. They retired within the circle of 
 Avagous that fortified their camp. The next 
 day the Goths were eager to storm the 
 enemy's camp, but Aetius, who feared that 
 the empire would find the Goths as trouble- 
 some as the Huns in case the latter were 
 exterminated, persuaded Torsimond, who 
 had been proclaimed king by his people, to 
 draw off" his army and return to Toulouse to 
 secure his succession to the throne. After 
 the departure of the victors and the sepa- 
 ration of the allied army, Attila was surprised 
 at the silence that reigned over the plains 
 of Chalons, but, suspicious of some strata- 
 gem, waited several days, at the expiration 
 of which time he retreated across the Rhine, 
 and thus confessed the victory of the allies, 
 
REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 415 
 
 " the last which was achieved in the name 
 of the Western empire." 
 
 Although the battle of Chalons decided 
 the fate of Europe, it did not prevent At- 
 tila from again assuming the offensive, and 
 the short-sighted policy of Aetius was heav- 
 ily paid for in the sufferings which the bar- 
 barian leader inflicted upon the empire. In 
 A. D. 453 he invaded northeastern Italy, 
 captured and destroyed the cities of Aqui- 
 leia, Altinum, Concordia, and Padua, and 
 sacked Milan and Pavia. A result which 
 the Hun did not foresee, and would not 
 have desired, sprang from this destruction. 
 The inhabitants of Aquileia, Padua, and 
 the adjacent towns, fled from the cruelties 
 of the barbarians to the safe but humble 
 shelter of the islands at the head of the 
 Adriatic, and there laid the foundations of 
 the famous republic of Venice. Attila then 
 moved southward, intending to take and 
 destroy Rome. An embassy, headed by 
 Pope Leo the Great, met him, and the sol- 
 emn appeal of the pope aroused the super- 
 stitious fears of the barbarian, and he re- 
 tired to his own dominions, where, a little 
 later, he burst a blood-vessel and died. 
 Thus the world was freed from the danger 
 with which he threatened it, for his king- 
 dom went to pieces faster than it had sprung 
 
 Valentin ian, freed from his fear of the 
 Huns, gratified his dislike of Aetius by 
 murdering him with his own hand, A. d. 
 454. The next year Valentinian himself 
 was slain by Maxiraus, a wealthy senator, 
 whom he had wronged, and two of the ser- 
 vants of Aetius, A. D. 455 Maximus as- 
 sumed the purple, but reigned less than 
 three months Eudoxia, the widow of Val- 
 entinian, being compelled to marry the as- 
 sassin of her husband, besought aid from 
 Genseric, the Vandal King of Africa, whose 
 fleet commanded the Mediterranean, and 
 the Vandal monarch at once responded to 
 her appeal, eager to enrich himself with the 
 spoils of Italy. He landed at Ostia, and 
 the Romans immediately rose against Maxi- 
 mus, and put him to death. Genseric, how- 
 ever, advanced upon Rome, unmoved by 
 the action of the citizens, as his only object 
 was plunder. He seized the city, and gave 
 it up to his troops to pillage for fourteen 
 days. Whatever Alaric had left was seized 
 by the Vandals and carried away to Africa. 
 Not even the churches, which Alaric had 
 protected, were spared. The city was liter- 
 ally stripped of its wealth of every descrip- 
 
 tion. At length the barbarians, laden with 
 plunder, retired to their fleet and sailed for 
 Carthage, carrying with them Eudoxia and 
 her two daughters. 
 
 This terrible disaster so paralyzed the 
 Romans that they were unable to take any 
 steps for the appointment of a new sover- 
 eign. Through the influence of the Gothic 
 king, Theodoric II., Avitus, the commander 
 of the legions in Gaul, was made emperor, 
 A. D. 455. After a reign of a little more 
 than a year, Avitus was deposed by Count 
 Riciraer, a Goth, a. d. 456. He was made 
 bishop of Placentia, and died a few months 
 later. Ricimer placed a protege of his own 
 named Majorian on the throne, after an 
 interval of six mouths, A. D. 457. Majo- 
 rian was a man of ability and energy, and 
 at once addressed himself to the task of 
 chastising the Vandals, who were harassing 
 the Italian coast. He put a stop to their 
 depredations, and prepared to follow up this 
 success by an invasion of the African king- 
 dom.^ The fleet which he collected was se- 
 cretly destroyed by emissaries of Genseric 
 in the port of Carthagena, and Majorian 
 was obliged to return to Italy, where he was 
 forced to abdicate his crown by Ricimer, 
 who had become jealous of his protege, who 
 was exhibiting too much vigor of character 
 to suit his patron, A. d. 461. 
 
 Ricimer now set up as emperor a mere 
 puppet named Libius Severus, retaining in 
 his own hands the real power. Severus was 
 acknowledged merely in Italy. In Dalma- 
 tia, Marcellinus, and in Gaul, ^gidius, 
 though they did not assume the sovereignty, 
 were the real rulers of those provinces. 
 Severus died in A. d. 465, and Ricimer, be- 
 lieving himself strong enough to assume 
 the direction of affiiirs in Italy, allowed the 
 throne to remain vacant. His position was 
 a difficult one, however. Being a foreigner, 
 he had no hold upon the Romans, and he 
 was exposed to the attacks of Genseric, the 
 Vandal king, and JMarcelliiius. Two years 
 later he was obliged to ask assistance of the 
 eastern emperor, Leo, who granted the de- 
 sired aid — upon his own terms, however. 
 Ricimer was obliged to accept, as Emperor 
 of the West, Anthemius, a distinguished 
 Byzantine noble, nominated to the post by 
 Leo, A. D. 467. 
 
 A formidable attack was now made upon 
 the Vandals by the combined power of the 
 East and the West. Genseric proved more 
 than a match for his enemies, however, and 
 succeeded in destroying the allied fleet by 
 
416 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 means of fire-sbips, and so far from losing 
 his own kingdom he secured the island 
 of Sicily, from which he could assail Italy 
 to greater advantage, A. D. 468. 
 
 Anthemius, upon ascending the throne, 
 had given his daughter in marriage to Rici- 
 mer, and supposed he had thus won the 
 friendship and support of that noble. He 
 was soon undeceived, however. The em- 
 peror having fixed his court at Rome, Rici- 
 mer retired to Milan, where he organized a 
 conspiracy for the overthrow of the mon- 
 arch. At the bead of an army of Goths 
 and Burgundians, he advanced upon Rome, 
 forced bis way into the city, slew Anthe- 
 mius, and set up a new emperor named 
 Olybrius, A. D. 472. Forty days later, Ri- 
 cimer died, leaving his nephew Gundobald, 
 a Burgundian, his heir. Three months later 
 Olybrius died, and Gundobald conferred 
 the purple upon Glycerins, an obscure sol- 
 dier. The Emperor Leo again interposed, 
 and gave the throne to Julius Nepos, the 
 nephew of Marcellinus of Dalmatia. . Gly- 
 cerins was rewarded for his submission to 
 this arrangement, with the gift of the bish- 
 opric of Salona, A. d. 474. 
 
 Julius had hardly ascended the throne 
 when a revolt broke out among the barba- 
 rian mercenaries, who were now the real 
 masters of Italy. Under the leadership of 
 the patrician Orestes (a. d. 475) they de- 
 posed Julius, and placed upon the throne 
 Romulus Augustus, called in mockery 
 "Augustulus," the son of Orestes. 
 
 Soon after the accession of Augustulus, 
 the mercenaries demanded one-third of the 
 lands of Italy as the reward of their ser- 
 vices. Being refused, they raised the 
 standard of revolt, slew OresteSj deposed 
 Augustulus, and, abolishing the empire at 
 one stroke, proclaimed their German 
 leader, Odoacer, King of Italy. Thus fell 
 the Western empire, after an existence of 
 507 years. 
 
 With the fall of the Western empire, 
 the volume of ancient history is brought to 
 a close, and the student finds himself face 
 to face with the new races and the new 
 civilization which appear on .the scene to 
 take the places of the old and worn-out 
 actors in the great drama of the world's 
 history. Until now our attention has been 
 confined to the continents of Asia and 
 Africa and those portions of Europe bor- 
 dering upon the Mediterranean. With the 
 disapjiearance of the Western empire our 
 
 field of survey is enlarged. New nations 
 come into view, and the chief interest of the 
 narrative is transferred to the continent 
 of Europe, at this time divided among four 
 great branches of the Aryan race — the 
 Grseco-Latins, the Celts, the Teutons, and 
 the Slaves, or Slavonians. Of these the 
 first alone belongs to ancient history, the 
 other three appear only in modern history. 
 
 It is the habit of modern writers to di- 
 vide the era of modern history into two 
 parts, namely. Mediaeval history, covering 
 the period between the fall of the Western 
 empire atul the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury ; and Modern history proper, extend- 
 ing from the close of the fifteenth century 
 to our own day. The first of these periods 
 is usually termed the Dark Ages, since, with 
 the disappearance of the civilization of 
 Rome, the world seemed to have relapsed 
 into barbarism. But the thoughtful stu- 
 dent will not fail to perceive that this pe- 
 riod, apparently so full of darkness and 
 hopelessness, was in reality a season of 
 growth, in which the civilization of Europe 
 was being shaped, and during which it was 
 acquiring strength for the part it was to 
 j)lay in the great drama of modern history. 
 In tracing this development through the 
 period of the Dark Ages, we shall be 
 chiefly concerned with the growth and ex- 
 pansion of the great Teutonic or German 
 race, which, from its seat in central and 
 eastern Europe, began immediately upon 
 the downfall of the Western empire to ab- 
 sorb and shape the destiny and character 
 of almost the entire continent. As an ac- 
 complished writer of our own land well 
 says, "The history of the Middle Ages is 
 the history of the incorporation of Teu- 
 tonic or Germanic barbarians with the 
 Latin and Celtic elements ; modern so- 
 ciety is the result of the blending of the 
 two ; and it derives its ingredients from 
 both — from the barbarians the love of per- 
 sonal liberty and the sense of independ- 
 ence ; from the Romans the forms of a 
 long-established civilization." 
 
 It w'ill be interesting and useful to glance 
 at the settlement of the nations of Europe 
 at the time when Odoacer erected his 
 throne upon the ruins of the Roman em- 
 pire. The Germanic race was already pre- 
 dominant in Europe, and the Germanic 
 tribes were beginning to press the Celtic 
 nations into narrower quarters. The peo- 
 ple of Gaul were of the Celtic stock, but 
 they had been so greatly influenced by 
 
REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 417 
 
 their long connection with the Romans that 
 they had become thoroughly Latinized and 
 Christianized before the disruption of the 
 empire. The same may be said for the 
 Celt-Iberians of Spain, The Celts of the 
 British islands had also been given the 
 rights of Roman citizens, and had been 
 greatly affected by their contact with the 
 Romans. The German influence began to 
 affect these nations about the fall of the 
 Western empire, and with entire success, 
 as we shall see in other portions of this 
 work. 
 
 The principal Germanic tribes were the 
 Goths, the Franks, the Vandals, the Bur- 
 gundians, the Lombards, the Saxons, the 
 Angles, and the Scandinavians. 
 
 At the fall of the Western empire the 
 Visigothic kingdom of Euric embraced the 
 whole of Spain, and all of Gaul south of 
 the Loire and west of the Rhone. The 
 capital of this kingdom was Aries, which 
 was regarded as the centre of western civ- 
 ilization. It was the chosen seat of learn- 
 ing and refinement in Europe, and its 
 monarch was the most powerful and en- 
 lightened of European sovereigns. The 
 northwestern part of Spain was held by the 
 jSuevi, who were tributary to Euric. Under 
 the descendants of Euric the Visigoths 
 were driven south of the Pyrenees and con- 
 fined to the Spanish peninsula, where they 
 maintained themselves until their kingdom 
 Avas destroyed by the Saracens, two centu- 
 ries later. The Ostrogoths held Italy and 
 the region between the Danube and the 
 Adriatic. The Gepidce, another division 
 of the Gothic family, were established north 
 of the lower Danube, and between the 
 upper Danube and the Carpathian moun- 
 tains, the region now known as Moldavia, 
 Wallachia and eastern Hungary. The 
 Goths were the first of the Teutonic nations 
 to come under the influence of Christianity. 
 At the time of the fall of the Western em- 
 pire they had generally adopted the form 
 of Christianity known as Arianism. 
 
 The Franks, who were subsequently to 
 become masters of ancient Gaul and to 
 give their name to the greater part of it, 
 were still chiefly beyond its limits, but were 
 beginning to press over the border. We 
 first find them inhabiting the country now 
 known as Belgium and the region of the 
 lower Rhine. About the time of the fall 
 of the empire they overran Gaul and drove 
 out the Visigoths from the southwest, and 
 conquered the Burguudiaus. To their new 
 27 
 
 home the name of France came at length to 
 be attached, from Francia, the land of the 
 Franks. 
 
 The Vandals had spread themselves from 
 the extreme south of the Spanish peninsula 
 to the northern shore of Africa, where they 
 had established their kingdom, with Car- 
 thage as their capital. They possessed also 
 Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. 
 
 The Burgundians occupied the valley of 
 the Rhone and the Swiss lakes, the region 
 which for a thousand years bore their name, 
 and whose ruler, until subdued, was a 
 powerful rival to the crown of France. 
 
 The Lombards, or Langobards, were at 
 this period settled immediately to the north 
 of the Gepidie, between the Danube and the 
 head-waters of the Vistula. Their original 
 home was Jutland, from which they moved 
 to the banks of the Elbe. Later on they 
 passed to the southeast and settled in the 
 region just named, from which they were 
 afterwards to descend upon Italy. 
 
 The Saxons (or kniferaen, a name derived 
 from the word Sacho) came originally .from 
 the province now known as Holstein. By 
 the period we are considering they had 
 spread over the basin of the Weser, from 
 the Rhine on the south to the Baltic. Two 
 of the principal Saxon tribes occupied the 
 peninsula of Denmark. They were the 
 Jutes and the Angles. The Saxons had 
 never met the Romans, and were conse- 
 quently unaffected by Roman influences. 
 They were still pagans. Great numbers 
 of them had settled along the coasts of 
 northern Gaul, and their piratical craft 
 carried terror along the entire European 
 coast. Previous to the fall of the Western 
 empire the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes had 
 crossed the North Sea and established them- 
 selves in the southern part of Britain, to 
 which they gave the name of England, or 
 " land of the Angles." 
 
 The Scandinavians do not apjiear on the 
 scene until the ninth or tenth century, when 
 we shall encounter them under the name 
 of Norsemen, 
 
 These were the principal divisions of the 
 great Teutonic family. Beyond the Elbe, 
 dwelling in the vast plains of eastern Eu- 
 rope, were the Slaves or Slavonians, one 
 of the grand divisions of the Aryan stock 
 in Europe. They were a pastoral people, 
 superior in numbers, but inferior in power, 
 to the Teutonic race. They were the an- 
 cestors of the modern Poles, Bohemians, 
 Bulgarians, Illyrians, and, to a great de- 
 
418 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 gree, of the Russians. The frozen and 
 marshy regions of the extreme north were 
 occupied by the Finnish tribes. The south- 
 east of Europe was included within the 
 dominions of the Eastern or Greek empire. 
 The extreme northwest of Gaul was still 
 
 in the hands of its Celtic owners, who were of Ireland. 
 
 largely reinforced by colonies of Bretons, 
 who were expelled by the Saxons from 
 Britain. This region still bears the name 
 of Brittany. The Celtic race also held the 
 western and northern parts of Britain, now 
 known as Wales, Scotland, and the island 
 
 book: 2^"vi. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE EASTERN 
 
 noMi-A^isr em:i>ire. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 
 TO THE TURKISH CONQUEST OF CON- 
 STANTINOPLE. 
 
 Establishment of the Eastern Empire— Its Extent 
 and Character — Eeign of Arcadius — Theodosius 
 II. — Invasion of the Huns — Reigns of Marcian 
 and Leo the Thracian— Anastasius I. — Justin — 
 Reign of Justinian— The Empress Theodora — 
 Riots at Constantinoi)Ie — Conquest of the Vandal 
 Kingdom of Africa — Belisarius Conquers Italy — 
 His Unjust Treatment by the Emperor— Public 
 Worksof Justinian— His Code of Laws— Troubles 
 with the Barbarian Tribes— Reigns of Justin II., 
 Tiberius, and Maurice — Wars with Persia — Hera- 
 clius Emperor — Successes of the Persians — Hera- 
 clius Wins Back His Lost Territories — The 
 Clergy as Creditors of the State — Conquests of 
 the Saracens — Constantinople Besieged — Justin- 
 ian II.— Leo III. — Restores the Vigor of the 
 Empire — The Question of Image Worshii) — The 
 Iconoclastic War Begun — Constantine V. — Image 
 Worship Forbidden — The Council of Constantino- 
 ple — Leo IV. — Reign of the Empress Irene — Nice- 
 phorus Emperor — His Treaty with Charlemagne 
 — Leo V. — Wars with the Bulgarians — They are 
 Converted to Christianity — Michael II. Emperor 
 — Commercial Prosperity of Constantinople — The 
 Close of the Iconoclastic War — Reigns of Michael 
 III. and Basil I. — The Basilica — The Saracens 
 Wrest Southern Italy from the Greek Emperors — 
 Leo VI. — Constantine VII. — Reigns of Romanus 
 II. and Constantine IX. — John Zimisces — Wars 
 with the Russians — Reign of Basil II. — Romanus 
 IV. — Rise of the Turkish Power — Manuel I. Em- 
 peror — His Vigorous Reign — His Death — Capture 
 of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders — The 
 Latin States— The Wreck of the Empire — The 
 NicEcan Emperors — " The Great Company " — 
 Andronicus II. Emperor — Reign of John V. — 
 Quarrels of the Genoese Venetians and Pisans — 
 The Turks in Europe — They Overrun the Terri- 
 tories of the Empire — Capture of Adrianople by 
 them— The Sultan Bajazet Besieges Constanti- 
 nople — The Empire Asks Aid of Western Europe 
 — Constantine XIII. Emperor — Siege and Capture 
 of Constantinople by the Sultan Amurath II. — 
 Pall of the Eastern Emj^ire. 
 
 HILE the Roman empire had beeni 
 undergoing the rapid process of 
 destruction in the West, the East- 
 ern empire, with its capital at Con- 
 stantinople, had been securely and 
 firmly established, as Ave have 
 seen7as an independent and separate mon- 
 archy, under the rule of Arcadius, the son 
 of the great Theodosius, and his successors. 
 The sovereign of that empire assumed and 
 obstinately retained the vain, and at length 
 fictitious, title of Emperor of the Romans, 
 and the hereditary appellations of Csesar 
 and Augustus. Constantinople became the 
 permanent capital, and grew rapidly in 
 wealth and greatness, and continued for 
 ages to defy the hostile attempts of the bar- 
 barians. The dominions of the eastern 
 emperors " were bounded by the Adriatic 
 and the Tigris ; and the whole interval of 
 twenty-five days' navigation, which sep- 
 arated the extreme cold of Scythia from the 
 torrid zone of jEthiopia, Avas comprehended 
 within the limits of the empire of the East. 
 The populous countries of that empire were 
 the seat of art and learning, of luxury and 
 wealth ; and the inhabitants, who had as- 
 sumed the language and manners of 
 Greeks, styled themselves, with some ap- 
 pearance of truth, the most enlightened and 
 civilized portion of the human species. The 
 form of government was a pure and simple 
 monarchy ; the name of the Roman Repub- 
 lic, which so long preserved a faint tradition 
 of freedom, was confined to the Latin prov- 
 inces; and the princes of Constantinople 
 measured their greatness by the servile obe- 
 dience of their people J' 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 419 
 
 Arcadius, whose rcigu was marked chiefly 
 by the struggles of unworthy favorites to 
 obtain the power, died in A. d. 408. During 
 his reign the famous Ciirysostom, "the 
 golden-mouthed " orator of the Eastern 
 Church, flourished, and towards its close 
 was sent to banishment and death for 
 having ventured to rebuke the profligacy 
 of the Empress Eudoxia. Arcadius was 
 succeeded by his son Theodosius II., who 
 was but seven years old, and during the 
 minority of this sovereign the empire was 
 ably ruled by his sister, Pulcheria. After 
 Theodosius came of age, the real x-uler until 
 his death was Pulcheria, for the emperor 
 was but a mere cipher in the government. 
 The last years of the reign of Theodosius 
 were vexed with the invasion of his do- 
 minions by the Huns under Attila. They 
 appeared in the Eastern empire in A. D. 
 441, and for the next nine years spread 
 their ravages throughout the region between 
 the Adriatic and the Euxine. Seventy 
 cities of the empire were destroyed, and the 
 open country was so devastated that Attila 
 was justified in his boast that the grass 
 never grew where his horse trod. Theodo- 
 sius at length purchased the withdrawal of 
 the barbarians by the payment of 6,000 
 pounds of gold, .and the promise of an an- 
 nual tribute of 2,100 pounds of the precious 
 metal, A. D. 450. Shortly afterwards The- 
 odosius was drowned near Constantinoj)le, 
 after a reign of nearly forty-three years. 
 
 Pulcheria was proclaimed Empress of the 
 East upon the death of her brother. As a 
 measure of jDrudence she contracted a nom- 
 inal marriage with Marcian, a senator about 
 sixty years of age, who was invested with the 
 purple. Pulcheria died in A. D. 453, but 
 her husband continued on the throne until 
 his own death, in A. D. 457. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Leo of Thrace, a military tribune, 
 whom the patrician Aspar, the most power- 
 ful subject of the empire, placed upon the 
 throne. Leo intervened in the affiiirs of 
 the Western empire in A. D. 467, and ap- 
 pointed Anthemius Emperor of the West, 
 and again in A. D. 474, to secure that 
 throne for Julius Nepos. In the same year 
 he died, and was succeeded by Zeno, his 
 son-in-law, who reigned until a. d. 491. 
 He was succeeded by Anastasius I., an aged 
 domestic of the palace, on whom the wid- 
 owed empress bestowed her hand, and who 
 continued on the throne until a. d. 518. 
 
 In A. D. 518 Justin, a Dacian peasant by 
 birth, whose virtues and abilities had raised 
 
 him to eminence, was elevated to the purple 
 by the unanimous consent of the army. Jus- 
 tin was sixty-eight years old at this time, and 
 reigned upwards of nine years. At the end 
 of the ninth year he associated with him in 
 the government his nephew Justinian, whom 
 he had adopted as his heir. A few months 
 later Justin died, leaving Justinian sole 
 emperor. 
 
 Justinian was forty-five years of age at the 
 time of his accession to the crown, and he re- 
 mained on the throne for nearly thirty-nine 
 years, A. D. 527-565. The first five years 
 of his reign were devoted to a fruitless and 
 expensive war with Persia. At the expira- 
 tion of this time a treaty was concluded 
 with Persia, and was called " the Endless 
 Peace," but, as we shall see farther on, it 
 afforded but a brief respite to the contract- 
 ing parties. 
 
 Justinian had married, previous to his 
 elevation to the throne, an infamous woman 
 named Theodora, who soon acquired an un- 
 bounded influence over him, an influence 
 which she maintained unimpaired until her 
 death in the twenty-fourth 5'ear of her 
 marriage, and the twenty-second of her 
 reign. 
 
 At the close of the Persian war Constan- 
 tinople was convulsed by a dangerous sedi- 
 tion known as the "Nika riots," which, 
 breaking out between the factions of the 
 circus, known as the Blue and the Green, 
 spread to the citizens in general. A large 
 part of the city, including the cathedral of 
 St. Sophia, was laid in ashes, 30,000 per- 
 sons were slain in the tumult, and for five 
 days Constantinople was given up to the 
 lawlessness of the mob. Hypatius, a nephcAv 
 of Anastasius, was proclaimed emperor by 
 the people, and Justinian prepared to aban- 
 don his capital. The firmness of Theodora, 
 who persuaded the emperor to remain and 
 crush the riot, and the skilful dispositions 
 of Belisarius, the commander of the impe- 
 rial troops, alone suppressed the outbreak 
 and saved the throne. To punish the citi- 
 zens the em2:)eror closed the hipprodome and 
 suppressed the games for several years, 
 A. D. 532. 
 
 Having secured his power at home, Jus- 
 tinian undertook to recover the dominions 
 formerly embraced in the Roman empire. 
 His first expedition was directed against 
 the Vandal kingdom in Africa, then ruled 
 by Gelimer. The imperial forces were com- 
 manded by Belisarius, one of the greatest 
 generals of any age, who had risen by the 
 
4'20 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 421 
 
 palace. His innocence was at length es- 
 tablished, and his honors, freedom, and 
 riches were restored. He did not long sur- 
 vive this tai'dy justice, but died eiglit 
 months later, A. D. 565, leaving behind him 
 a great name, which the malice of his ene- 
 mies could not destroy. The ungrateful 
 emperor confiscated his fortune, with the 
 exception of a small sum which his widow 
 was allowed to retain. 
 
 A few years previous to his death, Beli- 
 sarius had rendered an important service to 
 the empire. In A. D. 5o9 the Bulgarians 
 overran the peninsula of Greece, destroyed 
 thirty-two cities, and carried 120,000 per- 
 sons into captivity. In A. D. 559 the Da- 
 nube being frozen, the same barbarians, 
 
 force of his own genius from the humble 
 station of a peasant. The Vandals, weak- 
 ened by their century of African life, were 
 quickly overcome by Belisarius (A. D. 533), 
 and the conqueror entered Carthage in tri- 
 umph and without resistance. A long train 
 of captives, headed by Gelimer himself, 
 adorned the triumphal procession of Belisa- 
 rius, upon his return to Constantinople. 
 Sardinia, Corsica, and the smaller islands 
 of the western Mediterranean were regained 
 and made dependent upon the Exarchate 
 of Africa. 
 
 The conquest of Africa was followed by 
 that of Italy, the events of which we shall 
 relate in the history of that country. The 
 efforts of Belisarius were seriously hampered 
 by the jealousy of 
 the emperor, and he 
 was finally with- 
 drawn from his 
 command and sent 
 to resist the Persi- 
 ans, who were press- 
 ing heavily upon 
 the eastern border 
 of the empire. The 
 "Endless Peace" 
 had not proved as 
 lasting as its found- 
 ers had hoped. In 
 A. D. 540 Chosroes, 
 the Persian king, 
 broke the treaty, 
 burned Antioch, 
 and ravasred Asia 
 
 Minor. Belisarius 
 
 was sent against ^w== 
 
 Inm, ana m two cathedral (now the mosque) of st. sophia, Constantinople 
 
 campaigns (A. D. 
 
 541-542) compelled him, without striking 
 a blow, to retire to his own dominions. 
 Belisarius being sent back to Italy, the 
 Persians were again successful, an<l van- 
 quished a Roman army of 30,000 men led 
 by fifteen generals. The war went on in a 
 desultory manner until A. d. 561, when the 
 increasing age of both Justinian and Chos- 
 roes inclined them to consent to a peaceful 
 settlement. Justinian j^urchased the ])eace 
 at an annual tribute of 30,000 pieces of 
 gold. 
 
 In the meantime the splendid services of 
 Belisarius had not saved him from the hos- 
 tility and jealousy of the emperor and em- 
 press. He was accused of treason, con- 
 victed, and his fortune was sequestered, 
 while he was kept a prisoner in his own 
 
 aided by the Slavonians, invaded Thrace, 
 and sweeping all before them, encamped 
 within twenty miles of Constantinople. 
 Belisarius, in response to the appeal of the 
 emperor, left his hard-earned repose, and 
 placing himself at the head of the hastily 
 assembled levies, compelled the enemy to 
 withdraw into their own country. Upon 
 the return of Belisarius to Constantinople, 
 Justinian received him with coldness and 
 ingratitude. 
 
 Justinian was a great builder. He adorned 
 Constantinople with noble edifices, chief 
 among which was the cathedral of St. So- 
 phia, erected in the place of that burned in 
 the Nika riots. Other parts of the empire 
 were similarly benefited, and strong fort- 
 resses were erected along the line of the 
 
422 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Danube, and for the protection of the bor- 
 der. The friendly Goths of the Crimea 
 were protected from their northern neigh- 
 bors by long walls built entirely across the 
 peninsula. A strong work, known as the 
 " Rampart of Gog and Magog," was thrown 
 up between the Black and Caspian seas, at 
 the joint expense of the empire and Persia, 
 for the protection of the territories of both 
 powers against the barbarians. 
 
 During the reign of Justinian the cul- 
 ture of the silk worm was introduced into 
 Greece from China by two Persian monks, 
 who brought a number of the eggs of that 
 insect concealed in a hollow cane. The ex- 
 periment proving successful, the manufac- 
 ture of silk became one of the principal 
 industries of Greece, from which it spread 
 into Italy and France, and has since grown 
 into one of the greatest branches of the 
 world's industry. 
 
 The chief title of Justinian to fame lies 
 in his merits as a legislator. "He was not 
 so much a maker of new laws as a restorer 
 and simplifier of the old;" his code ex- 
 tended its influence throughout all iwrtions 
 of the Roman dominions, and has shaped 
 and modified the jurisdiction of all succeed- 
 ing times. The Roman laws had become 
 so numerous and conflicting as to produce 
 endless confusion. The mere Avord of an 
 emperor had acquired the force of a decree, 
 and as such was a law binding upon all fu- 
 ture ages. To become acquainted with these 
 laws required the devotion of a lifetime, 
 and no private fortune was large enough to 
 possess copies of all. The administration 
 of justice was therefore surrounded with the 
 greatest difficulties even whei-e the judges 
 were pure and desirous of acting impar- 
 tially. Justinian called to his aid the 
 learned jurisconsult Trebonian and others, 
 and proceeded to bring order out of this 
 confusion. The result was that complete 
 system of Roman law, called the Civil Law, 
 which has been the basis of the legislation 
 of nearly the whole of Europe. This sys- 
 tem was comprised in three great works, 
 The Institutes, The Code, and The Pandects. 
 In the first the elementary principles of 
 law were discussed. The Code was a con- 
 densation of all the enactments of the em- 
 perors since Hadrian. The Pandects, or 
 Digest, consisted of a digest of all the pre- 
 cedents and decisions of the wisest and most 
 learned judges since the period of the 
 Twelve Tables, a thousand years before. 
 These works were declared to be the legiti- 
 
 mate system of civil jurisprudence, and 
 were alone admitted in the tribunals. For 
 their more perfect extension through the 
 empire law schools were established at 
 Constantinople, Rome, and Beyrout in 
 Syria. 
 
 Justinian suppressed the schools of Athens 
 and the consulship of Rome, which had 
 given so many sages and heroes to man- 
 kind. The last years of his reign were full 
 of trouble. The Turks, a tribe of iron-for- 
 gers from the Altai range, left their moun- 
 tains and established themselves in Tartary. 
 They subdued the Huns or Avars on the 
 Til. The survivors of the conquered people 
 fled to the Caucasus, and offered their ser- 
 vices to the Emperor Justinian, who, fearing 
 to offend them, accepted their offer, treated 
 them with liberality, and encouraged them 
 to invade the territories of the Bulgarians 
 and Slavonians. In the next ten years 
 they extended their conquests to the Elbe, 
 subduing many tribes, and compelling the 
 remainder to pay them tribute. Justinian 
 subsequently abandoned their alliance for 
 that of the Turks ; but, in spite of this, they 
 were able in the next reign to conquer the 
 regions now known as Hungary and a part 
 of European Turkey, in which they set up 
 the kingdom of their Chagans, which en- 
 joyed an existence of 230 years. 
 
 Justinian died in November, A. d. 565, 
 and was succeeded by his nephew Justin 
 II., whose reign was uneventful. Being in- 
 capacitated by disease, Justin appointed, at 
 the suggestion of his Avife Sophia, the cap- 
 tain of his guards, Tiberius, as his successor, 
 A. D. 574. Tiberius faithfully administered 
 the government until the death of his bene- 
 factor in A. D. 578, when he became sole 
 emperor. 
 
 The Empress Sophia had expected to be- 
 come the wife of Tiberius upon the death 
 of her husband, and to continue her reign 
 in this new character ; but Tiberius, upon 
 mounting the throne as sole monarch, pro- 
 claimed as empress his secret, but lawfully- 
 wedded Avife, Anastasia. He endeavored 
 to atone for the disappointment of Sophia 
 by loading her with honors and riches, but 
 while she appeared to accept them with 
 pleasure, she secretly conspired for his 
 overthrow, and, her conspiracy being dis- 
 covered, the emperor was obliged to reduce 
 her to a private station. After a reign of 
 four years, during which he won the affec- 
 tions of his subjects by his many virtues, 
 Tiberius died in a. d. 582, and was sue- 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 423 
 
 ceeded by Maurice, whom he had chosen 
 as his heir, and who was worthy of the high 
 honor thus bestowed upon him. 
 
 Maurice was appealed to by the pope 
 soon after his accession to the throne, to 
 deliver Italy from the Lombards. Unable 
 to respond to this appeal, the emperor in- 
 vited the Franks to be his substitutes. 
 They attempted to comply with the im- 
 perial invitation, and invaded Italy several 
 times. The last of these expeditions was 
 under Childebert, the grandson of Clovis. 
 He was unsuccessful in two expeditions, 
 but more fortunate in a third. The Greeks 
 failing to render him substantial aid, his 
 expeditions degenerated into mere forays. 
 
 The attention of the emperor was mainly 
 confined to the East. War with Persia 
 broke out again in A. D. 572, in the seventh 
 year of Justin II., and continued with 
 varying success for the next seven years. 
 In A. D. 579 Chosroes died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Hormouz or Hormisdas, 
 whose tyranny drove his people into rebel- 
 lion. About the same time the Romans 
 made great gains on the borders of Meso- 
 ])atamia and Assyria, while the Turks, to 
 the number of 300,000 or 400,000, invaded 
 the Persian dominions from the line of the 
 Oxus. In this emergency Persia was saved 
 by a hero named Varanes, or Bahram, who 
 defeated both the Romans and the Turks, 
 and was proclaimed king by his troops. 
 Learning this, the Persian nobles deposed 
 Hormouz, put out his eyes, and placed his 
 sou Chosroes II. upon the throne. Bahram 
 refused to acknowledge the new king, and 
 reduced him to such extremities that Chos- 
 roes fled to the Roman lines and threw 
 himself upon the generosity of the Emperor 
 Maurice, who embraced his cause. A 
 Roman army entered Persia, drove out the 
 usurper, and replaced Chosroes on his 
 throne. The grateful king preserved the 
 closest and most friendly relations with the 
 empire until the death of Maurice. 
 
 Towards the close of his reign the Em- 
 peror Maurice won some substantial suc- 
 cesses over the Avars. He attempted to 
 improve the discipline of the army, and 
 thus provoked a sedition which resulted in 
 the elevation of Phocas to the throne and 
 the murder of Maurice and his five sons at 
 Chalcedon, a. d. 602. Phocas was an 
 ignorant ruffian, and soon disgusted his 
 subjects with his tyranny. Heraclius, the 
 Exarch of Africa, threw off his allegiance 
 to him, and sent his s:)n, the younger Hera- 
 
 clius, to Constantinople with a strong fleet 
 to seize the imperial crown. Phocas was 
 put to death and the younger Heraclius 
 was proclaimed emperor, A. d. 610. 
 
 The new emperor was called upon at the 
 outset of his reign to defend his dominions 
 against the Persian King Chosroes II., 
 who, under the plea of avenging the death 
 of his benefactor Maurice, overran all of 
 Syria, Egypt, and Africa, as far as Tripoli. 
 Antioch, Damascus, Jerusalem, and the 
 other cities of the East were taken by 
 storm, A. D. 614. The Holy City was de- 
 livered over to violence, the Holy Sepul- 
 chre and the stately churches of Constantine 
 were burned, the city was stripped of its 
 wealth, and the patriarch and the " true 
 cross" were transported to Persia. Ninety 
 thousand Christians were put to the sword. 
 The conquest of Egypt was completed in 
 A. D. 616. While these movements were 
 in progress a Persian army advanced 
 through Asia Minor to the Bosphorus, and 
 ca})tured Chalcedon, and for ten years a 
 Persian camp was maintained within sight 
 of Constantinople. The Persian arms 
 seemed irresistible, and Chosroes appeared 
 about to revive the glory and power of his 
 great ancestors Cyrus and Darius. 
 
 All this while Heraclius clung to his 
 capital, the slave of sloth and pleasure, 
 making little effort to retain his dominions, 
 and appearing to care little for their fate. 
 At length, when all seemed lost, the emperor 
 suddenly shook off his weakness and as- 
 sumed the spirit of a hero. Borrowing the 
 consecrated wealth of the churches under a 
 solemn vow to restore it with usury, he col- 
 lected an army and a fleet and sailed to the 
 coast of Cilicia, where he landed his troops 
 and took post at Issus. He was attacked 
 there by the Persians, and won a signal 
 victory over them on the very spot on which 
 Alexander the Great had defeated Darius 
 nearly a thousand years before, A. D. 622. 
 In A. D. 623-625 he led a second expedition 
 against Chosroes, and penetrating to the 
 heart of Persia, forced the Persian king to 
 withdraw his troops from the Nile and the 
 Bosphorus for the defence of their own 
 country. The Persian king incited the 
 Avars to attack CoustantinojDle, but they 
 Avere defeated with terrible loss, A. D. 626. 
 The successes of Heraclius drew to his 
 standard many of the eastern tribes, and in 
 A. D. 627 the emperor advanced once more 
 into the interior of the Persian empire. A 
 decisive battle was fought upon the site of 
 
424 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the buried city of Nineveh, in which the 
 Persians were utterly routed, and the cities 
 and palaces of Assyria were open for the 
 first time to the Romans. Chosroes, though 
 reduced to despair, refused to sue for peace. 
 Being now an old man he endeavored to 
 secure the elevation of his favorite son 
 Merdaza to the throne. A conspiracy was 
 formed against him, headed by his son 
 Siroes. Chosroes was seized, his eighteen 
 sons were put to death before his eyes, and 
 he was thrown into a dungeon, where he 
 died on the fifth day of his captivity, A. D. 
 628. With him expired the glory of the 
 Persian monarchy. Siroes lived but eight 
 months to enjoy the fruits of his unnatural 
 crimes. After his death, in the space of 
 four years the throne was disputed by nine 
 pretenders, who plunged the country into a 
 sea of anarchy and bloodshed, and so ex- 
 hausted it that it dragged out a miserable 
 existence of eight years longer, and finally 
 fell an easy conquest before the victo-rious 
 arms of the Arabian khalifs. The remain- 
 der of the reign of Heraclius was important 
 only for the loss of the far eastern prov- 
 inces, which Avere rapidly overrun by the 
 Saracens, never to be regained. The great 
 efforts of Heraclius against the Persians had 
 exhausted the empire, and it was unpre- 
 pared to resist these new enemies. Besides 
 this, the clergy, who proved themselves in- 
 exorable creditors, received the greater part 
 of the public funds in a usurious return of 
 the loan they had made Heraclius for the 
 preservation of the empire. Heraclius died 
 in A. D. 641, leaving his dominions to his 
 sons Constantino III. and Ileracleonas. 
 The former died soon after, poisoned, it was 
 supposed, by his stepmother, who, with her 
 son Heracleonas, was mutilated and exiled. 
 Constans II., the eldest son of Constantine 
 III., was made emperor at the age of eleven, 
 A. D. 641. In order to insure his succes- 
 sion he caused his brother Theodosius to be 
 put to death. Remorse for this crime drove 
 him into exile in A. D. 662. He was mur- 
 dered in Sicily in A. D. 668, His son Con- 
 stantine IV. succeeded him, and though the 
 new emperor shared with his two bi'others 
 the imperial dignity, he kept the real power 
 in his own hands. His brothers, having 
 conspired against him, were deprived of 
 their titles. 
 
 During this reign the Saracens made 
 themselves masters of the greater part of 
 western Asia, and in a. d. 668 advanced to 
 the Bosphorus, and laid siege to Constanti- 
 
 nople. The siege was continued for seven 
 years, but was unsuccessful. In the defence 
 of the city Greek fire was used, and the as- 
 sailants found it impossible to stand before 
 this formidable agent. 
 
 Constantine was succeeded by his son 
 Justinian IT., in A. D. 685. He outraged 
 his people by his cruelties, and was deprived 
 of his nose and driven into exile among the 
 Tartars, in A. !•. 695. For ten years the 
 imperial authority was exercised by Leon- 
 tius and Absimarus. The Khan of Tartary 
 gave Justinian his sister in marriage. She 
 was baptized, and took the name of Theo- 
 dora. Her brother being won over by the 
 enemies of Justiuian, agreed to deliver the 
 exiled emperor into their hands ; but Theo- 
 dora discovered the plot, and secured the 
 escape of her husband. Justinian fled to 
 the camp of the Bulgarian king, who 
 became his ally, and agreed to aid him in 
 an effort to recover his crown. 
 
 Justinian II., aided by the Bulgarian 
 king, Terbelis, regained his throne in A. D. 
 704, and devoted the next seven years to 
 revenging himself upon his enemies. His 
 cruelties were so infamous and rendered 
 him so odious to his people that they de- 
 throned him and put him to death in 711, 
 and made Philippicus emperor. The new 
 emperor was murdered in 713, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Anastasius II., who, in his turn, 
 was dethroned in 716, to make room for 
 Theodosius III. The next year Theodosius 
 submitted to an abler and more powerful 
 rival. 
 
 Leo III., the Isaurian, came to the throne 
 in A. D. 717, and opened his reign by 
 a magnificent defence of Constantinople 
 against the Mohammedans. Himself an 
 Armenian he intrusted the important offices 
 of the state and court to Armenians, on 
 whom he could rely, and though Greek was 
 the language of the court, the church, and 
 the people, the government was usually held 
 by Asiatics. Having saved the empire 
 from destruction at the hands of the Sara- 
 cens, he applied himself to the task of re- 
 viving and invigorating it. The wise and 
 far-seeing reforms which he introduced gave 
 to the state a new career of greatness and 
 prosperity. Peace and security to all classes 
 were maintained by a vigilant execution of 
 the laws, and commerce entered upon a 
 wider and more splendid career. 
 
 In the eleventh year of his reign, Leo 
 issued an edict which plunged the Christian 
 world into commotion. The church had 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 425 
 
 by degrees adopted the worship and use of 
 images and pictures in its sacred edifices. 
 Leo, who had conceived a fierce hati'ed of 
 the practice, issued, in A. d. 726, a decree 
 forbidding the worsliip of images, and thus 
 inaugurated the bitter struggle known as 
 the Iconoclastic war. Soon afterwards a 
 second edict appeared commanding the de- 
 struction of all the images and the white- 
 washing of the walls of the churches. These 
 measures produced resistance in almost 
 every part of the empire, but except in the 
 West the authority of the emperor prevailed. 
 
 and punished the rebellion by a more severe 
 and violent persecution. The third council 
 of Constantinople, in A. d. 754, formally 
 condemned the worship of images as idola- 
 tiy, and forbade both their use and their 
 worship. Apart from this persecution, Con- 
 stantine appears to have been a wise and 
 able sovereign. He defended his Asiatic 
 provinces with vigor against the Saracens, 
 redeemed several thousand captives from 
 foreign slavery, and peopled the abandoned 
 coast of Thrace with new colonies. Even 
 the ecclesiastics, who hated him bitterlv. 
 
 SCKNli IN ASIA MIXOIl. 
 
 The western church refused to comply with 
 the imperial edicts, and the pope constituted 
 himself the champion of the images. In 
 the midst of the controversy Leo died at 
 Constantinople, after a reign of twenty-four 
 years, A. D. 74L 
 
 Leo was succeeded by his son Constantine 
 v., surnamed Copronymus, from his pollu- 
 tion of the baptismal font. Under him the 
 war against images was continued with 
 great bitterness. The image-worshippers 
 rose against him, and drove him from his 
 throne, but he subsequently recovered it. 
 
 were forced to admit his abilities. He died 
 in A. D. 775. 
 
 Leo IV., who succeeded his father, was 
 a weak and feeble prince, and willingly re- 
 signed his power into the hands of his 
 Athenian wife, Irene. His infant son, Con- 
 stantine VI., was crowned emperor and 
 associated in the government at the age of 
 five. Five years later, A. d. 780, Leo died, 
 leaving his wife regent for her son. Irene 
 was an ardent partisan of the image-wor- 
 shippers, and embraced their cause with 
 zeal. A general council was held at Nice 
 
426 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 in A. D. 787, which declared the woi'shi]) 
 of images agreeable to the teachings and 
 use of Scripture and reason, thus reversing 
 the decree of the council of Constantinople. 
 During the childhood of her son, Irene 
 showed herself an able and prudent ruler, 
 and at the same time a careful and judicious 
 mother. As the emperor approached man- 
 hood, however, he became impatient of her 
 control, and abandoned himself to the in- 
 fluence of favorites of his own age, who 
 were ambitious of sharing his power as well 
 as his pleasures. The result was a struggle 
 between the mother and son, in which each 
 was alternately in possession of the throne. 
 The empress at length triumphed, and de- 
 priving her son of his eyes, reigned alone in 
 external splendor, regardless of the re- 
 proaches of conscience and the denuncia- 
 tions of her people, a. d. 797-802. 
 
 The reign of the Empress Irene was 
 brought to a close in A. d. 802 by a rebel- 
 lion. She was banished to Lesbos, and the 
 great treasurer Nicephorus, the leader of 
 the revolt, ascended the throne. He reigned 
 for nine years. His experience as treasurer 
 enabled him to increase the revenue by 
 taxation, and he does not appear to have 
 committed more crimes than Avere common 
 to the eastern sovereigns of his day. Just 
 previous to his reign the separation between 
 the East and West was made final by the 
 revival of the Western empire under Charle- 
 magne. Nicephorus was powerless to pre- 
 vent this, or to turn back the course of 
 events, and in the second year of his reign 
 entered into a treaty with Charlemagne de- 
 fining the boundaries of the two empires. 
 Nicephorus was decisively defeated by the 
 Khalif Haroun al Raschid in A. D. 805. 
 In 811 he was beaten and slain in a war 
 with the Bulgarians. He was succeeded by 
 his son Stauracius, who reigned but two 
 months. A new revolution compelled him 
 to resign the throne to his brother-in-law, 
 Michael Rhangabe, who ascended the throne 
 as Michael I. In A. D. 813 Michael was 
 compelled by his troops, who Avere disgusted 
 with his peaceful and unwarlike character, 
 to resign his throne or defend it with arms 
 against them. Although supported by the 
 citizens and clergy of Constantinople, he 
 chose the former alternative, and retired to 
 a monastery. 
 
 The leader of the rebellion, Leo the Ar- 
 menian, was placed on the throne as Leo 
 V. He was one of the best of the Byzan- 
 tine sovereigns. Bred a soldier, he cared 
 
 little for theological disputes, and pursued 
 a policy respecting the worship of images 
 which won for him from the churchmen 
 the name of " the chameleon." During his 
 reign the Bulgarians committed great 
 depredations in the European provinces of 
 the empire, sometimes carrying their forays 
 to the very gates of Constantinople. In 
 one expedition alone they took 50,000 pris- 
 oners. These Christian slaves became so 
 many missionaries of the truth in the land 
 Avhither they were carried captive, and suc- 
 ceeded in converting thousands of the Bul- 
 garians to Christianity. Towards the close 
 of the century the Bulgarian King Bogoris 
 was baptized, and a little later the entire na- 
 tion embraced the faith of Christ. Among 
 the most trusted friends of Leo at the begin- 
 ning: of his reign was Michael, the Armo- 
 rian, who, however, soon began to plot 
 against him, though loaded with honors 
 and wealth by the emperor. Though fre- 
 quently detected and pardoned, Michael 
 continued his plotting and was finally sen- 
 tenced to death. His friends, to save his 
 life, rose against Leo and slew him in A. D. 
 820. 
 
 Michael was brought from his dungeon 
 with the fetters still upon his limbs, and 
 seated upon the throne as Michael 11. He 
 reigned nine years, and during this time 
 the empire entered upon a great career of 
 commercial prosperity although far ad- 
 vanced in its political decline. It enjoyed 
 a monopoly of the Mediterranean trade, 
 and a vast and lucrative commerce between 
 Asia and Europe flowed through Constan- 
 tinople, enriching its people. This, too, in 
 spite of the fact that the Saracens had made 
 themselves masters of Crete and of some of 
 the other islands of the Mediterranean. — -^ 
 
 Michael II. was succeeded, in A. D. 829, 
 by his son, Theophilus. Though an able 
 sovereign, the reign of Theojjhilus was full 
 of misfortune. He undertook to regain the 
 provinces which had been wrested from the 
 empire by the Saracens, but was finally 
 defeated. His revenues were enormous, 
 but instead of using them to fortify his 
 frontier, he expended them in adorning 
 Constantinople. He was a bitter foe of 
 image-worship. Dying in A. D. 842, he 
 left his wife, Theodora, regent for their son, 
 Michael III. Theodora restored the images 
 amid the rejoicings of the people, and so 
 closed the long Iconoclastic war, which had 
 lasted more than a century, and had finally 
 separated the West from the East. 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 427 
 
 iMichael III. was five years old when his 
 father died. The Empress Theodora held 
 the regency for thirteen years. Then, per- 
 ceiving that her influence was declining, 
 and that her son was beginning to grow im- 
 patient of her rule, she prudently resigned 
 her power into his hands, and retired to a 
 private station. Michael III., being left 
 sole ruler of the empire, proved himself ut- 
 terly unfit to rule. He was a brutal, 
 drunken tyrant, with no regard for the sa- 
 credness of religion or the dignity of his 
 OAVu station. As contemptible in character 
 as he was odious, he succeeded in disgusting 
 his people, who longed to be rid of him. 
 He was murdered in his sleep in the thir- 
 tieth year of his age by one of his ofiicers 
 named Basil, who is believed to have been 
 a Slavonian, a. d. 867. 
 
 Basil I. claimed descent from the Mace- 
 donian Alexander the Great, and in conse- 
 quence of this the dynasty which he founded 
 ^is known as the Macedonian. Though he 
 won great successes over the Saracens, car- 
 ried his arms in triumph to the Euphrates, 
 and crushed the republic of the Paulicians, 
 Basil had neither the spirit nor the talents 
 of a warrior. He is chiefly noted as a 
 legislator. The change of language and 
 manners had made necessary a revision of 
 the entire system of jurisprudence of Jus- 
 tinian. " The voluminous body of his in- 
 stitutes, pandects, code, and novels, was di- 
 gested under forty titles in the Greek 
 idiom; and the BcisUica, which were im- 
 l^roved and completed by his son and 
 grandson, must be referred to the original 
 genius of the founder of their race." 
 
 By the treaty with Charlemagne, the 
 Eastern emperors retained the cities of 
 southern Italy. In A. d. 878 the Saracens 
 captured Syracuse and extended their 
 power over the wdiole of Sicily. Later on 
 they obtained a firm lodgment in southern 
 Italy, and so diminished the power of the 
 emperor. Basil died in a. d. 886. 
 
 Leo and Alexander, the sons of Basil, 
 were both invested with the purple at their 
 father's death, but the real emperor was the 
 elder brother, Leo VI., called "the Philos- 
 opher," because, as Gibbon sarcastically 
 says, " the son of Basil Avas less ignorant 
 than the greater part of his contemporaries 
 in church and state." His reign was full 
 of disaster, not the least of which was the 
 capture of Thessalonica, the second city of 
 the empire, by the Saracens, and the mas- 
 sacre of all its inhabitants save twenty-two 
 
 thousand youth, who were sold into slavery. 
 He won the hostility of the church by con- 
 tracting a fourth marriage (this time with 
 Zoe, who had borne him a son), a union 
 which the Greek Church does not recognize 
 as lawful. His reign extended into the 
 next century. 
 
 Leo VI. was succeeded by his son, Con- 
 stantino VII., called Porphyrogenitus, 
 " Born in the Purple," A. d. 911. He was 
 only five yeai'S old at the time of his father's 
 death. During his minority the govern- 
 ment was administered by his uncle Alex- 
 ander, and after Alexander's death by his 
 mother Zoe, and other regents. In A. D. 
 919, Romanus, the most prominent general 
 of the army, assumed the government and 
 the titles of Csesar and Augustus. His 
 three sons were successively associated with 
 him in the empire, and the lawful emperor 
 was for twenty-five years degraded to the 
 lowest rank of this college of princes. Con- 
 stantine, upon the death of the last of the 
 usurpers, assumed the sole administration, 
 and reigned for nearly fifteen years (A. T>. 
 944-959) alone. His mild and benevolent 
 disposition greatly endeared him to his sub- 
 jects. He was the author of several works 
 of science and history, and rendered impor- 
 tant services to literature by causing the 
 preservation of a number of precious manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 Romanus II., the son of Constantino, suc- 
 ceeded his father. He died four years 
 later, A. d. 963, from poison administered 
 by his wife. His reign was memorable for 
 the exploits of his general, Nicephorus 
 Phocas, who won back the island of Crete 
 from the Saracens, and gained other impor- 
 tant successes over them. The Empress 
 Theophano, the widow of Romanus IL, 
 wishing to retain her place on the throne, 
 bestowed her hand upon the successful 
 general, Avho, without degrading the infant 
 Emperors Basil II. and Constantino IX., 
 assumed the throne and the title of Augus- 
 tus. He reigned six years with vigor and 
 success, opposing a steady resistance to the 
 Saracens, and maintaining the frontiers un- 
 l)roken against their attacks. His reign 
 marked the commencement of the most 
 vigorous period of the Eastern empire after 
 its final division, a period which may be 
 said to have continued until about 1025. 
 He was murdered in 969 by his nephew, 
 John Zimisces, who succeeded him on the 
 throne as guardian of the youthful em- 
 perors. 
 
428 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 John had been one of the lovers of the 
 Empress Theophauo dui'ing her husband's 
 life, and she hoped to share the throne with 
 her paramour, but John put her away at 
 the stern demand of the Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, and dismissed her to a private 
 station. John j>roved himself an able and 
 energetic ruler. In the East he inflicted a 
 number of defeats upon the Saracens, won 
 back Antioch and some other cities that 
 had been taken by them, and made the 
 Euphrates once more the boundary of the 
 empire. He also won signal successes over 
 the Scandinavian rulers of Russia, who were 
 causing considerable trouble upon his fron- 
 tier. He inflicted a decisive defeat upon 
 the Russian forces at Presthlava in Bulga- 
 ria, in A. D. 971, and compelled them to 
 sue for peace. By the terms of the treaty 
 the Russians ceded to the emperor the king- 
 dom of Bulgaria, recently conquered by 
 them, and thus the Danube became once 
 again the Greek frontier. John died in 
 A. D. 976. 
 
 The two lawful emperors, Basil II. and 
 Constautine IX., now came to the throne. 
 Coastantine was a weak and efieminate 
 prince, but Basil was a man of genius and 
 euergy, and soon made himself the real 
 ruler of the empire. Under him it rose to 
 the height of its military greatness. His 
 reign extended into the next century, clos- 
 ing in A. D. 1025. For nearly forty years 
 he waged a vigorous war against the Bul- 
 garians and the other Slavonian, tribes of 
 the Hellenic peninsula. The Bulgarians 
 were entirely subdued, but the conqueror 
 stained his laurels by cruelly depriving 
 15,000 of his prisoners of their eyes, and 
 sending them back to their king, whose 
 grief and rage at the sight caused his 
 death. 
 
 Basil II. died in a. d. 1025, " amid the 
 blessings of the clergy and the curses of the 
 people," and the throne was held by his 
 brother Constautine IX. for three years 
 longer. He died in 1028, after having en- 
 joyed for sixty-six years the title of Augus- 
 tus, duriug which time he had done noth- 
 ing to merit it. Basil II. left no children, 
 and Constautine had only three daughters. 
 In the absence of male heirs, the throne was 
 for nearly thirty years in the hands of the 
 infamous favorites of Constantine's daugh- 
 ters, Zoe and Theodora. During this period 
 the only events of importance were the out- 
 breaks of the citizens of Constantinople, 
 who were enraged by the weakness and li- 
 
 centiousness of these corrupt rulers. In 
 A. D. 1057 the confusion was ended by the 
 elevation to the throne by the army of 
 Isaac Comnenus, a general of noble birth. 
 His health failing, he resigned the crown 
 in 1059. His brother John refused the 
 purple, and a new emperor of a different 
 family was chosen in the person of Constau- 
 tine XI. Pie reigned eight years, and in 
 1067 died and intrusted his widow, the Em- 
 press Eudocia, with the government. She 
 bestowed her hand upon Romanus Diog- 
 enes, who became emperor as Romanus IV., 
 and reigned for four years with dignity and 
 honor. 
 
 lu the meantime the Turks, who had 
 made themselves masters of the Saracenic 
 dominions in Asia, began to press heavily 
 upon the remaining provinces of the Greek 
 empire. It was this danger wliich chiefly 
 induced the Empress Eudocia to bestow her 
 hand upon Romanus, who was a soldier of 
 tried ability. With slender resources, but 
 with invincible courage, he endeavored to 
 maintain the integrity of his eastern pos- 
 sessions. In three hard-fought campaigns 
 he drove the Turks beyond the Euphrates, 
 and in a fourth, A. D. 1071, attempted to 
 regain Armenia from them, but was de- 
 I'eated and made a prisoner by the Turkish 
 sultan. Alp Arslan. He was released upon 
 his promise to jDay a heavy ransom and an 
 annual tribute, but upon returning to Con- 
 stantinople he found that his people had 
 deposed him upon learning of his captivity, 
 and had forced the Empress Eudocia into a 
 convent. In the eflfort to regain his crown, 
 Romanus was defeated and slain. Michael 
 VII. (1071-1078) and Nicephorus IH. 
 (1078-1081) then held the throne. The 
 accession of the latter emperor was disputed 
 in Asia by a chief of the same name. 
 The emperor called in the aid of the Turks 
 and defeated his rival, but purchased his 
 success by the loss of his Asiatic provinces, 
 which passed into the hands of the Turks, 
 A few years later the emperor Avas able to 
 extend his eastern boundary to Nicomedia, 
 sixty miles distant from Constantinople, but 
 beyond this the Turks retained the old 
 Greek provinces. Only Trebizond, at the 
 extremity of the Euxine, strong in its 
 natural fortifications, remained to the em- 
 peror. ^ 
 
 In A. D. 1081 Alexis I., son of John Com- 
 nenus, was proclaimed emperor upon the 
 downfall of Nicephorus III. He came to 
 the throne at a moment of great disaster to 
 
FALL OF WESTEBN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE 429 
 
 the empire, and "every calamity tliat can 
 afflict a declining empire was accumidated 
 on his reign by the justice of Heaven and 
 the vices of his predecessors." "In the 
 East," says Gibbon, " the victorious Turks 
 had spread, from Persia to the Hellespont, 
 the reign of the Koran and the Crescent ; 
 the West was invaded by the adventurous 
 valor of the Normans ; and, in the moments 
 of peace, the Danube poured forth new 
 swarms, who had gained in the science of 
 war what they had lost in the ferociousness 
 of manners. The sea was not less hostile 
 than the land ; and while the frontiers were 
 assaulted by an open enemy, the palace 
 was distracted with secret treason and con- 
 spiracy. On a sudden the banner of the 
 cross was displayed by the Latins ; Europe 
 was precipitated on Asia; and Constan- 
 tinople had almost been swept away by this 
 impetuous deluge. In the tempest Alexis 
 steered the imperial vessel Avith dexterity 
 and courage. At the head of his armies 
 he was bold in action, skilful in stratagem, 
 patient of fatigue, ready to improve his ad- 
 vantages, and rising from his defeats with 
 inexhaustible vigor. The discipline of the 
 camp was revived, and a new generation of 
 men and soldiers was created by the exam- 
 ple and the precepts of their leader. In 
 his intercourse with the Latins, Alexis was 
 patient and artful ; his discerning eye per- 
 vaded the new system of an unknown 
 world, and with superior policy he balanced 
 the interests and passions of the champions 
 of the first crusade. In a long reign of 
 thirty-seven years he subdued and pardoned 
 the envy of his equals ; the laws of public 
 and private order were restored ; the 
 arts of science and wealth were culti- 
 vated ; the limits of the empire were en- 
 larged in Europe and Asia ; and the 
 Comuenian sceptre was transmitted to his 
 children of the third and fourth genera- 
 tion." 
 
 The Emperor Alexis I. died in A. D. 1118, 
 and was succeeded by his eldest son, John II. 
 His insignificant stature and harsh, swarthy 
 features won him from his keen-witted and 
 sarcastic subjects the ironical surname of 
 " the Handsome," but ere long the name 
 was applied by his grateful people in admi- 
 ration of his noble qualities of mind. He 
 was a wise, liberal ruler, and by his military 
 vigor won back some of the territory taken 
 by the Turks, and freed the maritime prov- 
 inces of Asia from their presence. *' Feared 
 by his nobles, beloved by his people, John 
 
 was never reduced to the painful necessity 
 of punishing, or even of pardoning, his per- 
 sonal enemies." He died in 114o. 
 
 Manuel I., the youngest of the surviving 
 sons of John, succeeded his fixther, and 
 reigned thirty-seven years. This period 
 was one of almost constant war. The 
 Turks were confined to Mount Taurus, and 
 the Hungarians and the hordes beyond the 
 Danube were forced to respect the borders 
 of the empire. He was rather a brave 
 knight-errant than a good ruler or a great 
 commander, but for a while he made the 
 power of the empire both respected and 
 feared. The fleets of the Norman King of 
 Sicily several times ravaged the coasts of 
 Greece, and Manuel not only was obliged 
 to meet these attacks, but endeavored to 
 return them by assailing Sicily itself He 
 was at length defeated in a great battle 
 with the Turks in Pisidia, and owed his 
 escape to the generosity of the sultan. 
 After this defeat the power of the empire 
 began to decline. Manuel died in A. D. 
 1181, leaving his crown to his son Alexis 
 II., who, two years later, was overthrown 
 and put to death by his relative Androni- 
 cus, younger son of Isaac and grandson of 
 Alexis Comneuus. Andronicus was an able 
 though a cruel ruler, and two years after 
 his accession was put to death by the people 
 whom his cruelties had driven to despera- 
 tion. The remainder of the century was 
 passed in the struggles of various claimants 
 of the throne, which weakened and prepared 
 the empire for the first great period in its 
 fall. 
 
 The decline of the Eastern empire, which 
 began with the death of the Emperor Manuel 
 and the quarrels of his successors, continued 
 through the twelfth century. Isaac Ange- 
 lus was dethroned by his brother Alexis in 
 1195. A son of Isaac, also named Alexis, 
 escaj^ed from Constantinople, and took 
 refuge in western Europe, where he en- 
 deavored to induce the great powers to 
 assist him to recover the throne of his father. 
 He spent a number of years in these fruit- 
 less efforts, and when he had begun to de- 
 spair of accomplishing anything, his labors 
 were suddenly and unexpectedly crowned 
 with success. The princes of the Fourth 
 Crusade had assembled at Venice, where 
 they were provided by the republic with 
 shipping for transportation to the Holy 
 Land. Unable to raise the entire sum de- 
 manded by the republic, they were allowed 
 by the Venetians to defer its payment on 
 
4oU 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 431 
 
 condition of conquering for them some 
 towns on the Dahniitian coast, which had 
 revolted from the republic. They complied 
 Avith this condition, and captured the town 
 of Zara, which offered them so many advan- 
 tages that they resolved to spend the winter 
 there. The young prince Alexis repaired 
 to their camp and entreated them to aid 
 him in recovering his throne. His appeal 
 Avas sustained by the Doge of Venice, and 
 the Crusaders at length resolved to assist 
 him, as he promised them ample payment 
 for their services in case of success. lu the 
 summer of 1203 they laid siege to Constan- 
 tinople, which they carried by storm after 
 a hard fight. Alexis received the throne, 
 but he had forfeited the confidence of his 
 people by abandoning the Greek faith for 
 that of Rome, and the next year he was 
 murdered in a revolt of the people of Con- 
 stantinople. The Crusaders, enraged by 
 this revolt, stormed and took Constantinople 
 a second time, and put an end to the Roman 
 empire of the East. 
 
 On the ruins of the Greek state the Cru- 
 saders set up a Latin empire, and crowned 
 Count Baldwin of Flanders Emperor of 
 Constantinople. They then divided among 
 themselves as much of the empire as they 
 could secure and hold, for it must be re- 
 membered that the Greeks were bitterly 
 hostile to the Latins, and only submitted to 
 their rule because of the superior strength 
 of the latter. Nor was Baldwin master of 
 all the dominions which had owned the 
 Greek Cisesar as their lord. The Eastern em- 
 pire was now split up into a number of petty 
 states, some of Avhich were Greek and some 
 Latin. Baldwin received about one-fourth 
 of the empire as his share. The remaining 
 European possessions Avere divided betAveen 
 the Venetians, the Lombards, and the 
 French. The Venetians received a dispro- 
 portionately large share. They established 
 a chain of factories or ti'ading-posts along 
 the coast from Constantinople to Venice. 
 Boniface, IMarquis of Montferrat, became 
 King of Thessalonica or Macedonia. In 
 Asia the dominions of the empire Avhich had 
 not passed into the hands of the Turks Avere 
 divided between two sovereigns reigning at 
 Nice and Trebizond, each of Avhom claimed 
 the title of emperor. The Emperors of Nice 
 Avere able and prudent sovereigns, and 
 under their Avise rule their country grew in 
 prosperity and strength. The Latin empire 
 of Constantinople, on the other hand, having 
 no hold upon the people, lasted only fifty- 
 
 seven years, Avhen the attempt to Latinize the 
 Greeks by force having failed, it fell before 
 the conquering arms of the Emperor Michael 
 Palseologus of Nice, A. d. 1261. As the 
 Nicsean empire had claimed to be the true 
 and lawful successor of the Eastern Roman 
 empire, the conquest of Constantinople by 
 Michael may be considered as in some de- 
 gree a revival of that state. It never re- 
 gained its former power, however, for the 
 Turks pressed hard upon its eastern border, 
 and the Greek Emperor of Trebizond and 
 some of the Greek and Frank princes con- 
 tinued to rule their countries independent 
 of the emjieror at Constantinople. The re- 
 stored empire of Constantinople AA'as really 
 nothing more than the most poAverful of the 
 various Greek states, Avhich continued to 
 exist Avithout attracting much attention, 
 until they AA'cre all finally conquered by the 
 Ottoman Turks in the fifteenth century. 
 Michael, alarmed by the threat of the pope 
 to stir up a crusade of Avestern Europe 
 against him, endeavored to force his sub- 
 jects into a union Avith the Latin Church. 
 He succeeded only in filling his dominions 
 with suffering and sorroAv; but great as his 
 violence and cruelty Avere, they Avere not 
 sufficient to give satisfaction at Rome, 
 Avhere, says Gibbon, " his slowness Avas ar- 
 raigned and his sincerity suspected." His 
 son Andronicus, whose reign closed the cen- 
 tury, put an end to these outrages, and, dis- 
 solving the union Avith Rome, restored the 
 Greek faith and Avorship. 
 
 The reign of the Emperor Andronicus 
 II., Avho succeeded his father, Michael 
 PaliBologus, in 1282, occupied the first 
 twenty-eight years of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury as Avell as the closing years of the thir- 
 teenth. In the first years of the fourteenth 
 century a band of Catalan adventurers, rein- 
 forced by men from all parts of the world, 
 and known as " the Great Company," hav- 
 ing rendered good ser\'ice to the empire in 
 defeating the Turks in two bloody battles, 
 considered that they had a right to the 
 property of the empire Avhich they had 
 saved, and began such a series of arbitrary 
 exactions upon the provinces that the em- 
 peror Avas put to great exertions to resist 
 them. Having lost their first leader by 
 assassination, they seized the strong fortress 
 of Gallipoli, on the Hellespont, and de- 
 feated in two battles by sea and land the 
 forces of the Greek empire. These suc- 
 cesses drew numerous additions to their 
 ranks, and they continued their outrages 
 
432 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 upon the empire until the lack of provisions 
 and the dissensions of their leaders com- 
 pelled them to disperse. 
 
 Andronicus associated his son Michael in 
 the empire at the age of eighteen. The sou 
 of Michael, uamed Andronicus, from his 
 grandfather, shared at an early age the 
 imperial honors, and soon began to await 
 with impatience the removal of the ob- 
 stacles which lay between him and the sole 
 possession of the throne. The premature 
 death of his father removed one of these 
 obstacles, but then, to the svirprise of the 
 younger Andronicus, his grandfather trans- 
 ferred to another grandson his hoj^es and 
 affections. The younger emperor fled from 
 Constantinople in 1321, and raised the stand- 
 ard of civil war against his grandfather. 
 A struggle of seven years ensued, which 
 resulted (a. d. 1328) in the triumph of the 
 younger erajDeror. Andronicus II. retired 
 to a monastery, where he died in 1332. 
 
 Andronicus III., being sole emperor, un- 
 dertook soon after to check the progress of 
 the Turks, but was badly beaten and 
 wounded in his only campaign. He fell a 
 victim to the effects of his early intemper- 
 a.nce, and died in A. D. 1341, in his forty- 
 fifth year. He left a son, named John, by 
 his second wife, the Empress Auue, sister 
 of the Count of Savoy. He was a child of 
 nine years, and the emperor in his Avill 
 named his old and tried friend, John Can- 
 tacuzene, the guardian of his son. During 
 the minority of the young emperor, John 
 Cantacuzene Avas the ruler of the empire. 
 He ruled Avith wisdom and firmness, and by 
 his valor and prudence the isle of Lesbos 
 and the principality of iEtolia were won 
 back to the empire. One of his rivals suc- 
 ceeded in inducing the young emperor and 
 his mother to throw off the rule of Canta- 
 cuzene, and the able minister was pro- 
 claimed an enemy of the state and the 
 church. He at once took arms to reinstate 
 himself in power, and a civil war of six 
 years ensued. In 1343 Cantacuzene ai> 
 pealed to the Turks to aid him, and ad- 
 mitted them into Europe. They thus ob- 
 tained a permanent footing in Europe, and 
 from that time the days of the Greek em- 
 pire were numbered. With the aid of his 
 Turkish allies Cantacuzene compelled the 
 3'oung Emperor John to submit, and re- 
 turning in triumph to Constantinople 
 mounted the thi'one as John V., acknowl- 
 edging the son of Andronicus as his col- 
 league, John VI. John VI. twice attempted 
 
 to overthrow his elder colleague by force, 
 and was each time defeated. The last time 
 he fled to the Latins of the isle of Tenedos 
 for shelter. John V., in the hope of putting 
 a stop to these wars, deposed the younger 
 emperor, associated his own son, Matthew, 
 in the government, and established the suc- 
 cession in his own family. This brought 
 on a revolution, and John VI., aided by 
 some Genoese troops, was restored to the 
 throne of his fathers. Cantacuzene retired 
 to a cloister, and devoted the remainder of 
 his life to literary pursuits, A. D. 1355. 
 
 The reign of Cantacuzene had been dis- 
 turbed, like that of his predecessor, by the 
 fierce quarrels of the Genoese, Venetians, 
 and Pisans, who were contending with each 
 other for the monopoly of the trade of the 
 East. The emperor was unable to compel 
 peace, and several fierce battles wei'e fought 
 by the imperial forces and the Venetians 
 against the Genoese, who Avere each time 
 successful. Cantacuzene Avas compelled to 
 sign a humiliating treaty, by which he 
 bound himself to expel the Venetians from 
 Constantinople, and grant the Genoese the 
 desired monopoly. Had not the poAver of 
 that republic been broken by her domestic 
 troubles, Constantinople Avould most likely 
 have become a mere dependency of Genoa. ' 
 These troubles continued to some extent in 
 the early part of the reign of John VI., 
 who continued on the throne till 1391. A 
 more serious evil noAV began to afflict the 
 empire. The Turks, ayIio had been ad- 
 mitted into Europe by Cantacuzene, had 
 possessed themselves of the city of Adrian- 
 ople, in Thrace, and had made it their 
 capital. They Avere fully determined to 
 extend their European dominion to the 
 Hellespont, and the capture of Constanti- 
 nople Avas only a question of time. They 
 treated the Greek emperors as their vassals, 
 and these sovereigns, unable to offer any 
 resistance to such formidable foes, Avere 
 obliged to remain helpless spectators of the 
 ruin of their country. The Sultau Bajazet, 
 having detected a conspiracy of his son 
 against him, deprived him of his sight. 
 John, the son of the Greek emperor, was 
 also concerned in the same conspiracy, his 
 object being to dethrone his father also. 
 Bajazet sternly demanded that the Greek 
 emperor should inflict upon his son the 
 punishment he had administered to his 
 own heir, and the emperor Avas obliged to 
 submit. 
 
 At the death of John VI. his second 
 
FALL OF WESTERN EMPIRE TO CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 433 
 
 son, Manuel, succeeded him, a. d. 1391. 
 Bajazet at once espoused the cause of the 
 blind prince John. Manuel left Constan- 
 tinople and hastened to France to seek aid, 
 and left his blind competitor on the throne. 
 Bajazet now unmasked his real design, and 
 claimed Constantinople as his own city. 
 John refused to submit, and Constantinople 
 was invested, and compelled to suffer the 
 horrors of a siege and famine. It would 
 doubtless have fallen then, but Bajazet was 
 suddenly summoned into Asia to defend his 
 territory against the terrible Timour, or 
 Tamerlane, of whom more hereafter. 
 
 The withdrawal of Bajazet from the 
 siege of Constantinople gave the Greek em- 
 pire a short respite, and the Emperor Man- 
 uel took advantage of it to visit the courts 
 of western Europe to solicit aid ; but none 
 of the European sover- 
 eigns Avere in a condi- 
 tion to assist him. The 
 death of Bajazet was 
 followed by quarrels 
 among his sons, which 
 i:)reveuted the Turks 
 from exerting their 
 united strength against 
 Constantinople. John 
 Palseologus II., the son 
 and successor of Man- 
 uel, who came to the 
 throne in 1425, enter- 
 tained the idea of put- 
 ting an end to the 
 schism which had so 
 long divided Christen- 
 dom, and accepted the 
 invitation of the pope 
 to visit Italy to arrange 
 matters for this pur- 
 pose. In 1438 he visited 
 Ferrara, where a synod of the Latin Church 
 was in session. Pope Eugenius summoned 
 a council at Florence, and in July, 1438, 
 the reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches 
 was formally proclaimed. This reunion 
 was, however, entirely the work of the em- 
 peror ; the people of the Greek communion 
 had no part in, or sympathy with it, and 
 it was, on the part of the emperor, simply 
 an attempt to excite the sympathy and 
 secure the aid of Christendom in his efforts 
 to maintain his throne against the Turks. 
 In the latter days of the empire, " whenever 
 the Greeks were in any trouble, their em- 
 perors always made a show of putting an 
 end to the division between the Eastern and 
 28 
 
 Western Churches. But schemes of this 
 sort never really took root, as the Greeks 
 were fully determined never to admit the 
 authority of the pope." 
 
 The jiope, on his part, was not unmind- 
 ful of the welfare of his Greek brethren, and 
 he endeavored to stir up the western princes 
 to their assistance ; but Eugenius found that 
 the task which had been accomplished four 
 centuries earlier by the mere eloquence of a 
 monk, now required all the moral force of 
 the papacy. The English, French, and 
 Germans took no part in the matter, but 
 Hungary and Poland, which were more di- 
 rectly interested by being in constant dan- 
 ger of a Turkish invasion, responded favor- 
 ably to the pope's appeal. The crowns of 
 both kingdoms were worn by a single sover- 
 eign, Ladislaus. Recruits were drawn from 
 
 CASTLE OF EUROPE, ON THE BOSPHOKUS. 
 
 other countries by "an endless treasure of 
 pardons and indulgences, scattered by the 
 legate," and an army of 100,000 men Avas 
 assembled under the command of John 
 Huniades, one of the most distinguished 
 soldiers of the time. An alliance Avas made 
 with the Sultan of Caramania, in Asia, and 
 a fleet Avas collected from Burgundy, Genoa, 
 and Venice. The crusaders at first gained 
 some important advantages, but their arhiy, 
 greatly reduced, Avas at length defeated and 
 Ladislaus Avas slain in the battle of Varna, 
 in 1444, by the Sultan Amurath II. 
 
 In 1451 Mohammed II. succeeded his 
 father Amurath II. on the Turkish throne. 
 Though he assured the Greek emperor of 
 
434 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 his friendship, he began his reign by fortify- 
 ing the Hellespont, and this led to war be- 
 tween the two sovereigns. In the spring of 
 1453 a Turkish army of 258,000 men in- 
 vested Constantinople, and after a siege of 
 fifty-three days, carried the city by assault. 
 The last of the Greek emperors, Constantine 
 XIII., after gallantly defending his capital, 
 died, sword in hand, in the eflfort to repel 
 the last assault. In this siege the Turks 
 used cannon, which had for some time been 
 regarded as a necessary part of the equip- 
 ment of an array, but had never been used 
 in so important an operation before. Mo- 
 
 hammed made Constantinople the capital 
 of his empire, and converted the great 
 Church of St. Sophia into a mosque. 
 
 With the fall of Constantinople the East- 
 ern empire came to an end. The remaining 
 territories of the Greek emperors were soon 
 absorbed by the victorious Turks. Mo- 
 hammed treated the Greeks with great 
 liberality. He protected them in their 
 lives and liberties, and allowed them the 
 free exercise of their religion. One-half of 
 the churches of Constantinople were left to 
 them. For sixty years they enjoyed the 
 benefits of this toleration. 
 
 book: 2c^rii, 
 
 THE HISTORY OF IT.^LY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 
 TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 The Gothic Kingdom of Italy Founded by Odoacer 
 — Theodoric Conquers Italy— Becomes King — His 
 Excellent Reign — His Last Years — Athalaric 
 King — Belisarius in Italy — His Conquests — De- 
 struction of Milan by the Burgundians — Belisarius 
 Captures Ravenna — Justinian Jealous of Beli- 
 sarius — Conquests of Narses — Italy Subject to the 
 Eastern Empire — The Exarchate of Ravenna — 
 Settlement of the Lombards in Italy — The Iron 
 Crown— The Lombard Kingdom — Condition of 
 Rome During this Period — Dependent Position of 
 the Pope— He Becomes a Civil Ruler — Gregory 
 the Great — His Vigorous Measures — Decline of 
 Civilization in Italy — St. Benedict — Founds the 
 Monastic System — Benefits Conferred on the 
 Country by the Monasteries — Improvement of 
 Agricuiture^Ignorance of the Clergy — The Pope 
 Takes the Monks Under his Protection — The 
 Iconoclastic War — Last Efforts of the Emperor to 
 Regain his Power — War Between the Pope and 
 the Lombards — The Pope Asks Aid of the Franks 
 — Pepin in Italy — He Conquers the Franks — Be- 
 stows the States of the Church on the Holy See- 
 Charlemagne Defends the Pope Against the Lom- 
 bards — Is Crowned Emperor — His Power in Italy. 
 
 j^|rpPON the ruins of the Roman empire 
 was erected, as has been related, 
 the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy, 
 under Odoacer. He was the first 
 barbarian who reigned over Italy, 
 and was worthy of the high honor 
 which he was called. Within seven 
 years after his accession he restored the 
 consulship of the West. He compelled the 
 barbarians of Gaul and Germany to respect 
 
 the frontiers of Italy, and exerted himself 
 to restore the blessings of peace and good 
 government to his people. In spite of his 
 efforts, however, misery and desolation 
 reigned throughout Italy. Losses in war 
 and by famine and pestilence diminished 
 the population of the country, and the 
 means of subsistence underwent a corre- 
 sponding decrease. Under the empire the 
 tributary harvests of Egypt and Africa 
 furnished an inexhaustible source of food ; 
 but these were now withdrawn, and the de- 
 ficiency could not be supplied. After a 
 reign of fourteen years Odoacer gave way 
 before the superior genius of Theodoric, 
 King of the Ostrogoths, " a hero alike ex- 
 cellent in the arts of war and of govern- 
 ment." 
 
 Theodoric was born in A. d. 455, and 
 had been carefully educated in the arts of 
 war at Constantinople, where he had re- 
 sided as a hostage. He disdained the more 
 peaceful part of the Greek training, and to 
 the last was ignorant of the art of writing. 
 In A. D. 476 he succeeded by the death of 
 his father to the throne of the Ostrogoths. 
 At this time the Ostrogoths were settled in 
 the region of the Danube, where they 
 proved themselves dangerous neighbors to 
 the Greek emperor, who in order to be rid 
 of them gladly consented to the proposal 
 of Theodoric to march against Odoacer and 
 restore Italy to the Roman empire. The 
 emperor prudently left it doubtful whether 
 
FROM FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE TO DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 435 
 
 the conqueror of Italy was to govern it as 
 his vassal or his ally. The reputation of 
 Theodoric drew to his standard an immense 
 host, made up from the neighboring nations 
 as well as from his own people, at the head 
 of which he set out for Italy in A. D. 489. 
 The march was made in midwinter, and 
 the Goths took with them their families and 
 all their movable possessions. Many hard- 
 ships were endured, but at length the 
 Gothic host swept over the Julian Alps and 
 entered Italy. Odoacer was defeated in 
 three battles and shut up in the impregna- 
 ble fortress of Ravenna, which endured a 
 siege of three years. Peace being made at 
 the end of this time through the interven- 
 tion of the Bishop of Ravenna, Odoacer 
 and Theodoric agreed to share the sover- 
 eignty of Italy between them. Theodoric 
 either murdered his rival soon after or 
 caused his death, and thus became sole 
 monarch, A. d. 493. 
 
 Having made himself master of Italy, 
 Theodoric divided one-third of the lands of 
 that country among his soldiers Though 
 he reigned as the lieutenant of the Eastern 
 emperor, the imperial authority was merely 
 nominal in his dominions. He aimed at 
 setting up a dynasty, and while he recog- 
 nized his own peojjle as the conquerors of 
 the peninsula, he protected the conquered 
 Italians in their rights, and faithfully ad- 
 ministered their laws among them. Under 
 his rule Italy became the most peaceful and 
 flourishing country in the world. The 
 kingdom of Theodoric extended far beyond 
 the limits of Italy to the north, east, and 
 west. During the minority of his grand- 
 son Amalaric, the King of the Visigothic 
 monarchy in Gaul and Spain, he ruled that 
 kingdom wisely and well. As soon as the 
 other barbarians of the West were satisfied 
 that Theodoric did not intend to include 
 them in his conquests, they universally re- 
 cognized him as the leading monarch of the 
 West, and sought his alliance and media- 
 tion. Though an Ariau himself, Theodoric 
 protected his Catholic subjects, and toler- 
 ated all forms of belief in his dominions. 
 The fanatical mob burned the shops and 
 dwellings of the Jews in several cities, and 
 were obliged by the king to restore them. 
 This even-handed justice drew upon Theo- 
 doric the wrath of the Catholic party, and 
 convinced him that his efforts in behalf of 
 his people had not overcome their prejudice 
 against him as an Arian. The Eastern 
 Emperor Anastasius, jealous of so powerful 
 
 a servant, attacked the dominions of Theo- 
 doric from the direction of the Danube, but 
 was defeated by the warrior king with an 
 inferior force. Anxious to wipe out this 
 disgrace, the emperor despatched an expe- 
 dition to plunder the coasts of Calabria and 
 Apulia. The imperial forces gained some 
 indecisive successes, but the firmness and 
 energy of Theodoric compelled them to re- 
 treat, and soon brought about an honorable 
 peace. 
 
 The last years of Theodoric were in strik- 
 ing contrast with the opening of his reign. 
 Soured by the ingratitude of his people, he 
 became suspicious and cruel. Boethius, 
 the most illustrious and learned of the 
 Romans, was put to death on the charge of 
 plotting to restore the authority of the 
 Eastern emperor, and his execution was 
 soon followed by that of Symmachus, his 
 venerable father-in-law. Remorse for these 
 crimes hastened the end of Theodoric him- 
 self, and he died in A. D. 526. Had he 
 been more a statesman Theodoric might 
 have founded an enduring state by a union 
 of the Goths and the Romans, but he does 
 not appear to have desired such a union. 
 He did not even claim the title of King of 
 Italy, but was merely king of his own 
 Goths His kingdom did not long survive 
 him, as we shall see. 
 
 Theodoric was succeeded by his grandson 
 Athalaric. As the new king was but ten 
 years old, the regency passed into the hands 
 of his mother Amalasontha, the daughter 
 of Theodoric, who was assisted by the wise 
 counsels of her minister Cassiodorus. Her 
 son failed to profit by her care and instruc- 
 tion, and gave himself up to riotous living 
 and excesses of all kinds. Being punished 
 by his mother, he appealed to the Goths to 
 sustain him, and the queen regent was 
 obliged to resign the authority to him. He 
 did not enjoy it long, but died at the age of 
 sixteen from the effects of intemperance. 
 Amalasontha, in violation of Gothic law 
 and custom, then endeavored to retain the 
 throne by conferring her hand upon her 
 cousin Theodatus and raising him to the 
 rank of king. Theodatus, however, refused 
 to be ruled by a woman, and caused his 
 wife to be strangled in her bath, A. D. 535. 
 
 The Emperor Justinian, who had been 
 eagerly watching for a pretext to regain 
 Italy, now constituted himself the avenger 
 of Amalasontha, and prepared to invade 
 the peninsula with a force under the com- 
 mand of Belisarius. Sicily was conquered 
 
436 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 towards the close of A. d. 535. The next 
 spring Belisarius crossed to the mainland. 
 The chief strength of the Ostrogoths lay in 
 the north of Italy, and the Greek influence 
 was strong enough in the south to render its 
 conquest by the imperial forces an easy 
 matter. The southern Italians welcomed 
 Belisarius as a deliverer, but the barbarian 
 garrison of Naples held out against him. 
 The city was taken by surprise, and upon 
 its fall Apulia and Calabria were restored 
 to the empire. Advancing northward, Bel- 
 isarius entered Rome, which opened its 
 gates to him with joy, A. d. 536. 
 
 Vitiges, the successor of Theodatus, as- 
 sembled a powerful Gothic army, and laid 
 siege to Rome, which was bravely defended 
 by Belisarius with an inferior force for 
 more than a year. During this siege the 
 sepulchre of Hadrian, now known as the 
 Castle of St. Angelo, was used for the first 
 time as a fortress. The Goths lost heavily 
 in their attacks upon the city ; 30,000 men 
 fell in the principal assault ; and Vitiges 
 was obliged to draw off his decimated army 
 to Ravenna, leaving Belisarius master of 
 Italy. This great general could easily 
 have conquered the entire country but for 
 the dissensions of the Roman chiefs. Val- 
 uable time was lost, and the Goths Avere 
 given a breatning spell. Ten thousand 
 Burgundians, allies of the Gothic king, 
 captured and destroyed Milan, which had 
 revolted from Vitiges, A. d. 538. The next 
 spring Theodebert, the grandson of Clovis, 
 passed the Alps at the head of 100,000 
 Franks, and defeated both the Roman and 
 the Gothic armies near Pavia, and ravaged 
 Liguria and ^Emilia until his losses from 
 disease and the intemperance of his troops 
 compelled him to return to his own coun- 
 try. 
 
 Belisarius now applied himself to the 
 completion of the conquest of Italy. He 
 laid siege to Ravenna, and reduced that 
 impregnable city by famine. The Goths, 
 weary of Vitiges, proposed to deliver up 
 the city to Belisarius if he would make 
 himself their king. He pretended to accept 
 the proposal, but upon gaining possession 
 of Ravenna, threw off the mask and de- 
 clared that he held the city only as the 
 lieutenant of the emperor, Pavia, gar- 
 risoned by 1,000 Goths, alone held out, and 
 these warriors elevated Totila, the nephew 
 of Vitiges, to the vacant throne. Before 
 Belisarius could attempt anything against 
 this stronghold, he was recalled to Constan- 
 
 tinople by the emperor, who had become 
 jealous of his fame. Totila at once at- 
 temjited to regain all that had been lost by 
 his uncle. Many cities which had wel- 
 comed Belisarius as a deliverer had been 
 so sorely oppressed by the Byzantine offi- 
 cials that they now gladly opened their 
 gates to Totila. Rome was taken in A. d. 
 546, the senators carried away as prisoners, 
 and its people scattered. The noble char- 
 acter of Totila won him friends on all sides, 
 and it seemed that he was about to restore 
 the Gothic kingdom in all its strength. 
 Such rapid and marked success compelled 
 Justinian to restore Belisarius to the com- 
 mand in Italy, but the emperor could not 
 overcome his jealousy of his great general, 
 and sent him to Italy Avithout troops, and 
 delayed those which were ordered to follow 
 him. Belisarius " soon discovered that he 
 was sent to remain the idle and impotent 
 spectator of the glory of a young barba- 
 rian." Crossing to the coast of Epirus, he 
 succeeded by extraordinary exertions in 
 assembling a small force, Avith Avhich he 
 sailed to the mouth of the Tiber. He ar- 
 rived in time to Avitness the capture of Rome 
 by Totila, and though he Avas too weak to 
 prevent this, he succeeded by his firm and 
 temperate remonstrance in inducing Totila 
 to spare the city, Avhich he had resolved to 
 destroy. Upon the dcj^arture of Totila for 
 southern Italy Belisarius, Avith a thousand 
 horse, seized the deserted city, and, erecting 
 the imperial standard upon the capitol, 
 succeeded in inducing the scattered popula- 
 tion to return. The fortifications Avere re- 
 paired, and Totila was repulsed Avith severe 
 loss in his efl^orts to retake Rome, A. D. 547. 
 The jealousy of the emperor still continued 
 to hamper Belisarius, and he Avas unable to 
 follow up his success. His movements in 
 southern Italy were defeated by the disobe- 
 dience and the cowardice of his OAvn officers. 
 In 548, finding it impossible to accomplish 
 anything in the face of such obstacles, he 
 sought and obtained leave to return to Con- 
 stantinople. In A. D. 549 the city of Rome 
 was again captured by Totila, who overran 
 Italy, conquered Sicily, Sardinia, and Cor- 
 sica, and invaded Greece. These successes 
 induced the pope himself to head a deputa- 
 tion to Justinian, imploring his aid against 
 the Goths. The emperor despatched a 
 strong force under the eunuch Narses, a 
 man of commanding abilities, and a favorite 
 of the emperor. Narses was invested with 
 absolute power for the prosecution of the 
 
FROM FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE TO DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 437 
 
 war, and was liberally supported by the 
 emperor. He succeeded in regaining the 
 lost territory, and defeated and slew Totila 
 in a great battle near Tagina. Rome at 
 once passed into his hands, A. d. 552, 
 changing masters for the fifth time during 
 the reign of Justinian. 
 
 Teias, the last Gothic king in Italy, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of Totila, and sought 
 aid of the Franks. Before it could reach 
 him he was defeated and killed at Cumte, 
 in A. D. 553. In the ensuing autumn a 
 force of 75,000 Germans passed the Alps 
 and ravaged Italy to the extreme southern 
 end of the peninsula. They were defeated 
 at Casilinum, on the Vulturnus, by Narses, 
 with terrible slaughter. 
 
 All Italy was now subject to the empe- 
 ror, and the Ostrogothic kingdom, after an 
 existence of sixty years (a. d. 493-553) was 
 at an end. Italy was erected into an ex- 
 archate, with the seat of government at 
 Ravenna, and was governed by a lieutenant 
 of the emperor, with the title of exarch. 
 Narses was the first and greatest of the ex- 
 archs. He reigned from A. D. 554 to 568. 
 The Goths either emigrated in search of 
 new homes, or were absorbed into the mass 
 of the Italian people. 
 
 The destruction of the Gothic power in 
 Italy was productive of a result which the 
 emperor had not foreseen. During the life 
 of Theodoric and of his daughter Amala- 
 sontha, the Goths had faithfully guarded 
 the important barrier of the upper Danube 
 against the Gepidee, who had, since the days 
 of Attila, occupied, on the opposite banks 
 of the Danube, the plains of Hungary and 
 the Transylvania hills. The necessities of 
 the Goths in Italy compelled them to evac- 
 uate Pannonia and Noricum for the defence 
 of their Italian possessions against the im- 
 perial arms. Those regions were instantly 
 occupied by the Gepidte, who, not content 
 with these acquisitions, threatened to burst 
 into Italy. To defeat them Justinian called 
 in the Lombards or Langobards (Long 
 Beards), who had moved from the eastern 
 banks of the Elbe down to the upper Dan- 
 ube. The Lombard King Audoin accepted 
 the invitation, and, entering Pannonia with 
 his troops, began a war Avith the Gepidre, 
 which lasted for thirty years. At his death 
 he was succeeded by his son Alboin, who 
 had greatly distinguished himself by his 
 savage bravery. Alboin finding the Gep- 
 id» too formidable to be defeated by his 
 own people, made an alliance with the 
 
 Avars, and the result was the extermination 
 of the Gepidse. Alboin slew Cuuimund, the 
 King of the Gepidse, and married Rosa- 
 mond, the daughter of that monarch, A. d. 
 566. The Avars received the lands of the 
 Gepidse as the price of their services, and 
 the Lombards were obliged to look out for 
 new homes. The way to Italy w»s open, 
 and thither they resolved to go. Narses had 
 been degraded and removed from the ex- 
 archate, and the emperor possessed no ser- 
 vant capable of resisting the advance of the 
 fierce warriors of the north. 
 
 Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in A. D. 
 568, and in a short time made himself 
 master of Italy as far as Ravenna and 
 Rome. Pavia alone resisted him in a three 
 years' siege, but was taken in A. D. 571, and 
 made the capital of the Lombard kingdom, 
 which was divided into thirty duchies. 
 Alboin did not long enjoy his success. 
 Having mortally aflTronted Rosamond, his 
 wife, by compelling her to honor his suc- 
 cess by drinking from the skull of her 
 father, she organized a conspiracy against 
 him, and he was slain by the conspirators, 
 A. D. 573. Rosamond and her lover, the 
 latter of whom was the principal actor in 
 the tragedy, fled to the court of the exarch 
 of Ravenna. Longinus, the exarch, be- 
 coming enamored of the beautiful queen, 
 oflfered her his hand in marriage, and she 
 undertook to remove Helmichis, her lover, 
 by poison, in order to accept the offer. 
 Helmichis discovered her treachery and 
 compelled her to drink also of the fatal 
 cup. He then expired a few moments be- 
 fore the queen. 
 
 Upon the death of Alboin, the Lombard 
 chiefs elected Cleph or Clepho, the bravest 
 of themselves, to be king. He was assassi- 
 nated in A. D. 574, and for the next ten 
 years the kingdom had no regular govern- 
 ment. Each chief seized some city for 
 himself. Some of them attempted to in- 
 vade the territories of the German tribes 
 beyond the Alps, and the people of Rome 
 besought aid of the Emperor Tiberius, who, 
 unable to help them, bribed Chilperic, the 
 Frankish king, to invade Italy and drive 
 out the Lombards. In this emergency, the 
 Lombards conferred their crown upon Au- 
 tharis, the son of Cleph, who defeated the 
 Franks, and compelled them to return to 
 their own country. The last Frankish in- 
 vasion was led by Childebert, who was en- 
 couraged to it by the Emperor jSIaurice. 
 Autharis completely baffled the Frankish 
 
438 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 sovereign by his prudence and superior 
 generalship, and, declining an engagement, 
 allowed the heat of summer to defeat his 
 antagonist. The victorious Lombard ex- 
 tended his kingdom to the southern ex- 
 tremity of the peninsula, where he founded 
 the great duchy of Benevento. He died in 
 A. D. 5^, and his widow, Theodolinda, was 
 intrusted by the Lombards with the choice 
 of his successor. She conferred the crown 
 and her hand upon Agilulf, Duke of Turin, 
 who reigned until A. D. 615. She con- 
 verted her husband and many of his sub- 
 jects from the Arian to the Catholic faith, 
 and was rewarded by Pope Gregory the 
 Great with the famous Iron Crown of 
 Lombardy, which is still preserved in the 
 cathedral of Milan, and which is said to 
 have been made of one of the nails of the 
 true cross. 
 
 Italy was now divided between the Ex- 
 arch of Ravenna and the Lombard king. 
 The exarch ruled over the country east 
 of the Apennines from the Po to Ancona. 
 Rome, with the country between Terracina 
 and Civita Vecchia, the duchy of Naples, 
 the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, 
 and the territories of the young republic of 
 Venice were also subject to him. The 
 duchy of Naples soon became actually in- 
 dependent, though it continued to own a 
 nominal allegiance to the emperor. The 
 Lombard kingdom included northern 
 Italy and the two great duchies of Spole- 
 tum and Beneventum. The Lombards held 
 themselves aloof from the Italians, and 
 despised their weakness, though they 
 treated them with justice. Nevertheless they 
 profited by their contact with civilization. 
 Their kingdom in Italy was on the whole 
 peaceful and prosperous, and their code of 
 laws, framed by King Rotharis, who 
 reigned in the seventh century, is esteemed 
 the best of the barbarian codes. 
 
 During all these years Rome had sunk 
 almost into insignificance. No longer the 
 capital of Italy, it had fallen to the rank of 
 a second-rate city. The barbarians were 
 utterly ignorant of its history, and did not 
 even know the names of the great men who 
 had won its glory. Only one thing pre- 
 vented it from being forgotten. It was the 
 seat of the Bishop of Rome, who had come 
 to be regarded as the champion of the or- 
 thodox Catholic faith, and whom the neces- 
 sities of the times obliged to become the civil 
 as well as the spiritual head of the Eternal 
 City and its dependent territory. He was 
 
 not yet an independent ruler, but governed 
 his possessions as the servant of the em- 
 peror. As the dignity of the Latin Church 
 increased, the authority of the Roman 
 bishop, or pope, was correspondingly aug- 
 mented. At the present time, however, 
 he was dependent upon the emperor for 
 protection against the barbarians. " He 
 was put under the orders of the exarch; but 
 he did not gain any protection for himself 
 or his city from the power he was forced to 
 acknowledge. The Lombards threatened 
 Rome ; the emperor could only incite the 
 Franks to make a raid upon them, and the 
 exarch irritated, but could not hurt his 
 powerful neighbors, who kept pressing down 
 on the remnants of the imperial terri- 
 tory." 
 
 At this juncture the Roman see gained a 
 great advantage in the elevation to the 
 papal throne of Gregory, Avhom succeeding 
 generations have unanimously named " the 
 Great." Gregory was of noble birth, and 
 this, with his abilities, raised him to the 
 oflice of prefect of the city. Renouncing 
 all civil honors, he embraced a religious 
 life. Upon being made deacon, he was 
 sent to represent the Roman see at the By- 
 zantine court, where he boldly assumed in 
 the name of St. Peter a tone of independent 
 dignity which would not have been tol- 
 erated in the proudest noble of the empire. 
 Returning to Rome with an increased repu- 
 tatiou, he was soon compelled, against his 
 inclination, and by the unanimous voice of 
 the people, the senate, and the clergy, to 
 ascend the papal throne His pontificate 
 extended through the century and embraced 
 the first four years of the seventh century, 
 and constitutes one of the most important 
 periods of mediaeval history. " He fre- 
 quently ascended the pulpit, and kindled, 
 by his rude though jmthetic eloquence, the 
 congenial passions of his audience. . . . 
 His precepts and example defined the model 
 of the Roman liturgy ; the distribution of 
 the parishes, the calendar of festivals, the 
 order of processions, the service of the 
 priests and deacons, the variety and change 
 of sacerdotal garments. Till the last days 
 of his life he oflSciated in the canon of the 
 mass, which continued above three hours : 
 the Gregorian chant has preserved the 
 vocal and instrumental music of the theatre, 
 and the rough voices of the barbarians at- 
 tempted to imitate the melody of the Ro- 
 man school. Under his reign the Arians 
 of Italy and Spain were reconciled to the 
 
FROM FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE TO DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 439 
 
 Catholic Church, and the conquest of 
 Britain reflects less glory on the name of 
 Ctesar than on that of Gregory the First." 
 Gregory maintained with iirmness the dig- 
 nity and independence of the Roman see 
 against the encroachments of the Patriarch 
 of Constantinople. When that dignitary 
 claimed the universal allegiance of the 
 Christian Church as supreme bishop, 
 Gregory met his claim with a spirited pro- 
 test, in which he asserted the independence 
 of his own and every other see. " This," 
 said he, " I declare with confidence, that 
 whoso designates himself Universal Priest, 
 or, in the pride of his heart, consents to be 
 so named, he is the forerunner of Anti- 
 christ." 
 
 But Gregory did not confine himself to 
 the spiritual care of the Roman people. 
 As their temporal ruler he governed them 
 "with wisdom and vigor, and successfully 
 laid the foundations of the great edifice of 
 the temporal power of the popes. By his 
 wise measures he freed Rome from the pes- 
 tilence and famine ; he made an alliance 
 with his powerful southern neighbor, the 
 Duke of Spoletum, and thus secured his 
 territory in that quarter ; while he defended 
 his northern border against the Lombards. 
 By his wisdom and vigor he made the pope 
 the centre of independent action in Italy in 
 temporal as well as spiritual matters. By 
 the conversion of Theodolinda and Agilulf, 
 the Lombards were changed from enemies 
 into friends, and the Italians enjoyed a 
 season of peace, of which they were very 
 greatly in need. 
 
 The condition of Italy during the sev- 
 enth century was very sad indeed. The 
 Lombards ruled their territories on the 
 whole with wisdom and firmness, but 
 the state of the exarchate was one of an- 
 archy. It was a time when individual 
 rights were not acknowledged or respected, 
 when the strongest man alone was sure of 
 anything. " Conquest, spoliation and inse- 
 curity had done their work. Wave after 
 wave had passed over the surface of the 
 old Roman state and obliterated almost all 
 the landmarks of the ancient time. The 
 towns, to be sure, still remained, but 
 stripped of their old magnificence and 
 thinly peopled by the dispossessed inhabi- 
 tants of the soil, who congregated together 
 for mutual support. Trade was carried on, 
 but subject to the exactions, and some- 
 times the open robberies, of the avaricious 
 chieftains who had reared their fortresses 
 
 on the neighboring heights. Large tracts 
 of country lay waste and desolate, or were 
 left to the happy fertility of nature in the 
 growth of spontaneous woods. Marshes 
 were formed over whole districts, and the 
 cattle picked up an uncertain existence by 
 browsing over great expanses of poor and 
 unenclosed land. These flocks and herds 
 were guarded by hordes of armed serfs, who 
 camped beside them on the fields, and led 
 a life not unlike that of their remote ances- 
 tors on the steppes of Tartary." Nor was 
 this the condition of Italy alone. It was 
 the same throughout Europe. 
 
 Out of this darkness and neglect agricul- 
 ture, which had become almost a lost art, 
 took a new birth. There had arisen in va- 
 rious parts of Italy monasteries, peopled by 
 Benedictine monks. The wise founder of 
 the order, St. Benedict, appreciating the 
 evils which must ensue from the assembling 
 under a single roof of a number of idle per- 
 sons, enjoined upon his followers " to be- 
 ware of idleness, as the greatest enemy of 
 the soul." He directed them to devote 
 themselves to the cultivation of the soil and 
 to the discharge of the various duties be- 
 longing to the domestic service of their con- 
 vents, and bade them not to be uneasy if 
 at any time the cares of the harvest hin- 
 dered them from their formal readings and 
 regulated prayers. "No person," he said, 
 " is ever more usefully employed than when 
 working with his hands, or following the 
 plough, providing food for the use of man," 
 The good eflfects of these instructions soon 
 manifested themselves. The lands attached 
 to the monasteries were generally selected 
 with a view to their cultivation, and were 
 always better tilled than those which lay 
 around them. They thus became so many 
 examples of the most approved methods of 
 cultivation, their lessons were taken to 
 heart and acted upon, and the cultivation 
 of the soil was resumed under the direct sanc- 
 tion of the church. Moreover, labor was 
 rescued from the degradation into which it 
 had sunk, and ennobled by the participation 
 in it of the hands consecrated to the holy 
 oflfices of religion. Agriculture was invested 
 with a certain degree of sanctity, as it was 
 so uniformly found an accompaniment of 
 the priestly character. As the Benedictine 
 order spread into Gaul and other lands, it 
 carried with it these benefits. The kings, 
 grateful for the services thus rendered their 
 people, bestowed upon the monasteries many 
 privileges which became so many defences 
 
440 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to them. The privilege of sanctuary ex- 
 tended to their lauds as well as to their 
 churches, and he was a bold man indeed 
 who dared to invade this sacred domain for 
 purposes of violence. Other measures fol- 
 lowed, and the clergy were constituted a 
 superior race. Immunities were heaped 
 upon them, and at the Council of Paris, in 
 A. D. 613, it was decreed that the priest 
 who offended against the common law 
 should be tried by a mixed court of priests 
 and laymen. Later on, the trial of such 
 offenders was turned over to ecclesiastical 
 courts exclusively. 
 
 The monasteries were not only places of 
 refuge, but were the only retreats of learn- 
 ing in this period of darkness and violence. 
 Whatever of education and culture had 
 survived the Roman overthrow was pre- 
 served in these asylums, in which the scholar 
 found a sure refuge from violence, and the 
 leisure and means of pursuing his congenial 
 studies. Secure in the favor with which 
 they were regarded by all classes, the clergy 
 formed the most powerful if not the only 
 order of the state. " Nothing, indeed, added 
 more at the commencement of the seventh 
 century, to the authority of these great ec- 
 clesiastical chieftains, than the circumstance 
 that their interests w^ere supported, not only 
 by their neighboring brethren, but by mi- 
 tred abbot or lordly bishop in distant lands. 
 If a prior or his monks found themselves 
 ill used on the banks of the Seine, their 
 cause was taken up by all other monks and 
 priors, wherever they were placed. And 
 the rapidity of their intercommunication 
 was extraordinary. Each monastery seems 
 to have had a number of active young breth- 
 ren who traversed the wildest regions with 
 letters or messages, and brought back re- 
 plies, almost with the speed and regularity 
 of an established post. A convent on Leb- 
 anon was informed in a very short time 
 of what had happened in Provence — the 
 letter from the Western abbot was read and 
 deliberated on, and an answer intrusted to 
 the messenger, who again travelled over the 
 immense tract lying between, receiving hos- 
 pitality at the different religious establish- 
 ments that occurred upon his way, tind 
 everywhere treated with the kindness of a 
 brother. Monasteries in this way became 
 the centres of news as well as of learning, 
 and for many hundred years the only peo- 
 ple who knew anything of the state of feel- 
 ing in foreign nations, or had a glimpse of 
 the mutual interests of distant kingdoms, 
 
 were the cowled and gowned individuals 
 who were supposed to have given up the 
 world and to be totally immersed in pen- 
 ances and prayers." 
 
 It must not be supposed that the church 
 was spared by the general deluge of ignor- 
 ance and immorality which overspread the 
 European world. Ambitious contests ar- 
 rayed the different orders against each other, 
 and as the church grew in prosperity it be- 
 came more corrupt. The elegant scholai'- 
 ship which was once characteristic of the 
 clergy disappeared. Often a bishop could 
 neither read nor write, and was a man of 
 notoriously evil life. Learning took refuge 
 in the monasteries, where alone it was safe 
 from destruction. Quarrels sprang up be- 
 tween the bishops and the monks, and the 
 former often gained the ill will of the latter 
 by their oppressive treatment of them. 
 
 In this juncture the pope interfered in 
 behalf of the monks. He took them under 
 his special protection, and, relieving them 
 from the supervision of their local bishops, 
 made them directly dependent upon and 
 responsible to himself. By this one act he 
 gained for himself the uncompromising and 
 enthusiastic support of the most compact 
 and influential body in Europe. " Wher- 
 ever they went, they held forth the pope as 
 the first of earthly powers, and began al- 
 ready, in the enthusiasm of their gratitude, 
 to speak of him as something more than 
 mortal. To this the illiterate preachers 
 and prelates had nothing to reply. They 
 were sunk either in the grossest darkness, 
 or involved in the wildest schemes of am- 
 bition, bishoprics being even held by lay- 
 men, and by both priest and laymen used 
 as instruments of advancement and wealth. 
 From these the pontiff on the Tiber, whose 
 weaknesses and vices were unknown, and 
 who was held up for invidious contrast with 
 the bishops of their acquaintance by the 
 libellous and grateful monks, had nothing 
 to fear." And so championed by the 
 monks, Avho rapidly spread into all lands 
 where Christianity prevailed, the j^ower 
 and personal influence of the poj^e were 
 securely established as a firm basis upon 
 which the great fabric of his temporal 
 claims was subsequently erected. 
 
 Until the beginning of the eighth cen- 
 tury, the Italians, though left defenceless 
 by the emperor, never ceased to regard 
 themselves as his subjects, and although the 
 Bishop of Rome had been forced by the 
 necessities of his people to constitute him- 
 
FROM FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE TO DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 441 
 
 self a temporal prince, and did not hesitate 
 to maintain his independence against the 
 exarch, yet he still acknowledged an alle- 
 giance to the eastern emperor. The Icon- 
 oclastic war, inaugurated by Leo III., 
 struck a decisive blow at what had become 
 one of the most cherished jDractices of the 
 Catholic Church. The opposition which 
 this measure aroused in Italy was far more 
 serious and determined than that which it 
 excited in the East. Pope Gregoxy II. en- 
 deavored to turn the emperor from his pur- 
 pose, and failing in this, boldly refused in 
 the name of the western church to allow the 
 execution of the imperial decree for the re- 
 moval or destruction of the images. A 
 great breach was thus opened between the 
 empire and Italy, which widened daily. 
 Gregory III., who was made pope in A. d. 
 731, though he did not renounce his alle- 
 giance, proved himself an equally resolute 
 defender of the images, and adorned the 
 churches in Rome with magnificent objects 
 of adoration. 
 
 "The emperor, about this time, made his 
 last desperate effijrt to retrieve his fortunes 
 in Italy, to relieve the Exarch Eutychius, 
 who was shut up in powerless inactivity in 
 Ravenna, and to reduce the refractory pope 
 and Italy to obedience. A formidable ar- 
 mament was embarked on board a great 
 fleet, under command of Manes, one of his 
 bravest and most experienced generals. The 
 fleet encountered a terrible storm in the 
 Adriatic ; great part of the ships were lost ; 
 and the image w^orshippers on the coast of 
 Calabria beheld their shores strewn with the 
 wrecks of the Iconoclastic navy. Hence- 
 forth the Eastern empire almost acquiesced 
 in the loss of the exarchate. Eutychius 
 maintained for a long time his perilous po- 
 sition in Ravenna, temporizing between the 
 pope, the Lombards, and the Franks. 
 Kearly twenty years later he abandoned 
 the seat of government, and took refuge in 
 Naples." 
 
 The peace between the pope and the 
 Lombards was broken by Liudprand, the 
 Lombard king, who took Ravenna, and 
 then began to overrun the Roman territory. 
 The pope (Gregory II.) made an alliance 
 with the Venetians, and retook the city. 
 Evex'ywhere the Italians supported him 
 against the emperor, who, as the champion 
 of Iconoclasm, had gained their uncom- 
 promising hostility. Still Gregory hesitated 
 to definitely throw off his allegiance to the 
 emperor, as he needed an ally against the 
 
 Lombards, who were pressing him hard. 
 Seeing the impossibility of gaining assist- 
 ance from the emperor, Gregory at length 
 took the decisive step, and appealed to 
 Charles Martel, the Duke of the Franks 
 and the real ruler of the Frankish king- 
 dom, for aid. Gregory 11. died in the midst 
 of the negotiations, but his successor, Greg- 
 ory III., took up the struggle with equal 
 vigor. Then followed the loss of Ravenna 
 by the exarch, and his subsequent flight. 
 Italy was now forever lost to the empire. 
 Only the pope and the Lombard king re- 
 mained to contest its sovereignty. Liud- 
 prand, by endeavoring to reduce the pope 
 to submission to him, compelled Gregory 
 III. to call upon the Franks for aid, as his 
 predecessor had done. The pope offered 
 the Frankish leader the sovereignty of the 
 Roman people as the reward of his inter- 
 vention. Cliarles prepared to accept the 
 offer, but died before he could do so, A. D. 
 741. 
 
 Later on, in A. D. 752, the Lombard king, 
 Astolph, having seized Ravenna and in- 
 vaded the Roman teiTitories, Pope Stephen 
 II. appealed for aid to Pepin, the son of 
 Charles Martel, who had been declared 
 King of the Franks by Pope Zachary. 
 Pope Stephen crossed the Alps to solicit the 
 protection of the Frankish king, and was 
 received by him with the highest reverence. 
 In the autumn of 754 Pepin entered Italy 
 at the head of a powerful army, and com- 
 pelled Astolph to restore the Roman terri- 
 tory. Pepin had scarcely left Italy on his 
 return home when the Lombard king re- 
 newed the war, and, encamping before 
 Rome, demanded the surrender of the pope 
 as the price of the city's safety. In re- 
 sponse to the appeal of the pope, Pepin 
 again crossed the Alps, and reduced the 
 Lombards to such straits that Astolph was 
 obliged to purchase peace by the surrender 
 of all his conquests, including the exar- 
 chate and Pentapolis. Pepin, who declared 
 that he undertook the Avar only for the glory 
 of St. Peter, bestowed upon the pope the 
 whole of the restored territory. Thus be- 
 gan the temporal sovereignty of the Bishops 
 of Rome, which continued until A. D. 1871. 
 The district thus acquired by the pope in- 
 cluded Ravenna, Rimini, and twenty-three 
 other cities, and embraced the territories of 
 the exarchate and the Pentapolis, which 
 were afterwards known as the States of the 
 Church. " By the gift of a foreign poten- 
 tate this large part of Italy became the 
 
442 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 kingdom of the Bishop of Rome. The 
 sovereignty of this territory was retained 
 by Pepin, but its immediate government 
 with its rich revenues passed into the 
 hands of the pope. In return the pontiff 
 conferred upon Pepin the title of Patrician 
 of the Romans. " This gave him some vague 
 authority in the city, but the emperor was 
 still nominally acknowledged. But it was 
 only in theory that the empei'or still reigned 
 over Italy, and the real power of the Prank- 
 ish patrician was small, because he was the 
 other side of the Alps, while the pope, by 
 his gift, really reigned over the remains of 
 the Roman province." Still the pope was 
 not yet an independent sovereign. Money 
 was coined and justice administered in the 
 name of the King of the Franks, and even 
 the election of the pontiff was subject to his 
 revision. 
 
 After the death of Pepin the war was re- 
 newed against the pope by the Lombard 
 king, Desiderius, who invaded Romagna, 
 laid waste the country, and threatened 
 Rome. Pope Adrian I. appealed to Char- 
 lemagne, the Prankish king, the son of 
 Pepin, for assistance, and Charlemagne, 
 who was not averse to going to Avar with 
 Desiderius, entered Italy Avith a powerful 
 army, captured Pavia after a siege of sev- 
 eral months, took Desiderius prisoner, and 
 put an end to the Lombard kingdom, which 
 he added to his own dominions. During 
 the siege of Pavia, Charlemagne spent 
 Holy Week at Rome, and confirmed the 
 gift of his father Pepin to the pope, A. D. 
 774. In A. D. 781 Charlemagne entered 
 Italy again to protect the pope against a 
 league of " all the adversaries of the papal 
 and the Prankish interests," headed by 
 Arigiso, the Lombard Duke of Benevento, 
 who had married the daughter of Deside- 
 rius. The prompt appearance of the great 
 conqueror in Italy put an end to this trou- 
 ble, and compelled the submission of the 
 rebels. 
 
 Adrian I. died in A. D. 795, and Leo III. 
 was elected pope in his place. The new 
 pontiff had many enemies among the fac- 
 tious which divided Rome, and these car- 
 ried their hostility to the extent of attack- 
 ing him in the streets of Rome and almost 
 killing him, A. D. 799. He escaped to 
 Spoleto, and thence to Paderborn, where 
 Charlemagne was waging war Avith the 
 Saxons. The pope naturally appealed to 
 the Prankish monarch for the punishment 
 of his enemies and his restoration to his 
 
 throne, and his enemies endeavored to de- 
 fend their course by charging the pontiff 
 with grave crimes. Charlemagne " did not 
 decline, but postponed till his arrival in 
 Rome the judicial investigation of these 
 charges ; but he continued to treat the pope 
 with undiminished respect and familiarity." 
 In the winter of A. D. 800-1 Charle- 
 magne proceeded to Rome, and the trial of 
 Pope Leo III. took place. It resulted, as 
 a matter of course, in his acquittal, and 
 Charlemagne Avith his own voice proclaimed 
 the innocence of the pontiff. On Christ- 
 mas day, A. D. 800, the pope solemnly 
 croAvned Charlemagne Emperor of the West. 
 Of this latter event and of the empire of 
 Charlemagne we shall treat in the history 
 of Germany. The Italian kingdom of 
 Charlemagne extended from the Alps south- 
 ward to Terracina. The duchy of Ben- 
 eventum paid him tribute, but was in other 
 respects independent. " The cities of Gaeta 
 and Naples, and the islands of Sicily and 
 Sardinia, Avith the extreme ends of Calabria 
 and Apulia, which received the high-sound- 
 ing title of the Theme of Lombardy, still 
 acknowledged the eastern Cresar. Venice 
 was busy with her OAvn affairs, and stood 
 aloof from Italian politics. At this time, 
 and for long after, she kncAv no emperor 
 save him who reigned in Constantinople." 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO 
 THE DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VII. 
 
 Italy Tranquil During the Reign of Charlemagne — 
 Lothaire Becomes Emperor — Conquests of the 
 Saracens in Southern Italy — They Besiege Rome 
 — Are Defeated by Pope Leo IV. — The " Leonine 
 City " — Wars with tlie Saracens — The Pope Pays 
 Tribute to the Infidel — "Wars in the North of Italy 
 — Charles the Fat Emperor — Fall of the Empire 
 of Charlemagne — Italy Ravaged by the Hungar- 
 ians and Northmen — Disorders in Italy — The Em- 
 peror Otto Deprives the Romans of their Inde- 
 pendence — Revolt of Crescentius — Pope Sylvester 
 II. — Efforts of the Italian Cities to Preserve their 
 Independence — Municipal Governments — Rise of 
 the Italian Republics — Growth of the Venetian 
 State — Pisa — Genoa — The Normans Drive the 
 Saracens from Sicily — Their Conquests in South- 
 ern Italy — They Capture the Pope and Become 
 his Champions — Destruction of the Commerce of 
 Southern Italy— Great Corruption of the Church 
 — Simony — Hildebrand — Becomes Pope as Greg- 
 ory VII. — His Reforms — Enforces Celibacy Upon 
 the Clergy— The Practice of Investitures— Gregory 
 puts a Stop to it — His Haughty Treatment of the 
 Sovereigns of Europe — Quarrels with the German 
 Emperor Henry IV. — Excommunicates him — 
 Humiliation of Henry — His Visit to the Pope — 
 
DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF POPE OREOORY VIL 443 
 
 Shameful Treatment of the Emperor — Henry 
 Renews the War — Sets up an Antipope — Clement 
 III. — Gregory Rescued by the Normans — Death 
 of Gregory VII. 
 
 »URING the life of Charlemagne, 
 Italy enjoyed a period of rest and 
 quiet, but, in the troubles which 
 followed his death, suffered with 
 the rest of the empire. By the 
 treaty of Verdun, in A. D. 843, 
 X/othaire, the grandson of Charlemagne, 
 received the imperial title and a long and 
 narrow kingdom stretching from the North 
 Sea to the southern boundary of his grand- 
 father's Italian dominions. Loth aire asso- 
 ciated his son Louis in the empire, and 
 made him ruler over Lombardy. 
 
 In the meantime the Saracens, who had 
 conquered Crete, began in A. D. 827 their 
 efforts to gain possession of Sicily. The 
 struggle was continued for fifty years, and 
 then Syracuse was taken and the whole 
 island overrun, A. D. 878. Long before 
 this the Arabs had begun to direct their 
 efforts against the mainland of Italy. From 
 the Sicilian ports the Moslem squadrons 
 ravaged the Italian coast at pleasure. En- 
 couraged by the dissensions of the cities of 
 southern Italy, the Saracens made a firm 
 lodgment in the lower end of the peninsula, 
 and extended their ravages to the vicinity 
 of Rome, and finally laid siege to the 
 Eternal City itself. Had they been united 
 they might have made themselves masters 
 of the entire peninsula. Rome was saved 
 by the courageous conduct of Pope Leo 
 IV. He successfully resisted the Saracens 
 in their attacks upon the city, and brought 
 about a league of the cities of Gaeta, 
 Naples, and Amalfi. Their combined fleets 
 inflicted a severe defeat upon the Arabian 
 fleet off Ostia, and the remnant of the 
 beaten squadron was destroyed by a tem- 
 pest. Leo could not prevent the Saraceus 
 from plundering the churches and shrines 
 which lay without the walls. Upon the 
 withdrawal of the enemy he enclosed this 
 portion — the Vatican quarter — with a 
 strong wall, and called it, in honor of him- 
 self, the Leonine City, A. D. 852. 
 
 The advance of the Emperor Louis II. 
 into southern Italy saved Rome from fur- 
 ther attacks. The Saracens succeeded in 
 capturing Bari, which enabled them to 
 command the Adriatic, and made their 
 power severely felt in southern Italy. This 
 brought about a league between the Eastern 
 JEmperor Basil I. and the Western Emperor 
 
 Louis II., who joined their forces to expel 
 them from this important point. The army 
 of Louis besieged Bari by land, while the 
 Greek fleet assailed it from the sea, and in 
 A. D. 871 the city was obliged to yield to 
 this combined attack. After the death of 
 Louis the Saracens again made great prog- 
 ress, assisted by the Dukes of Naples, who, 
 though nominally the vassals of the Greek 
 emperor, were really independent sover- 
 eigns. Upon the death of Louis, Charles 
 the Bald, King of France, was crowned 
 emperor by his nephew, Pope John VIII. 
 Being hard pressed by the infidels, John 
 sent urgent appeals to the emperor to come 
 to his aid, but the latter would not under- 
 take the task, and the pontiff was obliged 
 to piirchase the safety of the city by paying 
 tribute to the Moslems. 
 
 The principal result of the expulsion of 
 the Saracens from Bari was the revival of 
 the Greek power in southern Italy. The 
 weakness of the Carolingian house in the 
 peninsula enabled the Greek empei'or to 
 capture a great number of Saracen castles. 
 The province known as the Theme of Lom- 
 bardy extended as far north as Salernum. 
 The Greek cities of Naples and Amalfi, and 
 the Lombard rulers of Beueventum and 
 Capua also acknowledged the Eastern em- 
 peror as their sovereign lord, but they were 
 not always to be depended upon. The 
 feuds of the rulers of northern Italy were a 
 sure protection to the Greeks of the south 
 from interference at this important period 
 of their history. 
 
 In northern Italy the remainder of the 
 ninth century was marked by the struggles 
 of the Carolingian princes for the supreme 
 power. When the century closed the 
 principal powers of the north were Duke of 
 Friuli, the Count of Tuscany, and the 
 Archbishop of Milan, whose allegiance to 
 the Carolingian King of Italy was chiefly 
 nominal. At the death of Charles the 
 Bald the Italian crown was seized by Car- 
 loman, the son of Louis, King of the East 
 Franks. Pope John VIII. endeavored to' 
 set up a rival to the German party in the 
 person of Boso, who had been elected King 
 of Provence ; but Charles the Fat compelled 
 the pope to crown him emperor, and so 
 secured the triumph of the German party. 
 The new emperor was powerless to quell 
 the disturbances among the Italian nobles, 
 or to check the aggressions of the Saracens. 
 He died in A. D. 887. With him ended 
 the Carolingian line in Italy, and the great 
 
444 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces. A 
 struggle at once ensued between the adher- 
 ents of Beranger, Duke of Friuli, and 
 Guide, Duke of Spoletum, for the possession 
 of the Italian crown. Guido was victorious 
 and was crowned emperor, and Beranger 
 appealed to the German king, Arnulf, to 
 assist him against his enemy. Arnulf re- 
 sponded willingly to the summons, and in- 
 vaded Italy in a. d. 894. Having taken 
 Rome, he set aside both Beranger and 
 Lambert, the son of Guido, who had died 
 during the struggle, and was himself 
 crowned emperor by Pope Formosus. He 
 had no real power in Italy, and soon re- 
 turned to Germany, where he died in A. d. 
 899. Lambert died near about the same 
 time, and Beranger gained possession of the 
 Italian throne. 
 
 The early part of the tenth century 
 brought many disasters to Italy. Among 
 these were the invasion of the Magyars or 
 Hungarians, a fierce Turanian horde, who 
 swept over the Alps and ravaged northern 
 Italy with fire and sword ; and of the North- 
 men, who, under their famous leader Hast- 
 ings, captured, plundered, and destroyed 
 the city of Luna, having mistaken it for 
 Rome. The Saracens also kept southern 
 Italy m a state of terror until A. d 916 
 when the warlike Pope John X. took the 
 field against them, assisted by a number of 
 the princes of southern Italy and a Greek 
 fleet, and inflicted a severe defeat upon the 
 infidels, which put a stop to their outrages. 
 Not the least among the troubles of this 
 unhappy country were the frequent revolu- 
 tions which kept the whole peninsula in a 
 state of constant strife, and inflicted much 
 sufiering upon it. The elevation of Ber- 
 anger to the Italian throne was mainly the 
 work of Adalbert, the great Count of Tus- 
 cany. Becoming dissatisfied with his work 
 Adalbert called in Louis of Provence, the 
 son of Boso, to overthrow him. Louis 
 however, did not remain long upon the 
 throne, as the Tuscan king-maker, findino- 
 him a less pliant tool than he had expectecf 
 soon dethroned him. Rudolph of Buy- 
 gundy next appeared to contest the rule of 
 Beranger, who still managed to maintain 
 his authority over a portion of Italy. At 
 length Beranger was assassinated. 
 
 Rome was at this time virtually ruled by 
 an infamous woman named Marozia, who 
 acquired notoriety as the mistress of one 
 pope, the mother of a second, and the grand- 1 
 mother of a third, and the record of whose 
 
 career forms the darkest page in the history 
 ot the papacy. Upon the death of Beran- 
 ger L, Marozia sought to strengthen her- 
 self by marrying Hugh of Provence, who 
 had assumed the Italian crown and had 
 been acknowledged king by Pope John 
 AI., the son of Marozia. She succeeded in 
 introducing him into the Castle of St 
 Angelo, but the Romans, led by Alberic, the 
 legitimate son of Marozia, refused to allow 
 Hugh to enter their city, and confined him 
 to the castle, from which Alberic soon 
 drove him. Marozia was thrown into prison, 
 the pope was confined to the exercise of 
 his spiritual functions, and for twenty years 
 Alberic ruled Rome, restoring to a limited 
 degree the old republican institutions. He 
 was succeeded by his son Octavian, who for 
 a while ruled the city as consul. Upon the 
 death of his uncle John XL, Octavian 
 made himself pope under the name of 
 John XII. 
 
 Hugh of Provence, though driven from 
 Rome, retained his hold upon the rest of 
 Italy, but he was such an infamous tyrant 
 and robbed his people so unmercifully that 
 they soon began to plot against him. The 
 most formidable of these plots, which had 
 the support of the greater portion of the 
 Italian nobles, had for its object the eleva- 
 tion to the throne of Beranger, Marquis of 
 lorea, the most powerful noble of northern 
 Italy. It was detected by Hugh, and Ber- 
 anger was forced to fly ; but in the end 
 Hugh was compelled to quit Italy and go 
 back to Provence (a. d. 945), leaving his 
 son Lothaire, as King of Italy. Lothaire 
 died in a. d. 950, and his death is attrib- 
 uted to Beranger, who at once mounted the 
 throne as Beranger II. 
 
 Beranger II. endeavored to compel Ade- 
 laide, the young and beautiful Avidow of 
 Lothaire, to wed his son Adalbert, and 
 upon her refusal to do so, threw her into 
 prison, and treated her with great cruelty. 
 She succeeded in escaping, and appealed to 
 the _ German king. Otto the Great, for pro- 
 tection. Otto crossed the Alps, defeated 
 Beranger, and married the beautiful Ade- 
 laide himself He took the title of King^ 
 of the Lombards, but allowed Beranger to 
 retain his crown and Lombardy as his 
 vassal, A. D. 951. Otto returned home in 
 triumph, leaving Beranger to govern north- 
 ern Italy. After ten years of violence and 
 discontent, during which the Lombard 
 nobles succeeded in winning the uncompro- 
 mising hostility of the Pope John XIL, 
 
DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VII. 445 
 
 "whose infamous life had disgusted all 
 Europe, the pontiff put an end to the dis- 
 orders by inviting Otto to assume the im- 
 perial crown. He was crowned with Queen 
 Adelaide at Rome, in February, A. D. 962. 
 
 Although the pope had urged Otto to 
 assume the imperial crown he did not re- 
 main faithful to him. Otto had scarcely 
 passed the AIjds on his return to Germany 
 when John began to plot against him, and 
 finally plunged Rome into a revolt against 
 its German master. This drew upon him 
 the vengeance of the emperor, and he was 
 solemnly deposed from his high office for 
 his crimes, and the Romans were deprived 
 of their independent institutions and placed 
 under the rule of Leo VIII., a pope of the 
 emperor's own selection, and devoted to 
 his interests. Thus the power of Otto was 
 firmly established in Rome. Otto endeav- 
 ored, but without success, to add southern 
 Italy to his empire, and even went to the 
 extreme of war with the Greek emperor, 
 Nicephorus Phocas, for this purpose. His 
 son, Otto II., carried out the policy of his 
 father in this respect, and with the aid of 
 the Lombard Duke of Beneventum at- 
 tempted the conquest of southern Italy. 
 The people, however, allied themselves with 
 the Saracens, and in the bloody battle of 
 Crotona inflicted a severe defeat upon Otto's 
 forces, and saved the Lombard Theme for 
 the eastern emperor (a. d. 982), whose 
 power in Italy was greatly increased by 
 this victory. Upon the death of Pandulf 
 Ironhead, Duke of Beneventum, the ally 
 of Otto, that duchy fell into decay and 
 finally broke up into a number of small 
 parts, the majority of which became subject 
 to the eastern emperor. 
 
 The Romans attempted to regain their 
 independent municipal government during 
 the latter part of the reign of Otto II., and 
 set up a consul named Ci'escentius, who 
 compalled Pope John XV. to acknowledge 
 his authority. In A. d. 996, however. Otto 
 in. came to Rome at the head of a power- 
 ful army, put an end to the consular gov- 
 ernment, and was crowned emperor by 
 Gregory V., a German pope, w^hom he had 
 placed in the chair of St. Peter. As soon 
 as the emperor had departed from Rome 
 Crescentius raised the city in revolt against 
 him, set up a Greek as antipope, aud ap- 
 pealed to the eastern emperor for assistance. 
 Otto promptly returned to Rome, deposed 
 the antipope and cruelly tortured him, and 
 laid siege to the Castle of St. Angelo, in 
 
 which Crescentius had taken refuge. He 
 drew Crescentius from the castle upon the 
 promise of accepting his surrender, and 
 then faithlessly put him to death. Self- 
 government was now at an end in Rome, 
 and the power of the emperor was supreme. 
 Otto even dreamed of reviving the ancient 
 glories of the Roman empire, and of reign- 
 ing as master of the world with Rome as 
 his capital, but his early death put an end 
 to his plans. One of his last acts was the 
 elevation to the papal throne of his tutor, 
 Gerbert, who was esteemed the most pro- 
 found scholar and most daring thinker of 
 his day. Gerbert assumed the title of Syl- 
 vester II., and used his power in behalf of 
 science and learning. "The genius of this 
 famous pontiff," says Mosheim, "was ex- 
 tensive and sublime, embracing all the 
 branches of literature ; but its more pecu- 
 liar bent was turned toward mathematical 
 studies. Mechanics, geometry, astronomy, 
 arithmetic, and every other branch of 
 knowledge that had the least affinity to 
 these important sciences, were cultivated by 
 this restorer of learning with the most ar- 
 dent zeal, and not without success, as his 
 writings abundantly testify ; nor did he 
 stop here, but employed every method that 
 was proper to encourage and animate others 
 to the culture of the liberal arts and sciences. 
 The effects of this noble zeal were visible 
 in Germany, France, and Italy, both in this 
 and in the following century ; as by the 
 writings, example, and exhortations of Ger- 
 bert, many were incited to the study of 
 physic, mathematics, and philosophy, and 
 in general to the pursuit of science in all 
 its branches. If, indeed, we compare this 
 learned pontiff to the mathematicians of 
 modern times, his merit, in this point of 
 view, will almost totally disappear under 
 such a disadvantageous comparison ; for 
 his geometry, though it be easy and per- 
 spicuous, is merely elementary and super- 
 ficial. Yet, such as it was, it was marvel- 
 lous in an age of barbarism and darkness, 
 and surpassed the apprehension of the pyg- 
 my philosophers, whose eyes, under the 
 auspicious direction of Gerbert, were just 
 beginning to open upon the light. Hence 
 it was that the geometrical figures, de- 
 scribed by this mathematical pontiff, were 
 regarded by the monks as magical opera- 
 tions, and the pontiff himself was treated as 
 a magician and a disciple of Satan." 
 
 The disorders w'hich had marked the 
 tenth century in Italy continued through- 
 
446 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 out the eleventh century. After the death 
 of the Emperor Otto III, Rome passed 
 again under popular government, and the 
 great cities of northern Italy continued to 
 enjoy, under various forms, much of the 
 liberty which had marked their earlier his- 
 
 to do to preserve her liberties against her 
 archbishop. In the eleventh century the 
 municipal governments of Italy were gen- 
 erally conducted by two or more consuls, 
 chosen by the people. These were charged 
 with the duty of administering justice, pre- 
 
 A KNIGHT IN FULL AEMOR. 
 
 tory. The great trouble against which they 
 bad constantly to contend was the repeated 
 effort of some powerful noble to make him- 
 self absolute master of some important city. 
 Even the bishops, not content with their 
 spiritual privileges, strove hard to acquire 
 such power, and Milan especially had much 
 
 siding over the councils of the city, and 
 calling out and leading the militia in time 
 of war or insurrection. Each city had 
 usually two councils : one smaller one, which 
 in later times came to be called the Con- 
 siglio cli Credenza, and which carried out 
 the laws and general policy of the city ; and 
 
DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VII. 447 
 
 one greater body, consisting of more mem- 
 bers, called the Great Goxmcil or the Senate, 
 in which new measures were discussed and 
 adopted. The supreme power lay with the 
 whole body of the people, who were sum- 
 moned together in the principal square by 
 the great bell of the town. These assem- 
 blies were called " Parliaments." 
 
 The great Italian republics were more 
 elaborately organized than their minor sis- 
 ters. The first of these was Venice, the 
 foundation of which we have already related 
 in the history of Rome. Though practically 
 independent it owned a nominal allegiance 
 to the eastern emperor. By holding aloof 
 from the great struggles which convulsed 
 Italy it had managed during the six centu- 
 ries of its existence to direct its energies to 
 its steady growth. In the eleventh century 
 it was one of the most powerful as well as 
 one of the richest Italian states, and was 
 just entering upon its remarkable commer- 
 cial career. It was the only Italian repub- 
 lic which never submitted to the German 
 emperors, and no foreign power had as yet 
 been acknowledged within its walls. The 
 cliief magistrate of the republic was styled 
 the Doge, or Duke, and possessed all the 
 powers of a king. The beginning of the 
 crusades marks the commencement of the 
 commercial glory of Venice. Her admira- 
 ble maritime position had already led her 
 to engage in ship-building to a great extent, 
 and had enabled her to rid the Adriatic of 
 the pirates of Istria and Dalmatia, and to 
 extend her power to the eastern shore of 
 that sea. She was in a condition to supply 
 the demand of the crusaders for ships to 
 transport them to Asia, and the money 
 earned by this service brought large sums 
 to the republic. The masters of these ves- 
 sels judiciously invested their earnings in 
 the silks and other products of the East, and 
 these were sold in Europe at handsome 
 profits. Thus was laid the foundation of 
 the extensive commerce which made Venice 
 the mistress of the seas. At a later period 
 glass-making became one of the chief in- 
 dustries and sources of wealth of the Vene- 
 tians. 
 
 Pisa, following the example of Venice, 
 next rose to wealth and importance, and 
 became the principal commercial rival of 
 Venice. The marshes of the lower Arno 
 were drained by the large-minded merchants 
 of Pisa, and the entire district of Maremma, 
 which is now almost deserted, was converted 
 into one of the most beautiful and populous 
 
 regions of Italy. The greatness and wealth 
 of the Pisan republic were won in the face 
 of a sharp opposition, and were maintained 
 only by a determined struggle. The islands 
 of the Mediterranean were closed against 
 her by their Saracen masters, and Venice 
 and Amalfi resented, and punished when 
 they could, all the attempts of Pisa to secure 
 a share in the Mediterranean trade, which 
 they claimed as their own. In A. D. 1017 
 the allied Pisaus and Genoese attacked 
 Sardinia, and in 1021 wrested it from the 
 Saracens. The island was finally parcelled 
 out in fiefs among the nobles of Pisa. 
 
 Genoa, the third of the Italian republics, 
 rose to wealth and power more slowly than 
 the others. She was always the enemy of 
 Venice and the rival of Pisa, though some- 
 times the ally of the latter state. Her ter- 
 ritory ultimately embraced the cities of the 
 two JRivieras, and extended around the head 
 of the Gulf of Genoa from Nice to Spezzia. 
 
 After the death of Otto III. a struggle 
 set in for the possession of the Italian crown. 
 It was decided by the coronation of the 
 German king, Henry of Bavaria, at Milan. 
 At his death the struggle was renewed, and 
 though the Italian crown passed to the 
 Emperor Conrad, the disturbances went on 
 with but little intermission. They simply 
 changed their character, and became a con- 
 test between the j^eople and the nobles. The 
 absence of the emperor removed the only 
 check which could have restrained this 
 discord. 
 
 In the meantime the south of Italy was 
 the scene of a contest the result of which 
 was to change its character. At the open- 
 ing of the century the Italian islands of the 
 Mediterranean were held by the Saracens, 
 who had also a footing upon the mainland. 
 Southern Italy was subject to the Greek 
 emperors. In A. D. 1010 a body of Norman 
 knights, on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
 stopped at Salerno, and while there turned 
 aside for a while from their journey to aid 
 Gaimai*, a Lombard prince of the city, 
 against the Saracens. Encouraged by their 
 success, their countrymen some years later 
 swarmed into Sicily, drove out the Saracens, 
 and took possession of a large part of the 
 island. In A. D. 1030 they attacked Apulia, 
 conquered it, and added it to their Sicilian 
 possessions. Pope Leo IX., alarmed by 
 their rapid progress up the peninsula, or- 
 ganized a league against them, and applied 
 to the Emperors Henry III. and Coustan- 
 tine IX. for aid. These sovereigns being 
 
448 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 unable to render him any assistance, the 
 pope took the field in person against the 
 Normans, with an army composed of Italian, 
 Greek, and Suabian mercenaries. The Nor- 
 mans were inferior in force to the papal 
 army, but they were all veterans, and were 
 led by such tried commanders as Counts 
 Humphrey, Richard, and the famous Rob- 
 ert Guiscard. They totally routed their 
 opponents in the battle of Civitella in 1053, 
 and captured the pontiff himself. To his 
 surprise, instead of treating him with harsh- 
 ness, the Noi-maus paid him the most pro- 
 found reverence, and humbly asked pardon 
 of the father of Christendom for the hard 
 fate which had compelled them to defend 
 with arms against him the lands they had 
 won from the heretical Greeks and the in- 
 fidel Saracens. By this politic course they 
 completely gained the good-will of the pope, 
 and received from him the investiture of 
 their past and future conquests in Apulia, 
 Calabria, and Sicily, which they agreed to 
 hold as a fief of the Holy See. This was a 
 great gain for the pope, as the Italian Nor- 
 mans were thenceforth his stoutest cham- 
 pions. Robert Guiscard continued these 
 conquests on the mainland, and added the 
 greater part of southern Italy to his do- 
 minions. He was made count by Pope 
 Nicholas II. Count Roger, the brother of 
 Robert, conquered Sicily after a long and 
 arduous struggle. At the death of Robert 
 he succeeded to his dominions on the main- 
 land. His son Roger, the great Count of 
 Sicily, took the important town of Bari, in 
 1071, and rapidly acquired the remainder 
 of southern Italy. He erected his posses- 
 sions and conquests into a single state, and 
 took the title of King of Sicily. 
 
 The Norman conquest of southern Italy 
 destroyed the cominerce of the Greek cities 
 of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, which had 
 until now controlled the trade of the Medi- 
 terranean, and drove it into the hands of 
 Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. The Venetians 
 maintained a powerful fleet in the Adriatic, 
 and effectually checked the conquests of the 
 Normans in that quarter. 
 
 The early part of this century saAV the 
 church plunged in a state of deep corrup- 
 tion, from which there seemed scarcely any 
 escape. Being corrupt it was necessarily 
 weak. The great cause of this weakness 
 was simony, which robbed the church of its 
 sanctity as a profession, and enabled the 
 temporal power to interfere with its prefer- 
 ments. From an ecclesiastical point of 
 
 view there was a second cause of weakness, 
 namely, the marriage of the clergy, which 
 prevented the priests from devoting them- 
 selves exclusively to the task of making the 
 church independent of the state and the 
 most powerful body on earth, and which 
 stripped the clergy of the semi-miraculous 
 character which the most ascetic arrogated 
 to themselves, and exhibited them to the 
 laity as mere men. The first was a genuine 
 cause of corruption ; the latter was a great 
 barrier in the path of papal ambition. The 
 Emperor Henry III. endeavored to bring 
 the church up to its true position by the 
 appointment of German popes, Avho, being 
 free from the petty local jealousies of the 
 Italians, would devote their energies to the 
 whole of Christendom. The first two died 
 too soon to accomplish anything. The em- 
 peror then appointed Leo IX., his kinsman. 
 Leo began with vigor a reformation which 
 was destined to accomplish more than Henry 
 either desired, or believed possible. In the 
 end the papacy became the powerful and 
 determined rival of the empire, with both 
 the will and the ability to inflict many hu- 
 miliations and losses upon it. Leo made 
 an uncompromising war upon the practice 
 of simony, for which no defence was at- 
 tempted. It had become too universal a 
 practice, however, to be destroyed in a sin- 
 gle reign. In the reign of Gregory VII. 
 the contest assumed a formidable character, 
 as we shall see. The effort to enforce celi- 
 bacy upon the clergy met with a deter- 
 mined resistance, especially in Milan, where 
 the married clergy could bring the precepts 
 of St. Ambrose and the example of some 
 of his successors to sustain their course. 
 
 The ruling spirit of the papal court at 
 this time Avas Hildebrand, a Tuscan monk, 
 who from an obscure position had raised 
 himself by the force of his own genius to 
 the post of Archdeacon of Rome. A man 
 of unbending w'ill and profound ambition, 
 he conceived at an early day a plan which 
 aimed not only at reforming the church of 
 the abuses which pervaded it, but of render- 
 ing the ecclesiastical independent of and 
 superior to the civil power. "To this end 
 he laid down two main rules, one that the 
 clergy might not marry, the other that no 
 temporal prince should bestow any ecclesi- 
 astical benefice, as was theii commonly done 
 in Germany, England, and most parts of 
 Europe." That Gregory sincerely desired 
 to bring the church back to its ancient pu- 
 rity, none may doubt, and in this work he 
 
DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VII. 449 
 
 merits and should receive the gratitude of 
 all good men. His error was that he was 
 not satisfied with this reformation, but 
 strove to make the civil power of all Eu- 
 rope subject to the will of the Bishop of 
 Rome, and to exalt the clergy, with the 
 pope at their head, into a superior and sep- 
 arate body from other men, and to place 
 them above, and free them from, all obedi- 
 ence to the civil law, exempt them from 
 taxation, and make them, in short, depend- 
 ent solely upon the pope for their guidance 
 and control. These facts should not be 
 forgotten in considering his career. 
 
 During the reigns of Leo IX. and his suc- 
 cessors, a period of more than twenty years, 
 Hildebrand was the ruling spirit of the Ro- 
 man court. His haughty and aggressive 
 policy pervaded the acts of these pontiffs, 
 and foreshadowed the bold career he had 
 marked out for himself when he became, 
 as he meant to be, pope. While only Arch- 
 deacon of Rome he began his reforms, 
 wisely seeking first to constitute the clergy 
 a compact and harmonious body dependent 
 solely upon the Roman see. In the name 
 of Stephen X. he gave orders for the mar- 
 ried priests to be displaced and separated 
 from their wives, and exerted himself to 
 stir up the populace against the offending 
 clergy, a task in which he was so successful 
 that in some cases the mob put the objects 
 of their fanatical wrath to death. The vir- 
 tues of celibacy were held up to popular 
 admiration, and Hildebrand's invectives 
 against marriage and his praises of the sanc- 
 tity of a single life were listened to with 
 delight. " The secular clergy were forced 
 to adopt the unsocial and demoralizing 
 principles of their monkish rivals ; and 
 when all family affections were made sinful, 
 and the feelings of the pastor concentrated 
 on the interests of his profession, the popes 
 had secured, in the whole body of the 
 church, the unlimited obedience and blind 
 support which had hitherto been the charac- 
 teristic of the monastic orders." Through 
 the reigns of the several successors of Leo 
 IX., Hildebrand, who managed with unerr- 
 ing skill to make himself the confidential 
 adviser, and in reality the guide and master 
 of each, pursued with unwavering firmness 
 the carefully matured plan by which he in- 
 tended to increase and consolidate the power 
 of the papacy. Nor can we regard him as 
 wholly disinterested in this work. From 
 the first his eye apjiears to have been fixed 
 upon the chair of St. Peter, and each step 
 
 he took brought him nearer to it. He did 
 not aspire to be simply Bishop of Rome ; 
 he meant as pope to give laws to the 
 world. 
 
 In A. D. 1073 Hildebrand was elected 
 pope, and took the name of Gregory VII. 
 He was the greatest of the Roman pontiffs, 
 and it was not long before he struck a decisive 
 blow at the abuse which he had not been 
 able to reach in his subordinate station. In 
 France and Germany the bishops were 
 either nominated or confirmed by the sover- 
 eign, and in England by the Pai-liament. 
 The parish priests and other clergy received 
 
 GKEGOKY VII. 
 
 their positions from the nobles. The cere- 
 mony by which these oflfices were bestowed 
 was called Investiture. The practice often 
 led to the purchase of the offices with mo- 
 ney, and their bestowal upon persons unfit 
 to hold them. Gregory Avas resolved to put 
 a stop to this practice, which he denounced 
 as simony, but as more than half the lauds 
 in Germany had been granted to church- 
 men as feudal fiefs, it was evident that to at- 
 tempt to make these independent of tlie 
 king would strike a terrible blow at the 
 sovereign. Nevertheless the pope did not 
 shrink from it, as it was the first step in 
 the task by which he meant to bring the 
 emperor to his feet. 
 
450 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The German throne was filled at this 
 time by Henry IV., then twenty-three years 
 of age. He was a prince of great talents 
 and of a naturally noble character, but his 
 education had been defective, and his guar- 
 dian, Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, a 
 gay, easy-going prelate, had allowed him to 
 tall into evil ways, and had trained him to 
 distrust the dukes to such an extent that by 
 the time of Gregory's elevation, the greater 
 number of these princes were in open re- 
 volt. The father of Henry had treated the 
 pope as his dependent, and had raised no 
 fewer than four Germans successively to the 
 papal throne. Upon his death, however, 
 and during the minority of Henry IV., 
 Hildebrand had so directed the policy of 
 the Roman see as to make it practically in- 
 dependent of the emperor, and the German 
 clergy, inspired from Rome, had shown so 
 ranch hostility to him, that Henry had be- 
 come greatly prejudiced against them. 
 
 Gregory waited two years before break- 
 ing with the king. In A. D. 1075 he ad- 
 dressed to him a haughty and imperious 
 letter, commanding him to abstain from 
 simony, and to discontinue the practice of 
 investiture by the ring and cross. These, 
 he claimed, were the signs of spiritual dig- 
 nity, and their bestowal was inherent in the 
 pope. Gregory had chosen his opportunity 
 sagaciously, for Henry was engaged in a 
 hard struggle with the Saxons, who were in 
 revolt. In this emergency he promised to 
 comply with the pope's demand, but, upon 
 putting down the Saxon rebellion, refused 
 to be bound by his promise. The pope 
 summoned him to Rome to be tried for his 
 crimes, and he answered by convening a 
 synod of German bishops at Worms in 
 1076, and deposing Gregory. The pope 
 then solemnly excommunicated the king, 
 and declared him deprived of his crown 
 and his subjects released from their alle- 
 giance to him, and proclaimed it a crime for 
 any one to render him the slightest assist- 
 ance. Thus began the famous " war of the 
 investitures." 
 
 Henry had alienated all classes of his 
 subjects by his harsh treatment of them, 
 and they promptly rose against him, glad 
 to cloak their hatred of him under the 
 guise of zeal for religion. The pope ener- 
 getically fomented the rebellion, and in the 
 end Henry was obliged to yield. In mid- 
 winter he crossed the Alps, and presented 
 himself at the gates of the Castle of Ca- 
 xiossa, where the pope was then sojourning 
 
 with his devoted friend, the Countess Ma- 
 tilda. Gregory refused at first to receive 
 the king, who had come to throw himself 
 upon his mercy, and his Christian charity 
 exhibited itself in allowing Henry to re- 
 main barefooted in the snow and without 
 food in the outer court of the castle for 
 three days and nights. When at length he 
 consented to receive him, he would only 
 promise that the king should be tried with 
 justice for his "crimes," and if found inno- 
 cent should be restored to his throne, but 
 if proved guilty should be punished with 
 the utmost severity of the ecclesiastical 
 law, A. D. 1077. 
 
 The pride of the Germans revolted 
 against the unheard-of indignity with which 
 their sovereign was treated, and they rallied 
 to his support, and enabled him to inflict a. 
 decisive defeat upon Rudolph of Suabia^ 
 who had been encouraged by the pope ta 
 head the rebellion against him. The war 
 now went on with unremitting vigor. The 
 chief ally of the pope in Italy was the Coun- 
 1?ess Matilda of Tuscany. Her first husband, 
 the Duke of Lower Lorraine, had been a 
 staunch supporter of the emperor, but after 
 his death, in A. D. 1076, she retained the 
 government of Tuscany, the greatest of the 
 Italian fiefs, in her own hands, and conse- 
 crated her wealth and army to the service 
 of the pope. Lombardy, and especially 
 Milan and Ravenna, remained faithful to 
 Henry, for the poj^e was not so much rev- 
 erenced in Italy as he was in Germany. 
 The monks and clergy everywhere sustained 
 the pope as the champion of their order 
 against the secular power, and he had an- 
 other element of strength in the sympathy 
 of the common people, who beheld in him 
 one sprung from themselves, endeavoring, 
 as they wrongly believed, to relieve them 
 of the oppression of the great. The im- 
 perial party regarded the pope simply as 
 the first subject of the emperor, invested by 
 him with his bishopric and its possessions, 
 and in support of their view they cited the 
 examples of Otto the Great and Henry III., 
 who had judged, deposed, and appointed 
 popes. The clerical party claimed that 
 the pope was above all earthly sov- 
 ereigns, as things spiritual were above 
 things temporal, and reminded their op- 
 ponents that it was the coronation by the 
 pope which could alone make a German 
 king Augustus. 
 
 The true cause of Henry's weakness was 
 the discontent which his tyranny had caused 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. TO THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 451 
 
 in Germany. The discontented nobles now 
 chose Rudolph of Suabia emperor, and after 
 defeating Henry at Miilhausen, Rudolph 
 was crowned by Gregory, Henry there- 
 upon set up an antipope in the person of 
 Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna. Rally- 
 ing from his reverse, Henry overthrew Ru- 
 dolph, who was slain, A. D. 1080, and then 
 turned his arms against the pope. Enter- 
 ing Italy he was received with great joy in 
 Lombardy. The Countess Matilda en- 
 deavored to stay his march, but her army 
 was defeated near Mantua, and Florence, 
 her capital, was threatened by the king. 
 Advancing to Rome, Henry laid siege to 
 the city, and continued it for three years, 
 retiring every summer to avoid the heat, 
 and returning again in the winter. The 
 Eastern emperor, whose dominions were in- 
 vaded by the Norman, Robert Guiscard, 
 who was an ally of the pope, made a league 
 with Henry, and supplied him largely with 
 money. The absence of Robert Guiscard 
 in the East deprived Gregory of his ablest 
 champion, and allowed Henry to work his 
 will in Italy. The imperial troops overran 
 Tuscany, and many of the adherents of the 
 Countess Matilda deserted the papal cause. 
 Henry carried the Leonine city (the Vati- 
 can quarter) and forced the pope to take 
 refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo. At 
 length the city proper opened its gates to the 
 Germans, who took possession of it, and on 
 Palm Sunday, A. D. 1084, Guibert, Henry's 
 pope, was consecrated Avith the title of 
 Clement III. After his consecration he 
 crowned Henry Emperor of the Romans. 
 Gregoiy, secure in the imjiregnable fortress 
 of St. Angelo, still held out against Henry, 
 and at length help came to him. Robert 
 Guiscard, returning from the East, ad- 
 vanced towards Rome with a large army, 
 of which the Saracens of Sicily, who wei"e 
 the subjects of his brother Roger, formed a 
 large part. The emperor withdrew from 
 the city upon the approach of the Nomuan 
 leader, who entered Rome without opposi- 
 tion, A. D. 1084. A tumult broke out 
 among the citizens, and so enraged the Nor- 
 mans that they gave the city up to pillage. 
 It was remorselessly sacked, and the Coelian 
 quarter was destroyed by fire. The Nor- 
 mans conducted Gregory to the citadel of 
 Salerno, where he died in A. D. 1085, using 
 his last breath to utter curses upon the Em- 
 peror Henry, and protesting that he died in 
 exile because he had " loved righteousness 
 and hated iniquity " — to so great an extent 
 
 can men, even in the supreme moment of 
 death, deceive themselves. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. TO 
 THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 
 
 Arrogant Claim of the Pope— Henry V. Defeats 
 Pope Paschal II. — Is Crowned Emperor — Death 
 of the Countess Matilda — Her Bequest to the 
 Pope — Settlement of the Question of Investitures 
 — Gains for the Germans — The Independence of 
 the Papacy Secured — Quarrels of the Italian 
 Cities — The Guelfs and the Ghibellines — Arnold 
 of Brescia — Barbarossa Emperor — Puts Down the 
 Revolt in Northern Italy — Jlilan Submits — Re- 
 newal of the War — The Lombard League — Defeat 
 of the Emperor at Alexandria — Treaty of Con- 
 stance—Gains of the Lombard Cities — ^Their In- 
 crease in Political Importance — Establishment of 
 the Venetian Influence in the East — War Between 
 the Pope and Otto II. — Henry II. Emperor — His 
 Quarrel with Pojie Gregory IX. — Excommunica- 
 tion of the Emperor — His Crusade — War with the 
 Pope — Blasphemous Claim of Innocent IV. — 
 Alarms the Sovereigns of Europe — The Pope Re- 
 fuses to be Reconciled to the Emperor — Death of 
 Frederick II.— Decline of the Imperial Power in 
 Italy — Charles of Anjou Made King of Sicily by 
 the Pope — Defeats Manfred — Gregory X. — The 
 French in Sicily — Their Tyranny — Revolt of the 
 People — The Sicilian Vesjjers — Massacre of the 
 French — Establishment of the Inquisition. 
 
 HE death of Gregory did not end 
 the struggle which he began. His 
 successors continued his policy, the 
 true character of which is shown 
 in his published declaration: 
 "There is but one name in the 
 world, and that is the jiope's. He only 
 can use the ornaments of empire. All 
 princes ought to kiss his feet. He alone 
 can nominate or displace bishops and as- 
 semble or dissolve councils. Nobody can 
 judge him. His mere election constitutes 
 him a saint. He has never erred, and 
 never shall err in time to come. He can 
 depose princes, and release subjects from 
 their oaths of fidelity." The successors of 
 Gregory stirred up enemies against Henry 
 in his own household, in the end drove him 
 to a miserable death, and not content with 
 this, refused him Christian burial. 
 
 The wrongs of Henry IV. were to a cer- 
 tain extent avenged by his son and succes- 
 sor, Henry V., notwithstanding the fact 
 that Hemy had been aided by Pope Pas- 
 chal II. in his unjustifiable rebellion against 
 his father. Entering Italy with a large 
 army, in 1111, he overran the country, and 
 threw Pope Paschal II. into prison, and 
 only released him on his promise to crown 
 
452 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 him emperor, and to resign the investiture 
 of all bishops and abbots in the empire. 
 Upon the death of the Countess Matilda 
 she left her large territories to the pope, 
 but the emperor claimed them, and took 
 possession of Tuscany, and held it until his 
 death. The popes, however, did not sur- 
 render their claims to the dominions of the 
 Countess Matilda, though unable to main- 
 tain them. 
 
 At length, in 1122, the question of inves- 
 titures was decided. A concordat, or treaty, 
 was entered into at Worms between the 
 emperor and the pope, by which the emperor 
 surrendered the right of investiture by ring 
 and staff, and granted the right of free 
 election to the clergy, while the pope con- 
 sented that the temporal possessions of the 
 German Church should be received from 
 the emperor, a concession which made the 
 German a National Church. The ring and 
 crozier, the symbols of spiritual authority, 
 were to be conferred by the pope alone. 
 The loss of the emperor was a gain for the 
 German king ; but the greatest gain of all 
 was that of the pope, Avho became indepen- 
 dent of the emperor in all things, while the 
 emperor still received his crown from the 
 hands of the pope. The independence thus 
 gained was the sure stepping-stone to papal 
 supremacy. 
 
 One of the chief results of the war of in- 
 vestitures was the growth of the Italian 
 cities in importance and freedom from con- 
 trol. The first eflTect of this growth was to 
 cause them to engage in numberless quar- 
 rels with each other, but, as we shall see, 
 they afterwards made common cause against 
 the emperor. At the first, northern Italy 
 was divided into two great parties by the 
 long feud between Milan and Pavia. Milan 
 was successful, and became the acknowl- 
 edged leader of Lombardy early in the 
 twelfth century. Florence, which was now 
 ruled by consuls, and had become a repub- 
 lic, rose into prominence, and began to ex- 
 tend its territory during the first half of this 
 century. Many noble families were com- 
 pelled by force to become citizens of the new 
 republic. Pisa continued her career of pros- 
 perity ; Lucca was forced to make peace, 
 and the Pisans captured the island of Ma- 
 jorca from the Mohammedan pirates. In 
 the struggle with Lucca, Florence took 
 part as the ally of Pisa. 
 
 Upon the death of Henry V., the Saxon 
 Duke Lothaire was made king by the Ger- 
 man electors, and was supported by the 
 
 Guelfs or Welfs, the reigning family of Ba- 
 varia. Lothaire died in 1188, after a reign 
 of three years, and his rival, Conrad of 
 Hohenstaufen, became king. The Welfs 
 were partisans of the pope ; the Hohen- 
 staufen were opposed to the papal party in 
 Germany, and were the champions of impe- 
 rial law and order. The Welfs possessed 
 not only the duchies of Saxony and Bava- 
 ria in Germany, but also the large hereditary 
 estates of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany. 
 In the struggle which ensued their war-cry 
 was their family name, " Welf," while their 
 enemies shouted " Waiblingen," the name 
 of a village which was the home of the Ho- 
 henstaufen family. Though these names 
 belonged to Germany, they were soon 
 adopted in Italy to distinguish the partisans 
 of the pope and the emperor, and in their 
 Italian form became " Guelf" and " Ghib- 
 elline." 
 
 The papacy meanwhile had been divided 
 between Innocent II. and Anacletus, the 
 antipope, but Innocent had triumphed over 
 his rival, "who was removed by death about 
 1139. Upon the accession of Conrad III. 
 to the German throne. Innocent endeavored 
 to strengthen himself by a close alliance 
 with King Roger of Sicily, who was so " 
 formidable an adversary that both emperors, 
 Manuel and Conrad, formed a league against 
 him. In Rome itself, the authority of the 
 pope was for a while set at naught by the 
 people, who, influenced by the stex'n denun- 
 ciations of priestly ambition by a monk 
 named Arnold of Brescia, threw ofl^ the rule 
 of their bishop, and set up a senate and a 
 patrician named Giordano. 
 
 Conrad III. died before he could inter- 
 fere in these affairs, and was succeeded by 
 his nephew, Frederick Barbarossa, w'ho 
 came into Italy in 1154, and at a great 
 diet held at Roncaglia received the submis- 
 sion of all the Italian states. Frederick 
 came with both the intention and the power 
 to restore the imperial authority, and he 
 proceeded at once to do so. Complaints 
 were made to him by the enemies of Milan, 
 and as that city had deeply offended him 
 by denying his authority and refusing the 
 supplies which as emperor he was entitled 
 to, he decided against Milan. Tortona, an 
 ally of Milan, being also accused, shared the 
 same condemnation. He destroyed Asti 
 and Chieri, and took and burnt Tortona, 
 the allies of Milan. He spared the lives 
 of the inhabitants, and they took refuge in 
 the last-named city. He then proceeded to 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VIL TO THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 453 
 
 Rome, where he was crowned emperor by 
 Pope Adrian IV. By authority of the 
 emperor, Arnold of Brescia was put to 
 death, and Rome was once more placed 
 under the rule of the pope. Milan was 
 obliged to submit to the emperor, who 
 placed the imperial eagle on the spire of its 
 cathedral, in token of his supremacy. In 
 a little while, however, the pope and the 
 emperor began to quarrel over the territo- 
 ries of the Countess Matilda, and this mis- 
 understanding soon grew into an effort on 
 the part of the pope to strip the emperor of 
 all his rights over Rome and his Italian 
 possessions. Upon the death of Adrian 
 IV., in 1159, two popes were elected — 
 Alexander III. by the papal party, and 
 Victor IV. by the imperialist party. Each 
 pope excommunicated his rival and his fol- 
 lowers, and all Christendom was divided 
 into two parties. Alexander III. Avas more 
 genei'ally acknowledged, and a war which 
 now broke out between the emperor and the 
 Lombard cities enabled him to make a 
 stout resistance to his formidable enemy — 
 Frederick. 
 
 The submission of Milan to the emperor 
 was only temporary. In the year of the 
 death of Pope Adrian, 1159, Milan rebelled, 
 and Frederick marched against it in person, 
 and after taking Crema, the ally of the Mil- 
 anese, and destroying it, compelled Milan 
 to surrender. The lives of the citizens were 
 spared, but the city itself was utterly de- 
 stroyed. The fall of Milan broke the re- 
 sistance of northern Italy, and made Rome 
 an unsafe place for Pope Alexander. Sicily 
 was so torn with violence and civil strife 
 that it no longer offered the pontiff his ac- 
 customed asylum, and he fled into France, 
 where he remained three years. During 
 this period Victor, the antipope, died, and 
 his place was filled by Guido of Crema, who 
 took the name of Paschal III. Events in 
 Germany kept the emperor there, and Alex- 
 ander took advantage of this to return to 
 Rome, A. D. 1165. 
 
 The enemies of the emperor, comprising 
 the cities of the Veronese march and the 
 whole Guelfic party, now rallied around 
 Pope Alexander. Even Cremona and other 
 cities which had formerly opposed Milan, 
 joined the alliance against the emperor, 
 which was definitely organized in 1167 
 under the name of the " Lombard League." 
 The power of the emperor was seriously 
 threatened by this combination, and about 
 the same time the Eastern Emperor Manuel 
 
 obtained a footing in Italy, and won over 
 Ancona. Frederick promptly took the 
 field against his enemies, and after vainly 
 attempting to capture Ancona, marched 
 upon Rome. The pope fled at once, but 
 the advantage of Frederick was neutralized 
 by the breaking out of a pestilence in his 
 army, which forced him to retreat in haste. 
 In 1174 he endeavored to capture the new 
 Guelfic city of Alexandria, near Pavia, but 
 after a siege of seven months was obliged 
 by the army of the league to withdraw. In 
 1176 he was defeated at Legnano, about 
 fifteen miles from Pavia. The defeat was 
 brought about chiefly by the withdrawal of 
 Henry, Duke of Saxony, the head of the 
 Guelfic party. The empei'or escaped with 
 difficulty from the field. This battle de- 
 cided the war, and a truce was soon arranged 
 at Venice by which Frederick and Pope 
 Alexander were reconciled. Alexander was 
 acknowledged as pope by the emperor, who 
 was allowed to retain the territories of the 
 Countess Matilda until his death, when they 
 were to revert to the pope. The truce was 
 for six years, but upon its expiration, in 
 1183, a permanent peace was arranged at 
 Constance, a city of Suabia. By this treaty 
 the emperor " ceded to the towns all rights 
 within their walls ; he allowed them to ad- 
 minister their own la\vs, and to make peace 
 and war on their own account ; he retained 
 the ancient regalian rights (the right to 
 food, quarters, and clothing for his army 
 when in the territory of these cities), but 
 they were defined, and precautions allowed 
 against future disputes ; he allowed the 
 consuls to be retained, but they were nomi- 
 nally invested by him, and each city was to 
 admit an imperial judge of appeal." By 
 these provisions the Lombard cities became 
 virtually independent, while at the same 
 time they continued to form a part of the 
 empire. Left to themselves, they became 
 the chosen resorts of great men, and the 
 nurseries of science and art. The removal 
 of the imperial rule, however, left them di- 
 vided and arrayed against each other, with 
 no powder capable of harmonizing their 
 quarrels. 
 
 Frederick after this gained another ad- 
 vantage over the pope. The Norman King 
 of Sicily had been the most faithful ally of 
 the pontiff. The emperor married his son 
 Henry to Constance, the daughter of King 
 Roger, who, on the death of William II., 
 the reigning king, who had no children, 
 would be the direct heir to the Sicilian 
 
454 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 crown. After some disputes Henry, who 
 had in the meantime succeeded his father, 
 became King of Sicily, in right of his wife, 
 in 1194. He treated his new subjects with 
 such cruelty, and so disgusted the Italians 
 with his tyranny, that they hailed his death 
 in 1197 with joy. Previous to his death 
 Henry had made his German followers 
 counts of various territories in Italy, and 
 had bestowed Tuscany upon his brother 
 Philip. Upon the death of the emperor, 
 the pope revived the Lombard League, 
 placed himself at its head, and drove the 
 Germans into the south of Italy. Con- 
 stance, the widow of Henry, acknowledged 
 the pope as her feudal lord. She died in 
 1198, and left Pope Innocent III. the guar- 
 dian of her infant son Frederick. The 
 Germans, under the Regent Markwald, 
 kept Sicily in a state of confusion, and gave 
 great trouble to the pope. 
 
 In the dispute over the empire, which fol- 
 lowed the death of the Emperor Henry VI., 
 the Ghibelline party in Italy supported the 
 claims of his brother Philip, while the 
 Guelfs sustained those of Otto, the son of 
 Henry the Lion. The house of Bavaria 
 had always supported the church against 
 the emperor, and Pope Innocent III. natu- 
 rally desired its triumph. Philip was suc- 
 cessful, but he was soon after assassinated, 
 and in 1209 Otto received the imperial 
 crown. This secured the triumph of the 
 Guelfs. 
 
 Since the close of the war with the em- 
 peror Frederick Barbarossa, the cities of 
 northern Italy had been improving their 
 systems of self-government. As has been 
 remarked, they became practically indepen- 
 dent states, with full rights, including those 
 of making war and concluding peace ; but 
 at the same time they remained parts of 
 the empire. Their increase in political 
 power and importance brought about a cor- 
 responding depression of the nobles, who 
 found themselves unable to continue their 
 former system of aggression against these 
 communities. The cities were now in a 
 condition to defend themselves, and to com- 
 bine for their mutual protection, while the 
 nobles were divided and without either a 
 common head or a common cause. The 
 great princes remained in their previous 
 condition, but the weaker nobles now 
 sought to preserve their importance by en- 
 rolling themselves among the citizens of the 
 towns which overshadowed them. Their 
 military prowess made them useful to the 
 
 cities in time of war, but in peace their 
 feuds and violence gave great trouble to 
 these communities. They often set the law 
 at defiance, and erected strong edifices in 
 the cities in which they could resist the 
 power of the magistrates. To curb them 
 the cities appointed a chief magistrate called 
 a podesta, who held office for a year, and 
 enforced the laws against all classes. The 
 nobles gave the podestas a great deal of 
 trouble to keep them in order. 
 
 Venice had taken but little active part 
 in Italian affairs up to the opening of this 
 century. The necessities of the warriors of 
 the Fourth Crusade, which forced them to 
 go to Venice to obtain the shipping requis- 
 ite for their transportation to the Holy 
 Land, threw a golden chance into the 
 hands of the Venetians for increasing their 
 wealth and power, of which they skilfully 
 availed themselves. As has been stated, 
 the Venetians made use of the crusaders to 
 obtain possession of some towns on the Dal- 
 matian coast, especially that of Zara. The 
 conquest of Constantinople by the Latins 
 added very much to the wealth of the Ital- 
 ian cities, especially to that of Venice, 
 which city, having borne a prominent part 
 in the capture of that capital, received a 
 considerable share of the lands of the East- 
 ern empire, and especially many islands 
 and places on the sea-coast. The Genoese 
 divided the trade of the Levant with the 
 Venetians, but could not deprive them of 
 their supremacy in that quarter. The Gen- 
 oese rendered the Nicean Emperor Michael 
 Palseologus great assistance in his recon- 
 quest of Constantinople, and expected to 
 receive from him the monopoly of the trade 
 of the East ; but he was neither willing nor 
 able to disturb the Venetian or Pisan 
 traders. 
 
 Soon after becoming emperor. Otto IV. 
 changed Pope Innocent from a friend to an 
 enemy by claiming as his right the sover- 
 eignty of the territories of the Countess 
 Matilda, and of the kingdom of Sicily. 
 Innocent took advantage of the emperor's 
 unpopularity with the German princes who 
 supported the Suabian house, to encourage 
 them to offer the imperial crown to Fred- 
 erick, the young King of Sicily. The state 
 of affairs which ensued was singular enough. 
 In the war which now opened the pope was 
 the ally of the Ghibellines, and Otto, the 
 head of the Guelfic party, was his antagon- 
 ist. Otto was finally defeated in the battle 
 of Bouvines, in 1214, and was soon obliged 
 
FB03I THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. TO THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 455 
 
 to retire to private life, and in 1215 Fred- 
 erick II. was crowned king at Aix la 
 diapelle. In 1216 Pope Innocent III., 
 who had contributed in a marked degree to 
 the increase of the power of the see of 
 Kome, died. The next year Otto IV. 
 <lied, and Frederick II. was left without a 
 rival to dispute his claim. In 1220 he 
 went to Rome to be crowned emperor by 
 Pope Honorius III. A large part of his 
 history concerns itself with Italian affairs, 
 and not unnaturally. Though of German 
 descent, he was a Sicilian by birth, and he 
 was thus endowed by nature with certain 
 qualities and habits of mind which did not 
 belong to his Teutonic blood. He had been 
 carefully educated, and had even sought 
 knowledge at the hands of Mohammedan 
 teachers, and his acquirements and depth 
 of thought placed him far in advance of his 
 time. He was a man of liberal views, and 
 his southern training had inclined him to a 
 liberality about religious matters especially 
 which the churchmeu regarded as down- 
 right irreligion. He was not undeservedly 
 named the " Wonder of the World." He 
 early learned to hate the pojie with a bitter 
 hatred, and this feeling in the end was the 
 cause of much trouble to him. 
 
 The first years of his reign were the hap- 
 piest. In his own kingdom of Sicily he 
 was free to carry out his own polic}^ and it 
 enjoyed under him a security and prosperity 
 which his predecessors had failed to confer 
 upon it. He established the reign of law, 
 and compelled the nobles to submit to it, 
 thus securing protection to the weak ; and 
 he encouraged learning and art by founding 
 the University of Naples and assisting those 
 of Bologna and Salerno. During his reign 
 the Italian language began to assume its 
 modern form. 
 
 The good understanding between the 
 emperor and the Holy See was soon dis- 
 turbed. Frederick had promised Pope 
 Honorius to lead a crusade for the recovery 
 of Jerusalem, as the price of his coronation 
 as emperor. The emperor delayed his de- 
 parture longer than the pope desired, and 
 Honorius assumed the right to censure him 
 for his tardiness. Gregory IX., the succes- 
 sor of Honorius, pursued a similar course, 
 and in 1227 Frederick was excommunicated 
 by the pope for venturing to fall sick at the 
 time the pontiff expected him to set sail for 
 Palestine. He treated the excommunica- 
 tion with utter contempt, and this so en- 
 raged Gregory that in 1228 he threatened 
 
 the emperor with still more severe penalties. 
 There Avas a strong party in Rome who 
 were devoted to the emperor through grati- 
 tude for his generous assistance of them in 
 a time of famine, and these, indignant at 
 the pope's unjustifiable course, rose against 
 him and compelled him to quit Rome. 
 
 The pope, who had excommunicated the 
 emperor for his delay in not setting out on 
 the crusade just when he was ordered, now 
 attempted to prevent him from sailing when 
 all Avas in readiness ; but Frederick paid no 
 attention to his mandate, and proceeded on 
 his voyage to Palestine, where he arrived 
 in September, 1228. The hatred of Gregory 
 followed him even there, and .arrayed the 
 Hospitallers and Templars and the ecclesi- 
 astics against him. The two military 
 orders absolutely refused to fight under 
 him, and grossly insulted him. In spite of 
 this, however, he proceeded to the work be- 
 fore him, seized Jaffa, and induced the Sul- 
 tan of Egypt, with whom he had long been 
 on friendly terms, to surrender to him the 
 city of Jerusalem. This accomplished, he 
 proceeded to Jerusalem to complete his 
 pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre. " The 
 emperor had not arrived in Jerusalem,'* 
 says Milman, " before the Archbishop of 
 Csesarea appeared with instructions from 
 the Patriai'ch of Jerusalem to declare 
 him under excommunication, and to place 
 the city of Jerusalem under the ban. Evea 
 the sepulchre of the Lord was under inter- 
 dict; the prayers of the pilgrims even in 
 that holiest place were forbidden or de- 
 clared unholy. No Christian rite could be 
 celebrated before the Christian emperor, and 
 that disgrace was inflicted in the face of all 
 the Mohammedans! Immediately on his 
 arrival the emperor visited the Church of 
 the Holy Sepulchre. The church was 
 silent; not a priest appeared; during his 
 stay no mass was celebrated within the city 
 or in the suburbs. An English Dominican, 
 named Walter, performed one solitary ser- 
 vice on the morning of the Sunday. Fred- 
 erick proceeded again in great pomp and in 
 all his imperial apparel to the Church of 
 the Sepulchre. No prelate, no priest of the 
 Church of Jerusalem was there who ven- 
 tured to utter a blessing. The Archbishops 
 of Palermo and of Capua were present, but 
 seem to have taken no part in the ceremony. 
 The imperial crown was placed on the high 
 altar. Frederick took it up and with his 
 own hands placed it on his head." 
 
 Returning to Europe in 1229, Frederick 
 
456 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 found that the pope had revived the Lom- 
 bard League against him, and was even 
 endeavoring to stir up against him a cru- 
 sade of all Euro]3e. This attempt was un- 
 successful, however, and in 1230 a peace 
 
 dinary power claimed by the priests of the 
 Romish Church. Gregory, jealous of the 
 great influence of Frederick in Italy, soon 
 brought on another war with him by in- 
 ducing the people of Milan to encourage 
 
 FREDERICK II. REFUSED ADMISSION TO THE HOLY SEPULCHRE. 
 
 known as the Treaty of San Germano was 
 signed between the emperor, the pope, and 
 the Lombard League. Frederick then 
 gave his assistance to the pope in persecut- 
 ing the religious sect known as the Paterini, 
 which had ventured to dispute the extraor- 
 
 the emperor's son Henry, King of the 
 Romans, to rebel against his father. The 
 emperor quickly suppressed this revolt and 
 put his son in prison, where he died. A 
 new quarrel now arose in northern Italy, 
 where the oppressions of Eccelino da Ro* 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. TO THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 457 
 
 mano, the leader of the imperial party, 
 drove the Guelfic party in Padua, Vicenza, 
 and Verona into resistance, Milan arrayed 
 itself on the Guelfic side. In 1237 Fred- 
 erick entered Italy, and defeated the Milan- 
 ese at the battle of Corte Nuova. He cap- 
 tured the podesta of the city, who was a son 
 of the Doge of Venice, and put him to death 
 for his rebellion. This execution so enraged 
 the Venetians that they joined the Lombard 
 League against the emperor. Genoa also 
 embraced the Guelfic quarrel. Gregory 
 resorted to his old weapon of excommuni- 
 cation, and summoned a general council of 
 the church at Rome to ratify it ; but 
 through the capture by the Pisans of the 
 Genoese fleet bearing the French and Eng- 
 lish bishops, some of whom were drowned 
 and others made prisoners in the engage- 
 ment, the council failed to accomplish any- 
 thing. In 1241 Gregory IX. died. 
 
 Innocent IV., who became pope in 1243, 
 was a bitter personal enemy of the emperor. 
 Frederick at once acknowledged him as 
 pope and made offers looking to a reconcil- 
 iation. Innocent, however, being deter- 
 mined to crush Frederick, would accept no 
 settlement of the quarrel but the uncondi- 
 tional submission of the emperor, and in 
 order to place himself beyond the reach of 
 the emperor, fled from Rome and took 
 refuge in the free city of Lyons, which was 
 not yet a part of the kingdom of France. 
 The arrogance of the pope, and, above all, 
 the bitter and cruel hatred which he exhib- 
 ited towards the emperor, disgusted the 
 great princes of Europe, and even the 
 saintly Louis IX. refused to allow him to 
 take up his residence within the French 
 dominions. The King of Arragon in cour- 
 teous terms declined the dangerous honor 
 of receiving the pope in his dominions, and 
 when the King of England was appealed to 
 for this purpose, the blunt Henry III., who 
 had only a little while before dismissed the 
 papal legate at the dejnand of the barons, 
 with the hearty adjuration, "The devil 
 take thee away to hell!" exclaimed: "We 
 have already suffered too much from the 
 usuries and simonies of Rome ; Ave do not 
 want the pope to pillage us." The crowned 
 heads of Europe were alarmed by the grow- 
 ing power and the ungovernable ambition 
 of the pontiff", who claimed absolute author- 
 ity over all the kingdoms of the world, to 
 set up and pull down whom he pleased, and 
 whose claims were well expressed by the 
 remark of Innocent IV. : " We are no mere 
 
 man ; we have the place of God upon 
 earth!" ISTor did Innocent content him- 
 self with merely asserting his pretensions. 
 He was prompt to enforce them by the 
 power of the sword. Compelled by the 
 coldness of the great powers to remain at 
 Lyons, Innocent summoned a council at 
 that city, which met in June, 1245, but 
 which was very far from representing the 
 whole church. The pope accused the em- 
 peror of many crimes of the most serious 
 nature. Frederick was ably and fearlessly 
 defended by the learned jurisconsult Thad- 
 deus of Suessa ; but the hatred of Innocent 
 prevailed over every form of law and jus- 
 tice recognized by the church, and the 
 emperor was again excommunicated, the 
 empire was declared vacant, the pope w^as 
 urged to appoint a new king for Sicily, and 
 the princes of Germany were ordered to 
 elect a new emperor. When the decision 
 of the council was made known to Fred- 
 erick, he exclaimed haughtily : " I hold my 
 crown of God alone ; neither the pope, the 
 council, nor the devil shall rend it from 
 me!" 
 
 The struggle which now ensued was 
 desperate and infuriated. The emperor's 
 enemies engaged in jilots against his life, 
 and he was nowhere safe. No weapon 
 seemed too insignificant, no plot too base to 
 receive the sanction of the pope. Fred- 
 erick's better nature was overcome by this 
 mode of warfare against him, and he be- 
 came suspicious and cruel. His supporters 
 did him much harm with the people of 
 northern Italy by their severities, and he 
 rapidly lost ground there. The efforts of 
 the pope to find a new emperor w^ere not as 
 successful as he had hoped they would be. 
 None of the croAvned heads of Europe, nor 
 any of the great princes, would aid him in 
 his war upon Frederick by acknowledging 
 by their acceptance of the imperial crown 
 his assumed right to deprive Frederick of 
 it. At length Henry Raspe, Landgrave of 
 Thuringia, consented to become emperor, 
 and was chosen by the papal party. The 
 German cities stood firmly by Frederick, 
 and Henry died in February, 1247, of mor- 
 tification at his failure to accomplish any- 
 thing. The pope then appointed as Henry's 
 successor William of Holland, a youth 
 twenty years of age. 
 
 At first Frederick was successful. He 
 quelled the revolt in the Sicilian kingdom, 
 and threw his enemies entirely on the defen- 
 sive. The cruelties of Eccelino and the 
 
458 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 emperor's lieutenants in the north neutral- 
 ized these successes, and in 1247 Parma 
 revolted from Frederick, who was unable 
 to recapture it, though he besieged the city 
 vigorously for many months. Florence was 
 captured by his natural son Frederick, but 
 in 1249 his son Enzio was made a prisoner 
 by Bologna, and kept in captivity until the 
 close of his life. In 1250, worn out by the 
 constant struggle which the hatred and 
 ambition of Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. 
 had forced upon him in both Italy and 
 Germany, Frederick died, and so passed 
 beyond the power of his enemy. But " the 
 hatred which pursued him to the grave, 
 jxnd far beyond the grave, described him as 
 dying unreconciled to the church, miser- 
 able, deserted, conscious of the desertion of 
 all. The inexorable hatred pursued his 
 family, and -charged his son Manfred with 
 hastening his death by smothering him with 
 a pillow. By more credible accounts, he 
 died in Manfred's arms, having confessed 
 and received absolution from the faithful 
 Archbishop of Palermo." His body was 
 carried iu state to Palermo and buried in 
 a magnificent tomb. To Sicily he had 
 been always one of the wisest and best of 
 sovereigns. 
 
 The death of Frederick II. ended the 
 great power of the emperors in Italy. The 
 towns of northern Italy soon became strong 
 enough to resist the occasional efforts of the 
 German emperors to control them, and in 
 southern Italy the power of the imperial 
 crown was soon secured by other claimants. 
 Indeed the affairs of Germany occupied 
 the successors of Henry so thorouglily that 
 they were not able to give much thought 
 to Italy. 
 
 Conrad, the son of Frederick II., suc- 
 ceeded his father as King of Sicily. In 
 Germany his crown was contested by "Wil- 
 liam of Holland, the pope's emperor. Con- 
 rad left Sicily in charge of his brother 
 Manfred and went to Germany. During 
 his absence from Italy, Pope Innocent 
 stirred up a rebellion against him in Naples, 
 and offered the crown to Richard of Corn- 
 wall, brother of Henry III. of England. 
 Kichard had the good sense to refuse the 
 offer, but Henry accepted it for his son Ed- 
 mund, and the pope, who was sadly in need 
 of money, made him pay an enormous sum 
 for the empty honor. Conrad died in 1254, 
 after a hard struggle for his kingdom, and 
 was followed in the same year by his brother 
 Henry. Conrad left an infant son named 
 
 Conradin, and his brother Manfred ruled 
 the kingdom as regent for his nephew. 
 The government of Sicily being unsettled 
 and there being no emperor, the Guelfic 
 party made great gains during this period, 
 and secured once more the government of 
 Florence, from which they had been driven 
 by the younger Frederick. The Floren- 
 tines in 1254 advanced their power by the 
 capture of Vol terra and Siena and the 
 humbling of Pisa. A year or two later 
 Eccelino, who had been ruling in the Ver- 
 onese march since the death of Frederick 
 II., roused the Guelfs and many of the 
 Ghibellines against him by his cruelties. 
 He was defeated and taken prisoner in 
 1259, and died soon after. 
 
 In 1258 Manfred, who had reigned in 
 Sicily as regent for his nephew, assumed the 
 crown upon a rumor of the death of Con- 
 radin. He made a league with the Ghibel- 
 line party of Florence, and in 1260 the 
 confederate army of the Guelfs was defeated 
 at Monteaperto, on the Arbia, in conse- 
 quence of which Florence passed into the 
 hands of the Ghibellines. Manfred was 
 from this time recognized as the head of 
 the Ghibelline party in Italy; and what 
 was more, he had effectually checkmated 
 the plans of Pope Alexander IV. for the 
 transfer of the Sicilian croAvn to a foreigner 
 and the subjection of all Italy to the papal 
 authority. 
 
 Alexander died in 1261. His successor 
 was a Frenchman, who took the title of 
 Urban IV. He took no part in the dis- 
 pute between Richard, Earl of Cornwall, of 
 England, and Alfonso X. of Castile for the 
 imperial croWn, as it W'as his policy to keep 
 the empire vacant as long as possible and 
 thus continue his own importance. Neither 
 would he offer the Sicilian crown, Man- 
 fred's right to which he ^vould not acknowl- 
 edge, to either of these contestants. He 
 offered the latter crown to Louis IX. of 
 France, but that good king refused to claim 
 it. His brother Cliarles, Count of Anjou, 
 was not so conscientious, and promptly 
 accepted it when Urban offered it to him. 
 Charles was a brave and energetic man, 
 and in addition to his county of Anjou was 
 also Count of Provence by his marriage 
 with Beatrix, the heiress of that county. 
 He went to Rome, where, in 1265, he was 
 crowned by Pope Clement IV., the successor 
 of Urban. He promised to hold Sicily as 
 a fief of the Holy See, that it should revert 
 to the pope upon the failure of heirs in his 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VH. TO THE SICILIAN VESPERS. 459 
 
 family, aud that it should never be held by 
 the emperor. 
 
 Charles was obliged to conquer his new 
 kingdom, in which he had no supporters but 
 a few traitors. The pope provided him 
 with an army by proclaiming a crusade 
 against Manfred, and levying the tax 
 usually assessed upon the churchmen for 
 the j)rosecution of a holy war. A large 
 army of Frenchmen was assembled under 
 Charles, and the invasion of Sicily was 
 begun. Manfred Avas defeated aud slain in 
 a bloody battle at Grandella, near Bene- 
 veuto, and Charles quickly made himself 
 master of the kingdom. This victory 
 restored the Guelfs to power once more in 
 Florence, which city chose Charles its 
 "signor" for two years. Pisa, jealous of 
 her rival's power, joined the Ghibellines, 
 and declared young Conradin ^ 
 
 King of Sicily. This gallant 
 prince was defeated by Charles 
 in 1268, and falling into his 
 hands was beheaded by his order 
 at Naples, Soon after this, 
 Charles went on a crusade 
 against the infidels, and for two 
 years was absent from Sicily. 
 Upon his return he attempted 
 to put in execution a plan he 
 had long cherished, and which 
 was to make him master of all 
 Italy. He even aspired to the 
 imperial crown, and doubtless 
 would have succeeded had not 
 his way been barred by a new 
 and unexpected obstacle. 
 
 The new pope, Gregory X., 
 was a very different man from 
 his predecessors. He sincerely 
 desired peace and a restoration of 
 prosperity in Italy, and he was not slow to 
 perceive that the success of the ambitious 
 schemes of Charles would simply bring 
 fresh misery to the peninsula. INIoreover, 
 the predecessors of Gregory had given the 
 Sicilian crown to Charles as a protection to 
 themselves. Frederick II. had surrounded 
 the papal dominions with his territories, 
 and had thus hemmed the pope in, and they 
 meant that such a state of affairs should not 
 occur again. Gregory was true to this 
 much of their policy, and exerted himself 
 to check the plans of Charles and preserve 
 the balance of power. To this end he 
 brought back the Ghibelline exiles, and 
 compelled them for a while to live peace- 
 ably with the Guelfs. At the same time 
 
 he secured the election of Rudolph of Haps- 
 burg, the founder of the second house of 
 Austria, to the imperial throne in 1273. 
 Rudolph solemnly promised the pope not to 
 interfere with Charles in Sicily or in Tus- 
 cany. In 1277 Nicholas III. became pope. 
 He improved upon Gregory's policy by 
 compelling Charles to resign the offices of 
 vicar of Tuscany and senator of Rome, aud 
 by raising the Ghibelline power throughout 
 Italy. Having obtained the renunciation 
 by the Emperor Rudolph of his claims upon 
 Rome and the territories of the Countess 
 Matilda, the pope became a powerful terri- 
 torial sovereign, aud was able to support 
 his independent policy with arms. The 
 Ghibellines, under the Archbishop Otto 
 Visconti, came into power in Milan about 
 this time, and that city thus became an ally 
 
 STAIKS OF THK 3iul'Li:,. <_.\\A\'.\ .; i ):<•'. l,. 
 
 of the pontiff, Charles submitted with a bad 
 grace, but on the death of Nicholas he se- 
 cured the election of a Frenchman to the 
 papal throne, who took the name of Martin 
 IV. "With the new pope for his tool he 
 began a second attempt to extend his power, 
 when he was checked as suddenly as he 
 had been before. 
 
 The French had earned the bitter hatred 
 of the Sicilians by their cruel and tyranni- 
 cal treatment of them, and a conspiracy 
 was organized by the latter to transfer the 
 crown to Pedro, King of Aragon, who 
 claimed it in right of his wife, Constance, 
 the daughter of Manfred. Pedro asked the 
 aid of the Greek Emperor Michael Pakeo- 
 logus, which was promised him. The 
 
460 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 leader of the conspiracy was John di Pro- 
 cida, a Sicilian noble, who had been griev- 
 ously wronged by the French. For two 
 years the secret was preserved by the con- 
 spirators, who embraced a large part of the 
 inhabitants of the island of Sicily. Charles 
 was partially aware of his danger, and was 
 preparing to meet it, when hostilities were 
 precipitated by a chance occurrence. On 
 the 30th of March, 1082, a French soldier 
 in the suburbs of Palermo grossly insulted 
 a bride in the presence of her friends. He 
 was furiously assailed, and the cry of 
 " Death to the French " was raised. It 
 spread with lightning-like rapidity, and the 
 inhabitants of Palermo turned upon all the 
 French within their walls and put them to 
 the sword. In a few days eight thousand 
 Frenchmen were slain in various parts of 
 the island, and Sicily became an indepen- 
 dent kingdom under Pedro III., of Aragon. 
 The massacre is known as the "Sicilian Ves- 
 pers," Pope Martin declared Pedro excom- 
 municated and offered his crown to Charles of 
 Valois, the nephew of the King of Naples. 
 In 1286 Pope Martin, Charles of Anjou, 
 Philip III. of France, and Pedro III. of 
 Aragon all died. A war of tAventy years 
 followed the death of Pedro. His son, 
 Frederick, was chosen king by the Sicilians, 
 but the descendants of Charles of Anjou re- 
 tained their hold upon the mainland, with 
 Naples for their capital. They belonged 
 to the Guelfic party, while the island king- 
 dom supported the cause of the Ghibellines. 
 The thirteenth century is noted as the 
 period of the establishment of the Inquisi- 
 tion. The exact time of its creation is un- 
 certain, but it was some time during the 
 pontificate of Innocent III. It was com- 
 pletely organized at the Council of Tou- 
 louse in 1229. It continued in operation 
 in Spain, Italy, and the Spanish American 
 states until the commencement of the 
 present century, and during the six hun- 
 dred yeai's of its existence covered Europe 
 with suffering and blood. Its especial du- 
 ties were the searching out and jDunish- 
 raent of heresy. Persons accused of this 
 " crime," or suspected of it, were seized in 
 secret, immured in the dungeons of the 
 Holy Office and imprisoned for life, or 
 cruelly tortured and put to death. In 
 Spanish countries alone it inflicted its tor- 
 ments upon over half a million of sufferers, 
 of whom upwards of 32,000 were burned at 
 the stake. Its cruelties won for it the exe- 
 cration of mankind. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 Henry VII. in Italy — Rise of the Italian Republics 
 — Growth of Venice — Its Government — The Coun- 
 cil of Ten — Prosperity of Genoa — Wars with 
 Venice — The Genoese Fleet at Chioggia is Forced 
 to Surrender — Losses of Venice — Genoa Places 
 herself under French Protection — Rise of Fior- 
 ence — State of Aiiairs under the Florentine Re- 
 public — Employment of Mercenary Troops — The 
 Golden Age of Florence — Affairs in the South of 
 Italy — Robert of Sicily — Troubles at Naples— 
 The Jubilee of Pope Boniface VIII. — His Quar- 
 rel with Pliilij) the Fair — His Death — Clement 
 V. Pope — Removes from Rome to Avignon — Loss 
 of Power by the Pope — Troubles at Rome — Rienzi 
 — Becomes Tribune — His Fall and Death — Greg- 
 ory XL Returns to Rome — Election of Urban VI. 
 —Clement VII.— The Great Schism— The Plague 
 of Florence — Anarchy iu Northern Italy — Sicily 
 Becomes a Spanish Possession — Queen Joanna — 
 Alfonso of Aragon Becomes King of Naples — Rise 
 of the Medici at Florence— Political Divisions of 
 Italy at the Middle of the Fifteenth Century— The 
 Council of Constance — Martin V. Made Pope — 
 The Council of Basle — Nicolas V. Poj^e — Defends 
 the Independence of the Papacy — St. Peter's 
 Founded — The Turks in Italy — The French Ex- 
 pelled from Genoa — Cosmo de' Medici — Lorenzo 
 the Magnificent — Ludovico Sforza Becomes Duke 
 of Milan — Plots the Assassination of Lorenzo de' 
 Medici — Failure of the Attempt — The Pope Ex- 
 communicates the Florentines — Troubles at Na- 
 ples — ProsiJcrity of the Italian Republics — Death 
 of Lorenzo de' Medici — Alexander VI. Pope — His 
 Infamous Character — Csesar and Lucrezia Borgia 
 — The Pope Invites the French to Conquer 
 Naples. 
 
 'HE death of the Emperor Frederick 
 IL, and especially the interregnum, 
 closed the reign of the imperial 
 power in Italy. Though the Ger- 
 man sovereigns still retained the 
 titles of " King" and " Emperor of 
 the Romans," they were possessed of little 
 or no power in Italy. Several of Fred- 
 erick's successors were never crowned em- 
 peror, and though others visited Italy at 
 different times, and made changes in the 
 government and political divisions of that 
 country, they were never able to re-establish 
 their power in, or to retain any lasting hold 
 upon, Italy. Henry VII., who entered 
 Italy in 1310 wnth a small German army, 
 was the last of the emperors whose author- 
 ity Avas respected in that country. The 
 Pope Clement V. was a captive at Avignon, 
 and was fearful that the iufluence of France 
 would be extended over Italy and thus 
 make it impossible for him to be free from 
 the power of the French king, and he in- 
 duced the Guelfic party to receive the 
 German king with favor, while the Ghibel- 
 lines met him as their natural lord. Milan 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 461 
 
 gave him a ready welcome, and he received 
 there the iron crown of the Italian king- 
 dom on Christmas day, 1310. That city 
 was divided between the adherents of two 
 powerful nobles, Guido della Torre, the 
 leader of the Guelfs, and Matteo Visconti, 
 the leader of the Ghibellines. Each sought 
 to secure the favor of their sovereign by 
 costly presents, but Henry's demands for 
 money became so enormous, that both par- 
 ties rose against him. Matteo, however, 
 took advantage of the occasion to betray 
 his rival, and got possession of the city, 
 Avhich from this time continued to be held 
 by the Visconti. Pisa and the other cities 
 hostile to Florence received the emperor 
 with joy, but Florence shut her gates upon 
 him and made an alliance with Robert, 
 King of Naples. That king also sent a 
 garrison to Kome, and Henry, unable to 
 get into St. Peter's, was crowned emperor 
 in the church of St. John Lateran. The 
 emperor now made an alliance with the 
 island kingdom of Sicily, and marched 
 south to attack Florence, but was taken sick 
 and died on the way, August 24th, 1313. 
 He was buried at Pisa. After him no em- 
 peror received the hearty support of the 
 people of the Italian kingdom. 
 
 AVith the decline of the imperial power, 
 another change of great importance occurred 
 in northern Italy. We have seen in our 
 account of the twelfth century how the 
 principal cities became so many independent 
 commonwealths. These little common- 
 wealths during this century disappeared, 
 and larger and more important states took 
 their places by the grouping together of a 
 number of cities in a single government. Of 
 course the more powerful cities extended 
 their authority over their weaker sisters. 
 It frequently happened that the lord or 
 tyrant of one city got possession of sevei-al 
 cities, which enabled him to form them into 
 a large continuous domain. In such cases, 
 to give the color of legality to his proceed- 
 ing, he obtained from the pope, or the em- 
 peror, the investiture of these dominions as 
 a fief, and became an hereditary prince by 
 obtaining from the same source the title of 
 duke or marquis. In this way Milan, the 
 sovereignty of Avhich had been contested 
 throughout the whole century by the Vis- 
 conti family and their rivals, came by de- 
 grees into the possession of that family. In 
 1395 Gian Galeazzo Visconti bought a 
 charter from Wenceslaus, King of the Ro- 
 mans, creating him Duke of Milan. Under 
 
 the rule of its dukes, Milan became a power- 
 ful state, her power extending over Pavia 
 and a number of the Lombard cities, some 
 of which acknowledged her supremacy for 
 the sake of enjoying her protection, others 
 of which were forced to submit to her. By 
 the close of the century the poAver of Milan 
 had been extended over Pisa, Lucca, Peru- 
 gia, and Siena. These Tuscan conquests 
 were lost in the next century. 
 
 While Milan was thus growing in power, 
 Venice, which had held aloof from Italian 
 politics, until the last century, continued to 
 extend her territory and influence in north- 
 ern Italy. The government of the Vene- 
 tian republic was, like that of most of the 
 Italian commonwealths, administered by 
 three councils. The laws were enacted by 
 the great council, and executed by the 
 senate and the doge. The third council 
 had charge of the criminal justice of the 
 city. The great council consisted only of 
 the higher nobles, and was self-elective, an 
 arrangement which excluded the lesser 
 nobles, as well as the commons, from all 
 share in the government. In 1297 a law 
 was enacted forbidding the election to the 
 council of any one but a member of the 
 great noble families. This measure gave 
 rise to serious disafiection, to check which 
 a secret Council of Ten was established in 
 1310. This council well served the purpose 
 for which it was intended — to keep the peo- 
 ple subject to the nobles. Its practices were 
 similar to those of the Romish inquisition. 
 Accusations were made to it, and the ac- 
 cused were arrested privately and immured 
 in its dungeons, where every effort, including 
 torture, was exerted to compel them to con- 
 fess the crimes with which, they were charged. 
 Its punishments Avere secret, and Avere death 
 or a living death in its dungeons. In the 
 end, the Ten became the real and terrible 
 rulers of Venice, and subjected even the 
 nobles to their authority. 
 
 Genoa grew Avith rapidity, and soon be- 
 came the successful commercial riA'al of 
 Venice in the Levant. For a AA'hile her 
 government Avas conducted entirely by the 
 nobles in their OAvn interest, but in 1039 a 
 check Avas placed upon their poAver by the 
 choice of a doge. After this the old noble 
 families lost their political poAver to a con- 
 siderable extent. Genoa, like Venice, held 
 aloof from Italian politics, hut Avas ahvays 
 the constant foe of that republic. The hos- 
 tilities between the two states Avere chiefly 
 carried on in the Levant, Avhere each sought 
 
462 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the monopoly of the trade of the East, The I allied fleet of the Greeks and Venetians, 
 Genoese rendered important services to the I and compelled the emperor to send away- 
 Greek emperors in their recapture of Con- the Venetians and grant the Genoese the 
 stantinople, and were given the quarter of I trade of the Levant. Genoa, indeed, seemed 
 
 THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS, VENICE, SHOWING THE DUCAL PALACE AND THE PRISON. 
 
 Pera, or Galata, which they in course of time 
 fortified. In 1349 they made war upon 
 the Emperor John Cantacuzene in the har- 
 bor of Constantinople, to compel him to 
 drive away the Venetians, and defeated the 
 
 on the point of reducing the Greek empire 
 to the position of a tributary. 
 
 In 1378 the Genoese entered into an alli- 
 ance with Louis the Great, of Hungary, 
 and with Francesco da Carrara, Lord of 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 46a 
 
 Padua, the object being the conquest of 
 Cyprus, and the recovery for Louis of the 
 Dalmatian cities which the Venetians had 
 conquered. The Venetian fleet was de- 
 stroyed by the Genoese, and upon his return 
 home the Venetian admiral, Vittorio Pisani, 
 was thrown into prison. Meantime, the 
 allied forces sailed up the Adriatic, captured 
 the town of Chioggia, situated about twenty- 
 five miles south of Venice, on one of the 
 little islands commanding the Lagune. The 
 capture of the place was mainly the work 
 of the Genoese, but by the terms of the alli- 
 ance it was given to the Lord of Padua. 
 Venice was now in serious danger. The 
 way to the city lay open to the allies, and 
 the Venetians were divided and almost 
 panic-stricken. In their dilemma they re- 
 leased Pisani from his prison and begged 
 him to save them. He generously consented 
 to do so, and set to w^ork vigorously to pre- 
 pare for the defence of the city. At the 
 same time the great naval commander, Carlo 
 Zeno, arrived from the Levant with his 
 squadron to the assistance of his country- 
 men. He co-operated cordially with Pisani 
 in the defence of the city. The Genoese 
 Avere blockaded in Chioggia by the Vene- 
 ' tian fleet, and were forced in the early sum- 
 mer of 1380, after a siege of six mouths, to 
 surrender. The war was closed by the 
 treaty of Turin, in 1381. Venice lost her 
 Dalmatian territory, w'hich was taken by 
 the King of Hungary, and surrendered 
 Treviso, her first conquest on the Italian 
 mainland. It j^assed to Leopold of Austria, 
 who subsequently transferred it to the Lord 
 of Padua. Venice, in spite of her losses, 
 rallied quickly, and soon became as power- 
 ful as ever. Genoa, however, never re- 
 covered from her disaster. Internal dis- 
 orders and civil war followed the struggle 
 with Venice, and in these troubles the re- 
 public was so greatly weakened that in 
 order to save themselves from being ab- 
 sorbed by Milan, the Genoese conferred the 
 Signoria on Charles VI., of France, A. D. 
 1396. 
 
 Florence rose rapidly into prominence 
 during this century. Its government was 
 neither a close oligarchy like that of Venice, 
 nor a simple tyranny like that of Milan. 
 Its history during tlie fourteenth century 
 is a constant struggle to preserve its inde- 
 pendence against the attacks of its neighbors, 
 and to establish successfully the democratic 
 principles upon which the Florentine state 
 was based. In consequence of this a gi-eater 
 
 freedom, intellectual as well as political, 
 existed in Florence than in any other part 
 of Italy, and her people were able to ac- 
 quire a greatness in literature and art which 
 have stamped their influence indelibly upon 
 Italy and the world. Towards the close of 
 this century the constitution of the state 
 was definitely settled. The industries of 
 the citizens constituted the broad foundation 
 upon which this constitution rested. The 
 citizens were divided into "Arts," or trades 
 unions, similar to the " Guilds " of England 
 and the Netherlands. Chief magistrates 
 could be chosen only from these arts, and 
 wei*e elected every two months, while the 
 grand council of state was chosen every four 
 months. This arrangement brought the 
 whole of the properly qualified class of citi- 
 zens to the discharge of the duties of the 
 state, and gave to each one a personal inter- 
 est in it. No magistrate received any re- 
 ward for his services ; the honor of the posi- 
 tion was deemed ample compensation. The 
 industry of the Florentines consisted in the 
 manufacture of silks and woollen goods, and 
 jewelry. Banking was also a prominent 
 source of the wealth of the republic. The 
 Tuscan bankers shared with their Lombard 
 rivals the task of collecting and distributing 
 the wealth of Europe by bills of exchange 
 and loans. The kings of all countries 
 borrowed of them, and the Florentine ^ori'ji, 
 a beautiful gold coin, first issued in 1250, 
 became a general standard of value. In 
 spite of the severe struggles she was obliged 
 to wage throughout the century against 
 her neighbors, and especially against Milan 
 and Lucca, for the preservation of her in- 
 dependence, Florence prospered and man- 
 aged to grow rich. We shall see in our 
 account of the next century how she fell be- 
 low the standard of a pure democracy, which, 
 in this period, she seemed about to reach. 
 
 One striking feature of the W'ars waged 
 by the Italian republics against each other 
 was the employment by all of mercenary 
 troops, who sold their services to the high- 
 est bidder, and Avhose only interest in the 
 quarrels in which they were engaged was to 
 earn their j^ay. "The diflTerent tyrants 
 knew that it was safer for them to employ 
 mercenaries, who were wholly at their dis- 
 posal, and who cared not for the cause for 
 which they fought, but only for the man 
 who paid them. This change was liked by 
 the people, for campaigns now lasted a much 
 longer time than formerly. Before the 
 fourteenth century a campaign lasted only 
 
464 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 a few days. A pitched battle was fought, 
 or a town was attacked, and then the citizen 
 soldiers went back, every man to his own 
 affairs, till they were called out again. But 
 now warfare had become an art, and cam- 
 paigns and sieges lasted for months, and the 
 citizen would have been ruined because his 
 shop or his office would have been shut 
 while he was at the wars. The mercenaries 
 were soldiers by profession, and thus were 
 far better fitted for war than the militia, 
 who went to war only when some need 
 arose. In order to pay these troops, the 
 states contracted heavy debts to different 
 private persons ; these debts were funded, 
 or placed in one stock with the same secu- 
 rity for payment and the same rate of in- 
 terest, and so the present system of national 
 debts and securities arose. At first the 
 mercenaries were foreigners, but towards 
 the end of the century a famous school of 
 generalship arose in Italy. This was the 
 company of St. George, founded by Alber- 
 igo, Count of Barbiano, and from that time 
 the great tacticians of the Italian school 
 were themselves Italians, as Jacopo del 
 Verme and others. These mercenary troops 
 often gave a tyrant power to extend his ter- 
 ritories ; but sometimes they enabled a free 
 state, like Florence, to defend herself against 
 those who wished to enslave her." 
 
 As the three centuries preceding the four- 
 teenth witnessed a rapid revival and growth 
 of architecture and the arts in Italy, so the 
 close of the thirteenth and the whole of the 
 fourteenth century saAV the sudden blossom- 
 ing of Italian literature. Dante, the great- 
 est of Italian poets, was born in Florence 
 in 1265, but his writings belong almost en- 
 tirely to the fourteenth century. Petrarch, 
 also a native of Florence, wrote his love 
 songs about the middle of the century, and 
 Boccaccio, another Florentine, laid the 
 foundations of the school of modern Italian 
 prose. The two Malaspini, the earliest 
 Italian chroniclers, and Giovanni Matteo 
 and Filippo Villani, who wrote one of the 
 earliest Italian histories, were also Floren- 
 tines. Florence soon drew to itself the 
 brightest and most vigorous intellects of 
 Italy, and ere long learning found a perma- 
 nent home there. It must not be forgotten, 
 however, that the true greatness of Florence 
 in literature was co-existent witli her civil 
 freedom. When liberty began to decline, 
 not even the munificence of the Medici 
 could give to Florence the grand thinkers 
 who had illustrated her earlier and freest 
 
 period. Dante made his city illustrious in 
 return for the liberty with which she blessed 
 him. 
 
 South of the papal territory Italy was 
 divided between the Two Sicilies. The 
 kingdom on the mainland was known as 
 Naples, was the largest in size, and was one 
 of the most powerful of all the states of 
 Italy. Some of its kings played an impor- 
 tant part in Italian affairs, but not all. 
 Robert, who reigned from 1309 to 1343, 
 was the acknowledged head of the Guelfic 
 party, and as such was enabled to offer a stout 
 resistance to the Emperor Henry VII. 
 After the death of that emperor, Robert 
 took advantage of the disorders which pre- 
 vailed in the peninsula to increase his own 
 power, and at length aroused a strong oppo- 
 sition to himself, as it was clear that he was 
 aiming at nothing less than the crown of 
 Italy. In 1327 he compelled the Emperor 
 Louis of Bavaria to abandon Rome ; but 
 when John of Bohemia came to Italy, Rob- 
 ert, being too old to take the field, could 
 only use his influence against him ; but in 
 the end John was obliged to quit Italy. 
 Robert died in 1343, and Avas succeeded by 
 his granddaughter Joanna, who had mar- 
 ried her cousin Andrew, the heir to the 
 crown of Hungary. He was soon mur- 
 dered, as it was believed, by her orders. 
 The citizens of Naples compelled Queen 
 Joanna and her paramour, Louis of Ta- 
 ranto, to fly from the city. Louis the Great 
 succeeded his brother Andrew on the throne 
 of Hungary, and in 1347 invaded the 
 kingdom of Naples. A war of four years 
 ensued, in which Naples suffered severely, 
 especially from the meucenary troops, or 
 "free companies," as they were called. 
 Peace was made between Naples and Hun- 
 gary in 1351. Queen Joanna had no chil- 
 dren, and her heir was her cousin Charles 
 of Durazzo. The queen married her 
 fourth husband after the peace, and to 
 thwart Charles, she adopted as her heir 
 Louis of Anjou, the son of King John of 
 France. Charles was crowned King of 
 Naples, however, by the pope, and Louis of 
 Hungary sent him a strong body of troops. 
 He took the queen prisoner, and put her to 
 death. The death of Louis of Anjou in 
 1383 removed his only rival. Upon the 
 death of Louis of Hungary, who was his 
 uncle, Charles went to that country to claim 
 the crown, and was murdered there. After 
 his death Na^^les was again distracted by a 
 war between the adherents of his son La- 
 
THE GEO WTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 465 
 
 dislaus, and the French, who wished to set 
 up a king in the person of Louis II., who 
 was also a child. Charles at length suc- 
 ceeded in expelling the French. 
 
 The history of the papacy during the 
 fourteenth century is both eventful and im- 
 portant. In the year 1300 a jubilee was 
 celebrated at Rome by Pope Boniface VIII., 
 and the Eternal City was thronged with i>il- 
 grims of all ranks from all parts of the 
 world, who came to avail themselves of the 
 pontiff's liberal offers of indulgence and 
 remission of sins. It seemed that the de- 
 
 years old, but his age had not dulled his 
 ambition, or eased his vanity. He took 
 part in the procession clad in the imperial 
 robes, and before him were borne two swords 
 and the globe of sovereignty, significant of 
 his desire to rule the world. In front of 
 him walked a herald, who cried : " Peter, 
 behold thy successor! Christ, behold thy 
 vicar upon earth ! " 
 
 Alas for his ambitious hopes ! The world 
 was moving in spite of his efforts to hold it 
 back. Europe was beginning to settle down 
 into that system of distinct nations which 
 
 VIEW IN KOME. 
 
 votlon of the Catholic world to its spiritual 
 chief was never greater or more enthusi- 
 astic ; but there were great minds watching 
 the display, which looked under and beyond 
 all this sliow of devotion, and saw that the 
 day of faith, of unquestioning belief in and 
 submission to the papacy, was past. Among 
 these observers Avas the poet Dante, whose 
 keen vision saw the truth, and refused to be 
 blinded by the sham with which it was cov- 
 ered over. Least of all, did the reigning 
 pontiff, Boniface VIII., realize the actual 
 state of affairs. He was more than eighty 
 30 
 
 compelled the popes to content themselves 
 with their true character — that of Italian 
 princes. Even in spiritual affairs the pon- 
 tiff was beginning to lose his power over 
 other nations. We shall see that in Ger- 
 many the popes found it impossible in this 
 century to play the part they had acted in 
 the last ; that the King of France, so far 
 from yielding humble obedience to the pon- 
 tiff in all things, did not hesitate to seize 
 and punish one, and made another his tool 
 and virtual captive; and that in England 
 the great shield of the common law had be- 
 
466 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 come strong enough to break the force of 
 every blow by which the pontiff tried to 
 bring England to his feet, as Innocent had 
 done in the days of King John, These 
 matters belong to the history of these re- 
 spective countries, and will be related there. 
 Not long after the jubilee, Boniface VIII. 
 quarrelled with Philip the Fair of France, 
 who seized him. The pope died soon after. 
 His successor, Benedict XI., reigned less 
 than a year. He meditated the restoration 
 of the papacy to its former power, and an- 
 nounced his intention to bring to punish- 
 ment the parties concerned in the arrest of 
 Boniface VIII. This alarmed his enemies. 
 One day a nun of the convent of St. Petro- 
 nilla presented him with a basket of figs, 
 and at the end of the week the pope was in 
 his grave. " No one thought that a death 
 so seasonable to one party, so unseasonable 
 to another, could be in the course of na- 
 ture." 
 
 Clement V., the successor of Benedict, 
 was a Frenchman, and his election was 
 jirocured by Philip IV. of France, who 
 meant to use him as his tool, and did so use 
 him in carrying out certain measures. To 
 please the French king, Clement removed 
 his residence from Rome to Avignon in 
 Provence, just outside the French border, 
 and belonging to the French Kings of Na- 
 ples. By this arrangement the pope really 
 became the prisoner of the King of France, 
 who was not slow to make him feel his de- 
 pendent position. For seventy j'ears the 
 popes continued to reside at Avignon. This 
 period came to be called " the Babvlonish 
 Captivity," 1 305-1 376. Pope John XXII., 
 who was also a Frenchman, and resided at 
 Avignon, took an active part in Italian af- 
 fairs against the Emperors Henry VII. and 
 Louis of Bavaria, but was not able to ac- 
 complish anything against either. He ex- 
 communicated Louis, but that potentate 
 paid no attention to the anathema, and 
 proceeding to Rome received the imperial 
 crown from the hands of two excommuni- 
 cated bishops, A. D. 1327. Louis declared 
 his enemy, John XXII. , deposed from the 
 papacy, and set up an antipope, but both 
 the antipope and the emj^eror were quickly 
 driven away by Robert of Naples. Bene- 
 dict XII., who became pope in 1385, 
 seemed at one time on the point of restoring 
 the moral supremacy of the papacy, and of 
 settling the troubled state of Christendom, 
 but his death, in 1342, put an end to all 
 such hopes. 
 
 Clement VI., the successor of Benedict 
 XII., was able, through the discontent with 
 which the Germans regarded the Emperor 
 Louis of Bavaria, to gain some advantages 
 over the emj^eror ; but these were not real 
 gains, for the pope's strength lay in the dis- 
 like of the Germans for their king, rather 
 than in any reverence for, or fear of, the 
 power of Rome. Queen Joanna fled to 
 Avignon, with her guilty lover, Louis of 
 Taranto, after the murder of her husband, 
 and was married to her paramour with the 
 consent of the pope, to whom she sold the 
 city of Avignon. 
 
 In the reign of Clement stirring events 
 transpired at Rome. The city had been 
 for forty years deserted by the popes, and 
 for the time had ceased to be the religious 
 capital of the world. The throng of pil- 
 grims which had once poured into it with 
 unbroken regularity now journeyed towards 
 Avignon. The city was nominally gov- 
 erned by its magistrates, but there was little 
 of law and order within its walls. The 
 nobles, particularly the families of Orsini, 
 Colonna, and Savelli, kept the city in con- 
 stant confusion with their quarrels, which 
 they fought out in the streets. In 1347 
 Cola di Rienzi, a young man of low birth, 
 but of great talents, who had embraced the 
 profession of a notary, undertook the task 
 of arousing the Romans to a sense of their 
 ancient greatness, and of restoring good 
 government in the city. For many months 
 he had been laboring to rouse the popular 
 indignation against the nobles, who tram- 
 pled on the rights and abused the persons 
 of the citizens. Nightly meetings were 
 held on the Aventiue in the spring of 1347, 
 and these were addressed by Rienzi with 
 impassioned eloquence. " He compared the 
 misery, slavery, debasement of Rome, with 
 her old glory, liberty, universal dominion. 
 He wept ; his hearers mingled their tears 
 with his. He summoned them to freedom." 
 
 At length, everything being in readiness, 
 the Roman people were summoned to ap- 
 pear unarmed at the capitol on the 20th 
 of May. They met in force, and a form 
 of popular government, called " the Good 
 Estate," was instituted. Rienzi was chosen 
 tribune. He put in force a number of 
 necessary reforms, and by his strong meas- 
 ures reduced the nobles to obedience to his 
 government. The people upheld him in 
 his acts, and the pope, whom Rienzi treated 
 with the utmost reverence, though he tres- 
 passed far upon some of his prerogatives. 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 467 
 
 •was at first inclined to regard his course 
 uith approbation. The success of the tri- 
 bune had been too sudden, too easy ; it com- 
 j^letely turned his head. He became puffed 
 up Avith a childish, yet dangerous pride, 
 and seemed to regard himself as the suc- 
 cessor and the destined restorer of the 
 power of the Caesars. Instead of forgetting 
 the wrongs he had suffered as a private citi- 
 zen, he showed himself ready to use his 
 official power to revenge them, and alarmed 
 and disgusted all classes by his ambitious 
 plans and threats. On the 15th of August, 
 1347, at the height of his splendor, he was 
 solemnly crowned in the church of Santa 
 Maria Maggiore. Elated by his success, he 
 gave utterance in the course of his remarks 
 to these impious words : "As Christ in his 
 thirty-third year, having overthrown the 
 tyrants of hell, went up crowned into 
 heaven, so God willed that in the same year 
 of my life, I, having conquered the tyrants 
 of the city without a blow, and alone given 
 liberty to the people, should be promoted 
 to the laurel crown of the tribune." His 
 words were greeted with enthusiasm, but in 
 the midst of the joy of his followers, one of 
 his most zealous supporters, Fra Gulielmo, 
 was seen to stand apart in a corner of the 
 church, weeping bitterly. One of Rienzi's 
 domestic chaplains asked him the cause of 
 his sorrow. " Now," replied the servant 
 of God, " is thy master cast down from 
 heaven. Never saw I man so proud ! 
 By the aid of the Holy Ghost he has driv-en 
 the tyrants from the city without drawing 
 a sword ; the cities and the sovereigns of 
 Italy have acknowledged his power. Why 
 is he so arrogant and ungrateful against 
 the Most High ? Why does he seek earthly 
 and transitory rewards for his labors, and 
 in wanton speech liken himself to the Cre- 
 ator ? Tell thy master that he can atone 
 for this only by streams of penitential 
 tears." It was like the warning of one of 
 the old Hebrew prophets, and when it was 
 repeated to Rienzi that evening by the 
 chaplain, it appalled him for a time ; but 
 the tumult and hurry of business soon 
 drove it from his mind. 
 
 Nor was the tribune alone to blame for 
 his failure. He had reared the splendid 
 edifice of " the Good Estate" upon a shift- 
 ing quicksand. The Romans for centuries 
 had been steeped in degradation, slavery, 
 superstition and misrule, and it was not 
 possible for them to possess the virtues of 
 freemen, the frugality, the discipline, the 
 
 respect for the law, the morality and integ- 
 rity necessary to make them good citizens, 
 in so short a time. These are virtues which 
 grow slowly, and cannot be improvised. 
 And so both tribune and people found 
 themselves unequal to the task they had 
 laid upon themselves. The latter became 
 discontented, and the former, giving way to 
 the temptations of his position, fell miser- 
 ably below his august ideal, and forfeited 
 his claim to the public confidence. The 
 popular discontent was fanned by the papal 
 party, who now began in earnest an efibrt 
 to drive out the tribune and restore the 
 authority of the pope. Rienzi soon per- 
 ceived the growing discontent of the people, 
 and as he had always known that the 
 nobles were his foes, and would seek to 
 overthrow him at the first opportunity, he 
 attempted to break their power by profess- 
 ing the warmest friendship for and confi- 
 dence in them, and then seizing thera and 
 throwing them into j)rison. He sought to 
 atone for this act of base treachery by 
 speedily releasing them and granting them 
 a pardon for their offences, l)ut the nobles 
 and people attributed his course to coward- 
 ice, and two months later the Colonnas took 
 arms against him, and were joined by other 
 nobles. They were defeated by their own 
 imprudence rather than by the skill of Ri- 
 enzi, but the tribune struck a death-blow 
 to the remains of his popularity by brutally 
 insulting the corpses of his foes. The pope 
 now declared against him in the strongest 
 terms, and in December, 1347, Count Pepin 
 of Minorbino, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 dashed into Rome at the head of 150 men- 
 at-arms, and intrenched himself in the Co- 
 lonna quarter. The tocsin rang to summon 
 the Romans to arms, but they refused to 
 respond to the call of the tribune, and Ri- 
 enzi took refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo. 
 For three days the nobles were unwilling to 
 enter the city to join Count Pepin. Then 
 they came in and overthrew the tribune's 
 government and his acts, and restored the 
 old forms. Rienzi, in the disguise of a 
 monk, fled to the Apennines, where he re- 
 mained concealed for two years and a half 
 among a company of Franciscan monks, 
 from whom he kept his name a secret. 
 Going thence to Prague, he shocked the 
 Emperor Charles IV. by his heresies, and 
 w'as sent as a prisoner to the pope at Avig- 
 non. ■ There he w-as imprisoned for a while, 
 but was finally released and sent back to 
 Rome by Innocent VI., in 1354, to trv to 
 
468 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 restore order to the turbulent and distracted 
 city. He came now as senator, to govern 
 in the name of the pope. He had lost his 
 popularity, and as he no longer came to 
 offer freedom to the people, he had no in- 
 fluence over them, and was slain in a tu- 
 mult a few months after his arrival in the 
 city. 
 
 The Romans regarded the absence of the 
 popes from Rome as the cause of all their 
 troubles. It was certainly the cause of 
 their pecuniary embarrassments, for the 
 presence of the pontiff in the city drew to 
 it crowds of strangers from all pai'ts of Eu- 
 rojie, and the expenditures of these visitoi's 
 and of the paj^al court was a source of con- 
 siderable wealth to the citizens. They ex- 
 erted themselves by all means in their 
 power to induce the pontiff to return to 
 their city. Finally, in 1377, Gregory XL 
 came back to Rome, and the city once more 
 became the religious centre of the world. 
 Gregory died the next year, and the Ro- 
 mans took up arms to compel the cardinals 
 to conduct the election for his successor at 
 Rome and choose an Italian pope, or at all 
 events a pope who would remain at Rome. 
 They even invaded the hall where the con- 
 clave had assembled with shouts of "A 
 Roman Pope ! we Avill have a Roman 
 Pope." Though persuaded to retire, they 
 thronged the streets for two days, shouting 
 their demands and threatening the cardi- 
 nals with death if they refused to comply 
 with them. In the midst of such scenes 
 the trembling cardinals elected the Arch- 
 bishop of Bari, an Italian, to the papal 
 throne. At this veiy moment the mob 
 made a fierce attack upon the hall, intend- 
 ing to make short work of the cardinals. 
 The frightened ecclesiastics induced the 
 venerable cardinal of St. Peter's to appear 
 as the newly chosen pontiff. He presented 
 himself at the window, " hastily attired in 
 what either was, or seemed to be, the papal 
 stole and mitre. There was a jubilant and 
 triumphant cry, ' We have a Roman Pope! 
 the Cardinal of St. Peter's. Long live 
 Rome ! Long live St. Peter ! ' " The mob, 
 now wild with joy, burst into the hall. The 
 supposed pope was seized by his enthusiastic 
 friends, his gouty and swollen hands and 
 feet were pressed and kissed with such fer- 
 vor that he shrieked with pain, and swore 
 to them in very emphatic language that he 
 was not the pope. 
 
 The Archbishop of Bari was hastily pro- 
 claimed, and took the name of Urban VI. 
 
 He was a violent and savage man, and 
 though he sought to reform the abuses of the 
 church, he did so by the severest measures, 
 which he executed in the harshest manner. 
 He soon raised up a formidable opposition 
 among the cardinals, esj)ecially in France ; 
 and his enemies met at Avignon and chose 
 Robert of Geneva pope. He took the name 
 of Clement VII. Thus the church Avas di- 
 vided, one pope reigning at Rome and the 
 other at Avignon, and dividing the alle- 
 giance of the faithful, an allegiance which 
 was influenced by motives of interest rather 
 than of religion. All the leading king- 
 doms, save France and Naples, supported 
 the Roman pontiff; but those nations sus- 
 tained his rival at Avignon. The " Great 
 Schism " divided the church for thirty-eight 
 years, and did not end until 1414. The 
 result was that the papacy sank lower in 
 the estimation of men and became Aveaker. 
 
 In the middle of this century Italy was 
 scourged by a terrible plague, which had 
 already laid waste the eastern world. It 
 broke out in Italy in 1348, and raged with 
 terrible fury. It is said that Naples lost 
 60,000 inhabitants, and that in Pisa seven 
 persons out of every ten died. It utterly 
 destroyed the prosperity of Siena Flor- 
 ence also suffered severely. The scourge 
 is generally known as i\\Q Plague of Florence, 
 because the Florentine Boccaccio has left 
 us a vivid account of its ravages in his na- 
 tive city. 
 
 One consequence of the " Great Schism " 
 was that the Italian princes treated the 
 rival popes with contempt, and northern 
 Italy fell into a state of anarchy. The 
 duchy of Milan was divided between the 
 sons of Gian-Galeazzo Viscouti, who be- 
 came noted for their cruelties. A number 
 of petty tyrannies sprang up in the duchy, 
 but these were subdued at length by Filippo 
 Maria Viscouti, who reunited all his father's 
 dominions. In 1402 the only independent 
 sovereigns in northern Italy were the Count 
 of Savoy, the JNIarquis of Montferrat, and 
 the Lords of Padua, Ferrara and Mantua. 
 
 Francesco da Carrara, Lord of Padua, 
 took advantage of the death of Gian- 
 Galeazzo to seize Verona. Venice, the old 
 enemy of Padua, made an alliance with the 
 Lord of Mantua, retook Verona, and be- 
 sieged Padua. Francesco da Carrara was 
 compelled to surrender his city, and, with 
 his two sons, was sent to Venice, where all 
 three were put to death by order of the 
 Council of Ten. This war placed Venice 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 469 
 
 in possession of Treviso, Feltro, Verona, 
 Viceuza and Padua, and, by thus giving 
 her a considerable territory on the main- 
 land, raised her to the dignity of a leading 
 Italian state. 
 
 The death of Gian-Galeazzo also freed 
 Florence from the danger with which he 
 had constantly menaced her. In 1406 
 Florence extended her dominion over Pisa, 
 and though she treated her old enemy with 
 
 Angevin line, and Louis II., the head of 
 the new French party. In the end Ladis- 
 laus was able to drive out his rival and es- 
 tablish his own rule, but the contest be- 
 tween the rivals served greatly to prolong 
 the schism in the church, as each sustained 
 the rival of the pope favored by his antag- 
 onist. Ladislaus was succeeded by his 
 sister, Joanna II. She was twice married, 
 but had no children, and adopted as her 
 
 VERONA. 
 
 fairness, the Pisans left their homes in large 
 numbers, and the greatness and commer- 
 cial prosperity of the city declined rapidly. 
 Genoa was governed at the opening of 
 the century by a viceroy of Charles VI., 
 King of France. In 1409 the island king- 
 dom of Sicily w^as united w^ith the Spanish 
 kingdom of Aragon by the marriage of 
 Mary, Queen of Sicily, to Martin, King of 
 Aragon. The kingdom of Naples, which 
 also bore the name of Sicily, was disputed 
 between Ladislaus, the head of the old 
 
 heir Alfonso, King of Aragon and Sicily. 
 Becoming dissatisfied with him, she adopted 
 Louis III. of Anjou in his place. The 
 rivals went to war for the possession of the 
 Neapolitan crown, and divided all Italy by 
 their quarrel. The Duke of Milan and 
 Sforza, the general of Queen Joanna, sus- 
 tained Louis ; while the pope, the Floren- 
 tines, Braccio, and the Lord of Rimini sus- 
 tained Alfonso. The Florentines, being 
 hard pressed by Milan, made an alliance 
 with Venice, and the Duke of Milan was 
 
470 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 obliged to make peace in 1426. In Naples 
 Louis of Anjou gained the u])per hand, and 
 Alfonso couid accomplish nothing. At the 
 death of Louis, Queen Joanna adopted his 
 brother Rene of Anjou in his place, and the 
 war between the Angevin and Aragonese 
 parties broke out again. It continued un- 
 til 1433, to the general advantage of the 
 Angevin pai-ty and their allies. In that 
 year peace was made at Ferrara through 
 the interjjosition of Sigismund, King of the 
 Romans. In 1435 Queen Joanna II. died, 
 and Alfonso attempted to seize the king- 
 dom. The claim of Rene was supported 
 by the Duke of Milan, who, with a Genoese 
 fleet, defeated Alfonso and took him pris- 
 oner off the island of Ponza. Soon after 
 this the duke, becoming alarmed at the 
 growing power of the French, drove Rene 
 out of the kingdom, and established Al- 
 fonso on the throne. Alfonso was now King 
 of Naples, Sicily and Aragon. He made 
 Naples his capital, and won the hearts of 
 his new subjects by his kind treatment of 
 them and his liberality and literary taste. 
 He remained throughout his reign the con- 
 stant ally of Milan. 
 
 Ever since the insurrection in 1382 
 Florence had been ruled by an oligarchy 
 composed of the old Guelfic families and 
 the new popolani grossi, or rich men of the 
 people. In 1433 the head of this oligarchy 
 was Rinaldo degli Albizzi. The leader of 
 the opposition was a rich merchant named 
 Cosmo de' Medici. Cosmo was a man of 
 immense wealth, which he used liberally 
 for the assistance of his fellow-citizens. 
 His genial and affable disposition, and his 
 generous support of all literary men, made 
 him generally beloved in the city, and ex- 
 cited the hostility of Albizzi and his follow- 
 ers, who determined to secure his ruin. In 
 1433 he succeeded in procuring his banish- 
 ment, but the next year Cosmo was recalled 
 by the Florentines and received with en- 
 thusiasm, and hailed as the " Father of his 
 Country." The Medici took advantage of 
 this triumphant welcome to place them- 
 selves at the head of the state, and thus 
 secured a power which they never after- 
 wards entirely lost. Neither Cosmo nor his 
 successors assumed any particular title. 
 " Their power was of a different kind from 
 that, of the lords or tyrants, either in old 
 Greece or in other cities of Italy. Nor was 
 it such a power as that of Pericles at 
 Athens, as it passed on from father to son. 
 It was more like the power of Augustus 
 
 and the other Roman emperors, who re- 
 spected the forms of the commonwealth." 
 The party opposed to Cosmo fled to Milan, 
 and induced the Duke Filippo Maria Vis- 
 con ti, who was already at Avar with Pope 
 Eugenius IV., to attack Florence. The 
 pope fled to the Florentines, who, Avith the 
 Venetians, espoused his cause. The Flor- 
 entine army Avas placed under the command 
 of the pope's general, Francesco Sforza, 
 and in a brilliant campaign, Avell conducted 
 by both sides, the Duke of Milan Avas badly 
 worsted. Filippo Maria, seeing his danger, 
 drew Sforza over to his side by giving him 
 his natural daughter, Bianca, as a wife, 
 Avith the cities of Cremona and Pontremoli 
 for her dowry. Sforza soon secured a peace 
 between Florence, Venice, and Milan. 
 
 Francesco Sforza lived on very bad 
 terms Avith his father-in-la\v, and Avhen Fil- 
 ippo Maria died, in 1447, Avithout male 
 heirs, he claimed the duchy of Milan in 
 right of his Avife, although it Avas a fief 
 which could descend only through the male 
 line. His claim Avas denied by the Milan- 
 ese, but as they Avere at war Avith Venice, 
 they Avere obliged to employ him to conduct 
 their campaign. He took advantage of this 
 to seize the state, and Avas formally acknoAvl- 
 edged by the Milanese as their lord and 
 duke in February, 1450. The middle of 
 the century saAV Italy divided between four 
 great temporal poAvers — the kingdom of 
 Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the re- 
 publics of Venice and Florence. A fifth 
 power — the papacy — noAv began to assume 
 its true place among the Italian states. 
 
 The schism Avhich had so long divided 
 the church Avas brought to an end by the 
 Council of Constance, Avhich deposed all 
 three of the rival popes, and appointed 
 Martin V., Avho was everyAvhere acknowl- 
 edged as a true pope, A. D. 1416. This 
 council Avas folloAved by another Avhich met 
 at Basle, Avhich sought to place the pope 
 under the control of the councils of the 
 church. Eugenius IV., the reigning pon- 
 tiff, energetically resisted this action, and 
 with the aid of iEneas Sylvius, the secretary 
 of the council, succeeded in maintaining his 
 independent authority, and secured the un- 
 disputed election of his successor, Nicolas 
 v., 1447. The new pope Avas one of the 
 greatest of the Roman pontiffs, and the 
 failure of the Council of Basle having freed 
 the papacy from control, he had a fair op- 
 portunity to exert his abilities for the good 
 of the Avorld. The captivity at Avignou 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 471 
 
 and the schism had greatly weakened the 
 moral power of the papacy, and from the 
 time of Nicolas V. the popes must be con- 
 sidered, not as the head of Christendom, 
 
 power, for he was one of the best as well as 
 one of the greatest of the popes. He wa^ a 
 lover of learning and art, and gave a pow- 
 erful support to the revival of the study of 
 
 CATHKDRAL OF MILAN. 
 
 but as powerful Italian princes. Nicolas 
 soon established his authority over the states 
 of the church, which embraced the gifts of 
 Pepin and Charlemagne and the Countess 
 
 Greek literature, which took place in con- 
 sequence of the communication between 
 Italy and the Greek empire in the last 
 days of that power. Under him Rome be- 
 
 Matilda. He made" a good use of his | came once more a centre of learning and 
 
472 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 art, dividing the supremacy in Italy with 
 Florence. He adorned the city with splen- 
 did churches, began the great cathedral of 
 St. Peter, and built the magnificent palace 
 of the Vatican. He also restored the forti- 
 fications of Rome and the Roman states ; 
 founded the noble library of the Vatican ; 
 and encouraged learning, which was greatly 
 assisted by the introduction into Italy about 
 this time of the art of printing. From the 
 first he took a prominent stand among the 
 princes of Italy, and one of the first uses he 
 made of his political power was to bring 
 about the peace of Lodi, in 1454, between 
 Venice, Milan, and Naples. He died in 
 1458, and was succeeded by ^Eneas Sylvius, 
 who took the title of Pius II. 
 
 Pope Pius w'as at once called upon to 
 exert himself to stay the progress of the 
 Turks, who, after their conquest of Constan- 
 tinople, had embarked in an effort to bring 
 the rest of Europe to their feet. He en- 
 deavored to unite all Christendom in a 
 crusade against them, but died in 1464, 
 before anything could be accomplished. 
 
 The Venetians endeavored to hold their 
 possessions in the Archipelago, but were 
 invariably defeated by the Turks, who took 
 Lesbos, Euboea, and other islands from 
 them, and put them to great exertions to 
 maintain their supremacy in the Adriatic. 
 In 1477 a powerful Turkish army invaded 
 Italy by way of Friuli, defeated the Vene- 
 tians, and ravaged the country as far as the 
 Piave. In 1480 the Turkish army under 
 Ahmed Keduk, the greatest general of 
 Mohammed, crossed the Adriatic, took the 
 strong city of Otranto by storm, and massa- 
 cred the inhabitants. The Venetians se- 
 cretly favored this expedition as a means 
 of injuring the King of Naples. Moham- 
 med II. was greatly encouraged by this 
 success, as he fully intended to attempt the 
 conquest of Italy; but his death and the 
 quarrels of his successors prevented the 
 Turks from advancing any farther, and 
 obliged them to return to the other side of 
 the Adriatic. 
 
 Alfonso, King of Naples, died in 1458. 
 He left Aragon and Sicily to his legitimate 
 son John, and bestowed Naples upon Ferdi- 
 nand, his illegitimate son. The cruelties 
 of Ferdinand caused his subjects to rebel 
 against him, and they offered their crown 
 to John of Calabria, the son of Rene, who 
 had been King of Naples before Alfonso. 
 Ren^, W'ho was the French Governor of 
 Genoa, endeavored to induce the neighbor- 
 
 ing Italian princes and the French king to 
 help him and his son, but all refused. The 
 result of the matter was that the Genoese, 
 led by their archbishop, drove the French 
 out of Genoa and set up a new government. 
 The Duke of Calabria was unable to accom- 
 plish anything against Ferdinand of Naples. 
 The new government of Genoa was so op- 
 pressive that the Genoese overthrew it and 
 transferred their allegiance to the Duke of 
 Milan, to whom Louis XI. of France ceded 
 all his rights to Genoa. For the time 
 French influence was utterly dead in Italy. 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici used his great wealth 
 to acquire almost absolute power in Flor- 
 ence. Though his authority was much too 
 great for the safety of a free state, he used 
 it with moderation, though neither he nor 
 any of his family had any sympathy with 
 popular freedom. He was a great friend 
 of literature and the arts, and steadfastly 
 and liberally encouraged them. During 
 his administration of affairs the beautiful 
 dome of the cathedral of Florence was 
 built, and the city was adorned with works 
 of art and enriched with a valuable library. 
 Cosmo died in 1464, and was succeeded in 
 power by his son Pietro, who, though a 
 constant invalid, was a man of great vigor 
 of mind. Until a few years before his 
 death he directed the affairs of the state 
 himself with energy and ability, but as his 
 health became worse he Avas forced to dele- 
 gate his powers to others, who did not always 
 act in accordance with his wishes. He 
 died in 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo 
 and Giuliano, who were too young to direct 
 the government, which was for some years 
 administered by the ministers of Pietro. 
 At length Lorenzo took the management 
 of affairs in his own hands. Thus, though 
 they possessed no particular title, the 
 Medici were able to transmit their power 
 from father to son, and each one became 
 more powerful than his predecessor. They 
 had unlimited control of the public treasury, 
 and often made use of the public funds to 
 sustain the commercial credit of their house, 
 though on the whole their power was used 
 for the good of the city. An event now 
 occurred which greatly strengthened Lo- 
 renzo. 
 
 The Duke Galeazzo Sforza, of Milan, 
 whose cruelties had exasperated his people, 
 was assassinated in December, 1476. His 
 brother, Ludovico Sforza, finally succeeded 
 in setting aside the widow and the young 
 heir of the murdered duke, and made him- 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 473 
 
 self ruler of Milan. The pope, Sixtus IV., 
 who had begun to intrigue like any other 
 Italian prince, for the extension of his terri- 
 tory and the enrichment of his family, was 
 so greatly encouraged by the success of the 
 plot against Duke Galeazzo that he resolved 
 to imitate it. He wished to establish his 
 nephews in Romagna, but he was checked 
 by Lorenzo de' Medici, who aided the cities 
 of Romagna against him. He therefore re- 
 
 Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici, in the 
 cathedral of Florence. At the elevation 
 of the host during the celebration of mass, 
 Giuliano was stabbed to the heart by Ber- 
 nardo Bandini and the Archbishop of Pisa. 
 Two priests had undertaken the murder of 
 Lorenzo, but they failed in the attempt, 
 and were subsequently put to death. Lorenzo 
 was but slightly wounded. The conspira- 
 tors then attempted to raise the Florentines 
 
 SIEGE OPERATIONS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY — FROM AN ENGRAVING OF THE TIME. 
 
 solved to remove Lorenzo by assassination. 
 A conspiracy was organized by the pope for 
 the overthrow of the Medici, and the eleva- 
 tion of the Pazzi family, the rivals of the 
 Medicean house, to power in Florence. The 
 parties to the conspiracy were the pope, his 
 nephews, the count, and the Cardinal Ria- 
 rio, the Archbishop of Pisa, the Pazzi, and 
 several priests. Ferdinand, King of Naples, 
 also favored the plot. On Sunday, April 
 26th, 1478, an attempt was made to kill 
 
 in behalf of the Pazzi, but the people, who 
 had no wish to lose the benefits of the wealth 
 of the Medici, rallied enthusiastically to the 
 support of Lorenzo, and the conspirators 
 were seized. Some were despatched on the 
 spot, and others were executed with more 
 form. The Archbishop of Pisa, clad in the 
 robes of his sacred office, and Francesco de' 
 Pazzi were hanged side by side. The pope 
 was very angry at the failure of the con- 
 spiracy ; he excommunicated the people of 
 
474 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Florence, and, finding that weapon inefiec- 
 tual, made war upon them. 
 
 The power of Lorenzo was greatly in- 
 creased by the failure of the plot against 
 him. The Florentines gave him a guard 
 to watch over his safety, and he conducted 
 his court on a scale of splendor, which won 
 him the surname of " the Magnificent." He 
 paid for this splendor out of the public 
 funds, but he gathered about him men of 
 letters, artists, poets, and all who could con- 
 tribute to the glory of his reign, and main- 
 tained them liberally. Under him Florence 
 was at the height of her magnificence, but 
 
 POPE ALEXANDER \I. 
 
 the cause of popular liberty steadily de- 
 clined. The quarrel with the pope was 
 arranged in 1480. The presence of the 
 Turks in Otranto endangered the safety of 
 Home, and rendered the pontiff anxious to 
 make peace. Soon afterwards the Neapoli- 
 tan barons again rebelled against their 
 cruel king, and sent to Pope Innocent VIII. 
 for aid, reminding him that Naples was a 
 fief of the Holy See. The pope offered the 
 throne to Eene, Duke of Lorraine, but the 
 duke delayed so long that he lost the oppor- 
 tunity. Lorenzo Medici aided Ferdinand 
 against the pope, and finally arranged a 
 settlement by which order was restored in 
 
 the Neapolitan kingdom. Ferdinand, in 
 violation of his promises, took a bloody re- 
 venge upon some of the leading nobles who 
 had opposed him. 
 
 The twelve years covering the period 
 from 1480 to 1492 were in the main peace- 
 ful. The King of Naples, the Duke of Milan, 
 and Lorenzo de' Medici had a common 
 motive for desiring peace — their fear of 
 Venice, which was stronger than either of 
 them alone, and was sure to derive some 
 advantage from any war in Italy. The 
 King of Naples also feared that the French 
 party in his kingdom, which was growing 
 stronger, Avould take advantage of a war 
 to rise against him. The ruler of Milan, 
 Ludovico Sforza, also feared the French. 
 His nephew, the rightful heir of Milan, was 
 the cousin of Charles VIII. of France, and 
 Ludovici was fearful that the French king 
 would seek to restore him to his rights. 
 Lorenzo de' Medici desired to preserve the 
 balance of power, and upheld the authority 
 of Ludovico in Milan, as he regarded that 
 duchy as the best bulwark of Florence 
 against the aggressions of Venice. 
 
 During this period of jDeace all classes of 
 the Italian people increased in material 
 prosperity. Literature and the arts flour- 
 ished. The prosperity of the people, how- 
 ever, did not stay the tide of corruption 
 and vice which had swept over the country. 
 " Sensuality was the natural result of abso- 
 lute rule over rich and prosperous states, 
 for men had no scoj^e for lawful jjolitical 
 ambition." In Florence, one of the best 
 and most gifted of the Italians of any age 
 endeavored to check the evil by his elo- 
 quent denunciations of it. This was the 
 famous Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican 
 monk. He accomplished little, and soon 
 fell a victim to the hostility of the enemies 
 he had raised up against him. 
 
 In 1492 Lorenzo de' Medici died, leaving 
 three sons, Pietro, who succeeded him in 
 the government of Florence; Giovanni, 
 who had been made a cardinal at the age 
 of fourteen, and who subsequently became 
 Pope Leo X. ; and Giuliano.^ In 1493 In- 
 nocent VIII. died, and was succeeded by 
 Poderigo Borgia, who bought his election 
 of the college of cardinals, and took the 
 name of Alexander VI. This pope was a 
 man of shamefully and openly vicious life, 
 of inordinate ambition and covetousness, 
 false in his friendship and relentless and 
 cruel in his hatred. He Avas a man of great 
 ability, and used his poAver to advance the 
 
FBOM FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 475 
 
 ambitious schemes of his children. Ccesar 
 aud Lucrezia Borgia were the most noted 
 as Avell as the ablest of these children. The 
 accession of such a ruler to the papal throne 
 should have inclined the master of Florence 
 to a policy of great caution ; but Pietro at 
 once departed from the wise course of his 
 father, and forming a close alliance with 
 Ferdinand of Naples, undertook to thwart 
 the i^lans of the Duke of Milan and the 
 pope. Ludovico, whose nephew was the 
 son-in-law of Ferdinand, was fearful that 
 the Neapolitan king would seek to restore 
 the dispossessed duke to the throne of Milan, 
 and he made an offensive and defensive alli- 
 ance with the pope and the Venetians, and, 
 distrusting both his allies, invited Charles 
 VIII., of France, to enter Italy and take 
 possession of the kingdom of Naples. Charles, 
 who had a sort of a claim to the crown of 
 Naples, which he had inherited from the 
 house of Anjou, accepted the ofier, and pre- 
 pared to invade Italy. He conceived the 
 i:)lan of conquering Naples, crossing the 
 Adriatic and driving the Turks out of 
 Greece, freeing Constantinople from their 
 rule, and finally rescuing Jerusalem aud 
 the Holy Sepulchre from the keeping of the 
 infidel. His wisest ministers earnestly begged 
 him not to attempt the invasion of Italy ; 
 but dazzled with his brilliant hopes, he re- 
 fused to listen to them.- 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FRDM the FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES 
 TO THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 
 
 Prejin rations to Meet the French Invasion of Italy 
 —The Army of Charles VIII.— The War Com- 
 menced in Italy— The French Army Crosses the 
 Alps — Charles VIII. and the Duchess of Milan — 
 Ludovico Sforza Becomes Duke of Milan — The 
 French at Florence — Charles Occupies Rome — 
 Enters Naples — League of the Italian States 
 Against tlie French — Charles Returns to France — 
 Failure of the French Campaign — Louis XII. Re- 
 vives the French Claim to Najjles — Enters Italy 
 — Captures Ludovico Sforza — Takes Naples- 
 Driven from the Kingdom by the S])aniards — The 
 Papal Forces Conquer the Romagna — Cresar 
 Borgia Made Duke— Death of Pope Alexander 
 VI.— Florence Subdues Pisa— Position of Venice 
 in the Italian Quarrels— Her Power— The League 
 of Cambray— War Between the League and Ven- 
 ice—The Pope Changes Sides— The Holy League 
 Formed— Battle of Ravenna— Deatli of Gaston 
 de Foix— The French Driven from Italy — Leo X. 
 Pope — His Selfish Schemes — Louis XII. Tries to 
 Recover Milan — His Death — Francis I. Renews 
 the French Claim to Milan— Invades Italy — Battle 
 of Marignano — Francis Conquers Lonibardy — His 
 Contemptuous Treatment of Venice — Is Cheated 
 by the Pope — Charles V. Becomes Emi)eror— 
 
 Helps the Pope to Drive the French from Milan 
 — Power of the Spaniards in Italy — War Between 
 Charles and Francis — Reverses of the French — 
 Francis Enters Italy— Battle of Pavia — Francis 
 Made Prisoner — Charles Master of Northern Italy 
 — He Oppresses the People — The League Against 
 Charles — Rome Captured and Plundered — Treaty 
 Between the Pope and the Spaniards — Rome 
 Taken and Sacked by the Spaniards — Escape of 
 the Pope — Genoa Declares for the French— Re- 
 yival of the Holy League — Treaty of Cambray — 
 Charles Crowned Emperor by the Pope — His 
 Power in Italy — Florence Compelled to Submit to 
 the Pope — Destruction of the Florentine Republic 
 — Reign of Pope Paul III. — War Between France 
 and Spain — Fall of Siena— Abdication of Charles 
 V. — Treaty of Cateau Cambresis — The Reforma- 
 tion in Italy — The Council of Trent — Foundation 
 of the Society of Jesus — Work of the Jesuits — 
 The Inquisition — Wars With the Turks — Battle 
 of Lepanto— Position of Savoy. 
 
 fffcsHEN the intention of the French 
 king to invade Italy became 
 known in that country, Ferdin- 
 and, who knew the slight hold he 
 had upon his Neapolitan king- 
 dom, made an alliance with the 
 pope, and 2:)romised to aid him in his 
 scheme for enriching his children. He 
 also tried to make terms with Ludovico, 
 but was not successful. Ludovico deceived 
 him, for he was not ready to come to an 
 o\)Qn rupture with him until the assistance 
 of the French was sure. Ludovico had for 
 a long time held the government of Milan, 
 and had enjoyed all the power, but he had 
 not dared to assume the title of duke, 
 though for convenience we have spoken of 
 him as such. He knew he was hated by 
 the Milanese, and he was afraid that, by 
 assuming the ducal crown, he would bring 
 on a war with the King of Naples, who was 
 the father-in-law of the rightful duke. He 
 had burdened the Milanese so heavily with 
 taxes that they Avere ready aud anxious to 
 rebel against him. 
 
 Charles VIII. gathered a powerful army 
 in Dauphiny, and collected a strong fleet at 
 Genoa. His army was composed of tried 
 veterans from France, Germany, and 
 Switzerland, and was paid by the king. 
 It was the finest body of troops that had yet 
 been assembled in Europe, in equipment, 
 material and efficiency. Its cavalry were 
 especially good, and the artillery consisted 
 of light brass cannon drawn by horses, 
 which could manoeuvre with the troops in 
 the field and be served with great rapidity. 
 The French used iron balls instead of stone. 
 Before Charles began his march, Ferdinand 
 of Naples died early in 1494, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his sou Alfonso. The new king 
 was hated more than his father had been, 
 
476 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and "was much crueller, and more obstinate 
 and haughty. He renewed the alliance 
 with the pope. Before Charles set out from 
 France the war began in Italy. Don 
 Frederic, the son of King Alfonso, at- 
 tempted to seize Genoa, but was defeated 
 at Kapallo by the Duke of Orleans and a 
 body of Swiss troops. In August, 1494, 
 Charles began his march, crossed the Alps, 
 and entered Italy. At Pavia he visited 
 the dispossessed JDuke of Milan, Avho with 
 his wife was kept by Ludovico in the castle 
 of Pavia. The duchess threw herself on 
 her knees at the feet of the King of France 
 and pleaded for her husband with such 
 eloquence that Charles Avas greatly moved. 
 He had gone too far to retreat, however, 
 and her appeal was in vain. Soon after- 
 wards the duke died, poisoned, as it was 
 generally believed, by his uncle Ludovico, 
 who, safe under the protection of the French, 
 openly took the title of Duke of Milan. 
 
 Charles had sought to secure the friend- 
 ship of Venice, but as yet the republic held 
 aloof from the quarrel. It W'as necessary 
 to secure Florence before he advanced 
 farther south, and the king determined to 
 march through Tuscany. The Florentines 
 were friendly to him, as they hoped he 
 would rid them of Pietro de' Medici, but 
 Pietro remained faithful to the King of 
 Naples. The French entered Tuscany, and 
 formed the siege of Saranza. Pietro, now 
 alarmed for his safety, went secretly to the 
 French king and made the most abject 
 terms on his own account, agreeing to sur- 
 render Pisa, Leghorn, Pietra Santa, and 
 Librafatta, and pay the king a large sum 
 of money, of which Charles stood greatly 
 in need. Upon his return to Florence, 
 Pietro was driven out of the city by the 
 indignant Florentines. He took refuge 
 with the Lord of Bologna, and never went 
 back to his native city again. On the 
 same day the Pisans appealed to Charles to 
 relieve them of their subjection to Florence. 
 The king granted their request, and though 
 this annoyed the Florentines very much, 
 they remained friendly to the king, who a 
 few days later entered Florence. The 
 citizens Avere fearful that he would seek to 
 deprive them of their liberties, and this fear 
 was justified by the assertion of Charles, 
 that as he had entered the city in arms he 
 had the rights of a conqueror. A few days 
 later, during an interview between the king 
 and the Florentine commissioners, Charles 
 insisted so obstinately upon certain measures 
 
 which the Florentines deemed disgraceful 
 to them, that Pietro Capponi, one of the 
 commissioners, indignantly threatened to 
 raise the city against him. Charles was 
 unwilling to risk his army in a street fight 
 Avith the burghers, and agreed to accept the 
 subsidy Avhich the Florentines offered him, 
 and promised that Avhen he had taken 
 Naples he Avould restore Pisa and tlie 
 other fortresses surrendered by Pietro de' 
 Medici. 
 
 From Florence Charles passed on to 
 Rome, Avhich he entered Avithout resistance. 
 He compelled the pope to cease his opposi- 
 tion to him, and sanction certain of his 
 measures. He then continued his march 
 southAvard. Alfonso of Naples abandoned 
 his throne and fled to Sicily, Avhere he did 
 penance for his sins, Avhich Avere many. 
 His son Ferdinand succeeded him, but his 
 general betrayed Capua to the French, and 
 the people of Naples rose against him, and 
 obliged him to fly to Ischia. Charles en- 
 tered Naples on the 22d of February, 1495, 
 amid the general rejoicings of the people. 
 
 Though successful so far, Charles had left 
 a formidable body of enemies behind him. 
 The Venetians Avere hostile to him. The 
 pope Avanted -the French out of Italy be- 
 cause they interfered Avith his schemes for 
 the advancement of his family, and the 
 Romans had become the enemies of Charles, 
 because of his failure to dethrone the pope, 
 whom they hated. The Florentines, sore 
 OA'er the loss of Pisa, had also become hos- 
 tile to the king; and the Duke of Milan, 
 alarmed by the success of the French, Avho 
 had shown him that they no longer needed 
 him, began to plot their ruin. Ferdinand 
 and Isabella of Spain, fearful that Charles 
 would attack Sicily, Avhich belonged to 
 them, and Maximilian, King of the Ro- 
 mans, who had been told that Charles 
 aimed at the imperial crown, were also 
 ready to assist in a movement for the ex- 
 pulsion of the French. The Duke of Milan 
 formed an alliance against Charles with the 
 pope, the German king, the Venetians, and 
 the King of Spain. The joy of the Nea- 
 politans was cooled by the insolent conduct 
 of the French army and the grants of Nea- 
 politan lands made by Charles to his fol- 
 lowers, and they too joined the league for 
 the expulsion of the French. Charles being 
 informed of the combination against him, 
 resoWed to go back to France. He left the 
 Count of Montpensier to govern Naples 
 and finish the conquest of that kingdom. 
 
FROM FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 477 
 
 and in May, 1495, set out upon his north- 
 ward march. On his return to Rome the 
 pope refused to see him, and left the city. 
 Charles avoided Florence and alienated his 
 only faithful ally by refusing to restore 
 Pisa and the other cities he had promised 
 to give back. The Duke of Orleans was 
 besieged by the Duke of Milan in Novara, 
 and the armies of Milan and Venice, under 
 the Marquis of Mantua, endeavored to stop 
 the progress of Charles at Fornovo, imme- 
 diately after his passage of the Apennines. 
 They were defeated, and Charles reached 
 Turin in safety. In order to save the Duke 
 of Orleans, who was reduced to great straits 
 in Novara, Charles made a separate peace 
 with the Duke of Milan, and returned to 
 France. 
 
 The retreat of Charles was followed by 
 the loss of all he had gained in Italy. 
 Within a year Ferdinand reconquered the 
 kingdom of Naples. He died in 1496, and 
 was succeeded by his uncle Frederic. The 
 Florentines were very indignant at the failure 
 of the French king to restore Pisa to them. 
 Charles gave up the citadel of that place 
 to the citizens of Pisa, and sold the other 
 Florentine fortresses to Genoa and Lucca. 
 The Duke of Milan was very anxious to get 
 possession of Pisa, but the Pisans placed 
 themselves under the protection of Venice, 
 which resolved to uphold the city as a free 
 state. The duke then tried to restore Pietro 
 Medici to Florence, but the citizens pre- 
 pared to resist him, and Pietro fled. The 
 war went on in a desultory manner. In 
 1497 a truce was made between France and 
 Spain, which included the Italian allies of 
 both powers, and thus peace was restored 
 to Italy. The invasion of Charles had re- 
 sulted in utter failure. The only person 
 Avho had really gained anything by the war 
 was the Duke of Milan. 
 
 In 1499 Louis XII., who had succeeded 
 Charles VIII. on the French throne, re- 
 vived the claims of that monarch, and also 
 asserted his right to the duchy of Milan as 
 the representative of his grandmother, Val- 
 entine Visconti, the only daughter of the 
 last duke of that family. In August, 1499, 
 the French army entered Italy, and ad- 
 vancing rapidly to INIilan, drove Ludovico 
 out of that city, and occuj^ied it in Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 The capture of Milan by the forces of 
 Louis XII. of France was soon followed 
 by a change of fortune. The oppres- 
 sive conduct of Trivulzio, the French 
 
 viceroy, drove the Milanese into a revolt in 
 January, 1500, and the French were ex- 
 pelled from the city. At the same time 
 Ludovico Sforza returned at the head of a 
 lai'ge force of Swiss mercenaries, and re- 
 gained the duchy. Louis despatched another 
 army, in which Avere 10,000 Swiss, into 
 Italy. The Swiss in the pay of Ludovico 
 betrayed their employer by refusing to fight 
 against their countrymen in the French 
 ranks. Ludovico, in an attempt to escape, 
 was seized by them and delivered to the 
 King of France, who kept him a prisoner 
 in the castle of Loches until his death ten 
 years later. Louis was now undisputed 
 master of the duchy of Milan. On their 
 return home the Swiss seized the important 
 post of Bellinzona, which commanded the 
 entrance from Switzerland into the duchy 
 of Milan. The French king suffered this 
 bold act to pass unnoticed. 
 
 Louis now determined to make himself 
 master of Naples, and entered into an alli- 
 ance with Ferdinand of Spain for the par- 
 tition of the Neapolitan kingdom between 
 them. Ferdinand was in some measure 
 pledged to protect Frederic, King of Na- 
 ples, who was his cousin, but he was not 
 able to withstand the temptation held out 
 to him by Louis. Naples was conquered, 
 and Frederic and his son were made pris- 
 oners. The former was sent to France ; the 
 latter to Sj)ain. The French and Spaniards 
 then began to quarrel over the division of 
 the conquei'ed territories, and a war broke 
 out between them. The Spaniards, led by 
 Gousalvo of Cordova, their "Great Cap- 
 tain," defeated the French in 1503 in the 
 decisive battles of Seminara and Cerignola, 
 and in 1504 at Mola, near Gaeta. These 
 victories made them absolute masters of the 
 kingdom of Naples, from which the French 
 were entirely expelled. 
 
 The pope and his son Caesar Borgia had 
 taken advantage of the French invasions 
 of Italy to push their schemes forward in 
 all quarters. The Romagna, though a 
 nominal possession of the pope, Avas really 
 ruled by a number of petty lords. With 
 the aid of some French troops furnished by 
 Louis, Ca3sar Borgia Avrested the Romagna 
 from these rulers, and in 1501 Avas made 
 Duke of Romagna by the pope. Louis 
 would not allow him to add Bologna to his 
 possessions, as the lord of that city Avas un- 
 der French protection. The Duke of Valen- 
 tino, as Ciesar was called, then frightened 
 the Florentines into takius: him into their 
 
478 
 
FROM FBENCE CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 479 
 
 pay, but in ppite of tins he gained consid- 
 erable territory at their expense. At the 
 beginning of the quarrel with Spain about 
 Naples, Louis refused to allow Coesar to 
 plunder the Florentines any further, as he 
 wanted their alliance in this war. Caesar 
 then seized Urbino, but this bold move uni- 
 ted some of the most powerful Italian nobles 
 against him, and he was obliged to relin- 
 quish the city. He was a man of unques- 
 tioned ability, handsome, daring, and utterly 
 unscrupulous, cruel and licentious ; and was 
 regarded Avith distrust and dread by all the 
 Italian states. In 1503 Pope Alexander 
 VI. died in consequence of having by acci- 
 dent drank of some wine which his son had 
 poisoned for the purpose of destroying the 
 Cardinal of Corneto, and with his death 
 Caesar's good fortune came to an end. He 
 was stripped of his possessions as suddenly 
 as he had gained them, and was made a 
 prisoner by the Venetians. The next year 
 he was liberated and went to Naj^les, where 
 he was seized by Gonsalvo and sent to Spain. 
 He escaped after an imprisonment of two 
 years and took refuge with his brother-in- 
 law, John, King of Navarre, in whose 
 arm^ he served until his death shortly after. 
 
 The conquest of Milan by the King of 
 France made him also master of Genoa, 
 which had been subject to Milan. Dissat- 
 isfied with the arbitrary rule of the French, 
 the Genoese attempted to revolt in 1507, 
 but were compelled to submit. Louis now 
 listened to the overtures of the Florentines, 
 who were anxious to obtain possession of 
 Pisa. By bribing both the Kings of France 
 and Spain, the Florentines induced them to 
 leave Pisa to its fate, and in 1509 that city 
 was compelled to submit to the army of 
 Florence, which entered it in triumph. The 
 Pisans in large numbers left their homes 
 rather than submit to the Florentine yoke. 
 
 In 1503 Venice, which for fifty years 
 had been at war with the Turks, made 
 peace with them. Relieved from the neces- 
 sities of this struggle, the republic began to 
 extend its possessions on the mainland of 
 Italy, and among other acts for this purpose, 
 after the death of Pope Alexander VI., 
 seized upon several cities in the papal 
 states, which had been taken by Ciesar 
 Borgia. They thus arrayed the pope against 
 them, and also made an enemy of the Em- 
 peror Maximilian, by defeating him in the 
 valley of the Cadoro, in 1508, in his attempt 
 to enter Italy to take part in the aflTairs of that 
 country. Venice was now at the height of | 
 
 her power. Her territory stretched from 
 Aquilcia to the Adda, and as far south as 
 Kavenna and Rimini. It included also 
 Friuli, the coast of Dalmatia, some of the 
 Greek islands, Cyprus, Crete, some points 
 in southern Greece, Brindisi, and some 
 other coast towns in the kingdom of Naples, 
 which Ferdinand II. had pledged as secu- 
 rity for loans from the Venetians. This 
 prosperous condition excited the jealousy 
 and alarm of the powerful neighbors of the 
 republic. Louis XII. of France, as Duke 
 of Milan, wished to recover the Lombard 
 towns which he had been foi'ced to yield to 
 the Venetians by treaty during his wars 
 with Ludovico Stbrza ; the pope claimed as 
 his own the territory granteil by Pepin and 
 Charlemagne, which included Rimini, Fa- 
 enza, and some other towns ; Ferdinand of 
 Spain wished to recover Brindisi and the 
 other Neapolitan towns ; the Emperor Max- 
 imilian claimed Padua, Vicenza, and Ver- 
 ona, as lapsed fiefs of the empire, and 
 Roveredo, Friuli, and Treviso, as the prop- 
 erty of the house of Austria ; and the Duke 
 of Savoy, as the descendant of Guy de 
 Lusignan, claimed the island of Cyprus. 
 In order to get possession of what he claimed 
 as his share, Pope Julius II. endeavored to 
 negotiate with the republic ; but finding the 
 Venetians averse to surrendering what they 
 regarded as their lawful prize, he changed 
 his policy and organized a league of the 
 leading European states against them. The 
 Emperor Maximilian, the Kings of France 
 and Spain, the Dukes of Savoy and Ferrara, 
 and the Marquis of Mantua, joined in the 
 pope in this confederacy, which was known 
 as the League of Cambray. War was de- 
 clared by the confederates in 1509. Louis 
 XII. at once took the field, defeated the 
 Venetians at Agnadello, and soon won 
 back the old territories of his duchy. He 
 also gained possession of Verona, Vicenza, 
 and Padua, the keys of which he sent to 
 Maximilian. The jwpe, who began his part 
 of the undertaking by excommunicating the 
 Venetians, won back the cities of the Ro- 
 magna ; the King of Spain recovered the 
 Neapolitan cities he had claimed ; and the 
 Duke of Brunswick regained Friuli for the 
 emperor. Venice seemed on the point of 
 ruin, but, abandoning its possessions in 
 northern Italy, the republic prepared to 
 concentrate its energies upon the defence of 
 its home territory. The slowness with 
 which the German Emperor Maximilian 
 executed his movements enabled the Veue- 
 
480 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tians to rally from their first reverses ; and, 
 takiug heart, they recaptured Padua. 
 Maximilian besieged the city with an army 
 of 40,000 men, but was obliged to raise the 
 siege. 
 
 The pope now suddenly changed his j)o- 
 sition. He had gained all that he desired, 
 and he now began to fear that the power of 
 Venice would be reduced too low for her to 
 offer any obstacle to the efforts of the 
 French to get possession of northern Italy. 
 He dreaded the effect of foreign supremacy 
 in Italy, and set to work to drive out the 
 French and Germans. He began with the 
 French. By a series of intrigues he broke 
 
 EXTERIOR DUCAL PALACE, VENICE 
 
 up the League of Cambray, and formed 
 another, known as the Holy League, with 
 the Swiss and Venetians, the latter of 
 whom he relieved from the excommunica- 
 tion. He began the Avar with forces furnished 
 by these, but Avas defeated by the French 
 commander, and Louis XII., in revenge for 
 this attack upon him, induced a number of 
 the cardinals to summon a general council, 
 which was to meet at Pisa for the purjwse 
 of investigating and condemning the conduct 
 of the pope. The council proved a failure, 
 and the pope retaliated by inducing the 
 emperor to make peace with the Venetians, 
 and by drawing the Kings of England and 
 Spain into the Holy League. Bologna, 
 which had fallen into the hands of the 
 French, was besieged by the allied forces, 
 
 but the French commander, Gaston de Foix, 
 the nephew of Louis XII., compelled them 
 to raise the siege. The French were so hard 
 pressed, however, that Louis ordered Gaston 
 to force the allies to a decisive battle. This 
 Avas brought on before RaA'^enna on the 11th 
 of April, 1512. The papal and Spanish 
 forces Avere defeated with great loss, but it 
 AA'as a dearly-bought \'ictory to the French, 
 AA'ho lost their gallant young commander, 
 Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours. The 
 j^osition of the French king also became 
 more critical ; for England Avas annoying 
 him greatly by repeated descents upon the 
 coast, and Sjpain had conquered ISTaA^arre. 
 Maximilian now joined 
 the Holy League, 
 and 20,000 Swiss in- 
 vaded the duchy of 
 Milan. The French 
 were dri\'en out of 
 Lombardy, which 
 AA'as oA'errun by the 
 Swiss, who seized some 
 of the frontier posts 
 of that region Avith the 
 intention of adding 
 them to their own 
 possessions. Maximil- 
 ian Sforza, the son of 
 Ludovico, Avas pro- 
 claimed Duke of Mil- 
 an, and Bologna, Fer- 
 rara, Parma, and 
 Piacenza fell into the 
 hands of the pope. 
 Genoa rose in revolt, 
 and of all the con- 
 quests of the French in 
 Italy, only two or three 
 fortresses remained to 
 them. Florence, Avhich had during the 
 Avar refused to break Avith the King of 
 France, Avas now compelled by the allies to 
 depose its chief magistrate and receiA^e back 
 the Medici, Avho Avere sufficiently hostile to 
 the French to guarantee the future policy 
 of the republic. Affairs Avere restored to 
 the position in Avhich they Avere before the 
 flight of Pietro de' Medici, in 1494. Having 
 succeeded so Avell Avith the French, Pope 
 Julius determined to rid Italy of the Span- 
 iards. "If heaven allow," said he, "the 
 Neapolitans shall soon have another mas- 
 ter." His death, in 1518, dissoh'ed his 
 ilan. He Avas succeeded by the Cardinal 
 Ciovanni de' Medici, Avho took the title of 
 Leo X. The policy of Alexander VI. and 
 Julius II. had been to play off the French 
 
FROM FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 481 
 
 and Spaniards against each other, but to 
 prevent either from becoming supreme in 
 Italy, and at last Julius endeavored to rid 
 the peninsula of both. Leo X. sought, 
 above every other interest, the perpetuation 
 of the power of his family in Florence, and 
 as he owed its re-establishment to the Span- 
 iards, his policy was to continue the alliance 
 with them. 
 
 Besides the pope the only really indepen- 
 dent Italian power at this time was the re- 
 public of Venice. The Venetians, becoming 
 offended at the refusal of the other mem- 
 bers of the Holy League to restore the 
 territory that had been taken from the 
 republic, began to plot with Louis XII. for 
 the restoration of Milan to him. That 
 duchy was nominally governed by Maxi- 
 milian Sforza, but its real rulers were the 
 Swiss, who sustained him. The Milanese 
 had grown weary of the tyranny of these 
 mercenaries, and were favorably inclined to 
 the French king. Genoa revolted, and the 
 French army suddenly swept down from 
 the Alps and entered Milan amid the ac- 
 clamations of the people. Maximilian fled 
 to No vara, which was defended by the 
 Swiss. The French, attempting to take 
 that place, were defeated on the 6th of 
 June, 1513, and were driven back over the 
 Alps. Genoa was reduced to submission 
 by the Spanish viceroy, and Venice was at- 
 tacked by the viceroy and the German king, 
 and its territory cruelly ravaged, for aiding 
 the French against a member of the league. 
 The Swiss invaded France, and the English 
 defeated the array of Louis at Guinegate. 
 About the same time James IV. of Scot- 
 land, the ally of Louis, was defeated by the 
 English at Flodden. These reverses made 
 Louis very anxious for peace. He suc- 
 ceeded in making terms with the pope, the 
 German king, and the Kings of England 
 and Spain, but the Swiss refused to treat 
 with him. 
 
 Matters were greatly changed by the 
 death of Louis XII. in 1515. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Francis I., who at once revived 
 the French claim to the duchy of Milan, 
 and prepared to maintain it. Venice and 
 Genoa embraced the French cause ; but the 
 pope, the Spanish viceroy, the Florentines, 
 and the Swiss sustained the claim of Duke 
 Maximilian, as none of them wished to see 
 the French again established in Italy. 
 The Swiss were stationed to hold the passes 
 of Piedmont, and the French commander 
 Trivulzio was forced to choose another 
 31 
 
 means of entering Italy. By one of the 
 most brilliant movements on record, he 
 passed his army, with its artillery and bag- 
 gage, over Monte Viso, and before the 
 allies were aware that he had begun the 
 ascent of the mountain was safe in Lom- 
 bardy. The pope's general, Prosper Co- 
 lonna, was captured at Villafranca, and the 
 French army advanced towards Milan. On 
 the 13tli of September the Swiss attacked 
 the French camp at Mariguano, about ten 
 miles from Milan. The battle continued 
 late into the night and was renewed the 
 next day. It was one of the bloodiest 
 fights ever waged, and resulted in a com- 
 plete victory for the French. The Swiss 
 abandoned the duchy in consequence of 
 their defeat, and never after this interfered 
 in Italian affairs. They made peace with 
 the French king soon after. Francis was 
 now master of Lombardy, and had he been 
 an abler man might soon have extended his 
 power over Tuscany and the papal states, 
 and even over Naples. The pope, how- 
 ever, was the abler of the two, and taking 
 advantage of the prejudices of the king, 
 who was never entirely satisfied with his 
 alliance with the "mercantile" republic 
 of Venice, the pontiff concluded a treaty 
 with him at Bologna. The French king 
 made a close alliance with the pope and the 
 Medici of Florence, and allowed himself to 
 he cheated of the most important conse- 
 quences of his victory. At the pope's per- 
 suasion he consented to defer his attempt 
 upon Naples until the death of Ferdinand 
 of Spain. Then, appointing the Constable 
 de Bourbon his lieutenant in Milan, Fran- 
 cis disbanded the bulk of his army and 
 returned to France. The pope, freed from 
 danger at his hands, now devoted himself 
 to advancing the interests of his family in 
 Florence. 
 
 In 1516 Ferdinand of Spain died, and 
 was succeeded by his grandson Charles, 
 Archduke of Austria and also Lord of the 
 county of Burgundy and the Low Countries, 
 which he had inherited from his mother. 
 Three years later, 1519, Charles w^as elected 
 German king. He thus became the most 
 powerful sovereign of Europe, as he was 
 King of Germany and Spain, Archduke of 
 Austria, Count of Burgundy, and Lord of 
 the Low Countries. The Reformation now 
 began to move Europe with powerful force, 
 and Charles, who w'as a devoted Catholic, 
 was unwilling to see his religion supplanted 
 by the doctrines taught by Luther. More- 
 
482 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 over, he was fearful that the resistance to 
 spiritual tyranny might become a revolt 
 against civil authority also, and both these 
 feelings caused him to side with the pope. 
 In Italy he was also the rival of the King 
 of France and the natural ally of the pope, 
 and so in 1521 a treaty was negotiated be- 
 tween the pope and Charles, and the latter 
 was urged by the pontiff to come and drive 
 the French out of Italy. It was agreed 
 
 did in its intellectual achievements, was a 
 curse to his country. Michael Angelo and 
 Raphael shed a glory over it, but the am- 
 bition and the falseness of the pope were the 
 cause of serious evils to it. Indeed, in spite 
 of their efforts to rid the peninsula of for- 
 eign influence, the policy of the last three 
 popes had steadily increased that suprem- 
 acy Avhich they dreaded. Alexander VI., 
 by his alliance with Ferdinand against the 
 
 FLORENCE. 
 
 between them that Francesco, who had be- 
 come the head of the Storza family by the 
 death of his brother Maximilian, should be 
 made Duke of Milan. The plan was suc- 
 cessful. The French were driven out of 
 the duchy and Francesco was proclaimed 
 duke. Parma and Piacenza were restored 
 to the pope. Leo died soon after hearing 
 the news of this success. He was an intel- 
 lectual epicure, and his reign, though splen- 
 
 French, introduced the Spaniards into 
 Italy. The Holy League of Pope Julius 
 II. gave them a strong hold upon central 
 Italy, and the alliance between Leo X. and 
 Charles V. made them masters of the 
 duchy of Milan, for Francesco, the new 
 duke, was but a puppet in their hands. 
 The new pope, Adrian VI., though a far 
 better man than either of those named, 
 contributed to increase the Spanish power 
 
FROM FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEFANTO. 483 
 
 in Italy. He had been the tutor of Charles 
 v., and was therefore naturally inclined to 
 his cause. The persistence of Francis I. in 
 seeking to recover his lost Italian territory 
 compelled the pope to make a direct alli- 
 ance with the emperor. Venice, tired of 
 the French alliance, also joined the party 
 of Charles, and in 1 522 Genoa was captured 
 from the French by the imperial army. 
 Thus the power of Spain was supreme 
 throughout Italy. 
 
 Francis, undismayed by his losses, began 
 in 1523 his preparations for a vigorous 
 effort to recover the duchy of Milan. The 
 pope at once organized a league for the de- 
 fence of Italy, which embraced himself, the 
 Emperor Charles, the King of England, the 
 Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, the Duke 
 of Milan, and the cities of Florence, Genoa, 
 Lucca, and Siena. The French army had 
 begun its march into Italy, and Francis 
 was about to follow, when he was detained 
 at home by the discovery of the conspiracy 
 of the great Constable of Bourbon, and was 
 obliged to intrust the command of his army 
 to William de Bouuivet, Admiral of 
 France, who was outgeueralled by the papal 
 commander, and failed to accomplii-h any- 
 thing. About the same time Pope Adrian 
 VI. died, and was succeeded by Cardinal 
 Giulio de' Medici, who took the title of 
 Clement VII. The new pope was anxious 
 for peace, for he was fully alive to the dan- 
 ger to Italy of having the King of Spain 
 master of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
 and of the duchy of Milan also ; but he was 
 unable to accomplish his desire. By the 
 death of Prospero Colouna the INIarquis of 
 Pescara succeeded to the command of the 
 allied army. The spring of 1524 witnessed 
 fresh disasters for the French. The Duke 
 of Bourbon entered Italy as the lieutenant 
 of the emperor, and the French commander 
 Bounivet was forced to retreat. In a bat- 
 tle on the Sesia, near Romagnano, the 
 Chevalier Bayard was killed. Bourbon 
 and Pescara then invaded France by the 
 Cornice road, captured Aix and several 
 other towns, and laid siege to Marseilles. 
 They were soon compelled to raise the siege 
 and retreat into Italy, and Bourbon found 
 that his countrymen had no wish to share 
 in his treachery. 
 
 Francis now entered Italy with a fine 
 army of 30,000 men. The Venetians, 
 though they had joined the league, made no 
 effort to interfere with him, being perhaps 
 jealous of the power of the emperor. 
 
 Francis threw away the advantages he had 
 gained by halting in his advance to lay 
 siege to Pavia. The pope secretly negoti- 
 ated a treaty of neutrality with the French 
 king and abandoned his allies, and the 
 King of England was so lukewarm in his 
 zeal for the cause that he failed to furnish 
 the aid and supplies he had promised. 
 Francis was so much elated by this good 
 fortune that he foolishly weakened his army 
 by sending a portion of it, under the Duke 
 of Albany, to conquer the Neapolitan king- 
 dom. This proved his ruin, for the imperial 
 army, reiuforced by new levies under the 
 Constable of Bourbon and a German leader 
 named George Frundesberg, attacked him 
 on the 24th of February, 1525, before 
 Pavia, and utterly defieated him, Francis 
 and his brother-in-law, Henry d'Albret, 
 King of Navarre, were made prisoners, 
 and 8,000 men and some of the greatest 
 nobles of France were slain. Francis was 
 imprisoned in the Castle of Pizzighittone, 
 near Milan, and was afterwards removed to 
 Madrid, where he was confined in the Al- 
 cazar. 
 
 The victory of Pavia made Charles ab- 
 solute master of northern Italy, to the 
 great dissatisfaction of the pope and the 
 Venetians, who had expected his defeat. 
 He was too powerful to be a safe neighbor, 
 and the Venetians endeavored to induce the 
 pope to aid them in iorming a league with 
 the Regent of France, the Duke of Ferrara, 
 and the Swiss for the purpose of checking 
 the emperor and securing the release of 
 King Francis, but the pope was afraid to 
 offend the emperor, and signed a treaty 
 with the commanders of the imperial army. 
 In order to support the large force which 
 the emperor maintained in the peninsula, 
 the various Italian states Avere burdened 
 with heavy taxes. The people of the 
 duchy of Milan were almost ruined by this 
 imposition, and were annoyed and driven 
 to desperation by the brutality of the troops 
 who wei*e quartered upon them. The duke, 
 seeing the sufferings of his people, and feel- 
 ing that he himself was but a mere puppet 
 in the hands of the Spaniards, resolved to 
 make an effort to throw off' their yoke. He 
 was urged to this step by the advice of his 
 chancellor, Girolamo Morone, and was se- 
 cretly encouraged by the pope and the 
 Venetians. He succeeded in drawing the 
 Spanish commander, the Marquis of Pes- 
 cara, into the plot, by offering, in the name 
 of the parties to the plot, to guarantee him 
 
484 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the crown of Naples if he would assist in 
 driving the Spaniards and Germans out of 
 Italy. The marquis at first gave his ad- 
 hesion to the scheme, but in a short time 
 betrayed his confederates to the emperor, 
 arrested the chancellor, and besieged the 
 Duke of Milan in his castle. By command 
 of the emperor he seized on all the fortified 
 places of the duchy except Cremona and 
 Milan, which still held out for Duke Fran- 
 cesco. Towards the close of 1525 the Mar- 
 quis of Pescara died, and the command of 
 the imperial army in Italy passed to the 
 Duke of Bourbon, who was given the duchy 
 of Milan by the emperor. 
 
 Francis I. regained his liberty early in 
 1526 by signing the humiliating treaty of 
 Madrid, renouncing, among other things, 
 his claims to Naples, Milan, Genoa, and 
 Asti. Immediately upon his return to 
 France he repudiated the terms of the 
 treaty on the plea that he had been com- 
 pelled to sign it "while a prisoner. The 
 sufferings of the Italians were very great, 
 and all now turned to the King of France 
 as their only hope. The Duke of Bourbon 
 promised to remove the troops from Milan 
 upon the payment of 300,000 crowns, but 
 when this sura was raised he found himself 
 powerless to fulfil his promise, as the troops 
 refused to obey him. They had not been 
 paid for a long time, and they supplied 
 their needs by plundering the unhappy 
 Milanese. The business of the city ceased ; 
 no man dared to open his shop lest he 
 should be instantly robbed of all his goods 
 by the troops. In this state of affliirs the 
 pope, the Venetians, and the Duke of Milan 
 formed a league with the King of France, 
 which, as the pope was at the head of it, 
 was called the Holy League. Its objects 
 were declared to be to compel Charles to 
 release the sons of Francis, who were de- 
 tained in Spain as hostages, and to restore 
 Francesco to the duchy of Milan. In case 
 Charles refused these demands he was to be 
 attacked first in Milan and then in Naples. 
 
 In the meantime the people of Milan 
 were made to suffer all the more because 
 their duke Avas a member of this league. 
 An effort of the Venetian array to expel 
 the Spaniards frora Milan was defeated by 
 the Constable of Bourbon. Cardinal Co- 
 lonna, a personal enemy of the pope, now 
 collected an array and marched suddenly 
 to Rome. His troops plundered the Vati- 
 can and the church of St. Peter, and the 
 pope, who had taken refuge in the Castle 
 
 of St. Angelo, was corapalled to surrender 
 and make terms with the ambassador of 
 the emperor. About the same time the 
 imperial army in Italy was strongly rein- 
 forced. Among the new troops was a 
 splendid army of German infantry, com- 
 manded by George Frundesberg. Frundes- 
 berg had raised these troops himself, and 
 they had followed hira in the hope of plun- 
 der, which his great military fame seemed 
 to promise them. They were quartered at 
 Mantua. Bourbon's array at Milan was 
 almost in an open mutiny because of the 
 failure of their pay, and Frundesberg's men 
 soon became equally discontented. Bour- 
 bon was soon joined by the Viceroy of Na- 
 ples with his forces, and by Frundesberg and 
 his troops. It being impossible to extort 
 anything more from the Milanese, the con- 
 stable led the army into central Italy in 
 the hope of finding some means of content- 
 ing them. 
 
 The pope, who had broken the truce 
 forced upon him by Cardinal Colonna, sent 
 a force to ravage the country estates of the 
 Colonnas, and caused their palaces at Rome 
 to be destroyed. He also made an unsuc- 
 cessful atterapt against the Neapolitan 
 kingdom. The news of the raarch of the 
 iraperial array under Bourbon southward 
 filled him with alarm for the safety of both 
 Florence and Rome. He raade a hasty 
 peace with the Spanish viceroy and dis- 
 banded nearly all his troops. The viceroy 
 promised that the imperial troops should 
 not approach either Florence or Rome, but 
 neither he nor their comraanders could stay 
 the march of the army, which was excited 
 and urged on by the thought of the rich 
 booty which the capture of the Eternal 
 City would afford them ; and it is most 
 probable that Bourbon himself had no wish 
 to spare the city. Passing by Florence, the 
 army at length arrived before Rome. The 
 pope endeavored to stay the advance of this 
 terrible force, but without success. Frundes- 
 berg, in atterapting to quell a rautiny of his 
 men, was seized with a fit which afterwards 
 cost him his life, and Bourbon was left in 
 sole charge of the army. On the 6th of 
 May, 1527, Rome was carried by storm, 
 and for two weeks the city was given up to 
 plunder, massacre, and the most horrid 
 deeds of violence. " The splendor of Rome, 
 which had outlasted so many heathen and 
 barbarian invasions, perished at last from 
 the cruelty and brutality of a Christian 
 array." The Duke of JBourbon having 
 
486 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 been killed in the assault upon the city, the 
 Prince of Orange was chosen by the troops 
 to command them. The pope, who had 
 fled to the Castle of St. Angelo, surrendered 
 on the 5th of June because of the failure 
 of the supplies of the castle. He was kept 
 a prisoner until September 9th, when he es- 
 caped to Orvieto. 
 
 The Florentines, taking advantage of the 
 absence of the imperial army from Tus- 
 cany, drove out the Medici, and, placing 
 themselves under the protection of France, 
 restored their republican form of govern- 
 ment. Genoa also threw off the Spanish 
 yoke, and, under the lead of Andrea Doria, 
 declared for the French. The Holy League 
 was revived, and a French army entered 
 Italy. Pavia was taken by storm and 
 sacked in revenge for the defeat of Francis 
 before its walls. Lautrec, the French com- 
 mander, advanced to Naples, and the 
 Prince of Orange evacuated Rome and 
 threw the remnant of his army Avhich had 
 survived its excesses into that city. Lau- 
 trec invested Naples by laud, while the 
 combined fleets of France and Genoa 
 blockaded it from the sea. The city must 
 have fallen had not Francis seriously of- 
 fended the Dorias by his unjust treatment 
 of them. Andrea Doria withdrew the 
 Genoese fleet, and Genoa abandoned the 
 French alliance and went over to the em- 
 peror. Lautrec died of a sickness which 
 swept away the greater part of his army, and 
 the remainder were compelled by the Geno- 
 ese to raise the siege. The French invasion 
 resulted in a complete failure ; the Priuce 
 of Orange was made viceroy for the em- 
 peror, and the power of Charles was 
 riveted ujion Italy more firmly than ever. 
 
 The pope, who was resolved to become 
 master of Florence once more, now began 
 to negotiate with the emperor for that pur- 
 pose. In June, 1529, an alliance was formed 
 between these two potentates. Charles, 
 Avho was only emperor-elect, though spoken 
 of always as emperor, was promised the im- 
 perial crown and the investiture of the 
 kingdom of Naples, and he agreed to com- 
 pel the Venetians and the Duke of Ferrara 
 to restore to the pope some of the territory 
 they had taken from him, and to aid him 
 in his designs upon Florence. In August 
 of the same year the war between Charles 
 and Francis was brought to an end by the 
 Treaty of Cambray, in which Francis, with 
 characteristic selfishness, sacrificed his 
 Italian allies in order to obtain peace. 
 
 Thus abandoned, they were obliged to make 
 the best arrangement they could with 
 Charles. The Duke of Milan, who was 
 childless, was allowed to retain his duchy 
 on payment of a large sum,aud at his death 
 the emperor claimed the duchy as a lapsed 
 fief The Venetians were obliged to surren- 
 der Ravenna and Cervia to the pope, and 
 their conquests in Apulia to the emperor. 
 The others were allowed to purchase peace 
 on terms more or less favorable. All the 
 Italian states were obliged to admit the 
 authority of the emperor. Florence alone 
 was exempted from the general peace ; 
 nothing but the unconditional submission 
 of the republic to the pope would satisfy 
 either Clement or Charles. 
 
 In 1530 Charles was crowned King of 
 Italy and Emperor by Pope Clement. He 
 received both crowns at once, and the coro- 
 nation took place at Bologna, instead of at 
 Milan and Rome. This informality, how- 
 ever, amounted to nothing. Charles V. 
 was supreme monarch of the mightiest 
 realm that had been ruled by any sov- 
 ereign since the days of Charlemagne. He 
 was absolute in Italy, and in the truest 
 sense king of that country. His coronation 
 did not unite Italy with the empire, how- 
 ever, but with the Spanish crown, to which 
 it passed at his abdication. His coronation 
 closed the long war between France and 
 Spain for the possession of Italy. The re- 
 sults of this struggle were three-fold : the 
 enslavement of Italy; the humiliation of 
 France; and the exaltation of Spain. 
 Charles V. was the last emperor crowned in 
 Italy. 
 
 The presence of Charles in Italy was 
 made the occasion of compelling Florence 
 to submit to the pope. The Florentines 
 having refused to receive back the Medici, 
 the Prince of Orange was ordered by the 
 emperor to attack the city. Florence was 
 fortified by Michael Angelo, and was de- 
 fended with great obstinacy and gallantry 
 by the garrison and by an army without 
 the walls, but its ablest general being slain 
 in battle and another proving a traitor, the 
 city was compelled to surrender in August, 
 1530. It was obliged to pay a heavy ran- 
 som and receive an imperial garrison. The 
 hereditary rule of the Medici was re-estab- 
 lished, and this family continued in power 
 until the death of the last Medici in 1737. 
 In 1570 Cosmo de' Medici was made Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. From 
 this time Florence " ceased to have an in- 
 
FROM FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 487 
 
 dependent political life ; she was no longer 
 a city-state, but only the seat of the govern- 
 ment of the grand duchy." 
 
 In 1534 Clement VII. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Alexander Farnese, who took the 
 title of Paul III. Pope Paul was a bitter 
 enemy of the Medici, and exerted himself 
 to depress them and advance his own 
 family. He encouraged the Florentines to 
 
 30,000 men. In Italy the effort against 
 the emperor was unsuccessful ; the Floren- 
 tines were severely punished, and were 
 obliged to submit to the Medici. After 
 this they made no other effort to rid them- 
 selves of their masters. Pope Paul pursued 
 a varying policy, courting the French 
 sometimes, and sometimes leaning towards 
 the emperor, who was the only person with 
 
 VIEW OP ROME, SHOWING THE CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO AND ST. PETER'S. 
 
 rebel against their lord, and the time 
 seemed favorable for the movement, as a 
 new war had broken out between Francis 
 and Charles. The latter claimed the duchy 
 of Savoy, the reigning duke of which was 
 his uncle, and in 1536 overran the duchy 
 with his troops. Charles by invadin'o- 
 France threw his rival on the defensive, 
 but he was unable to accomplish anything' 
 and was forced to retreat with a loss of 
 
 the power to advance his family in Italy. 
 As Charles, however, was not willing to do 
 anythiug more for the Farnesi, the pope 
 was on the whole unfriendly to him, and so 
 incurred his anger. He came to an open 
 rupture with Charles about the duchy of 
 Parma, which the emperor wanted for his 
 son-in-law, Ottaviano, who was also the 
 pope's grandson. In the midst of this 
 quarrel the pope died, in 1549. His sue- 
 
488 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cesser was Cardinal del Monte, who became 
 Julius III. The new pope gave Parma to 
 Ottaviano. Alexander, the sou of Ottavi- 
 ano and Margaret, the daughter of the 
 Emperor Charles, became the most famous 
 of all the generals of Philip II., of Spain. 
 He is known as the Prince of Parma. 
 
 In the meantime Francis I. had followed 
 up the withdrawal of Charles from France, 
 by renewing his claims to Savoy and also 
 to Milan, but the war was prevented by a 
 truce in July, 1537, which was finally 
 settled into a definite peace in 1539. Francis 
 was left in possession of Savoy, Bresse, and 
 half of Piedmont; the emperor kept the 
 rest of Piedmont and Milan. The Duke of 
 Savoy, thus unjustly stripped of his terri- 
 tories, was confined to the county of Nice. 
 Geneva, which had been nominally subject 
 to Savoy, now became an independent re- 
 public. 
 
 In March, 1547, Francis I. died. He 
 was succeeded by Henry II., who, in 1550, 
 became involved in a war with Charles. 
 The chief events of this war occurred be- 
 yond the Alps, but it spread to Italy and 
 caused considerable suffering to that coun- 
 try. In 1552 Siena revolted against the 
 Spaniards, and was attacked by the Floren- 
 tines under Duke Cosmo de' Medici. It 
 was captured after a severe siege of fifteen 
 months, and received an imperialist garri- 
 son, but two years later was definitely 
 united to Florence. Many of the Sienese 
 abandoned their homes rather than submit 
 to Florence. On the whole the war in Italy 
 resulted in favor of the Spaniards. The 
 French overran Savoy, but could not obtain 
 a footing in Milan. 
 
 In 1555 Charles V. abdicated the throne 
 and retired to a monastery. He was suc- 
 ceeded on the throne of Spain by his son 
 Philip II., and in the empire by his brother 
 Ferdinand. Italy went with the Spanish 
 crown. It had already been ruled for some 
 years by Philip. In the same year Pope 
 Paul III. died, and his successor, Gian 
 Pietro Caraffa, became Pope Paul IV. The 
 latter pope hated the Spaniards cordially, 
 and was anxious to see the French back in 
 Naples. In alliance with Henry II., the 
 Duke of Ferrara, and the Florentine exiles, 
 he brought on a war against Philip II. in 
 the Neapolitan kingdom, and a French 
 army under the Duke of Guise was sent to 
 his assistance. The Spaniards were success- 
 ful, however ; the French were driven away, 
 and the pope was obliged to submit to Philip, 
 
 who, however, was too good a son of the 
 church to deprive him of his territory, and 
 restored him all that had been taken from 
 him. The war was decided by the defeat 
 of the French, and Henry was obliged to 
 sign the treaty of Cateau Cambresis, by 
 which he relinquished Savoy and Piedmont, 
 with the exception of Turin and four other 
 towns, and withdrew his troops from Mont- 
 ferrat, Tuscany, and Corsica. 
 
 The principles of the Reformation, which 
 had changed the character of northern 
 Europe and influenced France to no slight 
 degree, took no root in Italy. Here and 
 there, throughout the peninsula, and even 
 at Rome itself, were to be found persons 
 who held the views of the reformers, and 
 particularly the great doctrine of justifica- 
 tion by faith ; but they formed no party, 
 and had no influence upon the course of 
 affairs. Yet some of those who held the 
 reformed opinions without leaving the 
 church, such as the Cardinal Contarini and 
 Bernardo Ochino, one of the generals of the 
 Order of the Capuchins, were so prominent 
 as to make it necessary to do something to 
 check the spread of these doctrines in the 
 church. It was agreed to hold a general 
 council, and this plan was warmly favored 
 by the Emperor Charles V., who hoped it 
 would heal the troubles which the religious 
 differences had caused in the empire. The 
 council met at Trent in 1545, and with some 
 breaks continued its sessions for twenty 
 years. It reformed some abuses; but de- 
 fined so explicitly and rigidly the doctrines 
 of the Roman Church that those who did 
 not hold the articles put forth by this coun- 
 cil were excluded from the church. Thus 
 the council, so far from healing the division 
 of Christendom, only made it wider and 
 deeper. 
 
 About the same time several societies 
 were established for the reformation of the 
 evils from which the church had suffered. 
 Ignatius Loyola, a young Spanish soldier, 
 who had borne arms against the French, 
 was wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, 
 and as he lay helpless his thoughts were 
 turned towards religious matters, and he 
 resolved to devote the remainder of his life 
 to the service of the church. He took 
 priest's orders at Venice, and in 1540, with 
 the permission of Pope Paul III., established 
 the Society of Jesus. The order grew with 
 great rapidity. Its greatest successes were 
 won in Spain and Italy. Its distinguishing 
 features were absolute devotion to the pope 
 
FROM FRENCH CONQUEST OF NAPLES TO BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 489 
 
 and unhesitating obedience to its superiors. 
 "Through all varieties of fortune, in exile 
 and imprisonment, and even in dissolution, 
 their oath of uninquiring, unhesitating 
 obedience to the papal command has never 
 been broken. . . No degradation is too 
 servile, no place too far, no action too re- 
 volting, for these unreasoning instruments 
 of power. Wilfully surrendering the right 
 of judgment and the feelings of conscience 
 into the hands of their superior, there is no 
 method by law or argument of regulating 
 their conduct. The one principle of sub- 
 
 command of his chiefs is venerated as a 
 saint. Against practices and feelings like 
 these you can neither reason nor be on your 
 guard. In all kingd(jms, accordingly, at 
 some time or other, the existence of the 
 order has been found inconsistent with the 
 safety of the state, and it has been dissolved 
 by the civil power. The moment, however, 
 the church regains its hold, the Jesuits are 
 sure to be restored." 
 
 The Jesuits set themselves to work at 
 once to undo the work of the Reformation, 
 and in Italy they effectually checked it. 
 
 ST. PETER'S AND THE VATICAN — KOME. 
 
 mission has swallowed up all the rest, and 
 fulfilment of that duty ennobles the iniqui- 
 tous deeds by which it is shown. Other 
 societies put a clause, either by words or 
 implication, in their promise of obedience, 
 limiting it to things which are just and 
 proper. This limit is ostentatiously abro- 
 gated by the followers of Loyola. The 
 merit of obeying an order to slay an enemy 
 of the church more than compensates for 
 the guilt of the murder. In other orders a 
 homicide is looked upon with horror; in 
 this, a Jesuit who kills a heretical king b^' 
 
 Italy remained Romanist, except in a little 
 corner of the duchy of Savoy, where the 
 Vaudois, the descendants of a primitive and 
 pure church, maintained the principles of 
 the gospel of Christ. Against this little 
 band the Jesuits directed their energies. 
 The Vaudois were imprisoned, tortured, put 
 to death with the most horrible cruelties ; 
 armies were sent against them, their terri- 
 tory was ravaged with fire and sword, and 
 it often seemed that their destruction was 
 sure ; but they survived these trials and 
 maintained their long struggle with Rome 
 
490 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 until the middle of the nineteenth century, 
 when they were admitted to an equality 
 with the other subjects of the Sardinian 
 king. Elsewhere the Jesuits were abund- 
 antly successful. They reformed the church 
 of many of its abuses, and at length suc- 
 ceeded in imposing their will upon the popes 
 themselves, who thenceforth became very 
 different from their predecessors. The in- 
 difference, voluptuousness, and open im- 
 morality of the pontificial character, dis- 
 appeared, and the popes applied themselves 
 zealously to the interests of the church, and 
 were often men of austere pietv. " In ac- 
 cordance with the advice of Ignatius Loyola, 
 Paul III. set up in Rome a system of reli- 
 gious courts, spies, police, judges, and exe- 
 cutioners, called the Inquisition, somewhat 
 after the model of the institution which had 
 been regulated by St. Dominic. Persecu- 
 tion and terror began to spread throughout 
 Italy, la each different state the ecclesias- 
 tics held a court, and called upon the civil 
 power to help them, and in almost every 
 case the commands of the chief court at 
 Rome were readily obeyed. Some of those 
 who were suspected of heresy took shelter 
 in England or Germany, or in the Px-otest- 
 aiit cities and lands of the Swiss ; others 
 suffered the loss of their goods, torture, and 
 death. In Rome, and in most other places, 
 heretics were burned ; m Venice they were 
 drowned. Thus throughout Italy the new 
 opinions were stamped out." 
 
 During the wars between France and 
 Spain, Italy suffered much at the hands of 
 the Turks, who were the allies of Francis I. 
 The reigning sultan at this time was Soly- 
 man I., under whom the power of the Turks 
 reached its highest point. He possessed a 
 powerful navy, commanded by Khaireddin 
 Pasha, whom the Europeans called Barba- 
 rossa. This commander captured Algiers 
 from the Spaniards and made it the head- 
 quarters of his fleet, which swept tlie Medi- 
 terranean at pleasure. He defeated the 
 Genoese fleet under Andrea Doria, and the 
 imperial and Venetian fleets off Prevesa, and 
 ravaged the coasts of Italy, sackiug Friuli, 
 Reggie, and the Venetian possessions in the 
 Adriatic. In alliance with the French he 
 took and burned the city of Nice. In 1570, 
 though at peace with Venice, Selim, who 
 had succeeded his father Solyman. attacked 
 Cvprus, which belonged to the Venetians. 
 The island was bravely defended, but it was 
 conquered with great cruelty by the end of 
 1571. Pius v., who was now pope, organ- 
 
 ized a league of the Mediterranean powers 
 against the Turks, and a fleet was provided 
 by Spain, Savoy, the Knights of St. John, 
 Venice, and the pope. The command was 
 given to Don John, of Austria, a natural 
 son of Charles V. On the 5th of Septem- 
 ber, 1571, he inflicted a severe defeat upon 
 the Turkish fleet off the Gulf of Lepanto. 
 The Turkish fleet was almost destroyed, and 
 Venice was delivered from the danger of 
 conquest with which it was threatened. 
 Still the Turks were enabled to retain Cy- 
 prus, as the allies did not follow up their 
 success. In 1573 the Venetians made peace 
 with the sultan, relinquishing their claims 
 to the island, and paying him a large 
 tribute. 
 
 The peace of Cateau Cambresis restored 
 to Emmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, a 
 large portion of his territories, but the 
 French king retained Saluzzo, Turin and 
 four other fortresses. Philip II. by this 
 treaty was given Asti and Vercelli, but he 
 at once restored them to the duke, who was 
 his cousin. At the same time a marriage 
 was arranged between the Duke of Savoy 
 and Margaret, the sister of Henry II., of 
 France, It was celebrated after consider- 
 able delay, and in 1574 the French and 
 Spaniai'ds relinquished to the duke all the 
 territory they had retained by the treaty, 
 and the duke became once more master of 
 all his hereditary dominions. He removed 
 his capital from Chambery to Turin, and 
 Italian became the language of the court 
 and the government. Thus Piedmont, and 
 not Savoy, became the chief state in his 
 dominions, and from this reign the Dukes 
 of Savoy became in all things Italian 
 princes. Savoy was indeed the only indepen- 
 dent state left in Italy, for the rest were 
 either subject to or under the influence of 
 Spain. Oq the death of Emmanuel Fili- 
 bert, his son Charles Emmanuel succeeded 
 to the duchy. He was ambitious of extend- 
 ing his territories, and in order to secure 
 the support of Spain married the sister of 
 Philip II. In 1588, taking advantage of 
 the religious wars in France, he invaded 
 Saluzzo, and eiisily conquered it. He also 
 joined the Catholic League against Henry 
 III of France, and invaded Provence and 
 at the same time laid siege to Geneva. Upon 
 the assassination of Henry he even cherished 
 the hope of succeeding to the French crown 
 in right of his mother, who was the daugh- 
 ter of Francis T. The battle of Ivry, how- 
 ever, established the power of Henry IV., 
 
FR03I THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L 491 
 
 and the Duke of tSavoy was driven out of 
 Provence. A long war followed, which was 
 ended in 1601 by the treaty of Lyons. The 
 Duke of Savoy was allowed to keep Saluzzo, 
 but was obliged to surrender Bresse, Bugey, 
 and the Pays de Gex. This was a great 
 loss to Savoy, but it aided greatly in mak- 
 ing her a strictly Italian power. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO TO THE 
 FALL OF NAPOLEON I. 
 
 Increase of the Temporal Power of the Pope — He 
 Gains Ferrara and Urbino — Policy of the Papal 
 Government — Venice and Poj^e Paul V. — Decline 
 of the Power of Venice — Loses Her Eastern Pos- 
 sessions — Decline of the Spanish Power in Italy 
 — Rebellion of Masaniello at Naples — The Out- 
 break Crushed — "fhe Outbreak in Sicily — Italy 
 During the Eighteenth Century — The War of the 
 Spanish Succession — The Peace of Utrecht — Rise 
 of the Austrian Influence in Italy — The Duke of 
 Savoy Becomes King of Sicily — The Succession 
 to Parma — The King of Sicily Becomes King of 
 Sardinia — The War of the Polish Succession — 
 Re-establishment of tlie Spanish Influence in 
 Southern Italy — War of the Austrian Succession 
 — The Peace of Aix la Chapelle Leaves the Bour- 
 bons Supreme in Italy — Loss of Power by the 
 Popes — The French Revolution — The French Re- 
 publican Invasion of Italy — Bonaparte's Victories 
 — Treaty of Campo Formio — The Italian Repub- 
 lics — Napoleon King of Italy. 
 
 (4^;;^HE history of Italy during the sev- 
 enteenth century is so closely allied 
 with that of other countries, that 
 we shall be obliged to relate the 
 greater part of it in connection 
 with our accounts of those coun- 
 tries, and shall confine our attention here 
 to those portions relating exclusively or 
 chiefly to the purely Italian history of this 
 period. 
 
 The pope had now become a leading 
 Italian prince, and concerned himself more 
 about his temporal than his spiritual posses- 
 sions. Clement VIII. proved himself one 
 of the most grasping and ambitious of pon- 
 tiffs. In 1597 Alfonso d'Este, Duke of Fer- 
 rara, died without children, and left his 
 dominions, consisting of Ferrara, Modena, 
 and Reggio, to his kinsman Caesare. The 
 pope at once claimed Ferrara as a fief of 
 the Holy See, and Henry IV. of France, 
 who was anxious to win the favor of the 
 pope, as a means of strengthening himself 
 with his Roman Catholic subjects, sent word 
 to his holiness that in case of resistance, he 
 would help him to enforce his claim. Philip 
 II. was old and feeble, and though he espoused 
 
 the cause of Duke Ctesare, he took no active 
 steps to support him, and the pope sent his 
 troops into Ferrara and occupied the city. 
 The new duke submitted to what he could 
 not prevent, and retired to Modena, which 
 he held as a fief of the empire. The family 
 of Este continued to reign in Modena until 
 1794. 
 
 In the reign of Pope Urban VIII., the 
 duchy of Urbino passed into the hands of 
 the Holy See as a lapsed fief, upon the fail- 
 ure of the line of Giovanni della Rovere. 
 "The territory of Urbino," says Ranke, 
 "was at once subjected to the system of 
 government prevailing in other districts 
 belonging to the church, and very soon 
 there might be heard throughout the duchy 
 those complaints that the government of 
 priests invariably called forth." 
 
 Had the pope been a less selfish ruler, he 
 might have made the beautiful domain over 
 which he was lord one of the happiest re- 
 gions upon earth. When the states of the 
 church came into the possession of the pon- 
 tiflT, they were rich and prosperous. From 
 the first the pontiff made himself their ab- 
 solute master, and step by step deprived 
 their people of every liberty or right they 
 had ever possessed. Taxes were levied on 
 everything from which a revenue could be 
 derived; even alum, salt, flour and meat 
 were taxed ; the poor were crushed beneath 
 the heavy burdens laid upon them, enter- 
 prise was destroyed, and industry discour- 
 aged. The popes regarded their temporal 
 possessions merely as a source of gain, and 
 cared nothing for the inhabitants, whom 
 they oppressed and robbed of their earn- 
 ings. There was no such thing as personal 
 or political liberty in this part of Italy. 
 The power of the papal government ex- 
 tended to every department of life, and any 
 deviation from the exact line of conduct or 
 of thought prescribed by the court of Rome 
 was severely punished. Education was 
 discouraged, and idleness, poverty and vice 
 increased with fearful rapidity. 
 
 The 2>ope endeavored to extend his au- 
 thority over the Venetians, but met with a 
 determined opposition from them. In their 
 religion they were members of the Roman 
 communion, and their chief ecclesiastical 
 dignitary was a patriarch, who was inferior 
 in rank to the pope alone. He was main- 
 tained by the Venetians with great splen- 
 dor, but they resolutely refused to allow 
 him to interfere with their political affairs, 
 and fixed his residence first at Aquileia, 
 
492 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 aud subsequently at Grado. After the 
 Jesuits became a power in the church, an 
 effort was begun to establish more firmly 
 the spiritual authority of Rome in Catholic 
 Europe, and as a means of doing this the 
 church began a systematic warfare upon 
 education aud freedom of thought. Venice 
 had from the first regarded with disfavor 
 the effort to render her subject to Rome, 
 and the warfare upon knowledge which the 
 Jesuits fomented was a direct blow at one 
 of her most important industries. Since 
 the early part of the sixteenth century 
 Venice had been noted for her printing 
 
 WATEIi SCENli— ViiNICE. 
 
 presses. The volumes which were issued 
 from the press of Aide Manuzio com- 
 manded the admiration of the world, aud 
 are still dear to the antiquary. As the 
 restrictions by which the church sought to 
 destroy the publication of books multi- 
 plied, the Venetian printers began to suffer 
 serious loss, and were at length obliged to 
 leave that city and the territory of the re- 
 public altogether. Thus the Venetians 
 were embittered against Rome, which had 
 deprived them of an industry which was 
 not only an object of pride to them, but 
 also a source of great profit. 
 
 In 1605 Cardinal Borghese became pope, 
 with the title of Paul V. He was arrogant 
 and grasping, and soc? came in couflict 
 with the Venetians in a dispute concerning 
 the boundaries of their respective dominions. 
 The A'^enetians were in no mood to submit 
 to his arrogant pretensions, and the pope 
 finding it impossible to get the advantage 
 of them in this controversy, began to inter- 
 fere in their religious afiairs by way of re- 
 venge. Until now the state had always 
 managed the payment of tithes, and had 
 claimed to be the highest authority for the 
 settlement of disj)utes concerning ecclesias- 
 tical persons or things. 
 The pope now asserted 
 his right to manage 
 both of these matters, 
 -' ,. and his claim was 
 
 %-~ strenuously opposed by 
 
 the senate. The leader 
 _^~_ ^ of this opposition was 
 
 ^5l ' Fra Paolo Sarpi, an 
 
 ^^_ eminent theologian and 
 
 lawyer of Venice. 
 The pope laid the re- 
 ^ public under an inter- 
 ^ diet ; but the senate 
 ordered that any priest 
 who should seek to put 
 this measure in force 
 f>hould be hanged. The 
 Jesuits offered to cele- 
 brate the ordinary ser- 
 vices, but refused to 
 celebrate the mass; 
 but neither the repub- 
 lic nor the pope would 
 accept the compromise, 
 and the Jesuits were 
 expelled from Venice. 
 The republic had sus- 
 tained the cause of 
 Henry IV. of France in 
 his quarrel with the league, and hoped that 
 he would now assist it in its hour of need, 
 and aid was also expected from James I. of 
 England. Neither of these sovereigns, 
 however, would render the republic the 
 least support ; and the Venetians, left alone, 
 were forced to make terms with the pope. 
 They consented to admit his claim to the 
 management of ecclesiastical affairs, but 
 firmly refused to allow the Jesuits to return 
 to the Venetian territory. 
 
 For many years Venice took no part in 
 the general politics of Italy or of Europe. 
 In the earlier years of the seventeenth cen- 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L 
 
 493 
 
 tury her energies were devoted to the task 
 of freeing the Adriatic from the dangerous 
 pirates who infested it, and who were called 
 Uscocchi, or " runaways:' In 1645 the Turks 
 attacked the island of Crete or Candia, 
 which still remained in the possession of the 
 Venetians, and a defensive war of twenty- 
 four years ensued, resulting in the conquest 
 of the island by the Turks in 1669. The 
 successes of John Sobieski against the Turks 
 aroused Venice in 1684 to make a last effort 
 to recover her power in the East. She 
 made an alliance with the Emperor Leopold 
 and the Kiug of Poland, and sent a strong 
 force to the East under Franceso Morosini, 
 who conquered the whole of Peloponnesus, 
 and was subsequently elected doge.^ The 
 Peloponnesus was confirmed to Venice by 
 the Peace of Carlowitz, in 1699. In 1715, 
 however, after the death of Morosini, the 
 Turks renewed the war and won back 
 Peloponnesus and all the possessions of 
 Venice in the East except the Ionian 
 Islands and a few points along the coast. 
 In 1718 the Peace of Passarovitz closed the 
 struggle which had existed between Venice 
 and the Mohammedans for five hundred 
 years, and the power of the republic in the 
 East came to an end. 
 
 From this time Venice steadily declined. 
 The republic "took no share in the great 
 wars of the eighteenth century; it was a 
 period of decline and social disorder in the 
 republic. The success of the Ottoman 
 Turks cut the Venetians off from the trade 
 of the Levant, and hindered their trade 
 through Egypt and the Red Sea ; and the 
 discovery of the passage round the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and the maritime greatness of 
 England and Spain, checked the import of 
 the overland wealth of the East. The strict 
 oligarchy of Venice, which had supplied 
 her with leaders and made her famous in 
 old times, failed to meet the needs of mod- 
 ern days. Her public debt rapidly in- 
 creased, luxury was unchecked, and pleas- 
 ure was made the chief business of life. 
 The privileged class of nobles lost all no- 
 bility save that of birth. Its members be- 
 came sunk in helpless indolence and vice; 
 some managed public gaming-tables, and 
 some begged in the streets for alms, when 
 their own vices, or those of their fathers, had 
 left them penniless. Nobles and people alike 
 were at the mercy of the Council of Ten, 
 which was valued and preserved as a check 
 on the numerous rulers of the state. The 
 secrecy of this council enabled it to crush 
 
 conspiracies, when those who were engaged 
 in them thought that all was secure. In 
 this way it defeated an obscure conspiracy 
 which was made by the Viceroy of Naples, 
 the Governor of Milan, and the Spanish 
 ambassador at Venice, in 1618, which seems 
 to have had for its object the sack of Venice, 
 the overthrow of the power of Spain, and 
 the accession of the viceroy to the throne 
 of Naples. The plot was revealed to the 
 council, and all on whom the slightest sus- 
 picion rested and who were in the city, save 
 the ambassador, were quietly put to death 
 without public trial." 
 
 The decline of Spain, which went on 
 steadily throughout the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, encouraged her Italian dependencies 
 to endeavor to throw off her authority. 
 Ferdinand and Charles V. had promised 
 the people of Naples that no taxes should 
 be levied upon them without the consent of 
 their own parliament. It was the habit of 
 the Kings of Spain to disregard these prom- 
 ises, however, for they looked upon their 
 Italian possessions simply as an inexhaust- 
 ible source of revenue. The viceroy neg- 
 lected to summon the parliament, and levied 
 taxes at his own pleasure. All the ?implest 
 necessaries of life were heavily taxed, and 
 in 1647 an impost was levied upon fruit, 
 which was the only article of food that had 
 escaped this burden. The poor had already 
 suffered severely from the heavy taxes, and 
 they now rose in insurrection under the 
 leadership of Masaniello, a young fisherman 
 of Amalfi. They got possession of the city 
 of Naples, burned the custom-house, and 
 forced the viceroy to take refuge in the 
 Castle of St. Elmo. About the same time 
 the people of Palermo took up arms against 
 the Viceroy of Sicily. The Viceroy of 
 Naples succeeded in winning over a large 
 part of the insurgents by promises which he 
 never meant to keep, and deprived them of 
 their leader by procuring the assassination 
 of Masaniello. Thus the outbreak was 
 quieted for a while; but it burst forth again 
 in August of the same year. The people 
 compelled Don John of Austria, the natural 
 son of Philip IV. of Spain, to draw off his 
 troops after several days of street-fighting, 
 but they seemed utterly helpless now that 
 they were deprived of Masaniello, in whom 
 they had reposed implicit faith. They 
 chose Gennaro Annesi as their leader, and 
 by his advice invited the Duke of Guise to 
 place himself at their head and help them 
 to found a republic. The duke came 
 
494 
 
FEOM THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L 495 
 
 promptly, as he hoped to regain the pos- 
 sessious of the House of Anjou, from 
 which he was descended ; but the Neapol- 
 itans quickly saw through his design, and 
 as they had not thrown off one master to set 
 up another, they became discontented. The 
 duke gave mortal offence to Gennaro, who, 
 in revenge, betrayed the city to the Span- 
 iards, and so put an end to the movement. 
 The Spaniards put many of the popular 
 party to death, the traitor Gennaro among 
 the number, and crushed the spirit of the 
 people by a series of barbarous cruelties. 
 
 The insurrection in Sicily was put down 
 more readily. The viceroy disarmed the 
 people by a liberal proclamation of pardon, 
 and having thus disarmed their suspicions, 
 shot down large numbers in the street. 
 Messina undertook another rebellion in 
 1674, and was at first supported by Louis 
 XIV. of France. Louis abandoned her to 
 her fate in the treaty of Nimwegen, in 
 1678, and upon her refusal to submit to 
 Spain turned his arms against her and 
 assisted in crushing her. At the same 
 time he was very anxious to annoy the 
 Spaniards in Italy, and to that end made 
 an alliance with the Duke of Savoy. He 
 commanded Genoa to join this alliance, and 
 upon her refusal sent his fleet against her, 
 and compelled obedience by a cruel bom- 
 bardment. 
 
 During nearly the whole of the eighteenth 
 century Italy was the battle-ground of Eu- 
 rope. Many of the most prominent ques- 
 tions of the period were fought out on her 
 soil, and her territory was divided at pleas- 
 ure by foreign sovereigns, who never 
 troubled themselves to regard or consult the 
 wishes of the Italian people as to these ar- 
 rangements. 
 
 The War of the Spanish Succession had 
 a most important bearing upon the destinies 
 of Italy, which was the scene of a part of 
 it. By the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, the 
 Emperor Charles VI. received Milan, Na- 
 ples, and Sardinia. The Duke of Mantua, 
 having been the ally of France in this war, 
 was deprived of his duchy. The Duke of 
 Savoy, for his assistance to the house of 
 Austria, was given the island of Sicily, with 
 the title of king, and in the same year was 
 crowned at Palermo. Thus Italy passed 
 from under the power of Spain into the 
 hands of Austria ; a change for the better, 
 bad as the rule of the Austrians was. Sa- 
 voy also received Montferrat and Alessan- 
 dria, and some towns in Lombardy, and 
 
 was recognized by the treaty as an indepen- 
 dent power, or, in other words, was relieved 
 of all its former obligations to the empire. 
 
 Philip V. of Spain was not satisfied with 
 the provisions of the treaty of Utrecht, and 
 was determined to regain a footing in Italy 
 at the earliest opportunity. On the death 
 of his wife, who was tlie daughter of the 
 Duke of Savoy, he married Elizabeth Far- 
 nese, the heiress of the Duke of Parma. 
 This marriage made him the lawful heir to 
 that duchy and to Piacenza, and also gave 
 him a claim to the succession to the grand 
 duchy of Tuscany, the reigning duke of 
 which was childless, as the Queen of Spain 
 claimed to be descended from a daughter 
 of Duke Cosmo II. This marriage greatly 
 displeased the Emperor Charles VI., who 
 was himself a candidate for the succession 
 to the duchy of Tuscany. Philip was not sat- 
 isfied with what he had done, but, in viola- 
 tion of the terms of the treaty of Utrecht, 
 seized the island of Sardinia, which was 
 held by the Austrians, and prepared to 
 send an army into Sicily. England, 
 France, Holland, and the emperor made a 
 league known as the Quadruple Alliance, 
 and an English fleet under Admiral Byng 
 was despatched to the Mediterranean in the 
 summer of 1718. Byng annihilated the 
 Spanish fleet in a battle oft' Cape Passaro, 
 and Spain was obliged to relinquish Sar- 
 dinia. The King of Sicily Avas believed to 
 have favored the course of Philip, and was 
 obliged to surrender his island kingdom to 
 Austria, who gave him in exchange for it the 
 barren and rocky island of Sardinia. The 
 emperor by this transfer became King of 
 the Two Sicilies, as he was already King of 
 Naples. The Duke of Savoy, of whom we 
 shall hereafter speak as the King of Sar- 
 dinia, was thus cut off from participation in 
 the disputes between Austria and Spain, 
 and was able to give his whole attention to 
 the development of his kingdom. One of 
 the first acts of Victor Amadaeus was to 
 deprive the Jesuits of their control of public 
 education, as the power they enjoyed in 
 consequence of this control had made them 
 dangerous to the welfare of the state. This 
 action was very popular, and did much to 
 strengthen the national feeling in the new 
 kingdom. In 1780 the king abdicated in 
 favor of his son, Charles Emmanuel III., but 
 immediately tried to recover the power he 
 had surrendered. He was imprisoned in 
 the Castle of Rivoli, where he died in 
 1732. 
 
496 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The war of the Polish succession settled 
 the question of the succession to the 
 duchies of Parma, Piaceuza, aud Tuscany. 
 Louis XV. of France, Philip V, of Spain, 
 and Charles Emmanuel III. of Sardinia, 
 united in alliance to drive the Austrians 
 out of Italy. Don Carlos, the son of Philip 
 v., was to receive the Two Sicilies and the 
 duchies named above, and the duchy of 
 Milan was to go to Sardinia. Charles 
 Emmanuel soon overran all of Milan but 
 Mantua. The war began in October, 1733, 
 and was closed by the treaty of Vienna in 
 November, 1738. The interests of the King 
 of Sardinia were entirely sacrificed by his 
 allies. Don Carlos was acknowledged King 
 of the Two Sicilies, and abandoned his claim 
 upon the duchies. The grand duchy of 
 Tuscany was bestowed upon Francis of 
 Lorraine, the husband of Maria Theresa, 
 the daughter and heiress of the Emperor 
 Charles VI., and the duchy of Parma was 
 given up to the emperor, who was allowed 
 to retain Milan and Mantua. The King of 
 Sardinia, cheated at every point, received 
 Novara and Tortona, which were cut off 
 from the duchy of Milan. 
 
 The war of the Austrian succession over- 
 turned all these arrangements, and made 
 Italy the scene of a terrible and destructive 
 conflict. The object of the war was to ex- 
 clude JNIaria Theresa from the succession to 
 the dominions of her father, the Emperor 
 diaries VI. Both i)arties sought the 
 alliance of the King of Sardinia, whose 
 action would control that of Lombardy. 
 He at first embraced the cause of the allies, 
 but after the war began abandoned them 
 and supported Maria Theresa, whose rights 
 were gallantly upheld by her Plungarian 
 subjects. The king was anxious to add the 
 republic of Genoa to his possessions, as he 
 wanted a seaport ; and the Genoese, in 
 alarm, gave the French and Spanish forces 
 a free passage through their territory into 
 the dominions of Sardinia. These forces 
 defeated the Sardinian army in 1745, and 
 occupied the duchy of Milan. In the same 
 year Francis of Lorraine, the Grand Duke 
 of Tuscany, and the husband of Maria The- 
 resa, was elected emperor, and the war was 
 ended in Germany. Thus relieved at home, 
 the empress queen sent an army to the 
 assistance of Sardinia. The combined 
 armies of Austria and Sardinia defeated the 
 French and Spaniards in the severe battle of 
 Piacenzain 174G, and the Austrians marched 
 to Genoa, which surrendered at the first 
 
 demand, and occupied the city. Their 
 tyranny drove the Genoese into a revolt on 
 the 5th of December. The Austrians were 
 driven out of the city, aud withdrew beyond 
 the Apennines. Tlie treaty of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle, in 1748, ended the war. By this 
 treaty Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla 
 were erected into a separate state, and given 
 to Don Philip, the son of the King of Spain 
 and the brother of the King of the Two 
 Sicilies. The republic of Genoa, and the 
 duchy of Modena and its dependencies, 
 were placed under the protection of France, 
 to which power Genoa ceded the island of 
 Corsica. During the lifetime of the Em- 
 peror Francis I. his grand duchy of Tus- 
 cany was almost a province of Austria. In 
 1765 it was given by the emperor to his 
 third son, Peter Leopold, and became inde- 
 pendent once more. Leopold reigned with 
 despotic power ; but he was a wise ruler 
 and a benefactor to his people. He re- 
 formed the evils which had grown up around 
 the administration of justice, brought the 
 clergy under the control of the state, dimin- 
 ished the number of monks, and abolished 
 the inquisition in his dominions. He 
 drained the unhealthy valley of the Chiaua, 
 and converted it into a fertile region, and 
 was engaged in draining the Maremma, 
 when in 1790 he succeeded to the empire. 
 He appointed his second son Ferdinand his 
 successor in Tuscany. 
 
 From the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle to 
 the period of the French invasion Italy was 
 at peace. Charles Emmanuel employed 
 this interval in urging on the prosperity of 
 his kingdom. He ruled with despotic 
 power, and kept the church and the Jesuits 
 down with a firm hand. He did this not 
 because these powers were enemies of the 
 freedom of Italy, but because they were 
 rivals to him in his own dominions. While 
 he encouraged agriculture, and did a little 
 for the cause of learning, his reign Avas 
 destructive of the liberties of his people, Avho 
 had little cause to regret him at his death, 
 A. D. 1773. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Victor Amadreus III., who formed a close 
 alliance with France, and introduced into 
 his kingdom the Bourbon plan of tyranny. 
 
 The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle left the 
 Bourbons supreme in Italy, and greatly 
 weakened the power of the popes, who soon 
 became involved in a series of disputes with 
 the courts of France, Spain and Naples. 
 They claimed the right to nullify every act 
 of the civil powers, and to arrange matters 
 
FEOM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 497 
 
 in Italy to suit their own interests. They 
 were sustained in their most violent pre- 
 tensions by the Jesuits, whose arrogance 
 threatened to array all Europe against the 
 pa^jacy. In 1769 Pope Clement XIV. was 
 raised to the papal throne, chiefly through 
 the influence of France and Spain. He 
 was a man of liberal principles, and in 
 1773 dissolved the troublesome order of the 
 Jesuits, to the great joy of all Europe. 
 
 The outbreak of the French Revolution 
 did not immediately affect Italy, though it 
 seemed to threaten the despotisms of that 
 country with ruin. In 1792 the French 
 republic was established, and Savoy and 
 Kice were seized and made parts of the 
 French territory. In 1795 France, under 
 a new government, made peace with all the 
 states of Europe that had been opposing 
 her, save England, Austria, and Sardinia. 
 In 1796 the French army, under Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, crossed the Alps and invaded 
 Italy. Bonaparte compelled the King of 
 Sardinia to relinquish his claim to Savoy 
 and Nice, and to surrender Alessandria and 
 Tortona to the French. He next marched 
 against the Austrians, defeated them at 
 Areola, on the 14th of November, 1796, 
 and at Rivoli on the 14th of January, 1797, 
 and made himself master of Lombardy. 
 He then invaded the dominions of the pope, 
 and compelled him to give up a part of his 
 territory and pay tribute. The Italians 
 believed at first that the French had come 
 to deliver them from their old tyrants, and 
 they everywhere rose against their rulers 
 and drove out the monks and priests. 
 They soon found, however, that the French 
 were not so disinterested, and that they 
 meant to impose their rule upon the penin- 
 sula. A growing enmity to the French 
 was now developed in all 'parts of Italy, 
 and hostilities soon broke out between the 
 Italians and the French, At Verona the 
 garrison left by Napoleon Avas massacred 
 by the people. Bonaparte at once pro- 
 ceeded to establish his authority more 
 firmly in the peninsula. The Austrian 
 emperor was obliged to make peace, and 
 the French advanced to Venice, which city 
 was surrendered to them by the govern- 
 ment without a struggle. The republic was 
 overturned, and all signs of its former great- 
 ness destroyed. Bonaparte carried off" the 
 famous bronze horses of St. Mark's, and 
 many other splendid works of art, but he 
 also put an end to many of the abuses from 
 which the Venetians had been suffering. 
 
 32 
 
 In 1797 the treaty of Campo Formio was 
 concluded between France and Austria. 
 By its terms, Lombardy, Parma, and 
 Modena, the papal states of Bologna, Fer- 
 rara, and the Romagua, and the Venetian 
 territory as far as the Adige, were organ- 
 ized into an independent state, called the 
 Cisalpine republic. Venice and all her 
 dependencies in the Adriatic were given to 
 Austria, who occupied them with her troops 
 early in 1798. Napoleon also created the 
 Ligurian republic, with Genoa for its 
 capital ; the Cispadane republic, with its 
 capital at Bologna; and the Tiberine re- 
 public, whose capital was Rome. Late in 
 1798 Naples was captured by the French, 
 and made the capital of the Parthenopsean 
 republic. In the same year Charles Em- 
 manuel IV. of Sardinia was deprived of 
 his throne, and Piedmont was occupied by 
 the French. Pope Pius VI. fled from 
 Rome to France, where he died. Napoleon 
 being now absent in Egypt, his work in 
 Italy was rapidly undone by the combina- 
 tion of England, Russia, and Austria, who 
 undertook to restore the old order of affairs 
 in that country. The French were defeated 
 everywhere, and nothing but the sudden 
 return of Naj^oleon from Egyjjt enabled 
 them to maintain their conquests. 
 
 Italy being from the opening of the nine- 
 teenth century to the fall of Napoleon I. 
 entirely under the dominion of France, we 
 shall relate the incidents of this period in 
 the History of France, to which the reader 
 is referred. 
 
 On the whole, the period of French rule 
 in Italy was one of order and of observance 
 of law. ]\Iuch was done for the material 
 and intellectual development of the country. 
 It was during this period that the hope 
 arose that Italy might become once more 
 a united nation. Natives of different parts 
 of Italy were thi-own together in the armies 
 of Napoleon, and from this companionship 
 derived a feeling of brotherhood. The idea 
 of unity, once conceived, never died, but 
 grew silently through the long years which 
 intervened between its incei^tion and its 
 fulfilment. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON I. TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Treaty of Vienna — Austrian Influence All- 
 Powerful in Italy — The Italians Kept in Slavery 
 — rieorjianization of the Italian States — Restora- 
 tion of the Jesuits — Rise of the Secret Societies— 
 
498 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The Carlionari — Insurrection at Naples — Victor 
 Emmanuel I. of Sardinia Abdicates — The Revo- 
 lution of 18.30 — It is Crushed by the Austrians — 
 Reign of Charles Albert of Sardinia — Josepli 
 Mazzini — " Young Italy " — Troubles in Sardinia 
 — Efforts for Constitutional Government — The 
 Liberal Italian Writers — Massimo d'Azeglio — 
 Manzoni — Pius IX. Becomes Pope — His Liberal 
 Principles — Revolution of 1848 — Uprisings in 
 Italy — War Between Sardinia and Austria — Gar- 
 ibaldi — The Pope Deserts the Cause of the People 
 and Sides with Austria — His Flight from Rome — 
 The Roman Republic — Sardinia Forced to Make 
 Peace with Austria — The French Put Down the 
 Roman Republic — Return of the Pope — Rome 
 Garrisoned by the French — Victor Emmanuel II. 
 Becomes King of Sardinia — His Able and Liberal 
 Measures — Count Cavour — Sardinia Joins France, 
 England and Turkey in the War Against Russia 
 — Success of Cavour's Policy — The War of 1859 
 with Austria— The Peace of Villafranca — Gains 
 of Sardinia — The Italian Revolutions — Annexa- 
 tion of the Italian Duchies to Sardinia — Gari- 
 baldi Frees Sicily and Southern Italy — The 
 Kingdom of Italy Formed — Death of Cavour — 
 Difficulties of the Italian Government — Garri- 
 baldi's Efforts Against the Papal Territory — The 
 Aspromonte Affair — The September Convention 
 — Florence Made the Capital of Italy — TheAustro- 
 Prussian War — Italy the Ally of Prussia — Defeat 
 of the Italians at Custoza and Lissa — Italy Gains 
 Venetia — Garibaldi Again Invades the Papal 
 Territory — Action of the Italian Government — 
 Garibaldi Defeated by the French at Mentenna 
 — Fall of the French Empire — The September 
 Convention Abrogated — Rome Occupied by the 
 Italian Forces — Is Made the Capital of the King- 
 dom — Subsequent History of Italy. 
 
 )HE overthrow of Napoleon was the 
 signal for fresh changes in Italy. 
 The Italian people looked with 
 great anxiety to the proceedings 
 of the Congress of Vienna, never 
 doubting that the allies, who had 
 promised so much, would give them liberty. 
 Their hopes were rudely crushed. As a 
 general rule, the Italian states were re- 
 stored to the princes who had held them 
 previous to the French Revolution. The 
 Sardinian kingdom was re-established, with 
 the Ticino as its eastern boundary. The 
 Genoese had been encouraged to hope for 
 the restoration of their ancient republic, 
 but Genoa and its territory were annexed 
 to the kingdom of Sardinia. In the end 
 this betrayal of the hopes of Genoa proved 
 to her a blessing in disguise, for her con- 
 nection with the most liberal state of Italy 
 was of immense advantage to her. Venice 
 and her dependencies were handed over to 
 Austria to compensate her for her small 
 share of Polish territory. Milan was also 
 given back to Austria, and the Emperor 
 Francis II. organized his Italian possessions 
 into the kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia, 
 which he governed through a viceroy. 
 
 Parma and Piacenza were given to Maria 
 Theresa, the wife of Napoleon, and the 
 daughter of the Emperor of Austria. At 
 her death these duchies were to revert to 
 the Bourbons of Parma, to whom Lucca 
 was given. Upon regaining their ancient 
 possessions the Parmese Bourbons were to 
 resign Lucca to Ferdinand III., who was 
 made Grand Duke of Tuscany once more. 
 Francis IV., the son of the Arch Duke 
 Ferdinand, was made Duke of Modena, his 
 mother being Beatrice, the heiress of the 
 ancient house of Este. The pope regained 
 all the states of the church. The Austrians 
 claimed and exercised the right to place 
 garrisons in Ferrara and Commachio. 
 Upon returning to Rome the pope at once 
 re-established the order of the Jesuits. This 
 step was taken with the full approval of 
 the allies, who wished to reward the Jesuits 
 for the zeal with which they had cham- 
 pioned the cause of the Bourbons. The 
 power of this order was greater after its 
 restoration than it had ever been before. 
 The kingdom of Naples was restored to 
 Ferdinand IV. of Sicily, who took the title 
 of King of the Two Sicilies. With these 
 restorations the Austrian influence once 
 more became supreme in Italy. 
 
 The treaty of Vienna gave peace to Italy, 
 but it left her divided and utterly subser- 
 vient to the will of her despotic masters. 
 All the Italian sovereigns were in close 
 alliance with the Emperor of Austria, who 
 encouraged them to keep their people from 
 exerting any political power, and to refuse 
 their demands for constitutional govern- 
 ment. The Italians were obliged to sub- 
 mit to the destruction of their hopes, since 
 their rulers were upheld by so powerful a 
 sovereign as the Austrian emperor. It 
 seemed madness to attempt to overthrow 
 them. The result was that Italy was left 
 dissatisfied and unhappy, as well as divided 
 and helpless. Secret societies were organ- 
 ized for the overthrow of the tyrants and 
 the establishment of democratic govern- 
 ment. The most prominent of these socie- 
 ties was the Carbonari, which embraced in 
 its membership thousands of the Italian 
 people. It was very strong in Naples, and 
 in 1820 the Neapolitans, under its guidance, 
 rose in insurrection against King Ferdi- 
 nand, and demanded that the absolute rule 
 of that king should give way to a constitu- 
 tional monarchy. Ferdinand was taken at 
 a disadvantage, and granted them a consti- 
 tution, which he meant to revoke at the 
 
FBOiM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 499 
 
 first favorable opportunity. A few months 
 later the Emperors of Russia and Austria, 
 and the Kings of Prussia, Sardinia, and 
 Naples, met at Laybach, in Austria, and 
 agreed to crush out the Neapolitan move- 
 ment for constitutional freedom, as danger- 
 ous to the cause of absolutism. In 1821 a 
 force of 60,000 Austrians entered the Nea- 
 politan territories, and Avith their aid King 
 Ferdinand revoked the constitution, restored 
 the absolute monarchy, and put down the 
 resistance of his people. He celebrated his 
 victory by treating the liberal leaders with 
 great cruelty. 
 
 A similar insurrection broke out in Pied- 
 mont, or the Sardinian kingdom, in 1821, 
 and the people demanded of King Victor 
 Emmanuel I. a constitution. Rather than 
 comply with this demand, Victor Emman- 
 uel abdicated his crown in favor of his 
 brother Charles Felix, who was at that 
 time absent in Modena. Until the new 
 king could reach Turin, his cousin Charles 
 Albert, Prince of Carignano, was made re- 
 gent. Charles Albert was the heir to the 
 throne, as the new king had no children. For 
 some reason he granted the demands of the 
 liberals, but immediately upon his arrival at 
 Turin, Charles Felix set aside the regent's 
 concessions, and compelled the submission 
 of his people by threatening to call in the 
 Austrians to assist him in maintaining his 
 power. Anything Avas better than an Aus- 
 trian intervention, and for a while the lib- 
 erals were forced to submit. 
 
 The Jesuits and the Austrian party en- 
 deavored to induce Charles Felix to name 
 as his heir Francis, Duke of Modena, who 
 had married a daughter of Victor Emman- 
 uel I., but the king remained faithful to his 
 cousin Charles Albert. Duke Francis be- 
 gan to intrigue with the liberals, and gave 
 them to understand that if they Avould de- 
 clare him King of Italy he would adopt 
 their principles, head their party, and unite 
 Italy in a constitutional monarch. For 
 some time they believed him sincere. 
 
 The French Revolution of 1830 stirred 
 Italy to its profoundest depths, and aroused 
 the hope that the deliverance of that coun- 
 try from the Austrians, the priests, and the 
 princes was at hand. Duke Francis was 
 obliged by the necessities of the time to 
 show his true character, and the liberals 
 found he had deceived them. An insurrec- 
 tion broke out in Parma and Modena, and 
 the duchess and duke of those states Avere 
 forced to fly for safety. The insurrection 
 
 extended to the territories of the pope, who, 
 having no troops of his own, appealed to the 
 Austrians for aid, and received it. An 
 Austrian army restored the Duke of Modena 
 and the Duchess of Parma to their thrones, 
 and crushed the insurrection in the Ro- 
 magna. Austrian garrisons were stationed 
 in the papal territory to sustain the author- 
 ity of the pope, and the liberal leaders in 
 Modena Avere put to death. The French, 
 jealous of the Austrian occupation of the 
 papal states, threw a garrieon into Ancona, 
 and retained that city until the Austrian 
 troops Avere Avithdrawn from the states of 
 the church, in 1838. At the close of this 
 revolt Charles Felix died, and was suc- 
 ceeded on the Piedmontese throne by his 
 cousin Charles Albert. The new king found 
 his kingdom Avitliout an army, entirely sub- 
 servient to and atthemercy of Austria, whose 
 power in Italy had been greatly strength- 
 ened by the failure of the revolt of 1830. 
 
 Charles Albert AA'as inclined to pursue a 
 liberal policy toAvards his people, and Avas 
 even Avilling to grant them the same consti- 
 tution he had given them as regent, but he 
 did not dare do so, as such a step Avould 
 have brought on a war Avith Austria, for 
 which the kingdom Avas in no Avay prepared. 
 About this time a new party or secret 
 league Avas organized by Josej^h Mazzini. 
 It Avas called Young Italy, and its objects 
 were the expulsion of foreign rulers by a 
 native army, and the union of Italy in one 
 free state. Mazzini Avas a man of great 
 genius and a brilliant orator, and he de- 
 serves to be remembered as the first Italian 
 statesman to scheme and Avork for the union 
 of all the petty states of Italy in a single 
 free state. He endeavored to induce 
 Charles Albert to throAV himself upon the 
 people and drive out the Austrians, but the 
 king drcAV back in alarm from so bold a 
 step. Mazzini then tried to seduce the 
 soldiers of the Piedmontese army from their 
 allegiance, but Avas forced to quit the king- 
 dom. He took refuge in Genoa, from 
 which, in January, 1833, he made a foolish 
 expedition into Savoy for the purpose of in- 
 augurating a revolution. The movement 
 failed, and Mazzini Avas forced to fly to 
 London. This expedition alarmed the 
 king, Avho noAV came to regard the liberals 
 as his enemies, and he allied himself more 
 closely Avith Austria and the Jesuits, as the 
 best means of maintaining his authority. 
 The Piedmontese, indignant at the invasion 
 of their territory by the Polish and other 
 
500 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 refugees who followed Mazziui, sustained 
 the king in his new policy, and for the 
 next fourteen years Piedmont submitted to 
 the absolute government of the king. 
 
 Still the hope of Italian unity and free- 
 dom did not die out. A moderate party 
 sprang up, composed of the best men of 
 
 INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER AT ROME, SHOWING 
 
 THE SIDE CHAPELS AND THE HIGH ALTAR IN THE 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 Piedmont, who proposed to accomplish these' 
 ends by a peaceful revolution of public 
 opinion, and who looked to Charles Albert 
 as the king under whom they were to suc- 
 ceed in their efforts. This party existed 
 also in Tuscany. Although the Italian 
 press was trammelled by state control, a 
 corps of able writers advocated their prin- 
 
 ciples in political works, essays, novels, and 
 poems, and sought to rouse in the Italian 
 heart the determination to become once 
 more a free and united nation. The Aus- 
 trians and the pope were denounced as the 
 chief oppressors of Italy, for the latter was 
 but the tool of the Austrian emperor, to 
 whom he owed his throne. 
 Chief among these patriotic 
 Avi-iters were Cesare Balbo, 
 the Abate Gioberti, Mas- 
 simo d'Azeglio, Giuseppe 
 Giusti, the Marquis Gino 
 Capponi, Baron Bettino 
 Ricasoli, and Alessandro 
 Manzoni. 
 
 In the year 1846 Pope 
 Gregory XVI. died, to the 
 great advantage of Italy. 
 He was a bitter enemy of 
 all reform, the mere tool 
 of the Jesuit party, whose 
 power in the church was 
 rapidly overshadowing 
 everything, and took his 
 inspiration in political mat- 
 ters from the Emperor of 
 Austria. The supporters 
 of his authority were called 
 Gregoriani. The choice 
 of the cardinals fell upon 
 Cardinal Mastai Feretti, 
 who ascended the papal 
 throne as Pius IX. To the 
 surprise and delight of 
 Italy, he began his reign 
 by reversing the policy of 
 his predecessor. He was 
 to be a constitutional pope, 
 and his first acts were full 
 of promise. All political 
 prisoners were liberated, 
 and a general amnesty was 
 extended to offenders of 
 this class. The people of 
 the states of the church 
 were granted liberty of 
 speech and the right to 
 petition for a redress of 
 grievances. The convents 
 and monasteries were 
 made subject to a rigid inspection, and 
 other reforms were promised. The Gregori- 
 ani were indignant at such a course on the 
 part of the pope ; the extreme republicans 
 were angry because it made the pope the 
 most popular man in Italy ; but the great 
 mass of the people of the papal states was 
 delighted. In the autumn of 1846 and the 
 
FROM THE FALL OF liAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 501 
 
 spring of 1847 there were a u umber of dis- 
 turbances in the streets of Rome, and the 
 papal troops and the municipal police were 
 found inadequate to the task of preserving 
 the peace. The liberal party demanded of 
 the pope the formation of a national guard ; 
 and though the plan was strongly opposed 
 by the Austrian government, the pope, in 
 July, 1847, consented to the formation of a 
 national guard, not only in Rome, but in 
 all his states. The Austrian government, 
 iu order to punish the pope for yielding to 
 the popular demand, sent a strong force of 
 Croats into the papal territory. Ferrara 
 was occupied in spite of the protests of the 
 papal legate. 
 
 The success of the Roman movement en- 
 couraged the other Italian states to compel 
 their rulers to grant them constitutions. 
 The princes looked to Austria to aid them 
 in putting down the popular movement, but 
 for the present were obliged to submit to 
 the people. Early in 1848 an insurrection 
 occurred at Palermo, and the Sicilians 
 made the Duke of Genoa king, and for 
 more than a year opposed a determined re- 
 sistance to the efforts of Ferdinand V., of 
 Naples, to subdue them. The King of 
 Sardinia took advantage of the occasion to 
 place himself at the head of the Italian 
 movement, and declared his readiness to go 
 to war with Austria if the troops of that 
 power advanced farther into the papal 
 territory. 
 
 The Revolution of 1848 in France af- 
 fected the rest of Europe profoundly. The 
 revolutionary spirit spread even into the 
 Austrian dominions, and resulted iu an 
 open revolt, and the Hungarians about the 
 same time rose in arms to win back their 
 national independence. The Italians at 
 once took advantage of the embarrass- 
 ments of Austria to endeavor to throw off 
 her yoke. On the 18th of March, 1848, the 
 Milanese rose against the Hungarian garri- 
 son, under Marshal Radetzky, and, after a 
 five days' struggle, drove it from the city. 
 Vicenza, Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, and 
 other places joined the Milanese, and on the 
 22d of March Venice drove out her Aus- 
 trian garrison and set up a provisional gov- 
 ernment under the leadership of Daniel 
 Manin, a Venetian of Jewish descent. The 
 King of Sardinia at once declared war 
 against Austria and marched to the assist- 
 ance of the insurgents. He failed to de- 
 clare himself the champion of Italian inde- 
 pendence, and so laid himself open to the 
 
 suspicion that he was seeking to aggrandize 
 Piedmont at the expense of the rest of 
 Italy. Thus, in the gallant struggle which 
 ensued, there was no point of union for the 
 Italians. Charles Albert had no fixed 
 plan, and was without military skill. He 
 defeated the Austrians at Goito, and in 
 June and July both Lombardy and Venice 
 declared themselves annexed to Sardinia. 
 Radetzky, having been reinforced, attacked 
 the King of Sardinia at Custozza on the 
 25th of July, and inflicted such a crushing 
 defeat upon him that he fell back behind 
 the Ticino, and the Austrians recovered 
 Milan and proclaimed Lombardy under 
 martial law, which they enforced with 
 great cruelty. Women were whipped in 
 public for the crime of preferring their coun- 
 trymen to the Austrians. In the moun- 
 tains of northern Italy a gallant resistance 
 was maintained under the leadership of 
 Guiseppe Garibaldi, but this brave band 
 was at length dispersed. Venice was com- 
 pelled to surrender on the 22d of August, 
 1849, after a siege of more than a year, in 
 which the Austrians lost over 20,000 men 
 by disease. The pope and the King of the 
 Two Sicilies, brought face to face with a 
 war Avith Austria, deserted the popular 
 cause. The former issued an encyclical, in 
 which he declared that his trooj)S had taken 
 part in the Avar against Austria without his 
 leave. Ferdinand V. deprived his people 
 of the liberties he had granted them, and 
 crushed out their resistance by a brutal 
 massacre in the streets of Naples on the 
 15th of May. 
 
 The pope's encyclical produced great 
 excitement in Rome. The moderate party 
 disappeared, and the pope was left to fight 
 the matter out with the extreme republi- 
 cans. The papal minister. Count Rossi, 
 was assassinated, and the palace of the 
 Quirinal, in which the pope had taken 
 refuge, was attacked and carried by storm 
 by the citizens. The pope escaped in the 
 disguise of a priest, and fled to Gaeta iu 
 the Neapolitan territory. Garibaldi en- 
 tered Rome with an army of Italian volun- 
 teers, and in February, 1849, a Constituent 
 Assembly met in Rome, which deposed the 
 pope and proclaimed the Roman republic. 
 Mazzini, Armcllini and Saffi were intrusted 
 with the executive power of the new repub- 
 lic. A revolution broke out in Tuscany in 
 February, 1849, the grand duke fled from 
 his dominions, and a provisional govern- 
 ment was set up by the Florentines. Sar- 
 
502 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dinia, though utterly unprepared for such a 
 step, endeavored to take advantage of this 
 new uprising to drive out the foi'eiguer, and 
 declared war against Austria. Marshal 
 Radetzky at once crossed the Ticino, and 
 inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Pied- 
 montese army at Novara on the 23d of 
 March. Charles Albert was so much dis- 
 heartened by this defeat that he abdicated 
 his throne in favor of his son, Victor Em- 
 
 army was 
 
 GARIBALDI. 
 
 manuel II., and left Italy, He died four 
 months later, broken-hearted. Victor Em- 
 manuel made a truce with the Austrians, 
 which was soon converted into a peace, as 
 England and France persuaded the Aus- 
 trian emperor to withdraw his troops from 
 Piedmont. 
 
 The cause of the pope was espoused by 
 the King of the Two Sicilies, Avho sent an 
 
 army into the papal territory to drive out 
 the republicans. It was defeated on the 
 11th of May, 1849, by the republican army 
 under Garibaldi at Palestrina. The pope 
 found another champion in the French 
 republic. France had long watched, with 
 ill-concealed jeMousy, the Austrian suprem- 
 acy in Italy, and eagerly seized this occa- 
 sion to intervene in Italian affairs. An 
 sent to Rome under General 
 Oudinot, which captured the 
 city on the 3d of July, 1849, 
 after a siege of nearly three 
 months. The republican 
 leaders escaped from Rome, 
 and the papal government 
 was re-established, but the 
 pope himself did not return 
 until April, 1850. A French 
 garrison was now perma- 
 nently establislied at Rome. 
 Pius IX. returned to Rome 
 a changed man. He no 
 ^ longer trusted his peoj^le, 
 = but relied for protection 
 upon the French garrison, 
 and submitted himself to 
 % the guidance of the Jesuits 
 and assisted them to bring 
 the Roman Church through- 
 out the world into subjection 
 to their order. He kept 
 Rome under martial law for 
 seven years. The Austrians 
 aided the Grand Duke of 
 Tuscany and the Dukes of 
 Modena and Parma to re- 
 cover their dominions, and 
 by the close of the summer 
 of 1849 the Italian out- 
 break was entirely quelled. 
 One great result had been 
 / accomplislied — the Italian 
 people had been convinced 
 that freedom and unity 
 could be gained and were 
 worth working for. 
 
 The hopes of the best 
 men of Italy were now 
 fixed upon Sardinia, and the young King 
 Victor Emmanuel II. did not disappoint 
 them. He inaugurated a wise and liberal 
 system in his kingdom, and while the 
 rest of Italy was kept iu abject subjec- 
 tion, the Piedmontese enjoyed a constitu- 
 tional government, a free press, and reli- 
 gious toleration. The king was foithful to 
 his promises to his people, and they grate- 
 
FBOM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 503 
 
 fully called him II Re Galantuomo — " The 
 Honest King." At the outset of his reign 
 the Genoese attempted to rebel, but were 
 compelled to submit. It was greatly to the 
 interest of Victor Emmanuel to ally him- 
 self with Austria and embrace the cause of 
 absolutism, but he was a sincere patriot, 
 and was true to his people, and bided his 
 time to take up the work of deliverance 
 which had failed in his father's hands. 
 
 In 1853 Camillo Benso di Cavour, who 
 had been minister of commerce since the 
 beginning of the reign, became prime min- 
 ister and the chief counsellor of the king. 
 He at once began to exert his great genius 
 not only for the advancement of Sardinia, 
 but for the good of all Italy. He made an 
 alliance with the democratic party of Pied- 
 mont, which was led by Urbauo Rattazzi, 
 and won its support for the government. 
 He enlisted the gratitude of the people of 
 Lombardy for Sardinia by addressing an 
 indignant reraousti*auce to Radetzky for his 
 cruel measures in the government of that 
 province ; and of Naples by protesting, 
 though in vain, against the tyranny of Fer- 
 dinand. 
 
 For long years Italy had taken no part 
 in European jiolitics. Count Cavour de- 
 termined to regain for her her true place in 
 the continental system. He could only do 
 this through Sardinia. The Piedmoutese 
 army had been brought to a high state of 
 efficiency by General Delia Marmora, and 
 was ready for action. Cavour believed that 
 if he could convince the European powers 
 that Italy was a valuable ally, her deliver- 
 ance would be hastened by foreign inter- 
 vention in her affiiirs. Fortunately for 
 her, England, France and Turkey were at 
 war with Russia, and Cavour exerted him- 
 self to bring about an alliance of Sardinia 
 with those powers. He regarded Russia as 
 the mainstay of despotism in Europe, and 
 as such desired her humiliation. He found 
 a ready sympathizer in the emperor of the 
 French, Napoleon III., through whose ex- 
 ertions Sardinia was admitted to the Anglo- 
 French alliance against Russia. A Sar- 
 dinian contingent was despatched to the Cri- 
 mea, and won considerable distinction at the 
 battle of the Tchernaya. At the assembling 
 of the Congress of Paris to arrange a treaty 
 of peace, the representatives of Sardinia 
 were admitted to its deliberations on an 
 equality with those of France and England. 
 This was a great gain for the Piedmontese 
 kingdom. Cavour took advantage of this 
 
 opportunity to lay before the representa- 
 tives of the great powers of Europe a state- 
 ment of the unhappy condition of his coun- 
 trymen under the rule of the pope and the 
 King of the Two Sicilies. England and 
 France remonstrated energetically with the 
 Neapolitan king, but all to no purpose. 
 
 Napoleon III. warmly embraced the Ital- 
 ian cause, for which he had fought in the 
 Revolution of 1830, when a boy. The 
 course upon which he determined was due 
 not only to the old French policy of crip- 
 pling Austria, but to his sincere desire to aid 
 Italy in becoming free and united. He 
 brought about the marriage of his cousin, 
 Prince Napoleon Joseph, the son of Jerome 
 Bonaparte, with the Princess Clotilda, the 
 daughter of Victor Emmanuel. Private 
 assurances were given to Sardinia that 
 France would sustain her in her quarrel 
 with Austria, and matters were brought to 
 a crisis. Cavour declared that Sardinia 
 would make Avar upon Austria, if that 
 power did not grant a separate and national 
 government to Lombardy and Venetia, and 
 pledge herself not to interfere again in Ital- 
 ian affairs. Austria, on the other hand, 
 demanded that Sardinia should disarm. 
 The Austrian minister at Turin, on the 23d 
 of April, 1859, made a formal demand for 
 the reduction of the Sardinian army to a 
 peace footing. It was refused, and on the 
 same day the Austrian army crossed the 
 Ticino and entered the Piedmontese terri- 
 tory. A French army was immediately 
 despatched from Marseilles to Genoa to the 
 assistance of Sardinia, under the personal 
 command of the Emperor Napoleon III., 
 and another promptly crossed the Alps to 
 Susa. The French and Italian armies 
 moved forward towards the Ticino. At 
 the same time Tuscany, Modena, and 
 Parma rose in revolt, and their dukes fled 
 to the Austrian territory, Victor Emman- 
 uel was proclaimed Dictator of Tuscany. 
 He declined the title, but took command 
 of the Tuscan army, which was united to 
 his own forces. The declaration with which 
 Napoleon III. liad begun the war, "Italy 
 must be free from the Alps to the Adriatic," 
 became the watchword of the Italians. 
 
 On the 20th of May, 1859, the Austrians 
 were defeated by the French and Sardini- 
 ans at Montebello, after a hard fight of five 
 hours' duration. On the 30th and 31st of 
 May the allies were again victorious at 
 Palestro. On the 4th of June the Austri- 
 ans were decisively defeated in the great 
 
504 
 
FB03f THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 505 
 
 battle of Magenta, which was won mainly 
 by the exertions of General MacMahon, 
 who was created by the emperor Marshal 
 of France and Duke of Magenta. This 
 battle settled the fate of Lombardy, which 
 was abandoned by the Austrians, who re- 
 treated beyond the Adda. On the 8th of 
 June, Victor Emmanuel and Napoleon III. 
 entered Milan in triumph. After a short 
 halt there, the allies resumed their advance, 
 and on the 24th of June attacked the Aus- 
 trians at Solferino. A terrible battle en- 
 sued, and resulted in the defeat of the 
 Austrians, who withdrew within the " Quad- 
 rilateral " formed by the almost impregna- 
 ble fortresses of Cremona, Peschiera, Verona, 
 and Mantua. 
 
 Prussia now avowed her determination 
 to take part in the w-ar as the ally of Aus- 
 tria. The Emperor Napoleon found him- 
 self thus brought face to face with a serious 
 difficulty. He had entered into the war 
 with the sincere determination to rid all 
 Italy of the Austrian yoke, but the threat- 
 ened intervention of Prussia compelled him 
 to modify his plans. The participation of 
 that power in the war, as the enemy of 
 France, would compel him to make extra- 
 ordinary efforts to protect his eastern fron- 
 tier, and would oblige him to leave Italy at 
 the mercy of Austria, which was more than 
 a match for her. Other powers might be 
 drawn into the struggle, and there was a 
 very decided probability that in a general 
 European war Italy might lose all that had 
 been won. It seemed best to him therefore, 
 as the disinterested friend of Italy, to bring 
 the war to a close and to rest satisfied with 
 what had been gained. When therefoi-e 
 the allied army arrived before Verona, a 
 meeting was arranged between the two em- 
 perors. It took place at Villafranca on the 
 8th of July, and there Napoleon, without 
 consulting his ally, the King of Sardinia, 
 entered into a treaty of peace with the Em- 
 peror Francis Joseph, of Austria. Austria 
 surrendered to France all of Lombardy 
 save the fortresses of Mantua and Peschiera, 
 which territory was to be transferred by 
 France to Sardinia. The Italian states 
 were advised to organize themselves into a 
 federal league under the honorary presi- 
 dency of the pope. Venetia, which re- 
 mained a possession of Austria, might be- 
 come a member of this league. This was 
 very different from the union of Italy in 
 one nation that had been hoped for at the 
 outset of the war ; but it was the best that 
 
 could be gained under the circumstances. 
 One of the worst features of the arrange- 
 ment, and one that subjected the French 
 emperor to considerable adverse criticism, 
 was the provision that the Grand Duke of 
 Tuscany and the Duke of Modena were to 
 return to their states. Peace was made on 
 these conditions, and the French army with- 
 drew from Italy. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel refused to enter into 
 the scheme of an Italian confederation, and 
 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the papal 
 state of Romagna petitioned the King of 
 Sardinia to annex them to his dominions. 
 The king proceeded with great, caution in 
 acceding to this request In March, 18G0, 
 a popular vote was taken in Tuscany, ]Mo- 
 dena, Parma, and Romagna, and resulted 
 in an overwhelming majority in favor of 
 annexation to Sardinia. The pope, upon 
 the annexation of Romagna, excommuni- 
 cated the invaders of his dominions, but 
 without mentioning any one by name. It 
 was understood, however, that this measure 
 was directed against Victor Emmanuel and 
 his supporters. Austria beheld these changes 
 without making any opposition. It was 
 well understood that France, while anxious 
 for peace, would join Italy against any Eu- 
 ropean power that should seek to interfere 
 with a free expression of the will of the 
 Italian people. France was the sincere 
 friend of Italy, but she had an eye to her 
 own interests, and demanded the cession of 
 Savoy and Nice by Sardinia as a return for 
 her support. The cession was submitted to 
 the vote of the people of these provinces, 
 and was ratified by them in April, 1860. 
 
 In 1859 Ferdinand of Naples died, and 
 was succeeded by his son Francis II., a 
 pupil of the Jesuits, who proved himself 
 capable of becoming as cruel a despot as his 
 father. In March, 1860, the people of 
 Sicily, maddened by their sufferings and 
 encouraged by the success of their brethren 
 of the peninsula, rose in revolt at Palermo, 
 Messina, and Catania, It was hoped that 
 Sardinia would favor the movement, but 
 both Victor Emmanuel and Cavour deemed 
 it most prudent not to interfere. Aid came 
 from an unexpected quarter. On the 5th 
 of May General Garibaldi eluded the vigi- 
 lance of the Sardinian government, and 
 sailed from Genoa with a force of 2,000 
 volunteers. He landed at Marsala and 
 proclaimed himself Dictator of Sicily, " in 
 the name of Victor Emmanuel of Italy." 
 He captured Palermo with his little band, 
 
506 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and defeated the troops of Kiug Francis 
 at Melazzo. This victory made Garibaldi 
 master of all Sicily save Messina, which 
 was held by the Neapolitan troops. 
 
 Francis II. now appealed to Victor Em- 
 manuel to put a stop to Garibaldi's attack 
 upon his kingdom. The King of Sardinia, 
 
 decide by their votes whether they would 
 become a part of the Sardinian kingdom. 
 Garibaldi refused to obey this order, and on 
 the night of the 20th of August crossed his 
 force from Sicily to the mainland at Spar- 
 tivento. Pushing on, he defeated the Nea- 
 politan troops at Keggio and San Giovanni, 
 
 VICTOE EMMANUEL II. 
 
 who had secretly connived at the expedi- 
 tion, declared that he was not responsible 
 for the attack upon the King of Naples. 
 A little later, fearing the tendency of Gari- 
 baldi's republican sympathies, Victor Em- 
 manuel ordered him to take no steps against 
 Naples until the people of Sicily should 
 
 and moved forward towards the capital. 
 Francis II. fled from Naples to Gaeta in a 
 Spanish man-of-war, on the 7th of Septem- 
 ber, and the next day Garibaldi entered 
 Naples in triumph. 
 
 A number of Neapolitan patriots jiad 
 taken advantage of the troubles of King 
 
FB03I THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 507 
 
 Francis to return to their country, and 
 Garibaldi, upon his entry into Naples, 
 found a provisional government in exist- 
 ence. Great efforts were made to induce 
 the dictator to withhold his conquests from 
 the King of Sardinia, and the democrats 
 hoped to be able to organize a southern 
 republic. Their schemes caused Count 
 Cavour no little anxiety. The papal states 
 were also becoming troublesome by reason 
 of the partisan warfare which the pope's 
 irregular troops maintained against Sar- 
 dinia, and Count Cavour warned the pope 
 that unless these outrages should cease at 
 once the Piedraontese army Avould invade 
 his territory. The French emperor entered 
 a protest against this threat, but that was a 
 mere formality. Napoleon, as has been 
 stated, was a sincere friend to the vmion of 
 Italy, and he stood ready to aid her in case 
 she was attacked by any other poAver. The 
 Sardinian threat being unheeded by the 
 papal government, an army under General 
 Cialdini entered the papal states, and cap- 
 tured Urbino, Perugia, and a number of 
 other places. In the meantime Garibaldi 
 was joined by a large number of volunteers 
 in Naples, and in October inflicted a crush- 
 ing defeat upon the Neapolitan army in a 
 battle on the Garigliano. Victor Emman- 
 uel now entered the Neapolitan territory to 
 secure the fruits of Garibaldi's successes, 
 and Avas met by the dictator, who hailed 
 him as King of Italy. The people of 
 Naples and Sicily by an overwhelming vote 
 declared themselves in favor of annexation 
 to Sardinia, and their wishes Avere complied 
 with. Several of the European states ex- 
 pressed their displeasure at these changes, 
 but none cared to make them a cause of 
 war, especially as a war with Italy on this 
 question meant a Avar with France also. 
 The English government openly declared 
 its sympathy Avith the Italian people. 
 
 Italy was now united, Avith the exception 
 of Venetia and the papal territory. In 
 February, 1861, the first Italian Parliament 
 met at Turin and proclaimed Victor Em- 
 manuel King of Italy. So far all had 
 been attended Avith enthusiasm, and there 
 had been no trouble as far as the people 
 Avere concerned in forming the Italian king- 
 dora. Difficulties now thickened around 
 the king. Cavour and Garibaldi could not 
 agree, and the latter retired to his island 
 home of Caprera, and his array of volun- 
 teers Avas disbanded. Messina in Sicily and 
 Gaeta on the mainland held out asrainst 
 
 Victor Emmanuel ; the latter fortress being 
 defended by Francis II. in person, or rather 
 by his young queen, for Francis himself 
 Avas an imbecile. The people Avere discon- 
 tented, for they believed that Garibaldi, 
 Avho Avas their idol, had not been fairly 
 treated by the king. The policy Avhich had 
 been pursued in Sardinia towards the con- 
 vents and other religious bodies Avas noAV 
 applied to the Neapolitan provinces, and 
 gave great offence to the superstitious 
 people of that region. Brigandage was 
 rife in the Abruzzi districts, and was en- 
 couraged by the priests, as the brigands 
 declared they fought for King Francis. 
 When defeated, these bands Avould take 
 refuge in the papal territory, and it was 
 charged that they Avere supplied Avith arms 
 by the papal authorities. In the fall of 
 1860 they became so bold and actiA^e that 
 Naples itself Avas not safe, and the Avhole 
 country Avas kept in a state of terror. In 
 February, 1861, Francis II. fled from 
 Gaeta to Rome, and the town surrendered 
 to the Italian forces. About the same time 
 Generals Cialdini and La Marmora broke 
 the poAver of the brigands of southern Italy. 
 The Avisdom of the measures of the Italian 
 government Avas becoming apparent to the 
 Neapolitans, and the happy reforms intro- 
 duced by Cavour were beginning to concili- 
 ate all classes. Confidence in the " honest 
 king" returned, and matters began to AA^ear 
 a hopeful aspect once more. 
 
 At this juncture, in the summer of 1861, 
 Count CaA'our died. In him the king and 
 country suffered an irreparable loss. He 
 had been the originator of the greater j^art 
 of the measures that had given freedom and 
 union to Italy, and he left behind him no 
 one really capable of filling his place. He 
 Avas succeeded in office by Baron Ricasoli. 
 
 All parties now looked forward to the 
 time Avhen Rome and the remnant of the 
 papal territory and A^enetia should become 
 parts of the kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi 
 Avas determined to take Rome by main 
 force, and Rattazzi, Avho had succeeded 
 Ricasoli as prime minister, hoped he might 
 be able to profit by Garibaldi's efforts and 
 secure Rome as the capital of the kingdom. 
 Cavour Avould have begun by arranging the 
 matter Avith the Emperor Napoleon, Avho 
 Avas the nominal protector of the Holy See. 
 Rattazzi, hoAvever, Avas blind to the necessity 
 of conciliating France, Avhose troops consti- 
 tuted the garrison of Rome, and to his 
 astonishment found that the French emperor 
 
508 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was determined to put down Garibaldi's 
 movement unless Italy would do so. Rat- 
 tazzi was therefore obliged to take sides 
 against the very scheme he had encouraged. 
 Garibaldi raised a force of volunteers in 
 Sicily, and landed in Italy. He was met 
 at Reggio by an Italian force under Gen- 
 eral Cialdini, and defeated it on the 28th of 
 September, 1862. On the 29th Garibaldi 
 was attacked and defeated at Aspromonte 
 by an Italian army under General Pallavi- 
 cini, and was wounded and taken prisoner. 
 He was conveyed to Spezzia. He declared, 
 in his defence, that he had attacked the 
 soldiers of Italy against his will ; that he 
 had been betrayed by Rattazzi, to whose in- 
 competence it was due that a French gar- 
 rison was still at Rome. This declaration 
 aroused a storm of indignation Avhich drove 
 Rattazzi from office. Garibaldi was con- 
 veyed to his home at Caprera, and a general 
 amnesty was extended to his followers. 
 Though his expedition was a failure, it made 
 the Italians more than ever determined to 
 free Rome and Venetia and unite all Italy. 
 
 In September, 1864, a convention was 
 entered into by Italy and France, by which 
 the latter power agreed to withdraw her 
 garrison gradually from Rome, in order to 
 give the pope time to form a force for his 
 own defence. The evacuation was to be 
 completed at the end of two years, and with 
 it was to end the interference of France in 
 Italian affairs. The King of Italy, in con- 
 sideration of this agreement, pledged him- 
 self to allow no attack to be made on the 
 pope's government. The papal power was 
 evidently falling to pieces, and would sink 
 into ruin as soon as the protection of France 
 was withdrawn. Italy would then be free 
 to profit by this fall, which she bound her- 
 self not to hasten. The Italian capital was 
 at the same time removed from Turin to 
 Florence. This was a wise measure ; it was 
 not only one step nearer Rome, but it 
 placed the seat of government in a more 
 central position and where it was safer from 
 the attacks of Austria than at Turin. 
 
 In 1866 war broke out between Prussia 
 and Austria. An alliance was made be- 
 tween Italy and Prussia, and the Prussian 
 king bound himself to continue the war 
 against Austria until she surrendered to 
 Italy all Venetia save the city of Venice 
 and the Quadrilateral. We shall relate 
 the events of this war in Germany else- 
 where. War began between Italy and 
 Austria on the 20th of June. The Italians 
 
 responded Avith enthusiasm to the king's 
 call for troops. The Italian army crossed 
 the Mincio, and was defeated by the Austri- 
 ans at Custoza on the 24th of June. The great 
 victory of PrussiaatKonniggratz, or Sadowa, 
 on the 3d of July, reduced Austria to such 
 extremities that she was obliged to concen- 
 trate all her energies for the defence of her 
 home territory. Unable to hold Venetia, 
 she relinquished it to the Emperor of the 
 French, by whom it was to be transferred 
 to Italy. On the 20th of July the Aus- 
 trian fleet inflicted a terrible defeat upon 
 the Italian fleet off Lissa. The war Avas 
 now brought to a close by the Peace of 
 Nicholsburg on the 30th of August. In 
 spite of her reverses, Italy gained the ob- 
 jects for which she fought, thanks to the 
 vigor and success with which Prussia con- 
 ducted the campaign in Germany. All of 
 Venetia, including the city of Venice, and 
 the fortresses of the Quadrilateral, were 
 united to Italy. Austria retained Istria, 
 Aquileia, and the former possessions of 
 Venice on the Dalmatian coast. 
 
 At the close of the year 1866 the French 
 troops were withdrawn from Rome, in accord- 
 ance with the terms of the September con- 
 vention. Garibaldi now avowed his deter- 
 mination to Avrest Rome from the pope. 
 Rattazzi, Avho had returned to office, secretly 
 encouraged the movement, hoping to find in 
 it a chance of winning Rome for Italy, Avith- 
 out incurring the risk of a Avar Avith France. 
 He managed the affair badly. Garibaldi 
 raised a force of volunteers, and AV'hile pre- 
 paring for the invasion of the papal terri- 
 tory Avas arrested by order of the Italian 
 government, and conveyed to his home at 
 Caprera. In the meantime his volunteers 
 crossed the Roman frontier without being 
 checked by the Italian government, and on 
 the 14th of October, 1867, Garibaldi Avas 
 allowed to escape from Caprera and rejoin 
 his forces. The sympathy of the Italian 
 government was so open that he hoped to 
 be supported by the royal troops. This 
 open sympathy, however, had induced the 
 Emperor Napoleon to inform the Italian 
 government that he should regard any fur- 
 ther action against the papal dominions as 
 a declaration of Avar against France. In 
 the meantime Garibaldi had defeated the 
 papal forces at Monte Rotundo, and dis- 
 turbances had occurred among the people 
 of Rome. The King of Italy issued a 
 proclamation declaring his intention to op- 
 pose the further advance of the Garibaldi- 
 
FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON L TO THE PRESENT TI3IE. 
 
 509 
 
 ans. The Emperor Napoleon, however, de- 
 clared the September convention broken, 
 and threw a fresh garrison into Rome. 
 Garibaldi, believing that Italy would be 
 <;ompelled to resent this action of France, 
 prepared to disband his volunteers. His 
 garrison at Mentenua surrendered to the 
 French and papal army on the 4th of No- 
 vember, 1867, after a gallant resistance. 
 Garibaldi himself was arrested on his way 
 to Caprera, by the Italian government, but 
 the indignation of the people was so great 
 that he was re- 
 leased, and al- 
 lowed to retire to 
 his home. The 
 popular indigna- 
 tion at the failure 
 of the scheme for 
 securing Rome 
 drove Rattazzi 
 from office once 
 more. The dis- 
 approval of the 
 re-occupation of 
 Rome by the 
 French was so 
 marked on the 
 part of the great 
 powers, that the yZi 
 Emperor of the St 
 French declared ^z^ 
 it would be termi- 
 nated as soon as 
 a definite arrange- 
 ment could be 
 made Avith Italy. 
 In July, 1870, 
 war broke out be- 
 tween France and 
 Germany, and 
 the necessities of 
 the former coun- 
 try required the ^^ 
 withdrawal of the 
 French army 
 
 from Rome. On the 8th of August the 
 French troops evacuated Rome, and sailed 
 from Civita Vecchia for their own country. 
 The Roman people were greatly excited, and 
 the ultra republicans, Avith Mazzini at their 
 head, threatened to wrest Rome from the 
 ])ope. The king would not allow this, as 
 he considered himself still bound by the 
 September convention with France ; and 
 Mazzini Avas arrested to keep him quiet. 
 On the 2d of September the Emperor 
 Napoleon and the French army surrendered 
 
 to the German forces at Sedan. This act 
 was soon followed by the overthrow of the 
 empire and the establishment of the French 
 republic, which declared the September 
 convention no longer binding upon France. 
 Victor Emmanuel Avas noAV free to act, 
 and at once notified the pope that he had 
 taken upon himself the task of preserving 
 order in Italy — a plain intimation that he 
 meant to make himself master of Rome. 
 The pope appealed to King William of 
 Prussia to protect him, but that sovereign 
 
 POPE PIUS IX. 
 
 declined to interfere in Italian affairs. The 
 Italian troops entered the papal territory, 
 Avhich readily submitted to the king, and 
 in a fcAV days took position before Rome. 
 The pope refused to allow the city to be de- 
 fended, but caused only sufficient resistance 
 to be made to shoAv that he yielded to force. 
 A small breach Avas made in the Avail, near 
 the Porta Pia, and through this the Italian 
 army entered Rome on the 20th of Sep- 
 tember, 1870. Rome and its territory were 
 declaimed parts of the Italian kingdom. On 
 
510 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the 31st of December, 1870, Victor Emman- 
 uel made his public entry into Rome, which 
 now became the capital of free and united 
 Italy. 
 
 Thus fell the temporal power of the 
 pope, who was now reduced to his true po- 
 sition of a spiritual ruler. The king care- 
 fully respected and consulted the personal 
 comfort, dignity, and independence of the 
 pontiiF. The Vatican Quarter, or Leonine 
 City, was confirmed to him, and exempted 
 from the law of the state, that the pope 
 might be free in fact, as well as in theory, 
 from the interference of the Italian govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Since 1870 the progress of Italy has been 
 marked. She has fairly entered upon her 
 great career of prosperity as a united na- 
 tion, and is already experiencing the good 
 effects of personal liberty and constitutional 
 government. Her resources are being rap- 
 idly developed, and she has taken her true 
 position as one of the great powers of the 
 world. 
 
 On the 26th of December, 1870, the tun- 
 nel through Mont Cenis was completed. 
 This splendid work piei'ces the great barrier 
 of the Alps, and gives to Italy direct and 
 uninterrupted railway communication with 
 France and the rest of Europe. 
 
 In October, 1872, the Jesuits, who had 
 given considerable trouble to the Italian 
 
 government, were expelled from Rome. It 
 is worthy of remark that, on the same day, 
 the first scientific congress ever assembled 
 within the walls of Rome met in the 
 capitol under the presidency of Count 
 Mamiani. 
 
 In spite of his fallen fortunes as a civil 
 ruler, the spiritual power of the pope had 
 been greatly increased during these years. 
 On the 8th of December, 1869, an CEcu- 
 menical Council met at the Vatican. It 
 was a body Avhich fairly represented the 
 Roman Catholic Church throughout the 
 world. Its sessions were long and elaborate, 
 and on the 18th of July, 1870, resulted in 
 the solemn announcement of the infalli- 
 bility of the pope in matters of faith and 
 morals. All members of the Romish com- 
 munion were required to accept this doc- 
 trine as an article of faith on pain of eter- 
 nal damnation. The doctrine was accepted 
 by the church without hesitation. 
 
 The contest between the pope and the 
 king became even more bitter after the oc- 
 cupation of the city of Rome by the Italian 
 government. It is still in progress. The 
 Italian government has been driven by the 
 papal party into stern measures for the 
 maintenance of its authority ; but on the 
 whole the just rights of the pope have been 
 respected. 
 
 -«>s-ii=i:see^s<^ 
 
 book: xl^stiii. 
 
 THE ECISTOmr OF aEHJM^jSTY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REIGN 
 OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Geographical Position of Germany — The German 
 Race — Tacitus the Principal Authority Coucern- 
 ing the Primitive Germans — Organization and 
 Characteristics of tlie Germanic Tribes — Family 
 Ties— The Wergeld^ — Ancient Germany — Politi- 
 cal Constitution— Religion — Ariovistus — Efforts of 
 Rome to Conquer the Germans — Defeat of Varus 
 by Arminius — Migrations of the German Tribes — 
 The Franks— The Salian Franks— Their King- 
 dom— Clovis— Conquers Syagrius— Battle of Tol- 
 biac — Clovis Embraces Christianity — Conquest of 
 the Burgundians— The Visigothic Kingdom Sub- 
 dued — Relations of Clovis with the Empire — His 
 Death — Division of his Kingdom among his Sons 
 — Quarrels of the Descendants of Clovis — Brune- 
 
 haut— The " Do-Nothing Kings "—The Mayors of 
 the Palace— Pepin of Heristal— Spread of Chris- 
 tianity among the Germans— St. Willibrord— 
 Charles Martel— Defeats the Saracens— The Pope 
 Entreats him to Defend the Holy See— Fall of tlie 
 Merovingian Dynasty — Pepin the Short Becomes 
 King of the Franks — Protects the Pope against 
 the Lombards — Drives the Saracens from France 
 — Death of Pepin. 
 
 /^^ERMANY, or Deutschland, occupies 
 tm ^ considerable part of central Eu- 
 rope. Its limits have varied at 
 ^ different times, owing to the fact 
 ^C^?- *^^^ ^^ ^^s ^o clearly defined boun- 
 q'^ daries, and also because, lying in 
 the central portion of Europe, and being 
 surrounded by most of the leading nations 
 
FROM EARLIEST TIMES TO REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 511 
 
 of the continent, the Germans have been 
 more intimately involved than any other 
 people in the general history of Europe. 
 Roughly stated, Germany now extends 
 from the Baltic to the Alps, and from the 
 •iRhine valley on the west to the Danube. 
 'In the south of Germany the country is 
 mountainous ; in the centre it is hilly ; but 
 in the north it forms a part of the great 
 plain of northeastern Europe, and is flat. 
 
 The Germans are a branch of the great 
 Aryan family. The settlement of the Ger- 
 manic or Teutonic nations of Europe at the 
 fall of the Roman empire has been related 
 at the close of our history of Rome. It re- 
 mains but to describe the leading charac- 
 teristic of the tribes which constituted the 
 ancestors of the modern Germans. Our 
 principal authority respecting them is the 
 Roman historian Tacitus, whose "Germa- 
 nia " was written in A. d. 98. 
 
 The greater part of Germany was origi- 
 nally covered with forests in which wild 
 animals and game abounded. The climate 
 was damp and foggy, and the winters were 
 colder and longer than at present. The 
 soil was generally fertile, but was marshy 
 in many places. The Germans were dis- 
 tinguished from the southern races by their 
 huge and robust frames, their greater dar- 
 ing and activity, their respect for the honor 
 of their women, and by " a sense they called 
 honor, Avhich led them to sacrifice their life 
 rather than their word." They were di- 
 vided into a number of tribes, which were 
 grouped at the period of which we write 
 into the confederations or nations we have 
 already enumerated. The various tribes, 
 except the Saxons, who had no kings save 
 in time of war, when the nobles chose one 
 of their own number as a leader, had each 
 a royal family believed to be descended 
 from Odin. From this family the king was 
 chosen by the free votes of his comrades. 
 
 The Germans were au agricultural peo- 
 ple, but their favorite occupations Avere 
 war and hunting. They left the tilling of 
 the soil and other peaceful pursuits to 
 men unable to bear arms and to women. 
 Though brave, simple, hospitable and 
 truthful as a rule, they were often fierce 
 and cruel, and were excessively ad- 
 dicted to gambling, drunkenness, and in- 
 dolence. They celebrated the great deeds 
 of their ancestors in their songs, and were 
 ever ready to die in defence of their free- 
 dom. They were divided into two classes — 
 the nobles and the common freemen. The 
 
 nobles were generally richer than the free- 
 men, but owed their influence to their per- 
 sonal qualities rather than to their wealth. 
 They were the acknowledged leaders of the 
 people in peace and war. The freemen 
 wei-e all equals, and constituted the great 
 bulk of the nation. Both nobles and free- 
 men held slaves, which class consisted of 
 prisoners taken in war and their children, 
 and persons condemned to slavery for crime. 
 They were the absolute property of their 
 masters, and had no redress against their 
 injustice; but as a rule were well treated. 
 The laws were few. Nearly all crimes com- 
 mitted by freemen or nobles Avere punished 
 by fines, the amounts of which diftered in 
 the various tribes. 
 
 Family ties were very strong among the 
 ancient Germans. Marriages did not take 
 place until the contracting parties had fully 
 developed their mental and physical 
 powers. Though the Avife Avas in a certain 
 sense purchased by her husband and was 
 subject to him, her position Avas one of 
 honor and influence. She Avas her hus- 
 band's companion and friend, and accom- 
 panied him on distant military expeditions. 
 She Avas trained to the use of arms, and was 
 brave and A'irtuous. The father had su- 
 preme authority OA'er his children. The 
 orphan children of a freeman Avere pro- 
 tected by their relati\'es until able to defend 
 themselves. A freeman's quarrels Avere es- 
 poused by his relati\'es, and in case of his 
 murder they Avere bound to see that the 
 Wergeld, or price of blood, Avhich was di- 
 vided amongst his family, Avas exacted and 
 paid. 
 
 Ancient Germany contained no cities. 
 As a general rule the free inhabitants lived 
 in villages, in Avhich each hut or family 
 dAA'elliug stood apart from the rest, sur- 
 rounded by a piece of ground. At first the 
 lands around the villages Avere held in com- 
 mon, but in course of time they Avere di- 
 vided among individual OAvners. An un- 
 defined number of villages formed what Avas 
 called a Hundred. Each \allage and hun- 
 dred had its own chief, elected by the votes 
 of the freemen. AboA'e the chiefs of the 
 hundreds Avere the chiefs of the tribes. 
 Some of the tribes had kings, elected, as 
 has been said, from certain noble families 
 believed to have sprung from the gods. 
 The chiefs of the hundreds Avere the princes 
 of the tribes, and constituted the council 
 of the king or principal chief. The princes 
 vied Avith each other in the number of their 
 
512 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 followers, each of whom swore to be faith- 
 ful to his lord. To violate this oath was 
 regarded as the worst possible crime. In 
 return for their services, the chief supplied 
 his men with war-horses, armor and food. 
 
 "Important as was the position of the 
 chiefs in ancient Germany, their power was 
 comparatively limited. Above all chiefs 
 were meetings of the people. Even the vil- 
 lage had its meeting ; but the really im- 
 portant meetings were those of the hun- 
 dred and the tribe. These meetings were 
 not, like modern parliaments, representa- 
 tive. All freemen had a right to attend 
 them. The meetings of the village and 
 of the hundred did not concern themselves 
 with the affairs of the tribe. These came 
 before the meeting of the whole people. 
 It was in this general meeting that the 
 chiefs were elected — not only the king or 
 other chief of the tribe, but the chiefs of 
 the various hundreds. Here also the young 
 freeman received from his father, or some 
 prince, the arms which were the symbol 
 that he had attained to a position of inde- 
 pendence in the tribe. All difficult cases 
 of justice were decided by the meeting of 
 the tribe ; it also declared war and con- 
 cluded peace, and sanctioned the occasional 
 distant expeditions of the chiefs with their 
 followers. When questions of unusual diffi- 
 culty were to come before the meeting, they 
 were discussed beforehand by the king or 
 other chief and the princes of the tribe; but 
 the ultimate decision lay with the people 
 themselves. The common freemen rarely 
 took a leading part in the deliberations. 
 The chiefs laid their proposals before the 
 people in plain terms, stating the arguments 
 on each side. If the freemen did not agree 
 with their chiefs, they expressed their opin- 
 ion by cries of dissent ; they signified their 
 approval of a proposition by clashing their 
 armor." 
 
 The religion of the Germans was in keep- 
 ing with their habits. Their supreme god 
 was Wodan, or Odin, whose wife was Freya. 
 Donar, or Thor, their son, the god of thun- 
 der, was a very powerful deity. Baldur, 
 the sun god, was also important. The gods 
 had no temples erected to their honor, but 
 were worshipped in sacred groves. Sacri- 
 fices, sometimes of human beings, Avere 
 offered to them. Their will was ascertained 
 by means of lots, the flight of birds, and 
 the neighing of sacred horses. The Ger- 
 mans believed that the gods took a direct 
 interest in human affairs, and they acknowl- 
 
 edged a future state, in Avhich the brave 
 lived Avith Odin in Valhalla, feasting on 
 beer and the flesh of the Avild boar, and en- 
 gaging in fierce combats for pastime. From 
 this abode cowards and those who died 
 peacefully Avere excluded. 
 
 In the History of Rome Ave have related 
 the steps by Avhich Germany emerged from 
 her primitive darkness into the light of 
 history. It will not be necessary to repeat 
 the narrative here at length. A quarrel 
 having broken out between the Sequani 
 and -3^dui, two Gallic tribes, the former 
 invited Ariovistus, King of the Suevi, a 
 powerful German tribe, to come to their 
 assistance. He did so, but by the year B. c. 
 60 extended his authority over both tribes, 
 and thus added all of Gaul between the 
 upper Rhine and the Loire to his do- 
 minions. Ariovistus at first maintained 
 friendly relations Avith the Romans, but in 
 B. c. 58 the Gauls appealed to Julius Csesar 
 for help, and the Roman commander 
 marched against the German king, defeated 
 him, and conquered him. He subdued the 
 Germans on the left bank of the Rhine as 
 thoroughly as he did the Celtic inhabitants 
 of Gaul, and his estimation of the Avarlike 
 qualities of the Germans Avas increased to 
 such an extent that he induced many of 
 them to enter his army. 
 
 After this Ave hear but little of Germany 
 until the reign of Augustus, Avho endeaA'ored 
 to convert the country into a Roman prov- 
 ince. Drusus, the stepson of the emperor, 
 won great successes over the German tribes, 
 and in three successive expeditious into 
 their country advanced as far as the Elbe. 
 He erected fifty fortresses along the Rhine 
 to hold the line of that river, and Avould 
 have conquered a large part of Germany 
 had not his death, in B. c. 9, put a stop to 
 his plans. The Romans continued the Avar, 
 and Tiberius, the successor of Drusus, con- 
 quered the Teucteri and Usipetes in B. c. 8. 
 By treachery he overcame the gallant resist- 
 ance of the Sicambri, and settled about 
 40,000 of them in Gaul. It seemed for 
 a Avhile that Germany Avould be brought 
 under the dominion of Rome ; but the ad- 
 vantages Avon by Tiberius Avere thrown 
 aAvay by Quinctilius Varus. His tyranny 
 drove the freeborn Germans into rebellion, 
 and they took arms against Varus. The 
 revolt Avas led by Arminius, or Herman, a 
 young Cheruscan chief Varus Avas lured 
 by Arminius into the depths of the Teuto- 
 burg Avood, where he was attacked, and 
 
FB03I EARLIEST TIMES TO EEIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 513 
 
 his army annihilated, as we have related in 
 the History of Rome. 
 
 The victory of Arminius destroyed the 
 Roman power in Germany. In the reign 
 of the Emperor Tiberius the Roman army 
 under German icus, the son of Drusus, en- 
 deavored to regain what Varus had lost ; 
 but the Germans, led by Arminius, offered 
 such a stout resistance that the invaders 
 withdrew from the country. 
 
 Arminius was then called upon to defend 
 his country against the efforts of the Mar- 
 comanni, who had occupied the region now 
 known as Bohemia, from which they en- 
 deavored to conquer Germany. The Ger- 
 man hero defeated Maroboduus, the Mar- 
 comanuic king, broke up his kingdom, and 
 compelled him to seek safety at Rome, and 
 so, a second time, preserved the independ- 
 ence of Germany. Arminius was murdered 
 in A. T>. .21, at the age of thirty-seven. To 
 this day his memory is deservedly cherished 
 by the German people as the earliest of 
 their heroes. 
 
 In the second centuiythe German tribes, 
 encouraged by the appax-ent weakness of 
 the Roman empire, ventured to invade its 
 dominions. In the reign of Marcus Aur- 
 elius the Marcomanni and the Quadi, aided 
 by several non-German tribes, maintained 
 a war of thirteen years against Rome, and 
 compelled the empire to put forth extraor- 
 dinary exertions to protect its frontiers from 
 them. 
 
 Between the third and the sixth cen- 
 turies occurred the migrations of the Ger- 
 man tribes, which determined the geographi- 
 cal position of the nations of modern Europe. 
 Their settlement is related at the close of 
 our History of Rome, and need not be 
 repeated here. 
 
 The most important of these tribes were 
 the Franks. For several centuries the 
 history of these people is the history of 
 Germany. They conquei'ed Gaul and their 
 own kinsmen, and laid the foundations of 
 the future kingdoms of Germany and 
 France. They began their attacks upon 
 the Roman dominions on the left bank of 
 the Rhine in the third century, and though 
 often repulsed, they persisted in their efforts, 
 which were finally crowned with success. 
 By the latter part of the fifth century they 
 had conquered the whole country between 
 the middle Rhine and the Meuse, and had 
 fixed their capital at Cologne. They were 
 called the Ripuarian Franks. 
 
 The lower Rhine country was held by a 
 
 33 
 
 Frankish tribe descended for the most part 
 from the Sicambri, Avho had been settled 
 there by Tiberius. These people were 
 known as the Salian Franks. They were 
 never willing subjects of Rome, and were 
 always on the watch for an opportunity to 
 regain their freedom. They were severely 
 worsted by the Emperor Julian, but he al- 
 lowed them to retain the lands they had 
 seized beyond the Rhine, and which ex- 
 tended west of the Meuse. By the opening 
 of the fifth century they had grown so pow- 
 erful that they no longer recognized the 
 supremacy of Rome, though they still fur- 
 nished mercenary soldiers to the Roman 
 army. 
 
 The Salians were governed at this time 
 by their own kings. The first of these of 
 whom Ave have any account was Chlodio, 
 who advanced the boundaries of his king- 
 dom as far west as the Somme. He became 
 the ally of Rome, and rendered important 
 aid to the Romans in their efforts against 
 Attila, A. D. 451. The institutions of this 
 kingdom were similar to those of the Ger- 
 man tribes. His successor is said to have 
 been Merowig, but nothing is known with 
 certainty of this monarch, who, however, 
 may have existed, as his successors from 
 this time are known as the Merovingian 
 kings. The next king of whom we have 
 any certain knowledge was Childeric. He 
 reigned during the latter half of the fifth 
 century, and had his capital at Tournay. 
 He was a great king, and aided the Romans 
 against the Visigoths. This connection 
 with the Romans paved the way for the 
 events now to be related. 
 
 Theodoric II., the monarch of the Visi- 
 gothic kingdom of Gaul, the establishment 
 and early history of which we have related 
 in connection with that of Rome, was as- 
 sassinated by his brother Euric, who suc- 
 ceeded him. Euric subdued the greater 
 part of Spain, and compelled the Suevi to 
 hold the kingdom of Gallicia as a tribu- 
 tary of the Gothic crown. He died pre- 
 maturely in the midst of his conquests, 
 leaving his kingdom to Alaric, his sou, a 
 mere child. 
 
 In the meantime Childeric had l)een suc- 
 ceeded on the Salian throne by his son 
 Chlodwig or Clovis, a youth of fifteen. 
 His kingdom consisted of the island of the 
 Batavians and the ancient dioceses of Tour- 
 nay and Arras, and his warriors did not 
 exceed 5,000 in number. His great abili- 
 ties soon spread his influence over the kin- 
 
514 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dred tribes of the Franks, who were settled 
 along the Scheldt, the Meuse, the Moselle, 
 and the lower Rhine, and who were gov- 
 erned by independent kings, and drew large 
 numbers of warriors to his standard. 
 
 The first exploit of Clovis was the con- 
 quest and annexation to his dominions of 
 the kingdom of Syagrius, who ruled over 
 the second Belgic and the adjoining dis- 
 tricts. He next defeated the Alemanni, 
 who held the territory on each side of the 
 Rhine from its source to the mouths of the 
 Main and Moselle, and who had spread 
 themselves over that portion of Gaul which 
 afterwards comprised the provinces of Al- 
 sace and Lorraine. Their king was slain 
 and their possessions became a part of the 
 kingdom of Clovis, A. d. 496. In A. D. 
 493 Clovis had espoused Clotilda, a Bur- 
 gundian princess, who, though reared in an 
 Arian court, had been trained in the ortho- 
 dox Catholic faith. Clotilda labored dili- 
 gently to convert her husband to Christian- 
 ity, but for a long time he refused to embrace 
 her faith, though he permitted their eldest 
 child to be baptized. The decisive battle 
 of the war against the Alemanni was fought 
 at Tolbiac, near Cologne. It was stub- 
 bornly contested, and for a long time the 
 issue was doubtful. In this emergency, 
 Clovis, raising his hands to heaven, invoked 
 " the God of Clotilda," and vowed that if 
 victory should declare for him, he would 
 embrace the Christian faith, and be bap- 
 tized. He was victorious, and at the con- 
 clusion of the struggle he was baptized with 
 gi'eat pomp and splendor, together with 
 3,000 of his subjects, in the cathedral at 
 Rheims. 
 
 By his adoption of Christianity and of 
 the Catholic faith, Clovis gained the firm 
 support of that church, "and the alliance 
 was eminently serviceable to the interests 
 of both parties. The church found in the 
 advancing power of Clovis an instrument 
 which might humble the persecuting power 
 of the Visigoths and Burgundians, and 
 unite the whole country in dutiful submis- 
 sion to the See of St. Peter ; while Clovis 
 acquired in the church an ally possessing 
 the full confidence of the people whose 
 laud he aimed to conquer, and ready to 
 proclaim him as the chosen of Heaven, 
 whose sceptre would prove the surest guar- 
 antee of a nation's prosperity and greatness. 
 Either without the other must have failed, 
 but together they were irresistible." 
 
 The results of this alliance were soon ap- 
 
 parent. In A. D. 497 the Arraorican states 
 made a treaty with Clovis, by which they 
 became his tributaries. By this treaty the 
 frontiers of the Frankish dominions were 
 advanced to the Loire. In A. D. 500 Clovis 
 gained a great victory over the Burgun- 
 dians, and compelled Gondebald, their king, 
 to hold his crown as his tributary. This 
 success destroyed the greatness and glory 
 of the Biirgundian kingdom, but it was not 
 definitely united to the Frankish monarchy 
 until the next generation. 
 
 The conquest of the Burgundians en- 
 coui'aged Clovis to attempt that of the Visi- 
 gothic kingdom south of the Loire. The 
 civil government of this region was chiefly 
 in the hands of the clergy, and these now 
 rallied to the support of Clovis as the cham- 
 pion of the orthodox faith. The Gallo- 
 Roraan subjects of Alaric longed for the 
 success of the Fi-anks, and offered but little 
 resistance to them. The decisive battle of 
 the war was fought near Poitiers in A. D. 
 507, and the Visigoths were defeated. Clovis 
 slew Alaric with his own hand, and overran 
 the country from the Loire to the Garonne, 
 spending the winter at Bordeaux. The 
 next spring he attempted to drive the Visi- 
 goths beyond the Pyrenees, but Theodoric, 
 the Ostrogothic king, sent an army to the 
 assistance of his kinsman, and obliged the 
 Frankish monarch to pause. Clovis, being 
 decisively repulsed before Aries, left the 
 Goths in possession of a small portion of 
 their territory known as the province of the 
 Septimania, the capital of which was Nar- 
 boune. The remainder of their territory in 
 Gaul was permanently united with the 
 Frankish kingdom. Upon his return to 
 Tours, Clovis received a congratulatory em- 
 bassy ^om the Emperor Anastasius, who 
 invested him with the titles and insignia of 
 Consul and Patrician. In actual fact this 
 was not much of a gain, as the King of the 
 Franks was absolute master of his territory; 
 but the moral effect was considerable, for 
 this action of the emperor made Clovis in 
 the eyes of his Gallo-Roman subjects the 
 legitimate successor to all the rights and 
 privileges of the Roman Csesars. During 
 his last years, Clovis extended his power 
 by less honorable means than he had hith- 
 erto used. By a series of deliberate mur- 
 ders he removed the other Merovingian 
 chiefs, some of whom were his relatives, 
 and made himself sole monarch of the 
 Franks. He died at Paris in A. D. 511, 
 leaving his dominions to his four sons. 
 
FEOM EARLIEST TIMES TO BEIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 51-5 
 
 All the sous of Clovis fixed their capitals 
 north of the Loire, a fact significant of the 
 insecurity of the tenure by which their con- 
 quests south of that river were yet held. 
 Theodoric, the eldest, took for his share the 
 eastern provinces, from the Meuse to the 
 Rliine, and the districts of Auvergne, Li- 
 mousin, and Quercy. His capital was Metz. 
 Chlodonier reigned in the Oi-lennais, Maine, 
 Anjou, and Touraine, with his capital at 
 Orleans. Childebert was King of Paris 
 and its neighborhood, with the Armorican 
 district, stretching from Rouen to Rennes, 
 Nantes, and Vannes. Clotaire, the young- 
 est, was King of Soissons, and ruled the 
 ancient country of the Salians, together 
 with the maritime tract between the Somme 
 and the mouth of the Meuse. He also pos- 
 sessed some territory in the Cevennes and 
 on the upper Garonne. The dominions of 
 the brothers thus intersected each other in 
 the most bewildering manner, and for one 
 sovereign to reach the distant parts of his 
 dominions it was often necessary to cross 
 the possessions of another. Quarrels were 
 consequently multiplied, and neither of the 
 brothers was disposed to live peaceably with 
 the others. Theodoric, while a fierce and 
 violent ruler, gave to his subjects a wise 
 and admirable code of laws, and exerted 
 himself to introduce Christianity wherever 
 paganism had formei'ly prevailed. Theo- 
 debert, his son, attempted to intervene in 
 the affairs of Italy at the request of Justin- 
 ian and the Gothic King Vitiges; with 
 what success has been related, A. D. 539. 
 To avert such invasions in future Justinian 
 resigned to the Frankish kings his claims 
 to sovereignty in Gaul, and from that time 
 those monarchs stamped their coins with 
 their own instead of the imperial image. 
 
 The fierce quarrels of the descendants of 
 Clovis constitute a dark page in the history 
 of their country, and it is needless to re- 
 late them here. His grandsons Sigebert 
 and Chilperic, sons of Clotaire, married 
 sisters, the daughters of Athauagild, King 
 of the Visigoths. Sigebert, King of Aus- 
 trasia, married Brunehaut, a woman of rare 
 beauty and great accomplishments, but of 
 violent passions. Chilperic, King of Neus- 
 tria, married Galeswintha, the younger 
 sister, but soon afterwards murdered her at 
 the instigation of his low-born mistress 
 Fredegonda, whom he made his wife. 
 Brunehaut became the bitter enemy of 
 Fi-edegonda, and though she accepted a 
 settlement of the quarrel, never abandoned 
 
 her resolve to be avenged on the murderers 
 of her sister. This personal quarrel was 
 greatly aggravated by the rivalry between 
 the kingdoms of Neustria and Austrasia, in 
 the former of which the Gallo-Roman pop- 
 ulation was most numerous, while in the 
 latter the population was almost wholly 
 Frankish or German. Fredegonda gave 
 herself up to a life of crime, and to avoid 
 punishment caused the murder of her hus- 
 band. Previous to this she had caused the 
 assassination of Sigebert. The widowed 
 Brunehaut, though scarcely less guilty than 
 Fredegonda, contrived to maintain her hold 
 upon Austrasia as the guardian of her son. 
 She enjoyed the friendship and was the 
 correspondent of Gregory the Great and 
 other learned and good men, and, notwith- 
 standing her crimes, was the patroness and 
 defender of Christianity and learning. Slie 
 arrayed the Austrasian nobles against her 
 in the end by her eflfbrts to crush them, and 
 was finally defeated by them and by the 
 combined forces of Neustria and Burgundy. 
 She was made prisoner and turned over to 
 Clotaire, the son of Fredegonda, who sub- 
 jected her to three days of torture and indig- 
 nity, and then put her to death in the most 
 barbarous manner. 
 
 All the Frankish dominions were now 
 united under Clotaire II., who reigned as 
 sole king from a. d. 613 to 628. His son 
 Dagobert carried the pow'er of the Mero- 
 vingian race to its highest point. He fixed 
 his court at Paris, and his authority was 
 acknowledged from the Weser to the Pyr- 
 enees, and from the ocean to the Bohemian 
 border. Dagobert died in a. d. 638. His 
 successors were weak and insignificant. 
 They were termed " Rois-fiiineants" — "do- 
 nothing kings " — a title which fully ex- 
 presses their character for the next century. 
 The real power was exercised by the bishops 
 and nobles, and especially by the ofiicials 
 known as " Mayors of the Palace." The 
 mayor was a noble chosen by his order to 
 be the adviser of the king in peace and the 
 commander of the royal army in war, in 
 order to aid the nobles in their efforts to 
 limit the royal power. The office, at first 
 elective, became hereditary. Under the 
 feeble Merovingian kings who succeeded 
 Dagobert, the mayors were the real sover- 
 eigns. One of the most vigorous of these 
 rulers, Pepin of Heristal, after suflfering 
 some reverses, defeated the Neustrian no- 
 bility at Testry in a. d. 687, and having thus 
 given the death-blow to ^Merovingian roy- 
 
516 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 alty, made himself master of all the king- 
 dom of Clevis, aud for twenty-seven years 
 governed it with vigor, prudence, and suc- 
 cess. His victory was also important iu 
 another sense. It established the suprem- 
 acy of the Teutonic over the Roman element 
 in Gaul. Pepin took the title of Prince or 
 Duke of the Franks. The poor phantom 
 Merovingian king, " the long-haired shadow 
 of royalty," was exhibited once a year to 
 the people at the Field of March ; but at 
 other times was held in a sort of mild cap- 
 tivity. The remainder of the seventh cen- 
 tury and the first years of the next were 
 passed by Pepin in re-establishing the an- 
 cient supremacy of the Franks in Germany. 
 The Frisians, Saxons, Alemanni, Suabians, 
 Thuringiaus, and B.avariaus were forced to 
 acknowledge the Prankish power. These 
 successes were followed by the introduction 
 and spread of Christianity among the 
 German tribes. In the rear of the armies 
 of Pepin followed a band of monks, chiefly 
 Anglo-Saxon, by whose efforts multitudes 
 of their pagan countrymen were converted 
 to Christianity. One of these monks, St. 
 Willibrord, was consecrated by Pope Ser- 
 gius, in A. D. 696, Archbishop of the Frisians. 
 
 Pepin of Heristal died in December, 
 A. D. 714. Plectrude, his widow, attempted 
 to govern the kingdom as regent for her 
 infant grandson, Dagobert III., but was 
 opposed by Austrasian nobles led by 
 Charles Martel, an illegitimate son of Pepin, 
 and was ultimately compelled to yield. 
 Charles then came into possession of the 
 authority and dominions of his father with- 
 out fui'ther resistance, A. D. 719. He 
 ruled wisely and vigorously for twenty-two 
 years. 
 
 One of the greatest exploits of Charles 
 was his defeat of the Saracens of Spain. 
 Aquitaine and the Septimania had already 
 suffered severely from them, as we shall see 
 in the account of their history during this 
 century. In pursuance of a deliberate plan 
 of conquest, they passed the Pyrenees and 
 overran the Prankish kingdom as fai: north 
 as the Loire. Charles Martel took the 
 field against them, and inflicted upon them 
 such a crushing defeat near Tours that the 
 remnants of their host fled southward, and 
 Europe was freed from the danger of Mo- 
 hammedan conquest, A. D. 732. Charles 
 followed up his success by several expedi- 
 tions to the south ; but, though repeatedly 
 victorious, was unable to expel the Saracens 
 altogether from the soil of France. They 
 
 were not driven from Septimania, their last 
 refuge, until A. D. 759, by Pepin, the son of 
 Charles. One result of the victory of Charles 
 was the acquisition of Aquitaine, under its 
 own rulers, to the Prankish kingdom. 
 Charles, following the example of his father, 
 did not assume the royal title, but governed 
 as Duke of the Franks. In a. d. 737, upon 
 the death of the Merovingian King Thierry 
 IV., Charles felt his power so firmly estab- 
 lished that he omitted to appoint a successor 
 to the dead monarch, and the royal dignity 
 remained in abeyance. Towards the close 
 of his reign he was entreated by Pope Greg- 
 ory III. to take arms for the defence of the 
 Catholic Church against the Lombards, 
 who had seized the Exarchate of Ravenna, 
 and were threatening Rome. In return for 
 this service the pope promised to invest 
 him with the dignity of Consul and Patri- 
 cian of Rome. Charles entertained the 
 proposition with favor, but his death in 
 A. D. 741 prevented him from taking any 
 action in behalf of the pontiff. By his 
 will he divided his dominions between his 
 two sons Carloraan and Pepin, called " the 
 Short." Carloman received Austrasia and 
 the territories beyond the Rhine ; Pepin 
 was given Neustria, Burgundy, and Prov- 
 ence. 
 
 The sons of Charles sought out the last 
 descendant of the house of Clovis, and pro- 
 claimed him king, by the name of Chilperic 
 III. Assisted by St. Boniface, who was 
 about this time consecrated Archbishop of 
 Mayence, they made many reforms in the 
 church, and by liberal concessions to the 
 priesthood won their hearty support. In 
 A. D. 747 Carloman relinquished his share 
 in the government into the hands of Pepin 
 and took the vows of a Benedictine monk. 
 In A. D. 752 Pepin, having previously ob- 
 tained the sanction of the pope and the co- 
 operation of the nobles, put aside the feeble 
 Merovingian King Chilperic, condemned 
 him to the seclusion of the cloister, and 
 seated himself upon the throne as King of 
 the Franks. " The elevation of Pepin to 
 the throne was the result of a compact be- 
 tween himself and the Holy See, based 
 on considerations of mutual interest. Pepin 
 needed the sanction of the pope to legiti- 
 matize his crown ; the pontiff needed the as- 
 sistance of the Prankish arms, by which he 
 was raised eventually to the position ol a 
 temporal and territorial sovereign. And 
 this alliance between the Carolingians and 
 the papacy became a principle of regenera- 
 
THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 517 
 
 tion and progress, not only for France, but 
 for all western Europe. . . A strong mo- 
 narchical government was now established, 
 possessing the power to make itself univer- 
 sally respected ; Avhile the papacy became 
 at the same time a fixed predominant au- 
 thority for the regulation of the affairs of 
 the church." 
 
 It was not long before Pepin was able to 
 repay the pontiff for his sanction of his 
 seizure of the throne. Astolph, King of 
 the Lombards, seized Ravenna and the 
 exarchate and threatened Rome. Pope 
 Stephen II. visited the Prankish capital, as 
 has been related, to implore the aid of 
 Pepin, A. D. 753. Pepiu swore to cross the 
 Alps to the pope's assistance in the follow- 
 ing year, and was crowned at St. Denis by 
 Pope Stephen with great pomp. At the 
 same time he was solemnly invested with 
 the title of Patrician of the Romans. The 
 next year he entered Italy with a large 
 army, defeated the Lombards, and com- 
 pelled Astolph to agree to cede all the terri- 
 tory he had conquered to the pope. Pepin 
 then returned home, and Astolph immedi- 
 ately broke his promise, ravaged the Ro- 
 magiia, laid siege to Rome, and demanded 
 the surrender of the pontiff. Pepin at once 
 crossed the Alps a second time, and inflicted 
 upon the Lombard king such a punishment 
 that he was obliged to surrender the ex- 
 arcliate and the Pentapolis, as the price of 
 peace. These territories Pepin conferred 
 upon the pope, and thus raised him to the 
 dignity of a temporal as well as a spiritual 
 ruler. The Prankish king retained the 
 sovereignty of these provinces, but their 
 rich revenues went to the pope. 
 
 The entire reign of Pepiu was filled with 
 warlike enterprises. In A. D. 752 he under- 
 took to expel the Saracens from Septimania. 
 He drove them in succession from all the 
 cities of the province, and finally laid siege 
 to Narbonne, their capital, which was be- 
 trayed to him by some Gothic citizens, A. D. 
 759. This success decided the war in his 
 favor, the Saracens were obliged to evacuate 
 the province, and vSeptimania became finally 
 united to the Prankish dominions. The 
 great duchy of Aquitaine, which comprised 
 about a fourth of modern France, threw off 
 its allegiance to the King of the Franks. 
 Pepin reduced it to obedience. The war 
 began in A. D. 760 and lasted eight years. 
 The Duke of Aquitaine made a stubborn and 
 brave resistance, but he was put to death 
 by his own people in A. D. 768, and the au- 
 
 thority of Pepin was restored. This success 
 closed the career of the conqueror. On his 
 return from Aquitaine, Pepin was seized 
 with a dangerous fever at Saintes. He was 
 removed with difficulty to St. Denis, where 
 he died on the 24th of September, A. D. 768, 
 at the age of fifty-four, having reigned 
 nearly twenty-seven years — eleven as Mayor 
 of the Palace, and nearly sixteen as King 
 of the Franks. By his will his dominions 
 were divided between his sons Charles and 
 Carloman. Carloman died in 771, and his 
 brother Charles, who is better known as 
 Charlemagne, or " Charles the Great," was 
 left sole King; of the Franks. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Significance of the Accession of Pepin to the Prank- 
 ish Throne — Charlemagne King — Wars with the 
 Saxons — Cruelty of Charlemagne — The Pope Ap- 
 pea,ls to the Prankish King for Aid against the 
 Lombards — Charlemagne Crosses the Alps and 
 Subdues Northern Italy — Enters Spain — Battle 
 of Roncesvalles — Death of Roland — Charlemagne 
 Subdues Bavaria — Conquers the Huns — Goes to 
 Italy — Is Crowned Emperor by the Pope — Char- 
 acter of Charlemagne's Empire — Treaty with the 
 Eastern Emperor — Power of Charlemagne — His 
 Government and Laws — His Policy towards the 
 Church — His Protection and Encouragement of 
 Learning — Alcuin — The Schools — Personal Ap- 
 pearance and Characteristics of Charlemagne — 
 His Death — Louis the Gentle becomes Emperor — 
 Division of Charlemagne's Dominions among his 
 Sons — Death of Louis — T^othaire Emperor — The 
 Treaty of Verdun — Rise of the German and French 
 Kingdoms — The Feudal System — Its Characteris- 
 tic Features. 
 
 T should be borne in mind that the 
 
 J I accession of Pepin to the Prankish 
 I throne was the triumph of the Teu- 
 _ J tonic element in Gaul. The pre- 
 dominance of this element was more 
 marked in the reign of Charlemagne, 
 who proved himself one of the greatest sov- 
 ereigns of any time. When he mounted 
 the throne, the only German people who 
 had never submitted to the rule of the 
 Franks were the Saxons, who were still 
 heathens. Their .country stretched from 
 the mouths of the Elbe southwards to Thu- 
 ringia, and westward almost to the Rhine. 
 Charlemagne began his sole reign by an 
 attempt to conquer them. In a. d. 772 he 
 invaded their territory, took their principal 
 stronghold, Eresburg, and compelled them 
 to submit. His success was so complete 
 that he believed he had conquered them ; 
 but he had won only a temporary success. 
 
518- 
 
THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 51 U 
 
 The war, thus begun, continued for thirty- 
 years, and so taxed the energy and resources 
 of Charles that he at times almost despaired 
 of substantial success. In his anger at the 
 obstinate resistance of the Saxons, he put 
 4,500 of his prisoners to death ; but this 
 barbarous act only increased the determina- 
 tion of their countrymen. In the end, how- 
 ever, the Saxons were obliged to submit 
 and to accept Christianity. During the 
 war large numbers of Saxons were trans- 
 ported to other parts of Charlemagne's do- 
 minions, and their places filled with colonies 
 of Franks. 
 
 In the early part of the war with the 
 Saxons, Charlemagne was appealed to by 
 the pope for aid against the Lombards, 
 Avho had again threatened Kome. He 
 pi'oraptly crossed the Alps in aid of the 
 pontiff, and in A. D. 774 conquered Lom- 
 bardy and annexed that country to his own 
 dominions as a separate kingdom. From 
 this time his full title was King of the Franks 
 and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans. 
 Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and him- 
 self assumed the iron crown. The Lom- 
 bard nobles were allowed to retain their 
 estates and titles as his vassals. Two years 
 later they conspired against him, aided by 
 the Greek emperor. Charlemagne passed 
 the Alps in midwinter, crushed the revolt, 
 and placed Frankish officers in all places of 
 trust in Lombardy, 
 
 In A. D. 777 the Saracen Emir of Sara- 
 gossa asked aid of Charlemagne in his 
 struggle with the Khalif of Cordova, prom- 
 ising to become tributary to the Frankish 
 king in return for this assistance. Charle- 
 magne promised to help him, and in a. d. 
 778 made an expedition into Spain, and 
 gained such substantial successes that he 
 extended his boundary across the Pyrenees, 
 as far south as the Ebro. On his return 
 lie was not so fortunate. His rear-guard 
 Avas attacked by the Basques, in the pass 
 of Roncesvalles, and almost annihilated. 
 Among the slain was the famous knight 
 Roland, whose exploits have been sung by 
 the poets of succeeding ages. The Emir of 
 Saragossa having violated his promise to do 
 homage to Charlemagne, the king erected 
 the conquered territory into a province 
 known as the "Spanish March." The 
 authority of the governor of this province 
 extended over Roussillon, Catalonia, and 
 the infant kingdoms of Aragon and Na- 
 varre. His residence was at Barcelona. 
 
 During the reign of Pepin the Short, 
 
 Bavaria had been made tributary to the 
 Frankish crown. After his death, Thas- 
 silo, the Bavarian duke, threw oflf his alle- 
 giance. Charlemagne marched against 
 him in A. D. 785, and compelled him to 
 submit. He rebelled again the next year, 
 and was again conquered. Charles spared 
 his life, but deposed him, and in future 
 governed Bavaria by means of counts. 
 
 The Avars, the descendants of the Huns 
 who had desolated Europe under Attila, 
 held the forests and morasses of Paunonia. 
 They were thus in such close proximity to 
 Bavaria that Charlemagne resolved to at- 
 tempt their conquest. In 791 he invaded 
 their country in overwhelming force and 
 subdued them. By this success he became 
 master of western Pannonia. Five years 
 later (796) Pej^in, King of Italy, the son 
 of Charlemagne, stormed the remaining 
 defences of the Huns, and after inflicting 
 terrible slaughter upon them, compelled 
 them to submit. Nearly all of the treasure 
 carried away from Europe by Attila was 
 recovered by Pepin. The LLunnish chief- 
 tain, Thudan, and his principal warriors, 
 embraced Christianity and were baptized 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle The entire kingdom 
 of the Huns was thus added to the empire 
 of Charlemagne. 
 
 The visit of Charlemagne to Rome in 
 A, D. 800, to investigate the charges against 
 Pope Leo III., resulted, as has been related, 
 in the acquittal of the pope and the punish- 
 ment of his enemies The grateful jDontiff 
 could not do less than reward the king for 
 his friendly aid, and promptly put in exe- 
 cution a design which he had no doubt 
 arranged with the monarch. On Christmas 
 day Charlemagne visited St. Peter's Cathe- 
 dral, and while kneeling on the steps of the 
 great altar, was suddenly approached by the 
 pope, who placed a golden crown upon his 
 head, and at the same moment hailed him 
 with the ancient imperial titles : " Long 
 life and victory to Charles Augustus, 
 crowned of God, gi-eat and peace-giving 
 Emperor of the Romans." The vast throng 
 of clergy, warriors, and citizens which filled 
 the church echoed the words of the pontiflS" 
 with an enthusiastic shout, joyfully acknowl- 
 edging the King of the Franks as the law- 
 ful successor of the C?esars. 
 
 The empire of Charlemagne was not a 
 new creation, but was regarded as a revival 
 of the Roman empire of the West, which it 
 was held had not been abolished at the fall 
 of Romulus Auffustulus, but had been 
 
CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS NOBLES. 
 
 520 
 
THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 521 
 
 simply merged in the Eastern empire. In 
 the West the imperial authority had been 
 represented by the Exai-ch of Ravenna, and 
 the right of the Greek emperor to supreme 
 rule had not been disputed, at least in 
 theory. On the contrary, the most powerful 
 of the barbarian kings had been proud to 
 govern with titles assigned them by the 
 Eastern Caesar. The Iconoclastic war had 
 rendered the West bitterly hostile to the 
 court of Constantinople, and had brought 
 about a state of feeling which made any 
 actual reunion impossible. Events had fol- 
 lowed rapidly, each tending to widen the 
 breach thus opened. Besides, the throne of 
 the East was occupied by a woman, the 
 Empress Irene, whom the Romans regarded 
 as a usurper. They claimed that she could 
 not be Csesar and Augustus, and that they 
 had as good a right as the East to choose 
 the new Cajsar. They insisted that Rome 
 was of right the capital of the empire ; and 
 so it was held that in choosing Charlemagne 
 they were exercising an inalienable right, 
 and merely resuming the j^rivileges which 
 had so long been in abeyance without hav- 
 ing been lost. Charlemagne was declared 
 the successor of Constantine VI. as temporal 
 head of Christendom, and, disregarding the 
 insignificant successors of Theodosius in the 
 West, he was numbered as sixty-eighth in 
 order through the Eastern line from Augus- 
 tus, the founder of the empire. Of course 
 this claim was in direct conflict with that 
 of the Greek emperors, and was not admit- 
 ted at Constantinople. The empire was 
 thus finally divided, and we shall see for a 
 long period two emperors reigning, one in 
 the East and the other in the West, and 
 each claiming to be the only true Csesar. 
 In A. D. 803 a treaty was negotiated be- 
 tween the two emperors, fixing the boun- 
 daries of their dominions in Italy. The 
 Eastern emperor surrendered his claim to 
 Rome and the exarchate, but retained 
 Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast, and 
 the Calabrian cities. 
 
 Charlemagne was now the most powerful 
 monarch in the world, and his greatness 
 was recognized by all nations. The Eng- 
 lish and the little Gothic kingdom in Spain 
 sought his protection, and from the far-off 
 banks of the Tigris came an embassy from 
 the great Khalif Haroun al Raschid seek- 
 ing his friendship and bringing rich pres- 
 ents, among which Avere the keys of Jeru- 
 salem and the Holy Sepulchre. During 
 the remaining fourteen years of the life of 
 
 Charlemagne his efforts were given to the 
 internal organization of his dominions — a 
 task of almost superhuman difficulty, con- 
 sidering the number and dissimilarity of the 
 nations subject to his rule. The success 
 which attended his efforts is a far more en- 
 during monument to his fame than his 
 great exploits as a conqueror. His con- 
 stant eflTort was for the civilization and 
 Christianization of Europe, and it will be 
 interesting to inquire how he sought to ac- 
 complish this. 
 
 The empire of Charlemagne extended 
 from the Baltic to the Ebro, from the North 
 Sea and the Eider to central Italy, and 
 from the Atlantic to the Save, the Theiss, 
 the Oder and the lower Vistula. The cen- 
 tre of this immense region was the Rhine- 
 land, the home of the East Franks. Rome 
 and Aachen were the capitals of the empire. 
 In the former the emperor resided but little, 
 and only when occasions of state demanded 
 his presence. Aachen was his favorite 
 residence, and he adorned it not only with 
 a palace but with a fine basilica, from which 
 it derived the name of Aix-la-Chapelle, by 
 which it is usually known in history. 
 
 The government of Charlemagne was 
 strictly personal. It was an absolute mon- 
 archy disguised under aristocratic, and at 
 the same time, to some extent, popular 
 forms and institutions. The emperor origi- 
 nated and proposed all laws, which were 
 discussed in the assemblies of the nation, 
 one of which met in May and the other in 
 the autumn, and which were attended by 
 the dukes, counts, prelates, and other lead- 
 ing men of the empire. These assemblies 
 could only deliberate and advise. The 
 emperor alone decided what should become 
 law. The laws of Charlemagne which re- 
 main to us show the wide range over which 
 the care and wisdom of the emperor ex- 
 tended. They embrace " every conceivable 
 topic of legislation, from matters of the 
 highest moral, ecclesiastical, and political 
 importance, down to the minutest details 
 of domestic economy." One of his chief 
 objects was to lessen the power of the dukes 
 and counts, who were almost independent 
 sovereigns, and who were the chief obstacles 
 in the way of the emperor's efforts to 
 administer justice among his people. He 
 entirely abolished the title of duke in Ger- 
 many. For the defence of his long and 
 exposed frontier he organized the border 
 districts of Germany into Marks, and over 
 these placed margraves or marquesses, 
 
622 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 whose chief duty was to drive back or con- 
 quer the neighboring tribes. Carinthia, 
 which extended from the Adriatic to the 
 Danube, Avas one of the principal of these 
 marks. Another, which lay to the east of 
 Bavaria and was designed for the defence 
 of that country against the Huns or Avars, 
 was afterwards known as Oesterreich or 
 Austria. 
 
 The administration of justice in the sev- 
 eral districts of the empire was lodged prin- 
 cipally in the hands of the counts, who 
 were assisted by deputies of various grades. 
 Besides these Charlemagne appointed a 
 peculiar class of officials called missi domi- 
 nici, whose duty it was to visit all parts of 
 the empire four times a year, to hear 
 appeals from the lower tribunals, and to 
 report to the emperor the general state of 
 the country. An appeal might be made 
 from their judgments to the royal tribunal, 
 which was presided over by the palsgrave. 
 
 Charlemagne was a firm and liberal 
 friend to the church, but was by no means 
 its slave. He recognized readily and fully 
 the benefits conferred upon the country by 
 Christianity, and in his earnest desire to 
 protect the poor and humble class of his 
 people against the rich and powerful, made 
 use of the means which the church furnished 
 him. A lover of learning and learned men, 
 he naturally sought the society of eccle- 
 siastics, who alone in this age of darkness 
 were possessed of education, but he was 
 always their master, kind and generous, but 
 never their tool. He founded many bish- 
 oprics and monasteries and conferred rich 
 estates upon them, and made the payment 
 of tithes for the support of the clergy com- 
 pulsory throughout the empire. Every- 
 where, especially in Germany, he gave the 
 bishops, abbots, and higher clergy a more 
 important position in the state than they 
 had ever held before, in order that they 
 might serve as a counterpoise to the secular 
 nobility. 
 
 The world owes a rich debt of gratitude 
 to Charlemagne for the enlightened pro- 
 tection and encouragement which he un- 
 varyingly gave to learning and the diflfusion 
 of knowledge. He was himself an ardent 
 student, and he did not disdain to set a 
 bright example to the woi-ld by his patient 
 and arduous efforts to enrich his mind Avith 
 stores of knowledge. Learned men were 
 encouraged to settle in his dominions, and 
 the emperor delighted to gather them about 
 him and converse Avith them upon the 
 
 topics Avhich interested him. His moments 
 of relaxation, e\'en in the midst of his most 
 important campaigns, Avere spent in their 
 society. His most trusted friend and coun- 
 sellor was an Anglo-Saxon monk named 
 Alcuin, by far the most commanding genius 
 of the age. He took up his residence at 
 the court of Charlemagne in A. D. 781, and 
 died in a. d. 804. He Avas the preceptor 
 of the emperor during this period, and was 
 the instigator of many of the most useful 
 acts of the monarch. " History presents to 
 us fcAV more striking spectacles than that of 
 the great monarch of the West, surrounded 
 by the princes and princesses of his family 
 and the chief personages of his brilliant 
 court, all content to sit as learners at the 
 feet of their Anglo-Saxon preceptor Alcuin 
 in the ' school of the palace ' at Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle. The course of study pursued by 
 these august academicians embraced the 
 seven liberal arts, as they Avere called — the 
 trivium and quadrivium — Avith a special 
 attention to grammar, psalmody, and the 
 theory of music ; and since Alcuin excelled 
 in the exposition of Scripture, Ave may be 
 sure that the mysteries of theological science 
 Avere not forgotten in his lectures." 
 
 As his best gift to his 25eople Charle- 
 magne established a system of education 
 throughout his dominions. As early as 
 A. D. 789, by the advice of Alcuin, he 
 addressed a circular letter to the bishops, 
 commanding them to establish in their 
 cathedral cities elementary schools for the 
 free instruction of the children of free men 
 and the laboring classes. Each monastery 
 was required to maintain a school for the 
 study of the higher branches of learning. 
 Accordingly many seminaries Avere estab- 
 lished in various parts of Germany and 
 France, of Avhich a number are still in ex- 
 istence. Learned men from all jjarts of 
 Europe Avere encouraged by the monarch 
 to settle in these as professors. These 
 schools became so many refuges for them, 
 and the Avise plan of their founder made 
 them sources of permanent and great 
 blessings to the Avorld, and especially to the 
 districts in Avhich they were situated. 
 
 In person Charlemagne was of heroic 
 stature — tall, broad-chested and of majestic 
 presence. He Avas gracious and graceful 
 in his manner, and spoke Avith clearness 
 and precision. He conversed fluently in 
 Latin and understood Greek thoroughly. 
 He Avas plain and simple in his habits. He 
 dined off four dishes, and his faA'orite dish 
 
THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 523 
 
 was newly killed venisou roasted on the 
 spit. He was temperate in his drinking, 
 and hated drunkenness. During his meals, 
 his favorite works of history, and Augus- 
 tine's " City of God " were often read aloud 
 to him. A German by birth he was a 
 German in all things to the day of his 
 death. He was pi'oud of his Teutonic blood, 
 and exerted himself to preserve the ancient 
 German customs, and especially the old 
 heroic ballads, of his ancestors. He always 
 wore the national Frankish dress, and 
 never appeared in the Roman garb except 
 upon rare occasions of state. 
 
 In A. D. 813 the emperor caused his only 
 surviving son Louis to be crowned at Aix- 
 la-Chapelle as his successor. Early in 814 
 Charlemagne himself died at the age of 
 seventy-two, and was buried under the 
 basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle. The great em- 
 pire which he had built up needed a great 
 man like himself to preserve it, and it fell 
 to pieces for want of such a sovereign 
 almost immediately after his death. Louis, 
 known as " Le Debonnaire," or " the Gen- 
 tle," was utterly unsuited to the govern- 
 ment of so warlike an empire in such 
 troubled times. Feeling his own incom- 
 petence, and hoping to preserve peace 
 among his turbulent sons, he gave to each 
 of them iu a. d. 817 a share in his domin- 
 ions. To Lothaire he gave the Rhin eland 
 and Italy, and associated him in the empire, 
 Pepin received Aquitaine, and Louis Bava- 
 ria and the adjoining districts. A fourth 
 son, named Charles, was born to the em- 
 peror by a second marriage. In 829 he 
 made a separate kingdom for this son. 
 The other three, thinking themselves 
 wronged by this act, rebelled against their 
 father, and so filled the remainder of his 
 life with sorrow and disaster that the em- 
 peror, after suffering many reverses of 
 fortune, retired to an island in the Rhine 
 near Ingelheim, and died there in A. D. 840. 
 
 Upon the death of Louis, Lothaire took 
 the imperial title. Pepiu being dead, his 
 surviving brothers Louis and Charles, called 
 "the Bald," made war against him, and in 
 841 inflicted a severe defeat upon him at 
 Fontenay. The war was brought to a close 
 in A. D. 843 by the Treaty of Verdun, 
 by which the brothers divided the domin- 
 ions of their grandfather between them. 
 Lothaire kept the imperial title, and re- 
 ceived Italy and a long narrow strip of ter- 
 ritory reaching from the Mediterranean to 
 the North Sea. This kingdom was called 
 
 Lotharingia after him. The name was sub- 
 sequently restricted to the country north of 
 Burgundy. The region to the west of Lo- 
 thaire's kingdom was given to Charles the 
 Bald, and Louis received the Teutonic 
 kingdom or Germany, stretching eastward 
 from the Rhine to the Elbe, the Saal, and 
 the Bohemian forest, and from the North 
 Sea to the Alps. All three of the brothers 
 were called Kings of the Franks. The 
 emperor was accorded a certain pre-emi- 
 nence by his younger brothers, but in re- 
 ality they Avere independent of him. 
 
 The treaty of Verdun marks an impor- 
 tant point iu the history of Europe. With 
 it the history of the Franks closes, and 
 France and Germany take their places in 
 the world as distinct and separate nations. 
 The history of Lothaire's kingdom has al- 
 ready been related iu connection with that 
 of Italy. 
 
 In closing our account of the formation 
 and disruption of Charlemagne's empire, 
 we may properly devote our attention to 
 the consideration of the general adjustment 
 of European society which grew out of it, 
 and which is known as The Feudal Sxjstem. 
 
 The effort of Charlemagne was to form a 
 strong centralized monarchy, and during his 
 lifetime he was able to conduct his govern- 
 ment upon this plan ; but upon his death the 
 whole system he had built up fell to pieces. 
 
 The entire empire was covered with the 
 dominions of powerful nobles, who had 
 been compelled to yield to the superior 
 genius of the great emperor, but who ren- 
 dered merely a nominal obedience to his 
 weaker successors. Nor was this unnatural, 
 for the nobles, and especially those in the 
 more distant portions of the empire, found 
 themselves obliged to depend upon their 
 own exertions for the defence of their pos- 
 sessions against the enemies which threat- 
 ened them — the Magyars, Saracens, and 
 Northmen. They made war and peace 
 upon their own responsibility, and thus 
 there gradually grew up among them a 
 spirit of independence, which rendered them 
 dependent upon and loyal to the sovereign 
 only in name. Many of the great princes — 
 such as the Dukes of Saxony, Thuringia, 
 Franconia, Bavaria, and Swabia, in the 
 East; the Dukes of Aquitaine and Brit- 
 tany, and Counts of Anjou and Paris, in 
 the West ; and the Marquises of Friuli, 
 Ivrea, Spoleto, and Tuscany, in Italy — were 
 wealthier and more powerful than their nom- 
 inal sovereigns. They were the actual lorda 
 
524 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the cities and castles within their domin- 
 ions. Still, as a common head was neces- 
 sary, the sovereign was obeyed when he was 
 strong enough to compel obedience, and the 
 relations between the monarch and his no- 
 bles gradually adjusted themselves upon 
 the plan now to be described. 
 
 In the Teutonic nations there were origi- 
 nally, as we have seen, three classes of peo- 
 ple — the nobles, the common freemen, and 
 the slaves. The nobles and the common 
 freemen alone possessed the right to own 
 lands or other property. Every free Ger- 
 man who had helped his chief to conquer 
 a country received as his share of the spoil 
 a specified portion of the land, wdiich was 
 called his allodium or freehold, and which was 
 absolutely his own property. The chief or 
 king received a proportionately larger sliare 
 than any of his followers. In the course 
 of time the chief began to gi-aut portions 
 of his estate to his most trusted followers 
 on condition of their being faithful to him 
 in peace, and serving him in war. This 
 grant was called a/ewcZwm, or fief , and laud 
 so held was said to be held by a, feudal tenure. 
 Unlike the freehold, Avhich was a man's ab- 
 solute property, the fief was not the holder's 
 property by right, and could be held only 
 so long as the conditions of the grant were 
 faithfully complied with. The real owner 
 ■was called the lord, suzerain, or liege, and 
 the person to whom he granted the land 
 ■was termed his vassal, liegeman, or retainer, 
 or simply his man. Each year the vassal, 
 kneeling before his lord, placed his hands 
 between his, and swox*e to be his true man, 
 to serve him faithfully, ■with life and limb, 
 in peace and war, in consideration of the 
 lands conferred. The lord, on his part, 
 swore to grant protection to his vassal. As 
 the great princes held their lands from the 
 sovereign, as his vassals, so the lesser nobles 
 and knights held theirs from the dukes, 
 marquises, counts, and bishops, and these 
 divided their fiefs among still humbler vas- 
 sals. In course of time all the land became 
 subject to feudal tenures. The owners of 
 freeholds, unable to defend themselves 
 against their more powerful neighbors, se- 
 cured the protection of some powerful lord 
 by resigning their lands to him and receiv- 
 ing them back as fiefs. By the close of the 
 eleventh century the feudal system had 
 spread over the whole of Western Europe, 
 and there were scarcely any freeholds in 
 existence. At first the feudal grants were 
 made for a term of years or during the life 
 
 of the vassal, but in course of time they 
 became hereditary. Upon the extinction 
 of the family the estate reverted to the 
 suzerain, who, in the case of the great vas- 
 sals, was the king. 
 
 The vassal was bound to attend his lord 
 in war and to fight under his banner. If 
 the king were the suzerain, the vassal was 
 obliged to attend his court upon occasions 
 of ceremony. In time of war the king 
 summoned the great vassals to take arms 
 in his defence. These required their own 
 vassals to assemble under their banners. 
 The smaller nobles and knights made a 
 similar demand upon the farmers and yeo- 
 men subject to them, each of whom -was 
 obliged to arm and equip himself at his 
 own cost. Sometimes the feudal superior 
 bore the cost of such equipment. 
 
 "The general introduction of these feudal 
 or military tenures," says Freeman, "caused 
 some important changes both in political 
 and social matters. The change was made 
 gradually, and it was slower in England 
 than in most parts of the continent ; but 
 its general eflfect was to raise those men who 
 held their lands by these new tenures above 
 all others, and to thrust the poorer freemen 
 lower down. In many countries they grad- 
 ually sank into the state of serfs or villains; 
 that is, men who are not actually slaves to 
 be bought and sold man by man, but who 
 are bound to the land and pass with it. 
 Meanwhile the class of actual slaves was 
 dying out, and the serf-class Avas increased 
 both by the freemen who fell down to it, 
 and by the slaves who were raised into it. 
 Again the smaller freemen lost power in 
 another way. The old Teutonic constitu- 
 tion, by which each freeman had a right to 
 appear in the national assembly, could no 
 longer be fully carried out when the Franks 
 or any other people had got possession of a 
 large country. AH men could not come in 
 their own persons, and it was not for a long 
 time, not till the twelfth or thirteenth cen- 
 tury, that any one thought of choosing a 
 smaller number of men to speak and act on 
 behalf of all, as is now done in the English 
 parliament, and in most of the countries 
 of Europe and America. From all these 
 causes working together two chief results 
 happened. First, in most parts of Europe 
 the old national assemblies either quite 
 died out, or were attended only by the chief 
 men who could come in their own persons. 
 Secondly, each province or district had a 
 tendency to set up for itself." 
 
TREATY OF VERDUN TO ACCESSION OF HOUSE OF IIOIIENSTAUFEN. 525 
 
 The great mass of the people during the 
 middle ages were serfs, not, as has been 
 said, actually slaves, but attached to the 
 land, and passed with it from owner to 
 owner. Practically their condition was 
 little better than that of slaves. They were 
 at the mercy of their feudal lord, and as he 
 was also the magistrate of his district, they 
 had no redress against his tyranny. They 
 were kept in ignorance, and had no incen- 
 tive to strive for material prosperity, as 
 their possessions might at any moment be 
 talien from them by their feudal lord. The 
 latter, secure in his strong castle, was usually 
 a tyrant, and used his power to enrich him- 
 self at the expense of his helpless serfs. 
 
 Another evil of the feudal system was 
 that it retarded the growth of nationality 
 and of good government. A state was 
 merely a confederation of distinct powers 
 under a common head, the emperor or king, 
 who could only enforce the law against dis- 
 obedient vassals by making war upon them. 
 The sovereign dealt only with the great 
 nobles. The allegiance of the lesser vassals 
 was due, not to the king as the represent- 
 ative of the state, but to the feudal lords, 
 who stood between them and the state. 
 C(»nsequently the system resulted in the 
 reign of lawlessness, or " fist law," as it was 
 called, and the three centuries succeeding 
 Charlemagne were a period of the deepest 
 ignorance and misery throughout Europe. 
 
 As the royal power increased in the va- 
 rious countries of Europe, the power of the 
 nobles was weakened, and the feudal began 
 to give place to tlie modern system. The 
 kings were the fii'st to conceive the enno- 
 bling idea of nationality. By degrees they 
 concentrated power in their own hands, and 
 using it for the good of the whole country, 
 drew to their support the mass of the people, 
 whose champions they became against the 
 nobles. Their decrees were enforced 
 throughout their entire dominion, and a 
 settled and definitely arranged law, pro- 
 ceeding from a common source, took the 
 place of the mere will of the feudal chiefs. 
 
 The growth of the cities also contributed 
 in a great degree to tlie destruction of feu- 
 dalism. As these grew up they were en- 
 dowed with certain important and exactly 
 defined privileges, which secured and per- 
 petuated their freedom. They thus at- 
 tracted numerous inhabitants, and became 
 in time the bulwarks of freedom against the 
 power of the nobles. They became also the 
 nurseries of the free middle class or com- 
 
 mons of Europe, the true soldiers of liberty, 
 who finally destroyed the feudal system 
 with its attendant and inherent evils, and 
 by checking even the power of the kings, 
 won for Europe its best system of gov- 
 ernment, limited representative monarchy. 
 The efforts of the church to obtain su- 
 preme power in spiritual affairs also con- 
 tributed to bieak down feudalism. The 
 clergy naturally allied themselves with the 
 king against the nobles. They were the 
 only protectors of the weak and poor 
 against the great and powerful, and the 
 spirit of their religion, as well as an appre- 
 ciation of their true policy, prompted them 
 to espouse the popular cause. Their own 
 lands were free from molestation, and were, 
 as we have shown, refuges for the oppressed, 
 which were secure against even the most 
 daring. They exerted themselves nobly to 
 check the violence and brutality of the 
 nobles. In A. D. 1083 the French clergy 
 were able to impose a partial barrier to the 
 private wars Avhich caused so much suffering 
 to all Europe. It was decreed that no 
 armed expedition or warlike act should be 
 engaged in between sunset on Wednesday 
 and sunrise on Monday of each week, or on 
 any holy festival Avhich might occur during 
 the remaining days. This respite was 
 termed "the Truce of God," and was sup- 
 ported by the influence of the Catholic 
 Church throughout Europe, the general 
 expectation of the near approach of the end 
 of the world inclining all classes to unite 
 in obedience to the exhortations of the 
 clergy. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VERDL'N TO THE 
 ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HOHEN- 
 STAUFEN. 
 
 Reign of Louis the German — Contests with the 
 Northmen — Hamburg Taken by them — Rise of 
 the Ai-chbishopric of Bremen — Charles the Fat 
 Emperor— His Dominions — Arnulf King of Ger- 
 many — Becomes Master of Italy and is Croivned 
 Emperor — Louis the Child — Germany Ravaged 
 by the Hungarians — Henry the Fowler Becomes 
 tlie German King— Buys a Peace of the Hunga- 
 rians — The "War Renewed — Henry Defeats the 
 Hungarians — Conquers the Wends — Reorganizes 
 the German Army — Fortifies the Towns — Rapid 
 Growth of the Towns in Population and Impor- 
 tance — Otto I. King— His Coronation — Rebellion 
 of Prince Henry — Wars of Otto— The Mark of 
 Schleswig — Si)read of Christianity in North Ger- 
 many — Marriage of Otto and Queen Adelaide of 
 Lombardy — Otto Conquers Lombardy — Destroys 
 the Power of the Hungarians — Otto Crowned Em- 
 peror—The Holy Roman Empire— Otto IL Em- 
 peror — Subdues the Revolts of his Vassals — Otto 
 
526 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 men, a race 
 
 III. — His Character — Makes Gerbert Pope — 
 Henry of Bavaria Made King — Is Succeeded by 
 Conrad of Franconia — Conrad's Able Reign — His 
 Wars— Makes the Fiefs of the Empire Hereditary 
 — Henry III. — Henry IV. Becomes King — 
 Troubles of the Regency — Henry of age — Op- 
 presses the Saxons — Revolt of the Saxons — It is 
 Subdued — Quarrel of Henry with Gregory VII. — 
 The War of Investitures Begun — Henry Excom- 
 municated — His Reverses — Henry's Visit to Can- 
 ossa — His Humiliation by the Pope — Rudolph of 
 Suabia a Rival Emperor — Henry Sets Up an An- 
 tipope — Is Crowned Emperor — Death of Gregory 
 and Rudolph — Rebellion of Prince Henry — Death 
 of Henry IV. — Henry V. is Crowned Emperor. 
 
 )HE first years of the reign of " Louis 
 the German, " as he is called in 
 consequence of his being given 
 Germany as his kingdom by the 
 treaty of Verdun, were marked by 
 frequent contests with the North- 
 of Scandinavian pirates who 
 now began to inflict great suffering upon 
 the European coasts. The fame of Char- 
 lemagne had kept them from molesting his 
 territories, but after his death they assailed 
 the exposed points of the coast with impu- 
 nity, sailed up the navigable rivers, and 
 ravaged the country along their shores. 
 Louis exerted himself actively to protect 
 his kingdom against their depredations, but 
 could not prevent them from inflicting great 
 suffering upon it. About A. D. 847 Ham- 
 burg was attacked and nearly destroyed by 
 them. The archbishop fled to Bremen, 
 which town became the seat of the northern 
 archbishopic of Germany. Louis also made 
 war against the Slavonians, over whom he 
 claimed supremacy, and was frequently 
 involved in hostilities with Charles the 
 Bald, who was constantly seeking to ex- 
 tend his territory. He died at Frankfort 
 in A. D. 876. 
 
 Louis was succeeded by his sons Charles, 
 called the Fat, Carloman, and Louis. The 
 latter two dying, left Charles the Fat sole 
 King of Germany. He became King of 
 Italy a little later, and was crowned emperor 
 by the pope. In A. D. 884 he was also 
 chosen King of the West Franks. With the 
 exception of Burgundy, almost the whole 
 of Charlemagne's empire was reunited in 
 the hands of Charles the Fat. He had 
 great trouble with the Northmen, who 
 swarmed into his dominions, and especially 
 into France. In A. D. 885 they laid siege 
 to Paris, and were bravely resisted. The 
 emperor, instead of marching to the relief 
 of Paris, was weak enough to bribe them to 
 withdraw; thus offering them a powerful 
 incentive to return again. The imbecility 
 
 of Charles disgusted his people, and in A. d. 
 887 they deposed him. He died the next 
 year. With his death the Carolingian 
 empire fell to pieces, never to be reunited 
 again. Italy and Burgundy were also sep- 
 arated from Germany, and remained so for 
 a time. The usual title of the German 
 sovereign was " King of the East Franks." 
 East Francia, or Franconia, it must be re- 
 membered, was at this time only a part, al- 
 though the principal part, of Germany. It 
 embraced the basins of the Main, the 
 Neckar, and the Lahn. Saxony and Thu- 
 ringia lay north of it, and south and south- 
 east were Alemannia, occupying what is 
 now Suabia and Bavaria. 
 
 Charles the Fat was succeeded in Ger- 
 many by Arnulf, the illegitimate son of his 
 brother Carloman. Arnulf was a brave 
 and active sovereign, and soon after he be- 
 gan his reign inflicted such a severe defeat 
 upon the Northmen at Lowen, in A. D. 891, 
 that they gave Germany but little trouble 
 afterwards. In A. D. 894 Arnulf entered 
 Italy to settle the quarrel between the 
 claimants of the Italian crown. He made 
 himself master of Italy, took Rome, and 
 was crowned emperor by the pope. His 
 power in Italy was merely nominal, and he 
 soon returned to Germany, where he died, 
 A. D. 899. 
 
 Arnulf was succeeded by his son, Louis 
 the Child, whose short reign was full of 
 misfortune. The Magyars, or Hungarians, 
 a Turanian race, who had begun to settle 
 the country formerly occupied by the Avars, 
 and who had acted as the allies of Arnulf 
 in his war against the Moravians, invaded 
 Germany soon after the death of that kiug, 
 and came back each year during the reign 
 of Louis. Their army consisted of huge 
 masses of cavalry, and as the Germans 
 fought chiefly on foot, the Hungarians were 
 victorious in nearly every battle. In addi- 
 tion to this, as Germany was an open coun- 
 try without fortresses or towns in which the 
 people could take refuge, large numbers of 
 them were slain, and many more were car- 
 ried away captive by the Hungarians. Louis 
 was powerless to resist these fierce enemies, 
 who ravaged the country so thoroughly that 
 they reduced it to almost a desert. 
 
 Louis died in A. d. 911, and the nobles 
 of Germany conferred the crown upon 
 Conrad of Franconia, a prince well suited 
 to the government of a great people. His 
 authority was disputed by some of the more 
 powerful nobles, and especially by Henry, 
 
TREATY OF VERDUN TO ACCESSION OF HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 527 
 
 Duke of Saxony. lu a. d. 918 Courad re- 
 ceived a mortal wound in a war with the 
 Bavarians, and on his death-bed advised 
 the nobles to bestow the crown upon his old 
 adversary, Henry of Saxony, whom he 
 esteemed the one most worthy of it. 
 
 In accordance with Conrad's wish the 
 nobles made Henry king. He is usually 
 called " the Fowler," from a tradition that 
 the messengers who brought him the news 
 of his election found him hunting among 
 the Hartz mountains with his falcons. His 
 elevation was at first opposed by the Dukes 
 of Bavaria and Suabia, but they were at 
 length obliged to submit, Henry proved 
 himself the wisest and most vigorous sover- 
 eign who had reigned in Germany since the 
 days of Charlemagne. Soon after he began 
 his reign the invasions of the Hungarians 
 were renewed. In 924 he captured one of 
 their principal chieftains, and in order to 
 ransom this prince, the Hungarians agreed 
 to cease their invasions for nine years on 
 condition that Henry should pay them 
 tribute. At the expiration of this time 
 they renewed the war, but Henry had spent 
 the interval in preparing to meet them, and 
 he inflicted upon them such a severe defeat 
 that they did not again invade Germany 
 during his reign. The grateful Germans 
 bestowed upon their king the title of 
 " Father of the Fatherland." 
 
 In the meantime, however, Henry had 
 seized Lotharingia, which had formed a 
 part of the western kingdom, and had given 
 it to a duke who held it as a fief of the Ger- 
 man crown. As such it remained for many 
 centuries a portion of the German kingdom. 
 Henry also carried on several wars with the 
 Slaves. He compelled the Duke of Bohemia 
 to become his vassal, and conquered the 
 Wends, who occupied the country to the 
 northeast of Germany. After his great vic- 
 tory over the Hungai-ians, Henry turned 
 his arms against the Danes, who had begun 
 the war by invading Saxony and Friesland. 
 He drove them back into their own country, 
 and wrested from them the region between 
 the Eider and the Schlei, which in more 
 modern times constituted the duchy of 
 Holstein. 
 
 The internal administration of Henry was 
 as successful as his wars. He reorganized 
 the German armies, and, by training the 
 nobles and their foUowei's to fight as cavalry, 
 placed his army in a condition to meet the 
 Hungarians on. terms of equality and to 
 defeat them. Appreciating the importance 
 
 of towns as places of defence and refuge for 
 his people against such an enemy as the 
 Hungarians, Henry fortified the towns 
 which already existed with strong walls, 
 and built new towns which were provided 
 with a similar protection. Many fortresses 
 were also constructed by his order at im- 
 portant points, and around these towns 
 gradually grew up. The king compelled 
 every ninth freeman to reside in the nearest 
 
 HENRY THE FOWLER. 
 
 fortress or town as a builder or defender. 
 The remaining eight freemen provided for 
 his support and furnished the fortress with 
 stores, by contributing one-third of their 
 produce. All public meetings and festivi- 
 ties were required to be held in the towns, 
 and they were made the seats of the courts 
 of justice. In short, the king endeavored 
 in many Avays to encourage the growth of 
 the towns, and the efiect of his efforts con- 
 
528 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD 
 
 tinned long after his death. He thus be- 
 came the founder of a new class — the 
 Burghers — among the German people. The 
 towns were naturally the centres of com- 
 merce, and the burghers became the trading 
 class, and the natural opponents of the law- 
 less nobles. Consequently in the struggles 
 which afterwards took place between the 
 nobles and the king, the burghers were the 
 firm and useful friends of the sovereign, 
 and thus rewarded the fostering care of 
 Henry the Fowler. 
 
 Having established his power in Ger- 
 many, Henry began to consider the pro- 
 priety of making himself emperor, but his 
 death, which occurred in A. D. 936, pre- 
 vented this. 
 
 Otto I. succeeded his father. He was 
 twenty-four years old, and had been mar- 
 ried for several years to Edith, the daugh- 
 ter of the English King Edward, and 
 granddaughter of Alfred the Great. The 
 firmness of the royal power in Germany 
 was well shown at the time of Otto's acces- 
 sion, by the part which the great dukes 
 played in the coronation ceremonies. The 
 Duke of Lotharingia acted as chamberlain ; 
 the Duke of Franconia as carver ; the Duke 
 of Suabia as cupbearer ; and the Duke of 
 Bavaria as master of the horse. Soon after- 
 wards Thaukmar, the half-brother of the 
 king, aided by the Dukes of Franconia and 
 Lotharingia, rebelled against him. Thank- 
 mar was slain in the early stages of the con- 
 flict, but his place was taken by Henry, the 
 king's full brother, who aspired to the crown. 
 Otto fought manfully for his throne, and 
 at length succeeded in crushing the rebel- 
 lion. Both of the rebel dukes were slain, 
 and Prince Henry submitted, and was for- 
 given. In A. D. 945 the duchy of Bavaria 
 became vacant, and was bestowed by the 
 king upou Henry, who atoned for his past 
 misconduct by his gallant attacks upon the 
 Hungarians. Otto bestowed the duchy of 
 Lotharingia upon Count Conrad, who after- 
 wards married Luitgard, the king's only 
 daughter. The king kept the duchy of 
 Franconia in his own hands, and when 
 Duke Hermann, of Suabia, died, in A. D. 
 949, Otto conferred that duchy upon his 
 own son Ludolph, who had married Her- 
 mann's daughter. In this way all the great 
 duchies passed into the hands of the king 
 and those who were immediately dependent 
 on him, and he thus became more powerful 
 than his ancestors had been. Nor was Otto 
 content to be kino; onlv in name. He was 
 
 the real ruler of his dominions, and had 
 both the power and ability to compel his 
 vassals to discharge their duties ta\vards 
 him. 
 
 Otto was a great warrior as well as a 
 vigorous ruler. He gave aid to his brother- 
 in-law. King Louis, of France, against the 
 Dukes of France and Normandy. The 
 Danes, who had won back tlie territory 
 taken from them by Henry I., were driven 
 to the north again, and Otto reoccupied the 
 lands between the Eider and the Schlei, 
 and erected the Mark of Schlesweig for the 
 defence of that portion of the German bor- 
 der. The Duke of Poland was compelled 
 to become the vassal of the German crown, 
 as was also the Danish king or chieftain 
 Harold Blue Tooth, and these countries 
 were for the next two centuries regarded as 
 fiefs of the German crown. The German 
 border was advanced along the shores of the 
 Baltic and between the middle Elbe and 
 the Oder by the conquests wrested from the 
 Slaves by the lieutenants of Otto. The 
 king was careful to plant all the territories 
 conquered by or for him with German colo- 
 nies, and exerted himself to extend Chris- 
 tianity among the pagan tribes which were 
 forced to submit to him. He founded 
 many bishoprics for this purpose, among 
 others the archbishopric of Magdeburg in 
 A. D. 968. 
 
 In A. D. 951 the attention of Otto was 
 suddenly called to another quarter. The 
 beautiful widowed Queen Adelaide of Lom- 
 bardy, being cruelly persecuted by Be- 
 ranger II., because of her refusal to marry 
 his son, appealed to Otto for protection. 
 The German king, who was a chivalrous 
 knight, at once went to her assistance, and, 
 having been a widower for six years, mar- 
 ried her. He defeated Beranger and took 
 the title of " King of the Lombards," but 
 allowed Beranger to retain Lombardy as 
 his vassal. 
 
 A new rebellion now broke out, headed 
 by Otto's son, Ludolf of Suabia, Avho was 
 aided by Conrad of Lotharingia, the Arch- 
 bishop of Mayence, and others. It cost 
 Otto a sharp struggle to quell it, but he 
 succeeded in doing so. He then made his 
 brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, 
 Duke of Lotharingia, and Burchard, the 
 son-in-law of Henry of Bavaria, Duke of 
 Suabia. His eldest son, William, being 
 already a priest, was made Archbishop of 
 Mayence. 
 
 These troubles encourasred the Huntra- 
 
TREATY OF VERDUN TO ACCESSION OF HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 529 
 
 rians to attempt once more the invasion of 
 Germany. They entered Bavaria in strong 
 force in A. D. 955. Otto took the field 
 against them, and inflicted upon them a 
 crushing defeat near Augsburg. This vic- 
 tory finally broke their power and put an 
 end to their invasions of Germany ; but it 
 was dearly purchased, for among the slain 
 were the bravest of the German leaders, in- 
 cluding Conrad, who had sought by his 
 gallant deeds to wipe out the disgrace of his 
 treason. Until the thirteenth century the 
 Hungarian kings were at least nominally 
 subject to the German sovereigns. 
 
 The troubles in Italy grew greater during 
 each succeeding year of Beranger's reign, 
 and at length Pope John XII. urged Otto 
 to put an end to the confusion by assuming 
 the imperial crown. Otto went to Italy 
 towards the close of 961, having first se- 
 cured the succession of his young son Otto 
 by causing him to be crowned King of Ger- 
 many at Aachen. He caused himself to 
 be crowned King of Lombardy at Pavia, 
 and was crowned emperor by the pope at 
 Rome, February 2d, 962. The three Ger- 
 man kings who preceded him had been 
 neither kings of Lombardy nor emperors, 
 but from this time the German sovereigns 
 claimed both the Lombard and imperial 
 crowns as their right. As the emperor was 
 regarded as occupying a much higher posi- 
 tion and entitled to a more perfect alle- 
 giance than a mere feudal sovereign, the 
 German kings naturally attached a much 
 greater value to their imperial than to their 
 royal dignity. 
 
 Thus was revived the " Holy Roman 
 Empire," the name of which shows the hold 
 which it had upon the imaginations and 
 affections of the people of the time. " The 
 connection of the German kingdom with 
 the empire had many important results in 
 Germany. Up to Otto's time there had 
 been very little truly national feeling 
 among the Germans. They thought of 
 themselves as Franks, Saxons, Suabians, 
 and so forth ; hardly at all as a united peo- 
 ple. But when their kings acquired the 
 right to be crowned Roman emperors, they 
 themselves became the imperial race. They 
 began therefore to take pride in the com- 
 mon German name. A feeling of national- 
 ity was thus aroused, which never after- 
 wards quite left the Germans even in their 
 darkest periods. On the whole, however, 
 Germany was not the better for its connec- 
 34 
 
 tion with the empire. By being emperors 
 the German kings became involved in 
 struggles with which their native kingdom 
 had nothing to do. They thus wasted 
 much German blood and treasure ; and 
 they lost almost all real power. Whilst 
 they were absent, sometimes for years at a 
 time, carrying on distant wars, their great 
 vassals at home ruled as sovereign princes 
 within their own dominions. When the 
 emperors returned and tried to assert their 
 rights as feudal kings, they too often found 
 that they had spent nearly all their 
 strength, and could do very little against a 
 united and powerful aristocracy. Germany 
 was thus kept from growing up, like France 
 and England, into a firm monarchy, and 
 was in the end divided into many practi- 
 cally independent small states." 
 
 Otto the Great spent the last years of his 
 life almost entirely in Italy. In A. D. 967 
 he caused his son. Otto II., to be crowned 
 emperor, and associated him in the govern- 
 ment. In 972 the younger Otto was mar- 
 ried to Theophano, the daughter of the 
 Eastern Emperor Nicephorus. Otto I. 
 then returned to Germany, where he died 
 in A. D. 973. 
 
 Otto II. was now the sole emperor. He 
 was nineteen years old, and as he had 
 many of his father's best traits, especially 
 his decision of character, he gave promise 
 of being a sovereign of unusual merit, a 
 promise which was blasted by his early 
 death. Soon after he began his reign, 
 Henry the Wrangler, Duke of Bavaria, 
 and son of the Henry who had given Otto 
 I. so much trouble, rebelled against him. 
 The revolt was easily quelled, and Henry 
 was deprived of his duchy and imprisoned. 
 Harold, King of Denmark, then endeav- 
 ored to throw off* his allegiance, and after 
 him the Duke of Poland did likewise, but 
 both were obliged to submit. In A. D. 978 
 the French king tried to seize Lotharingia. 
 Otto was at Aachen at the time, and barely 
 escaped capture when that city was taken. 
 He invaded France at the head of a large 
 army and encamj^ed on the heights of 
 Montmartre before Paris, but the approach 
 of winter compelled him to retrace his 
 steps without having taken the city. Lo- 
 thaire finally surrendered all claim to Lo- 
 tharingia, and the matter was settled. Otto 
 was always more an Italian than a German 
 in sympathy, and in 980 went to Rome, 
 never to return to his native land. He at- 
 
530 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OE THE WORLD. 
 
 tempted the conquest of southern Italy, but 
 failed, as has been related. He died in 
 A. D. 982. 
 
 The Empress Theophano was left regent 
 for her son, Otto III., an infant, who had 
 been solemnly proclaimed his father's suc- 
 cessor by a diet at Veroua before his 
 father's death. Henry of Bavaria at- 
 tempted a revolution, but the other great 
 nobles all remained faithful to their alle- 
 giance, and Henry was glad to submit upon 
 being allowed to retain his duchy. The 
 regency of Theophano was able and popu- 
 lar. The frontiers Avere firmly maintained, 
 and the internal affairs of the empire wisely 
 administered. The empress bestowed the 
 Mark of Austria upon Leopold I. of Baben- 
 berg, and that prince extended his posses- 
 sions by conquering a portion of the Hun- 
 garian territory, and settling it with Ger- 
 man colonists. The Babenberg family 
 continued to rule Austria until its extinc- 
 tion in the thirteenth century. 
 
 Otto III. was carefully educated by 
 tutors chosen by his mother. The most 
 famous of these was Gerbert, Archbishop 
 of Rheims, the most learned man of his day, 
 under whom the young king made such 
 marked progress that he was called " The 
 AVonder of the World " by the courtiers. 
 In A. D. 996, though scarcely sixteen at the 
 time. Otto repaired to Rome with a large 
 army, and was there crowned emperor by 
 the pope. A little later, the reigning pon- 
 tiff being dead, he made his tutor, Gerbert, 
 pope, and he ascended the papal throne as 
 Sylvester II. Otto was a German in name 
 only. In feelings and tastes he was an 
 Italian, and he dreamed a splendid dream 
 of reviving the ancient glories of the Roman 
 empire, and reigning with Rome as his 
 capital. He died too soon to accomplish 
 anything. He was poisoned in A. d. 1002 
 by Stephania, the widow of Crescentius, 
 who had been shamefully treated by the 
 Germans. He Avas buried, in accordance 
 with his request, in the same tomb with 
 Charlemagne, at Aix-la-Chapelle ; and when 
 the tomb was opened the body of the great 
 emperor, clad in the imperial robes, was seen 
 still sitting on its marble throne. 
 
 Henry, Duke of Bavaria, son of Henry 
 the AV rangier, was made king in place of 
 Otto III., A. D. 1003. The great nobles 
 had acquired a state of semi-independence, 
 and Henry II. had great difficulty in mak- 
 ing them acknowledge his accession, but 
 he at length succeeded in doing so. The 
 
 Duke of Poland had thrown off his alle- 
 giance and had conquered Bohemia and Si- 
 lesia. After a struggle of fourteen years 
 Henry compelled the Polish duke to da 
 homage for his crown, and to surrender 
 Bohemia and Meissen. Still the depend- 
 ence of Poland upon Germany was simply 
 nominal, and after Henry's death the Duke 
 Boleslaw made himself King of Poland. 
 In 1004 Henry became King of Italy, and 
 in 1014 was crowned Emperor of the Ro- 
 mans. He was a generous friend to the 
 church, and was afterwards canonized by 
 the pope. He died in 1024. During his 
 reign the title of the German kings, which 
 had been that of " King of the East 
 Franks," or " King of the Franks and 
 Saxons," was changed to " King of the 
 Romans." The German sovereigns did not 
 become emperors till crowned by the pope, 
 but Henry chose the new title in order to 
 establish the principle that the German 
 king, and no other, had the right to the im- 
 perial crown. The condition of Germany 
 had also been greatly changed by this time 
 by the rapid gi'owth of towns which had 
 sprung up chiefly around cathedrals, mon- 
 asteries, fortresses, and the castles of the 
 great nobles. 
 
 Upon the death of Henry II., Count 
 Conrad, a Franconian noble, was chosen 
 king by the nobles. He was descended 
 from the Conrad who had married a daugliter 
 of Otto the Great, and was thus related to 
 the Saxon dynasty. Conrad II. was forty 
 years old, and his reign was marked by 
 firmness and wisdom. He endeavored to 
 increase the royal authority by diminishing 
 that of the dukes, and in this was very suc- 
 cessful. He made his son Henry, who 
 gave promise of great ability, Duke of 
 Bavaria, Suabia, and Carinthia, thus draw- 
 ing these powerful duchies into an active 
 support of the crown. Conrad was also the 
 friend of the burgher class, and by favoring 
 the cities won the support of the citizens, 
 who regarded him as their natural pi'otector 
 against the nobles. In a. d. 1026 Conrad 
 was ci'owned King of Italy, and emperor 
 the next year. In 1032 he became King 
 of Burgundy, the crown of which kingdom 
 had been bequeathed to him by Rudolph 
 III., whose niece, Gisela, was Conrad's wife. 
 The crown of Burgundy after Conrad's 
 death was thus a legitimate possession of 
 the German kings, but owing to their weak- 
 ness they were unable to assert their claim, 
 and the greater part of the kingdom passed 
 
TREATY OF VERDUN TO ACCESSION OF HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 531 
 
 into the hands of France. Conrad's title 
 was disputed by Duke Ernst of Suabia, 
 who believed himself the rightful heir of 
 Burgundy, as he was the son of Gisela by a 
 former marriage, but the nobles refused to 
 follow him, and he was imprisoned by Con- 
 rad, but was afterwards set free. Conrad's 
 reign was marked by many wars. He put 
 down several rebellions of the Duke of 
 Bohemia, repulsed an invasion of the 
 Poles, and compelled the Polish King 
 Miesko to do homage for his crown, and to 
 surrender Lusatia, .which Henry II. had 
 granted to Boleslaw. He also conquered 
 the Slavic tribes on the Oder and lower 
 Elbe. King Stephen of Hungary attempted 
 to invade Germany, but was defeated by 
 Henry, the son of Conrad, A. D. 1031, and 
 compelled to make peace. In 1037 Con- 
 rad made all fiefs in his dominions heredi- 
 tary, by an edict, in which he decreed that 
 no holder of a fief should be deprived of 
 his lands except by the judgment of his 
 peers. At first this law Avas enforced only 
 in Lombardy, but at length it was extended 
 to Germany also. It was a great gain for 
 the minor vassals, as it freed them to a 
 great extent from the power of their imme- 
 diate lords, and made them dependent upon 
 the king for protection. In A. d. 1039 
 Conrad, died, and was buried at Spires. 
 
 Henry III., the son of Conrad, had been 
 crowned German king and King of Bur- 
 gundy during the life of his father. He 
 inherited many of his father's best qualities, 
 and by pursuing his policy of depressing 
 the great princes and protecting the lower 
 vassals in their rights, made himself the 
 most powerful ruler that had reigned in 
 Germany since Charlemagne. He bestowed 
 tiie duchies of Bavaria, Suabia, and Carin- 
 thia, which he had received from his father, 
 upon men who were willing to hold them 
 as his dependent vassals. He pursued the 
 same course with the duchy of Upper 
 Lotharingia, and being opposed by Gott- 
 fried, the Duke of Lower Lotharingia, he 
 defeated him, and forced him to retire into 
 Italy. He exerted himself earnestly to 
 maintain peace and the reign of law in his 
 kingdom, and in A. D. 1043 proclaimed a 
 general peace throughout Germany. He 
 enforced this decree, and succeeded in al- 
 most abolishing the private wars of the 
 nobles. He was a liberal friend of learn- 
 ing, and sought to reform the abuses of the 
 church, in order that it might be fit for its 
 great mission. He treated the pope as his 
 
 dependent, and deposed several of the pon- 
 tiffs whom he considered unfit for their 
 august station, and set up others in their 
 place. He appointed Germans only to the 
 papal throne, and had his life been pro- 
 longed would doubtless have made it im- 
 possible for the pontiff" to pursue such a 
 course as that of Gregory VII. towards 
 Henry IV. , In 1046 he was crowned em- 
 peror by Clement II., a German pope of 
 his own creation. Henry conducted several 
 wars against the Hungarians, and com- 
 pelled their king to do him homage for his 
 crown. He died in 1056, in the fortieth 
 year of his age. 
 
 Henry left his crown to his son, Henry 
 IV., a child of six years. Agnes, the mo- 
 ther of the young king, became regent, and 
 her weak government enabled the great 
 nobles to regain nearly all the power of 
 which Conrad 11. and Henry III. had de- 
 prived them. In 1062 Hanno, Archbishop 
 of Cologne, compelled Queen Agnes to 
 resign the regency, and obtained possession 
 of the young king's person, intending to 
 make himself his guardian and the real 
 ruler of the kingdom. Adalbert, Arch- 
 bishop of Bremen, a powerful prelate, jealous 
 of Hanno, sought to take Henry from him, 
 and finally succeeded, as Henry thoroughly 
 disliked the stern Hanno and preferred the 
 gay and lively Adalbert, who, however, 
 proved a bad preceptor, for under him 
 Henry's education was neglected, and he 
 became imbued with low tastes, and grew 
 to be wayward and passionate. Adalbert 
 taught him to regard the German dukes 
 as his natural enemies, and implanted in 
 him a bitter hatred of the Saxons. 
 
 In 1065 Henry was declared of age, 
 having reached the age of fifteen. He made 
 Goslar his capital, and retained Adalbert 
 as his most trusted adviser. He began his 
 reign by treating the Saxons with great and 
 needless harshness, and acted as if he in- 
 tended to add the Saxon duchy to the 
 royal lands. The next year the princes 
 compelled Adalbert to leave the court, but 
 Henry persisted in the mistaken course he 
 had begun. Otto of Nordheim, a powerful 
 Saxon count, had been made by Queen 
 Agnes Duke of Bavaria. Henry, Avithout 
 just cause, deprived Otto of his duchy, and 
 bestowed it upon Guelph, son of the Mar- 
 grave Azzo of Este, who had married a 
 descendant of the ancient Bavarian house 
 of Guelph. Otto thereupon began to plot 
 with Magnus, the son and heir of the Duke 
 
532 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Saxony. Their plot being defeated, both 
 were imprisoned. Otto was soon set free, 
 but Henry kept Magnus a captive. Upon 
 the death of the Saxon duke, the nobles 
 of that duchy repaired to Goslar, and de- 
 manded that Henry should set their young 
 duke free. The king's refusal to grant this 
 demand brought on a war, in which he 
 was at first worsted and obliged to take 
 refuge in Worms, which city remained 
 faithful to him. The Saxons, elated by 
 their easy success, allowed themselves to 
 be led into a series of outrages which 
 shocked the entire nation, and produced 
 such a reaction that Henry was soon able 
 to take the field against them with a large 
 army, and to defeat them in a bloody 
 battle near Langensalza, a. d. 1075. 
 Promises were made the Saxons in the 
 king's name, which induced them to sub- 
 mit. Henry soon broke faith with them, 
 displaced many of their nobles, and gave 
 their lands to vassals of his own. In 
 strange contrast with this conduct, he re- 
 stored to Otto of Nordheim his Saxon lands, 
 and made him administrator of the duchy 
 of Saxony, notwithstanding Otto was his 
 most determined enemy. 
 
 The king was greatly mistaken in sup- 
 posing that he had quieted the disturbances 
 in his kingdom by this arrangement. A 
 feeling of profound discontent pervaded the 
 whole of Germany. Rudolph of Suabia, 
 Otto of jSTordheira, and a host of other 
 enemies were only watching an opportunity 
 to throw off the royal authority, and 
 Henry's tyranny had left him few friends 
 in any class of the people. Gregory VII., 
 who now filled the chair of St. Peter, had 
 been watching for an opportunity to hum- 
 ble the German king and advance the 
 papal authority, and he sagely availed him- 
 self of this crisis as the time best suited to 
 his purpose. During the war with the Sax- 
 ons he had addressed a letter to Henry, 
 commanding him to abstain from bestowing 
 ecclesiastical offices, which practice the 
 pope termed simony. Henry, unable to 
 engage in any new quarrel, promised com- 
 pliance with this demand, but upon the set- 
 tlement of the Saxon rebellion he refused to 
 be bound by his promise. This brought 
 matters to a crisis, and the pope resolved to 
 strike a decisive blow. The promise of 
 Henry had been wrung from him at a 
 moment when he was engaged in a life and 
 death struggle for his crown, and it was 
 quite natural that he should disregard it. 
 
 not only for this reason, but because the 
 greater part of the lands in Germany was 
 held by churchmen, and had Gregory's 
 wishes been carried out these spiritual 
 princes would have owed allegiance to none 
 save the pope. Gregory, on the other 
 hand, had an equally great interest at 
 stake. By humbling Henry he would not 
 only settle the question of investitures, but 
 would establish the principle upon which 
 he meant the future policy of the Roman 
 see should rest — that the pope, as the vicar 
 of Christ, was above all earthly rulers and 
 entitled to give laws to them. In 1075, 
 upon Henry's refusal to comply with his 
 demand concerning investitures, Gregory 
 summoned the king to appear before him 
 at Rome to answer to charges brought 
 against him by the Saxons and others. 
 Henry regarded this as an act of priestly 
 interference, and refused to comply with the 
 order. He summoned a synod of the Ger- 
 man bishops at Worms, in 1076, and caused 
 Gregory to be deposed. The pope met this 
 step by a sentence of excommunication 
 against Henry. He declared him no longer 
 king, and absolved his subjects from their 
 allegiance to him. This was a bolder move 
 than Henry had looked for. Had he been 
 a popular king, strong in the support of his 
 people, he might have defied the pope, and 
 it is doubtful whether Gregory would have 
 ventured upon such an assumption of power. 
 But, as has been said, the discontent of the 
 Germans was widespread and deep, and the 
 pope well knew that the nobles would 
 eagerly seize upon any pretext to rebel 
 against their unpopular king. The result 
 justified his expectation. A few remained 
 faithful to Henry, but the larger party 
 sided with his enemies, who openly accepted 
 the papal sentence, and Germany was thus 
 divided into two hostile factions. The 
 struggle which ensued is known as the 
 "War of the Investitures." It had a 
 deeper significance, and was really a contest 
 between the papacy and the empire for 
 supremacy. 
 
 The princes opposed to Henry met at 
 Tribur to elect a new king. Henry, realiz- 
 ing the extent of his danger, endeavored to 
 influence the assembly, and succeeded so 
 far that it was agreed that Henry should be 
 given a year to make his peace with the 
 pope, but that if at the end of that time the 
 sentence of excommunication was not re- 
 moved a new king should be chosen. In 
 this emergency Henry resolved to throw 
 
TREATY OF VERDUN TO ACCESSION OF HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 533 
 
 himself upon the generosity of Gregory, 
 ignorant that no such quality existed in the 
 breast of the stern pontiff. His journey to 
 Italy, his humiliation, and the refusal of 
 Gregory to do more than remove the sen- 
 
 proclaimed Rudolph of Suabia king in the 
 place of Henry. Henry immediately re- 
 turned to Germany, where he was joined 
 by a large party who had been exasperated 
 by the shameful treatment inflicted upon 
 
 HENRY IV. AT THE CASTLE OF CANOSSA. 
 
 tence of excommunication on condition of 
 his submitting to be tried for his crimes, 
 have been related. Gregory also insisted 
 that Henry should not resume the exercise 
 of his authority as king in the interim. 
 In March, 1077, the discontented nobles 
 
 their sovereign by the pope. The cities 
 were especially loyal to him. He drove 
 Rudolph out of Suabia into Saxony, where 
 he was bravely defended against the king 
 by Otto of Nordheim. In 1080 Gregory 
 recognized Rudolph as king, and Henry 
 
534 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 retaliated by summoning a council of Ger- 
 man bishops, who set up Guibert, Arch- 
 bishop of Ravenna, as pope, with the title 
 of Clement III. In the same year Rudolph 
 was killed in a great battle near Zeitz, and 
 Henry's cause gained ground so rapidly 
 that the struggle was soon decided in Ger- 
 many in his favor. In 1081 he found him- 
 self strong enough to leave the direction of 
 the war to Frederick of Suabia, his son-in- 
 law, to whom he had given Rudolph's 
 duchy, and who thus became the founder 
 of the great house of Hohenstaufen, while 
 he himself entered Italy and attacked the 
 pope, the fomenter of the strife. The 
 events of his Italian campaign have been 
 related. He was crowned emperor at Rome 
 by Clement III., and succeeded in driving 
 Gregory into exile, where he died. Henry 
 returned to Germany in 1085, and gave his 
 personal supervision to the struggle with 
 the Saxons, Avho, after attempting to set up 
 two other kings after Rudolj^h's death, be- 
 came weary of the war, and in 1087 sub- 
 mitted. Henry had learned wisdom from 
 experience, and as he treated them with 
 leniency, peace was restored for a while in 
 Germany. 
 
 The successors of Gregory VII. diligently 
 pursued the course he had begun, and 
 Henry found that the death of his old an- 
 tagonist did not end the struggle with 
 Rome. They stooped to the shameful task 
 of inciting his own children to rebel against 
 him. In 1091 Pope Urban II. and the 
 Countess Matilda induced Henry's eldest 
 son Conrad to take arms against his father. 
 Conrad was supported by the cities of Lom- 
 bardy, and Avas crowned King of Italy, 
 first at Monza, and then at Milan. He did 
 not live long to enjoy the fruits of his rebel- 
 lion. In 1099 the emperor caused his 
 second son Henry to be crowned German 
 king, and the younger monarch swore a 
 solemn oath not to attempt to seize the gov- 
 ernment during the life of his father. In 
 1104 the younger Henry, influenced by the 
 evil counsels of Pope Paschal II., violated 
 his solemn oath and rebelled against his 
 father. Gaining the advantage of the 
 emperor, the younger Henry treated him 
 with great cruelty, and forced him to sign 
 his abdication at Eugelheim, in 1105. The 
 Duke of Lotharingia endeavored to restore 
 the emperor, but Henry IV., broken down 
 by his reverses, died in 1106. Even after 
 death the hostility of the popes followed 
 him. His body was refused Christian 
 
 burial, and lay in a stone cofiin in an un- 
 consecrated chapel at Spires for five years. 
 It was only in a. d. 1111, when the sentence 
 of excommunication was removed, that it 
 was properly buried. 
 
 Henry V., though he had profited by the 
 assistance of the church during his rebel- 
 lion, had no sooner become king than he 
 became as determined a champion of the 
 right of investiture as his father had been. 
 Proceeding to Rome, he compelled Pope 
 Paschal II. to crown him emperor in 1111. 
 Upon the return of the emj^eror to Germany 
 the pope renewed all his former demands, 
 and the war of investitures broke out 
 afresh. It was settled, as has been related, 
 by the Concordat of Worms, the details of 
 which have been given in the Italian his- 
 tory of this period. This settlement pro- 
 duced a peace between the emperor and the 
 church, but during the remainder of his 
 life he was constantly engaged in contests 
 with his rebellious nobles, especially in 
 northern Germany. He died in A. D. 1125, 
 and, as he left no children, the Franconian 
 dynasty ended with him. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO THE 
 ACCESSION OP CHARLES V. 
 
 Lothaire King — Revolt of the Nobles — Conrad of 
 Suabia ilade King — His Quarrel with the Duke 
 of Saxony — Establishment of the Margravate of 
 Brandenburg^ — Berlin Founded^ — Conrad takes 
 Weinsberg — Devotion of the Women — TheGuelfs 
 and Ghibellines — The Crusades — Conrad Joins 
 the Second Crusade — His Death — Frederick Bar- 
 barossa — Settles the Affairs of Germany — The 
 Duchy of Austria Established — Frederick Goes 
 to Italy — Is Crowned Emperor — His Great Keign 
 — Revolt of Henry the Lion — He is Conquered' 
 and Dejirived of his Dominions— Asks Pardon of 
 the Em])eror and is Forgiven — Barbarossa Joins 
 the Crusade — His Death — The Legend Concerning 
 him — Reigns of Henry VI. and Otto IV. — Fred- 
 erick II. Becomes German King — Frederick II. — 
 Evils Caused by his Absence from Germany — He 
 Puts a Stop to Private Wars — The Moguls^Quar- 
 rel of Frederick with the Pojie — Anarchy in Ger- 
 many — William of Holland — The Interregnum 
 — Rudolph of Hapsburg Chosen Emperor — Re- 
 stores the Royal Authority — Albert of Austria 
 King — Christianization of Prussia— Conquests of 
 the Teutonic Knights and Knights of the Sword 
 — Konigsberg Founded — Loss of Power by the 
 German Kings — The Choice of Emperor Confided 
 to I]lectors — Growth of the Towns — The Free 
 Towns — The Femgerichte — Progress of Germany 
 in the Arts— The Minnesanger — Albert I. Mur- 
 dered — Henry VII. — His Reign and Character — 
 Reign of Louis IV. — His Quarrel with the Pope 
 —His Errors — Revolt of his Subjects — Death of 
 Louis — Rise of the Swiss Cantons — The Oath of 
 Riitli — Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians 
 
FR03I THE BEIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 535 
 
 atMorgarten — Reign of Charles IV. — Persecu- 
 tions of the Jews — The Golden Bull — Reign of 
 Weneeslaus — An Era of Disorder— Austria Re- 
 news her Efforts to Conquer the Swiss — Battle 
 of Seinpach — Siegmund Emperor — Council of 
 Constance — The Reformation in Bohemia — John 
 Huss — His Martyrdom — The Religious War — The 
 Elector of Brandenburg — Reigns of Albert II. and 
 Frederick III. — Rapid Decline of the Royal Power 
 — Victories of the Swiss over the Burgundians — 
 Maximilian I. Marries Mary of Burgundy — The 
 "Imperial Chamber" — Wars with the Swiss — 
 Germany Divided into Circles — ' The Aulic 
 Council. 
 
 ^OTHAIRE, Duke of Saxony, was 
 chosen German king at the death 
 of Henry, but his accession was 
 resisted by Conrad and Frederick 
 of Hohenstaufen, and in order to 
 oppose them successfully, Lothaire 
 made such concessions to the pope that In- 
 nocent II., who crowned him emperor, ven- 
 tured to declare him a vassal of the Holy 
 See. Lothaire Avas supported by Henry, 
 Duke of Bavaria, surnamed " the Proud," 
 who married the emperor's daughter, and 
 was given the duchy of Saxony and the 
 Italian lands of the Countess Matilda. He 
 was thus the most powerful noble of Ger- 
 many. In 1134 Frederick and Conrad of 
 Suabia yielded to Lothaire, and in 1138 
 the emperor died. 
 
 The crown was claimed by Henry the 
 Proud, the emperor's son-in-law, but the 
 nobles conferred it upon Conrad of Fran- 
 conia, the head of the Hohenstaufen family. 
 Conrad's first act was to strike a blow at 
 the power of his rival, Henry the Proud. 
 He ordered him to resign Saxony, claiming 
 that it was unlawful for him to hold two 
 duchies at one time. Henry refused, and 
 both Bavaria and Saxony were taken from 
 him. The king gave Bavaria to Leopold, 
 Margrave of Austria, and Saxony to Al- 
 bert of Anhalt, called "the Bear," to whom 
 Lothaire had granted the Northern Mark 
 of Saxony. Henry took up arms to main- 
 tain his position, and he and his partisans 
 gathered to themselves the Guelfic or papal 
 party. The cities, which dreaded the inter- 
 ference of the pope in German affairs, sus- 
 tained the king. Henry the Proud died 
 during the contest, and left his quarrel to 
 his son Henry the Lion. Conrad, in the 
 interests of peace, induced Albert the Bear 
 to relinquish the Saxon duchy, which he 
 conferred upon Henry the Lion. To re- 
 ward Albert the king erected his mark into 
 a separate government, which subsequently 
 took the name of the Margravate of Bran- 
 
 denburg, from the town of that name cap- 
 tured from the Wends by Albert. Albert's 
 territories embraced northern Saxony, Lu- 
 satia, Salzwedel and Brandenburg. In the 
 last-named district he laid the foundations 
 of a city called Berlin, and about the same 
 time Leopold of Austria founded Vienna. 
 Count Welf, the brother of Henry the 
 Proud, refused to accept this settlement, 
 and continued the war in Bavaria. In 
 1140 he was defeated by Conrad, and 
 obliged to take refuge in the town of Weins- 
 berg, which yielded to the king after a long 
 siege. According to the tradition, Conrad 
 determined to destroy the town and put the 
 garrison to the sword, but agreed to allow 
 the women to leave and gave each permis- 
 sion to carry away what she could. The 
 next morning the gates were opened, and a 
 long line of women passed out, each carry- 
 ing her lover or her husband on her back. 
 Conrad was so touched by this sight, that 
 he spared both the town and its inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 During this siege were heard for the first 
 time the war cries which were destined to 
 resound throughout Europe. The royal 
 army took for their battle shout "Waib- 
 lingen," the name of a village which had 
 been the home of the Hohenstaufen. The 
 rebels shouted " Welf," the name of their 
 leader. These terms were afterwards ap- 
 plied to the two great parties which divided 
 the empire and are best known to us in 
 their Italian form of Guelf and Ghibelline, 
 the former being applied to the partisans of 
 the pope, the latter to the imperial party. 
 
 There was now a lull in German affairs, 
 and the people of that country were free to 
 give their attention to the great subject 
 which was eliciting the efforts of all Chris- 
 tendom — the Crusades. Conrad III. joined 
 the Second Crusade in 1147 with an army 
 of 70,000 men. He Avas accompanied by 
 his nephew Frederick, Duke of Suabia, his 
 old enemy Count Welf, and the flower of 
 the German chivalry. He won a name for 
 bravery and daring in the East, but accom- 
 plished nothing definite. He returned 
 home in two years broken doAvn in health. 
 Soon after his return Count Welf headed a 
 new rebellion, but was defeated. Conrad 
 then prepared to go to Rome to be crowned 
 emperor, but died before he could begin 
 his journey, A. D. 1152. 
 
 In accordance with the a^lvice of Conrad, 
 the nobles conferred the crown upon his 
 nephew, the Duke of Suabia, who became 
 
536 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 king as Frederick I. He was subsequently 
 known as "Frederick Barbarossa," from 
 his red beard. He was thirty-one years old 
 at the time of his election to the throne. 
 He was a man of generous and noble na- 
 ture, and of strong and imperious will, so 
 that though he was devotedly loved by his 
 friends, he was bitterly hated by his ene- 
 mies, for he could be harsh and stern in 
 asserting his rights. He was sincerely 
 anxious to put an end to the quarrel be- 
 tween the Guelfs and the Ghibellines, and 
 he w'as fortunately in a position to do so. 
 His mother was a sister of Henry the Proud, 
 and Henry the Lion was his cousin and 
 personal friend. He bestowed upon Henry, 
 who was already Duke of Saxony, the 
 duchy of Bavaria, and thus made him the 
 most powerful prince in Germany. To 
 compensate Henry, Margrave of Austria, 
 for relinquishing Bavaria, Frederick erected 
 the Austrian territory into a separate and 
 independent duchy, to be held as a fief of 
 the crown, and made it hereditary in the 
 female as Avell as in the male line. 
 
 Having thus settled the affairs of Ger- 
 many, Frederick went into Italy, where the 
 imperial power was almost dead. He was 
 crowned emperor in 1154 by Pope Adrian 
 IV. The events of his career in Italy, the 
 struggle between the emperor and the cities, 
 and the settlement of the quarrel, have 
 already been related in the Italian history 
 of this period. The first successes of Fred- 
 erick in Italy made him the most powerful 
 ruler in Europe. The Kings of Poland and 
 Hungary did him homage for their crowns, 
 and the emperor rewarded the faithful ser- 
 vices of the Duke of Bohemia by erecting 
 his duchy into a kingdom. Frederick mar- 
 ried Beatrice, the heiress of the Free 
 County of Burgundy, and thus added this 
 part of Burgundy to the German domin- 
 ions. 
 
 As a German ruler Frederick I. was 
 great and wise. He did not entirely suc- 
 ceed in putting down private war, the great 
 curse of his country, but imposed a check 
 upon it by requiring those who engaged in 
 it to give three days notice to their enemies. 
 All who refused to do this Avere to be treated 
 as robbers. Frederick also encouraged the 
 growth of the cities by granting them im- 
 portant privileges, and making some of 
 them free. So judicious and popular were 
 his acts that he drew to himself the support 
 of all Germany. Even the prelates were 
 loyal to him. Strong in the love and sup- 
 
 port of his people, the emperor was able to 
 bid defiance to the popes in Germany. 
 There was no opposition for the pontiff to 
 intrigue with. A papal legate once ven- 
 tured to assert in the diet that the empire 
 was dependent upon the Holy See, and 
 raised such a storm of fury that his life was 
 saved only by the personal interposition of 
 the emperor. Had Henry IV. been such 
 a sovereign, the sad story of his reign 
 would have remained unwritten. 
 
 Henry the Lion for a long time enjoyed 
 the friendship and favor of the emperor, 
 and grew in prosperity. He founded sev- 
 eral new cities, one of which was Munich, 
 and greatly assisted the growth in wealth 
 and power of Hamburg, Liibeck, and 
 others. His success made him haughty 
 and arrogant, and his overbearing manner 
 at length aroused the jealousy of the other 
 princes. lif 1175, having become angry 
 with the emperor for his refusal to bestow 
 upon him the city of Goslar, Henry took 
 a mean advantage of him. He abandoned 
 Frederick in the most trying period of his 
 struggle with the Lombard cities, and re- 
 turned home Avith his troops. This defec- 
 tion led to the defeat of the imperial army 
 at Legnano, from which field Frederick es- 
 caped with difficulty. The emperor is said 
 to have begged Henry on his knees not to 
 desert him. He returned to Germany in 
 1178, resolved to punish Henry for his de- 
 fection. He therefore summoned him to 
 appear before the Diet at Worms. Henry 
 refused, and with the sanction of the diet, was 
 put by Frederick to the ban of the empire, 
 and his lands Avere declared forfeited. A 
 portion of East Saxony was given to Ber- 
 nard of Anhalt, the son of Albert the Bear ; 
 a part of West Saxony Avas given to Philip, 
 Archbishop of Cologne, who was also 
 granted ducal rights in these possessions ; 
 and the duchy of Bavaria, greatly weak- 
 ened by the separation of Styria, Avas con- 
 ferred upon Otto of Wittelsbach. Henry, 
 who vainly sought to retain his possessions 
 by force of arms, was at length obliged to 
 submit, and in 1181 he came to Erfurt, 
 where Frederick was holding a diet, and 
 humbly asked pardon of the emperor. 
 Frederick, greatly moved by the sight of 
 his old friend so humbled, frankly forgave 
 him. He could not restore his duchies, but 
 allowed him to retain Brunswick and Liine- 
 burg. Henry agreed to live for three years 
 at the court of the King of England, Henry 
 II., whose daughter he had mai-ried. Dur- 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 537 
 
 ing his sojourn in England his wife gave 
 birth to a son, from whom the present reign- 
 ing family of England is descended. 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa was now an old 
 man, but his martial ardor Avas un- 
 quenched. In 1189, at the head of a large 
 army, he embarked in the Third Crusade. 
 He did not live to reach Palestine, but was 
 drowned in crossing the Calicadnus, or 
 Cydnus, in Cilicia, in June, 1190. So 
 strong was the affection which the German 
 people bore him that the news of his death 
 was received at first with incredulity, and 
 then with an outburst of profound sorrow. 
 In after years the people looked back to 
 him as their greatest champion, and there 
 arose a tradition that Barbarossa was not 
 dead, but was merely plunged with his 
 knights into an enchanted sleep in a cavern 
 of the Kyffhauser Berg (or hill) in Thu- 
 ringia. There, armed cap-a-pie, they would 
 remain until the ravens should cease to fly 
 around the mountain, when they would 
 wake and restore Germany to her ancient 
 greatness. 
 
 Frederick Avas succeeded by his son, 
 Henry VI., who, at the time of his father's 
 death, was engaged in attempting to quell 
 another rebellion of Henry the Lion, who 
 had returned from England. Peace was 
 made soon after Barbarossa's death, and 
 Henry VI. hastened to Italy, where he was 
 crowned emperor. As he had married 
 Constance, heiress of the King of Sicily, a 
 few years before his father's death, he be- 
 came King of Sicily in 1194. He was 
 obliged to engage in a sharp struggle for 
 the establishment of his claim. His cruel- 
 ties plunged southern Italy into great com- 
 motion, as has been related. He endeav- 
 ored to make the German crown hereditary, 
 and made flattering oflers to the princes to 
 Avin their consent to the change, but the 
 majority refused to sanction the innovation. 
 Henry died suddenly in Sicily in 1197, 
 leaving a young son named Frederick, The 
 claims of the young prince were set aside, 
 and two kings Avere chosen by the rival 
 parties, Avhich again divided Germany. 
 The Ghibellines elected Philip, the brother 
 of Henry VI., while the Guelfs put forward 
 Otto, the second son of Henry the Lion. 
 But for the interference of the pope, who 
 threw the support of the church on the side 
 of Otto, Philip Avould have been successful. 
 As it Avas, the remainder of the century and 
 the first years of the next were spent in the 
 struggle between the rivals. 
 
 The murder of Philip, in 1208, by a pri- 
 vate enemy, removed every obstacle from the 
 path of Otto IV., Avho was generally recog- 
 nized as king throughout Germany. The 
 next year Otto was croAvned emperor by 
 Pope Innocent III., Avho, however, finding 
 that Otto was not disposed to be his tool, 
 turned against him, and called upon the 
 German princes to elect the young King 
 Frederick of Sicily as his successor. The 
 papal order Avas obeyed, and Otto, after an 
 ineffectual struggle, retired to a private 
 station, in which he remained until his 
 death. In 1215 Frederick II. was crowned 
 king at Aix-la-Chapelle, and in 1220 em- 
 pei'or at Rome. 
 
 For the next fifteen years Frederick AA'as 
 absent from Germany, and the story of this 
 period properly belongs to Italian history, 
 in Avhich connection we have related it. 
 Upon leaving Germany he induced the 
 princes to elect his young son, Henry, King 
 of the Romans, and made him regent of the 
 kingdom under the guardianship of Engel- 
 bert. Archbishop of Cologne. The absence 
 of the emperor encouraged the nobles to 
 make the authority of the regent merely 
 nominal, and at the same time to increase 
 their own power to such an extent that they 
 became almost independent of the crown. 
 Private wars sprang up once more in all 
 parts of Germany, and robbery and vio- 
 lence again settled doAvn upon the country. 
 As Henry grew up to manhood he gaA'e 
 constant evidence that he did not inherit 
 the noble qualities of his father. He Avas 
 mean, rash, and violent, and, encouraged by 
 the long absence of his father, openly de- 
 claimed to the princes assembled at Boppart 
 in 1234, his intention to seize the throne 
 of Germany. Frederick came back to 
 Germany the next year, and easily put doAvn 
 the rebellion. Henry tried to poison his 
 father, and Avas imprisoned in Apulia, 
 AA'here he remained for the balance of his 
 life. 
 
 During this visit to Germany the emperor 
 married the Princess Isabella, the sister 
 of Henry III. of England. He held a great 
 diet at Mayence, and there attempted to 
 put a stop to private wars by declaring all 
 such strifes unlawful except in cases where 
 justice could not be obtained. He also es- 
 tablished an " imperial tribunal " for the 
 trial of all causes not aflfecting princes of 
 the empire. This was a good beginning, 
 but he did not remain in Germany long 
 enough to complete his Avork. In 1236 he 
 
538 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 returned to Italy, where the struggle with 
 the pope needed his presence, and left his 
 son Conrad in charge of the German king- 
 dom. 
 
 A few years later Germany narrowly es- 
 caped a great struggle for existence. Vast 
 hordes of the Moguls, of whom more here- 
 after, had burst into Europe from Asia. 
 Upon their entrance into Germany in 1241, 
 they were met in Silesia by Henry of 
 Liegnitz with a very inferior force. Henry 
 was slain and the Silesian army Avas cut to 
 pieces ; but so terrible were the losses which 
 their resistance inflicted upon the victors 
 that the latter were appalled, and, aban- 
 doning their project of invasion, turned 
 southward and passed into Hungary. 
 
 The events of Frederick's struggle with the 
 popes have been related. The true cause of 
 the hostility of the latter was, as we have said, 
 the refusal of Frederick to acknowledge the 
 authority of the pope as superior to that of 
 the emperor. In Germany the spiritual 
 princes sided with the pope, and drew to 
 their aid many secular lords who wished to 
 increase their own power at the cost of the 
 imperial authority. There remained to the 
 emperor, however, a strong following of 
 nobles who loved their country better than 
 their party, and the cities, now growing 
 rapidly in wealth and powei", sustained him 
 with scarcely an exception. The pope and 
 his party set up Henry of Thuriugia as 
 emperor, but he was never fully acknowl- 
 edged, and died in A. D. 1247. The pope 
 then, after some trouble in finding a candi- 
 date who would accept the place, caused 
 William of Holland, a youth of twenty, to 
 be proclaimed emperor. William's chief 
 strength lay in the north, where he allied 
 himself with the AVells, but in southern 
 Germany Conrad IV., the son of Frederick 
 II., was supreme. Upon the death of Fred- 
 erick in 1250, Conrad succeeded him on the 
 German throne; but, owing to the unscru- 
 pulous efforts of the pope, Germany was in 
 such a state of anarchy that the new king 
 found it a hard task to accomplish any- 
 thing. The imperial authority had become 
 merely nominal before Frederick's death, 
 and private wars and the violence of the 
 nobles made both life and property unsafe 
 in all parts of the kingdom. Conrad had a 
 hard fight for his crown, and died in 1254, 
 in the midst of the struggle, and with him 
 ended the Hohenstaufen line in Germany. 
 
 The death of Conrad left William of Hol- 
 land the sole King of Germany. He was 
 
 not regarded as of much importance by 
 either party, and his death in 1256, in a 
 war with the Frisians, left the electors free 
 to choose a new sovereign. There was no 
 one who had any especial claim to the 
 crown, but the chief candidates for it were 
 Alfonso, King of Castile, and Richard, 
 Earl of Cornwall, brother of King Henry 
 III. of England. Both bribed the electors, 
 and each was elected by his own party. 
 Alfonso never set foot in Germany, but 
 Richard came and was crowned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, but he visited Germany only 
 three times after this, and took no interest 
 in its afiairs. This period is known as the 
 " Interregnum," and constitutes one of the 
 darkest i)ortions of German history. There 
 was no government in the land, the law was 
 dead, and violence prevailed everywhere. 
 The great and petty nobles degenerated into 
 mere marauders and shameless robbers. 
 No traveller was safe unless he journeyed 
 under the protection of a strongly armed 
 escort, and only within the strong walls of 
 the towns did industry venture to engage in 
 its accustomed pursuits. This sad state of 
 affairs was ended by the death of Richard 
 of Cornwall in 1271. Until now the pope 
 had purposely held aloof from German 
 affairs, as the vacancy in the empire in- 
 creased his own importance and prevented 
 the rise of a rival. It now became evident 
 to his holiness that the state of anarchy 
 which prevailed in Germany was injurious 
 to Rome as well as to that country, inas- 
 much as the papal revenues could not be 
 collected without the assistance of the royal 
 power. At last Gregory X. notified the 
 electors that if they did not choose a proper 
 king for Germany, he would himself ap- 
 point one. The result of this threat was 
 the election of Rudolph, Count of Haps- 
 burg, a district of southern Suabia. The 
 choice w^as a wise one, for Rudolph was a 
 brave and determined man, fully alive to 
 the evils from which Germany was suflfer- 
 ing, and anxious to end them. Being a 
 submissive son of the church, he gained the 
 support of the Holy See by a solemn pledge 
 not to interfere with Charles of Anjou in 
 Sicily or in Tuscany, and somewhat later 
 he recognized the territorial sovereignty of 
 the pope by surrendering to Nicholas III. 
 the claims of the empire over Rome and the 
 bequest of the Countess Matilda. Thus 
 strengthened, he applied himself with vigor 
 to the task of restoring order in Germany. 
 Ottocar, King of Bohemia, had added to 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 539 
 
 his native kingdom Austria, Styria, Carin- 
 thia, and Carniola, and as he had hoped to 
 be elected German king, he refused to 
 acknowledge or do homage to Rudolph. 
 Rudolph marched against him in 1276, and 
 compelled him to resign Austria apd the 
 neighboring lands and do homage for his 
 crown ; but upon his withdrawal Ottocar 
 renewed the war, and was beaten and slain 
 in the great battle of Marchfield, on the 
 right bank of the Danube, in 1278. A 
 little later, Rudolph, with the consent of 
 the princes, bestowed Austria, Styria, and 
 Carinthia upon his sous Albert and Ru- 
 dolph. Later still he gave Carinthia to 
 Count Meinhard of Tyrol, whose daughter 
 Albert had married. The other lauds were 
 given to Albert alone. Thus was securely 
 laid the foundation of the future greatness 
 of the house of Hapsburg. 
 
 As has been said, Rudolph came to the 
 throne when the royal authority had been 
 almost entirely destroyed. His task was to 
 restore it and re-establish the supremacy of 
 the civil law. He succeeded in this, and 
 proved himself an able and judicious ruler. 
 He won back many of the crown lands 
 which had been unjustly seized by the 
 nobles during the Interregnum, though he 
 had great difficulty in accomplishing this. 
 He revived the laws and judicial system of 
 Frederick II., and at the head of his army 
 visited every part of the kingdom to put 
 down the lawless nobles and to exterminate 
 robbers. In Thuringia alone twenty-nine 
 nobles convicted of robbery were executed, 
 and sixty-nine castles and strongholds were 
 destroyed. The people were warmly at- 
 tached to the king, who shoAved himself 
 their best friend by his good government 
 and protection of them. In September, 
 1291, Rudolph died at the age of seventy- 
 four. 
 
 Rudolph had endeavored just before his 
 death to secure the election of his son 
 Albert, but had been unsuccessful, as the 
 nobles regarded the revenues of the king- 
 dom as inadequate to the support of two 
 sovereigns. At his death the electors chose 
 an insignificant noble named Adolph, 
 Count of Nassau, king. This was due to 
 the influence of Gerhard, Archbishop of 
 Mayence, Adolph's cousin, who hoped to 
 make him a msre puppet in his hands. 
 Adolph could accomplish little against the 
 nobles, who opposed him and sought to 
 limit his powers. He formed an alliance 
 ■\vith Edward I. of England, who supplied 
 
 him with a large sum of money on condition 
 that he should go to war with France. 
 Adolph used this money to buy Thuringia 
 from its worthless landgrave, Albert the 
 Degenex-ate, but Albert's two sons refused 
 to surrender their inheritance, and were 
 sustained in their refusal by their vassals 
 and many of the princes of the empire. 
 Gerhard, finding Adolph less submissive 
 than he had hoped, urged the electors to 
 dethrone him. This they did, and chose as 
 king Albert, Duke of Austria, the son of 
 King Rudolph. Adolph resisted this action 
 and was slain in a battle near Worms in 
 1298. Albert was then chosen at a second 
 election, and was formally crowned at Aix- 
 la-Chapelle. 
 
 The thirteenth century was a period of 
 the deepest importance to Germany. For 
 some time the Germans had been steadily 
 gaining ground to the eastward. Branden- 
 burg had been won in the previous century, 
 and since then lower Silesia, Holstein, 
 Mecklenburg, and Pomerania had been 
 gained and Germanized by the slower pro- 
 cess of colonization. A monk named Chris- 
 tian began, about the beginning of the thir- 
 teenth century, to preach Christianity in 
 Prussia. The Prussians resisted him by 
 force, as they still clung to their pagan be- 
 lief, and a crusade was proclaimed against 
 them. About the year 1230 the Teutonic 
 Knights came to Prussia and began its con- 
 quest. In 1237 the Knights of the Sword, 
 another German order which had already 
 conquered Livonia, became united with the 
 Teutonic Knights. Many warriors from all 
 parts of Europe joined the Teutonic order 
 to assist in the conquest of Prussia. In 
 1245 [the city of Konigsberg was founded, 
 and named in honor of Ottocar, King of 
 Bohemia, who had taken part in the cru- 
 sade, and by 1260 the greater part of 
 Prussia was conquered. A great revolt of 
 the natives took place in this year, but it 
 was put down after a sharp struggle. Col- 
 onies of Germans Avere settled in the land, 
 and in 1309 the Teutonic order made 
 Marienberg its head-quarters, and held the 
 country in subjection while it became grad- 
 ually Christianized and Germanized. 
 
 The absence of the emperors from Ger- 
 many, and the long struggle with the popes, 
 resulted in the serious loss of power by tht 
 German kings. The emperors, by neglect^ 
 ing their duties as German kings and exert- 
 ing their chief eflbrts for the empire, allowed 
 the princes to seize one after another of the 
 
640 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 privileges of the crown, and render them- 
 selves practically independent. Indeed, 
 the Hohenstaufen kings deliberately parted 
 with many of their most valuable German 
 rights in order to gain some immediate ad- 
 vantage as emperors. Denmark, Poland, 
 and Hungary became independent king- 
 doms, and Burgundy was slowly absorbed 
 by France. The German princes had al- 
 ways refused to allow the crown to be made 
 hereditary, and this century witnessed a 
 change in the mode of electing the sovereign. 
 This privilege was lodged in the hands of 
 seven electors, three of whom were spiritual 
 and four secular princes. The spiritual elec- 
 tors were the Archbishops of Mayence, Co- 
 
 CASTLE OF NUKEMBEEG. 
 
 logne, and Treves ; the secular electors, the 
 Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Branden- 
 burg, the Rhenish palsgrave, and the King 
 of Bohemia. These electors held a rank 
 above all the other princes and formed a 
 separate college in the diet. The pope 
 claimed the right, which was usually ac- 
 knowledged, to revise the action of the 
 electors and to reject any candidate whom 
 he did not regard as suitable. The German 
 king had the right to the imperial crown, 
 which could be bestowed only by the pope. 
 Hence the claim of the pontiff. 
 
 The growth of the towns was also another 
 important feature of this period. As the 
 great duchies fell into decay, the towns that 
 
 had before been dependent upon them be- 
 came independent. That is, they managed 
 their affairs in their own way, but acknowl- 
 edged the supremacy of the emperor. Hence 
 they were called free imperial towns. The 
 deputijps of these towns at length formed a 
 third college in the diet, and voted on an 
 equality with the electors and princes. The 
 free towns usually supported the authority 
 of the king, but were almost always at war 
 with the nobles and bishops. For their 
 mutual protection against these enemies 
 they organized confederations or leagues 
 among themselves. The principal of these 
 were the Rhenish League, which embraced 
 about seventy free towns, and the Hanseatic 
 League, which was organ- 
 ^ ized about 1241 by Lii- 
 
 "^^ _ beck and Hamburg for 
 
 the protection of their 
 commerce. This confed- 
 eration eventually em- 
 braced about eighty cities, 
 and maintained fleets and 
 armies. It possessed the 
 entire trade of the Baltic 
 and a large part of that 
 of the North Sea. Its 
 forces frequently defeated 
 the northern kings, and 
 the sovereigns of England 
 and France accorded to it 
 a marked degree of re- 
 spect. For a long time 
 the Hanse towns carried 
 on an active commerce 
 with England, the export 
 trade of that country 
 being entirely in the 
 hands of the Hanseatic 
 merchants. These were 
 called by the English 
 Easterlings, from which is derived the word 
 Sterling. 
 
 Germany was without a uniform code of 
 law. In this centuiy the laws of Saxony 
 were codified by Eike of Repgord, and those 
 of Suabia by a Suabian priest. In West- 
 phalia a singular class of courts of justice 
 arose out of the violence of the times. They 
 took the name of Femgerichte. " They met 
 in open day, generally under some tree ; but 
 the proceedings of the court were kept 
 secret. No case w^as taken up which was 
 not punishable by death. If an accused 
 person was condemned, he was hanged at 
 once. Any one who did not appear after 
 having been summoned three times was 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 541 
 
 assumed to be guilty, and sooner or later 
 he was certainly put to death. In those 
 lawless times the oppressed were glad to 
 find a court anywhere which gave them 
 some chance of obtaining justice. Appeals 
 began therefore to be made to the Femger- 
 ichte from all parts of Germany. In the 
 end men of free birth, to whatever part of 
 the country they belonged, were allowed to 
 become free judges, and many thousands of 
 all classes availed themselves of the privi- 
 lege. For a considerable time the Fem- 
 gerichte did real good ; for nobles who cared 
 nothing for king or emperor trembled when 
 they received the summons of some free 
 judge to aj^pear at a certain date before a 
 secret tribunal. But as the power of the 
 Femgerichte increased, they were often 
 reckless and unjust; and many, especially 
 the clergy, cried out loudly against them. 
 They lost nearly all their power in the six- 
 teenth century, but traces of them long 
 afterwards existed among the Westphalian 
 peasantry." 
 
 The era of the Hohenstaufen witnessed 
 a marked revival in architecture in Ger- 
 many, of which the Cathedral of Cologne, 
 though still unfinished, is a noble specimen. 
 It was also the time when the Minnesanger, 
 or Love Singers — those noble poets of the 
 Middle Ages — flourished. Several of the 
 Hohenstaufen emperors — Frederick II. in 
 particular — were poets, and the period is 
 splendidly illustrated with the names of 
 Heinrich von Valdeck, Wolfram von 
 Eschenbach, Gottfried von Strassburg, and 
 Walter von der Vogelweide. 
 
 King Albert I. was the first of the Aus- 
 trian kings of Germany. He lacked all 
 the qualities by which Rudolph, his father, 
 had won the affections of the German peo- 
 ple, and sought to maintain his power by a 
 rule of exceeding harshness. He was also 
 more selfish than his father, and his chief 
 care was to advance the fortunes of his own 
 house. He attempted to gain possession of 
 Bohemia, and of the county of Holland. 
 His son Rudolph was King of Bohemia for 
 a few mouths, but it at length passed from 
 his family. He also tried to dispossess 
 Frederick, the Landgrave of Thuringia, of 
 his territory, but was unsuccessful. He 
 succeeded only in arousing the hostility of 
 those whom he sought to beggar for his 
 own benefit. One of these was his nephew 
 John, who, with four other nobles, fell 
 upon him near the Castle of Hapsburg and 
 killed him. May 1st, 1308. 
 
 Albert's unpopularity prevented the 
 choice of the electors from falling upon any 
 member of his house, and Henry, Count of 
 Luxemburg, was chosen King of the Ro- 
 mans. With the consent of the Bohemian 
 states, he married his son John to Elizabeth, 
 the granddaughter of King Ottocar, and 
 thus John became King of Bohemia, the 
 crown of which long remained in his family. 
 In 1310 Henry VII. went to Italy, where 
 he was received with joy by all parties. 
 The Ghibellines greeted him as their nat- 
 ural lord, and the Guelfs were favorably 
 inclined to him by the pope, who dreaded 
 the extension of the French influence over 
 all Italy. Still some of the Guelfic cities, 
 led by King Robert of Naples, resisted him. 
 Henry was crowned King of Italy at Milan 
 in 1311. Florence resisted him, and the 
 Neapolitan king threw a garrison into 
 Rome. Henry compelled these to with- 
 draw into the Leonine city, where they held 
 the Church of St. Peter against him. Thus 
 cut off from the cathedral, he was crowned 
 in the Church of St. John Lateran, on the 
 29th of June, 1312. He now attempted 
 to crush the resistance of the Guelfs, and 
 gathering an army from Germany and 
 Italy, moved upon Siena. The fatal air 
 of Rome had so undermined his strength 
 that he died on the march, August 24th, 
 1313. His body was carried to Pisa and 
 buried there. He was the last of the em- 
 perors who exercised real authority in 
 Italy, and had he lived he would undoubt- 
 edly have restored to the empire something 
 of its former power and greatness. He was 
 eminently fitted for such a task, for he was 
 a man of great abilities and of noble charac- 
 ter. Dante drew from him the character 
 of his ideal sovereign in his treatise on 
 " Monarchy," and his enemy, the Guelf 
 Villani, wrote of him : " He was a man 
 never depressed by adversity, never in 
 prosperity elated with pride or intoxicated 
 with joy." The successors of Henry were 
 not emperors in the sense in which that 
 title can be used to describe him. They 
 were chiefly the leadei's of a faction of the 
 Italians, and some of them were never 
 crowned emperor. 
 
 The electors were divided in their choice 
 of a successor to Henry VII., and two 
 kings were set up in Germany — Louis, Duke 
 of Bavaria, being chosen by one party, and 
 Frederick, Duke of Austria, the eldest son 
 of King Albert, by another. Louis was 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, and Frederick 
 
542 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 at Bonn. Each king appealed to the 
 sword to support his claims, and a bloody 
 civil war ensued, which lasted ten years. 
 The towns as a general rule supported 
 Louis, while the nobles sustained Frederick. 
 The decisive battle of the war was fought 
 near Miihldorf in 1322. The Austrians 
 were defeated, and Frederick was taken 
 prisoner by Louis, who confined him in the 
 Castle of Transnitz, in the upper Palatinate. 
 The troubles of Louis were not yet ended, 
 however, for Duke Leopc^d, the brother of 
 Frederick, and a number of other princes, 
 continued the war, refusing to accept their 
 defeat as final. They were greatly encour- 
 aged by the sanction of their cause by Pope 
 John XXII., who had quarrelled with 
 Louis because he had assumed the title of 
 King of the Romans without the papal 
 sanction. Louis haughtily answered that 
 he owed this dignity to the electors and not 
 to the pope. The pope thereupon excom- 
 municated him, and placed all those parts 
 of Germany that supported him under an 
 interdict. Louis, anxious to restore peace 
 to the country, gave Frederick his liberty 
 in 1325, upon the promise of that prince to 
 resign all claim to the crown. Duke Leo- 
 pold and the pope refused to be bound by this 
 promise, but Frederick remained faithful 
 to it. In September, 1325, Louis and Fred- 
 erick agreed to reign conjointly. Frederick 
 took little interest in public affairs, how- 
 ever, and died in 1330, leaving Louis IV. 
 sole king. 
 
 In 1327 Louis went to Italy to secure the 
 Italian and imperial crowns. The events 
 of his visit have already been related. He 
 remained there for three years. He was 
 crowned emperor at Rome by two excom- 
 municated bishops, and finally by an anti- 
 pope, called Nicolas V., set up by him in 
 the place of John XXII., whom he declared 
 deposed. Notwithstanding this act, Louis 
 endeavored to effect a reconciliation with 
 Pope John and with Benedict XII., his 
 successor. It was the policy of France to 
 keep the empire weak and divided, and as 
 the popes were, while at Avignon, merely 
 the tools of the French kings, Louis' efforts 
 were unavailing. Had he been a great 
 sovereign, the hostility of the pontiff would 
 not have occasioned him any trouble, for 
 the Germans were prepared to support him 
 in spite of the pope, whose interference in 
 their affairs they had learned to dread. 
 The cities were especially hostile to the pon- 
 tiff, who was thus deprived of the popular 
 
 sympathy and support which had made his 
 predecessors strong in Germany against 
 Henry IV. and Frederick II. At the 
 diet which was held at Frankfort in 1338, 
 the states sustained the cause of the em- 
 peror against the {)ope. The electors met 
 at Reuse, on the Rhine, and all, with 
 the exception of King John of Bohemia, 
 who was jealous of the house of Bavaria, 
 and a bitter enemy of Louis, united in a 
 solemn declaration that tlie Emperor or 
 King of the Romans derived his power and 
 title solely from the choice of the electoral 
 princes, and not in any sense from the pope. 
 This declaration, being accepted by the 
 diet and proclaimed by the emperor, be- 
 came a part of the law of the laud. It was 
 of the highest importance, as it established 
 by law the independence of the empire. 
 
 Louis now occupied the most favorable 
 position that an emperor had held for many 
 reigns. The whole nation was ready to 
 sustain him, and the conflict between the 
 empire and the pa2:)acy seemed on the point 
 of resulting in favor of the former. The 
 folly of the emperor now cost him all that 
 his prudence had won for him. His desire 
 to increase the wealth and power of his own 
 family led him to disregard the rights of 
 others. He had made his son Louis Mar- 
 grave of Brandenburg in 1323, and he was 
 anxious to bestow the Tyrol upon him also. 
 He could not legally do this, as the Tyrol 
 belonged to Margaret Maultasch, who was 
 already married to a son of King John of 
 Bohemia. Louis did not hesitate, however, 
 to dissolve this union, and to grant Mar- 
 garet a dispensation to marry his son Louis. 
 Now marriage in all Catholic countries is 
 regarded as a sacrament, and the pope 
 alone can dissolve it, or grant a dispensation 
 for a second marriage during the life of a 
 first partner. Louis in attacking a right 
 which all regarded as vested solely in the 
 pope, shocked the consciences of his sub- 
 jects, and alienated many of his best 
 friends. His open efforts to enrich his own 
 family aroused the jealousy of the nobles. 
 This feeling was increased when, upon the 
 death of William IV. of Holland, Louis 
 gave the counties of Holland, Seeland, and 
 Hennegan in fief to his own son William. 
 The electors at their meeting in 1344 gave 
 significant utterance of their discontent. 
 In 1346 Pope Clement VI. pronounced 
 the deposition of the emperor. Louis had 
 so thoroughly alienated his people that the 
 electors gladly seized upon this action of the 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 543 
 
 pope as a pretext to rid themselves of a dis- 
 tasteful sovereign. They accordingly elected 
 Charles, Margrave of Moravia, a son of King 
 John of Bohemia, to the German throne. 
 Louis refused to submit, and prepared to 
 maintain his claim to the throne, but died 
 suddenly in 1347. 
 
 Until the reign of Louis IV. the German 
 kings had usually given up their hereditary 
 lands upon receiving the crown. Louis re- 
 tained his lands, and his course was adopted 
 by all his successors, for the reason that the 
 revenues of the German kingdom being in- 
 sufficient to maintain the royal dignity, the 
 kings were obliged to depend upon their 
 private resources. The effect of this change 
 was bad, as it made the king more careful 
 of his own immediate possessions than of 
 the kingdom at large. 
 
 In the reign of Louis IV. occurred a 
 series of events which were destined to ex- 
 ercise considerable influence upon the future 
 history of Germany and of Europe. Lying 
 in the Alpine districts on the borders of 
 Germany, Burgundy, and Italy, Avere three 
 small states called TJri, Schwyz, and Unter- 
 walden. They were German-speaking mem- 
 bers of the empire, but had always main- 
 tained their freedom, paying allegiance to 
 none but the emperor or king. Like many 
 other districts of the empire, these three 
 forest states formed a league for their 
 mutual protection. This league doubtless 
 existed from a very early time, but the 
 earliest written compact between them is 
 dated August 1st, 1291. The Counts of 
 Hapsburg held large estates within their 
 limits, and proved themselves dangerous 
 and troublesome neighbors. When these 
 nobles became Dukes of Austria they began 
 to seek to extend their authority over the 
 whole district. Early in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury their aggressions became so marked that 
 a more determined resistance was inaugurated 
 by the cantons. In 1308 three of the lead- 
 ing men, one from each canton, met by 
 agreement at Riitli, and swore under the 
 open heaven to live and die for the defence 
 of their country. Each chose ten associates 
 from his own canton, and the thirty-three 
 repeated the oath of freedom, and then be- 
 gan to prepare the people for resistance. 
 Albert, Duke of Austria, was then King of 
 Germany, and had for some years been 
 using his great power to complete the sub- 
 jection of the cantons to his authority. His 
 oppressive measures now drove the moun- 
 taineers to desperation, and they seized all 
 
 his bailiffs and officers, and drove them from 
 the country. Albert at once marched against 
 them, but was slain on his march. His son 
 Leopold, who succeeded him as Duke of 
 Austria, marched into the mountains and 
 inflicted a terrible punishment upon the 
 peasants. This aroused the cantons to a 
 determined resistance, and in 1315 Leopold 
 took the field against them. He was over- 
 whelmingly defeated in November of that 
 year by a few hundred mountaineers in the 
 narrow pa?s of Morgarten. The flower of 
 the Austrian nobility perished in this battle, 
 and the duke himself escaped with difficulty. 
 The forest cantons from this time maintained 
 their position as distinct members of the 
 empire. Henry VII. and Louis IV. showed 
 the league great favor, and secured it 
 against a renewal of the efforts of Austria. 
 During the reign of Louis it was joined by 
 the city of Luzerne ; and soon after his 
 death the cities of Zurich, Zug, Glarus, and 
 Berne joined it in the order named. The 
 league, thus strengthened, increased its 
 power by seizing or buying, whenever occa- 
 sion oflered, the lands of the neighboring 
 nobles. The confederacy took the name of 
 the " Old League of High Germany ; " and 
 its members were known as Eidgenossen, 
 or " Confederates." By degrees the name 
 which properly belonged to the canton of 
 Schwyz spread over the whole country, 
 which came in course of time to be called 
 Switzerland, the people being known as 
 Swiss. 
 
 The election of Charles IV. to the Ger- 
 man throne was not accepted at first by 
 Bavaria, but after some ineffectual efforts 
 to set up another king, the Bavarians ceased 
 their opposition, and in 1349 Charles was 
 left without a rival. He was then crowned 
 king a second time, at Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
 in 1355 went to Rome and was crowned 
 emperor. Ten years later he was crowned 
 King of Burgundy, at Aries, 1365. Soon 
 after his reign began Germany was afflicted 
 with the terrible plague which we have seen 
 ravaging Italy. It broke out in 1349, and 
 swept away hundreds of thousands in a 
 short time. The Jews were popularly be- 
 lieved to have caused it by poisoning the 
 springs and rivers, and were butchered in 
 great numbers by the ignorant and fanati- 
 cal people. The king and the church were 
 obliged to take severe measures to compel 
 the multitude to cease their persecution of 
 the unoffending Jews. 
 
 As King of Bohemia, Charles was a good 
 
544 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 sovereign to his own people. He greatly 
 increased the territories of that crown. His 
 wife brought hira the upper Palatinate as 
 her dowry, and he united all Silesia and 
 lower Lusatia to Bohemia, together with 
 the mark of Brandenburg, which he gained 
 from the house of Bavaria. Under his vig- 
 orous rule Bohemia flourished as she had 
 never done before. He made Prague, the 
 capital of the kingdom, a splendid city, and 
 founded a university there which soon be- 
 came famous throughout Europe. As a 
 German king and emperor, he deserves no 
 praise. He neglected the empire and low- 
 ered the imperial authority iu both Ger- 
 many and Italy in order to further his 
 private interests. He sold the few remain- 
 ing lands of the crown, and sold honors, 
 titles, and privileges of all kinds for money 
 to the highest bidder. In 1356 he granted 
 a charter known as the Golden Bull, which 
 definitely fixed the manner of electing the 
 German king. He made the number of 
 electors seven. Of these the King of Bo- 
 hemia was declared the first secular elector. 
 The Archbishop of Mayence was made con- 
 vener of the electoral college, which was to 
 meet at Frankfort. The king was to be 
 chosen by a majority of the electoral votes, 
 and was to be crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 The electors were placed beyond the au- 
 thority of the German crown by being de- 
 clared absolute sovereigns within their own 
 territories. Unless they refused to dispense 
 justice, there was to be no appeal from their 
 courts. Their persons were declared sacred. 
 Thus the authority of the German crown 
 was almost entirely destroyed ; iu future the 
 German sovereign was to be little more than 
 a mere figure-head of the state, the princes 
 of the empire being thus made more power- 
 ful than the sovereign himself. 
 
 In 1378 Charles IV. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Wenceslaus, who had 
 been chosen King of the Romans by the 
 electors, in 1376. Wenceslaus was a bad 
 sovereign to both Bohemia and Germany. 
 His nature was coarse, his temper savagely 
 cruel, and he was addicted to low pleasures. 
 He neglected Germany to such an extent 
 that the country fell into a confusion nearly 
 equal to that which prevailed during the 
 Interregnum. The nobles became utterly 
 lawless, and the towns, in order to defend 
 themselves against them, were compelled to 
 form leagues similar to those of the Swiss 
 confederates and the Rhenish and Hanse 
 towns. Sometimes nobles were found among 
 
 the members of these leagues, but as a rule 
 they formed societies hostile to the towns. 
 Prominent among these were the societies 
 of St. George, St. William, the Lion, and 
 the Panther. Had Wenceslaus been a 
 great king he might, by placing himself at 
 the head of the leagues of the towns, have 
 won back many of the lost privileges of the 
 German crown, and have re-established the 
 royal authority upon a more enduring 
 basis ; but he cared nothing for Germany, 
 and was too indolent to make the attempt. 
 During this time Austria had been grow- 
 ing rapidly in strength and importance. 
 In 1335 Cai'inthia was added to it, and in 
 1369 the Tyrol, which had been bequeathed 
 to him by Margaret Maultasch, passed into 
 the hands of the Austrian duke. These 
 countries were always after this a part of 
 the Austrian dominions. The reigning 
 duke, Leopold, the nephew of him who had 
 fought at Morgarten, now resolved to take 
 advantage of the confusion prevailing in 
 Germany to conquer the Swiss, who had 
 received into their league some towns which 
 owed him allegiance. He was joined by a 
 number of princes and nobles who were 
 jealous of the growing power of the league. 
 Leopold marched into Switzerland at the 
 head of several thousand splendidly armed 
 troops, many of whom were knights. The 
 confederates, 1,400 in number, were posted 
 on the heights of Sempach. Finding it 
 impossible for his horsemen to force the 
 narrow mountain pass, the Austrian duke 
 ordered his knights to dismount and storm 
 it on foot. They were rapidly enclosing 
 the confederates with a living wall of steel, 
 when one of the Swiss leaders, Arnold von 
 Winkelreid, resolved by the sacrifice of his 
 own life to save his country. Throwing 
 himself upon the Austrian line with all his 
 force, and crying, " I will open a way to 
 liberty," he seized as many spears as he 
 could gather within his arms, and received 
 them in his breast, and fell dead. This 
 bold action shook the Austrian front at this 
 point, and the Swiss made an impetuous 
 charge upon the gap opened by their heroic 
 countryman. The movement was successful. 
 The Austrian line was broken and thrown 
 into confusion, and a glorious victory fol- 
 lowed for the patriots. Upwards of 650 
 nobles, and several thousand men-at-arms 
 lay dead upon the field, Leopold himself 
 being among the slain, A. D. 1386. Two 
 years later, the people of Glarus won 
 another victory over the Austrians at Na- 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 545 
 
 I'els. These victories compelled Austria to 
 respect the independence of the Swiss states, 
 which were also allowed to retain the towns 
 that had voluntarily joined their league. 
 
 Weuceslaus proved so bad a king that in 
 1400 the electors deposed him. They were 
 instigated to this action by Boniface IX., 
 one of the two rival popes who at this time 
 divided Christendom. \V'euceslau3 wished 
 to depose both pontiffs, and Boniface struck 
 this decisive blow at hitn in retaliation. 
 The electors chose as the 
 successor of Wenceslaus, 
 Rupert of the Palatinate, 
 a prince in every way wor- 
 thy of the honor. Wences- 
 laus was still supported by 
 a strong party, and the 
 friends of Rupert failed to 
 render him proper assist- 
 ance, consequently he was 
 king in but little more than 
 name. He died in 1410. 
 
 The electors were now 
 divided between two can- 
 didates for the throne. One 
 party chose Jobst, Mar- 
 grave of Moravia, and the 
 other Siegmund, or Sigis- 
 mund, Margrave of Bran- 
 denburg and King of Hun- 
 gary. Siegmund was also 
 a brother of Wenceslaus. 
 Jobst died soon after, and 
 at a new election, Siegmund 
 was unanimously chosen. 
 He had shown some good 
 qualities, and great hopes 
 were entertained of him by 
 the Germans, but as we shall 
 see, he disappointed all 
 these expectations. When 
 Siegmund came to the 
 throne the schism in the 
 Roman Church was at its 
 height. Three popes di- 
 vided the allegiance of Christendom, and 
 as a natural consequence in the struggle 
 between them many abuses and a great 
 deal of corruption 'crept into the church. 
 The practice of simony was revived, 
 and the moral character of the priests 
 was at the lowest ebb. A general council 
 had met at Pisa in 1409, but had failed to 
 accomplish anything, and Siegmund in- 
 duced Pope John XXHI. to assist him in 
 summoning another, which he meant should 
 put an end to the divisions in the church. 
 35 
 
 This council met at Constance, in 1414, and 
 remained in session until 1418, and put an 
 end to the schism by deposing all three of 
 the rival popes and electing another, Mar- 
 tin v., who was universally acknowledged 
 pope. Siegmund took an important part 
 in the labors of the council. When Pope 
 John XXIII., after promising to resign, fled 
 from Constance to Schatfhausen in Switzer- 
 land, and took refuge in the castle of the 
 Duke of Austria, Siegmund put the Duke 
 
 JOHN HUSS LECTUKING IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PRAGUE. 
 
 Frederick to the ban of the empire, and 
 ordered the Swiss confederates to make war 
 on him. Berne at once attacked her old 
 enemy, and was soon joined by the other 
 cantons. Frederick was obliged to make 
 peace, and Siegmund restored the bulk of 
 his estates to him. The Swiss refused to 
 surrender what they had conquered. Among 
 their conquests was Aargau, in Avhich was 
 located the Castle of Hapshurg, the heredi- 
 tary seat of the Austrian dukes. 
 
 The Council of Constance was also the 
 
546 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 occasion of displaying the weakness of 
 Siegmund's character, and of covering his 
 memory with deserved infamy. A strong 
 party had grown up in Bohemia, which de- 
 nied many of the doctrines of the church. 
 It began in the university of Prague, which 
 was divided into four nations — the Bohe- 
 mian, the Saxon, the Bavarian, and tlie 
 Polish. Each nation possessed one vote in 
 the management of the affairs of the uni- 
 versity. The writings of the English re- 
 former, John Wycliffe, had been brought 
 to Prague in the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century, and his views had been adopted 
 by John Huss, a professor of philosophy in 
 the university. Through the teachings of 
 Huss, the views of Wycliffe were generally 
 accepted by the Bohemians, whose acknowl- 
 edged leader Huss became. The other na- 
 tions rejected these views, and many dis- 
 putes, marked by a growing anger, ensued 
 between them and the Bohemians. In 
 1409 Wenceslaus, who was still King of 
 Bohemia, though he had lost the German 
 crown, changed the constitution of the uni- 
 versity, giving three votes to the Bohemian 
 nation and only one to the others. This 
 arbitraiy action caused the withdrawal of 
 the German students and professors, nearly 
 all of whom went to the university recently 
 founded at Leipzig. The reformers were 
 now supreme at Prague, and Huss was 
 made rector of the university. He assumed 
 a bolder tone, and began to condemn in 
 stronger terms the abuses of the church and 
 the doctrines which he held to be erroneous. 
 His boldaess drew upon him the hatred of 
 the clergy, but in spite of this he went on 
 with his teaching and grew bolder in his 
 denunciations of the errors of the church. 
 At length the pope excommunicated him, 
 and placed the city of Prague under an 
 interdict until it should consent to expel him. 
 The Bohemians, however, refused to expel 
 him, for he not only taught them what they re- 
 garded as a purer faith than that of Rome, 
 but his principles were fast arousing in 
 them a national spirit, which all men saw 
 would sooner or later result in the political 
 independence of the state, if not checked. 
 When the Council of Constance assembled, 
 Huss was summoned to appear before it to 
 answer to the charge of heresy. Siegmund 
 gave him a safe conduct to go and return 
 from Constance, and in opposition to the 
 wishes of his friends, Huss set out for that 
 place, meeting everywhere along the route 
 with evidences of the sympathy of the peo- 
 
 ple. When he reached Constance, the pope 
 received him graciously. "If John Huss 
 had slain my own brother," said the pope, 
 " I would not permit, as far as is in my power, 
 any harm to be done to him in Constance." 
 A few days after this Huss was seized and 
 thrown into prison. He was examined by 
 the council, but refused to recant his doc- 
 trines, and was burned at the stake on the 
 6th of July, 1415. The emperor, in spite 
 of his solemn promise of safety to the mar- 
 tyr, made no effort to save him. He was 
 no doubt willing that the reformer, whose 
 teachings tended to separate Bohemia from 
 the empire, should be put to death. In 
 1416 the council found another victim in 
 Jerome of Prague, who had first brought 
 Wycliffe's writings into Bohemia. He was 
 burned at Constance. 
 
 The martyrdom of Huss and Jerome 
 aroused a fierce storm of indignation in 
 Bohemia. This feeling Avas deepened into 
 hatred by the efforts of the council and of 
 Pope Martin V. to suppress the heresy of 
 the Bohemians, as they termed the religious 
 views which had been taught by Huss. In 
 1419 Wenceslaus died, and Siegmund 
 claimed the Bohemian crown. Instead of 
 seeking to conciliate the Hussites, he ar- 
 rayed them in a determined body in oppo- 
 sition to him by ordering a general crusade 
 against them. War broke out at once, and 
 lasted for fifteen years. It was one of the 
 fiercest struggles known to history, and 
 caused great suffering to the country. The 
 first leader of the Hussites was John Zisca, 
 one of the ablest generals of any age. He 
 lost his eyesight during the war, but his 
 followers retained their confidence in him, 
 and he led them from victory to victory. 
 He died in 1424, but was succeeded by 
 Procopius, a blind priest, who proved an 
 equally formidable enemy to the empire 
 and the Roman Church. Driving back 
 the armies which sought to conquer Bohe- 
 mia, the Hussites invaded the adjoining 
 states of Germany, and laid the country 
 waste. Siegmund, finding that force was 
 useless, undertook to negotiate with the 
 Hussites, and his action was sustained by 
 the Council of Basle, which met in 1431. 
 The Hussites were now divided into two 
 parties — the Calixtines, also called Utra- 
 quists, who were willing to return to the 
 church upon being allowed to receive the 
 cup in the Lord's supper, and the Taborites, 
 who desired a total separation from the 
 church. The Calixtines, being granted 
 
FR03I THE REIGN OF CONRAD HI. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 547 
 
 their demand, returned to the church in 
 1438, and the Taboritcs, regarding this 
 action as treachery to the general cause, 
 attacked their former associates, but were 
 decisively defeated near Prague in 1434. 
 Siegraund then ratified the agreement that 
 had been made between the council and the 
 Calixtiues, and was acknowledged as King 
 of Bohemia. He did not maintain his com- 
 pact, for upon being crowned he sought to 
 put down the Calixtines and restore the 
 Roman worship. In 1433 Siegmund was 
 crowned emperor. He died in 1437. In 
 1 41 5 Frederick, Landgrave of Hoheuzollern, 
 bought of the king the mark of Branden- 
 burg. He received the electoral dignity 
 with his new dominions. Brandenburg ever 
 afterwards remained in possession of the Ho- 
 henzollern family. 
 
 Siegmund Avas succeeded as King of Bo- 
 hemia and Hungary by his son-in-law Al- 
 bert, Duke of Austria. ' In 1438 Albert II. 
 Avas chosen King of the Romans, and from 
 his reign until the failure of the male line 
 the house of Austria held the imperial 
 throne without intermission. His brief 
 reign of two years was marked by wisdom 
 and prudence. He died suddenly in a 
 campaign against the Turks in 1439. 
 
 Upon the death of Albert the Duke of 
 Styria was chosen king, as Frederick III. 
 He was a man of gravity and thoughtful- 
 ness, but he lacked energy. The revenues 
 of the German crown were too small to 
 allow him to act Avith decision in anything, 
 and the various states comprising the em- 
 pire looked coldly upon any measure Avhich 
 did not directly affect themselves. He 
 supported Pope Eugenius IV. in his quar- 
 rel Avith the Council of Basle, while the 
 German states upheld the council. A 
 quarrel soon broke out between the pope 
 and the electors, and Frederick, Avith the 
 aid of his secretary, ^neas Sylvius, had the 
 good fortune to reconcile the German princes 
 with the pope. His friendship for Pope 
 Nicolas V. induced him to conclude with 
 that pontiff the concordat of Vienna, by 
 Avhich the pope received back nearly all the 
 poAvers he had been stripped of by the 
 Council of Basle. Frederick hoped by this 
 friendship to win back some of the lost 
 authority of the German croAvn ; but it Avas 
 too late. The princes of the empire had 
 advanced too far on the road to practical 
 independence to be turned back, and the 
 alliance between the German king and the 
 pope, Avhich would have accomplished such 
 
 great results in the time of the last king of 
 this name, was now poAverless to effect 
 anything of importance for either party. 
 
 In 1452 Frederick Avas crowned Emperor 
 at Rome. He Avas the last emperor crowned 
 at Rome, and the last but one who received 
 the crown from the pope. Upon ascending 
 the imperial throne he confirmed to the 
 house of Austria the title of archduke, and 
 granted to it many privileges, raising the 
 archdukes to a dignity second only to that 
 of the electors. Frederick Avas very anxious 
 to join in the crusade proclaimed by the 
 pope against the Turks, AA'ho had taken 
 Constantinople, and Avere threatening Ger- 
 many. The German states, hoAvever, Avere 
 unwilling to sustain the emperor in this 
 effort. They were not only skeptical as to 
 the danger from the Turks, but Avere fearful 
 of the alliance between the emperor and the 
 pope, and did not Avish to strengthen it. 
 The task of driving back the Turks thus 
 fell upon the Poles and Hungarians. In 1456 
 the Turks, Avho had laid siege to Belgrade, 
 Avere driA^en back by the Hungarians under 
 the command of their regent, John Huniades. 
 
 In 1457 Ladislaus, Avho had succeeded 
 his father Albert II. as Duke of Austria 
 and as King of Hungary and Bohemia, 
 died. Frederick attempted to seize the 
 Austrian dominions, but was obliged to 
 yield upper Austria to his brother Albert, 
 and was left Avith lower Austria alone. To 
 atone for this disap2:)ointment, he then tried 
 to possess himself of the crowns of Bohemia 
 and Hungary, but fiiiled in each attempt. 
 The Bohemians bestowed their croAvn upon 
 George Podiebrad, Avho had already ruled 
 the kingdom as regent ; and Matthias Cor- 
 vinus, son of John Huniades, Avas elected 
 King of Hungary, Frederick's efforts to 
 oppose these elections were in vain, and he 
 Avas ultimately compelled to recognize both 
 these sovereigns. Even in lower Austria 
 he had great difficulty in preserving his 
 crown. In 1462 the people of Vienna re- 
 belled against him, and Avere assisted by 
 Albert, the emperor's brother. Frederick 
 Avas compelled to surrender lower Austria, 
 Avith Vienna, to his brother for eight years. 
 Albert, Avho soon became as unpopular as 
 Frederick himself, died in 1463, and by his 
 death Frederick came into possession of all 
 the Austrian lands except the Tyrol. The 
 poAver of the German croAvn had sunk so 
 loAV that the emperor Avas unable to enforce 
 his commands, and his interference in Ger- 
 man affairs simply produced trouble Avithout 
 
548 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 his being able to accomplish anything for 
 himself or for the country. Consequently 
 his reign is marked by numerous internal 
 wars which caused great suffering to the 
 German people. In 1471 George Podie- 
 brad, King of Bohemia, died, and Frederick 
 again attempted to obtain the crown of that 
 country. The Bohemian states elected 
 Ladislaus, the son of Casimir IV., King of 
 Poland. Frederick and Pope Paul II. in- 
 duced Matthias Corvinus, King of Hun- 
 gary, to attack Bohemia, but then, growing 
 jealous of the great power of the Hungarian 
 king, Frederick turned against him and 
 transferred his assistance to Ladislaus. 
 Matthias overran Austria, and forced the 
 emperor to fly from Vienna. He kept pos- 
 session of Austria until his death in 1490, 
 when Frederick recovered his estate, and 
 renewed his effort to become King of Hun- 
 gary. Failing in this he sought to obtain 
 the Hungarian crown for his son Maxi- 
 milian, but the Hungarians, jealous of 
 Austria, bestowed their crown upon Ladis- 
 laus, King of Bohemia. In 1493 Fred- 
 erick died, after a reign of over fifty-three 
 years. Some time previous to this he had 
 relinquished the government of both Aus- 
 tria and Germany to his son Maximilian, 
 who had been elected German king in 
 1486. 
 
 During the reign of Frederick, the Eid- 
 genossen, or Swiss confederates, made a 
 rapid advance in power and importance. 
 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, was 
 one of the wealthiest and most powerful 
 princes of the time. He was lord not only 
 of the duchy of Burgundy, but also of the 
 free county of Burgundy, and the greater 
 part of the Low Countries. Not satisfied 
 with these dominions, he wished to found 
 such a kingdom as the old Lotharingia by 
 securing the entire region between France 
 and Germany, between the North Sea and 
 the Mediterranean. In 1476 he became 
 involved in a war with Switzerland, the 
 quarrel between the two states having been 
 fomented by Louis XI. of France. The 
 Swiss, who now began to be called altogether 
 by this name, fought with more than their 
 accustomed bravery in this struggle, and 
 inflicted two crushing defeats upon Charles, 
 one at Morat and the other at Granson, in 
 1477. A few mouths later Charles went to 
 war with the Duke of Lorraine, who, with 
 the aid of the Swiss, defeated him in the 
 battle of Nancy, in which Charles was 
 slain. These great victories raised the re- 
 
 nown of the Swiss to a high pitch, and 
 though they still remained a part of the em- 
 pire did much towards arousing in them a 
 feeling of national life. 
 
 Maximilian I. was a man of greater 
 daring and ability than his father. During 
 the life of Frederick III. there had been 
 negotiations for the marriage of Maximilian 
 with Mary, the daughter of Charles the 
 Bold of Burgundy, but they had been 
 broken off. Upon the death of Charles, 
 Mary bestowed her hand, of her own will, 
 upon Maximilian, and thus brought him 
 the rich inheritance of the Low Countries and 
 the free county of Burgundy. The duchy 
 of Burgundy had been seized by the King 
 of France, who claimed it as a lapsed fief, 
 at the death of Charles the Bold without 
 male heirs. In 1482 Mary died, leaving 
 two children, Philip and Margaret. Philip 
 was heir to the territories of his mother, but 
 during his minority these were ruled by 
 Maximilian, who was also master in his 
 own right of all the possessions of the 
 Austrian crown, and Duke of Styria, Ca- 
 rinthia, and Carniola, and Count of Tyrol. 
 He was thus one of the most powerful sov- 
 ereigns that had ruled Germany for many 
 years. 
 
 When Charles VIII. of France invaded 
 Italy in 1494, Maximilian, who feared that 
 the French king was aiming at the imperial 
 crown, was anxious to oppose him. In 
 order to secure the assistance of the Ger- 
 man states he summoned a diet, which met 
 at Worms in 1495. This famous diet struck 
 a death-blow to the private wars that had 
 cursed Germany for so long. A perpetual 
 joublic peace was proclaimed, and it was 
 declared that no one possessed the right to 
 levy war on his own account. The German 
 princes urged the king to create a tribunal 
 by which all the quarrels that had formerly 
 been settled by arras might be tried, and 
 though Maximilian was greatly averse to 
 surrendering any of his royal rights, yet 
 with the hope of securing the aid of the diet 
 against the King of France, he consented 
 to the formation of a court called the Im- 
 perial Chamber, which was to consist of a 
 judge and sixteen assessors, the judge to be 
 appointed by the king, and the assessors by 
 the German states, and confirmed by the 
 king. Persons refusing to submit to the 
 jurisdiction of the court were to be put by 
 it to the ban of the empire. Provision was 
 made for the expenses of the court by the 
 assessment of a common tax upon all Ger- 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF CONRAD III. TO ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 549 
 
 many. Maximilian was always hostile to 
 this court, and threw every obstacle in its 
 way. It continued to exist until the close 
 of the empire, but without possessing much 
 real power or doing much good. The Swiss 
 league refused from the first to submit to 
 
 practically independent from the time of 
 this treaty. 
 
 Finding himself unable to accomplish 
 much at home, Maximilian I. attempted to 
 interfere in the afiairs of other countries. 
 In 1508 he was about to march to Rome to 
 
 the Imperial Chamber, and also offended be crowned emperor, when he was stopped 
 Maximilian by aiding the French in their by the Venetians, who refused to allow him 
 
 MAXIMILIAN I., EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 
 
 attempts to conquer Italy. In 1499 Maxi- 
 milian made war upon them, but was de- 
 feated, and was obliged to conclude a peace, 
 by which he acknowledged the exemption 
 of the Swiss from imperial taxation and 
 from the jurisdiction of the Imperial 
 Chamber. The league remained nominally 
 a part of the empire for a century and a 
 half, though these concessions made it 
 
 to pass through their territory. With the 
 sanction of Pope Julius II. Maximilian 
 took the title of " emperor-elect " without 
 being crowned at all. He also took the 
 title of " King of Germany," which none 
 of his predecessors had assumed. After 
 him, however, these titles were borne by all 
 the German kings. 
 
 The refusal of the Venetians to allow him 
 
550 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to pass through their territory earned for 
 them the bitter hatred of the emperor, and 
 in 1508 he very readily joined the League 
 of Cambray, with what result we have al- 
 ready stated. He also joined the Holy 
 League against Louis XII. of France. On 
 the whole, the emj^teror was as unsuccessful 
 in his foreign as in his domestic wars. The 
 German states were convinced that their 
 great need was peace and not war, and by 
 refusing Maximilian men or money ren- 
 dered him powerless to embroil them very 
 deeply with other nations. The revenues of 
 his hereditary estates, on which he was forced 
 to depend, did not permit him to carry 
 on very costly wars, and his extravagant 
 and luxurious habits of themselves sub- 
 jected his finances to a very great strain. He 
 was often so much reduced in purse that in 
 order to obtain money he descended to acts 
 unworthy of his august position, as when 
 for one hundred crowns a day he served in 
 the army of Henry VIII. of England at 
 the siege of Terouenne. He professed to 
 be very auxious to lead a crusade against 
 the Turks, but the states, distrusting both 
 him and the pope who supported him, 
 refused to grant him any assistance. 
 
 In 1501 the plan which had been at- 
 tempted by Albert II., of dividing Ger- 
 many into Circles, for the better administra- 
 tion of justice, was carried through success- 
 fully, and the Circles of Bavaria, Suabia, 
 Franconia, the upper Rhine, Westphalia, 
 and lower Saxony, were formed. In 1512 
 the four new Circles of Austria, Burgundy, 
 the lower Rhine, and upper Saxony were 
 formed out of the hereditary dominions of 
 Maximilian and the electoral princes which 
 had been omitted from the first division. 
 Thus Germany was divided into ten circles, 
 each of which had its own states, or legisla- 
 tive assembly, which was presided over by 
 one or more directors. The government of 
 a circle was charged with the duty of carry- 
 ing out the decisions of the Imperial Cham- 
 ber, and was required to maintain order 
 within its dominions. It took some years 
 for this new system to get into operation, 
 and even then its results fell far below the 
 expectations of its founders, though it was 
 a vast improvement upon the lawlessness 
 of the past century. In his own dominions 
 Maximilian ruled well, and inaugurated a 
 number of useful reforms. Among these 
 was the establishment of the tribunal which 
 afterwards became known as the Aulic 
 Council. It was charged with the duty of 
 
 hearing appeals from lower courts, and in 
 the end became a court of appeal for all 
 Germany. Maximilian at one time cher- 
 ished the hope of exchanging the imperial 
 crown for the tiara. To raise funds to bribe 
 the cardinals he even pawned the archducal 
 mantle of Austria. " To-morrow," he wrote 
 to his daughter Margaret, " I shall send a 
 bishop to the pope, to conclude an agree- 
 ment with him that I may be appointed his 
 coadjutor, and on his death succeed to the 
 papacy, that you may be bound to worship 
 me — at which I shall be very proud." He 
 held a diet at Augsburg in 1518, and 
 exerted himself to induce the states to aid 
 him in a crusade against the Turks, but 
 failed, and tried, with a similar lack of suc- 
 cess, to secure the election of his grandson 
 Charles to the German crown. On his way 
 home from this diet, he died at Wels, in 
 upper Austria. 
 
 The power of the emperors had under- 
 gone a considerable change in its character 
 in the last two centuries. They did not de- 
 rive it from their position as German sov- 
 ereign, but from their hereditary wealth 
 and influence. The authority of Maximilian 
 and his successors was uncertain in Ger- 
 many, though they were supreme in their 
 hereditary domains. Charles V. was the 
 most powerful ruler of Europe, but it was 
 not as emperor, but as King of Spain, Arch- 
 duke of Austria, Duke of Milan, and Lord 
 of the Low Countries. The various princes 
 of the empire had become practically inde- 
 pendent by the reign of Maximilian, and 
 each country had its states, or legislative 
 body, which was modelled after the diet of 
 the empire. These states had the sole 
 power of levying taxes and granting funds 
 to their rulers, and in some cases required 
 them to give an account of the manner in 
 which these funds were used. They gen- 
 erally resisted the efforts of the Austrian 
 emperors to drag them into foreign wars, as 
 they saw that these contests were for the 
 benefit of Austria rather than of Germany. 
 Many of the imperial cities had become 
 free, and had acquired such power that they 
 wei'e able to maintain their rights against 
 the greatest princes. Their representatives 
 formed the third college in the imperial diet. 
 The Hanseatic League was at the height 
 of its power during this century. The 
 government of the cities was contested by 
 the Patricians, or old families, who formed 
 a distinct class, and the Gilds, or unions of 
 the various trades. In many cities the Gilds 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 551 
 
 were supreme, and in such places the char- 
 acter of the government was democratic. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 the reformation and the thirty 
 years' war. 
 
 Charles I. of Spain Become!? Emperor of Germany — 
 Rise and Growth of the Reformation in Germany 
 — The Sale of Indulgences — Martin Luther — His 
 Early Life — Opposes the Sale of Indulgences — 
 Luther Before Cardinal Cajetanus — Burns the 
 Pope's Bull — Luther at the Diet at Worms — Ac- 
 tion of the Diet — The Emperor's Hostility to the 
 Reformation — The Reformation in Switzerland — 
 Luther's Bible — Outbreaks in Germany — Marriage 
 of Luther — Spread of the Reformation in Germany 
 — The Diet at Spires — The Protestants — Albert of 
 Brandenburg Founds the Duchy of Prussia — The 
 Archduke of Austria Becomes King of Hungary 
 and Bohemia — Return of the Emperor Charles to 
 Germany — The Diet at Augsburg — The Augsburg 
 Confession — Action of the Diet — The League of 
 Smalcald— The "Religious Peace" — North Ger- 
 many Becomes Protestant — The Council of Trent 
 — Alliance Between the Emperor and the Pope — 
 The Emperor Makes War upon the Lutherans — 
 Death of Luther — The Smalcaldic War — Triumph 
 of the Emperor — The Interim — Rebellion of the 
 Elector of Saxony — Henry II. of France Seizes 
 Lorraine — Flight of the Emperor — The Treaty of 
 Passau — The Religious Peace of Augsburg — Abdi- 
 cation and Death of Charles V. — Ferdinand I. 
 Emperor— Tries to Conciliate the Protestants — His 
 Death — Maximilian II. Emperor — Spread of Prot- 
 estantism in Germany — Rudolph II. Emperor — 
 His Weakness — Persecutes the Protestants — The 
 Protestant Union and the Catholic League — The 
 Letter of Majesty — Matthias Emperor — Ferdinand 
 of Styria Made his Coadjutor — Tyranny of Ferdi- 
 nand — Disturbances in Bohemia — Commencement 
 of the Thirty Years' War — Death of Matthias — 
 Frederick V., Elector Palatine, Chosen King of 
 Bohemia — Ferdinand II. Emperor — Frederick 
 Driven from Bohemia — Ferdinand Exterminates 
 the Bohemian Protestants — The Peasants' War- — 
 The Palatinate Ravaged — Heidelberg Destroyed — 
 The War Renewed — Wallenstein in Command of 
 the Imperial Army— His Victories— The Edict of 
 Restitution — Wallenstein Dismissed — Gustavus 
 Adolphus Enters Germany to Aid the Protestants 
 —Defeats Tilly Twice— Occupies Munich-- Wal- 
 lenstein Recalled— Battle of Lutzen— Death of 
 Gustavus— Congress of Heilbronn — Murder of 
 Wallenstein— Progress of the War— Battle of 
 Nordlingen— Treaty Between Richelieu andOxen- 
 stiern— Death of Ferdinand II.— The War Goes 
 on — Victories of the Swedes — The Peace of West- 
 phalia—Results of the AVar— Sufferings of Ger- 
 many During the Struggle. 
 
 )HREE candidates now sought the 
 imperial crown — Charles, the 
 grandson of Maximilian, Henry 
 VIII., of England, and Francis I., 
 of France. Henry soon abandoned 
 ^ the contest, but Francis used every 
 effort to win over the electors. He was un- 
 successful, however, and in 1519 Charles I., 
 of Spain, was elected. The next year he 
 
 was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle as Charles 
 v., of Germany. He was the son of Philip, 
 the son of Maximilian I. and Mary of Bur- 
 gundy, and of Joanna, the daughter of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. From 
 his father he inherited the archduchy of 
 Austria, which he shared with his brother 
 Ferdinand, the county of Burgundy and 
 the Low Countries. From his grandfather 
 Ferdinand he inherited the crowns of Spain 
 and the Two Sicilies. He was thus the most 
 powerful sovereign after he became emperor 
 that had ruled in Europe since the days of 
 Charlemagne. The electors appreciated 
 this, and before choosing him made him 
 sign a formal deed confirming the states in 
 all their rights and privileges, a condition 
 afterwards required of every successor of 
 Charles on the German throne. The ac- 
 count of the reign of Charles V. belongs to 
 the history of Spain as well as to that of 
 Germany. We shall relate here that por- 
 tion of it which concerns the latter country. 
 Charles V. came to the German throne 
 at the outset of the profoundest movement 
 that has ever shaken Europe — the Reforma- 
 tion. At the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century all of Western Europe was Chris- 
 tian, and every nation in this part of the 
 continent was in communion with the Ro- 
 man Church and acknowledged the su- 
 premacy of the pope. It is true that the 
 principles of the early reformers had affected 
 England and some other countries so deeply 
 that martyrs had already been found, but 
 as yet no nation had definitely broken with 
 Rome, or set up any new system of religion 
 for itself. Early in the sixteenth century, 
 however, men began to think more earnestly 
 upon matters of religion. The Bible had 
 been circulated to a limited extent since 
 the days of Wycliffe, and after the inven- 
 tion of printing the early printers had 
 scarcely been able to supply the demand 
 for the sacred volume. The effect of the 
 reading, of the Scriptures was to open men's 
 eyes wider than ever to the abuses of the 
 Roman Church. The division of Europe 
 into independent states had made many 
 men in all countries very anxious to be rid 
 of the supremacy of the pope, but as this 
 was a matter of religious doctrine, they had 
 felt powerless to accomplish their desire. 
 When they found that this supremacy was 
 not sanctioned by the Bible, and that the 
 tyranny which the pope had set up in all 
 lands was repugnant to the word of God, 
 their resistance to it became an hundred 
 
552 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 times more vigorous and deterraiued. From 
 this point they passed to an examination of 
 some of the cardinal doctrines of the Ro- 
 man Church, such as the sacrifice of the 
 mass, the use of images, the practice of 
 praying to saints, the doctrine of purgatory, 
 the necessity of confession to a priest, the 
 prohibition of marriage to the clergy, and 
 the celebration of the services of the church 
 in the Latin tongue, which was nowhere 
 
 understood by the people. These they at 
 length denied, as they could find no warrant 
 for them in the Scriptures. Besides these 
 errors of doctrine, the reformers objected to 
 certain gross abuses of which the councils 
 of the fifteenth century had honestly tried 
 to purge the church, and had been pre- 
 vented by the popes. One of the grossest 
 of these was the immediate occasion of the 
 open avowal of the reformers in Germany 
 of their determination to separate from the 
 Church of Rome. Pope Alexander VI. 
 
 had assumed the right, which has since 
 been exercised by his successors, of remitting 
 the penalties of sin in the future world in 
 consideration of the payment of money in 
 this one. These indulgences, as they were 
 called, soon became very popular, people 
 seeking by means of them to deliver their 
 departed friends from the penalties of their 
 faults when in this life, and to secure the 
 same immunities for themselves hereafter, 
 Germany was the 
 great market for the 
 sale of these indul- 
 gences, and large sums 
 were annually remit- 
 ted to Rome on their 
 account. The revenue 
 from this source at 
 length became so 
 steady that the popes 
 farmed it to the Fug- 
 gers, the great Augs- 
 burg bankers. Fred- 
 erick the Wise, of 
 Saxony, once obtained 
 the sale of indulgences 
 in his dominions in 
 order to raise funds 
 for building a bridge 
 over the Elbe. The 
 extravagance of Pope 
 Leo X. kept his treas- 
 ury constantly 
 drained, and in order 
 to replenish it he 
 plunged into the sale 
 of indulgences with 
 more recklessness than 
 any of his predeces- 
 sors. The Archbishop 
 of Mentz was the 
 primate of Germany 
 and the first spiritual 
 elector of the empire. 
 The dignity had just 
 been purchased at a 
 ruinous cost by a dissolute young church- 
 man named Albert. In order to enable him 
 to raise funds to pay for his see the pope 
 granted him a special dispensation of indul- 
 gences. The archbishop employed as his 
 agent one John Tetzel, a Dominican monk, 
 a man of notoriously evil character. Tetzel 
 went about the country selling at a fixed 
 tariff not only remission for past sins, but 
 indulgences for future oflfences. " Pour in 
 your money," cried Tetzel, "and whatever 
 crimes you have committed, or may com- 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 553 
 
 rait, are forgiven ! Pour in your coin, and 
 tlie souls of your friends and relations will 
 fly out of purgatory the moment they hear 
 the clink of your money at the bottom of 
 the box." 
 
 This shameful traffic shocked many good 
 men, both in the church and out of it. 
 One of these was Martin Luther. He was 
 the son of a Saxon miner, and was a native 
 of Eisleben, where he was boru in 1483. 
 He had made himself 
 a scholar by attend- 
 ance at schools where 
 his poverty almost de- 
 barred him from ap- 
 pearing, and had 
 maintained himself 
 during his studies by 
 singing from door to 
 door of the richer 
 houses. At the Uni- 
 versity of Erfurt he 
 studied laboriously and 
 acquired a vast fund 
 of tiie learning of the 
 schools ; and there, 
 becoming convinced 
 that his true vocation 
 lay in the ministry, he 
 entered the Augustiu- 
 ian convent and be- 
 came a priest and 
 monk. The insight 
 which he gained into 
 mf)nastic life by his 
 residence there inclined 
 him to doubt some of 
 the doctrines and prac- 
 tices of the church, 
 and a journey which he 
 made to Rome on busi- 
 ness for his order 
 showed him in their 
 true light the worldly 
 ambition of the pope, 
 the infidelity of the clergy, and their open 
 contempt for the mysteries of their faith. 
 The deeply religious soul of the German 
 monk was shocked, and he became a raiser- 
 able man. In after years he said : " I would 
 not for a^ hundred thousand florins have 
 missed seeing Rome. I should always have 
 felt an uneasy doubt whether I was not, 
 after all, doing injustice to the pope. As it 
 is, I am quite satisfied on the point." Yet 
 Luther was a faithful son of the church ; and 
 for the present he could only doubt and be 
 miserable. In the chapel of the monas- 
 
 tery there was a Latin Bible, chained to its 
 stand, but open to all the monks. Brother 
 Martin read the holy book with feverii^h 
 eagerness, and found in it the comfort he 
 could not draw from the offices of the 
 church. Still his opportunities of reading 
 it were limited, and his unhappy condition 
 of mind was noticed, but was respected by 
 his brethren. Staupitz, a man of great 
 rank in the church, chancing to visit the 
 
 LUTHER BEFORE CARDINAL CAJETANFS. 
 
 convent, was attracted by the youthful 
 monk. He conversed with him and gave 
 him a Bible of his own, which he could 
 study in his own cell. The monk applied 
 himself with renewed energy to the " search- 
 ing of the Scriptures," and the result of his 
 studies was that the great doctrine of "jus- 
 tification by faith " took with him the place 
 of the teachings of the church. In 1508 he 
 was appointed pi'ofessor of theology in the 
 new University of Wittenberg, Avhere he 
 soon made himself a power by his lectures. 
 The Elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, 
 
554 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 became his devoted and faithful friend and 
 protector. When Tetzel came to Witten- 
 berg, ringing his bell, and hawking his 
 wares about the town, Luther, who had al- 
 ready given evidence of his departure from 
 the Romish standard of doctrine, sternly 
 denounced the traffic in indulgences and 
 declared he would refuse absolution to any 
 one who should purchase them. On the 
 31st of October, 1517, he took a more de- 
 cisive step in advance, and affixed to the 
 door of the Castle Church, at Wittenberg, 
 
 Luther wrote well and was evidently a man 
 of genius. Dr. John Eck undertook in a 
 book to show that Luther's heresy was 
 identical with that of Huss, but Luther an- 
 swered him with such overwhelming force, 
 that Eck, in revenge, set himself to work 
 to induce the pope to interfere and silence 
 the reformer, Luther's thesis had created 
 great excitement in Germany, and a party 
 had rapidly formed about him which de- 
 manded a thorough reformation in the 
 church in both doctrine and discipline. 
 
 LUTHEK BURNING THE POPE'S BULL. 
 
 a thesis made up of ninety-five propositions, 
 in which he denounced the assumptions of 
 the papacy, and declared that every sincere 
 penitent would receive absolution of his 
 sins from Christ direct, without the inter- 
 vention of the church. This was an open 
 rupture with Rome, and is usually regarded 
 as the beginning of the Reformation. 
 
 Luther's thesis was answered by Tetzel 
 and other of the clergy, and the matter was 
 finally reported at Rome. Pope Leo paid 
 little attention to it at first. " It is a quar- 
 rel of the monks," he said, and added that 
 
 This party was especially strong in the 
 cities. Luther on his part advanced 
 steadily in his opinions, and spoke out his 
 views more boldly, and so drove the move- 
 ment he had begun forward with every ad- 
 vance of his own. The pope at length 
 awoke to the importance of the movement, 
 and summoned Luther to appear at Rome. 
 The Elector of Saxony, who knew what 
 would be the fate of the reformer if he 
 obeyed, now interposed as Luther's sov- 
 ereign, refused to allow him to go to Rome, 
 and demanded that he should be tried for 
 
THE BEFOBMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 555 
 
 his doctrines in Germany. In 1518 Cardi- 
 nal Cajetanus was sent into Germany as the 
 papal legate, and summoned Luther before 
 him in the diet at Augsburg. Luther 
 obeyed the summons, and declared his 
 readiness to retract any or all of his doc- 
 trines that could be shown to be not 
 founded upon Holy Scripture, but the car- 
 dinal refused to permit any discussion. 
 Luther then offered to submit his doctrines 
 to the four universities of Basle, Freiburg, 
 Lou vain and Paris, but the cardinal scorn- 
 
 questions for a while. The crown was 
 offered to the Elector of Saxony, but he re- 
 fused it and succeeded in securing it for 
 Charles, the young King of Spain. Charles 
 was very willing to help the pope, but Lu- 
 ther was the friend of the elector, to whom 
 he owed the imperial crown, and he could 
 not well proceed against him. The pope 
 in 1520 brought matters to a crisis by a 
 bull, in which he denounced the teachings 
 of Luther as heresy, and ordered him to 
 burn his books and to cease both writing 
 
 LUTHER BEFORE THE DIET AT WORMS. 
 
 fully rejected the proposition. Then, per- 
 ceiving that he was not to receive justice at 
 the hands of the legate, Luther drew up an 
 appeal to the pope and affixed it to the 
 door of Augsburg Cathedral, and then re- 
 turned home. The bulk of the German 
 people had now come to sustain the re- 
 former, and his party was growing every 
 day. 
 
 The death of the Emperor Maximilian 
 and the contest for the German crown 
 which followed it, caused a lull in religious 
 
 and preaching. Luther publicly burned 
 the bull at Wittenberg, and he and his fol- 
 lowers were excommunicated. This was 
 the state of affairs when Charles V. came to 
 the imperial throne. The emperor did not 
 long allow his obligations to the elector to 
 cause him to hesitate as to his course. He 
 was afraid that the revolt begun by Luther 
 against ecclesiastical tyranny would de- 
 velop into a revolt against the imperial au- 
 thority, and he was also a firm believer in 
 the Roman doctrines. Therefore he de- 
 
556 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cided at once to sustain the pope against 
 the reformers. In 1521 Charles held his 
 first diet at Worms. The papal legate 
 urged him to proceed at once to extreme 
 measures against Luther, but the Elector 
 of Saxony and some of the other princes 
 declared that it was unjust to condemn any 
 man unheard. The emperor therefore sum- 
 moned Luther to appear before the diet, 
 and gave him a safe conduct. Luther at 
 once set out for Worms, and was greeted 
 with enthusiasm all along the route by the 
 people. As he entered the great hall where 
 the diet was in session, George Frundes- 
 berg, a famous military commander, who 
 afterwards became his convert, laid his 
 hand on his shoulder, and said to him ear- 
 nestly : "Little monk, little monk, thou art 
 doing a more daring thing than I or any 
 other general ever ventured on. But if 
 thou art confident in thy cause, go on, in 
 God's name, and be of good cheer, for he 
 will not forsake thee." 
 
 la his examination before the diet Lu- 
 ther admitted that he had exceeded the 
 bounds of propriety in his remarks concern- 
 ing the pope and the clergy, but as for his 
 doctrines, he exclaimed, in closing his 
 statement, " Here I stand. I cannot do 
 otherwise. God help me." Some of the 
 princes urged the emperor to seize the re- 
 former, but Charles declared that he would 
 not " blush like Siegmund at Constance." 
 He suffered Luther to depart from Worms, 
 but warned him that he must henceforth 
 expect the treatment of a heretic. He sub- 
 sequently issued an edict condemning Lu- 
 ther as a heretic, and putting to the ban of 
 the empire all who should shelter him, or 
 print, sell or read his books. Luther mean- 
 while proceeded on his journey home, and 
 as he was riding through a wood near his 
 destination, he was suddenly surrounded by 
 a band of horsemen, who stripped him of 
 his monk's frock, clothed him in a military 
 garb, put a false beard on him, and, mount- 
 ing him upon a spare horse, hurried him 
 away — but not to imprisonment or death. 
 The supposed arrest was a friendly ruse on 
 the part of the Elector of Saxony to remove 
 the reformer from harm's way. The horse- 
 men conducted him to the strong castle of 
 the Wartburg, where he was lodged in 
 comfort and in safety. His presence there 
 was kept secret, and the rumor got abroad 
 that he had been waylaid and murdered, or 
 at all events immured in a dungeon. But 
 all this while, secure in his friendly shelter. 
 
 the reformer was engaged in his great work 
 of translating the Scriptures into the Ger- 
 man language. 
 
 The Diet of Worms obliged the emperor 
 to consent to the formation of a council, ap- 
 pointed partly by himself, and partly by 
 the states, which was to watch over the 
 aflfairs of Germany during his absence from 
 that country. It also arranged the num- 
 ber of troops which each state of the empire 
 should be obliged to furnish. During the 
 session of the diet Charles divided his 
 hereditary Austrian estates with his brother 
 Ferdinand, who thus became Archduke of 
 Austria and the founder of the Austrian 
 branch of the house of Hapsburg. Imme- 
 diately upon the adjournment of the diet 
 Charles left Germany, and did not return 
 for eight years. During this period he was 
 fully occupied with the affairs of Italy and 
 Spain, and with the great struggle between 
 himself and Francis I. of France. He suc- 
 ceeded in driving the French out of Italy, 
 and in definitely establishing the Spanish 
 supremacy in the peninsula. In 1529 the 
 Peace of Cambray closed the war. In 
 1530 Charles was crowned emperor by the 
 pope at Bologna. He was the last emperor 
 Avho received the imperial crown from a 
 pope. 
 
 While the Reformation was in progress 
 in Germany a similar movement was begun 
 in Switzerland under the influence of 
 Ulrich Zwingli, a priest of Glarus. He 
 succeeded in making the western or French- 
 speaking cantons Protestant, and went 
 much further in his measures than Luther. 
 This led to a controversy between the two 
 great reformers, which unfortunately 
 checked the progress of the Reformation. 
 In Switzerland civil and religious afiairs 
 became mingled, and the result was a war 
 between the Romanist and Protestant 
 cantons, in which Zwingli was killed, 1531. 
 
 In Germany, the absence of the emperor 
 and the necessity which his wars imposed 
 upon him of conciliating all the German 
 states, allowed the Reformation to make 
 rapid proefress. During Luther's residence 
 at the Wartburg some of his followers 
 began to indulge in excesses which met his 
 condemnation, and in 1522, though still 
 an outlaw, he left his refuge, returned to 
 Wittenburg, and resumed his place as 
 leader of the Reformation. He now pub- 
 lished his translation of the New Testament, 
 and later on followed it with his transla- 
 tion of the whole Bible. He also wrote 
 
THE BEFOBMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 557 
 
 theological works which were widely circu- 
 lated and eagerly read, and which made 
 his doctrines more popular and more gener- 
 ally accepted. Had he been possessed of 
 less moderation he might have been ruined 
 by either of two outbreaks which oc- 
 curred about this time. One of these 
 was an attack by Franz Von Sickingen, 
 cue of Luther's earliest friends, upon the 
 Archbishop of Treves, who was aided by 
 the Elector Palatine, and the Landgrave 
 of Hessen. Sickingen was the leader of a 
 league of Rhenish knights, and claimed 
 the support of Luther, whose doctrines he 
 had adopted. Luther, who dreaded the 
 propagation of his faith by the sword, urged 
 his friend to observe the peace of the em- 
 pire. His appeal was unheeded ; the war 
 broke out ; and Sickingen was defeated 
 and slain, a. d. 1523. In 1524 and 1525 
 a great rising took place among the peas- 
 antry of Suabia, and spread into Fran- 
 conia, Lorraine, Alsace, and the Palatinate. 
 The peasants believed that the new religion 
 was to rescue them from the political in- 
 equality and all the other wrongs they had 
 £0 long endured. They submitted to 
 Luther a list of their demands, but he 
 refused to countenance their course, and 
 advised them to submit to their rulers. 
 He urged the princes to put down the 
 revolt by force, but at the same time 
 charged them with having caused the dis- 
 turbances by their suppression of the gospel. 
 The revolt was quelled, but not before 
 100,000 men had fallen. 
 
 Several of the German princes had now 
 embraced Luther's doctrines. The chief 
 of these were the Elector John of Saxony, 
 the successor of Frederic the Wise, and 
 Philip, Landgrave of Hessen. Some of the 
 imperial free cities also became Lutheran. 
 In 1525 Luther married Catharine of Bora, 
 a nun, and his example was followed by 
 many of the clergy. In 1526 a diet was 
 held at Spires, at which the Archduke 
 Ferdinand presided. It was agreed to take 
 no measures concerning religious matters, 
 but that, until a general council of the 
 church could be held, each state should 
 regulate them as it saw best. The Elector 
 of Saxony, the Landgrave of Hessen, and 
 some of the other princes, encouraged by 
 this, now proceeded to make great changes 
 in the church in their dominions. The 
 mass was abolished and the church services 
 were celebrated in the common tongue, new 
 systems of church government were intro- 
 
 duced, convents were suppressed, and the 
 lands and revenues of the church were not 
 entirely applied to ecclesiastical uses. 
 Preaching was made the chief business of 
 the clergy. The real inspirer of these 
 measures was Luther, who was assisted by 
 Melancthon, a man of much greater moder- 
 ation than his friend Luther, and one of the 
 ablest and noblest of the reformers. 
 
 The Catholic princes now united to 
 oppose a more effectual resistance to the 
 spread of the reformed doctrines, and the 
 adherents of Luther, following the example 
 of their antagonists, organized the League 
 of Torgau for their mutual protection. In 
 1529 the diet met again at Spires under 
 the presidency of the Archduke Ferdinand. 
 The Catholics had the control of this body, 
 and a decree was passed, requiring that all 
 changes in religious forms should be dis- 
 continued, and that the celebration of the 
 mass should be observed in all parts of the 
 empire. The Lutheran princes and cities 
 entered a solemn protest against this decree, 
 and were in consequence of this act termed 
 Protestants, a name Avhich has been ex- 
 tended to all persons holding the essential 
 doctrines of the Reformation. 
 
 Some important political changes had 
 taken place in Germany in the last few 
 years. When the Reformation began, the 
 Grand Master of the Teutonic order Avas 
 Albert of Brandenburg. He became a 
 Lutheran, and in 1525 put an end to the 
 Teutonic order as a sovereign power by a 
 treaty with Sigismuud I., King of Poland, 
 and received the eastern part of Prussia in 
 fief as a hereditary duchy. His children 
 inherited the Prussian duchy, which in the 
 end passed to the electoral branch of the 
 Brandenburg house, and became indepen- 
 dent of Poland. 
 
 In 1522 Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 
 married a daughter of Ladislaus, King of 
 Bohemia and Hungary. Louis II., the son 
 and successor of Ladislaus, was killed in 
 battle in 1526, and Ferdinand was elected 
 and crowned King of Bohemia. Later on 
 he was chosen King of Hungary by one of 
 the parties which divided that country. 
 The opposite party proclaimed John, Wai- 
 wode of Transylvania, and a war broke out 
 between the rivals, in the course of which 
 John made an alliance with the Turkish 
 Sultan Solyman, and consented to hold the 
 throne as his vassal. Solyman invaded 
 and overran Hungary, and entering Austria 
 laid siege to Vienna. He was compelled 
 
558 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to withdi-aw. Ferdinand at lengtli pre- 
 vailed over his rival, and from his time the 
 Archduke of Austria was always King of 
 Hungary, and the crown of that country, 
 though at first elective, became in the end 
 hereditary. The Bohemian crown was also 
 held by the Austrian house from this time, 
 and the ruler of Austria thus became one 
 of the principal sovereigns of Europe. 
 
 The Emperor Charles had now driven the 
 French out of Italy, and was prepared to 
 take an active part in German affairs again. 
 He came to Germany in 1530, and held a 
 diet at Augsburg for the double purpose 
 of putting an end to the Lutheran move- 
 ment and inaugurating measures for the 
 defeat of the Turks. When the diet 
 assembled he found that he had greatly 
 underestimated the strength of the Refor- 
 mation. A statement of the Lutheran doc- 
 trines, drawn up by Melancthon and 
 approved by Luther, was laid before the 
 diet by the reformed party. This state- 
 ment, afterwards known as the Augsburg 
 confession, became the chief standard of 
 faith among the Lutheran churches. Find- 
 ing the emperor firm in his determination 
 to restore the Roman faith and worship, 
 the Elector John and the Landgrave Philip 
 withdrew from the diet. Soon after this 
 Charles issued an edict condemning the 
 Lutheran heresy, and commanding all who 
 had accepted it to return to their allegiance 
 to the church. Such church property as 
 had been seized was to be restored, and the 
 suppi'essed convents were to be reopened. 
 Disobedience to this command was to be 
 punished by the outlawry of the offender. 
 The Catholic party, fearful that a Protes- 
 tant successor to Charles would be chosen, 
 as the administrative council had already 
 shown great favor to the Lutherans, deter- 
 mined to secure a Catholic at once, and the 
 Archduke Ferdinand was chosen King of 
 the Romans aud crowned at Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle in 153L During these negotiations 
 the Lutheran princes met at Smalcald, and 
 organized a league for their common 
 defence. After the election of Ferdinand 
 the Smalcaldic League was joined by the 
 Lutheran cities. The more hot-headed 
 members wished to go to war with the em- 
 peror at once ; but wiser counsels prevailed. 
 In 1532 the Turks again threatened Ger- 
 many in heavy force, and created great 
 alarm throughout the empire. Charles was 
 anxious to take the field against them, but 
 the members of the Leatrue of Smalcald 
 
 refused to assist him unless he withdrew 
 the decree of Augsburg, and he was very 
 unwillingly compelled to consent to their 
 demand. In 1532 he granted the Religious 
 Peace of Nuremberg, by which he accorded 
 full liberty of worship to the Lutherans 
 until the meeting of a general council or 
 another diet. The Lutherans then gave 
 him a cordial support against the sultan, 
 who, finding all Germany united against 
 him, retreated into his own dominions. 
 Charles now left Germany a second time, 
 and was absent for twelve years. 
 
 During this period the Reformation 
 made great progress, especially in northern 
 Germany. The Elector of Brandenburg, 
 Joachim II., became a Lutheran, and the 
 Elector Palatine and Duke George of Sax- 
 ony admitted the Lutheran doctrines within 
 their dominions. Nearly all north Ger- 
 many was now Lutheran, and in the south 
 Wiirtemberg had embraced the Protestant 
 doctrines. The emperor during this period, 
 was in no condition to offend the Lutherans, 
 for his wars with France and the Turks 
 made it necessary for him to make no new 
 enemies. He did not relinquish his design 
 of destroying Lutheranism, however, and 
 as soon as the peace of Crespy in 1544 had 
 removed his embarrassments, he began to 
 put his plan in execution. 
 
 He induced Pope Paul II. to summon a 
 general council, which met at Trent in 
 1545. The Lutherans refused to recognize 
 this council on the ground that the jwpe 
 was a party to the dispute, and had already 
 condemned them as heretics. The emperor 
 was not unprepared for this refusal, and at 
 once began his preparations for war against 
 the Lutherans. He made an alliance with 
 the pope, who agreed to contribute money 
 and troops to the undertaking, aud suc- 
 ceeded in securing the neutrality of the 
 Elector Palatine, the Elector of Branden- 
 burg, and some other Luthei'an princes. 
 The League of Smalcald, however, prepared 
 to defend its principles and rights, aud be- 
 gan to put its forces in the field. The Lu- 
 theran cities also raised a strong force, 
 under Sebastian Schartlin, one of the ablest 
 generals of his time, though the emperor 
 endeavored to persuade them that his 
 measures were not directed against their 
 religion, but against certain rebellious 
 princes. Charles, in order to obtain a com- 
 l>etent army, did not hesitate to bring for- 
 eign troops into Germany, in violation of 
 his coronation oath, which forbade such an 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 559 
 
 act. At the moment of the outbreak of 
 hostilities the Lutherans suffered a serious 
 loss in the death of their great teacher, 
 Martin Luther, who died at Eisleben in 
 1546. 
 
 The summer of 1546 saw both armies in 
 motion. The Protestant force Avas superior 
 to that of the emperor, and might have 
 gained a decisive advantage over him had 
 it acted with promptness and vigor ; but its 
 leaders were divided ; they hesitated, and 
 allowed the papal troops and the army of 
 the Low Countries to join the emperor. 
 Charles now went to work with vigor. By 
 the close of the autumn he had conquered 
 all the Protestant cities opposed to him, 
 and succeeded in winning over Duke 
 Maurice of Saxony. In 1547 he defeated 
 the Elector John of Saxony in the battle of 
 Miihlberg, and took him prisoner. The 
 possessions and title of the Elector of Sax- 
 ony were conferred upon Duke Maurice, 
 and thus the two branches of the Saxon 
 family were united. Philip, Landgrave of 
 Hessen, seeing that the cause Avas hopeless, 
 surrendered to the emperor, and was kept 
 a prisoner in violation of the terms of his 
 capitulation. The Bohemian army, dis- 
 heartened by these reverses, soon dispersed, 
 and the resistance of the Protestants en- 
 tirely ceased. Charles was entirely suc- 
 cessful, and the League of Smalcald was 
 destroyed. In order to complete his triumph 
 he held a diet at Augsburg in 1548, and 
 laid before it a plan for uniting the Protes- 
 tants with the church. A few unimportant 
 concessions were made to the former, but 
 the claims of the church were on the whole 
 maintained. There was no formal opposi- 
 tion to the plan in the diet, and Charles, 
 acting as if it had become a law, succeeded 
 in obtaining a nominal acceptance of it. 
 The measure is known as the Interim. 
 
 The emperor's triumph now seemed com- 
 plete. He had broken up the Sraalcaldic 
 League, and believed he had undone all the 
 work of the Reformation by forcing the 
 Interim upon the Lutherans. He under- 
 estimated, however, the strength and extent 
 of the discontent which prevailed among 
 the conquered party. The Protestants 
 were more tenacious of their principles than 
 he imagined. The very first one to make 
 this apparent was the new Elector Maurice 
 of Saxony, who owed his position to the 
 emperor's favor. Though he had sided 
 with Charles in the Smalcaldic war, Maur- 
 ice was a Protestant. His ambition was 
 
 now satisfied by the possession of the elec- 
 toral dignity and all the Saxon domains, 
 and he at length resolved to turn against 
 the emperor and take his true place as the 
 protector of the Lutheran faith. He Avas 
 alarmed by the growing poAver of Charles, 
 Avhich seemed to threaten his oAvn, and 
 offended by the continued captivity of the 
 Landgrave of Hessen, Avho Avas his father- 
 in-law. He made an alliance with several 
 of the German princes, and, what was still 
 more important, negotiated a secret treaty 
 Avith Henry II. of France, by the terras of 
 Avhich Henry Avas to seize the toAvns of 
 Metz, Toul, Verdun, and Cambray, and 
 hold them as imj^erial vicar. Rumors of 
 this plot reached the emperor, but he paid 
 no attention to them, and sending the bulk 
 of his army into Hungary and Italy, sta- 
 tioned himself Avith a small force at Inns- 
 bruck to watch the proceedings of the 
 Council of Trent. 
 
 In 1552 Maurice, Avho had been intrusted 
 by the diet Avith a large army for the pur- 
 pose of compelling Magdeburg to accept 
 the Interim, suddenly marched southAA'ard, 
 and issued a jDroclamation announcing his 
 determination to maintain the constitution 
 and laAvs of the empire, to protect the 
 Protestant Avorship, and to liberate the 
 Landgrave of Hessen. At the same time 
 Henry II. entered Lorraine Avith his forces, 
 and seized Metz, Toul, and Verdun. 
 Charles was taken by surprise. The Prot- 
 estant states took heart, and the Catholic 
 states, alarmed by his great power and his 
 intrigues to procure the reversal of the 
 election of his brother Ferdinand, and the 
 elevation of his son Philip to the German 
 throne in his place, looked coldly on. 
 Charles Avas obliged to seek safety in flight, 
 and escaped over the mountains into Ca- 
 rinthia. The Council of Trent broke up in 
 alarm, and did not assemble again for ten 
 years. Charles Avas obliged to sign the 
 treaty of Passau, by which he surrendered 
 all that he had gained by the Smalcaldic 
 Avar. He agreed that the Protestants 
 should eujoy the free exercise of their re- 
 ligion, and should be admitted as members 
 of the Imperial Chamber. The treaty Avas 
 Avillingly signed by King Ferdinand and 
 the Catholic princes, as they Avere now con- 
 vinced that Charles w-as too poAverful for 
 their OAvn interests. The captive Elector 
 of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hessen 
 obtained their liberty. Peace being re- 
 stored in Germany, Charles turned upon 
 
560 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Henry II. of France, and entering Lor- 
 raine, laid siege to Metz. He was unsuc- 
 cessful, and was forced to raise the siege, 
 and Henry kept the towns of Metz, Toul, 
 and Verdun. In 1555, in accordance with 
 the terms of the treaty of Passau, the em- 
 peror summoned a diet at Augsburg, which 
 after much deliberation concluded the Ke- 
 ligious Peace of Augsburg. By this arrange- 
 ment the Protestants were exempted from 
 the jurisdiction of the bishops of the Roman 
 Church, and were allowed to retain the re- 
 ligious property they had seized. Each 
 state was secured in the right to maintain 
 either the Protestant or Roman worship, or 
 might tolerate both if it saw fit, or drive 
 out whichever it pleased. 
 
 Charles now put in execution a design 
 he had long contemplated, and which his 
 recent political failures had made him more 
 than ever anxious to carry out. In 1555 
 he gave the Low Countries to his son 
 Philip, and in 1556 resigned to him the 
 crowns of Spain and the Two Sicilies. He 
 renewed his efforts to have Philip elected 
 King of the Romans, but he found that all 
 Germany Avas opposed to this, and he 
 yielded to what he could not alter. In the 
 autumn of 1556 he resigned the imperial 
 crown to his brother Ferdinand, and en- 
 tered the monastery of San Yuste, in Spain, 
 where he died in 1558. 
 
 Ferdinand I. was crowned king in 1558. 
 He did not receive the imperial crown 
 from the pope, but took the title of emperor 
 immediately upon his accession to the 
 throne, as did every German king after 
 him. The pope acknowledged his imperial 
 dignity on condition that he should refuse 
 to observe the peace of Augsburg. Ferdi- 
 nand never complied with this condition, 
 for he knew too well the strength of Prot- 
 estantism in Germany. The whole country 
 was now divided into two hostile parties, 
 Catholic and Protestant, and the emperor 
 had no wish to bring them in collision. 
 The political evils of this division were 
 already very great. The Catholics regarded 
 the Protestants as being possessed of church 
 property which was rightfully their own, 
 and the Protestants had not forgotten the 
 harshness with which the former had 
 treated them in the days of their power. 
 The emperor, who should have been an 
 impartial judge between the two, was a 
 Catholic, and the sworn protector of the 
 Catholic Church. He was therefore re- 
 garded by the Protestants as an enemy, to 
 
 be watched and thwarted on all occasions. 
 Thus the imperial authority, instead of 
 being strengthened by this division of the 
 people and princes, was weakened by it. 
 The same cause made it difficult to appoint 
 judges who commanded the confidence of 
 both parties, and thus the administration 
 of justice was seriously hampered. Ferdi- 
 nand did what he could to win the friend- 
 ship of the Protestants, and showed them as 
 many favors as he could. He died in 
 1564. Before his death he divided the 
 possessions of the house of Hapsburg into 
 three unequal parts, and gave one to each 
 of his sons. 
 
 Maximilian II., the eldest son of Ferdi- 
 nand, received Austria proper and the king- 
 doms of Bohemia and Hungary, and suc- 
 ceeded his father on the imperial throne. 
 He was a man of liberal views, and his 
 government, though firm, was mild. He 
 was charged by the Catholics with being a 
 Lutheran. During his reign the Jesuits 
 exerted their power in a marked degree to 
 check the spread of Protestantism in Ger- 
 many, but without success. By the close 
 of this reign the bulk of the German people 
 were Protestant. Even in Austria the 
 reformed faith became very powerful. In 
 1576 Maximilian died. 
 
 Rudolph II., who succeeded his father as 
 emperor, was a gloomy bigot, whose charac- 
 ter very much resembled that of Philip of 
 Spain, in whose court he had been brought 
 up. He was very anxious to root out 
 Protestantism from Germany, but he was a 
 man of such weak character that he accom- 
 plished nothing save to alarm the Protes- 
 tants, and in his hands the imperial power 
 became almost a nullity. 
 
 The weakness of Rudolph II. so alarmed 
 his kinsmen for the power of their house, 
 that they began to seriously consider the 
 propriety of choosing a new emperor. 
 Stung by this distrust, Rudolph attempted 
 to show his vigor by persecuting the Pi'otes- 
 tants of Bohemia and Hungary. The latter 
 appealed to the Turks for aid, who readily 
 complied with their request. Matters be- 
 came so bad that, in 1606, the archdukes 
 met and formally acknowledged Matthias, 
 the brother of Rudolph, as the head of the 
 house of Hapsburg. This arrangement 
 was sanctioned by Spain, and Rudolph was 
 compelled to resign to Matthias all his do- 
 minions except Bohemia. 
 
 The severity with which Rudolph treated 
 the Protestants alarmed that party, and in 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 561 
 
 1608 a number of the Protestant princes or- 
 ganized a league for ten years, called The 
 Union. It owed its existence chiefly to the 
 exertions of Prince Christian of Anhalt, who 
 was encouraged by Henry IV. of France. 
 The Elector Palatine was made the head of 
 the union. Its members were chiefly of the 
 reformed church, and for this reason the 
 Elector of Saxony, who was a Lutheran, re- 
 fused to have anything to do with it. The 
 first instance in which the league undertook 
 to exert its power was attended with im- 
 portant results. In 1609 William, Duke 
 of Jiilich, whose possessions embraced 
 Jiilich, Cleve, and other lands, died. His 
 territories were claimed by the Elector of 
 Brandenburg and the Palsgrave of Neu- 
 burg, both of whom were members of the 
 union, and both of whom took possession 
 of the lands claimed by them. The Arch- 
 duke Leopold, Bishop of Passau, was de- 
 spatched by his brother, the Emperor Ru- 
 dolph, to expel these princes from the lands 
 they had seized, whereupon the union 
 formed an alliance with Henry IV. of 
 France, and defeated the army of the arch- 
 duke in 1610. The Catholics, alarmed in 
 their turn at the power of the union, formed 
 a League, for nine years, for the purpose of 
 holding the union in check. Maximilian, 
 Duke of Bavaria, was assigned the chief 
 command of the league. The assassination 
 of Henry IV. of France, in 1610, was a 
 severe blow to the union, as it had derived 
 its chief strength from the genius of that 
 great king. It now became timid and hesi- 
 tating. 
 
 The princes who had seized the estates of 
 Duke William of Jiilich retained tliem. 
 The Elector of Brandenburg in 1611 re- 
 ceived a fresh accession of power by his 
 succeeding to the duchy of Prussia, and 
 from this time the duchy of East Prussia 
 and the electorate of Brandenburg were 
 always governed by one ruler, and from 
 this union has grown the modern kingdom 
 of Prussia. 
 
 The discontents in the empire concernino- 
 religious matters were so great that Mat*^ 
 thias, as a measure of peace, granted the 
 Austrian states full liberty in the exercise 
 ^ their religion. In 1609 Rudolph, as 
 King of Bohemia, granted to the nobility, 
 knights and towns of that country entire 
 freedom in matters of religious belief, with 
 the right to build Protestant churches and 
 schools on their own lands and on those of 
 the crown. This grant was known as The 
 36 
 
 Letter of Majesty. The Bohemians dis- 
 trusted their king, however, and in 1611 
 held him a prisoner in the Castle of Prague, 
 and appealed to Matthias for aid. He at 
 once responded, and entering Bohemia with 
 an army, seized the crown. The next year 
 Rudolph died. 
 
 Matthias was crowned emperor at Frank- 
 fort, in 1612, with imposing ceremonies, but 
 he was not much better suited to the task 
 of governing the empire than his brother 
 Rudolph. His government was very feeble, 
 and while he was obliged to respect the 
 rights of the Protestants, he always sought 
 to favor the efforts of the Jesuits to bring 
 back Germany to the Roman Catholic 
 faith. His brothers soon became as much 
 disgusted with him as they had been with 
 Rudolph, and compelled him to accept as 
 his coadjutor Ferdinand, Duke of Styria. 
 In 1617 Ferdinand was chosen King of Bo- 
 hemia and Hungary in place of Rudolph, 
 and from this time became the real ruler of 
 Germany, Matthias being emperor simply 
 in name. Ferdinand was a man of energy 
 and ability, of which qualities he had al- 
 ready given evidence. He was anxious to 
 succeed Matthias as emperor, and as he was 
 already known as a determined enemy of 
 Protestantism, and had compelled Styria, 
 which was almost wholly Lutheran at the 
 time he became duke, to accept the Catholic 
 faith, his accession to the imperial crown was 
 anticipated with dread by the Protestants. 
 He was ambitious of winning back the power 
 and grandeur which had belonged to the 
 empire of the Middle Ages, and he was per- 
 fectly unscrupulous as to the means by 
 which he attained his ends. As he meant 
 to make himself absolute master of Ger- 
 many, so he intended that the German 
 people should have no religion but his 
 own. 
 
 In the last years of Matthias a quarrel 
 sprang up in Bohemia, the people of which 
 had been for some time discontented with 
 the rule of King Ferdinand. Two Protes- 
 tant churches had been built in that 
 country, one within the territory of the 
 Archbishop of Prague, the other Avithin 
 that of the Abbot of Braunau. These 
 princes applied to the emperor and received 
 permission to pull down one of these churches 
 and shut up the other. The Protestants 
 complained, but were answered that the 
 Letter of Majesty did not give them per- 
 mission to build churches on the lands of 
 ecclesiastics. This answer excited great in- 
 
562 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dignation iu Bohemia, and it was boldly 
 asserted that it had not come from the em- 
 peror, but had been prepared at Prague. 
 On the 23d of May, 1618, the Protestants 
 of Prague took up arms under Count Thurn, 
 marched to the royal council hall, and de- 
 manded to know the true authorship of the 
 reply to their remonstance. The councillors 
 hesitated, and two of them, with the private 
 secretary, were pitched out of the window. 
 The Protestants then seized the castle and 
 the government, expelled the Jesuits from 
 Bohemia, and appointed a council of thirty 
 nobles to direct the government, and made 
 an alliance with the Protestant party iu 
 Hungary, Austria and Germany The 
 Emperor Matthias was anxious to settle the 
 dispute peacefully, but Ferdinand, as King 
 of Bohemia, refused to listen to any offer 
 of accommodation, as he had now an oppor- 
 tunity not only to punish his rebellious sub- 
 jects, but also to destroy Protestantism in 
 his kingdom. The Elector Palatine sent 
 Count Mansfeld to the aid of the Bohe- 
 mians, and that general gave promise of his 
 future greatness by capturing Pilsen, one 
 of the three towns which alone remained 
 faithful to Ferdinand. Ferdinand sent two 
 armies against his revolted subjects, but 
 they were both severely beaten by Count 
 Thurn. To make the matter worse, Aus- 
 tria refused to take up arms for the subju- 
 gation of Bohemia, or even to allow the 
 imperial troops to pass through her terri- 
 tory. Thus began The Thirty Years' War, 
 destined to be the most terrible struggle 
 that had ever afflicted Germany. At its 
 very outset the Emperor Matthias died sud- 
 denly in 1619. 
 
 Ferdinand jJi'oceeded to Frankfort and 
 was there elected and crowned emperor. 
 On his way he visited Duke Maximilian of 
 Bavaria, and obtained from him a promise 
 that the Catholic League should support the 
 cause of the emperor with arms, and he 
 was also promised aid by Spain. It was 
 the intention of Ferdinand II. to utterly 
 destroy Protestantism in Bohemia, and then 
 to attack it in the other parts of the em- 
 pire. 
 
 Soon after the death of Matthias, the 
 Bohemian army under Count Thurn in- 
 vaded Austria and laid siege to Vienna, 
 where the Emperor Ferdinand was holding 
 his court at the time. By a bold stroke 
 Thurn might have taken the city and have 
 wrested the imperial crown from the house 
 of Hapsburg, but he delayed, and was at 
 
 length obliged to raise the siege and hastea 
 to Bohemia to protect Prague, which was 
 threatened by an imperial army. 
 
 About the time that Ferdinand II. was 
 elected Emperor of Germany, the Bohemi- 
 ans renounced their allegiance to him, and 
 in his place elected the young Elector Pala- 
 tine, Frederick V., as king. They chose 
 him partly because they believed that his 
 personal qualities suited him for the po- 
 sition, and partly because they supposed 
 that his father-in-law, James I. of Eng- 
 land, would assist him to maintain his 
 crown. In opposition to the advice of all 
 his friends, Frederick accepted the Bohe- 
 mian throne, and was crowned at Prague 
 on the 4th of November, 1619. His situ- 
 ation from the first required him to put 
 forth every energy to meet the determined 
 effort which it was certain the emperor 
 would make to drive him out of Bohemia^ 
 but he wasted his time in idle pomp and 
 luxury, and allowed his favorite court chap- 
 lain, who had come Avith him from the 
 Rhine, to offend the religious opinions of 
 the Bohemians in the rudest manner. He 
 also alienated the army by replacing its 
 tried leaders, Counts Mansfeld and Thurn, 
 with his own favorites. James I. of Eng- 
 land soon showed that not even the interests 
 of his children could draw him out of his 
 selfishness, and the other Protestant princes 
 stood coldly aloof It was evident to the 
 Bohemians that they must meet the emperor 
 alone, and with such a king they could not 
 entertain any reasonable hope of success. 
 The Protestant Union concluded a peace 
 with the Catholic League. The Palatinate 
 was also laid open to the invasion of the 
 Spanish troops from the Netherlands. 
 
 In August, 1620, the forces of the Cath- 
 olic League, under the Duke of Bavaria 
 and Count Tilly, invaded Bohemia, and at 
 the same time the Spaniards entered the 
 Palatinate. Frederick, with singular folly, 
 alienated Count Mansfeld, his best general, 
 by his bad treatment of him, and in No- 
 vember his army was routed by Count Tilly 
 at Weissenberg, near Prague. Frederick 
 and his queen were obliged to fly from Bo- 
 hemia, and as they could not return to the 
 Palatinate, which was in the hands of the 
 Spaniards, they took refuge in Silesia, and 
 afterwards in Holland. 
 
 Ferdinand was now master of Bohemia, 
 and proceeded to take a bloody vengeance 
 upon it. The Protestant leaders were 
 put to death, the Protestant clergy banished. 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 563 
 
 and the tombs of the reformers were de- 
 stroyed and their bones burned. Finally 
 the Roman Catholic religion was established 
 by law, and all others forbidden under se- 
 vere penalties. Thirty thousand families 
 fled from the country. Ferdinand did not 
 entirely succeed in destroying the Protes- 
 tant faith. Multitudes held it in secret, and 
 when, near the close of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, religious toleration was once more 
 proclaimed in Bohemia, the government 
 was astonished by the numbers who de- 
 
 quered by Count Tilly, and was transferred 
 together with the electoral title to Duke 
 Maximilian. The splendid library of Hei- 
 delberg, one of the most valuable in the 
 world, was destroyed by the Catholic forces. 
 Its rare manuscripts were used in part as a 
 substitute for straw to stable the horses of 
 Tilly's cavalry ; but a part was fortunately 
 preserved by Duke Maximilian, and pre- 
 sented to the pope, by whom they were 
 placed in the collection of the Vatican. 
 The union was compelled to disband its 
 
 HEIDELBERG. 
 
 clared themselves Protestants. The char- 
 acter of Bohemia was entirely changed. 
 It was no longer the seat of learning and 
 intelligence, and its commerce was destroyed 
 by the murder and exile of the Protestants. 
 The emperor next silenced Protestantism in 
 upper and lower Austria in the same bar- 
 barous manner, and his severity brought on 
 a war in 1626, known as the Peasants' In- 
 surrection. It was with difficulty sup- 
 pressed by the combined forces of Austria 
 and Bavaria. The Palatinate was con- 
 
 forces, and its organization was broken up 
 in 1622. It seemed to most observers that 
 the emperor had triumphed over all his ene- 
 mies, and had established his power beyond 
 dispute. In reality, the Thirty Years' "War 
 had only begun. 
 
 The success of Ferdinand and his avowed 
 designs against Protestantism had caused 
 the Protestant princes of continental Eu- 
 rope to regret their indifference in the early 
 part of the war, and they now began to see 
 that their interests required them to oppose 
 
564 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 a determined and united resistance to the 
 emperor. Ciiristiau IV., of Denmark, en- 
 deavored to form a league of the northern 
 powers against him, but the measure was 
 defeated by the selfish indecision of James 
 L, of England. Count Mansfeld, Chris- 
 tian of Anhalt, and other Protestant leaders 
 were induced by him, however, to take the 
 field once more, and King Christian him- 
 self accepted the military command of the 
 Circle of lower Saxony. 
 
 Thus far the successes of Ferdinand had 
 been gained not by the imperial troops, but 
 by the army of the Catholic League under 
 Maximilian of Bavaria, and Count Tilly. 
 The emperor was very anxious to raise an 
 army of his own, but he had not the money 
 to do so. In this juncture Albert von 
 Wallensteiu, a wealthy noble, came to his 
 assistance. Wallenstein was a Bohemian 
 by birth, but of German descent, and had 
 been carefully educated at the University 
 of Padua, then one of the most famous 
 schools of Europe. There he imbibed the 
 belief in astrology which gave a deep color- 
 ing to all his after life. He offered to raise 
 an array for the emperor on condition that 
 he should be invested with the supreme 
 command. The emperor accepted his offer, 
 but stipulated that the troops should be 
 paid, not from the imperial treasury, but 
 from the plunder of the conquered countries. 
 The infamous bargain was concluded, and 
 in a short while Wallenstein was at the 
 head of an army of 30,000 as desperate 
 troops as ever waged war. He proved him- 
 self in his subsequent career a great general, 
 and earned the reputation of one of the 
 most unscrupulous plunderers of history. 
 He was soon created Duke of Friedland 
 and a prince of the empire. 
 
 The campaign was opened in 1625 by the 
 advance of King Christian from the Elbe 
 to the Weser. He was attacked and de- 
 feated by Tilly near Hanover. A much 
 greater success might have been won for the 
 emperor had Walleustein been willing to 
 co-operate with Tilly, but fortunately for 
 Germany, the two commanders were so 
 thoroughly jealous of each other that they 
 would never act in concert. Wallenstein 
 advanced eastward and defeated Count 
 Mansfeld at Dessau, in 1627. This victory 
 was soon followed by the death of Mans- 
 feld; and in the same year Christian of 
 Anhalt died also. Tilly took Miinden, in 
 Hanover, and prevented the junction of the 
 forces of the, King of Denmark with those 
 
 of the Saxon dukes, and a little later in- 
 flicted a crushing defeat upon King Chris- 
 tian at Lutter. 
 
 Walleustein in the meantime had been 
 supporting his army by plundering the 
 country and maintaining his troops at free 
 quarters upon the people. In the spring 
 of 1627 he and Tilly advanced northward, 
 ravaging the country as they went. The 
 King of Denmark was compelled to with- 
 draw into his own dominions, and Schleswig, 
 Holstein and Jutland were overrun by the 
 imperial armies. Wallenstein was anxious 
 to win over the Hanse towns to the impe- 
 rial cause, in order that Austria might be 
 as strong by sea as by land, and he at- 
 tempted to accomplish this partly by force 
 and partly by bribery. 
 
 Denmark, driven to desperation, looked 
 to Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, for aid ; 
 but that king was so much engaged with 
 his war with Poland that for a while he 
 could render no other aid to the Protestant 
 cause than to keep the Poles from sending 
 an army to the assistance of the emperor. 
 Wallenstein had a sincere respect for the 
 skill of this great prince, and endeavored 
 to induce him to join him in a partition of 
 the Danish kingdom, by which Sweden 
 would receive Norway and the province of 
 Schonen, while Denmark, and with it the 
 control of the Baltic, would pass to the 
 emperor or to Wallenstein himself Gus- 
 tavus refused to consider the proposition, 
 and as soon as he could sent assistance to 
 Christian IV. In consequence of this Wal- 
 lenstein was compelled to abandon the 
 siege of Stralsund, with the loss of nearly 
 half his army. This was the beginning of 
 the end of his remarkable career. Tilly 
 was soon after obliged to weaken his army 
 by despatching troops into Italy, and the 
 war languished in the north. In May, 
 1629, the treaty of Lubec put an end to 
 hostilities between Denmark and the em- 
 pire. King Christian abandoned the Prot- 
 estant i^rinces, and agreed to refrain from 
 taking any j^art in the affairs of Germany 
 except in his capacity of Duke of Holstein. 
 
 Ferdinand now felt himself strong enough 
 to put in force his measures against the 
 German Protestants. His first measure 
 was a most sweeping one, but as nearly all 
 Germany seemed to be in his power, the 
 moment appeared favorable for it. Since 
 the treaty of Passau a vast amount of what 
 had once been ecclesiastical property had 
 fallen into the hands of the Protestants. 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 565 
 
 These consisted of two archbishoprics, two 
 bishoprics, and other ecclesiastical lands. 
 The emperor now issued an edict called the 
 Edict of Restitution, by which he ordered 
 the restoration of all these possessions to 
 the Roman Catholic Church. In many- 
 Protestant cities the churches were closed, 
 and private worship was forbidden. The 
 action of the emperor did not actually vio- 
 late the letter of the treaty of Passau, but 
 it was generally regarded by the Protes- 
 tants as a piece of inexcusable tyranny. 
 
 Had the cause of Protestantism been left 
 to the care of the German princes, it must 
 have perished, for they showed themselves 
 singularly careless of it. Its best champion 
 now was the King of Sweden, who was in- 
 duced to take part in the struggle not only 
 by his zeal for his faith, but by the desire 
 to avenge his private injuries. He had 
 good grounds of quarrel with the empire. 
 Walleustein was seeking to obtain the con- 
 trol of the Baltic, which the commercial 
 interests of Sweden could never permit; 
 the emperor had given his support to the 
 attempt of the King of Poland to obtain 
 the Swedish crown ; and the ambassadors 
 of Sweden had been expelled from the Con- 
 gress of Lubec by force and with insults. 
 Gustavus desired to avenge these injuries, 
 and there is reason to believe that he also 
 wished to conquer territory in Germany, 
 and thus obtain a footing which would 
 justify him in claiming the imperial crown. 
 IJntil now he had been prevented by his 
 war with Poland from taking any part in 
 German affairs, but now a truce with that 
 country, which had been negotiated by 
 France, left him free to go to the aid of the 
 German Protestants. About the same time 
 the emperor seriously weakened himself by 
 removing Wallenstein from his command, 
 at the demand of the chiefs of the Catholic 
 League, who were jealous of him, and whom 
 the emperor feared to offend. Wallenstein's 
 army was disbanded in part, and the re- 
 mainder of his troops passed under the 
 command of Tilly. 
 
 Gustavus was supported by France, 
 which, although a Catholic state, was the 
 deadly rival of Austria, and was bent upon 
 her humiliation and the destruction of her 
 power in Germany. The Swedish king 
 deliberately arranged the affairs of his 
 kingdom, as if he never expected to return 
 to it. He appointed a council of regency 
 and intrusted the government to it. Then 
 confiding his daughter and heiress, Chris- 
 
 tina, a child of four years, to the fidelity of 
 the estates, he sailed from Sweden with his 
 army, and landed on the island of Rugen, 
 in Pomerania, on the 24th of June, 1630. 
 Wallenstein had just been dismissed from 
 his command, and nearly all his officers 
 had left the imperial army in disgust. Tilly, 
 who had succeeded Wallenstein, found him- 
 self at the head of a weakened and discon- 
 tented army. Everything seemed to favor 
 the invasion of the Swedish hero, 
 
 Gustavus brought with him an army of 
 15,000 men, a small force, but a compact 
 one, composed of highly disciplined and 
 sober, God-fearing men. The emperor at 
 first paid little attention to the arrival of 
 Gustavus withii his dominions, and the 
 imperial party generally believed that 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 " the Snow King," as he was contemptu- 
 ously termed by them, would not dare to 
 venture far from the shores of the Baltic. 
 Their ridicule was changed into surprise 
 and fear as Gustavus advanced steadily 
 into the interior, the fortresses of Pomerania 
 and Mecklenburg yielding in rapid succes- 
 sion to his arms. The imperial generals 
 laid waste the country, sparing neither vil- 
 lages nor towns, in the hope of preventing 
 the Swedes from obtaining either food or 
 shelter ; but all in vain. The Swedish army 
 continued its advance. Its ranks were un- 
 broken, and its discipline unimpaired ; it 
 never plundered or molested the people in 
 any Avay, and won golden opinions from 
 them by its scrupulous regard for their 
 rights. 
 
666 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The arrival of the Swedish king had been 
 regarded by the Protestant leaders with 
 coldness, as they feared to take such a de- 
 cided step against the emperor as their sup- 
 port of Gustavus would commit them to, 
 and they also feared that the king had come 
 to destroy the imperial rule only to impose 
 his own upon them. Gustavus compelled 
 the Duke of Pomerania to form an alliance 
 with him ; but the Electors of Saxony and 
 Brandenburg held aloof from him. This 
 lack of support obliged him to leave the 
 important city of Magdeburg, which would 
 have gladly joined him, to its fate. It had 
 resisted the edict of restitution, and was be- 
 sieged by Tilly, who captured and burned 
 it. It was sacked by the imperial troops 
 with a barbarity that has never been sur- 
 passed in history. 
 
 The cruelty with which Magdeburg had 
 been treated alarmed the Elector of Sax- 
 ony, who was soon converted into an open 
 enemy of the emperor by the invasion of 
 his dominions by Tilly with an army of 
 150,000 men. That general had been sent 
 by the emperor to break up the alliance 
 which some of the Pi'otestaut princes had 
 formed at Laipzig a short while before. 
 Tilly committed his usual terrible ravages 
 in Saxony, and the elector, in order to de- 
 fend his possessions, was obliged to make 
 an alliance with Gustavus, whom he joined 
 with a force of 18,000 men. On the 7th 
 of September, 1631, a great battle was 
 fought at Leipzig between the Swedish 
 king and Count Tilly, and resulted in a 
 decisive victory for Gustavus. The impe- 
 rial forces lost all their artillery, and their 
 rout was so complete that scarcely two 
 thousand of their troops withdi-ew from the 
 field in good order. Germany was placed 
 at the mercy of Gustavus by this victory, 
 and the road to Vienna was open, but the 
 king was anxious first of all to secure the 
 religious freedom of the empire, and he be- 
 lieved that this could best be done by in- 
 vading the territories of the Catholic 
 League, and destroying the power of its 
 members for oppression. He accordingly 
 left the task of invading Austria and Bo- 
 hemia to the Elector of Saxony, and turned 
 towards the Rhine, marching through 
 Franconia. He had little difficulty in re- 
 ducing the important towns and fortresses 
 in his way. Many places welcomed him 
 as a deliverer, and threw open their gates 
 with joy at his approach. The Rhine was 
 soon reached, and the important city of 
 
 Mayence, which was held by the Spaniards, 
 surrendered on the 13th of December. 
 
 Gustavus established his head-quarters at 
 Mayence. His approach to that river, 
 however, caused the French king to sus- 
 pect his sincerity, and the Elector of Treves 
 was induced to decline the protection of 
 the Swedish king and to admit a French 
 garrison into the impregnable fortress of 
 Ehrenbreitstein. Gustavus gave the French 
 no real ground for their suspicions, how- 
 ever, for as soon as he had cleared the 
 Palatinate of the Spaniards, he set out on 
 his return march to Franconia. Upon his 
 arrival at Nuremberg, he was greeted as 
 the saviour of the freedom of Germany. 
 From Nuremberg he proceeded to the 
 Danube, which he crossed, and, after taking 
 Donauwerth, drove back the imperial army 
 under Tilly to the Lech. Nothing but this 
 river lay between the king and Bavaria, 
 and Tilly exerted all his skill to prevent 
 him from crossing it; but by a bold and 
 rapid movement the Swedish army forced 
 the passage of the river. Tilly was mor- 
 tally wounded in the engagement, and Gus- 
 tavus advanced to Munich and occupied 
 that city. Maximilian of Bavaria fled to 
 Regensburg. 
 
 The danger which threatened the Empe- 
 ror Ferdinand was now very great, and it 
 seemed that all that he had secured during 
 his reign was about to be wrested from him. 
 Tilly was dead, and he had no commander 
 capable of opposing the great Gustavus. 
 The Saxons had overrun Bohemia, and 
 Gustavus was at Munich. In this emer- 
 gency the emperor had but one alternative 
 — to recall Wallenstein, and much as he 
 felt the humiliating necessity, he was forced 
 to accept it. Wallenstein had been plot- 
 ting for this result, and had secretly aided 
 the Saxons in their conquest of Bohemia 
 for the purpose of compelling the emperor 
 to recall him. When appealed to by Fer- 
 dinand, he haughtily declared his reluc- 
 tance to return to a position from which he 
 had been unjustly removed, and only con- 
 sented to accept the command upon condi- 
 tions which were both insulting and dan- 
 gerous to the emperor. Wallenstein 
 demanded that he should have supreme 
 power ; that the emperor should not inter- 
 fere with or give orders to the army under 
 any circumstances; that no prince of the 
 house of Austria should be with the army; 
 that the empei'or should make no military 
 appointments ; and that Wallenstein should 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 567 
 
 liave the management of all confiscated es- 
 tates. Wallenstein had fully determined 
 upon his future course. Ambition and re- 
 venge were his motives, and he accepted 
 the imperial commission only that he might 
 betray his ungrateful master and make his 
 ruin the means of establishing his own 
 power. He meant to drive back the 
 Swedes, and then bring the empire to his 
 feet, and in the end seize tlie imperial 
 crown. 
 
 As soon as it was known that Wallen- 
 stein was in command again, troops rallied 
 
 to any share of power in his army, and a 
 fortified camp was erected within a few 
 miles of the Swedish line. Both armies 
 remained inactive for nine weeks, both suf- 
 fering severely from disease. At last Gus- 
 tavus, finding that he could not draw his 
 adversary from his camp, stormed his in- 
 trenchments, and was repulsed with severe 
 loss. A little later the Swedish king with- 
 drew from Nuremberg and moved into 
 Bavaria. Wallenstein, much pleased to see 
 his old enemy Maximilian well beaten by 
 the Swedes, made no attempt to follow 
 
 VIEW IN STUTTGART. 
 
 in large numbers to his standard, and in a 
 short time he had collected an army of 
 40,000 men. He quickly drove the Saxons 
 out of Bohemia (1632), and at the urgent 
 appeal of the emperor turned into Bavaria 
 to rid his old enemy Maximilian of the 
 Swedish army. He endeavored to seize 
 Nuremberg, which would place him between 
 Gustavus and the Baltic; but the Swedish 
 king by a rapid retreat reached that place 
 before him. The Bavarian forces were 
 placed under the command of Wallenstein, 
 '^vho sternly refused to admit Maximilian 
 
 them, but marched into Saxony, intending 
 to reduce that country. About the same 
 time a revolt of the Austrian peasants gave 
 Gustavus an excellent opportunity to ad- 
 vance upon Vienna itself, which must have 
 fallen before him ; but as he received news 
 that Wallenstein was pressing the Saxons 
 very hard, he sacrificed his own interests to 
 those of the elector, and by a rapid march 
 northward reached Lutzen on the 15th of 
 November, 1632. 
 
 Wallenstein already held a strong posi- 
 tion on the plain of Lutzen, where he re- 
 
568 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 solved to await the Swedish attack. The 
 battle was joiued on the morning of the 
 16tli, and was stubbornly contested. Gus- 
 tavus was mortally wounded while leading 
 a calvary charge, but his troops, led by 
 Duke Bernhard, of Saxe Weimar, fought 
 with renewed fury to avenge his death, and 
 after nine hours of hard fighting, Wallen- 
 stein was obliged to withdraw from the 
 field, leaving all his artillery in the hands 
 of the Swedes. The victory was dearly 
 purchased, for in losing Gustavus Christen- 
 dom lost one of its truest and purest heroes, 
 the " first and only just conqueror that the 
 world has produced." 
 
 In March, 1633, a congress of the Prot- 
 estant powers of Germany, and the ambas- 
 sadors of France, England, Sweden and 
 Holland, was held at Heilbronn, to take 
 such action as the death of the King of 
 Sweden demanded. It was agreed that 
 Count Oxenstiern, who was administering 
 the government of Sweden during the mi- 
 nority of the young queen, should be vested 
 with the same dignity and powers that 
 Gustavus had held as protector of the 
 Protestant religion in opposition to the em- 
 peror and the Catholic League. Freder- 
 ick, the Elector Palatine, had died since the 
 battle of Latzen, and provision was now 
 made for his children by securing to them, 
 under the guardianship of their uncle, the 
 territories of the Palatinate which had been 
 won back by the Swedish king. The bish- 
 oprics of Bamberg and Wurtzburg were 
 erected into the duchy of Francouia, which 
 was conferred upon Duke Bernhard, of 
 Saxe Weimar. The duke captured the im- 
 portant city of Ratisbon a few months later, 
 and thus gained command of the Danube. 
 
 After the death of Gustavus the war 
 went OQ, the Protestant forces being com- 
 manded by the Swedish General Horn and 
 Duke Bernhard, of Weimar. Wallenstein 
 displayed scarcely any of his accustomed 
 vigor in the campaign of 1633, and gave 
 great dissatisfaction to the emperor, who 
 had begun to suspect the fidelity of his 
 commander. As time passed on it became 
 more and more apparent that Wallenstein 
 was seeking to make himself King of Bohe- 
 mia, and his dismissal was demanded by 
 his enemies, who constituted a powerful 
 party both at court and in the army. Al- 
 though the emperor kept up a friendly cor- 
 respondence with Wallenstein to the last, 
 the latter was informed by his spies of the 
 progress of matters at court. He thought, 
 
 however, that in the event of an open rup- 
 ture with the emperor, he could depend 
 upon the fidelity of his army, the principal 
 officers of which had sworn to stand by him 
 to the last drop of their blood. Ferdinand 
 was afraid to proceed to open hostilities, 
 and sought to accomplish his ends by 
 treachery, and at last succeeded so well that 
 in February, 1634, Wallenstein was assas- 
 sinated at his head-quarters in Eger by some 
 officers of an Irish regiment. The chief 
 instrument of the emperor in this dastardly 
 conspiracy was Count Piccolomini, an Ital- 
 ian, whom Wallenstein regarded as his best 
 friend. Thus perished one of the most re- 
 markable men Germany ever produced. 
 However treasonable his designs may have 
 been, he had not yet put them in execu- 
 tion, and he had laid the emperor under 
 the most sacred obligations of gratitude to 
 him by twice preserving his crown when 
 all seemed lost. Ferdinai^d conferred 
 liberal rewards upon the assassins, and pub- 
 licly thanked them, and showed his grati- 
 tude to Wallenstein by ordering three 
 thousand masses to be sung for the repose 
 of his'soul. 
 
 The command of the imperial array was 
 conferred upon King Ferdinand of Bohe- 
 mia, the emperor's son, who was soon joined 
 by the Cardinal Infant Ferdinand of Spain, 
 with an army from Italy. On the 26th 
 and 27th of August, 1634, a great battle 
 was fought at Nordlingen, in which the 
 Swedish army was routed with terrible loss,^ 
 its commander. General Horn, being 
 among the prisoners. This defeat was soon 
 followed by a treaty of peace between the 
 Elector of Saxony and the emperor, and 
 many other Protestant princes made haste 
 to desert the cause and secure a reconcilia- 
 tion with the emperor. There was a fair 
 prospect for a general peace, but it was pre- 
 vented by the intervention of France. Car- 
 dinal Richelieu, although a prince of the 
 Catholic Church, was determined to humble 
 the house of Austria. He had long 
 watched the struggle, and he now decided 
 to intervene actively, and negotiated a 
 treaty with Oxenstiern, the Swedish chan- 
 cellor, in which he agreed to aid Sweden 
 with men and money, in return for which 
 France was to be allowed to possess herself 
 of certain designated territory in Germany. 
 In accordance with this arrangement Duke 
 Bernhard of Weimar entered the French 
 service, and collected an army in the Rhine 
 country, while the campaign in Saxony and 
 
THE REFORMATION AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 569 
 
 Thuringia was conducted by the Swedish 
 General Banner. 
 
 la 1637 the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
 died, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdi- 
 nand III. The war went on vigorously. 
 It had been begun by the Emperor Ferdi- 
 nand II. to destroy Protestantism and ren- 
 der the imperial power absolute in Ger- 
 many ; it was continued by Ferdinand III. 
 to save what he could of the imperial do- 
 minions from the Swedes and the French. 
 He was a more tolerant prince than his 
 father, and was less under the influence of 
 the Spaniai-ds and the Jesuits, and he sin- 
 cerely desired peace. Nevertheless he prose- 
 cuted the war with vigor, and compelled 
 the Swedish General Banner to I'aise the 
 siege of Leipzig and retreat into Pomerania. 
 
 The war had changed its character. 
 Under Gustavus the Swedish army main- 
 tained a high state of discipline and scrupu- 
 lously respected the rights of the people of 
 the countries in which their operations 
 were conducted. Now that the firm hand 
 of the king was withdrawn, these same 
 troops became noted for their excesses, 
 which they carried to such a point that 
 their commander, Banner, himself an un- 
 mitigated profligate, declared that it would 
 not surprise him if the earth should open 
 and swallow up his army for its cruelties. 
 The German armies on both sides were 
 usually without pay, and with no regular 
 system of supplies. All the armies en- 
 gaged in the struggle lived upon the coun- 
 try through which they passed, robbing the 
 inhabitants and destroying their property 
 with a recklessness which brought starva- 
 tion and all its horrors to thousands of 
 the wretched people among whose homes 
 the military operations were conducted. 
 
 In 1639 Duke Bernhard died, and his 
 conquests on the upper Rhine fell into the 
 hands of France. The Palatinate was the 
 scene of constant hostilities, England and 
 Holland, whose rulers were the nearest 
 relatives of the young Elector Palatine, un- 
 dertook to aid him in the defence of his 
 possessions, but the Dutch army sent to his 
 assistance was defeated by the imperialist 
 forces, and his younger brother. Prince Ru- 
 pert, afterwards fjxmous in tlie civil war in 
 England, was made a prisoner and retained 
 in Germany for some time. 
 
 In the meantime the Swedes had recov- 
 ered from their losses in the north. In 1638 
 they defeated the imperial array at Elster- 
 burg, and the Saxons at Chemnitz. Fol- 
 
 lowing up these successes, they captured 
 Pirna, which they burned, and ravaged 
 Bohemia with fire and sword. More than 
 a thousand castles and villages were de- 
 stroyed by them. In 1641 Banner, by a 
 splendid march through the upper Palati- 
 nate, suddenly attacked Ratisbon, where 
 the emperor ^was holding a diet, and the 
 city escaped capture only in consequence 
 of a thaw, which prevented the Swedes 
 from passing the Danube. 
 
 In May, 1641, General Banner died, and 
 was succeeded by General Tortenson, the 
 most gifted of all the lieutenants of Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus. Until now the Austrian 
 territories had escaped the sufferings of the 
 war. Tortenson at once invaded them and 
 soon made himself master of Glogau, 
 Schweidnitz, and Olmutz. He then laid 
 siege to Leipzig. An army was sent to its 
 relief under the Archduke Leopold, but 
 was defeated with terrible loss on the site 
 of the great victory won by Gustavus in 
 1631. Three weeks later Leipzig capitu- 
 lated, and was obliged to ransom itself by 
 the payment of a heavy contribution. The 
 winter which followed was severe, but the 
 Swedish army continued its operations. 
 Freidburg was attacked by them, and an 
 imperial army was compelled to take the 
 field to defend it against them. Tortenson 
 raised the siege, and by a swift movement 
 through Bohemia compelled the imperial- 
 ists to abandon the siege of Olmutz. This 
 accomplished, he constructed a fortified 
 camp near Olmutz, from which he com- 
 manded the whole of Moravia, His forag- 
 ing parties extended their ravages up to the 
 gates of Vienna. 
 
 The French were equally successful on 
 the Rhine. We shall relate their conquests 
 in the French history of this period. In 
 1644 their armies, under Conde and 
 Turenne, won the whole valley of the 
 Rhine from Basle to Coblentz. In 1645 
 Conde defeated the Bavarians at Nord- 
 lingen, and won that town and Diukelsbiihl 
 for France. Turenne won great successes 
 in Flanders, and also captured Treves, 
 which was restored to the Elector Arch- 
 bishop, who had long been a prisonei*. In 
 1646 Turenne and Wrangel, with an army 
 of French and Swedes, inflicted a stinging 
 defeat upon the imperialists near Augsburg, 
 and overran Bavaria, inflicting fearful suf- 
 ferings upon the people. Conde won a 
 brilliant victory over the Archduke Leo- 
 pold at Lens, and the Swedish army under 
 
570 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Charles Gustavus, advancing into Bohemia, 
 assailed Prague, without accomplishing 
 anything of a decisive nature. Matters 
 "were in this condition when the war closed. 
 
 Negotiations for a general peace had been 
 begun in 1643. The obstacles to a treaty 
 were raised chiefly by France and Sweden, 
 who claimed large rewards for their ser- 
 vices during the struggle. At last, how- 
 ever, on the 24th of October, 1648, a treaty, 
 known as the Peace of Westphalia, was con- 
 cluded between the parties to the struggle, 
 and the Thirty Years' War came to an 
 end. By the terms of the treaty the em- 
 peror conceded religious freedom in Ger- 
 many, proclaimed a general amnesty, and 
 acknowledged the sovereign rights of the 
 several princes in peace and war. The 
 Protestants were to retain all the religious 
 property they had held in 1624, and were 
 to be represented equally with Catholics in 
 the Imperial Chamber. These concessions 
 applied only to Germany, but in Bohemia 
 and his hereditary Austrian dominions the 
 emperor refused to tolerate Protestantism. 
 The pope was greatly displeased with the 
 treaty on account of its concessions to the 
 Protestants, and subsequently issued a bull 
 declaring it null and void. The upper 
 Palatinate was retained by the Elector of 
 Bavaria, but the " Palatinate of the Rhine" 
 was confirmed to Charles Louis, the son of 
 the deposed Elector Frederick V., and a 
 new electoral title was created for him. 
 The Dutch and Swiss republics were recog- 
 nized as independent states. Western 
 Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, the sees of 
 Bremen and Yerden were ceded to Sweden, 
 which thus became possessed of the most 
 important points on the Baltic and North 
 seas. By the acquisition of this territory 
 the Swedish sovereign became a prince of 
 the empire, with three votes in the diet. 
 France was confirmed in her possession of 
 the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and 
 Yerdun, and was given all that part of 
 Alsace which belonged to Austria, the 
 Sundgau, Breisach, the fortress of Pignerol, 
 and the prefecture of ten imperial cities. 
 The Elector of Brandenburg received East 
 Pomerania, the archbishopric of Magde- 
 liurg, and the bishoprics of Halberstadt, 
 Minden, and Kamin. 
 
 The treaty of Westphalia was the first 
 efibrt to reconstruct the European system 
 of states by diplomacy. It was fatal to the 
 empire, which from this time existed in 
 Germany only in name. Instead of the 
 
 compact realm which Ferdinand 11. had 
 hoped to establish, Germany was split up 
 into several hundred petty sovereignties, 
 each with all the distinctive machinery of a 
 separate state, and bound together in a 
 nominal confederacy, with scarcely a 
 shadow of national feeling. The inter- 
 national authority of the emperor was at an 
 end. The power to conclude peace or war, 
 to build fortifications, to raise armies, or to 
 levy contributions for their support, was 
 taken from him and conferred upon the 
 diet, which was composed of the envoys of 
 the princes of Germany and the representa- 
 tives of fifty-three free cities. The diet was 
 required to meet at fixed times and at a 
 designated place. Among the results of the 
 war may be mentioned the dissolution of 
 the League of the Hanse towns in 1630, be- 
 cause of the inability of the towns to pay 
 the expenses in which the league involved 
 them. 
 
 Germany emerged from the Thirty 
 Years' War in a terribly crippled condition. 
 Between one-half and two-thirds of the 
 German people perished during the strug- 
 gle. The whole country had been laid 
 waste, many cities were in ruins, trade was 
 almost destroyed, and poverty was general. 
 No part of Europe has ever suffered so 
 terribly ; yet in spite of this, neither party 
 in Germany was satisfied with the treaty. 
 The Protestants felt that they had not re- 
 ceived the rights to which they were en- 
 titled, and the Catholics denounced the 
 treaty because it conceded too much to the 
 Protestants. The emperor was obliged to 
 forbid the publication in his dominions of 
 the bull of Pope Innocent X., which pro- 
 nounced the treaty "null, invalid, iniqui- 
 tous, and void of all power and effect." 
 The necessity of peace was imperative, and 
 the bull was disregarded by all the Catholic 
 powers. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE 
 DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 Eeign of Ferdinand III. — Leopold I. — Louis XIV. 
 of France Seeks the Imperial Dignity — Growth 
 of Prussia — Frederick William the Great, Elector 
 — Joins the Alliance against Louis XIV. — Defeats 
 the Swedes at Fehrbellin — Louis XIV. Seizes 
 Strasburg — Leopold Oppresses the Hungarian 
 Protestants — They Ask and Receive Aid from the 
 Turks — Siege of Vienna — Xcm' War with France 
 — Brutality of the French Soldiers— The Peace of 
 Eyswick— The Elector of Brandenburg Becomes 
 King of Prussia — The War of the Spanish Sue- 
 
PEACE OF WESTPAHLIA TO DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 571 
 
 cession— The Electors of Bavaria and Cologne 
 Join France— Marlborough and Prince Eugene- 
 Battle of Blenheim— Joseph I. Emperor— His 
 Vigorous Measures— Prince Eugene in Italy— His 
 Victories— Joins Marlborough in the Netherlands 
 — Battles of Oudeuarde and Malplaquet— Charles 
 VI. Emperor— The Peace of Utrecht— Close of the 
 War by the Treaty of Rastadt— The Pragmatic 
 Sanction— War with the Turks— Lorraine given 
 up to Stanislaus Leszczynski— Maria Theresa— 
 Efforts to Strip her of her Dominions- Pvapid 
 Growtli of Prussia— Frederick William I.— A Bru- 
 tal King— The Tobacco College— Harsh Treatment 
 of the Crown Prince— Frederick the Great Be- 
 comes King — His Government— Claims Silesia- 
 Invades that Country— The War of the Austrian 
 Succession— Desperate Situation of Maria Theresa 
 — Her Appeal to the Nobles of Hungary — Pro- 
 gress of the War — Peace with Prussia — Successes 
 of the Forces of Maria Theresa — The Second Sile- 
 sian War — Death of Charles VII. — Peace Between 
 Bavaria, Prussia, Saxony, and Austria — Treaty 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle— Francis I. Emperor — Home 
 Government of Frederick the Great — Maria The- 
 resa Determines to Regain Silesia — Frederick 
 Forms an Alliance with England — The League 
 Against Prussia — Frederick Invades Saxony and 
 Begins the Seven Years' War — Battle of Losowitz 
 — Victory of Frederick near Prague — He is De- 
 feated at Kolin — Invasion of Prussia by the 
 Allies — Desperate Situation of Frederick — His 
 Firmness — Battles of Piossbach and Leuthen — 
 Frederick Receives Aid from England — Beats the 
 Russians at Zorndoff — Is Defeated at Hoch- 
 kirchen — Frederick's Cause Seems Hopeless — 
 His Heroism — Is Defeated at Kunersdorf— His 
 Great Victory at Leignitz — Berlin Occupied by 
 the Austrians and Russians — Movements of Prince 
 Henry and Frederick in 1761 — Change in the 
 Policy of Russia — Battles of Buckersdorf and 
 Freiberg — Peace of Huhertsberg — Results of the 
 Seven Years' War — Death of Francis I. — Parti- 
 tion of Poland — Death of Maria Theresa — Joseph 
 II. Emperor — Death of Frederick the Great. 
 
 )HE remainder of the reign of Ferdi- 
 nand III. was uneventful. He 
 died in 1657, and was succeeded 
 /-^-m^ by his son, Leopold I. Louis 
 ^Y-^ XIV. of France was very anxious 
 ^K^ to obtain the imperial dignity, and 
 endeavored to bribe the electoral college, 
 but the temporal electors refused his offers, 
 and chose Leopold. The French king 
 never forgave his defeat, and throughout 
 his entire reign sought to humble and 
 weaken the empire, and to enrich himself 
 at its expense. Leopold was a weak, well- 
 meaning and incompetent sovereign, and 
 his reign was mainly a period of disaster. 
 These troubles Avere aggravated by the in- 
 difference which the German states mani- 
 fested to the interests of the empire. In 
 1667 Louis XIV. invaded the Netherlands 
 for the purpose of wresting a part of that 
 country from Spain. No German state 
 took part in the quarrel, and by the treaty 
 <jf Aix-la-Chapelle, iu 1669, Spaiu was com- 
 
 pelled to relinquish a portion of her posses- 
 sions in that quarter. 
 
 In the meantime Prussia had been stead- 
 ily growing in territory and in strength. 
 By the treaty of Welau, concluded in 1657, 
 Prussia became independent of Poland, and 
 in 1666 the duchy of Cleve and the coun- 
 ties of Mark and Eavensberg were added 
 to the Prussian dominions. These advances 
 were made under the guidance of Frederick 
 William, Elector of Brandenburg, called 
 the Great Elector, Avho was by far the 
 ablest of the German princes of his day. 
 He devoted himself to the task of improving 
 the fortunes of Prussia, and under him the 
 little state fairly began its remarkable ad- 
 vance to power and prosperity. In 1672 
 Louis XIV. declared war against the 
 united provinces Frederick "William, who 
 had long been suspicious of France, now 
 had serious cause to fear that the French 
 king would seek to absorb the new posses- 
 sions of Prussia, and he joined the united 
 provinces against him. The emperor and 
 King Charles of Spain did likewise. The 
 imperial army was placed under the com- 
 mand of Montecuculi, an able general. 
 The chief minister of the emperor was 
 Prince Lobkowitz, who was in the pay of 
 the French king. The spiritual electors 
 and the Bishop of IMiinster were in open 
 sympathy with Louis. These constituted 
 a powerful cabal, and hampered the move- 
 ments of the army to such an extent that 
 Frederick William became disgusted, and 
 made peace with the French in 1673. The 
 emperor was obliged to dismiss Prince Lob- 
 kowitz at length, and then Montecuculi was 
 able to act with more freedom. He won 
 some successes on the lower Rhine, but in 
 the upper Rhine country the French com- 
 mander Turenne gained an important vic- 
 tory over the Austrians. In 1674 it became 
 necessary for the Elector Frederick William 
 to take sides with one party or another, 
 and he again joined the alliance against 
 France. Denmark also became a member 
 of it. About the same time Sweden made 
 an alliance with France, and sent an army 
 into Brandenburg. Several other German 
 princes took sides with the French king. 
 The action of Sweden compelled the great 
 elector to leave the Rliine and defend his 
 own country. In 1675 he won a decisive 
 victory over the Swedes at Fehrbelliu, and 
 followed up this success by wresting from 
 them nearly all of Pomerania. In 1678 
 
572 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the treaty of Nimwegen was signed between 
 France, the united provinces, and Spain, 
 and the war was thus confined to the em- 
 peror and the French king. Peace was 
 made between them in 1679. The emperor 
 restored Freiburg in Breisgau to the French, 
 and Frederick William gave back to the 
 Swedes nearly all the territory he had won 
 from them in Pomerania. The great elec- 
 tor devoted the remainder of his life to 
 advancing the interests of his country, and 
 
 IMPERIAL AKSENAL, VIENNA. 
 
 is generally regarded as one of the ablest 
 rulers of Prussia, and the founder of her 
 present prosperity. 
 
 Although pledged to peace by the treaty 
 of Nimwegen, Louis XIV. did not cease to 
 annoy Germany. Under pretence that the 
 Austrian possessions in Alsace had not been 
 entirely delivered to France, he took pos- 
 session of many towns on both sides of the 
 Ehine, and in 1681 suddenly seized the im- 
 portant city of Strasburg, the key to all 
 
 south Germany. He at once proceeded to 
 render it impregnable, and in spite of the 
 universal protest of Germany, held on to it. 
 It was retained by France until 1870. 
 
 The emperor was unable to prevent these 
 outrages, as his energies were absorbed in 
 a war with the Hungarians and the Turks. 
 Leopold treated the Hungarian Protestants 
 with such severity that they were driven to 
 despair. Their only friend was Louis XIV. 
 of France, who, though a bigoted Catholic, 
 aided them as a means of 
 weakening the empire. In 
 their extremity the Hunga- 
 rians asked and received aid 
 of the Turks, who were also 
 urged ^ by Louis to attack 
 Austria. In 1683 a powerful 
 Turkish army entered Hun- 
 gary, and advanced rapidly 
 upon Vienna. The emperor 
 and many of the people fled, 
 but the city made a gallant 
 defence of several mouths 
 under Count Eudiger of Sla- 
 terenberg. When it was on 
 the point of yielding it was 
 saved by the arrival of an 
 army under Charles, Duke 
 of LoiTaine, and John Sobi- 
 eski, King of Poland. The 
 Turks were at once attacked, 
 and driven from their camp 
 by Sobieski. They retreated 
 into their own country. The 
 war was continued, aiad after 
 several defeats the sultan 
 consented to make peace. 
 The treaty of Carlowitz, 
 signed in 1699, closed the 
 war. 
 
 In the meantime war had 
 broken out again between 
 the emperor and France. 
 Louis began the contest on 
 the pretext that his nominee 
 for the dignity of Elector of 
 Cologne had not been appoiuted. The diet 
 now came to the assistance of Leopold, and 
 declared war against France. The French 
 army entered the Palatinate, and by the di- 
 rect orders of the king laid waste that 
 beautiful country. Towns and farm-houses 
 were burned, and the people were made to 
 suffer the most horrible outrages. Heidel- 
 berg and its splendid castle were destroyed ; 
 the tombs of the emperors at Spires were 
 broken open, the bones of the "great dead" 
 
PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 573 
 
 were scattered about, and their silver cof- 
 fius were stolen. These and similar out- 
 rages aroused a bitter hatred of the French 
 throughout all Germany — a feeling which 
 has never since died out. The emperor 
 shook off his indolence, and made vigorous 
 efforts to punish the French. He was ably 
 supported by Frederick of Brandenburg, 
 the son of the great elector, and the other 
 German princes, and a coalition of the Eu- 
 ropean jjowers, under the leadership of 
 William III. of England, was formed 
 against France. We shall relate the events 
 of this struggle elsewhere. It lasted seven 
 years, with varying success, and was closed 
 by the peace of Ryswick, between France, 
 England, Spain, and Holland, in 1697. The 
 emperor at first held aloof, but at length 
 gave his sanction to the treaty. France 
 surrendered Freiburg, Breisach, Philips- 
 burg, and the towns on the right bank of 
 the Rhine, but kept Strasburg. Germany 
 agreed to maintain the Catholic religion in 
 the surrendered towns. 
 
 Frederick AVilliam,the Great Elector of 
 Brandenburg, was succeeded by his son 
 Frederick III. This prince was dissatisfied 
 with his electoral dignity, and was ambi- 
 tious of higher honors. With the consent 
 of the emperor he erected his dominions 
 into the kingdom of Prussia. He could 
 not become King of Brandenburg, because 
 as elector of that country he owed a nomi- 
 nal allegiance to the emperor ; but as Duke 
 of Prussia he was independent. Hence he 
 chose to call himself King of Prussia. He 
 was crowned with great splendor at Ko- 
 nigsberg on the 18th of January, 1701. 
 This event, in reality one of the most im- 
 portant of the century, attracted very little 
 attention at the time. 
 
 The intrigues of the European powers for 
 the division of the Spanish dominions, and 
 the sudden death of the Electoral Prince of 
 Bavaria, are related in our account of the 
 history of France during the last century. 
 Charles II. of Spain died on the 11th of 
 November, 1700. He was induced a short 
 while before his death, and very reluc- 
 tantly, to declare Philip of Anjou, the 
 grandson of Louis XIV., his successor. 
 The emperor refused to abide by this ap- 
 pointment, and claimed the Spanish throne 
 for his son, the Archduke Charles, the son 
 of Margaret Theresa, the sister of Charles 
 II. of Spain. The Protestant powers took 
 up the cause of the emperor, as they 
 dreaded to see the Bourbons in possession 
 
 of the crowns of France and Spain. Such 
 a concentration of power in the hands of 
 this family they believed would render it 
 dangerous to the peace of Europe. They 
 had all come to regard Louis XIV. as 
 their great enemy, and they dreaded the 
 success of any movement that could add to 
 his power. The emperor possessed a de- 
 cided advantage over his rivals, in having 
 for the commander of his array the illus- 
 trious soldier, Prince Eugene of Savoy, 
 whose splendid exploits against the Turks 
 in the last years of the seventeenth century 
 had won him the baton of a field-marshal. 
 The new kingdom of Prussia had also en- 
 gaged to support the emperor in considera- 
 tion of his consent to its erection. The 
 " War of the Spanish Succession " began in 
 May, 1701, in the passage of the Alps by 
 Prince Eugene, and his entrance into Lom- 
 bardy with an army of Austrian, Prussian, 
 and Hanoverian troops. Marshal Catinat, 
 the French commander, was beaten, and 
 the French were driven out of the region 
 between the Adige and the Adda. Catinat 
 was succeeded by Marshal Villeroy, but he 
 was signally defeated by Eugene at Chiari 
 and Cremona. England and Holland now 
 entered into an alliance with the emperor. 
 The death of William III. of England, in 
 March, 1702, for a while disconcerted the 
 allies ; but his successor. Queen Anne, 
 promptly announced her intention to con- 
 tinue William's policy, and appointed Lord 
 Marlborough to the command of her forces. 
 On the 2d of October, 1702, the states of 
 the empire formally declared war against 
 France. The Elector of Bavaria and his 
 brother, the Elector of Cologne, at the 
 same time entered into a treaty of alliance 
 with France, and early in 1703 the French 
 crossed the Rhine and joined the Bavarian 
 troops. Marshal Villars, the French com- 
 mander, proposed to the elector to march 
 at once upon Vienna; but Maximilian 
 shrank from so bold a movement, and un- 
 dertook an expedition into the Tyrol. He 
 had some slight successes, and made him- 
 self master of Innsbruck, but was at length 
 driven out of the Tyrol by the people. 
 
 In 1704 Marlborough and Prince Eugene 
 united their forces and invaded the Bava- 
 rian territory, and on the 13th of August, 
 1704, defeated the French and Bavarian 
 forces in the great battle of Blenheim, near 
 Hochstadt. Among the prisoners was the 
 French commander. Marshal Tallard. The 
 French were compelled in consequence of 
 
574 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 their defeat to withdraw from Germany. 
 The Elector of Bavaria fled to the Nether- 
 lands, and his dominions were occupied by 
 the imperial army. Marlborough was 
 created a prince of the empire as a reward 
 for his great services. For some years he 
 had been in supreme command of the im- 
 perial forces, as the Emperor Leopold I., 
 while esteeming Prince Eugene for his 
 great ability, did not altogether trust him. 
 
 In 1705 the Emperor Leopold I. died, 
 and was succeeded by his son Joseph I., a 
 man of stronger and more energetic charac- 
 ter. He ditfei'ed from his father in another 
 respect also : he had perfect confidence in 
 Prince Eugene and allowed him a wider 
 field for the display of his talents. He 
 continued the war with France, and found 
 time also to crush several outbreaks in 
 Hungary. The cruelties of the Austrian 
 army of occupation drove the Bavarians 
 into revolt. The emperor succeeded in 
 quelling this outbreak after a severe strug- 
 gle. The Electors of Bavaria and Cologne 
 were put to the ban of the empire, and the 
 emperor resolved to put an end to the ex- 
 istence of Bavaria as a nation. Its terri- 
 tories were divided among several of the 
 German princes, and the upper Palatinate 
 was restored to the Elector Palatine, from 
 whom it had been taken in the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 Prince Eugene had been sent into Italy 
 to drive the French out of that country, but 
 in August, 1705, was defeated by the Duke 
 of Vendome at Cassano, and again at Cal- 
 cinate, in April, 1706. He repaired these 
 reverses, however, by a brilliant victory 
 over the French before Turin on the 7th of 
 September, 1706. In consequence of this 
 victory all Lombardy submitted to the im- 
 perialists, and the Archduke Charles was 
 proclaimed at Milan. In March, 1707, a 
 convention was signed with the French by 
 which they agreed to evacuate the whole 
 of northern Italy. Three months later the 
 imperialists captured Naples, and the Aus- 
 trian archduke was acknowledged King of 
 the Two Sicilies, as Charles III. Prince 
 Eugene now marched into the Netherlands 
 and united his forces with those of Marl- 
 borough. The allied commanders at once 
 assumed the offensive, and on the 11th of 
 July, 1708, defeated the French in the 
 great battle of Oudenarde. On the 11th 
 of September, 1709, they gained the great 
 victory of Malplaquet, the most stubbornly 
 contested battle of the war. 
 
 The Emperor Joseph I. died on the 17th 
 of April, 1711, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, the Archduke Charles, who thus 
 became the Emperor Charles VI. Charles 
 already held the Spanish Netherlands, the 
 Two Sicilies, and Milan, and the allies now 
 began to consider that the acquisition of 
 Spain, in addition to his imperial and other 
 possessions, would render him as dangerous 
 as Louis XIV. They therefore grew luke- 
 warm in his cause. Partly because of this 
 conviction, and partly for reasons connected 
 with the domestic questions of Great Brit- 
 ain, Marlborough was recalled to England. 
 Negotiations were opened for a peace be- 
 tween France and the allies, and on the 
 11th of April, 1713, the treaty of Utrecht 
 was signed. The Emperor Charles VI. re- 
 fused to accept this treaty, as he declared 
 he had been betrayed by his allies for the 
 sake of peace. His eflTorts were unsuccess- 
 ful in the campaign which followed, and on 
 the 7th of March, 1714, the peace of Ras- 
 tadt was signed between the empire and 
 France and Spain. By the terins of this, 
 treaty Charles resigned his claims to the 
 Spanish crown in favor of Philip V., but 
 received the Spanish Netherlands, the Twa 
 Sicilies, Milan, and Sardinia. A separate 
 treaty with France was signed at Baden on 
 the 7th of September, 1714, by which the 
 emperor ceded to France the imjierial fort- 
 ress of Landau, and granted a free pardon 
 to the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, and 
 restored them to their dominions. 
 
 The reign of Charles VI. was not alto- 
 gether fortunate. He had no son to inherit 
 his possessions, and in 1713 drew up a 
 Pragmatic Sanction, or a law which guar- 
 anteed the succession of the Austrian pos- 
 sessions to his daughter Maria Theresa and 
 her heirs, in the event of the failure of the 
 male line at his death. After considerable 
 negotiation he succeeded in securing the 
 acceptance of this law by the empire, and 
 induced the leading states of Europe ta 
 guarantee its enforcement. 
 
 In 1715 a war broke out with the Turks,, 
 and lasted until 1718. The genius of 
 Prince Eugene won substantial advantages 
 for the empire, and by the treaty of Passar- 
 owitz, which closed the war, the Turks were 
 compelled to surrender Belgrade and other 
 towns, together with a considerable amount 
 of territory, to Austria. 
 
 In 1733 Augustus II. of Poland died. 
 The emperor and the Czar of Russia sup- 
 ported the claims of his son Frederick 
 
PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 575 
 
 Augustus, Elector of Saxony, while France 
 sustained Stanislaus Leszczynski, the father- 
 in-law of Louis XV. Out of this quarrel 
 grew the War of the Polish Succession. 
 It was continued until 1735, but the third 
 treaty of Vienna was not signed until 1738. 
 Augustus III. succeeded in obtaining the 
 Polish crown, but the war was one of un- 
 mitigated disaster to the emperor. He was 
 obliged to relinquish the beautiful duchy 
 of Lorraine to Stanislaus Leszczynski, from 
 whom the duchy passed to France and be- 
 came a part of that kingdom. Francis, the 
 reigning Duke of Lorraine, was married to 
 Maria Theresa, the daughter of the em- 
 peror, who bestowed upon him the grand 
 duchy of Tuscany ; for which, together with 
 Parma, Charles had been obliged to sur- 
 render the Two Sicilies. Charles VI. died 
 on the 21st of October, 1740, and with him 
 ended the male line of the house of Haps- 
 burg. 
 
 Maria Theresa was twenty -four years old, 
 and succeeded her father on the thrones of 
 Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. Not- 
 withstanding the guarantee given her father 
 by the European powers, she soon found 
 herself opposed by nearly all of them, who 
 sought to wrest her dominions from her and 
 divide them among themselves. England, 
 Russia, Prussia, and the United Nether- 
 lands gave her friendly assurances; but the 
 French king dissembled his intentions, and 
 the Elector of Bavaria boldly claimed the 
 Austrian territories in his own right as a 
 descendant of the Emperor Ferdinand II., 
 and in right of his wife, who was the daugh- 
 ter of Joseph I. The King of Poland had 
 guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, but he 
 now claimed the Austrian dominions in 
 right of his wife, who was a daughter of 
 Joseph I., and joined the secret alliance of 
 France, Bavaria, and Spain against Maria 
 Theresa. A little later this alliance was 
 joined by the Kings of Prussia and Sar- 
 dinia, the Elector of Cologne, and the 
 Elector Palatine. The object of the league 
 was to make Charles Albert of Bavaria 
 emperor, and to divide the Austrian pos- 
 sessions among its various members. Thus 
 Maria Theresa was left with only England 
 as her ally; The Empress Elizabeth of 
 Russia was friendly to her, but was so 
 much engaged in a war with Sweden that 
 she could render her no assistance. The 
 struggle which now ensued is known as 
 "The AVar of the Austrian Succession." 
 The first blow was struck by the King of 
 
 Prussia. Before relating the events of this 
 war, it is necessary to go back and trace the 
 history of Prussia since the formation of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 Under Frederick I., the founder of the 
 monarchy, the Prussian kingdom attained 
 the peculiar military character which has 
 since distinguished it. He did much to 
 develop its resources, but at the same time 
 he kept his people poor by imposing heavy 
 taxes upon them to enable him to support, 
 a luxurious and costly court in imitation 
 of that of Louis XIV. of France. He was 
 a sovereign of liberal and enlightened 
 views, and did much for the intellectual 
 advancement of his kingdom. He founded, 
 among other institutions, the University of 
 Halle and the Academy of Sciences at 
 Berlin. He died in 1713. 
 
 Frederick William I., who succeeded his 
 father, was a man of coarse and brutal na- 
 ture, and was given to the most furious out- 
 bursts of anger. He treated his family 
 with contempt and cruelty, and when they 
 made him angry or opposed his wishes, did 
 not hesitate to beat them with his stick. 
 He regarded learning and learned men 
 with profound contempt, which he exhibited 
 on all possible occasions. He conducted his 
 court with au economy which was simply an 
 unparalleled meanness. He was an invet- 
 erate smoker, and arranged the affairs of 
 state in what he called his "tobacco col- 
 lege." His generals and ministers w'ould 
 assemble in a plainly furnished room in the 
 palace, each provided with a pipe, and 
 there, amid clouds of tobacco smoke, the 
 affairs of the kingdom were discussed and 
 decided upon. Taxes were still high dur- 
 ing this reign, but the economy of the king 
 enabled him to lay by a large sum of money 
 for the service of the state. Though he 
 was an arbitrary tyrant, he was well served 
 by his ministers, and under him the king- 
 dom advanced steadily. He obtained from 
 Sweden in 1720 the city of Stettin, the 
 southern part of Hither-Pomerania, and 
 the islands of Usedom and Wollin. He 
 gave especial care to the army, and at the 
 time of his death Prussia had a force of 
 80,000 splendidly equipped and organized 
 troops. He had a passion for very tall 
 men, and used every effort to induce them 
 to enlist in his favorite regiment, the "Pots- 
 dam Guard." He had his agents in foreign 
 countries, and when "giants" could not be 
 procured in any other way, they were kid- 
 napped. 
 
576 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Frederick William seemed to take an 
 especial delight in maltreating his son, the 
 Crown Prince Frederick, a young man of 
 great abilities, and naturally of a warm and 
 amiable disposition. He had acquired a 
 considerable degree of education and cul- 
 ture, and his father set to work to conquer 
 his aesthetic tastes, and convert him into a 
 brute like himself. The process he adopted 
 was a very cruel one, and clouded Fred- 
 erick's youth with uuhappiness and suffer- 
 ing. In 1730 the prince attempted to es- 
 cape from Prussia and take refuge with his 
 aunt, the Queen of England. His plan 
 was discovered by his father, and he was 
 arrested and condemned to death by a court- 
 martial as a deserter. The king was with 
 difficulty persuaded to commute his son's 
 sentence to impi'isonment, but Lieutenant 
 Katte, the companion of Frederick's flight, 
 was beheaded, and the prince was com- 
 pelled to witness the execution. Such treat- 
 ment as this soured the naturally pleasant 
 disposition of Frederick, and in after life 
 made him moody, bitter and suspicious. 
 
 FrederickWilliamdiedontheSlstofMay, 
 1740, and was succeeded by his son Fred- 
 erick II., called "the Great." He was 
 twenty-eight years old, and in vigorous 
 health. He was possessed of great natural 
 abilities, and was destined to become one of 
 the greatest sovereigns of history. He at 
 once devoted himself with diligence to the 
 government of his kingdom, and his peoj^le 
 soon perceived that, though he was a more 
 enlightened prince than his father, he was 
 none the less a king. He took all the 
 branches of the government into his own 
 hands, and administered each according 
 to his own will, seeking counsel of no 
 one, and requiring his ministers merely to 
 record his decisions, and to execute his 
 orders. Prussia at once felt the impulse of 
 his vigorous policy. When the Emperor 
 Charles VI. died, Frederick was bound by 
 his pledge to that sovereign to support the 
 cause of Maria Theresa ; but he saw in the 
 necessities of the young queen the oppor- 
 tunity to extend his territories at her ex- 
 pense. He had a sort of a claim to a part 
 of Silesia, and offered through his ambas- 
 sador at Vienna to support Maria Theresa, 
 if she would relinquish this territory to him. 
 She returned an indignant refusal to his 
 demand. So sure had Frederick been of 
 her refusal that he had already ventured to 
 invade Silesia before the arrival of the Aus- 
 trian answer. He quickly drove out the 
 
 Austrians, and made himself master of the 
 country. In the spring of 1741 an Aus- 
 trian array, under Marshal Neipperg, under- 
 took to drive Frederick out of Silesia, but 
 was defeated in the battle of Molwitz. This 
 battle was won by the rapid and systematic 
 firing of the Prussian infantry, a system 
 which had been introduced into his army 
 by Frederick William I. Frederick was 
 nominally in command of his army, but he 
 was still a novice in the art of war, and the 
 victory was gained by the able Marshal 
 Schwerin. 
 
 The battle of Molwitz made the situation 
 of Maria Theresa almost desperate, and a 
 little later an alliance was formed against 
 her by France, Prussia, Bavaria, Spain, and 
 Saxony, A French army entered Germany 
 and united with the Bavarian forces, while 
 the Saxon army advanced into Bohemia. 
 The Bavarians marched into upper Austria 
 and occupied Linz, where the elector was 
 proclaimed Archduke of Austria, He 
 might have taken Vienna had he moved 
 promptly against that city, but becoming 
 jealous of the successes of the Saxons in 
 Bohemia, he undertook the conquest of that 
 country. He entered Prague on the 29th 
 of November, and was proclaimed King of 
 Bohemia. In January, 1742, he was chosen 
 emperor by the electors at Frankfort, and 
 took the title of Charles VII. 
 
 In the meantime Maria Theresa had ex- 
 erted herself to repair her disasters. She 
 fled to her kingdom of Hungary for pro- 
 tection, and hastening to the assembled 
 diet, with her infant son, afterwards Joseph 
 II,, in her arms, presented herself before 
 the nobles and deputies, and appealed to 
 them to maintain her cause. The chivalric 
 Hungarians were deeply moved by her 
 trust in them, and the hall rang with the 
 cry, "Let us die for our King, Maria The- 
 resa ! " An army of 100,000 men was raised, 
 and was joined by a strong force of Ty- 
 rolese. This force at once took the field. 
 One division under General Khevenhiiller 
 not only reconquered upper Austria, but 
 invaded Bavaria, and captured Munich on 
 the very day that Charles VII. was crowned 
 emperor. A little later an Austrian army, 
 under Prince Charles of Lorraine, was de- 
 feated by Frederick at Czaslau. This dis- 
 aster induced the queen to rid herself of her 
 most dangerous enemy by surrendering 
 upper Silesia and a part of lower Silesia to 
 him. Frederick was satisfied for the time, 
 and peace was made between Austria and 
 
APPEAL OF MARIA THERESA TO THE HUNGARIAN DIET. 
 
 677 
 
578 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Prussia in the spring of 1742. Frederick's 
 example was soon followed by the Elector 
 of Saxouy, and Maria Theresa had only 
 France and Bavaria to contend with. The 
 French were besieged in Prague by Prince 
 Charles of Lorraine, but managed to secure 
 their retreat and abandoned Bohemia alto- 
 gether, having lost about 48,000 men in 
 the war. 
 
 The Emperor Charles VII. was now re- 
 duced to the most humiliating condition. 
 He was abandoned by his allies, and his 
 hereditary capital was in possession of the 
 Austrians. He consented to relinquish 
 Bavaria on condition that his army should 
 be quartered in some neutral state of the 
 empire. The Queen of Hungary was pro- 
 claimed ruler of Bavaria; and about the 
 same time her cause received a decided ac- 
 cession of strength by the decision of Eng- 
 land to render her more efficient aid. In 
 June, 1743, an army, under George II. of 
 England in person, defeated the French at 
 Dettingen. 
 
 Frederick II. was now alarmed at the 
 successes of Austria, as he feared that in 
 the event of the war resulting in her favor, 
 she would seek to recover Silesia at the first 
 opportunity. He therefore entered into an 
 alliance, known as the Union of Frankfort, 
 with the emperor, the King of Sweden, 
 and the Elector Palatine. This alliance 
 was immediately followed by what is known 
 as the second Silesian war. Frederick in 
 1744 advanced into Bohemia and captured 
 Prague. A combined army of Austrians 
 and Saxons was sent against him, and he 
 was driven out of Bohemia and Silesia. In 
 the spring of 1745 Frederick regained 
 Silesia; but in January of that year an 
 alliance was formed between Austria, Eng- 
 land, Saxony, and Holland against the em- 
 peror and his allies. In the same month 
 Charles VII. died suddenly, and the state 
 of affairs was at once changed. Maximilian 
 Joseph, the young Elector of Bavaria, made 
 peace with Austria, and was allowed to keep 
 his hereditary possessions on condition of 
 finally surrendering his pretensions to the 
 Austrian crown and pledging his vote to 
 Francis of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's hus- 
 band, in the election for emperor. The 
 Queen of Hungary on her part acknowl- 
 edged the imperial dignity of Charles VII. 
 
 The war with the other allies went on, 
 and Frederick this year won two signal 
 victories over the Austrians at Hohenfried- 
 berg and Sorr. He then rapidly overran 
 
 Lusatia, and his lieutenant. Prince Leopold 
 of Dessau, defeated the army of General 
 Rutowski at Kesselsdorf. Dresden sur- 
 rendered without resistance, and Saxony was 
 at the mercy of Frederick. All parties 
 were now anxious for peace, and treaties 
 were signed between Prussia, Saxony, and 
 Austria, in December, 1745. The Elector 
 of Saxony received back his dominions on 
 payment of a large ransom, and Austria 
 ceded Silesia to Prussia. Francis of Lor- 
 raine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Maria The- 
 resa's husband, had been elected emperor 
 as Francis I. in September, 1745, and Fred- 
 erick now acknowledged him as emperor. 
 The war between Austria and France con- 
 tinued several years longer, and its events 
 belong to the history of the latter country. 
 It Avas brought to a close in 1748 by the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Austria re- 
 tained all her German territory, but was 
 obliged to surrender her Italian posses- 
 sions of Parma and Piacenza. 
 
 For the next eight years Germany was 
 at peace. Both Frederick and Maria The- 
 resa, for she was the real emperor, her hus- 
 band being merely an ornamental sovereign, 
 devoted themselves to the improvement of 
 their possessions. Frederick made great 
 changes in his kingdom. He simplified the 
 administration of justice, and brought it 
 within reach of all classes. He inspected 
 all parts of his kingdom once a year, en- 
 couraged useful industries, adorned Berlin 
 with splendid buildings, and with works of 
 art purchased abroad. Education was en- 
 couraged, and the king maintained a friendly 
 correspondence Avith the leading literary 
 and scientific men of France. He enter- 
 tained a warm admiration for Voltaire, and 
 in 1750 induced him to take up his resi- 
 dence at his court. They soon quarrelled, 
 and Voltaire had to quit Prussia. The 
 kingdom prospered under Frederick's wise 
 and vigorous rule ; especially the new prov- 
 ince of Silesia, whose increased prosperity 
 made the Empress Maria Theresa more 
 than ever determined to regain it. 
 
 Frederick was perfectly aware of her in- 
 tentions, and was assured that war was in- 
 evitable in a few years at the latest. He 
 knew that the European powers regarded 
 the rapid success of his kingdom with jeal- 
 ousy, and that he would soon be called 
 upon to maintain his crown against them. 
 He therefore gave great care to the army, 
 which he maintained at the highest point 
 of elficiency. Feeling that England, which 
 
PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO DEATH OF FBEDEUICK THE GREAT. 579 
 
 had liitherto aided Austria, was his natural 
 ally, he succeeded iu concluding a treaty 
 ofalliauce with that kingdom in January, 
 1756. Austria, on the other hand, made 
 an alliance with her old enemy, France, 
 and this league was soon joined by Saxony 
 and Russia. Its avowed object was the de- 
 struction of" Prussia. 
 
 Frederick was secretly informed of these 
 alliances, but he was not disheartened by 
 the overwhelming array of force against 
 him. The danger which threatened him 
 brought out the great qualities of his na- 
 ture in their highest perfection, and he re- 
 solved, since the war was inevitable, to gain 
 the advantages which would arise from 
 being the first in the field. It was all im- 
 portant to him that Saxony should not be 
 held by his enemies; and as that country 
 had joined the league against him, he re- 
 solved to attack it at once, befoi'e it was 
 ready for the war. In August, 1756, he 
 suddenly crossed the Saxon frontier with 
 an array of 60,000 men, and so began the 
 great struggle of The Seven Years^ War. 
 The Saxon army, 17,000 strong, at once 
 retreated to a strong position iu the valley 
 of the Elbe, between Pirna and Konigstein. 
 Their position was immediately invested 
 by Frederick. An Austrian army was 
 despatched to the relief of the Saxons, but 
 was defeated by a detachment from the 
 Prussian array at Lowositz, on the 1st of 
 October. The Saxons then made a desper- 
 ate attempt to break through the Prussian 
 line, but were driven back, and obli^'ed to 
 surrender. Frederick compelled the Saxon 
 troops to enter his service, but they were 
 dissatisfied, and a large number of them 
 deserted. 
 
 The enemies of Frederick now exerted 
 themselves to drive him out of Saxony. 
 The diet of the empire called on the Ger- 
 man princes to attack him as a disturber 
 of the peace of Europe, which was not true ; 
 for, although Frederick had been the first 
 to draw the sword, he had done so this 
 time in self-defence. The forces of Austria, 
 Russia, France, and all the German states 
 save Hesse, Brunswick and Gotha, were 
 soon in motion, and the league received a 
 new reinforcement by the accession of 
 Sweden to it. England collected a force 
 of German troops on the Rhine under the 
 Duke of Cumberland, the eldest living son 
 of the King of England. Austria and her 
 allies were able to bring into the field a 
 force of over 400,000 men, while the com- 
 
 bined armies of Frederick and the Duke of 
 Cumberland did not number half as many. 
 Frederick did not underrate the odds 
 against him, but hoped to atone for his in- 
 feriority in numbers by the superior disci- 
 pline and efiiciency of his army. His ene- 
 mies were already his superiors in strength ; 
 to allow them to unite their forces would 
 be fatal to him, and his only safety lay iu 
 adopting the daring plan of attacking them 
 separately and in detail. He accordingly 
 left a snrall force in Prussia to defend it 
 against the Russians and the Swedes, and 
 hastened with the bulk of his army into 
 Bohemia. The Austrians were astounded 
 by his sudden appearance before Prague on 
 the 6th of May, 1757. He attacked their 
 army under Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
 on the same day, near Prague, and inflicted 
 a crushing defeat upon it. A part of the 
 Austrian force retreated to Kiittenberg, 
 where Marshal Daun was stationed with an 
 army; but the larger part sought the pro- 
 tection of the fortifications of Prague. 
 Frederick purchased his victory at a heavy 
 cost; his most gifted lieutenant, Mars^hal 
 Schweiin, was killed while leading the de- 
 cisive charge. 
 
 Marshal Daun advanced to the relief of 
 Prague, before which Frederick remained 
 for several weeks after the battle. Fred- 
 erick at once moved to meet him, and at- 
 tacked him on the 8th of June, near Kolin. 
 At the very moment of victory Frederick 
 unwisely changed his plan of battle, and 
 his promised success was converted into a 
 disastrous defeat. Daun followed up his 
 victory by overrunning the greater part of 
 Silesia. This was the first serious reverse 
 Frederick had encountered, and it was but 
 the first of a series of disasters. The Rus- 
 sians defeated the force left for the defence 
 of Prussia, in a great battle at Gross Jiigern- 
 dorf, and a Russian fleet captured Memel. 
 Pomerania was invaded by the Swedes. 
 Brandenburg was open to the Austrians, 
 who iu October made a dash at Berlin, 
 captured it, sind held it for a few hours, 
 during which they exacted a contribution 
 from the citizens. To add to these disas- 
 ters, the Duke of Cumberland placed all 
 Westphalia in the hands of the French 
 (whose operations will be related iu the 
 history of that country) by the dastardly 
 convention of Klosterseven, by which he 
 agreed to disband his army and to yield 
 Hanover, Hesse, and the duchy of Bruns- 
 wick to the French. This act at a single 
 
580 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 blow deprived Frederick of all his allies on 
 the contineut. 
 
 The mill of Frederick now seemed inevi- 
 table, and for a moment he gave way to 
 
 the Austrians, and were advancing into 
 Saxony. Frederick resolved to deal them 
 a sudden blow and drive them back, and 
 marched at once towards the Saal. On the 
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 despair, and even contemplated suicide. 
 His true nature quickly asserted itself, 
 however, and he set to work to repair his 
 reverses. The French, freed by the con- 
 vention of Klosterseven, had united with 
 
 5th of November he encountered the allied 
 armies near the village of Rossbach. They 
 were greatly superior to him in numbers, 
 and attacked him with confidence, expect- 
 ing an easy victory. Frederick displayed 
 
PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 581 
 
 more than his usual vigor on this occasion, 
 and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the al- 
 lies, and drove them from the field. This 
 victory, one of the most memorable ever 
 achieved by him, greatly encouraged his 
 army, and it followed him with enthusiasm 
 to attempt the recovery of Silesia. On the 
 5th of December Frederick, with a force 
 of 30,000 men, defeated 80,000 Austrians 
 under Charles of Lorraine, at Leuthen, 
 inflicting upon his adversary a loss of half 
 his army in killed, wounded and prisoners. 
 Silesia was regained in consequence of this 
 victory, and Frederick, who was anxious 
 to close the war, made offers of peace to 
 Austria. Maria Theresa refused to treat, 
 and removed Prince Charles of Lorraine 
 from the chief command of her armies, and 
 bestowed it upon Marshal Daun. 
 
 A change for the advantage of Frederick 
 now took place in the affairs of England. 
 William Pitt became Prime Minister, and 
 determined to conduct the war policy of 
 England with greater vigor. The conven- 
 tion of Klosterseven was repudiated, and a 
 subsidy of $3,000,000 was paid to the King 
 of Prussia, and he was asked to select a 
 commander for the British forces on the 
 continent. He named Ferdinand of Bruns- 
 wick, the brother of the reigning duke, and 
 the war was resumed against France by 
 Great Britain and Hanover. In the course 
 of a few months after the opening of the 
 campaign of 1758, the French were driven 
 out of Hanover, Brunswick, East Friesland 
 and Hesse with great loss, and were com- 
 pelled to withdraw beyond the Rhine. 
 
 Frederick had a harder task, owing to 
 the greater number and the activity of his 
 enemies. He attempted to seize Olmutz, 
 but was unsuccessful. A large force of 
 Russians invaded Prussia in the summer 
 of 1758, and burned the town of Custrin, 
 but failed to capture the citadel. They 
 treated the people of the country with 
 great cruelty. Frederick, as soon as in- 
 formed of the invasion, left a force under 
 Marshal Keith to hold Silesia, and has- 
 tened into Prussia to drive out the Russians. 
 He came up with them at Zorndorf on the 
 28th of August, and at once attacked them. 
 The battle was contested with obstinate fury 
 all day — neither side gave quarter; but 
 towards nightfall the Russians were driven 
 back at all points, having lost 19,000 men 
 and 103 cannon. They retreated into Po- 
 land. 
 
 Frederick now marched rapidly to the 
 
 relief of his brother. Prince Henry, who was 
 hard pressed by the Austrians in Saxony. 
 Against the advice of his best generals he 
 took position in an exposed plain near 
 Hochkirchen, where he was surprised on the 
 morning of the 14th of October, by Daun, 
 who had perceived the king's mistake. The 
 Prussian army sustained a terrible reverse, 
 and was obliged to retreat with a loss of 
 9,000 men, and all its artillery. England, 
 France, and Prussia were now anxious to 
 treat ; but Maria Theresa, who was well 
 supplied with money for the prosecution of 
 the war, would listen to no proposal of peace 
 save one based upon the ruin of Prussia. 
 Frederick in a great measure repaired his 
 defeat of Hochkirchen, by retreating into 
 Silesia in such good order that Daun was 
 unable to profit by his victory. His opera- 
 tions in Silesia during the rest of the year 
 were so successful that the Austrians were 
 obliged to evacuate that province, and take 
 up their winter quarters in Bohemia. 
 
 The enemies of Frederick now resolved 
 to make a determined effort to crush him, 
 and the year 1759 witnessed the greatest 
 disasters Prussia had yet sustained. The 
 French made a vigorous effort to win back 
 the territory they had lost east of the Rhine, 
 and obliged Prince Ferdinand to retreat as 
 far as Bremen. He now turned upon them, 
 and on the 1st of August inflicted a sharp 
 defeat upon them at Minden, and regained 
 all the territory he had lost. 
 
 Frederick was not so fortunate. In the 
 spring of 1759 the Russians in heavy force, 
 under General Soltikoff, advanced towards 
 the Oder, and the Austrian army under 
 Daun and Loudon was strongly reinforced. 
 Frederick put forth all his energies to jDre- 
 vent a junction of the Russian and Aus- 
 trian forces. Hearing that the Russians 
 had crossed the Oder, he sent General 
 Wedel to check their advance, Wedel at- 
 tacked them at Kay on the 23d of June, 
 and was beaten, and the junction of the 
 Russian and Austrian armies was soon 
 after effected. The situation of Frederick 
 was now critical, and he resolved to attack 
 the combined armies with his whole force. 
 It seemed to him that the safety of his king- 
 dom required him to stake everything upon 
 a single supreme effort. He made provi- 
 sion for the succession of his brother Henry 
 to the crown in case of his death, and for 
 his regency in case he should be taken pris- 
 oner, and solemnly charged him not to con- 
 clude, under any circumstances, a peace 
 
582 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 disgraceful to Prussia. These arrangements 
 made, he marched agaiust the allies, and 
 encountered them on the 12th of August, 
 near Kunersdorf. He was defeated after a 
 desperate struggle, and his army was put to 
 flight, with a loss of 17,000 men. The mis- 
 fortune was so great tliat Frederick believed 
 himself ruined. He subsequently declared 
 that had the allies improved their advantage 
 Prussia must have succumbed. The Rus- 
 sian General Soltikoff Avas jealous of the 
 Austrians, however, and withdrew without 
 seeking to follow up his success. This gave 
 Frederick an opportunity to rally his forces, 
 and take the fic^ld again ; but his misfortunes 
 continued. Dresden was surrendered to the 
 Austrians, and a little later General Fink 
 was obliged to surrender his command of 
 5,000 nun to the Austrians at Maxen. 
 Marshal Daun occupied Dresden as his 
 winter quarters, and though Fredei'ick con- 
 tinued to annoy him for a while, the cold 
 at length drove him into winter quarters in 
 1760. 
 
 Tlie spring of 1760 found Frederick in 
 the midst of disasters from which there 
 seemed no esca|^. His enemies were gradu- 
 ally closing round him, and his resources, 
 never very large, were almost exhausted. 
 In the summer of this year General Fouque, 
 who had been intrusted with the defence 
 of Silesia, was defeated at Landshut by the 
 Austrians with a loss of 10,000 men, and 
 was made a prisoner. The French about 
 the same time defeated Prince Ferdinand 
 at Corbach and Kloster, and held the elec- 
 torate of Hanover during the remainder of 
 the year. Frederick attempted to regain 
 Dresden, but was obliged by Daun to raise 
 the siege. He then marched into Silesia, 
 where General Loudon was gaining con- 
 siderable success. He was closely followed 
 by the Austrians under Daun and Lasci, 
 who marched on either side of his army. 
 At Leignitz they effected a junction with 
 Loudon, and determined to surround and 
 annihilate the Prussian army. On the 15th 
 of August they attacked Frederick, and in 
 the bloody battle of Leignitz, which ensued, 
 the Prussian king gained one of his most 
 memorable victories. The result of this 
 battle was the deliverance of Silesia from 
 the presence of the enemy. Frederick's 
 troubles were not yet ended, however. A 
 force of Russians and Austrians marched 
 into Prussia, and on the 4th of October en- 
 tered Berlin. They held the city but a few 
 days, aud retreated upon hearing a rumor 
 
 that Frederick was advancing by forced 
 marches to the relief of his capital. They 
 destroyed its fouuderies and arsenals, and 
 levied a heavy contribution upon the citi- 
 zens. Frederick now resolved to risk every- 
 thing for the recovery of Saxony, and on 
 the 3d of October, with an inferior force, 
 stormed Daun's position at Torgau, and 
 gained a victory Avhich made him master 
 of the greater part of Saxony. Daun went 
 into winter quarters at Dresden; while 
 Frederick wintered at Leipzig. 
 
 The Austrian army under Marshal Daun 
 exerted itself in the summer of 1761 to re- 
 cover that portion of Saxony which had 
 been overrun by the Prussians, but Daun 
 found his plans thwarted at every step by 
 Prince Henry of Prussia, who, Frederick 
 afterwards declared, was the only general 
 that made no mistakes during the war. The 
 energies of Frederick were fully occupied 
 during the greater part of the year in seek- 
 ing to prevent the junction of the Russian 
 army under Butterlin Avith the Austrians 
 under Loudon. In spite of his efforts they 
 effected a junction on the 12ih of August, 
 and for some time held Frederick in check. 
 Their jealousy of each other was so great 
 that they were unable to accomplish any- 
 thing. At length Loudon moved off to 
 Schweidnitz, which fell into his hands on the 
 1st of October. Pie thus secured the greater 
 part of Silesia, and the Russians passed the 
 winter in Pomerania. On the 1st of De- 
 cember the important town of Col berg sur- 
 rendered to them. 
 
 The withdrawal of William Pitt from 
 the English ministry was a severe blow to 
 Frederick. Pitt had been his devoted 
 friend ; Lord Bute, Pitt's successor, was his 
 determined enemy. The new ministry with- 
 drew the subsidy Pitt had paid him, and 
 offered to abandon Prussia if Austria would 
 make peace. Maria Theresa would not 
 listen to the proposal, as she believed her- 
 self on the point of recovering Silesia. 
 
 Fortunately for Frederick the Empress 
 Elizabeth of Russia died on the 5Lh of 
 January, 1762. Her successor, Peter III., 
 was an ardent admirer of Frederick, and 
 at once made peace and entered into an 
 alliance with him. Sweden also made peace 
 with Frederick, who was thus enabled to 
 turn all his resources to the effort of de- 
 feating Austria. Being joined by his Rus- 
 sian allies, he advanced upon the Austrians 
 at Buckersdorf. While the armies were on 
 the march, news was received that Peter 
 
PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 583 
 
 III. had been murdered, and his wife, the 
 Empress Catharine II., who succeeded him, 
 ordered the Russian army to proceed at 
 once to Poland. Frederick succeeded in 
 inducing the Russian commander to conceal 
 his instructions for three days, and the allies 
 in the interval attacked and defeated the 
 Austrians at Buckersdorf, and gained a 
 complete victory. The Russians then with- 
 drew into Poland, and Frederick laid siege 
 to the important town of Schweidnitz, and 
 recaptured it on the 9th of October. On 
 the 29th of the same month Prince Henry 
 defeated the Austrians at Freiberg; and 
 these victories were rendered all the more 
 effective by the successes of Prince Ferdi- 
 nand over the French. In the winter the 
 Prussians overran Franconia, Bavaria, and 
 Suabia, and compelled the hostile German 
 princes to withdraw their forces from the 
 imperial army, and make peace. The em- 
 press-queen was thus left alone to continue 
 the war, for France, disheartened by her 
 reverses, was about to withdraw from the 
 struggle. Negotiations were therefore be- 
 gun f )r peace, and this time were successful, 
 and the treaty of Hubertsberg was signed 
 on the 15th of February, 1763, between 
 Austria and Saxony on the one hand, and 
 Prussia on tlie other. Maria Theresa re- 
 signed her claim to Silesia and left it in 
 possession of Prussia, and Frederick agreed 
 to ca«t his vote for her son, the Archduke 
 Joseph, at the next election for emperor. 
 
 The Seven Years' War had demanded 
 great sacrifices of Prussia, but it was on the 
 whole a gain to her. She entered it a small, 
 insignificant kingdom ; she emerged from it 
 one of the leading military powers of Eu- 
 rope, feared and respected by her neighbors, 
 and strong at home. She also took her 
 position as the rivd of Austria, for the 
 ascendency in Germany, a rivalry which 
 was destined to find a practical settlement 
 in our own day. 
 
 Under the vigorous rule of Frederick the 
 Great, Prussia improved rapidly. The 
 sufferers by the war were aided to regain 
 their prosperity by wise gifts of money and 
 corn. Order was restored, and the losses 
 of the war were before many years foro-otten 
 in the new reign of prosperity which Fred- 
 erick's liberal and disinterested measures 
 inaugurated. Silesia especially rewarded 
 his fostering care, and grew rapidly in 
 wealth and population. 
 
 In 1765 the Emperor Francis I. died, 
 and was succeeded by his son Joseph II. 
 
 The Empress Maria Theresa continued dur- 
 ing her lifetime the real ruler of the empire. 
 Seven years later Austria and Prussia 
 united with Russia in enriching themselves 
 at the expense of Poland. That country 
 had fallen into a state of chronic anarchy, 
 and taking advantage of its weakness, the 
 three powers named seized a large part of 
 it, and divided it among themselves. Rus- 
 sia received Polish Livonia and the country 
 between the upper waters of the Dwina and 
 Dnieper; Austria obtained East Galicia and 
 Lodomiria ; and Prussia received all of 
 Polish or West Prussia, save the important 
 towns of Dantzic and Thorn, and a part of 
 Great Poland. This acquisition joined the 
 kingdom of Prussia to Brandenburg, and 
 gave to Frederick a wealthy and populous 
 district, though a smaller one than that ob- 
 tained by eiilifT of his allies. 
 
 On the 29th of November, 1780, the 
 Empress Maria Theresa died, and her son 
 Joseph II. became the actual ruler of his 
 dominions. He was anxious to introduce 
 a system of reforms into them, and he cor- 
 dially hated the Jesuits who had educated 
 him. He caused over 6^ monasteries and 
 convents to be closed, and proclaimed reli- 
 gious toleration to all sects, the latter meas- 
 ure being partly due to the liberal views of 
 the emperor, and partly to a desire to im- 
 prove the industrial interests of the Austrian 
 dominions. The papal nuncios were in- 
 formed that they would henceforth be re- 
 ceived simply as envoys from a friendly 
 state. These measures were at once con- 
 strued by the Jesuit party r.s an attacl: upon 
 the church, and Pope Pius VI. visited 
 Vienna in the hope of arranging a settle- 
 ment with the emperor. Joseph treated 
 him with marked coldness, and would not 
 permit him to discuss the affairs of his do- 
 minions with him. From the church the 
 emperor endeavored to extend his reforms 
 to the state, and attempted to do away with 
 the privileges of the nobility and introduce 
 a uniform sy tem of administering justice 
 throughout his hereditary domains. His 
 intentions were good, but he attempted to 
 introduce his reforms with too much vio- 
 lence, forgetting that such measures are of 
 slow growth. 
 
 His restless disposition led him to under- 
 take long journeys to other countries, dur- 
 ing which lie visited Rome, Paris, St. Peters- 
 burg, the Crimea, and his provinces in the 
 Netherlands. Heproposed to Catharine II. of 
 Russia that she should conquer the Turkish 
 
584 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dominions and establish her capital at Con- 
 stantinople, while he should conquer Italy, 
 and thus between them revive the old em- 
 pires of the East and the West. At the same 
 time he endeavored to force the German 
 laws apd language upon the Hungarians, 
 and drove thera into insurrection. Upon 
 the death of his mother he was not crowned 
 King of Hungary in the capital of that 
 country, but at Vienna, to which city he 
 removed the ancient crown of St. Stephen. 
 He came near rushing into a war with Hol- 
 land, and was only prevented from doing so 
 by the armed intervention of France, which 
 was an ally of that country. 
 
 In the meantime Frederick the Great died 
 on the 17th of August, 1786, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his nephew Frederick William 
 II., a weak king, who was ruled by un- 
 worthy favorites. Fortunately Prussia came 
 to him in such excellent condition that his 
 own unworthiness did not mar her influence 
 in the affairs of Europe. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE DEJt'H OF FREDERICK THE 
 GREAT TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON I. 
 
 War Between Joseph II. and the Sultan — His Mis- 
 fortunes and Death — Leopold II. — The French 
 Revolution — Its Eflfect upon Germany — Francis 
 II. Emperor — War Between Austria and France 
 — Prussia Joins Austria — Battles of Valmy and 
 Jemappes — Russia and Prussia Seize a Part of the 
 Polish Territory— Revolt of the Poles— The Third 
 Partition of Poland — The Wars of the French 
 Revolution — The Treaty of Campo Formio — 
 Changes in the Empire — Austria Renews the War 
 with France — Coalition Against Napoleon — Bat- 
 tle of Austerlitz — The Peace of Pressburg — The 
 Confederation of the Rhine — Napoleon's Power in 
 Germany — Fall of the Holy Roman Empire — The 
 Austrian Empire — War Between Prussia and 
 France^Battle of Jena — Prussia Crushed by Na- 
 poleon—Battle of Friedland— The Treaty of Tilsit 
 — The Kingdom of Westphalia and the Grand 
 Duchy of Warsaw Set up by Napoleon — Austria 
 Renews the War — Battle of Eckmiihl— Ratisbon 
 Taken by the French — Napoleon Occupies Vienna 
 a Second Time — Battles of Aspern and Wagram— 
 Peace of Schonbrunii — Losses of Austria — Revolt 
 of the Tyrol — Execution of Hofer— Wise Meas- 
 ures of Prussia — Retreat of the French from Russia 
 •-Germany in Arms Against Najjoleon — The 
 French Driven Over the Rhine — Germany Free — 
 Fall of Napoleon — Congressof Vienna— Return of 
 Napoleon— Battle of Waterloo— Treaty of Vienna. 
 
 )N 1788 the Emperor Joseph II. un- 
 wisely went to war with the Turks. 
 He took personal command of his 
 army, but accomplished nothing, 
 and at home troubles were thicken- 
 ing around him. His reformatory 
 measures had produced only discontent and 
 
 insurrection. Nowhere were they more 
 stubbornly resisted than in the Austrian 
 Netherlands. A secret society was formed 
 in those provinces in 1787 for the purpose 
 of opposing him. Taking advantage of the 
 French Revolution, this society, which now 
 numbered 70,000 members, raised the 
 standard of revolt against the emperor, and 
 drove the imperial troops out of Flanders. 
 A declaration of independence and an Act of 
 Union of the Belgian United Pi-ovinces was 
 proclaimed at Brussels in January, 1790. In 
 Hungary the nobles, indignant at the at- 
 tacks of the emperor upon their rights, in- 
 cited the peasantry to revolt, and compelled 
 Joseph to abolish all his reforms in that 
 kingdom. The emperor sincerely desired 
 the good of his people in introducing these 
 measures, and their opposition caused him 
 much sorrow. This feeling and the in- 
 juries his health had received during the 
 campaign against the Turks brought on a 
 fatal sickness, of which he died, almost 
 heart-broken, on the 20th of February, 
 1790. 
 
 Peter Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
 brother of Joseph II., succeeded to the 
 Austrian crown as Leopold II. He was a 
 more prudent and cautious man than his 
 brother, and at once restored the old order 
 of affairs throughout his dominions, and so 
 brought back peace to them. On the 
 20th of September, 1790, he was elected 
 emperor. 
 
 The French Revolution caused great ex- 
 citement throughout Germany, and was 
 watched with the deepest interest. There 
 was a party in the country which hoped it 
 might prove the dawn of a system of gen- 
 uine reforms, and that its influences might 
 raise the people of the old world to greater 
 freedom than they had ever enjoyed ; but 
 the kings and princes naturally regarded it 
 with alarm. The country was full of French 
 refugees, who, being of the aristocratic 
 class, sought to induce the German states to 
 take up the cause of the captive royal 
 family of France. At last the Emperor 
 Leopold and Frederick William II. agreed 
 to support the French king. Leopold died 
 in the early part of 1792, before this plan 
 could be put in execution. 
 
 Francis II. succeeded his father, Leopold, 
 on the imperial throne. In April, 1792, 
 France, exasperated by the interference of 
 Austria in her affairs, declared war against 
 the emperor. The King of Prussia renewed 
 with Francis the alliance he had made with. 
 
DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT TO FALL OF NAPOLEON L 585 
 
 his father, aud a Prussian army under the 
 J)uke of Brunswick, aud accompanied by 
 the king himself, invaded France. The 
 events of this campaign will be related in 
 the account of France during this period. 
 The Prussians were defeated at Valmy, aud 
 the Austrians at Jemappes, and were driven 
 out of the country. The result of these 
 victories was that the Austrian Nether- 
 lands threw off their allegiance to the em- 
 peror and proclaimed a republic. The 
 French also passed the Rhine and occupied 
 Mayence, where they were welcomed by a 
 large part of the people. 
 
 The execution of Louis XVI. was fol- 
 lowed by a war between France, and Great 
 Britain, Holland, and Spain. The states 
 of the empire in a short time joined the 
 alliance. The events of this war will be 
 related in connection with the history of 
 France. 
 
 During this struggle the affairs of Poland 
 chiefly occupied the attention of the Ger- 
 man states. In 1793, taking advantage of 
 the helplessness of Poland, Russia and 
 Prussia seized a part of the Polish territory, 
 and divided it between them. Prussia re- 
 ceived the larger part of Great Poland, and 
 the cities of Dantzie and Thorn. This 
 acquisition of territory by Prussia aroused 
 the jealousy of Austria, which began to in- 
 trigue with Russia against Prussia, and 
 carried these intrigues to such an extent 
 that the King of Prussia gave a lukewarm 
 support to the war against France, and 
 seriously contemplated making peace with 
 that country. In 1794 the Poles, under 
 Kosciuszko, rose in revolt and tried to re- 
 gain their lost territory. Prussia under- 
 took to put down the outbreak, but it was 
 finally crushed by the Russian forces. In 
 1795 a secret treaty was concluded between 
 Russia and Austria for the third and last 
 partition of Poland. Prussia had now be- 
 come thoroughly distrustful of both of these 
 powers, and hastened to make peace with 
 France. On the 5th of April, 1795, the 
 treaty of Basle was signed, by which Prus- 
 sia ceded to France all her conquests on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, A little later 
 Hanover and Hesse-Cassel also made peace 
 with France. Prussia was now admitted 
 by Austria and Russia to the third parti- 
 tion of Poland, and obtained as her share 
 New East Prussia and Warsaw. Austria 
 received West Galicia. 
 
 The war between France and Austria 
 was now confined chiefly to Italy, Napo- 
 
 leon Bonaparte was in command of the 
 forces of the republic, and the Austrians 
 were defeated at every point. The war was 
 brought to a close by the treaty of Campo 
 Formio, on the 17th of October, 1797. 
 Austria ceded the Austrian Netherlands to 
 France, and relinquished her claim to her 
 Italian possessions, which were erected into 
 the Cisalpine republic. In return for 
 these she received Venice, Friuli, Istria, 
 Dalmatia, and the islands along the Dal- 
 matian coast. This treaty was distasteful 
 to Austria, however, and she gladly joined 
 the alliance of Russia and England against 
 France. The war broke out again in 1799, 
 and opened brilliantly for the allies. They 
 were successful over the French in every 
 direction. 
 
 The sudden return of Bonaparte from 
 Egypt, and his resumption of the command 
 of the French army, stayed the tide of 
 the Austrian successes in Italy. By a 
 rapid and daring march across the Alps, 
 he entered Milan on the 2d of June, 1800, 
 and on the same day the Austrians occu- 
 pied Genoa. We shall be obliged to relate 
 the events of the wars with Napoleon in de- 
 tail in the French history of this period, 
 and shall refer to them here only inciden- 
 tally. On the 14th of June the Austrians 
 were defeated in the battle of Marengo, and 
 by this defeat lost nearly all they had 
 gained in Italy. The successful advance 
 of General Moreau into Germany, and his 
 splendid victory of Hohenlinden, on the 
 3d of December, completed the disasters of 
 Austria, and the emperor found himself 
 unable to continue the war. On the 9th 
 of February, 1801, the peace of Luueville 
 was signed. It confirmed the treaty of 
 Campo Formio, The emperor ceded the 
 Austrian Netherlands to France a second 
 time, and agreed to her possession of the 
 German territories on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, which gave her that much coveted 
 stream as a frontier. The Batavian, Hel- 
 vitic, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics 
 were also recognized by the emperor, who 
 also gave the Margravate of Breisgau to 
 the Duke of Modena, and the archbishopric 
 of Salzburg, as a secular principality, to the 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, who received the 
 title of elector. The Landgrave of Hesse- 
 Cassel, the Duke of Wurtemberg, and the 
 Margrave of Baden were also created elec- 
 tors. All the spiritual electors were de- 
 posed save the Archbishop of Mayence, 
 whose see was transferred to Regensburg. 
 
5 So 
 
DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT TO FALL OF NAPOLEON L 587 
 
 Of all the free cities of the empire only 
 Liibeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, 
 Augusburg, and Nuremberg were allowed to 
 retain their freedom. 
 
 These changes were forced upon Ger- 
 many by Napoleon, who handed the Ger- 
 man people from one ruler to another, as 
 he deemed best for tlic interests of his own 
 country. His disregard of tlie rights of his 
 neighbors was clearly exhibited in 1803, 
 when he seized Hanover, which was a pos- 
 session of the reigning family of England. 
 Prussia protested against this seizure, but 
 took no further notice of it. 
 
 Austria was fully determined to renew 
 the war at the first opportunity, and in 
 1805 made an alliance with England and 
 Russia. This alliance was joined by 
 Sweden, and it was hoped that the French 
 would be driven across the Rhine, By a 
 series of bold and rapid movements, how- 
 ever. Napoleon entered Germany and was 
 joined by Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Ba- 
 den, which were more alive to what they 
 considered their own interests than to their 
 duty to the empire. The Austrian army 
 under General Mack was several times de- 
 feated, and was at length shut up in Ulm, 
 and obliged to surrender on the 17th of 
 October. By this surrender Austria lost 
 the services of 30,000 troops. On the 13th 
 of November Napoleon entered Vienna, 
 from which city he hastened into Moravia 
 to attack the Austrians and Russians, who 
 had united their forces. On the 2d of De- 
 cember these combined armies were de- 
 feated in the great battle of Austerlitz. 
 The Emperor Francis was so disheartened 
 by this reverse that he opened negotiations 
 for peace, and on the 25th of December the 
 treaty of Pressburg was signed. Napoleon 
 exacted the most humiliating terms of Aus- 
 tria. She was forced to give up Venice to 
 Italy, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg to Bavaria, 
 and her possessions in Suabia to Wurtem- 
 berg and Baden. For their services in 
 this campaign the Emperor Napoleon 
 raised the Electors of Bavaria and Wur- 
 temberg to the rank of kings, and the Ger- 
 man emperor was forced to recognize their 
 new dignity, and their independence of his 
 control within their own dominions. Han- 
 over was turned over to Prussia, which 
 power ceded Ansbach to Bavaria, and Clevc 
 and Neufchatel to France. A little later 
 Napoleon bestowed Cleve and Berg, the 
 latter of which he had received from Bava- 
 ria, on his brother-in-law, Joachim ]\Iurat. 
 
 Neufchatel he gave to his friend. Marshal 
 Berthier. 
 
 Napoleon was anxious to create in Ger- 
 many a power whose interests would be 
 identical with his own, and thus ^secure 
 himself its friendship and assistance! _ The 
 German spirit had sunk so low that it was 
 possible to carry out this idea, and the 
 German princes were willing to purchase 
 advantages for themselves at the expense 
 of the Fatherland. On the 12th of June, 
 1806, a league was formed by the Kings of 
 Bavaria and Wurtemberg, the Elector of 
 Baden, the Landgrave of Hesse, the Duke 
 of Berg, the Archbishop of Regensburg, 
 and some other princes, who formally de- 
 clared their withdrawal from the empire, 
 and acknowledged the Emperor of the 
 French as their protector. This league 
 took the name of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine, and agreed to support the Emperor 
 Napoleon in war with an army of 63,000 
 men. The Archbishop of Regensburg, wdio 
 had been Electoral Archchancellor of the 
 German Empire, was made the representa- 
 tive of the French emperor in the confeder- 
 ation, with the title of " Prince Primate." 
 
 The formation of the Rhenish confedera- 
 tion struck down at a blow the^ Holy 
 Roman Empire, which, revived in the 
 reign of Otto the Great as the true suc- 
 cessor of the empire of the Csesars, had 
 existed nearly nine hundred years. Its fall 
 was so complete that on the 6.h of August, 
 1806, the Emperor Francis II. resigned the 
 imperial crown. In 1804 Fraueis had 
 added to his existing title that of " Heredi- 
 tary Emperor of Austria," and after 1806 
 he was simply Emperor of Austria, which 
 title his successors have since borne ;_ but 
 this title of emperor is very different in its 
 sio-nification from that which Francis re- 
 signed upon the fall of the Holy Roman 
 Empire. Hereafter we shall speak of him 
 as Francis I. of Austria. 
 
 Until now Prussia had escaped the weight 
 of Napoleon's hand by remaining aloof 
 from German afiairs. Frederick Willmm 
 III., who had come to tlie throne in 1797, 
 was' very anxious to make Prussia the 
 leading state in Germany, and was indig- 
 nant at the formation of the Rhenish con- 
 federation, as it raised up a powerful rival 
 to Prussia in north Germany. Napoleon 
 had been for some time jealous of the inde- 
 pendence of Prussia, and was watching for 
 an opportunity to humble her. He now 
 dro-ve the Prussian king by a series of iu- 
 
 -'^ 
 
588 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 suits into a war with France. In 1806 
 Frederick William demanded that the 
 French troops should be withdrawn from 
 Germany, and coupled his demand with a 
 threat of war. Napoleon refused to yield 
 to this threat, and Prussia declared war 
 against France. The Prussian army was 
 unfit for the service required of it, being 
 greatly inferior to that which had won such 
 glory under the great Frederick. Saxony 
 was compelled to ally herself with Prussia, 
 and the Prussian army took position to de- 
 fend the kingdom against the French em- 
 peror, who immediately upon the declara- 
 tion of war marched rapidly into Germany. 
 On the 14th of October, 1806, the Prussians 
 W'ere defeated at Auerstiidt and Jena. The 
 Duke of Brunswick commanded the Prus- 
 sian army at the former place, and was 
 slain. Napoleon inflicted a heavy loss in 
 killed and wounded ujDon the defeated 
 army and took 20,000 prisoners. The re- 
 sults of the battle of Jena were most disas- 
 trous to Prussia. The few fortresses that 
 held out were reduced, and the few com- 
 mands still in the field were obliged to lay 
 down their arms. Magdeburg, garrisoned 
 by 22,000 men, surrendered without strik- 
 ing a blow. The king and queen fled to 
 Konigsberg, and Napoleon entered Berlin 
 in triumph. The whole kingdom submitted 
 to him so readily that he declared he knew 
 not whether to be proud or ashamed of 
 having conquered such a nation. He car- 
 ried away to Paris the sword of Frederick 
 the Great from the tomb of that hero, and 
 the car of victory from the Brandenburg 
 gate of Berlin. 
 
 After the battle of Jena a small Prussian 
 force joined the Russian army on the fron- 
 tier of that country. Napoleon moved for- 
 ward to complete his work, and on the 7th 
 and 8th of February, 1807, a great battle 
 was fought at Eylau between the French 
 and Russians. It was indecisive. On the 
 12th of June Napoleon gained the great 
 victory of Friedland, and became master of 
 Konigsberg and Tilsit, Dantzic had al- 
 ready fallen into his hands. A little later 
 he held an interview with the Russian 
 emperor on a raft in the Niemen, and the 
 treaty of Tilsit was signed on the 9th of 
 July. Prussia, unable to continue the war 
 without the assistance of Russia, was 
 obliged to agree to this peace. The Prus- 
 sian kingdom was literally dismembered by 
 this treaty. All of its territory between the 
 Elbe and the Rhine was taken from it, and, 
 
 together with Brunswick, Hesse-Cassel, and 
 a portion of Hanover, was erected into the 
 kingdom of Westphalia, which Napoleon 
 bestowed upon his youngest brother, Jerome, 
 The Polish territory of Prussia was taken 
 from her, organized as the grand duchy of 
 Warsaw, and was bestowed upon the Elec- 
 tor of Saxony, who was raised to the rank 
 of king by Napoleon. Dantzic was made a 
 free city. By these changes Prussia lost 
 5,000,000 of her subjects and the better 
 part of her territory. Frederick William 
 was also compelled to pay the sum of 
 140,000,000 francs for having made war 
 upon France, and to reduce his army to 
 42,000 men. Napoleon believed he had so 
 thoroughly crushed Prussia that she would 
 never be able to raise her hand against him 
 again. 
 
 Austria had been humbled, but not con- 
 quered, by the battle of Austerlitz, and 
 had been quietly preparing to attempt the 
 recovery of her lost territory. The time 
 when Napoleon was occupied with his war 
 in Spain was chosen as the best moment for 
 striking the blow. The enthusiasm of the 
 people was aroused by the appeals of the 
 Emperor Francis to them to aid him in an 
 effort for the freedom of the Fatherland, 
 and on the 9th of April, 1809, the Austrian 
 army, under the Archduke Charles, crossed 
 the Inn and entered the territory of Bavaria, 
 the ally of France. Napoleon hastened to 
 the scene of operations, and on the 22d of 
 April defeated the Austrian archduke at 
 Eckmiihl. The Austrians fell back to 
 Ratisbon, but were driven from that place, 
 and on the 13th of May Napoleon entered 
 Vienna for a second time as a conqueror, 
 A bloody battle was fought at Aspern on 
 the 21st and 22d of May, and the French 
 were forced to retreat. On the 5th and 
 6th of July Napoleon retrieved this reverse 
 by his decisive victory of Wagram. The 
 Austrian emperor, feeling himself unable to 
 continue the war, asked for peace. An 
 armistice was concluded a few days later, 
 and on the 14th of October the peace of 
 Schonbrunn was signed. Austria ceded 
 Carniola, Friuli, Croatia, and a part of 
 Dalmatia, with the seaport of Trieste, to 
 France, which organized these territories 
 into a separate government under the name 
 of the Illyrian provinces. Salzburg, with 
 its territory, was ceded to Bavaria, which 
 was allowed to retain the Tyrol ; and the 
 greater part of Galicia was divided between 
 the Emperor of Russia and the King of 
 
DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT TO FALL OF NAPOLEON L 
 
 589 
 
 Saxon V. The Austrian emperor formally 
 acknowledged the riglits and dignities of all 
 the sovereigns created by Napoleon. 
 
 During this war the Bavarians and the 
 French had been compelled to put forth 
 great exertions to retain the Tyrol, which 
 Avas devotedly attached to the Austrian 
 rule. After the treaty of Schcinbrunn was 
 signed, Austria advised the Tyrolese to lay 
 down their arms and submit to Bavaria. 
 Hofer, one of the patriot leaders during the 
 war, rebelled soon afterwards. He was un- 
 supported by his countrymen, and was be- 
 trayed into the hands of the French, who 
 shot him as a traitor, at Mantua, in 1810 — 
 a most unmerited and unjust fate. 
 
 The king and people of Prussia felt 
 deeply the humiliation to which their 
 country and all Germany were subjected by 
 the French. Prussia took her reverses to 
 heart, and learned wisdom from them. She 
 had been conquered by the superior skill 
 and intelligence of the French ; she would 
 yet beat them with their own weapons, and 
 she set to work to prepare herself for that 
 task. Stein, one of the ablest statesmen of 
 his day, was made prime minister by the 
 king. He introduced a series of vigorous 
 reforms, and induced the king to abolish 
 serfdom in the kingdom, to make the civil 
 service free to all classes, and to grant 
 municipal rights to the towms. These 
 changes infused new life into Prussia, and 
 Napoleon was quick to discern them, and 
 Frederick William was obliged to dismiss 
 his great minister as the enemy of France. 
 Stein fled to Russia for safety, but his sys- 
 tem was continued in his own country. 
 William von Humboldt succeeded in pro- 
 curing the establishment of a system of 
 compulsory education, which gave to all the 
 children of the kingdom a common school 
 education, and which has been the basis of 
 the wonderful success of Prussia during the 
 present century. The leading men of the 
 kingdom quietly but energetically sought 
 to prepare the people for the effort to win 
 back their freedom by arousing in every 
 possible way their patriotic feelings. A 
 society called the " Tugenbund," or " League 
 of Virtue," was organized, and embraced 
 within its ranks thousands of all classes, but 
 principally students and professors. Its 
 real, though secret, object was the libera- 
 tion of the Fatherland. The army was 
 limited by Napoleon to 42,000 men. It 
 was left at this figure, but as soon as the 
 troops were instructed in military exercises 
 
 they were discharged and their places filled 
 with new levies. In this way Gneiseuau 
 and Scharnhorst caused the whole nation 
 to be instructed in the art of war. In addi- 
 tion to the active array, two new classes of 
 troops were organized — the Landwehr, or 
 militia, designed to recruit the regiments in 
 the field, and the Landstrurm, or home- 
 guards, composed of older and married men, 
 and intended for the defence of the king- 
 dom in case of the defeat of the army in the 
 field. 
 
 At length the favorable moment came. 
 The disastrous retreat of the French from 
 Russia exposed them to the vengeance of 
 the Germans, and it was resolved to seize 
 the opportunity. On the 3d of February, 
 1813, Frederick William issued an appeal 
 to the young men of Prussia to rally to the 
 defence of the Fatherland. On the 18th he 
 entered into an alliance with Russia, and 
 on the 15th of ]\Iarch formally declared 
 war against France. His appeal to his 
 people was answered with enthusiasm, and 
 in a short while he found himself at the 
 head of a splendid army eager for action. 
 
 The united Russian and Prussian armies 
 at once advanced against the French, and 
 a battle was fought at Lutzen, near which 
 the heroic Gustavus Adolphus had died in 
 the arms of victory, on the 2d of May. The 
 allies were defeated, and retreated beyond 
 Dresden. Saxony now added her forces to 
 those of France. Napoleon attacked the 
 allies at Bautzen on the 20th of May, and 
 the battle was renewed the next day. It 
 resulted in the defeat of the allies, who re- 
 treated in good order into Silesia, without 
 allowing the French to secure a single 
 trophy of their victory. At the request of 
 the allies Napoleon granted an armistice 
 for three weeks, during which negotiations 
 for peace were carried on. The opposing 
 armies passed this time in preparing for a 
 renewal of hostilities. The efforts for peace 
 failed, and at the expiration of the armis- 
 tice Austria formally joined the allies, who 
 were also strcngthen'ed by the accession of 
 Sweden to their cause. 
 
 Upon the resumption of hostilities Napo- 
 leon sent an army of 80,000 men, under 
 Marshal Oudinot,'to capture Berlin. On 
 the 23d this force was attacked by the 
 Prussians under General Biilow, at Gross- 
 Beereu, and was defeated and driven to- 
 wards the Elbe. Napoleon in the meantime 
 had advanced into Silesia to attack Blucher, 
 but learning that the Austrians, under 
 
590 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Prince Schwartzenberg, were advancing 
 from Bohemia upon Dresden, he retreated 
 upon that place, leaving a force of 80,000 
 men in Silesia, under Marshal Macdonald, 
 to watch Blucher. Blucher had avoided 
 an engagement with the main body of the 
 French, but he now turned upon Macdonald 
 and defeated him in the battle of the Katz- 
 bach, on the 26th of August. On the 26th 
 and 27th the allies endeavored to drive the 
 
 tions with France. Napoleon met this 
 movement by a retreat from Dresden to 
 Leipzig, reaching the latter place on the 
 14th of October. On the morning of the 
 16th the allies attacked the French. A 
 terrible battle of two days ensued, and re- 
 sulted in the overwhelming defeat of the 
 French, whose losses footed up the appalling 
 total of 70,000 men. The loss of the allies 
 was 40,000. The result of the battle made 
 
 DRESDEN. 
 
 French from Dresden, but were unsuccess- 
 ful, and retreated towards Bohemia. Na- 
 poleon now directed his army upon Berlin, 
 but the movement was foiled by the defeat 
 of the corps of Marshal Ney by the allies 
 at Dennewitz, on the 6th of September. 
 The allies studiously avoided a general en- 
 gagement, though Napoleon strove hard to 
 draw them into it, and at length moved 
 from Bohemia into Saxony with the inten- 
 tion of intercepting Napoleon's communica- 
 
 it impossible for the French to continue to 
 hold Germany, and the deliverance of the 
 Fatherland was but a question of time. 
 Napoleon retreated from Leipzig to the 
 Rhine, which he crossed at Mayence on the 
 2d of November. 
 
 The power of the French was now utterly 
 at an end in Germany, and the German 
 princes who had adhered to Napoleon de- 
 serted him rapidly to save themselves. The 
 fortresses on the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula, 
 
DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT TO FALL OF NAPOLEON L 591 
 
 garrisoned by the French troops, surren- 
 dered to the allied forces, and the allies 
 proceeded to undo the work of Napoleon in 
 Germany. The Rhenish Confederation was 
 broken up; the kingdom of Westphalia 
 was overturned ; Hanover was restored to 
 the King of Great Britain, and the Elector 
 of Hesse and the Dukes of Oldenburg and 
 Brunswick resumed possession of the lands 
 of which they had been deprived. 
 
 Germany was now freed from the power 
 of Napoleon, and the allies resolved to 
 carry the war into France and crush their 
 great enemy, as they did not feel safe as 
 long as Napoleon occupied the French 
 
 restored to Germany all the territory she 
 had taken from her since 1792. 
 
 Napoleon being overthrown, the great 
 powers set to work to restore order to 
 Germany and to Europe, and for this pur- 
 pose a Congress of Plenipotentiaries was 
 held at Vienna. It began its sessions on 
 the 1st of October, 1814. Besides the plen- 
 ipotentiaries, there were present the Em- 
 perors of Russia and Austria, the Kings of 
 Prussia, of Denmark, of Bavaria, and of 
 Wurteraberg, and nearly all the German 
 princes. It was found that the settlement 
 of the questions before the congress was 
 full of difficulty. Each of the great 
 
 THE BELVIDEBE — VIENNA. 
 
 throne. The Rhine was crossed, and the 
 efforts of Napoleon to check their advance 
 were defeated, and on the 30th of March, 
 1S14, Paris surrendered to the invaders. 
 We shall relate the events of this campaign 
 in the French history of this period. On 
 the 31st of March, 1814, the Emperor 
 Alexander and King Frederick William 
 entered Paris at the head of their troops. 
 Napoleon was compelled to abdicate the 
 French throne, and was assigned the island 
 of Elba as a home, and Louis XVIII. was 
 made King of France. In May the first 
 treaty of Paris was signed between France 
 and the allied powers, by which France 
 
 powers was anxious to secure the chief re- 
 wards for its own services. Prussia de- 
 manded the annexation of Saxony to her 
 dominions as a compensation for her losses, 
 and Russia claimed the Avhole of Poland. 
 These demands were opposed with great 
 feeling by the other powers, and it seemed 
 likely that the congress Avould break up in 
 confusion, and the victors fall to fighting 
 among themselves More moderate coun- 
 sels began to prevail, when suddenly the 
 congress was startled by the return of Na- 
 poleon from Elba, and his preparations to 
 keep himself on the French throne. The 
 quarrels of the allies were hushed in the 
 
592 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 general alarm. Napoleon was declared an 
 outlaw, a new coalition of all the European 
 powers was formed against him, and new 
 armies were placed in the field. Germany 
 responded with enthusiasm to the call for 
 troops, and it was resolved that this effort 
 should end in the utter ruin of Napoleon. 
 
 The events which followed the return of 
 Napoleon, until his final overthrow, will be 
 related in the French history of this cen- 
 tury. On the 18th of June, 1815, the 
 great battle of Waterloo, called by the 
 Germans the battle of La Belle Alliance, 
 was fought, and in this great struggle the 
 Prussians decided the fortunes of the day, 
 and covered themselves with glory. The 
 defeat of the French was so overwhelming 
 that Napoleon made no further effort at re- 
 sistance. On the 7th of July the allies 
 again occupied Paris, and Louis XVIII. 
 returned to his thnme. On the 20th of 
 November, 1815, the second Treaty of 
 Paris was signed. The Germans were very 
 anxious to recover Alsace and Lorraine, but 
 the boundaries of France were arranged as 
 they had existed previous to 1792. An in- 
 demnity of 700,000,000 francs was exacted 
 from France and divided among the allies. 
 
 The Congress of Vienna continued its 
 sessions during the campaign of 1815, and 
 the common danger which threatened Eu- 
 rope made its members more inclined to 
 compromise their claims for the sake of the 
 general good. In June its sittings were 
 brought to a close in the Treaty of Vienna, 
 which arrange 1 the boundaries of the va- 
 rious states of Europe to the satisfaction of 
 the sovereigns, but without any regard to 
 the wishes of the people. Austria recov- 
 ered her possessions in Italy and Illyria, 
 and received the Tyrol, Salzburg, Vorarl- 
 berg, and the Innviertel. Prussia received 
 back the territory she had surrendered by 
 the Treaty of Tilsit, and obtained the grand 
 duchy of Posen, Swedish Pomerauia, the 
 northern part of Saxony, the duchies of 
 Westphalia and Berg, and the country 
 along the Rhine between Mayence and 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. Bavaria was allowed to 
 keep Ansbach and Baireuth, and received 
 the upper Palatinate of the Rhine, which 
 became known as Rhenish Bavaria, and in 
 return for lands ceded to Austria, was 
 given Wurzburg and Aschaffenburg. Han- 
 over was given some additional territory 
 and was erected into a kingdom. These 
 were the principal changes in Germany. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The German Confederation — Failure of the German 
 Princes to Keileem their Promises of Constitu- 
 tional Government — Desire for a United Germany 
 — The French Revolution of 1830 — Uprisings in 
 Germany — The Customs Union — Death of Francis 
 I. of Austria — Tyranny of the King of Hanover 
 — Death of Frederick William III. of Prussia — 
 Frederick William IV. — His First Measures — 
 French Revolution of 1848 — Its Eflect upon Ger- 
 many — Provisional Parliament at Frankfort — It 
 is Recognized by the Diet — The Schleswig-IIol- 
 stein Question — War Between the German Con- 
 federation and Denmark — An Armistice Con- 
 cluded — The Prussian Assembly — A New Parlia- 
 ment Summoned — A Constitution Adopted — The 
 King of Prussia Urged to Accept the Title of Em- 
 peror of Germany — He Refuses — Failure of the 
 Frankfort Assembly — Troubles in Austria — Revo- 
 lution in Hungary — It is Crushed by Russia — 
 Francis Joseph Emjieror of Austria — Efforts to 
 Unite Germany under the Leadership of Prussia 
 — The Austrian Party — Peace with Denmark — 
 The Italian War of 1859— William I. Becomes 
 King of Prussia — First Years of his Reign — Count 
 Bismarck — Jealousy Between Prussia and Aus- 
 tria — The Danish War — Denmark Gives up the 
 Duchies— Quarrel Between Prussia and Austria — 
 Prussia Makes an Alliance with Italy — The Seven 
 Weeks' War — Battle of Koniggratz — Austria 
 Humbled — Prussia Supreme in Germany — Aus- 
 tria Expelled from Germany — Wise Measures of 
 the Austrian Government — The North German 
 Confederation — France Jealous of Prussia — 
 France Makes War upon Prussia — Germany 
 United in Opposition to the French^The War 
 Begun^Battle of Sedan — Surrender of Napoleon 
 III. — Paris Invested by the German Army — Sur- 
 render of Metz — Siege of Paris — Progress of the 
 War^Yictories of the Germans— Formation of 
 the German Empire — The King of Prussia Chosen 
 Emperor — Capitulation of Paris — Close of the War 
 — The Germans Enter Paris — Meeting of the Impe- 
 rial Diet — Organization of the Empire — Hostility 
 of the Roman Catholic Church to the Empire — 
 Firm Measures of the Government — The Catholic 
 Clergy Refuse to Obey the Laws and are Punished 
 —Expulsion of the Jesuits — Friendly Relations 
 with Austria. 
 
 HE jealousies of the various German 
 states made it impossible to restore 
 the empire, and they therefore 
 joined in a league known as the 
 German Confederuiion, which con- 
 sisted of tliirty-nine states, includ- 
 ing the free cities of Ltibeck, Hamburg, 
 Bremen, and Frankfort. Each state re- 
 tained its independence in the management 
 of its own affairs, but for the direction of 
 the general interests of the confederation a 
 Federal Diet, consisting of plenipotentiaries 
 from each and all of the states, was estab- 
 lished. The diet was to hold its sessions at 
 Frankfort, and was to be presided over by 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 593 
 
 the plenipotentiaries of Austria. The mem- 
 bers of the confederation pledged them- 
 selves not to make war upon each other, 
 but to refer their disputes to the federal 
 diet for settlement, and not to form 
 any alliances with foreign powers which 
 might be hostile to any German state. A 
 federal army was formed, to which each 
 state was required to contribute troops ac- 
 cording to its population. The fortresses of 
 Luxemburg, Landau and Mayence were 
 
 constitutional government set up in its 
 place. The people were induced to believe 
 that the downfall of Napoleon would not 
 only secure independence for their country, 
 but would inaugurate the era of freedom 
 for which they had hoped so long. When 
 the power of Napoleon was broken, and he 
 was confined at St. Helena, the German 
 princes conveniently forgot their promises, 
 and continued their absolute rule. Austria, 
 under the guidance of Prince Metternich, 
 
 NEW MUSEUM AT BERLIN. 
 
 declared the property of the confederation, 
 and were garrisoned with federal troops. 
 The act of confederation required each 
 state to grant constitutional government 
 and religious and political equality to its 
 people. 
 
 This last requirement was a simple act 
 of justice. The German princes, at the 
 outset of the war of liberation, had prom- 
 ised their people that, if they would unite 
 for the freedom of the Fatherland, the old 
 despotic system should be abolished, and 
 38 
 
 became the resolute opponent of constitu- 
 tional government in Germany. Frederick 
 William III. of Prussia appeared at first 
 willing to fulfil his promise, but at length 
 evaded it by setting up a number of pro- 
 vincial diets. The German people gave 
 open expression to their disappointment, 
 but accomplished nothing by their mur- 
 murs. 
 
 Another result of the war of liberation 
 was the growth of the desire to reunite all 
 Germany in one great nation, such as it had 
 
594 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 been before the great interregnum (a. d. 
 1256). The confederation satisfied but a 
 small part of the German people, and was 
 o-enerally regarded as but a makeshift to 
 tide over the difficulties which followed the 
 peace of 1815. No thoughtful person ex- 
 pected it to last, and few desired its con- 
 tinuance. The professors and students of 
 the universities, and the educated class, 
 were anxious for a strong and united Ger- 
 many, and began to agitate for the purpose 
 of securing that end. The governments of 
 
 but in vain. Various outbreaks occurred 
 to show that it was alive and impatient of 
 its fetters, until at last, in our own day, its 
 hour of triumph came. 
 
 Austria and Prussia were but slightly 
 afiected by the French revolution of 1830, 
 but some of the smaller German states were 
 thrown into a ferment by it, A popular 
 rising took place in Brunswick, and the 
 duke, who was hated by his people, was 
 forced to fly for his life, and his palace was 
 burned by the people. His brother suc- 
 
 FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN. 
 
 the states were opposed to the movement 
 for unity, and showed their hostility by 
 dismissing the most active of the professors 
 and placing the liberty of the universities 
 and of the press under restrictions. It was 
 impossible to crush out the popular wish 
 for free government and unity, however, 
 and these feelings grew stronger with each 
 succeeding year. The governments of the 
 states and the federal diet sought ear- 
 nestly to crush the German spirit and to 
 prevent it from fulfilling its true destiny ; 
 
 ceeded him, and restored order by granting 
 the constitution demanded by the people. 
 Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Saxe Altenburg, and 
 Hanover were obliged to grant constitu- 
 tions more or less liberal in their character. 
 A disturbance occurred in Frankfort, and 
 as it was brought about chiefly by students 
 and journalists, the various governments 
 made it an excuse for treating the univer- 
 sities and the press with greater severity. 
 
 Some years before this Bavaria had taken 
 a step which did much to keep alive the 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 595 
 
 idea of German unity, and to show that it 
 was practicable. Louis I., King of Bavaria, 
 who had succeeded his father Maximilian 
 in 1825, made a treaty with Wurtemberg 
 for the purpose of regulating the customs 
 of the two kingdoms. This act gave rise 
 to the idea of a Customs Union, which 
 should embrace all Germany. In 1828 it 
 was carried into effect. Prussia was re- 
 garded as the power best suited to form the 
 centre of this union, and the greater num- 
 ber of the German states made treaties 
 with her for this purpose. This union 
 added greatly to the growing influence of 
 Prussia in Germany, and did much for 
 commerce. 
 
 On the 2d of March, 1835, the Emperor 
 Francis I. of Austria died. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Ferdinand, a weak and 
 incompetent prince. No change was made 
 in the Austrian policy, which continued to 
 be directed by Prince Metternich, the real 
 ruler of the empire. lu 1835 William IV. 
 of England died, and his brother Earnest 
 Augustus became King of Hanover. He 
 revoked the constitution of 1833 and set 
 up a less liberal one in its place. This pro- 
 duced an outbreak on the part of the stu- 
 dents of the University of Gottingen, which 
 was ruthlessly crushed by the new king, who 
 was a man of harsh and violent character. 
 
 On the 7th of June, 1840, died Frederick 
 William III. of Prussia, leaving his crown 
 to his son Frederick William IV. The 
 new king began his reign by granting an 
 amnesty to all political offenders, and his 
 language and conduct at the outset of his 
 career induced his people to believe that 
 in him they had found the constitutional 
 king they had long hoped for. Frederick 
 William IV. made Berlin the chief centre 
 of German learning and science, and did 
 much to adorn and impi'ove the city. He 
 also paid great attention to the welfare of 
 the people of the kingdom ; but he took no 
 step to bring about the reign of constitu- 
 tional government. In vain his people 
 appealed to him to grant them a constitu- 
 tion, and reminded him of the promises of 
 his father. The most he would do was to 
 summon to Berlin a United Diet, Avhich 
 met on the 11th of April, 1847. It was 
 simply a union of the vax-ious provincial 
 diets, and was in no sense a parliament, or 
 assembly such as the people desired The 
 king extinguished the last popular hope by 
 declaring to this body that nothing would 
 induce him to grant a constitution, or 
 
 change in any way the natural relation 
 between a king and his subjects ; for this 
 King of Prussia had very extravagant 
 ideas of the "divinity doth hedg-e about 
 mg. 
 
 In February, 1848, the third French 
 Kevolution broke out at Paris. The agita- 
 tion soon spread to Germany, where the 
 popular discontent was profound and uni- 
 versal. Germany was soon in a blaze of 
 excitement. All the races subject to 
 Austria rose in revolt, and a rising at 
 Vienna headed by the students compelled 
 the emperor, on the 13th of March, 1848, to 
 dismiss Prince Metternich, who fled to 
 England, and to grant freedom of the press, 
 a liberal constitution, and a national guard 
 to the several members of the empire. 
 
 At Berlin the people rose in arms, and 
 on the 13th of March and for several days 
 thereafter sharp conflicts occurred between 
 the citizens and the royal troops. The 
 king, after several days of hesitation, 
 promised the people, on the 17th of March, 
 to grant them a constitution. The people 
 demanded that the troops should be sent 
 out of Berlin, and on the 18th an immense 
 crowd assembled before the palace to urge 
 the demand. Two shots were fired by some 
 unknown parties, and a furious conflict 
 began between the troops and the citizens, 
 and Avas continued late into the night. 
 Many lives were lost, and it seemed that 
 the battle would be renewed with greater 
 fury the next day; but on the 19th, the 
 king yielded to the popular demand, and 
 declared himself " at the head of the move- 
 ment." Berlin was placed under the pro- 
 tection of the armed citizens, and the troops 
 were withdrawn. The ministry was dis- 
 missed, an electoral law was passed by the 
 united diet, and elections were ordered for 
 a national assembly. 
 
 The smaller German states, in the mean- 
 while, had taken the alarm. The princes 
 of nearly all of these yielded at once to the 
 storm, changed their ministries, and adopted 
 a liberal policy. King Louis of Bavaria 
 was compelled to resign his croAvn to his 
 son Maximilian II. In Baden a consider- 
 able party demanded a republic, and were 
 aided by " free bands " from Switzerland, 
 but as a rule the German people desired 
 simply constitutional government without 
 the abolition of royalty. Switzerland had 
 just escaped from a serious trouble. In 
 1846, under the influence of the Jesuits, 
 who were willing to ruin the country if 
 
596 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 they could not rule it, seven Catholic can- 
 tons separated themselves from the confed- 
 eration, and took up arms to maintain their 
 position. They were defeated by the fed- 
 eral forces under General Dufour, and 
 were compelled to resume their places in 
 the confederation. The federal govern- 
 ment subsequently broke up the convents 
 and expelled the Jesuits. In 1848 changes 
 were made in the Swiss constitution which 
 brought it nearer to that of the United 
 States, and this free land was not troubled 
 with revolutionary outbreaks during this 
 stormy period. 
 
 In the meantime the friends of German 
 unity endeavored to take advantage of the 
 popular uprisings to secure that end. A body 
 of 500 Germans from various states met at 
 Frankfort on the 21st of March, and consti- 
 tuted themselves a provisional parliament. 
 The federal diet recognized the authority of 
 this parliament, knowing that it was sustained 
 by the nation. The parliament summoned 
 a national assembly, the members of which 
 were elected by the people of the various 
 states. The national assembly met at 
 Frankfort on the 18th of May, 1848, and 
 established a provisional central govern- 
 ment, with the Archduke John of Austria 
 at its head. The archduke was acknowl- 
 edged by the various German governments, 
 and on the 12th of July the president of 
 the federal diet formally resigned into his 
 hands the power formerly exercised by that 
 body, and the German confederation came 
 to an end. A responsible miuistiy of seven 
 members was chosen by the archduke from 
 the leading members of the assembly. 
 That body spent so much of its time in use- 
 less discussions that the friends of the 
 movement began to fear that it would fail 
 to carry out the great work intrusted to it. 
 
 While these discussions were in progress 
 trouble v/as brewing between Germany and 
 Denmark. The King of Denmark, as Dukel 
 of Holsteiu, was a member of the German 
 confederation. The duchy of Schleswig 
 was entirely the property of Denmark, 
 although a large part of its people were 
 Germans This German part of the popu- 
 lation of Schleswig and the people of 
 Holstein asserted that, in virtue of a treaty 
 made in 1460, the two duchies could not be 
 separated, and that when the male line of 
 the Danish royal family should die out the 
 duchies would revert to Germany and their 
 connection with Denmark would cease. 
 The Danish kins: on the other hand claimed 
 
 that all of Schleswig and the greater part 
 of Holstein were irrevocably united to the 
 kingdom of Denmark. The German party 
 in the duchies appealed to the German fed- 
 eral diet for protection, but the matter 
 remained undecided until the death of 
 Christian VIII. in 1848. Frederick VII., 
 his son and successor, reasserted the Danish 
 claim to the duchies, and the German party, 
 taking advantage of the revolutionary 
 movements throughout Europe, rose in 
 arms against Denmark. King Christian 
 attempted to put down this outbreak by 
 force, but the cause of the duchies was 
 embraced by the German federal diet at 
 Frankfort, which sent an army to their 
 assistance under the Prussian General 
 Wrangel. The Danes were speedily driven 
 out of Schleswig, but their fleet blockaded 
 the ports of Germany, and did much 
 damage to the commerce of that country. 
 On the 27th of August an armistice for 
 seven months was concluded at Malmo. 
 A temporary government was set up for 
 this period, composed of two Prussian and 
 two Danish representatives. This arrange- 
 ment gave great offence to the national 
 assembly, and in Frankfort disturbances 
 took place which were quelled by the troops. 
 Two Prussian deputies were murdered by 
 the mob, and this produced very great 
 bitterness of feeling in the assembly, which 
 spent its time in useless quarrels instead of 
 in legislation. 
 
 The Prussian national assembly, to which 
 we have referred, met at Berlin on the 22d 
 of May, 1848. The radicals proved so im- 
 practicable, and were sustained in their 
 opposition by such a large number of the 
 people of Berlin, that in November the 
 government adjourned the assembly to 
 Brandenburg. The Left, or extreme party, 
 refused to leave Berlin, and the assembly 
 was dissolved by the government. The 
 king then summoned a new parliament to 
 meet on the 26th of February, 1849, and on 
 the 5th of December, 1848, published to the 
 people the draft of a constitution he meant 
 to submit to the parliament. The parlia- 
 ment met at the appointed time, but as no 
 understanding between it and the govern- 
 ment could be had, it was dissolved on the 
 27th of April. A parliament Avas chosen 
 under a new electoral law, and met on the 
 7th of August. It succeeded in harmoniz- 
 ing to a certain extent the desires of the 
 government and the people, and on the 6th 
 of February, 1850, the king took the oath 
 
FEOM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 597 
 
 to maintain the new constitution. Though 
 the new system was far from realizing the 
 hopes of the people, it was a great gain for 
 them ; and from this time constitutional 
 government may be said to exist in 
 Prussia. 
 
 The Frankfort assembly at length reached 
 the discussion of the constitution ; but by 
 this time the various German governments 
 had settled their difficulties, and were not 
 inclined to accept auy loss of power for the 
 general good. An 
 effort was made to ex- 
 clude Austria from the 
 confederation, but 
 failed, as the wish was 
 general that Austria 
 proper should remain 
 a part of Germany. 
 That government de- 
 manded that the em- 
 pire as a whole should 
 be admitted to the con- 
 federacy. It also at- 
 tempted to dictate the 
 form* of government 
 for the confederacy, 
 but on the 27th of 
 March, 1849, the ma- 
 jority of the assem- 
 bly decided that the 
 German empire 
 should be revived at 
 least in name ; that 
 the chief of the con- 
 federacy should have 
 the title of " Emperor ^ 
 of the Germans," and 
 that this title should 
 be hereditary in his 
 family. On the 28th 
 it was resolved to offer 
 the imperial dignity to 
 the King of Prussia. 
 This was done on the 
 3d of April. Freder- 
 ick William declined 
 the honor for the rea- 
 sons that he could not feancis 
 accept it without the consent of the Ger- 
 man princes, and that the constitution did 
 not give to the emperor sufficient power to 
 enable him to fulfil the duties of that high 
 station. This answer produced great dis- 
 appointment in Germany, and was fatal to 
 the effort for union. A few of the states 
 accepted the new constitution ; but Austria, 
 Prussia, Hanover, and the other leadiutr 
 
 states withdrew their representatives from 
 the assembly, and on the 20th of May its 
 most distinguished remaining members re- 
 signed their seats. The rump adjourned to 
 Stuttgart, where on the 18th of June it was 
 dispersed by the government of Wurtem- 
 berg. 
 
 The Saxon diet had endeavored to force 
 the king to accept the Frankfort constitu- 
 tion. The government dissolved the diet, 
 and a conflict broke out in Dresden between 
 
 JOSEPH I., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 the troops and the people, and the king was 
 forced to fly to the fortress of Konigstein. 
 The government appealed to Prussia for aid, 
 and the troops of that country entered 
 Saxony and put down the outbreak. In- 
 surrections of a more violent character 
 broke out in Rhenish Bavaria and Baden, 
 and were likewise quelled by the Prussians. 
 During all this while the Austrian em- 
 
598 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 pire had been the scene of a terrible strug- 
 gle. The diet met at Vienna on the 22d of 
 July, 1848, but its members, speaking many 
 different languages, could scarcely under- 
 stand each other, and were so divided by 
 national jealousies that they could accom- 
 plish nothing. The Hungarians, led by 
 Louis Kossuth and others, demanded com- 
 plete independence. This was refused by 
 Austria, and a series of disturbances ensued 
 at Pesth, in which the imperial represent- 
 ative Avas murdered. The emperor at once 
 took the field with a part of the garrison of 
 Vienna, to punish the Hungarians. The 
 troops were to march on the 6th of October; 
 but a large number of them fraternized with 
 the people, and the loyal regiments were 
 driven from Vienna after a sharp engage- 
 ment. The minister of war was murdered 
 by the mob, the emperor fled from the 
 capital to Olmiitz, and Vienna remained in 
 possession of the revolutionists. The em- 
 peror immediately set to work to concen- 
 trate his army, and on the 21st of October 
 Vienna was invested by the imperial forces. 
 It was carried by storm on the 30th of that 
 mouth. Such of the leaders of the revo- 
 lution as did not save themselves by flight 
 were shot by the imperialists upon the re- 
 occupation of the city, and the people were 
 disarmed. On the 1st of December, 1848, 
 the Emperor Ferdinand, whose health was 
 very delicate, abdicated his throne in favor 
 of his nephew, Francis Joseph, then eigh- 
 teen years of age. 
 
 The goverument of the new empei-or 
 acted with vigor, and by the o])euing of the 
 year 1849 had reduced all the German 
 provinces of Austria to submission. The 
 Italian disturbances were quelled with great 
 severity in the spring of 1849. The revolt 
 in Hungary was more difficult to deal with. 
 An Austrian army under Prince Windisch- 
 griitz was sent into Hungary to put down 
 the uprising, but was defeated in a number 
 of hard-fought battles, and was driven back 
 towards the frontier with heavy loss. The 
 patriots captured Buda-Pesth, their ancient 
 capital. Large numbers of Germans and 
 Poles entered Hungary and joined the pa- 
 triots, and the Hungarian army soon num- 
 bered 200,000 men. The commander-in- 
 chief was Gorgey, a native of Hungary, 
 and a general of ability. He was ably 
 supported by Generals Bem and Derabinsky, 
 both of whom were Poles. The Austrians 
 being driven to the frontier, the Hungarian 
 diet met at Debreczin and declared Hun- 
 
 gary independent of Austria ; the republic 
 was proclaimed, and a provisional govern- 
 ment was organized, at the head of which 
 Kossuth was placed. 
 
 Austria now confessed her inability to 
 conquer Hungary, and appealed to Russia 
 for help. The Emperor Nicholas had for 
 some time been massing his troops on the 
 Austrian frontier, being fearful that the 
 revolutionary disturbances might extend to 
 his own dominions. He readily responded 
 to the appeal of Francis Joseph, and late 
 in May, 1849, a Jlussian army advanced 
 into Hungary. The Austrian army was re- 
 inforced and placed under the command of 
 the brutal Haynau, who had but recently 
 stamped out the insurrection in Lombardy. 
 This army entered Hungary from the east, 
 and at the same time a strong force of 
 Croats under their Ban Jellachich invaded 
 the unhappy country from the south. 
 Though overmatched, the Hungarians 
 fought bravely, but were defeated in the 
 great battle of Temesvar. Buda-Pesth was 
 reconquered by the Austrians, and the diet, 
 which had taken refuge at Szeged irf, was 
 put to flight. Kossuth assembled a council 
 at Arad on the 11th of August, and Gorgey 
 was appointed dictator, with absolute pow- 
 ers. On the 13th of August, only two days 
 later, Gorgey brought the war to a close by 
 surrendering with his entire army to the Rus- 
 sian General Rodiger. This step astounded 
 the nation, and Gorgey was generally 
 regarded by his countrymen as a traitor ; 
 doubtless with good cause. The leaders of 
 the revolution sought safety in Turkey, 
 whence they made their way to England 
 and America The fortresses held by the 
 patriot troops at once capitulated. The 
 sufferings of the Hungarians had been very 
 great during the war, but they counted them 
 as nothing compared with the failure of their 
 hopes of freedom which had been so near 
 fulfilment. 
 
 While Austria was engaged in her strug- 
 gle with Hungary, Prussia endeavored to 
 unite Germany in a confederation under her 
 own leadership and without including Aus- 
 tria. On the 26th of May, 1849, an alli- 
 ance for this purpose was concluded be- 
 tween Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony, and 
 was subsequently joined by some of the 
 smaller states of north Germany. As this 
 alliance did not embrace all Germany, it 
 Avas called "the German Union." A par- 
 liament of the union was held at Erfurt in 
 April, 1850, but neither Hanover nor Sax- 
 
FBOM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 599 
 
 ony would send deputies to it, and Hanover 
 abandoned the union. AVhile this parlia- 
 ment was in session, a congress of the Ger- 
 man princes, who acknowledged the leader- 
 ship of Prussia, met at Berlin on the 10th 
 of May, Austria liad by this time com- 
 pleted the subjugation of Hungary, and, 
 alarmed for her supremacy in Germany, set 
 to work to revive the German confederation. 
 Bavaria and Wurtemberg united with her, 
 and called on the German states to send 
 representatives for this purpose to Frank- 
 fort. Saxony, Hanover, the Hesses, and a 
 number of the minor states responded, and 
 the representatives of the states which sup- 
 ported Austria met at Frankfort on the 
 10th of May, the very day the congress of 
 princes acknowledging Prussia as their 
 leader met at Berlin. 
 
 Germany was thus divided into two hos- 
 tile parties, and a civil war came near break- 
 ing out between them in consequence of an 
 attempt on the part of the Elector of Hesse- 
 Cassel to levy taxes without the consent of 
 the chambers of his state. This produced 
 an uprising of the people, and the elector 
 was obliged to leave Cassel. He appealed 
 to the Frankfort diet, and an Austrian and 
 Bavarian force entered his territory to re- 
 store his authority. Prussia, which had 
 expected this step, at once occupied Cassel 
 and Fulda with her troops. Austria de- 
 manded their withdrawal, which was re- 
 fused. Both parties then prepared for war, 
 and it seemed that the question whether 
 Austria or Prussia should occupy the first 
 place iu Germany was to be settled by the 
 sword. An effort was made to avert a civil 
 Avar, and Prussia and Austria were induced 
 to consent that a free conference of all the 
 German princes should at once be held to 
 arrange the constitution of Germany, and 
 that Prussia and Austria should settle the 
 affairs of Hesse-Cassel, and also of Schles- 
 wig-Holstein between them. The result 
 was that the "free conference" of the Ger- 
 man princes was held at Dresden, but ac- 
 complished nothing. Prussia then, as a 
 measure of peace, acknowledged the Frank- 
 fort diet, and her example was followed by 
 the other states. Thus the German confed- 
 eration was restored as it had existed pre- 
 vious to 1848. This settlement was com- 
 pleted by the 12th of June, 1851. The 
 claims of Prussia and Austria to the su- 
 premacy iu Germany were yet to be set- 
 tled. 
 
 In the meantime the armistice of Malmo 
 
 had expired, and the war with Denmark 
 had been resumed. The Germans were not 
 as successful as they had been at the outset, 
 and Denmark was supported by the great 
 powers. Peace was made in 1851, the 
 King of Denmark resuming the govern- 
 ment of the duchies; and in 1852 an ar- 
 rangement was entered into by the great 
 powers at London, providing for the set- 
 tlement of the whole of the Danish domin- 
 ions upon Prince Christian, of Schleswig- 
 Holstein-Gliicksburg, who had married a 
 princess of Hesse. Neither Germany nor 
 the duchies accepted this arrangement, 
 and the question was left unsettled. 
 
 Matters went on very quietly in Germany 
 after this. Eight or ten years of peace 
 gave prosperity to the whole country ; com- 
 merce and manufactures increased rapidly; 
 and considerable attention was paid in the 
 north German states to the cause of pop- 
 ular education. On the 8th of October, 
 1858, Frederick William IV. of Prussia 
 was obliged by the failure of his reason to 
 relinquish the government of his kingdom, 
 which was administered for the next few 
 years by his brother, Frederick William 
 Lewis, as prince regent. 
 
 In 1859 war broke out between Austria 
 on the one hand and France and Italy on 
 the other. We have related the events and 
 the results of this struggle, by which Aus- 
 tria lost all her Italian provinces save Vene- 
 tia, and Italy became partially united. This 
 partial union of Italy exercised a powerful 
 influence upon Germany in reviving the 
 hopes of those who longed for the union of 
 the Fatherland, and the exclusion of Aus- 
 tria from Germany. 
 
 Frederick William IV. of Prussia died 
 on the 2d of January, 1861, and his brother, 
 the Prince Regent, became king as William 
 I. He was crowned with great pomp at 
 Konigsberg, on the 18th of October, 1861. 
 He began his reign with the determination 
 to reorganize the Prussian army upon a 
 basis which should make it irresistible. The 
 Representative Assembly stoutly opposed 
 the course of the government, as it involved 
 the kingdom in a heavy outlay of money. 
 The king persisted in his design, however, 
 and on the Sth of October, 1862, appointed 
 as his prime minister. Count Otto von Bis- 
 marck-Schonhausen, and also intrusted to 
 him the portfolio of foreign affairs. No 
 better choice could have been made. Bis- 
 marck was a statesman of the first order, 
 and was thoroughly in sympathy with the 
 
600 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 king's desire to make Prussia the leading 
 state of Germany. He went further than 
 the king, and was resolved to drive Austria 
 out of Germany. Bold and fearless in all 
 things, he was firm and even despotic in 
 his manner of carrying out his plans, and 
 moreover was thoroughly indifferent to 
 public opinion. He became from this time 
 the master spirit of the Prussian policy, and 
 with his aid the king succeeded in carrying 
 out his scheme of army reform in spite of 
 
 COUNT VON BISMARCK. 
 
 the opposition of the chambers, and in direct 
 violation of the constitution. Bismarck de- 
 clared openly in the Prussian Parliament 
 that the question of supremacy in Germany 
 could be settled between Prussia and Aus- 
 tria only by " blood and iron." 
 
 Austria had watched the course of Prus- 
 sia with ill-concealed impatience, and in 
 August, 1863, to the astonishment of Ger- 
 many, summoned a council of the princes 
 to meet at Frankfort to make certain re- 
 
 forms in the German constitution. Prussia- 
 refused to have anything to do with this 
 congress, and the Austrian scheme fell to 
 the ground. 
 
 Another question now arose to claim the 
 attention of Germany, and to keep in abey- 
 ance the jealousies of the two leading states 
 of the confederation. On the 30th of March, 
 1863, Frederick VII. of Denmark issued 
 a decree ordering that the duchy of Schles- 
 wig should be separated from Holsteiu and 
 
 Lauenburg, and 
 incorporated in 
 the Danish king- 
 dom. This step 
 was in opposi- 
 tion to the fun- 
 damental law of 
 the duchies of 
 1460, which pro- 
 vided that they 
 should not be 
 separated. It ex- 
 cited great in- 
 dignation in Ger- 
 many, and re- 
 opened the 
 Schleswig - Hol- 
 stein question in 
 all its bitterness. 
 The federal diet 
 resolved to com- 
 pel the Danish 
 king to relin- 
 quish his design ; 
 but before it 
 could do so 
 Frederick VII. 
 died, on the 16th 
 of November, 
 1863, and his 
 successor. Chris- 
 tian IX., con- 
 firmed the de- 
 cree. The death 
 of Frederick put 
 an end to the 
 male line of the Danish royal family, and the 
 Germans declared that Christian IX. had 
 no right to the duchies, which ought now 
 of right to become pure German states, and 
 that as the duchies could not be separated, 
 all three must go to the nearest heir, who 
 was the Duke of Augustenburg. This 
 prince had, in 1852, resigned his right to 
 the duchies, but in 1859 his son Frederick 
 protested against this surrender, and now 
 asserted his claims, which were indorsed by 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 601 
 
 the bulk of the German people. The duchy 
 of Lauenburg was claimed by several of the 
 German princes. 
 
 As the German Federal Diet had not ac- 
 cepted the arrangement made in London in 
 1852, concerning the duchies, to which Ave 
 have referred, it was free to act indepen- 
 dently. It declared the duchies vacant, and 
 determined to occupy them with the troops 
 of the confederation until the succession to 
 them could be settled. For this purpose a 
 force of Saxons and Hanoverians was sent 
 into Holstein. Bismarck 
 was not content to allow 
 the question to be settled 
 in this way. He meant to 
 secure the duchies for Prus- 
 sia, not only to increase her 
 territory, but to put her in 
 possession of the important 
 harbor of Kiel, in Holstein, 
 which was necessary in or- 
 der to give her a first-class 
 naval station. By his sub- 
 tle diplomacy he induced 
 Austria to unite with Prus- 
 sia in a joint occupation 
 of the duchies, indepen- 
 dently of the action of the 
 confederation. Both the 
 Austrian and Prussian 
 Chambers refused to vote 
 supplies to their govern- 
 ments for the support of 
 this war, which, they de- 
 clared, was strictly the duty 
 of the confederation ; but 
 those governments persisted 
 in their determination. The 
 allied forces under the Prus- 
 sian General W r a n g e 1 
 crossed the Eider on the 1st 
 of February, 1864, and at- 
 tacked the strong intrench- 
 ment known as the Dane- 
 wirk. On the 6th of February, the 
 Danish array fell back to the lines of 
 Diippel, which were soon after invested by 
 the Prussians, who carried them by storm 
 on the 18th of April, after a siege of three 
 weeks. The Austrians laid siege to the 
 fortress of Fredericia, which was suddenly 
 evacuated by the Danes. With the excep- 
 tion of a short armistice, caused by the 
 efforts of the great powers to restore peace, 
 the war went on until October, 1864. The 
 Danes blockaded the Prussian ports with 
 their fleet, and won a victory over the allied 
 
 fleet ofi" Heligoland, but their army was 
 steadily defeated, and was driven not only 
 out of the duchies but also out of Jutland, 
 and was forced to make a stand among the 
 islands. Greatly discouraged by her re- 
 verses, Denmark asked for peace, and a 
 treaty was signed on the 30th of October, 
 1864. The King of Denmark resigned all 
 his rights in the duchies of Schleswig, Hol- 
 stein, and Lauenburg in favor of the Em- 
 peror of Austria and the King of Prussia. 
 It now became apparent that the pretext 
 
 CROWN PKINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM OF GERMANY. 
 
 of the victorious powers of defending the 
 rights of the Duke of Augustenburg was 
 merely to cover their design of getting the 
 duchies into their own hands. They con- 
 tinued to occupy them with their troops- 
 Austria was on the whole indifferent to an 
 increase of territory in this direction ; but 
 was resolved that Prussia should obtain no 
 such advantage at the cost of the duchies. 
 The two powers at once began to quarrel 
 over the proper disposition of the duchies, 
 and it seemed at one time that their dis- 
 putes would end in war. This danger was 
 
602 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 averted for the moment by the Convention 
 of Gastein, negotiated by Count Bismarck 
 and the Austrian envoy, Count Blome. 
 Prussia purchased the rights of the Austrian 
 emperor in the duchy of Lauenburg, and 
 until the question of inheritance could be 
 settled it was agreed to place Schleswig un- 
 der Prussian and Holstein under Austrian 
 rule. Prussia was to hold the port of Kiel, 
 but it was to be free to the Austrian fleet. 
 Prussia was not yet prepared for war, and 
 consented to this arrangement to gain time. 
 
 The quarrel soon broke out afresh. Gen- 
 eral von Manteuffel, the Prussian Governor 
 of Schleswig, forbade all agitation in that 
 duchy in favor of the Duke of Augusten- 
 burg, and at the same time, Austria, re- 
 solved to baffle the Prussian scheme for 
 securing the duchies, allowed the duke's 
 party to take such steps as they pleased in 
 Holstein. On the 26th of January Prussia 
 entered a formal protest against the Aus- 
 trian policy in Holstein ; and was answered 
 that Austria would maintain her policy 
 with firmness. This correspondence was 
 followed by measures which showed that the 
 inevitable struggle was close at hand. The 
 fortresses of the Saxon and Silesian prov- 
 inces of Prussia were put in a state of de- 
 fence ; Austria began to concentrate troops 
 in Bohemia ; and the smaller German states 
 put their forces on a war footing. In March, 
 1866, a treaty of alliance was signed be- 
 tween Prussia and Italy. The latter agreed 
 to attack Austria in Venetia in case of Avar 
 between that power and Prussia ; and Prus- 
 sia agreed not to make peace until Venetia 
 was freed from Austrian rule. Austria en- 
 deavored to strengthen herself by exciting 
 the confederation against Prussia. The 
 neutral powers, in view of the danger of 
 war, endeavored to avert it by proposing 
 the assembling of a conference for the set- 
 tlement of all questions dangerous to the 
 peace of Europe. This effort failed, and 
 the war followed quickly. It should not be 
 forgotten that the affair of the duchies was 
 merely a pretext for the war ; the true cause 
 of the great struggle was the contest which 
 we have traced from the days of Frederick 
 the Great between Austria and Prussia for 
 the supremacy in Germany. 
 
 On the 7th of June, 1866, Prussia took 
 the decisive step of occupying Holstein with 
 her troops, and compelling the Austrian 
 forces to withdraw from that duchy. Aus- 
 tria demanded that the confederation should 
 assist her in punishing Prussia for thus vio- 
 
 lating the federal constitution. The majority 
 of the smaller states responded favorably to 
 this demand, and on the 14th of June the 
 federal diet resolved to mobilize the fed- 
 eral army, with the exception of the Prus- 
 sian contingent. Prussia at once notified 
 the diet that she no longer recognized the 
 existence of that body or of the confedera- 
 tion, and withdrew her representative from 
 the diet. 
 
 The struggle which now ensued is known 
 as " the Seven Weeks' War." To the popu- 
 lar mind it seemed that Prussia was over- 
 matched, but to those who had studied the 
 condition of Germany the issue of the strug- 
 gle could not be doubtful. The efforts of 
 the Prussian government to reorganize the 
 army, though in violation of the constitu- 
 tion of the kingdom, had secured to Prussia 
 the most intelligent, best organized, and 
 most efficient army in Europe. The troops 
 were armed with the needle-gun, a weapon 
 greatly superior to the ordinary rifle ; and 
 the chief of the Prussian staff. General Von 
 Moltke, was the first soldier in the old 
 world. Every department of the Prussian 
 civil service was organized to afford the 
 promptest and most thorough assistance to 
 the army, and the Prussian civil and for- 
 eign policy was directed by the master 
 mind of Bismarck. That great statesman 
 had satisfied himself that the war would be 
 confined to Germany. The French emperor 
 had declared to him he would not inter- 
 fere ; England was too much devoted to 
 peace to draw the sword ; and Russia owed 
 Prussia a debt of gratitude for assistance in 
 putting down the recent Polish outbreak. 
 Austria, on the other hand, was hampered 
 by her old traditions, and her army was 
 vastly inferior to that of Prussia in disci- 
 pline as well as in equipment and arms. 
 No great statesman directed her councils, 
 and she was now to find that she had lived 
 so long in the past that she was no match 
 for the civilization she had so successfully 
 banished from her own dominions. 
 
 The north German states of Saxony, 
 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Nassau declared 
 for Austria, which was supported by the 
 better part of south Germany. Hanover, 
 Saxony, and Hesse were quickly overrun 
 by the Prussian troops. The Hanoverian 
 troops defeated a body of Prussians at Lan- 
 gensalza on the 27th of June, but their 
 victory accomplished nothing. They were 
 surrounded by the Prussians, and on the 
 29th of June King George was obliged to 
 
FBOM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 603 
 
 surrender, with his whole army. He was 
 compelled to yield his crown also, and was 
 Dot allowed by Prussia to remain within the 
 Hanoverian territory. The conquest of 
 Hanover was a great gain for Prussia, as it 
 placed her in possession of the territory 
 which lay between her eastern and western 
 provinces. She had long desired to obtain 
 this territory, and now, having won it, pro- 
 ceeded to annex it to her dominions. 
 
 In western Germany the Prussian forces 
 were commanded by General Von Falken- 
 stein. Opposed to him was the army of the 
 confederation, under Prince 
 Charles of Bavaria, and 
 Prince Alexander of Hesse. 
 The Austrians had placed 
 a large number of Venetian 
 troops in their army in 
 this quarter, supposing they 
 would fight better there 
 than in Italy. Manteuffel 
 defeated the confederate 
 forces at Aschaffenburg. 
 In this battle the Venetian 
 troops refused to fight the 
 allies of Italy, and laid 
 down their arms. In con- 
 sequence of this victory ^^ 
 Von Falkenstein occupied ^ 
 Frankfort on the 16th of ^ 
 July, the federal diet hav- ^1 
 ing abandoned the city on "^ 
 the 14th. Falkenstein was "- 
 now made Governor of .^ 
 Bohemia, and his successor, 
 General Manteuffel, pro- 
 ceeded to complete the con- 
 quest of the Rhine coun- 
 try. 
 
 In the meantime the 
 war had been decided else- 
 where. At the commence- 
 ment of hostilities the main 
 Austrian army, under Mar- 
 shal Benedek, held the frontier of the 
 empire from the east of Austrian Silesia 
 westward to the vicinity of Prague. It 
 numbered 280,000 men, including the 
 Saxon army, which was united with it. 
 The Prussian forces numbered about 
 256,000 men, and were divided into two 
 armies. The first army, 100,000 strong, 
 commanded by Prince "Frederick Charlel' 
 the king's nephew, was stationed in lower 
 Silesia ; the second army, under the Crown 
 Prince Frederick William, 116,000 strong, 
 occupied upper Silesia. A column of 
 
 40,000 men, under General Von Bittenfeld, 
 constituted the right wing of the first army, 
 and occupied Saxony. The wliole force 
 was commanded by the King of Prussia in 
 person ; but the campaign was in reality 
 directed by General Von Moltke, the chief 
 of staff". 
 
 As soon as the occupation of Saxony had 
 been successfully accomplished, all three of 
 the Prussian columns were ordered to 
 cross the Bohemian frontier and concentrate 
 near Gitschin. This brilliant movement 
 was successfully accomplished in the coui'se 
 
 PEINCE FREDERICK CHARLES. 
 
 of a few days. Frederick Charles defeated 
 the Austrians near Gitschin, besides gain- 
 ing several other hard-won successes. Dur- 
 ing the advance of the second army, its left 
 wing, under General Von Steinmetz, de- 
 feated the Austrians at Nachod and Ska- 
 litz. The three columns of the Prussian 
 army were successfully united near Gitschin, 
 and on the 2d of July were joined by King 
 William in person, who assumed the com- 
 mand. 
 
 Marshal Benedek, after being forced 
 back from the frontier, had taken position 
 
604 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 on the Elbe, with his front covered by that 
 stream and the Bistritz. His right was 
 protected by the fortress of Josephstadt, 
 and his left by the fortress of Koniggratz. 
 Near his centre was the village of Sadowa, 
 and on the heights overlooking this village 
 Benedek established his head-quarters. 
 His army numbered about 200,000 men. 
 
 On the morning of the 3d of July the 
 first Prussian army, under Frederick 
 Charles, made a heavy attack upon the 
 Austrian position at Sadowa. It was in- 
 
 Austrian right wing, and about the same 
 time their left was broken by the column 
 of General Von Bittenfeld, and their cen- 
 tre, at the village of Chulm, was carried by 
 the army of Prince Frederick Charles. 
 The Austrians now gave way at all points, 
 retiring at first in good order, but breaking 
 at length, under the close pursuit of the 
 Prussians, into a disorderly flight. Such 
 was the battle of Sadowa or Koniggratz, 
 one of the most important in modern his- 
 tory. The Prussians lost 10,000 men ; the 
 
 BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ, OR SADOWA. 
 
 tended that this attack should be supported 
 by the army of the crown prince, but a rain 
 which fell during the previous night and 
 throughout the day made the roads so 
 heavy that the latter force did not reach 
 its position until early in the afternoon. 
 The first army Avas largely outnumbered, 
 but kept up its attack with vigor for several 
 hours, until the advance of the crown 
 prince lessened the pressure upon it. The 
 Prussian assault was now renewed with 
 vigor ; the crown prince drove back the 
 
 Austrians 20,000 killed and wounded, and 
 18,000 prisoners. 
 
 The battle of Koniggratz was decisive of 
 the war, and Austria, feeling herself unable 
 to continue the struggle, made overtures for 
 peace. On the 26th of July the prelimi- 
 naries of peace were signed between the 
 principal combatants and several of the 
 smaller states. On the 23d of August the 
 treaty of Prague was signed. By this 
 treaty Austria was forever excluded from 
 Germany, and agreed to pay to Prussia an 
 
FBOM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 605 
 
 indemnity of 40,000,000 thalers for the ex- 
 penses of the war. In return for one-half 
 of this sum Austria resigned all her rights 
 in Schleswig-Holstein in favor of Prussia. 
 Peace was concluded between Prussia and 
 Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemberg in the 
 latter part of August ; with Hesse Darm- 
 stadt in September; and with Saxony in 
 October. Bavaria was compelled to cede a 
 small part of her territory to Prussia, and 
 Hesse Darmstadt had to relinquish the 
 landgravate of Hesse Homburg and the 
 right to garrison the fortress of Mayence. 
 A secret alliance was formed between 
 Prussia and these countries, with the excep- 
 tion of Bavaria, by which they agreed to 
 place their troops under the supreme com- 
 mand of the King of Prussia in time of 
 war. Previous to the treaty of Prague, 
 Prussia had annexed to her territory, by 
 right of conquest, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, 
 Nassau, and Frankfort. 
 
 The extraordinary success of the war 
 caused the constitutional party of Prussia 
 to forget and forgive the violations of the 
 constitution by the king and his ministers 
 now that they saw the result of that policy. 
 The king, on his return to Berlin on the 
 4th of August, was received with enthusiasm 
 by all parties, and a cordial reconciliation 
 between the sovereign and the chambers 
 ensued and has since been unbroken. 
 
 The events of the war in Italy have been 
 related in the history of that country, and 
 need not be repeated here. 
 
 After the return of peace the Austrian 
 emperor, ceasing to take part in German 
 affairs, addressed himself to the improve- 
 ment of his hereditary states. Peace found 
 the Austrian empire in a most deplorable 
 condition. Its armies were rendered almost 
 worthless by the reverses they had sustained, 
 and its finances were nearly ruined. The 
 various nationalities composing the empire, 
 weary with their long deprivation of civil 
 and religious freedom, were ready to rise in 
 revolt against the imperial government thus 
 weakened. At this critical juncture the 
 emperor summoned to his assistance, as 
 President of the Imperial Council, the 
 Baron Von Beust, the former Prime Minis- 
 ter of Saxony. Von Beust advised a prompt 
 reconstruction of the imperial system, and 
 his advice was acted upon. Representative 
 government was established in all the states, 
 and in each the people were given a share 
 in the control of the public affairs. The 
 long-deferred hopes of Hungary were to 
 
 some extent realized. That country was 
 given a separate diet and ministry, and the 
 Emperor Francis Joseph was formally 
 crowned King of Hungary at Pesth in 
 1867. In 1868 the official title of the em- 
 pire was by an imperial decree changed to 
 the "Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." 
 
 The establishment of constitutional gov- 
 ernment in Austria has been attended by 
 the happiest results, but was secured only 
 by a determined contest with the old nobil- 
 ity and the clergy. Foi'tuuately for his 
 country the emperor has firmly adhered to 
 his reforms, and despotism has been abol- 
 ished in its chosen home. Religious toler- 
 ation has been granted, thus securing the 
 equality of all creeds before the law ; and 
 marriage and education have been taken 
 from the control of the church and made 
 subject to the state. In 1870 the Concor- 
 dat, or treaty with the pope respecting re- 
 ligious matters, was formally annulled. 
 
 In Germany, immediately after the close 
 of the war of 1866, a confederacy of the 
 northern states was formed under the 
 leadership of Prussia, with the title of the 
 North German Confederation. The states 
 of this league placed their armies entirely 
 under the control of Prussia. The first diet 
 of the confederation met at Berlin on the 
 24th of February, 1867. It immediately 
 addressed itself to the task of framing the 
 federal constitution, and succeeded so well 
 that on the 1st of July the constitution 
 was in operation. It provided that the 
 affairs of the confederation should be ad- 
 ministered by a diet elected by the north 
 German people, and a federal council com- 
 posed of the representatives of the states of 
 north Germany. The King of Prussia was 
 made President of the Confederation. This 
 constitution was not regarded as final, for 
 the south German states were still inde- 
 pendent, and a large party in north Ger- 
 many, known as the National Liberal 
 party, desired their union with the new 
 confederation. Count Bismarck, who openly 
 favored such a union, received the warm 
 support of this party in both the Prussian 
 parliament and the federal diet. A consid- 
 erable advance was made in May, 1868, 
 when a customs parliament, elected by all 
 the German states, met at Berlin to adjust 
 the commercial relations of the states. 
 Baden and Hesse Homburg signed a con- 
 vention by which their military system was 
 arranged upon a basis similar to that of the 
 confederation. Baden was very anxious to 
 
606 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 join the northern confederation, but was 
 deterred by the unwillingness of the other 
 south German states to take such a step. 
 Two strong parties in south Germany were 
 hostile to Prussia: the Ul tramontanes be- 
 cause of her Protestantism, and the Demo- 
 crats because of her leaning toward abso- 
 lutism. These parties opposed the union 
 of northern and southern Germany, under 
 the leadership of Prussia, with such bitter- 
 ness that even the most sanguine friends of 
 the union began to despair of its accom- 
 plishment. It would most likely have been 
 
 COUNT VON MOLTKE. 
 
 deferred for years but for the appearance 
 of a new danger which aroused the German 
 spirit to its highest point, and united all 
 parties against a common foe. 
 
 The success of Prussia in the war of 1866 
 excited the jealousy of France, which had 
 until now been considered the leading state 
 of Europe. The Emperor Napoleon III. 
 gave Prussia to understand that he should 
 expect some compensation for permitting 
 the great increase of the Prussian territory 
 which had resulted from the war. Early 
 in August, 1866, the French ambassador at 
 Berlin formally demanded that Prussia 
 
 should cede to France the left bank of the 
 Rhine. The demand was refused with firm- 
 ness by Prussia, though it was believed at 
 the time that her refusal would give rise to 
 another „war. The French emperor then 
 entered into negotiations with the King of 
 Holland for the purchase of the duchy of 
 Luxemburg, which had formerly been a 
 part of the German confederation. Prussia 
 protested against this acquisition, and pre- 
 pared to support her protest by force. It 
 seemed not unlikely that the affair would 
 result in war ; but the danger was averted 
 by a conference of the 
 great powers at London, 
 which separated Luxem- 
 burg from Germany,formed 
 it into a neutral state, and 
 guaranteed its neutrality. 
 The Emperor Napoleon 
 was greatly mortified by 
 these failures, and Prussia 
 won considerable credit by 
 her firmness on these oc- 
 casions. Great ill-feeling 
 existed between Prussia 
 and France from this time, 
 and it was not long before 
 it resulted in Avar. 
 
 In July, 1870, Prince 
 Leopold of Hohenzollern,, 
 at the request of the 
 Spanish government, be- 
 came a candidate for the 
 crown of Spain. This can- 
 didacy was made the oc- 
 casion by France of seek- 
 ing to impose a check upon 
 Prussia. France had never 
 reconciled herself to the 
 union of Germany under 
 the leadership of Prussia, 
 and was seeking an oppor- 
 tunity to prevent the union 
 of the south German states with those of the 
 north. As soon as the candidature of 
 Prince Leopold became known, it was de- 
 nounced in the French legislative assembly 
 as an aggression of Prussia, and as an 
 effort of that power to surround France 
 with enemies by placing on the Spanish 
 throne a monarch hostile to France. A 
 large part of the French people demanded 
 that the emperor should take firm measures- 
 to prevent the success of the " Prussian 
 scheme," and compel that government to 
 withdraw Prince Leopold's name. The 
 Kinar of Prussia declared that he had 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 607 
 
 nothing to do with Prince Leopold's can- 
 didature, and that he had no power to for- 
 bid or command the acceptance of the 
 Spanish crown by his relative. Prince 
 Leopold, as a measure of peace, at once re- 
 signed his candidature of his own will. 
 This did not satisfy France, however, and 
 M. Benedetti, the French minister at Ber- 
 lin, was instructed to demand of the King 
 of Prussia an assurance that the candi- 
 dature of Prince Leopold should not be re- 
 newed, M. Benedetti repaired to Ems, 
 
 out for Berlin, which he reached on the 
 15th. 
 
 The king's conjecture was correct. It 
 was announced in Paris that the King of 
 Prussia had insulted the French ambassa- 
 dor, and excited crowds filled the streets 
 demanding war. On the 15th of July the 
 French government declared war against 
 Prussia, and orders were issued for the im- 
 mediate concentration of the French army 
 on the German frontier. The news of this 
 declaration was communicated to King 
 
 EUINS OF THIONVILLE AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT. 
 
 where the king was staying at the time, 
 and on a public promenade urged upon 
 him the demand of the French government. 
 King William not only refused to give the 
 pledge required of him, but declined to 
 continue the conversation on the subject. 
 This interview took place on the 13th of 
 July, and the next day the German govern- 
 ments were officially informed of it by 
 telegraph. As it was certain that the re- 
 fusal of King William would be made by 
 France a pretext for war, he at once set 
 
 William upon his arrival at the railway 
 station at Berlin by Count Bismarck. 
 Orders were at once issued by the Prussian 
 government for placing its forces and those 
 of the confederation in the field. The fed- 
 eral council met on the 16th and indorsed 
 the course of King William, and promised 
 him its hearty support, and on the 19th 
 the confederate diet assembled and took 
 measures for a vigorous prosecution of the 
 war. 
 
 France had relied largely upon the sup- 
 
608 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 posed hostility between north and south 
 Germany ; and in so doing had committed a 
 fatal error. However the German states 
 might differ among themselves, they re- 
 garded France as a common enemy, and 
 remembered the slavery of their fathers 
 under the great Napoleon too well to wish 
 to repeat the experience in their own per- 
 sons. Moreover, France was avowedly 
 seeking to interfere in a purely German 
 
 the war were carried on with rapidity. It 
 was clearly understood that Germany was 
 acting in self-defence, and that France was 
 fighting for the recovery of her lost suprem- 
 acy in Europe. 
 
 The German forces numbered over one 
 million of men. As in the war with Aus- 
 tria, they were really directed by the great 
 soldier, General Von Moltke. The chief 
 command of this immense force was held 
 
 ""-w? 
 
 
 "V^ 
 
 ^-=. ^'^^ ^ 
 
 ^' 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 \i 
 
 
 ^ J 
 
 M 
 
 ~-^^\^ 
 
 <^^t 
 
 P"'TiiEjt 
 
 i 
 
 Hi 
 
 THE BATTLE OF GRAVELOTTE. 
 
 question, and one very dear to the hearts 
 of the German people. South Germany 
 would neither unite with the enemy of the 
 Fatherland, nor remain neutral in such a 
 struggle. On the 16th of July the south 
 German states formally notified the King 
 of Prussia that their forces were subject to 
 his orders, and the Crown Prince of Prussia 
 at once left Berlin and assumed the com- 
 mand of the united forces of south Ger- 
 many. Great enthusiasm prevailed through- 
 out the Fatherland, and preparations for 
 
 by the King of Prussia, who, though an old 
 man, took the field in person. A part of 
 this force was retained in Germany for the 
 defence of the country, and the remainder 
 was organized into three armies and hurried 
 forward to the Rhine with a rapidity and 
 precision which excited the admiration of 
 the world. By the end of July all three 
 armies were in position. The first, under 
 General Von Steinmetz, held the right of 
 the German line, and took position near 
 Treves ; the second, under Prince Frederick 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 609 
 
 Charles, held the centre, and occupied 
 Rheuish Bavaria ; while the third, under 
 the Crown Prince Frederick William of 
 Prussia, held the left, and occupied the 
 right bank of the Rhine, from Manheim to 
 Rastadt. The third army was composed of 
 the south German forces and three Prus- 
 sian army corps. 
 
 The German commanders had expected 
 an immediate invasion of their country by 
 tiie French, and were astonished at the 
 delay upon the part of their enemy. Some 
 fruitless petty encounters took place, but 
 the French made no effort to advance, and 
 the King of Prussia resolved to invade the 
 French territory and thus save Germany 
 from being made the scene of hostilities. 
 The forward movement was begun by the 
 third army, and on the 4th of August the 
 French were defeated at Weissenburg in 
 the first battle of the war. The third army 
 then crossed the border and entered France. 
 On the 6th the crown prince attacked the 
 right wing of the French army under Mar- 
 shal MacMahon, at Worth, and after a 
 stubborn conflict, in which both sides lost 
 heavily, the French were routed, and 
 MacMahon was unable to collect the scat- 
 tered fragments of his corps. Leaving the 
 Baden troops to lay siege to Strasburg, the 
 crown prince moved leisurely across the 
 Vosges mountains, On the 6th of August 
 the first and second armies attacked the 
 main army of the French, under Marshal 
 Bazaine, at Saarbriicken, and stormed and 
 carried the Heights of Spicheren in splen- 
 did style, and forced the French to retreat 
 upon the fortress of Metz. The success of 
 the crown prince at Worth and the victory 
 at Saarbriicken broke the whole French 
 line, and the next day all the German ar- 
 mies were in France. While the third 
 army was moving though the Vosges, the first 
 and second armies advanced towards Metz. 
 
 Marshal Bazaine, the French comman- 
 der, made the fatal mistake of endeavoring 
 to hold Metz. At length, perceiving his 
 error, he resolved to retreat towards 
 Chalons, where MacMahon was rapidly as- 
 sembling a new army. He began this 
 movement too late, and conducted it too 
 leisurely. His withdrawal was begun on the 
 14tli of August, and was at once detected by 
 the Germans, who attacked the French rear- 
 guard at Courcelles and defeated it. Von 
 IMoltke took advantage of the delay in the 
 French movements, caused by this battle, to 
 39 
 
 throw portions of the first and second armies 
 across the Moselle for the purpose of seizing 
 the roads by which the French were retreat- 
 ing. He meant to force them back upon 
 Metz and shut them up in that fortress. 
 While these movements were in progress, 
 the third army, which had reached the 
 neighborhood of Nancy, was ordered to 
 halt there, in order to be able to render as- 
 sistance to the other armies in case of need. 
 On the 16th Bazaine, having passed a short 
 distance beyond Metz, was attacked by the 
 German forces which had crossed the Mo- 
 selle. The battle took its name from the 
 village of Mars le Tour, around which it 
 was fought. It is called by the French the 
 battle of Vionville. It continued through- 
 out the entire day, and was contested with 
 great stubbornness by both sides. The re- 
 sult was that the French army was forced 
 back nearer to Metz, and the retreat of Ba- 
 zaine was brought to an end. The 17th 
 was passed by both armies in preparing for 
 the decisive encounter. The German forces 
 by great exertions were concentrated in 
 their new position, and by the morning of 
 the 18th Von Moltke had about 190,000 in- 
 fantry, 24,000 cavalry, and over 600 pieces 
 of artillery in readiness. Bazaine took up 
 a strong position near Gravelotte, and 
 strengthened his line by constructing a 
 series of intrenchments and rifle pits. The 
 French forces numbered 110,000 infantry, 
 10,000 cavalry, and 260 pieces of cannon. 
 On the 18th of August the great battle of 
 Gravelotte was fought, and was one of the 
 most gallantly contested fields of history. 
 The French were defeated and driven back 
 towards Metz, within the fortifications of 
 which they took refuge. The Germans at 
 once invested the fortress and shut up the 
 French army within their encircling line, 
 thus rendering it useless for the remainder 
 of the campaign. 
 
 These brilliant successes far exceeded the 
 most sanguine anticipations of the German 
 leaders. They made sure the safety of 
 Germany from invasion by the French, and 
 carried dismay into France. They were 
 won at a heavy cost, however. The Ger- 
 mans admitted a loss of 16,000 men in the 
 battle of Mars le Tour or Vionville ; and at 
 Gravelotte the losses were so heavy that the 
 Prussian government shrank from publish- 
 ing the returns. The flower of the German 
 army fell that day. 
 
 The defeat of Bazaine's armv and the 
 
610 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 iuvestment of Metz left the forces of the 
 
 Ions, where MacMahon was assembling an 
 
 Prussian crown prince free to resume their army. A fourth army was formed of troops 
 
 KEJOICINGS AT BERLIN OVER THE GERMAN VICTORIES IN FRANCE. 
 
 advance. The prince was ordered to move 
 from Nancy, where he had awaited the 
 issue of the battles before Metz, upon Cha- 
 
 which had until now belonged to the sec- 
 ond army, was placed under the Crown. 
 Prince of Saxony, and was called the army 
 
FliOM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 611 
 
 of the MeusG. The Saxon crown prince 
 was ordered to co-operate witli Prince Fi'ed- 
 crick William in the movement upon Cha- 
 lons, and the King of Prussia assumed the 
 supreme command of the third and fourth 
 armies, which moved steadily towards Cha- 
 lons. They had gotten as far as Ligny, at 
 which place the Prussian crown prince es- 
 tablished his head-quarters, when news 
 came that Marshal MacMahon had broken 
 up his camp, had passed through Rheims, 
 and was marching rapidly towards the 
 j\Ieuse. It was evident that he was seeking 
 to relieve Bazaine at Metz, and the third 
 and fourth German armies at once wheeled 
 to the right, and hurried on in pursuit of 
 
 artillery was rapidly placed in position to 
 cannonade the helpless mass gathered within 
 the town. The bombardment was prevented 
 by the surrender of the French army by 
 General de Wimpffen, who had succeeded 
 MacMahon, who had been severely wounded 
 in the battle. The Emperor Napoleon III. 
 had accompanied MacMahon's army, and 
 now surrendered himself to the King of 
 Prussia, and was assigned the Castle of Wil- 
 helmshohe, near Cassel, as a residence. By 
 this surrender 84,000 men, 50 generals and 
 5,000 other officers became prisoners to the 
 Germans, with all their artillery, arms, and 
 stores. The officers, who gave their parole 
 not to serve again during the war, were set 
 
 GERMAN SIEGE BATTERY BEFORE PARIS. 
 
 MacMahon. The French commander con- 
 centrated his array near Vouziers, and on 
 the 28th of August moved towards the 
 Meuse at Beaumont. On the 30th of Au- 
 gust the French were attacked l)y the Ger- 
 mans near Beaumont and driven towards 
 Sedan. The result of the German victory 
 was that their army held the roads leading 
 from the Meuse toward IMetz. The effi:)rt 
 of MacMahon to reach Metz was thus com- 
 pletely baffled, and Von ]\Ioltke now pre- 
 ])ared to crush his army by a final blow. 
 On the 1st of September the decisive battle 
 of the campaign was fought before Sedan, 
 and after a terrible struggle the French 
 were driven into the town of Sedan, which 
 the Germans at once surrounded. Their 
 
 at liberty, but the troops were sent to Ger- 
 many as prisoners of war. 
 
 It was hoped in Germany that this disr 
 aster would bring the war to an end, but 
 the German commanders did not share this 
 hope, and as soon as the fruits of the vic- 
 tory at Sedan were secured, marched 
 promptly upon Paris. The Government of 
 the National Defence, Avhich had succeeded 
 the empire, Avould not consent to make 
 peace upon the German terms, which were 
 nothing less than the cession of Alsace and 
 the German part of Lorraine, and the war 
 went on. By the middle of September the 
 Germans were in front of Paris, which was 
 completely invested by them ; the third 
 army establishing itself on the south and 
 
612 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 southeast of the city, while the fourth held 
 the country on the north and northeast of 
 Paris. On the 19th of September a French 
 column under General Ducrot made a de- 
 termined effort to prevent the investment, 
 and on the 30th another attempt was made 
 by General Vinoy. Both were unsuccessful. 
 The Prussian crown prince established his 
 head-quarters at Versailles, where, also, on 
 the 5th of October, King William estab- 
 lished his head-quarters. On the 13th and 
 21st of October the French made two deter- 
 mined but unsuccessful attempts to break 
 through the German lines. Frequent en- 
 counters occurred between the opposing 
 
 October, Marshal Bazaine, who had made 
 several vigorous but unsuccessful efforts to 
 break through the German investment, sur- 
 rendered his army and the fortress of Metz 
 to Prince Frederick Charles. The force 
 surrendered by him consisted of three mar- 
 shals, 6,000 officers and 173,000 men. It 
 was the most important capitulation in his- 
 tory. The first and second armies were left 
 free by the surrender of Metz to take the 
 field against the French in other quarters. 
 The first army was placed under General 
 von Manteuffel. A force was left behind to 
 occupy Metz and hold Lorraine in subjec- 
 tion, and the remainder hastened towards 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF STRASBUKG. 
 
 forces, to the general disadvantage of the 
 French. 
 
 The French now raised by extraordinary 
 efforts a third force, called the army of the 
 Loire, which it was hoped would compel the 
 Germans to raise the siege of Paris. A 
 fourth army was formed in the northern 
 departments, under General Faidherbe, to 
 co-operate with the army of the Loire. 
 
 The energy of M. Gambetta, who had 
 escaped from Paris in a balloon, and had 
 assumed dictatorial powers in the provinces, 
 did not save France from fresh reverses. 
 Strasburg, which had been besieged by the 
 Baden troops since the battle of Worth, 
 surrendered on the 27th of September, and 
 the ancient town passed once more into the 
 hands of the Germans. On the 27th of 
 
 the northwest to attack the French under 
 General Faidherbe. The second army, 
 under Prince Frederick Charles, hastened 
 to the Loire to the assistance of the Ger- 
 mans engaged in that quarter. 
 
 Before the fall of Metz the operations on 
 the Loire had assumed a most important 
 character. On the 12th of October Gen- 
 eral von der Tann occupied Orleans, after 
 driving the French, under General La 
 Motterouge, out of that city. On the 8th 
 of November, being threatened by a greatly 
 superior force of the French, Von der Tann 
 withdrew from Orleans. On the 10th he 
 was attacked by the army of the Loire, now 
 under command of General De Paladines, 
 and was defeated — the only victory gained 
 by the French during the war. Von der 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 613 
 
 Tann fell back to Toury, where he was 
 joined by tlie Grand Duke of Mecklenburg 
 with reinforcements sent from the army be- 
 fore Paris, to enable him to hold the French 
 in check until the arrival of the second 
 German army, now on its march from Metz. 
 The grand duke won some successes over 
 the French forces near Chartres, and a few 
 days later Prince Frederick Charles arrived 
 with his forces and assumed the general 
 command. 
 
 General Trochu, the commander of the 
 garrison of Paris, concerted a plan with 
 General De Paladines to attempt a simul- 
 taneous movement for the relief of Paris. 
 Thearmy of theLoirewasto attack and drive 
 back the forces of Frederick Charles, and 
 advance upon Paris by way of Fontainebleau. 
 At the same time General Diicrot with a 
 force of 60,000 picked troops was to cut his 
 way from Paris through the German lines 
 on the Marne, and unite with the army of 
 the Loire. The success of these movements 
 would compel the Germans to raise the 
 siege of Paris. On the 28th of November 
 the array of the Loire began its forward 
 movement, and attacked the Prussian left 
 at Beaune la Rolaude. After a battle of 
 six hours the French were forced to with- 
 draw. Heavy skirmishing succeeded this 
 battle, and on the 2d of December the 
 French again attacked the German army, 
 striking this time at their centre, but wei'e 
 forced back. On the morning of the 3d 
 the Germans assumed the offensive, drove 
 back the French line at all points, broke it 
 into three separate parts, and forced each 
 to retreat by a separate route, every step 
 carrying them farther apart. On the 4th 
 the German army reoccupied Orleans. The 
 French army was now divided into two 
 separate columns, one commanded by Gen- 
 eral Bourbaki, and the other by General 
 Chanzy, who was given the chief command 
 of the army of the Loire. The effort of Du- 
 crot to break the investment of Paris was 
 made in gallant style on the 29th and 30th 
 of November, but was unsuccessful. The 
 French were driven back at every point, and 
 the German line was maintained intact. 
 
 The efforts of the Germans in the north 
 of France were very successful. The towns 
 and fortresses of tliat section were rapidly 
 occupied by them. The French were de- 
 feated near Amiens on the 27th of Novem- 
 ber, and on the 28th Amiens was surrendered 
 to General Manteuffel. After the recovery 
 of Orleans by the Germans in December, 
 
 Manteuffel moved from the Somme towards 
 the coast, and on the 5th of December de- 
 feated the French at Buchy, in consequence 
 of which victory Rouen fell into his hands. 
 On the 8th a German corps occupied 
 Dieppe. While Manteuffel was thus en- 
 gaged. General Faidherbe, having recruited 
 his army, advanced rapidly towards Amiens 
 to recover that city. Manteuffel by forced 
 marches reached Amiens before him, and 
 defeated him near that city on the 23d of De- 
 cember. He again defeated the French at 
 Bapaume on the 2d and 3d of January, 
 187L On the 19th of January General 
 von Goeben, Manteuffel's successor, defeated 
 Faidherbe at St. Quentin. 
 
 Li the meantime Prince Frederick Charles 
 had advanced against the army of the 
 Loire, and had forced it back into Brittany. 
 After several encounters, he inflicted upon 
 it a severe defeat at Le Mans on the 11th 
 of January, 1871. 
 
 The column which retreated from Or- 
 leans on the 3d of December under General 
 Bourbaki halted at Bourges, where it was 
 reinforced and organized as a separate 
 army. On the 5th of January, 1871, Bour- 
 baki, in accordance with orders from Gam- 
 betta, set out from the Loire to raise the 
 siege of Belfort, on the eastern border of 
 France. He reached the vicinity of Belfort 
 on the 14th of January, but found the be- 
 sieging force strengthened by the army of 
 General Von Werder, who had succeeded 
 in reaching Belfort ahead of him. In a 
 series of engagements on the 15th and 16th 
 of January Bourbaki attempted to force the 
 German position, but was defeated, and 
 forced to retreat. Manteuffel, who had 
 been detached from his command in the 
 north, now arrived, and took command of 
 the German forces. He intercepted Bour- 
 baki's retreat, and forced him to choose be- 
 tween surrendering his array and withdraw- 
 ing into Switzerland. Bourbaki chose the 
 latter, and crossed the Swiss border. His 
 forces were at once disarmed by the Swiss 
 authorities. His array consisted of 84,000 
 men. 
 
 Paris in the meantime had been hard 
 pressed by the Germans, who, on the 21st 
 of January, began to bombard the city. 
 This bombardment was kept up steadily 
 until the surrender of the city. The French 
 made several desperate efforts to break up 
 the investment, but their sorties were in- 
 variably repulsed. Hunger began to try 
 the patience of the Parisians, and the Gov- 
 
614 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ernment of the National Defence was 
 obliged to quell an insurrection in the city. 
 
 the movement for the union of Germany 
 had been revived in the Fatherland, and 
 
 The last sortie of the French was made on I the successes of the German army had been 
 
 HOISTING OF THE GERMAN FLAG OVER MONT VALERIEN. 
 
 the 19th of January, and was repulsed, and 
 on the 28th of January Paris was formally 
 surrendered to the German army. 
 
 During the progress of the war in France 
 
 so many appeals to the national sentiment 
 in favor of this union. The glory achieved 
 was the common gain of Germany, as Avere 
 the more substantial results of the war. 
 
FB03f THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 615 
 
 Influenced by the feelings aroused by the 
 struggle, the south German states came to 
 desire a close union with the northern con- 
 federation. About the middle of October 
 they sent plenipotentiaries to Versailles to 
 give formal expression to their wishes. On 
 the 15th of November treaties were signed 
 with Hesse and Baden, with Bavaria on 
 the 23d, and with Wurtemberg on the 25th 
 of November, for the 
 union of these states 
 with the confedera- 
 tion. These treaties 
 were approved by the 
 North German Diet 
 and the South Ger- 
 man Parliaments, and 
 the Northern Confed- 
 eration was changed 
 to a German Confed- 
 eration. The union of 
 the Fatherland was 
 now an accomplished 
 fact, and the re- 
 joicings of the Ger- 
 man people were deep 
 and sincere. This 
 event was soon fol- 
 lowed by one of 
 equal importance. 
 On the 4th of De- 
 cember the King of 
 Bavaria proposed to 
 the other German 
 sovereigns and to the 
 free towns that the 
 President of the Con- 
 federation should re- 
 ceive the title of 
 German Emperor. 
 This proposal w-as 
 agreed to, and the im- 
 perial crown was for- 
 mally offered to the 
 King of Prussia, and 
 
 accepted by him. On the 18th of January, 
 1871, in the presence of a brilliant assem- 
 bly of German princes and officers of the 
 army, held in the Hall of ]\Iirrors in the 
 Palace of Versailles, King William was 
 solemnly proclaimed Emperor in Germany. 
 The surrender of Paris closed the war. 
 It was followed by an armistice of three 
 weeks, during which the French people 
 organized a government competent to con- 
 clude a permanent peace. The prelimi- 
 naries of peace were signed on the 26th of 
 
 February, 1871, by Count Bismarck and 
 the south German plenipotentiaries, in be- 
 half of Germany, and by MM. Thiers and 
 Favre, on the part of France. By the 
 terms thus agreed upon France ceded to 
 the German empire the province of Alsace, 
 with the exception of Belfort, and the 
 German part of Lorraine, including Metz 
 and Thiouville ; and agreed to pay Germany 
 
 WILLIAM I., EMPEKOR OF GERMANY. 
 
 the sum of 5,000,000,000 francs as an in- 
 demnity for the expenses of the war. 
 
 On the 1st of March a portion of the 
 German army entered Paris, and occupied 
 a small part of it. On the 3d they evacu- 
 ated the city. The preliminary treaty of 
 peace being ratified by the French National 
 Assembly at Bordeaux, the German troops 
 were withdrawn to the frontier departments 
 placed in their possession as security for the 
 execution of the treaty, and the war was 
 over. A final treaty of peace was con- 
 
616 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 eluded at Frankfort by Count Bismarck 
 and M. Favre, on the 10 th of May. It was 
 substantially the same as the preliminary 
 treaty. The results of the war made Ger- 
 many the first military power in Europe. 
 
 The emperor left Versailles for his own 
 country soon after the close of hostilities, 
 and on the 17th of March made his tri- 
 umphal eutry into Berlin, where he was 
 received with enthusiasm. 
 
 On the 21st of March the first diet of the 
 new empire met at Berlin. It at once set 
 to work to make such changes in the Ger- 
 man constitution as were demanded by the 
 creation of the empire. This task was com- 
 pleted in about a month. The new consti- 
 tution is substantially that of the German 
 
 ness of the state. The imperial chancellor 
 is also the minister for foreign affairs. 
 Though important privileges were reserved 
 by the states in establishing the empire, 
 there would seem to be little doubt that the 
 tendency of affairs is to weaken these priv- 
 ileges and strengthen the power of the im- 
 perial government. 
 
 During the year 1871 the work of organ- 
 izing the German empire was completed 
 without difficulty or interruption. The 
 large payments exacted from France en- 
 abled the government to meet its financial 
 needs without imposing new taxes. Count 
 Bismarck was raised to the rank of prince, 
 and was appointed by the emperor chan- 
 cellor of the empire, and to his energetic 
 
 ENTRY OF THE GERMAN ARMY INTO PARIS. 
 
 Confederation. The empire consists of 
 twenty-five states, including the three free 
 cities. Each state is left free to manage its 
 domestic affairs, and may receive and send 
 diplomatic representatives. Matters affect- 
 ing the general welfare of the states are 
 under the exclusive control of the imperial 
 government ; and the imperial diet is 
 charged with legislation upon all such 
 questions. The executive power is in- 
 trusted to the emperor, who has the right 
 to form alliances, conclude treaties, declare 
 war, and make peace. He is represented 
 in the diet by the imperial chancellor, 
 whom he appoints, and who presides over 
 the federal council, and directs the busi- 
 
 efforts the success of the work was mainly 
 due. 
 
 One of the most remarkable events of the 
 year was the sudden and bitter opposition 
 of the mass of the Roman Catholic clergy 
 to the unity of Germany under the su- 
 premacy of Prussia. This hostility was in 
 some way connected with the new dogma of 
 papal infallibility. During the sessions of 
 the Vatican Council the German bishops 
 had been most active in their hostility to 
 the doctrine, but immediately upon its pro- 
 mulgation accepted it without hesitation, 
 and commanded their followers to do like- 
 wise. About the same time they began an 
 open opposition to the empire, and from 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 617 
 
 their pulpits denounced it in such seditious 
 language that the imperial goverument was 
 compelled to take severe measures against 
 them. A bill was passed by the diet pre- 
 scribing severe punishments for seditious 
 language uttered in the pulpit. Only the 
 gravest reasons of expediency induced the 
 German government to depart from the 
 policy of religious toleration. Had the new 
 doctrine been a religious matter only, it 
 would not have been noticed. It had a 
 political bearing also, however, and the 
 German priesthood determined to direct its 
 full force against the empire established 
 under Protestant supremacy. The contest 
 was but a renewal of the old efforts of Rome 
 to make the political system of Germany 
 subservient to her, and the German govern- 
 ment could not tolerate it. It therefore 
 made the Catholic clergy responsible to the 
 law for the attacks they aimed at the em- 
 pire from their pulpits, and decisively pro- 
 claimed that the pulpit should not be made 
 a place from which to incite sedition with 
 impunity. The law applied to all religious 
 sects, but as the Catholic clergy were the 
 only ones who sought to make trouble, they 
 alone experienced its effects. The law was 
 openly disregarded, and the government 
 was obliged during the next year to apply 
 its penalties to a number of the Catholic 
 clergy. The Jesuits had been for some 
 time established in Germany. They were 
 now especially active in the opposition to 
 the imperial government; and in 1872 the 
 German Parliament passed a law expelling 
 them from the empire. Their establish- 
 ments were broken up, and they were com- 
 pelled to remove to other countries. In the 
 same year the Prussian Parliament took the 
 control of the primary education of the 
 young out of the hands of the clergy, both 
 Protestant and Catholic, and confided it to 
 officials appointed by the state. The 
 measure was acquiesced in by the Prot- 
 estants, but was bitterly denounced by the 
 Catholics. 
 
 The Orders of the Redemptorists, Lazar- 
 ists, the Sacred Heart (composed of ladies) 
 and some others, being closely connected 
 with the Jesuits, shared their fate, and were 
 compelled to leave Germany. In November, 
 1872, a conference of the German Catholic 
 bishops was held at Fulda, and denounced 
 the measures of the government against the 
 religious orders as a persecution. In De- 
 cember the pope, in an allocation, in severe 
 terms censured what he termed the " im- 
 
 pudence " of the measures adopted by the 
 German government. The emperor replied 
 to this by promptly breaking off all diplo- 
 matic intercourse with the papal court. 
 
 In 1873 a bill was introduced by the 
 government into the German Parliament, 
 establishing civil marriage in the empire, 
 and doing away with the necessity of bap- 
 tism as a condition of the exercise of civil 
 functions. 
 
 In the Prussian Parliament still more 
 liberal measures were introduced ; the de- 
 sign being to place Prussia, with respect to 
 the various churches, on the footing occu- 
 pied by the other Protestant states. The 
 Catholic bishops refused to obey these laws. 
 This open rebellion compelled the govern- 
 ment to enforce its authority. Heavy fines 
 were imposed upon the bishops for their 
 disregard of the laws, and it was even ne- 
 cessary to imprison some of them. The 
 government withdrew the pecuniary sup- 
 port it had given the Catholic clei'gy and 
 institutions until the latter should return to 
 their obedience to the laws. The pope now 
 addressed to the emperor a strong letter of 
 remonstrance, in which he affected to be- 
 lieve that the emperor did not approve of 
 the measures of his government, expressed 
 the hope that " the cruel laws against the 
 chui'ch " would be repealed, and intimated 
 that the papacy possessed some undefined 
 rights to the allegiance of even Protestant 
 sovereigns. The emperor, after a long in- 
 terval, replied that in a constitutional state 
 like Prussia, every law required the ap- 
 proval of the sovereign, and fhat he was in 
 full sympathy with the measures of his 
 government. He declared that the Catho- 
 lic bishops had drawn their punishment 
 upon themselves, and had wantonly dis- 
 turbed the peace of the empire by their 
 seditious refusal to obey the laws. 
 
 One of the measures to which the Catho- 
 lic bishops objected most strongly was the 
 law relating to the education and discipline 
 of the clergy. It directs that parish priests 
 shall not be appointed without the previous 
 sanction of the government, and clerical 
 students are required to pass through a 
 course of instruction in the national uni- 
 versities. In this way the Prussian govern- 
 ment hopes to Germanize the Catholic 
 clergy, and to make sure of implanting in 
 them some element of patriotism. 
 
 A new element was added to the contest 
 by the legal position claimed by the Old 
 Catholics. These were Catholics who re- 
 
618 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 fused to accept the decree of the Vatican 
 Council. They claimed that the pope and 
 the bishops who adhered to the Vatican de- 
 cree had abandoned the Catholic Church, 
 and that they (the Old Catholics) were its 
 representatives. As that church had been 
 regarded in Prussia as one of the state 
 churches, previous to 1870, they claimed, 
 as its true representatives, to be entitled to 
 the pecuniary support granted to it by law. 
 The state government of Germany refused 
 to accept this view, but at the same time 
 declined to treat the Old Catholics as sece- 
 ders from the Catholic Church, holding that 
 the question was one of the internal govern- 
 ment of that church with which the state 
 had no right to interfere. Accordingly 
 Prussia recognized the missionary bishop 
 
 of the Old Catholics as a bishop of the 
 Catholic Church, and granted him a 
 salary. 
 
 The quarrel between the empire and the 
 Catholic Church has grown deeper every 
 year. It is still unsettled, and bids fair to 
 remain an open question for many years to 
 come. 
 
 In September, 1872, the Emperor of Aus- 
 tria visited the German emperor at Berlin, 
 and was cordially received, and in 1873 the 
 Emperor William and the King of Italy 
 visited Vienna. These visits were signifi- 
 cant of the fact that Austria had accepted 
 in good faith the changes in Germany and 
 Italy, and was determined to take her place 
 and do her duty honestly in the new ar- 
 rangement of European, affairs. 
 
 book: xiixi. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 TREATY OF VERDUN. 
 
 Geographical Position of France — Ancient Gaul — 
 The Cimri — The Belgte — The Pha-nician Colonies 
 — The Greek Towns — The Gauls Cross the Alps — 
 Destruction of Rome — Gallia Cisalpina — The Ro- 
 mans in Gaul — Aix Founded — Narbonne — Quar- 
 rel Between the Mdui and Sequani— Ariovistus 
 Seizes a Part of Gaul — Julius Caesar Made Pro- 
 consul of Gaul — He Defeats Ariovistus — Conquers 
 Gaul^Revolt of the Belgffi — It is Suppressed by 
 Csesar — Uprising of the Gauls — Vercingetorix^ 
 He is Beaten by Ctesar and Surrenders — Gaul 
 Tranquillized by Caisar — Lyons Made the Capital 
 - — Gaul Under the Romans — The Institutions of 
 Primitive Gaul — The Druids — Claudius Drives 
 the Druids from Gaul — Revolt of Civilis — Sabinus 
 — Introduction of Christian itj' into Gaul — Perse- 
 cutions of the Christians — St. Denis — St. Hillary 
 — State of Gaul During the Decline of the Roman 
 Empire — Constantine Protects the Christians — 
 The Germans Invited into Gaul — Julian Conquers 
 them — The Great German Invasion — The Visi- 
 gothic Kingdom — The Burgundians — The Franks 
 — Kingdom of Aetius— Invasion of the Huns — 
 Battle of Chalons — St. Genevieve^Childeric — 
 Situation of Gaul at the Fall of the Roman Em- 
 pire — The Franks — Clovis Becomes King of the 
 Franks — Reasons for Transferring th« Narrative 
 to the History of Germany— Gaul a German State. 
 
 'ODERN France comprises the larg- 
 est part of the region known by 
 the Romans as Gallia Transalpina. 
 It occupies the western end of the 
 central part of the continent of 
 Europe, and comprises an area of 
 about 204,091 square miles. It is bounded 
 
 on the north by the North Sea and the 
 Strait of Dover, and on the northwest by 
 the English Channel, which separate it 
 from England ; on the east by the Alps, the 
 Jura, and the Vosges Mountains, which re- 
 spectively divide it from Italy, Switzerland, 
 and the German Empire ; on the south by 
 the Pyrenees, which divide it from Spain, 
 and by the Mediterranean ; and on the 
 west by the Atlantic Ocean and Bay of 
 Biscay. 
 
 At some unknown period of antiquity 
 this region was colonized by the Gauls, a 
 tribe of warriors of Celtic descent, who are 
 believed to have migrated from central 
 Asia. They took possession of the wide 
 region extending from the Rhine to the At- 
 lantic and from the Mediterranean to the 
 North Sea. From them this country ac- 
 quired the name of Galltachd or Gaul. 
 Somewhat later, the Cimri, another great 
 Celtic race, invaded western Europe — 
 perhaps about the middle of the seventh 
 century before the Christian era. They 
 entered Gaul from the northeast, and after 
 a prolonged and despei'ate struggle with 
 their Gallic kinsmen, obtained final pos- 
 session of a large extent of country north 
 of the Loire, including the peninsula of 
 Armorica. Another Celtic nation, the 
 Belgse, took possession of the region east of 
 the Rhine. There they were thrown into 
 constant contact with the Germans, and 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 619 
 
 came to resemble them very much in man- 
 ners and character. About two hundred 
 years after the invasion of the Cimri, the 
 Belgie crossed the Rhine and conquered 
 northern Gaul. Being of the same race as 
 the Gauls already settled there, the Belga 
 easily assimilated with them in course of 
 time ; but still retained many of their Ger- 
 man characteristics. They gave to their 
 country the name of Belgica. These na- 
 tions constituted the inhabitants of ancient 
 Gaul. 
 
 At a very early period the Phoenicians 
 established colonies on the Mediterra- 
 nean coast of Gaul, and are believed to 
 have been the first to open and work the 
 mines of the Cevennes. Later on they were 
 supplanted by the Greeks, who became pos- 
 sessed of their colonies, founded others, and 
 introduced into all the superior civilization 
 of Hellas. About the year B. c. 600 some 
 Greek refugees from Phocjea, in Asia Minory 
 fouuded the city of Marseilles. Antibes, 
 Nice, Agde, and some other towns, all owe 
 their existence to the Greeks. These people 
 were content with their colonies and did not 
 seek to extend their influence into the in- 
 terior of Gaul. 
 
 The Gauls, who were driven from their 
 possessions by the Cimri, emigrated iuto the 
 adjoining countries. They twice crossed the 
 Alps and overran northern Italy, and a 
 portion passed the Pyrenees, entered Spain 
 and became mixed wath the Iberians of that 
 country, from which they took the name of 
 Celtiberi. About B. c. 390 the Senonian 
 Gauls (Senones) passed the Apennines, and 
 advanced upon Rome. They defeated the 
 Roman army upon the Allia, captured 
 Rome, and burned it, as we have related 
 elsewhere. They were induced to withdraw 
 only upon the payment of a costly ransom. 
 The Gauls now established themselves 
 permanently in northern Italy, and were a 
 constant terror to Rome until the victories 
 of the Consul Decius, in b. c. 295, of L. ^mil- 
 ius and Atilius, in B. c. 284, and of Clau- 
 dius Marcellus, in B. c. 223, broke their 
 power. After a long struggle all the Italian 
 possessions of the Gauls were conquered 
 by Rome, and northern Italy was organized 
 as a Roman province under the title of 
 Gallia Cisalpina. The Alps were thus con- 
 stituted the boundary between the free 
 Gauls and Rome, about B. c. 191. 
 
 Half a century passed away, and Rome 
 began to cast longing eyes at the Gallic 
 possessions beyond the Alps. The Greek 
 
 colony of Massilia or Marseilles, being at 
 war with the neighboring Gauls, appealed 
 to Rome for aid, and a powerful army was 
 despatched to its aid under the Consul Opi- 
 raius, B. c. 154. The Gauls were defeated 
 by the Romans and became tributary sub- 
 jects to Marseilles. Some years later the 
 Romans defeated the Salyes on the lower 
 Rhone ; took formal possession of the con- 
 quered territory, and established their first 
 colony in Gaul by founding the city of 
 Aquse Sextiie, or Aix, in Provence, B. c. 
 123. From this point the Romans extended 
 their conquests rapidly, and in b. c. 121 or- 
 ganized their possessions in Gaul as a prov- 
 ince, their dominions corresponding very 
 nearly with the modern Dauphine and Pro- 
 vence. In B. c. 118 the colony of Narbo 
 Martins, or Narbonne, was founded, and 
 became the Roman capital of southern 
 Gaul. The province acquired from this 
 city the name of Gallia Narbonensis, and 
 extended from the Garonne and the Pyre- 
 nees to the Alps and the borders of Italy. 
 
 Towards the middle of the first century 
 before the Christian era, two Gallic tribes, 
 the JEdui, inhabiting the region afterwards 
 known as Burgundy, and the Sequani, oc- 
 cupying upper Alsace, became involved in 
 war. The Sequani appealed to the Ger- 
 mans, who dwelt beyond the Rhine, for 
 aid. A vast German army, under Ario- 
 vistus, crossed the Rhine and defeated the 
 ^dui. The German leader then demanded 
 of the Sequani the cession of the third part 
 of their lands as the price of his aid. The 
 Sequani refused, and united with their 
 former enemies to drive out the Germans. 
 Ariovistus defeated the combined tribes in 
 a great battle, in b. c. 60, and at once oc- 
 cupied their territory, pushing his advance 
 up to the very frontier of the Roman prov- 
 ince. Gaul had ceased to be independent, 
 and the only question to be decided now 
 was whether it should be the prize of the 
 Germans or the Romans. The latter had 
 watched the progress of Ariovistus with 
 open impatience, as they had for some time 
 seriously contemplated the conquest of the 
 whole of Gaul. 
 
 Gallia Cisalpina and Gallia Narbonensis 
 were ruled at this time by Julius Caesar as 
 Proconsul, b. c. 58. He had foreseen the 
 approaching contest with the Germans, and 
 had quietly prepared for it. The Germans 
 soon gave Rome a valid ground for war by 
 making incursions into eastern Gaul. Csesar 
 sent a message to Ariovistus, and informed 
 
620 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 him that if he wished to live on terras of 
 peace with Rome, he must confine himself 
 strictly to the right bank of the Rhine. 
 The German leader haughtily answered 
 that he held his province in Gaul by the 
 same right by which Rome held hers, and 
 defied Csesar to meet him in the field. 
 Upon receipt of this message, Caesar at 
 once marched against Ariovistus and in- 
 flicted a terrible defeat upon him in the 
 plains of Alsace. The German army was 
 routed with a loss of over 60,000 men, and 
 the survivors fled in dismay over the Rhine. 
 A little later Ariovistus died from rage and 
 shame at his defeat. 
 
 This defeat destroyed the German power 
 in Gaul, and Csesar at once prepared to add 
 that country to the Roman dominions. In 
 B. c. 57 the tribes of northern Gaul formed 
 a league against the Romans, and took the 
 field with an army of over 300,000 men. 
 The Remi alone refused to join the confed- 
 eration and made an alliance with Csesar. 
 In the campaign which ensued Csesar con- 
 quered the greater part of the regions 
 known in modern times as Normandy and 
 Brittany. The next year the Avhole of 
 Armorica or Brittany was subdued, and in 
 the same year Crassus, one of Csesar's lieu- 
 tenants, compelled the submission of nearly 
 all the Aquitanian tribes, who dwelt south 
 of the Garonne. 
 
 In B. c. 55, during the absence of Csesar 
 in Brittany, the Eburones, a Belgic tribe, 
 dwelling on the banks of the Meuse, rose in 
 insurrection, massacred one of the Roman 
 legions stationed among them, and besieged 
 another, under Q. Cicero, in its camp. 
 Csesar returned to Gaul as soon as informed 
 of the danger, and w'ith a force of but 
 7,000 men cut a passage through the Belgse 
 into the camp of Cicero. In the spring of 
 B. c. 53 the Romans subdued the Eburones, 
 utterly exterminated them, and compelled 
 Ambiorix, their leader, to seek safety in the 
 difficult region of the Ardennes. 
 
 The next year, B. c. 52, the Gauls rose 
 in general revolt against the Romans. 
 They were led by Vercingetorix, a young 
 man of noble birth and commanding influ- 
 ence among the Arverni, and who was des- 
 tined to prove himself a commander of 
 unusual merit. He arranged the outbreak 
 with great secresy, and summoned the Gauls 
 to meet him at Gergovia, the chief town of 
 the Arverni. An immense army gathered 
 there at the appointed time, and the troops, 
 with cheers, hailed Vercingetorix as their 
 
 commander. It was in the winter, and Ver- 
 cingetorix supposed that the Romans would 
 not be able to take the field against him 
 until the spring. 
 
 Csesar was in Italy when he received the 
 news of the uprising of the Gauls. He at 
 once set out for Gaul and reached it in an 
 almost incredibly short time. Disregarding 
 the severities of the winter, he collected his 
 troops, marched into the country of the 
 Arverni, and ravaged it far and wide. 
 Avaricum (Bourges) was taken after a mem- 
 orable siege, in spite of the efforts of Ver- 
 cingetorix to relieve it, and nearly the 
 whole of its 40,000 inhabitants were put to 
 the sword. Vercingetorix retreated to Ger- 
 govia, a place of great strength, and re- 
 pulsed the attack of Csesar upon the town. 
 The Romans were obliged to raise the siege 
 and retire northAvard. Vercingetorix fol- 
 lowed in pursuit, and came up with Csesar 
 near Dijon. A bloody battle ensued, in 
 which the Gallic leader was beaten. He 
 threw himself into the strongly fortified 
 town of Alesia, in the country of Mandubii, 
 which was at once besieged by the Romans. 
 The position was so strong that Csesar de- 
 termined not to risk an assault upon it, but 
 to reduce it by a blockade, and erected 
 works of circumvallation on an enormous 
 scale. Vercingetorix thereupon dismissed 
 his entire force of cavalry, with orders to 
 appeal to the Gauls to join him in a final 
 effort to secure the independence of their 
 country. In answer to this appeal an army 
 of nearly 250,000 men assembled under 
 Vergasillaunus, and attempted to force 
 Csesar to raise the siege of Alesia. Csesar 
 defeated the relieving army of the Gauls 
 in three engagements, scattered it, never to 
 be reunited, and took Vergasillaunus pris- 
 oner. These successes sealed the fate of 
 Alesia. Seeing that a capitulation was in- 
 evitable, Vercingetorix, arrayed in his best 
 armor and mounted on a superbly capar- 
 isoned charger, rode into the Roman lines 
 the day after the last battle, and presenting 
 himself before Csesar, cast his arms at the 
 conqueror's feet in token of his submission. 
 He was kept a prisoner for several years, 
 and then, having graced the triumph of 
 Csesar at Rome, was put to death in his 
 dungeon. The fall of Alesia really settled 
 the fate of Gaul, but it was some time be- 
 fore the entire country was reduced to sub- 
 mission. 
 
 Having conquered Gaul, Csesar proceeded 
 to organize it as a Roman province. He 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 
 
 621 
 
 treated the natives kindly, and as far as 
 was consistent with the establishment of Ro- 
 man institutions among thera, permitted 
 
 array, in which they constituted the legion 
 of the "Alauda," so called from the figure 
 of a lark on the front of the helmet. These 
 
 VERCINGETORIX SURRENDERS TO CiESAK. 
 
 them to retain the privileges of local gov- 
 ernment. He induced the best of the con- 
 quered warriors to enlist in the Roman 
 
 troops were given the privileges of Roman 
 citizens. The Gauls of Belgium and Aqui- 
 tania also enlisted in large numbers in the 
 
622 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Roman army, and greatly distinguished 
 themselves in the subsequent civil wars. 
 The conquests of Caesar were erected into 
 a Roman province, to which the name of 
 Gallia Comata was given. 
 
 Upon the establishment of the Roman 
 empire by Augustus, Gaul was made an 
 imperial province ; that is, it was placed 
 under the immediate government of the 
 emperor. It was divided into four great 
 administrative districts. These were Gallia 
 Narbonensis, in which no change was made ; 
 Aquitania, which Avas enlarged, and ex- 
 tended from the Loire to the Pyrenees and 
 the Cevennes; Gallia Lugdunensis, which 
 reached from the Loire to the Rhone and 
 the Saone, and northward to rivers Oise, 
 Somme, and Marne; and Gallia Belgica, 
 which embi'aced all northern Gaul as far as 
 the Rhine, and extended along that river 
 almost to the Lake of Constance. 
 
 The seat of government was fixed at 
 Lugdunum or Lyons. This city, founded 
 in B. c. 42, grew with remarkable rapidity, 
 and within fifteen years became the most 
 flourishing town in Gaul. It was always a 
 favorite residence of the Roman emperors. 
 Four well-built roads extended from Lyons 
 to the various parts of the province. Every 
 effort was made to Romanize the Gauls and 
 attach them to the emj^ire, as well as to 
 destroy all their old ties and associations. 
 They were well treated, and the privileges 
 of Roman citizenship were liberally, though 
 judiciously, extended to them. Civilization 
 made rapid strides throughout the province. 
 Flourishing schools were established at 
 Bordeaux, Toulouse, Aries, Vienue, Autun, 
 Rheims, and other cities, and those of 
 Aries and Autun in time became so famous 
 as to be counted Avorthy rivals of the most 
 celebrated academies of Greece and Italy. 
 The Gauls eagerly sought the benefits of 
 education, and ere long natives of the 
 country were to be found in all the branches 
 of the Roman service. The cities founded 
 by the Romans, especially in the south of 
 Gaul, Avere adorned Avith handsome build- 
 ings and noble public works, of which the 
 Pont du Gard, the triumphal arch and 
 theatre at Orange, and the amphitheati'e 
 and the "Maison Carree" at Nismes, ai'e 
 notable examples. By the middle of the 
 first Christian century Gaul was thoroughly 
 imbued with the civilization of Rome, anti 
 was making great advances in it yearly. 
 
 The change thus accomplished was great 
 indeed. The primitive Gauls had main- 
 
 tained an aristocratic or oligarchical form, 
 of government, the most remarkable fea- 
 ture of Avhich Avas the extraordinary power 
 of the Druids. Csesar informs us that in 
 his time the whole political poAver of Gaul 
 Avas divided betAveen the Druids and the 
 knights or nobles. The mass of the people 
 Avere serfs or slaves. They could not be 
 bought or sold, and ill-treatment of them 
 Avas punished by a fine, but in all other re- 
 spects they Avere completely in the hands 
 of the nobles. Each noble was surrounded 
 by a number of them, Avho constituted a 
 special class of retainers, Avhom he Avas 
 bound to protect against all persons ; the 
 retainers on their part Avere obliged to de- 
 fend his person and maintain his interests 
 with absolute devotion. The noble sup- 
 ported them, and they readily shai-ed all his 
 dangers. If he fell in battle, or Avas killed, 
 it Avas the duty of his clients to sacrifice 
 themselves on his tomb, that they might 
 share his fate in the future life. It is said 
 that no instance Avas ever knoAvu of an at- 
 tempt to evade this obligation. 
 
 The Druids stood at the head of the 
 Celtic religious organization. They were 
 divided into the inferior priests ; the bards, 
 who were supposed to be divinely insj^ired, 
 and whose influence over the people Avas 
 immense ; and the Druids proper. The 
 last class were exempted from all civil and 
 military obligations, and passed their lives 
 in the solitudes of the forests, engaged in 
 theological and metaphysical studies and 
 meditations. They taught, says Csesar, 
 " that souls do not perish, but pass after 
 death into other bodies ; considering this as 
 a most poAverful stimulus to bravery and 
 courage, since it tends to remove altogether 
 the fear of death." A solemn conclave of 
 the Druids Avas held every year at a saci-ed 
 place in the country of the Cai'nutes. This 
 assembly constituted also a high court of 
 appeal. Causes of all kinds Avere brought 
 before it. Those Avho refused to accept its 
 decisions Avere excluded by it from the 
 sacrifices — a punishment much dreaded by 
 the Gauls, as it banished the offender from 
 the society of his people and incapacitated 
 him for any public function. The Druids 
 Avere not only ministers of religion and 
 judges of the law ; they Avere the physicians 
 of the people, philosophers, professors of 
 such of the arts and sciences as were knoAvn 
 to the Celts, poets, genealogists, and his- 
 iorians. They monopolized all the culture 
 and intellectual poAver of their race, and 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF YERDVN. 
 
 62i 
 
 their influence over their people followed 
 as a natural result. 
 
 The religious rites of the Druids were 
 often cruel and bloody. Human beings 
 were frequently sacrificed in order to gain 
 the favor of the gods, or to avert the death 
 . or illness of some individual ; it being be- 
 lieved that the gods required a human life 
 for every life granted. Sometimes a huge 
 frame of wicker, made in the shape of a 
 man, was filled with human beings — gen- 
 erally condemned criminals or captives 
 taken in war — and was set on fire, the 
 wretched beings perishing in the flames. 
 
 Augustus did not attempt to persecute or 
 proscribe the Druidical religion in Gaul, 
 but he spared no pains to undermine it and 
 draw the Gauls from it. He refused the 
 privileges of Roman citizenship to all who 
 took part in the ancient worship, and espe- 
 cially in the human sacrifices, and endeav- 
 ored to combine the old worship with that 
 of the gods of Rome in such a manner as 
 to make the latter supplant the former. 
 He was very successful, and in the course 
 of a few years almost the entire nobility and 
 the more influential classes abandoned 
 Druidism. It still retained its hold upon 
 the lower classes, but it ceased from this 
 time to influence the course of affairs in 
 Gaul. The Emperor Claudius determined 
 to strike a death-blow at the old faith, and 
 in A. D. 43 issued a decree forbidding the 
 Druidical worship under pain of death, and 
 banishing all classes of the Druids from 
 Gaul. They fled to Britain ; but the ven- 
 geance of the emperor pursued them, and 
 they took refuge in the mountains of Wales 
 and Scotland. Their chief stronghold in 
 the isle of Anglesey was taken with terrible 
 slaughter by the Roman general Suetonius 
 Paulinus. 
 
 The general tranquillity which pervaded 
 Gaul was broken in a. d. 69 by an insurrec- 
 tion of the tribes of Belgic Gaul, led by 
 Claudius Civilis. He proclaimed the " Em- 
 pire of the Gauls," and set up Julius 
 Sabinus, who claimed descent from Julius 
 Cffisar, as emperor. After some reverses, 
 the Romans put down the outbreak. Civ- 
 ilis submitted, together with his people, and 
 they were granted amnesty. Sabinus es- 
 caped, and, with his wife Epouina, took 
 refuge in a subterranean cavern. They re- 
 mained in concealment there for nine years, 
 but were at length discovered. Sabinus 
 was loaded with chains and taken to Rome, 
 where he was put to death. His heroic 
 
 wife demanded to share his fate, and was 
 executed with him. 
 
 This was the last effort of the Gauls to 
 regain their freedom. A long period of 
 unbroken tranquillity followed, during 
 which the province made great advances in 
 refinement and luxury. The national cha- 
 racter suffered, and the Gauls became as 
 indolent and apathetic as they had been 
 fierce and restless in their primitive 
 days. 
 
 At some time during this period the 
 Christian religion was introduced into Gaul. 
 The exact date of this event is not known. 
 Some writers hold that St. Paul, in his 
 journey into Spain, passed through Gaul 
 and sowed the first seeds of Christianity 
 there ; others place its introduction at a 
 later period. The first definite information 
 we have on the subject is the arrival in 
 Gaul, about A. d. 155, of a band of Chris- 
 tian missionaries from Asia Minor, led by 
 Pothinus and Irenieus, disciples of St. Poly- 
 carp, Bishop of Smyrna. They were very 
 successful in their labors, and planted the 
 church firmly upon the soil of Gaul. 
 Twenty years later Marcus Aurelius in- 
 augurated a cruel persecution of the Gallic 
 Christians, and in A. D. 202 Septimius 
 Severus renewed the persecution in a still 
 more cruel form. These trials did not de- 
 stroy the new faith ; but, as elsewhere, the 
 constancy of the martyrs proved the means 
 of spreading Christianity. About A. D. 250, 
 Fabian, Bishop of Rome, despatched a band 
 of missionaries to Gaul. They were led by 
 Dionysius, better known as St. Denis, 
 Saturninus, Stremonius, Martialis, Trophi- 
 mus, Gratian, and Paul, who founded the 
 sees of Paris, Toulouse, Clermont, Limoges, 
 Aries, Tours, and Narbonne. Nearly all 
 these bishops suffered martyrdom during 
 the reigns of Valerian and Diocletian, but 
 their work was taken up and carried on by 
 faithful successors, and from their time we 
 may date the permanent Christianization 
 of Gaul. By the opening of the fourth 
 century the church was firmly established 
 in all the principal cities of the province. 
 During the fourth century St. Hillary, 
 Bishop of Poitiers, successfully combated 
 the Arian heresy and prevented it from 
 spreading over Europe ; and St. Martin, 
 Bishop of Tours, established the monastic 
 system in Gaul. The Christian religion 
 spread steadily throughout the province, 
 in spite of the efforts of the emperors to 
 destroy it, and when Constantine came to 
 
624 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the throne was already rapidly becoming 
 the predominant faith of Gaul. 
 
 Gaul fell into a sad state of disorganiza- 
 tion and suffering during the period of the 
 decline of the empire. A formidable insur- 
 rection of the peasants occurred during the 
 reigus of the Emperors Maximian and Dio- 
 cletian. In the rearrangement of the em- 
 pire, in A. D. 292, Gaul was divided into 
 seventeen provinces, and made part of a 
 praetorian prefecture. The administration 
 of Gaul was confided to the Ciesar Constan- 
 tius Chlorus, who fixed his head-quarters at 
 Aries. He was mainly occupied in the 
 effort to defend the Rhine frontier against 
 the constant efforts of the Germans to pass 
 
 With their aid Constantius conquered his 
 rival ; but when the struggle was over, the 
 German allies of the emperor refused to re- 
 turn to their own country, and the frontier 
 provinces were given up to them. The 
 Saliau Franks seized the isle of Battavia 
 and the larger part of Brabant and Hai- 
 nault. They ravaged the country with fire 
 and sword, and sacked and burned to the 
 ground Treves, Cologne, Mayence, Worms, 
 Spires, Strasburg, and thirty-four other 
 flourishing cities of Gaul. Constantius 
 despatched an army to the relief of Gaul, 
 under his cousin Julian, in the beginning 
 of A. D. 356. Julian defeated the Germans 
 at Cologne, Sens, and Strasburg, drove 
 
 BOULEVARD SEBASTOPOL, PARIS, SHOWING THE RUINS OF THE PALACE OF THE EMPEROR JULIAN. 
 
 it. He was succeeded by his son Constan- 
 tine the Great, who defeated a formidable 
 horde of Franks who were ravaging the 
 northeastern provinces, and drove them 
 back into Germany, A. D. 310. Like his 
 father, Constantiue protected the Christians, 
 and when he became sole Emperor of Rome 
 established Christianity as the religion of 
 the empire. 
 
 The death of Constantine was followed, 
 as we have seen, by a struggle between his 
 successors, which resulted in the triumph of 
 Constantius. In this war both Constantius 
 and his rival Magnentius sought the assist- 
 ance of the Germans beyond the Rhine. 
 
 them over the Rhine, and compelled them 
 to sue for peace. Julian then returned to 
 Paris, which he made his favorite residence. 
 He enlarged and improved the city, and 
 built him a palace on the left bank of the 
 Seine, the ruins of which still exist. While 
 residing here he was proclaimed Augustus, 
 or emperor, by the army, in A. d. 360. 
 
 Upon the death of Julian the Germans 
 whom he had defeated reappeared on the 
 Rhine, and in order to gain any advantage 
 over them the emperors were obliged to 
 employ the services of barbarian mercenar- 
 ies. The division of the empire under 
 Arcadius and Honorius greatly weakened 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 
 
 625 
 
 it and encouraged the Germans to a cor- 
 responding degree. They increased their 
 pressure upon the Rhine frontier, and in 
 A. D. 398, Treves, the capital of Gaul, was 
 surprised, sacked, and destroyed by them. 
 Honorius sent an army against them under 
 the great Stilicho, but this able general 
 could do no more than hold back the tide 
 of invasion for a while. The savage hordes 
 of Asia were moving in an irresistible tor- 
 rent into northern Europe, and the nations 
 of that region were being pressed steadily 
 upon the Roman empire. Yielding to this 
 pressure, the Germans marched upon the 
 frontiers of Gaul. Their way was impeded 
 by their kinsmen, the Ripuarian Franks, 
 who, as we have seen elsewhere, were the 
 allies of Rome. They remained faithful to 
 their alliance, and sought to defend the 
 Rhine frontier, but were decisively defeated. 
 On the night of the 31st of December, 406, 
 the Germans passed the Rhine and swarmed 
 into Gaul. They were followed from time 
 to time by other tribes, and the invaders 
 spread themselves over a large part of 
 Gaul, which they held permanently. 
 
 When the Roman legions in Britain 
 heard of the irruption of the Germans into 
 Gaul, they threw off their allegiance to the 
 feeble Honorius, and set up as emperor an 
 adventurer named Constantiue. He had a 
 considerable following, and gained the as- 
 sistance of the Burgundians and Franks by 
 confirming them in the possession of the 
 lands they had seized in Gaul. With their 
 aid Coustantine made himself master of 
 southern and central Gaul, and routed an 
 army sent against him from Italy by Hono- 
 rius. He next invaded Spain, and won 
 some successes, but after a reign of three 
 years his good fortune deserted him, and 
 he was defeated and compelled to surrender 
 to the forces of Honorius. He was prom- 
 ised his life, but Honorius did not scruple 
 to violate his pledge, and Constantine was 
 put to death, a. d. 411. 
 
 The fall of Constantine was followed by 
 a period of confusion and anarchy, the his- 
 tory of which is almost unknown. During 
 this period three powerful German nations 
 planted themselves firmly in Gaul. These 
 were the Visigoths in the south, the Bur- 
 gundians in the east, and the Franks in the 
 north and west. 
 
 Alaric, the King of the Visigoths, died 
 in A. D. 410, after the sack of Rome, and 
 during the invasion of Italy. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother-in-law Adolphus, or 
 40 
 
 Ataulphus. He had married Placidia, the 
 sister of Honorius, who had been taken pris- 
 oner by Alaric. As a means of inducing 
 the Goths to quit Italy, Honorius conferred 
 upon Adolphus the southern provinces of 
 Gaul. The Visigoths at once crossed the 
 Alps, and defeating the last of the pretend- 
 ers who had followed Constantine, subdued 
 and took possession of the country assigned 
 them. In 418 a new treaty was made with 
 Honorius, by which the limits of the Visi- 
 gothic kingdom were clearly defined. It 
 embraced the whole of the Roman Aquita- 
 nia. Adolphus was assassinated in A. D. 
 415, 1)ut transmitted his kingdom intact to 
 his successors. 
 
 The Burgundians came into Gaul at the 
 time of the great invasion in 406. They 
 took possession of Alsace ; and, somewhat 
 later, were given by Honorius the province 
 of Gallia Sequanensis as a reward for defeat- 
 ing and slaying the pretender Jovinus. 
 They gained some other territory, and their 
 kingdom extended from the Lake of Geneva 
 as far as Coblentz on the Rhine. The 
 Rhone and the Allier separated them from 
 the Visigoths on the east, and the Mediter- 
 ranean formed their southern border. Ly- 
 ons, Geneva, Basle, Autun, and Langres 
 were their principal cities. The kingdom 
 of Burgundy, thus formed, existed for more 
 than a century, and was finally absorbed by 
 the empire of Charlemagne. 
 
 Both the Visigoths and Burgundians 
 were Christians at the time of their settle- 
 ment in Gaul, They had adopted the Arian 
 heresy, however. 
 
 The Franks, as we have seen in our ac- 
 count of them in the history of Germany, 
 passed the lower Rhine, and occupied the 
 country between that river, the Scheldt, 
 and the Ardennes Mountains. By degrees 
 they made themselves masters of nearly the 
 whole of Belgium, and finally pushed their 
 conquests as far as the Somme. In A. D. 
 413 they captured and jilundered for the 
 fourth time the Roman capital of Treves, 
 and somewhat later seized Cologne and the 
 whole region between the Rhine and the 
 Meuse. As we have seen, the Franks com- 
 prised a confederation of a number of 
 kindred tribes, the chief of which were the 
 Salians, or Salii, the Ripuarii, the Sicambri, 
 the Bracteri, and the Chamavi. They gave 
 their name at an early day to the region 
 held by them; it was called Fraucia, or the 
 land of the Franks. By degrees, as we 
 have seen, the Salian Franks became the 
 
626 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 predominant tribe, and founded the king- 
 dom of the Franks. 
 
 During the reign of Valentinian III. the 
 imperial general Aetius undertook to restore 
 the Roman authority in Gaul. He won 
 some signal successes over the Visigoths, 
 the Burgundians, and tjie Salian Franks, 
 and seemed on the point of realizing his 
 designs. His progress was checked by the 
 sudden appearance of the Huns under At- 
 tila in Gaul. The Huns crossed the Rhine 
 in February, 451, and ravaged the country 
 as they advanced. Metz was taken by 
 storm and destroyed, and the barbarians 
 
 Chlodio. The battle of Chalons and its 
 results have been related elsewhere, and we 
 need not repeat the narrative here. 
 
 During the reigns of Avitus and Ma- 
 jorian, Gaul was governed by the patrician 
 JEgidius, whose high qualities won him the 
 admiration of the Franks. These deposed 
 their king, Childeric, and elected Jilgidius 
 to their throne. Eight years later Childeric 
 was recalled from his exile by his people, 
 and a war broke out between the Franks 
 and ^gidius. The Franks regained all the 
 territory of which they had been deprived 
 by Aetius, drove the Romans from Paris, 
 
 CHURCH OF SAINTE-GENEVIEVE (THE PANTHEON), PAEIS. 
 
 moved westward towards Paris. The people 
 of that city were on the point of flying from 
 it in terror when their courage was revived 
 by a peasant girl named Genoveva, who 
 declared to them in the name of heaven 
 that the barbarians should not come within 
 sight of the walls. Attila verified her pre- 
 diction by turning aside from Paris towards 
 the Marne. The grateful Parisians have, 
 in all subsequent ages, honored Genoveva 
 under the name of St. Genevieve as the 
 patron saint and protectress of their city. 
 
 Attila moved towards Chalons, whither 
 he was followed by Aetius, whose ranks had 
 been reinforced by the Visigoths under their 
 king, Theodoric, and the Franks under 
 
 and forced them back to the Loire, ^gid- 
 ius died in 465, and was succeeded by his 
 son Syagrius, who made Soissons his capital, 
 and reigned over the districts of the Oise, 
 the Somme, the Marne, and the Aisne. 
 During the reign of Syagrius, the Western 
 empire fell, never to be re-established. The 
 Eastern Emperor Zeno acknowledged the 
 royal title of Odoacer, the Gothic King of 
 Italy, and entirely abandoned all effort 
 to retain Gaul as a part of the imperial 
 dominions. 
 
 " It was impossible to foresee which of 
 the several powers among which Gaul was 
 then divided, or whether any of them, 
 would ultimately obtain the dominion of 
 
FBOM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 627 
 
 the country. At first sight the chances 
 seemed in favor of the Visigoths, whose 
 monarchy, now reaching to the banks of 
 the Loire, comprised at least a third part 
 of Gaul, while toward the south it stretched 
 beyond the Pyrenees, into the heart of 
 Spain. But there was one great obstacle to 
 the complete establishment of the power of 
 the Visigoths in Gaul ; they professed an 
 heretical form of Christianity — they were 
 Arians, while the mass of the Gallo-Roman 
 population was firmly attached to the prim- 
 itive Catholic faith. This difference of 
 belief engendered among the orthodox 
 bishops and clergy a deep aversion to the 
 Visigothic rule, and the influence of the 
 priesthood being then predominant, it was 
 evident that the final arbitration lay mainly 
 in their hands. Amid the general decom- 
 position of the ancient social system, the 
 lower orders had learned to look up to the 
 church as their most powerful defender ; it 
 was the bishop who administered justice, 
 redressed grievances, appeased tumults, 
 sheltered the fugitive in the asylum of his 
 palace, and alleviated by his charity the 
 miseries of war. An authority thus deeply 
 rooted and universally respected was not 
 likely to accept the dominion of a race of 
 foreign heretics, who lost no opportunity of 
 oppressing and persecuting, even to im- 
 prisonment and death, the professors of the 
 true faith. The bishops looked round for 
 some new element by means of which the 
 wreck of society might be reconstructed ; 
 and they were led, by virtuous motives, to 
 fix their hopes upon the Franks, who, al- 
 though still pagans, seemed open to any 
 powerful influence, and offered a promising 
 field for missionary entei-prise. The Franks 
 were at that moment in the rudest state 
 of barbarous ignorance, unskilled in mili- 
 tary science, and to all appearance quite 
 unfit to cope with such a vigorous empire 
 as that of the Visigoths ; but, armed with 
 the patronage and co-operation of the 
 church, their ultimate triumph was secure, 
 for the Gallic nation, as distiuguished from 
 the extraneous races of the barbaric inva- 
 sion, was thus engaged in their favor. Such, 
 doubtless, was the secret of the great social 
 revolution at the close of the fifth century 
 in Gaul. ' It was the church,' as M. Mich- 
 elet observes, 'that made the fortune of the 
 Franks.' " 
 
 Childeric, King of the Salian Franks, 
 died in 481, and was succeeded by his son 
 Chlodwig, or Clovis, then but fifteen years 
 old. 
 
 This event is usually regarded as the 
 foundation of the French monarchy. From 
 this time until the treaty of Verdun, after 
 the fall of Charlemagne's empire, the his- 
 tory of France and the history of Germany 
 are one and the same. France, as we have 
 seen in our account of Germany, now 
 passed under the dominion of the Germans. 
 For this reason the Avriter has deemed it 
 best to relate the events of the reigns of 
 Clovis and his successors, down to the divi- 
 sion of Charlemagne's dominions, in the 
 history of Germany. The reader is referred 
 to the Second and Third Chapters of Book 
 XVIII for the narrative, which it is unne- 
 cessary to repeat here. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE 
 DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 
 
 The Treaty of Verdun Assigns France to Charles 
 the Bald — He Establishes his Authority — JElav- 
 ages of the Northmen — Charles Seizes a Part of 
 Burgundy — Becomes Emperor — The Successors 
 of Charles — Charles the Fat — Paris Besieged by 
 the Normans — Charles the Simple — The North- 
 men are Given Normandy as the Price of a Peace 
 — Rollo — Normandy Organized — Weakness of 
 Charles — Louis d'Outremer — Hugh Capet Founds 
 the French Monarchy — Robert the Pious — Is Sep- 
 arated from his Wife by the Church — Introduction 
 of Southern Civilization into France — Religious 
 Awakening — Erection of Churches- — Persecution 
 of the Jews — Henry I. — Famine in France — The 
 Truce of God — William of Normandy — Estab- 
 lishes his Authority over his Duchy — Philip I. — 
 William of Normandy Conquers England — War 
 Between Normandy and France — Philip's Quarrel 
 with the Church — The Crusades — Louis VI. — 
 Extent of the French Dominions — Enfranchise- 
 ment of the Communes — Different Constitutions 
 of the Boroughs in the North and South of France 
 — Growth of the Royal Power — Wars of Louis 
 with Henry I. of England— Louis Vll.^Sets Out 
 on the Second Crusade — Its Failure — Divorce of 
 Queen Eleanora — She Marries Henry Plantagenet 
 — Henry Becomes King of England — Origin of 
 the Enmity Between France and England— Philip 
 Augustus — Marries Isabella of Hainault — His 
 Policy — War with England — Philip and Henry 
 Agree to Join the Crusade — Philip Aids the Re- 
 bellion of Richard Ca}ur de Lion — The Third 
 Crusade — Philip's Jealousy of Richard — Returns 
 to France — Leagues with John Against Richard 
 — Agnes de Meran — War Between Philip and 
 John — Gains of Philip — The Albigensian War — 
 Prince Louis' Expedition to England — The AVar 
 in Languedoc — Death of Philip — Louis VIII. — 
 Louis iX. — His Good Reign — War with England 
 — Louis Joins the Crusade — His Death — Is Can- 
 onized. 
 
 HE Treaty of Verdun assigned 
 France to Charles the Bald, but 
 deprived that country of its natu- 
 ral frontier of the Rhine, as the 
 division was made according to the 
 language of the inhabitants of the 
 
628 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 dominions of Louis the Gentle. " Now 
 that a tongue was considered a bond of 
 nationality, the French were contented to 
 surrender to Lothaire, the emperor, a long 
 strip of territory, running the whole way 
 up from Italy to the North Sea, including 
 both banks of the Rhine, and acting as a 
 wall of partition between them and the 
 German-speaking people on the other 
 side ! " 
 
 the islands and mainland of Denmark and 
 Norway, these fierce rovers swept across the 
 North Sea, and soon made France one of 
 the chief objects of their attacks. They 
 were pagans, and, cherishing a bitter hatred 
 toward Christianity and its followers, never 
 spared a monk or a monastery. In their 
 light but strong and swift galleys they 
 could easily ascend the navigable rivers, 
 and no storm was fierce enough to keep 
 
 THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 
 
 Charles the Bald found his new king- 
 dom in a state of anarchy. Brittany, 
 Aquitaine, and Septimania or Languedoc 
 were practically independent, and it re- 
 quired a long and severe struggle to reduce 
 them to a state of serai-anegiauce to him. 
 During this period the kingdom was ex- 
 posed to the ravages of the fierce Scandina- 
 vian freebooters, known as Northmen, and 
 in later times as Normans. Startine from 
 
 them from the open sea. Their leaders 
 were warriors and poets, and animated their 
 followers with wild songs of the deeds of 
 their ancestors. They soon reached the 
 Straits of Gibraltar in their forays, and 
 extended their ravages to the shores of the 
 Mediterranean. In A. D. 841 they ascended 
 the Seine as far as Rouen and pillaged 
 and burned that city. Every year their 
 depredations were repeated, and in 845, 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 629 
 
 under their famous leader, Regnor Lod- 
 brog, they reached Paris. Charles the 
 Bald abandoned his capital without a blow, 
 and the Norsemen plundered the city and 
 its rich churches and abbeys, and then con- 
 sented to make terms with Charles, who 
 purchased their withdrawal by the payment 
 of 7,000 pounds of silver. In 857 they 
 again took Paris, and massacred a large 
 number of its inhabitants. Returning in 
 862 they met with a vigorous resistance 
 from Robert the Strong, whom Charles had 
 made Count of Paris and governor of the 
 region between the Seine and the Loire. 
 In spite of the gallant efforts of Count Rob- 
 ert, the weakness of Charles enabled the 
 Normans to inflict serious damage upon 
 France during the next five years. In 
 A. D. 866 Count Robert was 
 slain in an engagement with 
 the famous pirate chief, Hast- 
 ings. 
 
 The Emperor Lothaire died 
 in A. D. 855, leaving his do- 
 minions to his three sons. 
 One of these sons, Lothaire, 
 King of Lorraine, died in 
 A. D. 869, and though his 
 dominions, in the absence of 
 direct heirs, should have gone 
 to his eldest brother, the Em- 
 peror Louis, Charles the Bald 
 took advantage of the occa- 
 sion to increase his own king- 
 dom at the expense of Lor- 
 raine by the addition of the 
 western districts between the 
 Meuse and the Scheldt — Cis- 
 jurane Burgundy — and the 
 counties of Lyons and Vi- 
 enne. The death of the Emperor Louis in 
 August, 875, enabled Charles to gain a still 
 greater advantage. He promptly crossed 
 the Alps, entered Italy, and induced the 
 pope to espouse his cause and crown him 
 emperor on Christmas day, A. D. 875. This 
 brought on a war with his brother Louis, 
 the German, who invaded France in 876, 
 but the death of Louis in August of the 
 same year brought the struggle to a close, 
 and in 877 Charles himself died. 
 
 Charles was succeeded by his only sur- 
 viving son, Louis the Stammerer, who died 
 a year and a half later, A. D. 879, leaving 
 his throne to his two sons, Louis III. and 
 Carloraan, who reigned conjointlv — Louis 
 in the north of France, and C^arloman in 
 Aquitaine and Burgundy. During this 
 
 reign Duke Boso, the brother-in-law of 
 Charles the Bald, rebelled, and with the 
 general consent of the people of those re- 
 gions made himself King of Burgundy and 
 Provence. His capital was established at 
 Ai'les. The kingdom thus set up main- 
 tained its separate existence for more than 
 a century and a half. Louis died in Au- 
 gust, 882, after having decisively defeated 
 the Northmen under their leader Hastings 
 at Sancourt, near Abbeville. Carloman 
 followed him in 884. 
 
 The direct heir to the crown being a 
 mere infant, the nobles conferred the sov- 
 ereignty upon the Emperor Charles the Fat, 
 the son of Louis the German. In A. D. 
 885 the Northmen, under their famous 
 leader Rollo, laid siege to Paris in over- 
 
 CASTLE OF ROUEN. 
 
 whelming force. The city was bravely de- 
 fended for eighteen months by Eudes, the 
 son 'and successor of Count Robert the 
 Strong. After a long delay Charles 
 marched from Germany to the relief of 
 Paris, but on reaching the vicinity weakly 
 consented to purchase the withdrawal of 
 the Northmen by the payment of 800 
 pounds of silver. The whole empire was 
 disgusted by the weakness and incompe- 
 tence of Charles, and he was deposed in 
 A. D. 887. 
 
 The nobles now offered the crown of 
 France to Count Eudes, the heroic defender 
 of Paris, in grateful i-ecognition of his ser- 
 vices. Eudes had already been made Duke 
 of France by the Emperor Charles. His 
 authority as king was firmest in Anjou, 
 
630 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 but it was not recognized in Aquitaine, and 
 was merely nominal south of the Loire. A 
 powerful party adhered to Charles the Sim- 
 ple, the last survivor of the Carolingian 
 house, and after a brief struggle, Eudes 
 generously ceded to his young opponent the 
 sovereignty of the region between the Seine 
 and the Meuse. At his death in A. D. 898 
 he enjoined the barons who surrounded 
 him to transfer their allegiance faithfully 
 to Charles the Simple. Robert, the brother 
 of Eudes, succeeded him as Duke of France, 
 
 dition that he and his followers should 
 cease their depredations and embrace 
 Christianity, A. D. 912. The region thus 
 granted to Rollo took from its new settlers 
 the name of Normandy. Rollo made 
 Rouen his capital, and he and his followers 
 having now an interest in the land, kept 
 back their rude countrymen from further 
 aggressions, and so constituted a most ef- 
 fectual protection to France from this hithJ 
 erto exposed quarter. When Rollo Avent 
 to take the oath of fealty to his new sov- 
 
 EOUEN, THE OLD CAPITAL OF NOKMANDY. 
 
 but the crown passed, in accordance with 
 his wish, to Charles. 
 
 The reign of Charles the Simple is chiefly 
 noted for the permanent settlement of the 
 Northmen in France. Under their leader, 
 Rollo, they harassed the kingdom so greatly 
 that Charles, who was too poor to bribe, 
 and too weak to resist them, purchased a 
 peace by granting to Rollo, or Rolf, as a 
 perpetual fief, a large portion of northwest- 
 ern France, with the feudal sovereignty of 
 the duchy of Bretagne or Brittany, on con- 
 
 ereign, lie was told that it was necessary to 
 kneel and kiss the king's foot. He indig- 
 nantly started back and refused to perform 
 the humiliating ceremony. The French 
 courtiers insisted upon the point of etiquette, 
 however, and Rollo ordered one of his men 
 to come forward and perform the act for 
 him. The rough soldier, stooping down, 
 lifted the king's foot with such rudeness that 
 the monarch was thrown violently back- 
 ward from his seat. The Northmen burst 
 into a shout of laughter, and as the French 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 631 
 
 were iu no conclitiou to reseut the insult, 
 they suffered it to pass without remark. 
 Rollo received the hand of the Princess 
 Gisele, the daughter of Charles, iu mar- 
 riage, and became one of the most useful 
 and loyal of the king's subjects. He proved 
 himself a wise, able, and prudent ruler, and 
 under him Normandy rose rapidly to a high 
 state of prosperity. " The ruined churches 
 were rebuilt, the towns walled and fortified, 
 the laud carefully cultivated, justice impar- 
 tially administered. The barbarian North- 
 men adopted with marvellous facility the 
 language and manners of the nation among 
 whom they had settled, and Normandy be- 
 came in the course of a few years celebrated 
 throughout France for its advancement in 
 the arts of industry, commerce, and civili- 
 zation." 
 
 The weakness and incapacity of Charles 
 the Simple became more apparent every 
 year. The government was entirely in the 
 hands of his minister, Haganon, a man of 
 low birth, whose insolent use of his power 
 brought about a rebellion of the nobles. 
 Charles was defeated, and fled into Lor- 
 raine, attended by Haganon, and Robert, 
 Duke of France, the brother of Count 
 Fudes, was crowned king at Rheims, in 
 A. D. 922. Charles attempted to regain his 
 crown, and a bloody battle was fought at 
 Soissons, in which, though Robert was 
 slain, Charles was utterly defeated, June, 
 923. Rudolph of Burgundy was chosen 
 the successor of Robert. Charles made 
 another effort to regain his crown, but was 
 made captive, and with one brief interval 
 of freedom passed the remainder of his life 
 in prison. He died in October, 929. Upon 
 the first capture of Charles, his widow and 
 infant son fled to England, and took refuge 
 with her brother Athelstan, the Saxon 
 king. The young Louis, who, from his 
 early exile, received the name of Louis d' 
 Outremer, was carefully educated by his 
 uncle, and in after life disjDlayed more vigor 
 than Avas commonly manifested by the 
 members of his family. Upon the death 
 of King Rudolph, in A. D. 936, Hugh the 
 Great, Duke of France, and Dukes Herbert 
 of Verraandois, and William Longsword of 
 Normandy, recalled Louis d' Outremer 
 from his exile, and placed him upon the 
 throne. Hugh became alarmed for his own 
 power by the independent spirit of Louis, 
 and at length renounced his allegiance, and 
 declared himself a vassal of Otto the Great 
 of Germany. The Duke of Normandy and 
 
 some of the other great nobles followed his 
 example, and the German king invaded 
 France and reduced Louis to great extrem- 
 ities in spite of his gallant struggle for his 
 crown. In the midst of these troubles 
 King Louis was killed by a fall from his 
 horse in A. D. 954. 
 
 Hugh the Great, who was the real ruler 
 of France, though he never claimed the 
 royal title, now bestowed the crown upon 
 Lothaii-e, the son of Louis. Two years 
 later (956) Hugh died, and was succeeded 
 as Count of Paris and Duke of France by 
 his eldest son, Hugh Capet, so called be- 
 cause of his wearing habitually in afl;er 
 years when he came to the throne an abbot's 
 cap instead of a crown. Upon the death 
 of the Emperor Otto the Great, Lothaire 
 attempted to regain possession of the duchy 
 of Lorraine, or Lotharingia. This effort 
 was defeated by the energy of Otto II. In 
 978 Otto invaded France with an army of 
 60,000 men, and encamped before Paris, 
 which was defended by Hugh Capet. The 
 approach of winter compelled the emperor 
 to retire into Germany, and a reconciliation 
 was effected in 980 ; Lothaire renouncing 
 his pretensions to Lorraine, contrary to the 
 advice of Hugh Capet and the wishes of 
 the French people. He died in 986, and 
 was succeeded by his son Louis V., sur- 
 named Le Faineant, who reigned but a 
 little more than a year. He died in May, 
 987, and with him ended the Carolingian 
 line in France. The French nobles passed 
 by Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine or 
 Brabant, the only brother of Lothaire, be- 
 cause of his worthless character, and con- 
 ferred the throne upon Hugh Capet, who 
 was crowned at Rheims, July 1st, 987. 
 
 With the accession of Hugh Capet the 
 real history of the French monarchy begins. 
 His elevation to the throne was regarded 
 as the triumph of the French nationality 
 over what had generally been regarded as 
 the foreign rule of the Carolingians. The 
 dynasty which he founded continued to 
 rule France in unbroken succession until 
 the outbreak of the French Revolution in 
 the eighteenth century. Hugh reigned 
 nine years, and proved himself an able and 
 sagacious sovereign. The first years of his 
 reign were disturbed by the efforts of 
 Charles of Lorraine to obtain possession of 
 the throne, but they proved futile, and the 
 power of Hugh was firmly established. 
 Charles was made a prisoner, and died after 
 a few months confinement in 992. Hugh 
 
632 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 endeavored to secure the adhesion of the 
 powerful nobles of the south, and was also 
 careful to win the support of the church by 
 bestowing rich possessions upon the clergy. 
 He also restored to the monasteries through- 
 out his dominions the privilege of free elec- 
 tion, which had been discontinued since the 
 reign of Charles the Bald. Haying secured 
 the succession by causing his son Robert, 
 surnamed the Pious, to be crowned at Or- 
 leans, Hugh died peacefully at Paris, which 
 had once more become the capital of France, 
 on the 24th of October, a. d. 996, in the 
 fifty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 HUGH CAPET. 
 
 Robert the Pious succeeded his father 
 without opposition. He was in his twenty- 
 fourth year, and had been a pupil of the 
 famous Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester 
 II,, under whom be had gained a fair edu- 
 cation. He excelled in music, and passed 
 his time in the composition of hymns, and 
 in acts of charity, to which his benevolent 
 and amiable disposition inclined him. 
 Having married his cousin Bertha, a union 
 within the degrees prohibited by the church, 
 the kingdom was laid under an interdict by 
 Pope Gregory V., and after some years of 
 
 spirited opposition to the ecclesiastical au- 
 thorities, Robert was obliged to part from 
 his faithful wife, whom he never ceased to 
 regret, in order to regain for his people the 
 enjoyment of their religious rites, of which 
 they had been deprived during the interdict. 
 In A. D. 1006 Robert the Pious contracted 
 a second marriage with Constance, the 
 daughter of the Count of Toulouse, a woman 
 of imperious will and overbearing disposi- 
 tion, who ruled her husband with a rod of 
 iron. The chronicles of the times abound 
 in anecdotes showing the meek patience 
 with which the king endured her tyranny, 
 and the affectionate ingenuity 
 with which he shielded others 
 from it. Constance brought in 
 her train and attracted to her 
 court a large number of the gay 
 and polished natives of Aqui- 
 taine, who introduced the supe- 
 rior civilization and elegance of 
 the south into the northern 
 provinces. 
 
 The general belief in the 
 near approach of the end of 
 the world, which overspread 
 Christendom at this time, was 
 felt in a marked degree in 
 France. It expressed itself in 
 a movement in which all classes 
 joined for the restoration and 
 improvement of the churches 
 and religious houses, and the 
 erection of new edifices of this 
 character. " It was the begin- 
 ning of that wonderful architec- 
 tural movement of the Middle 
 Ages, which has covered Europe 
 with its glorious monuments of 
 Christian art and Christian self- 
 devotion. The Abbey of St. 
 Martin at Tours, the splendid 
 Church of St. Aignan at Orleans, 
 the Cathedrals of Perigueux, An- 
 gouleme, and Cahors, are among the many 
 remarkable foundations dating from the 
 reign of Robert the Pious, to which were 
 added, later in the century, the magnificent 
 Abbeys of Cluny, Vezelai, and St. Sernin at 
 Toulouse." 
 
 In the midst of this religious enthusiasm, 
 the news arrived of the profanation and 
 destruction of the Holy Sepulchre by 
 Hakem, the Fatimite Khalif of Egypt. 
 The Jews were suspected of having insti- 
 gated this outrage, and were everywhere, 
 especially in France, attacked, and numbers 
 
FE03f THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 633 
 
 were put to death with great cruelty. At 
 Sens the attack upon them was directed by 
 the gentle King Robert himself, A. D. 1016. 
 
 The last years of Robert were vexed by 
 the revolt of his sons, who were driven into 
 rebellion by the insolent and factious con- 
 duct of their mother Constance. Robert 
 took the field against them, and after a 
 bloody campaign in Burgundy, compelled 
 them to submit. The king never rallied 
 from the shock which this unnatural con- 
 flict caused him. He fell ill immediately 
 after the peace, and died at the Castle of 
 Melun in 1031, after a reign of thirty-five 
 years. 
 
 Constance endeavoi-ed to set aside the 
 claims of her elder son Henry in favor of 
 her favorite and youngest son Robert, 
 and the kingdom was once more plunged 
 into civil war. Eudes, the great Count of 
 Blois, Chartres, and Champagne, supported 
 the queen mother with such vigor that 
 Henry was obliged to ask aid of Duke 
 Robert of Normandy. With the aid of 
 Robert, whose fearless and reckless conduct 
 during this war won him the name of 
 " Robert the Devil," Henry compelled his 
 mother and her followers to submit. In 
 the settlement of the kingdom he generously 
 provided for his mother, and bestowed the 
 duchy of Burgundy upon his brother 
 Robert, whose descendants held it for more 
 than three centuries. Constance, overcome 
 with mortification at her defeat, died at 
 Melun in July, 1032. As payment for the 
 assistance rendered him by Robert of Nor- 
 mandy, Henry was obliged to cede to that 
 prince Gisors, Chaumont, Pontoise, and the 
 Avhole district called the Vexin, lying be- 
 tween the Oise and Epte. By this acquisi- 
 tion the frontier of Normandy was advanced 
 to within twenty miles of Paris. 
 
 About this time a fearful famine, which 
 lasted three years, prevailed throughout 
 France, and inflicted the most terrible suf- 
 fering upon the country. The church 
 availed itself of the general consternation 
 and despondency to impose a check upon 
 the evil practice of private war, by the 
 proclamation of the " Truce of God," which 
 has already been referred to. Though 
 never rigidly enforced, the truce was never 
 abolished, and it greatly mitigated the 
 miseries of private war, and by aiding the 
 progress of agriculture and commerce, 
 which were placed under its special protec- 
 tion, it did much towards the restoration 
 of social order and public confidence. 
 
 Robert the Devil, of Normandy, w^as sus- 
 pected of having obtained his crown by the 
 murder of his elder brother Richard III. 
 He gave color to this suspicion a few years 
 later, after having compelled the Duke of 
 Brittany to become his vassal, by undertak- 
 ing a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He 
 named his illegitimate sou William his suc- 
 cessor in case he should never return, and 
 the barons willingly accepted his choice 
 and swore allegiance to the young duke, 
 then a lad of seven. Robert set out on his 
 pilgrimage, reached Jerusalem, but died at 
 Nicsea, in Bithynia, on his return, A. D. 
 1035. The Norman barons, upon learning 
 the death of their duke, refused to acknowl- 
 edge William on the ground of his illegiti- 
 macy. William was supported at first by 
 Henry of France, but the king at length 
 turned his arms against the young duke. 
 William inflicted a decisive defeat upon the 
 king at Mortemer in 1058, and by the vic- 
 tory of Varaville compelled Henry to ab- 
 stain from interference with the affairs of 
 Normandy, and established his own author- 
 ity firmly over his duchy. 
 
 Henry I. died in August, 1060, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son Philip, the child 
 of his third wife, a Russian princess. Philip 
 I. was a child of eight years at this time, 
 and for the next seven years the kingdom 
 was wisely administered by his guardian, 
 Baldwin V., Count of Flanders, who was 
 also his uncle. The death of Baldwin in 
 1067 left Philip, though not yet fifteen, his 
 own master. He was possessed of fair abil- 
 ities and a good education, but from an 
 early age he manifested a strong tendency 
 to voluptuousness and debauchery, which 
 soon became the leading traits of his charac- 
 ter. During his minority William of Nor- 
 mandy undertook the memorable expedition 
 which made him master of England. Be- 
 fore attempting it, William visited his 
 youthful suzerain at St. Germain-en-Laye, 
 and solicited his aid ; but the counsellors of 
 the king induced him to decline William's 
 request, as they feared that success would 
 make William too powerful a neighbor, 
 while in case of failure France would lay 
 herself open to the just enmity of England. 
 William was not disheartened by this re- 
 fusal, and carried his enterprise through to 
 a triumphant success. Having conquered 
 England, he was crowned king at West- 
 minster on Christmas day, A. D. 1066. 
 
 The union of the English to the Norman 
 crown made William a more powerful sov- 
 
634 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ereiga than Philip, who was his feudal 
 suzerain, and this aroused the jealousy of 
 the latter, who in 1075 took the field against 
 William in support of Alan, Count of 
 Brittany, Avho had rebelled against his 
 Norman liege. Uniting his forces with 
 those of Alan, he compelled William to 
 raise the siege of Dol and retire with con- 
 siderable loss. Somewhat later Philip en- 
 couraged Robert Courthouse, William's 
 eldest son, to rebel against his father. That 
 prince for several years maintained a desul- 
 tory warfare in Normandy, but failed to 
 accomplish any decisive result. William 
 for a long while bore these aggressions of 
 Philip with extraordinary patience, but at 
 length determined to put a stop to them. 
 He demanded of Philip the restoration of 
 the Vexin district, which the crown had 
 unlawfully recovered during his long minor- 
 ity. Philip met this demand with an in- 
 sulting refusal, and AVilliara marched into 
 the disputed district, ravaged it with great 
 severity, and took and burned the town of 
 Mantes. He was thrown from his horse 
 amid the ruins of the town and severely in- 
 jured. His attendants removed him to 
 Rouen, and afterwards to the monastery of 
 St. Gervais, near that city, Avhere he died 
 six weeks later, September 10th, A. D. 1082. 
 
 The habitual immorality of Philip now 
 brought him in conflict with the church. 
 His private revenues being too small to 
 defray the cost of his infamous pleasures, 
 he undertook to increase them by the sale 
 to the highest bidder of bishoprics and other 
 ecclesiastical dignities. Gregory VII. Avas 
 at this time pope, and such wholesale simony 
 aroused his indignation. He gave the king 
 his choice between a cessation of the prac- 
 tice and excommunication and deposition. 
 Philip, afraid to face the stern monk of the 
 Vatican, chose the former alternative, and 
 for a while obeyed the papal mandate. 
 When Gregory's hands were tied by the 
 struggle with Henry IV. in the war of in- 
 vestitures, the French king relapsed into 
 his old ways, and the pope deemed it best 
 not to proceed to extremities against him. 
 
 In 1092 Philip, notwithstanding that his 
 Queen Bertha had been a good wife and had 
 borne him several children, imprisoned her 
 in the Castle of Montreuil, having grown 
 weary of her. In the same year he seduced 
 and carried off Bertrade de Montfort, the 
 wife of the Count of Anjou, the most beau- 
 tiful woman in the kingdom. The countess 
 had exacted from the king a promise that 
 
 she should share his throne, and Philip had 
 no difficulty in finding two bishops who 
 pronounced the blessing of the church upon 
 the infamous union. The Count of Anjou, 
 the husband of Bertrade, and the Count of 
 Flanders, the stepfather of Queen Bertha, 
 took up arms against Philip, but this dan- 
 ger was averted. The church then stepped 
 in, and in 1094 the guilty pair were excom- 
 municated, and Philip was forbidden to use 
 any of the ensigns of royalty until he should 
 abandon Bertrade and do penance for his 
 sin. Philip, who i-eally cared very little 
 for the papal anathema, nevertheless desired 
 to save his crown, and made an outward 
 submission to the pope, who took no further 
 notice of his acts. Philip continued to live 
 with Bertrade, and had her crowned queen 
 at Troyes. She bore him four children, 
 whose legitimacy, however, was never ad- 
 mitted. In the meantime Queen Bertha 
 died broken-hearted in her prison at Mon- 
 treuil. The beginning of the excitement 
 which led to the crusades now arose to draw 
 attention from the private life of the king, 
 and, occupied with his zeal for the recovery 
 of Jerusalem, the pontiff allowed the king 
 and Bertrade to live together without fur- 
 ther molestation to the end of their days. 
 
 The origin and events of the crusades 
 will be related in another place. No event 
 of importance occurred in France after the 
 departure of the first army of the cross. 
 All eyes were fixed upon Palestine, and 
 peace and order prevailed at home. 
 
 Philip I. died in 1108, after a reign of 
 over forty-seven years — one of the longest 
 in the history of France. He was succeeded 
 by his son Louis VI., called Le Gros (the 
 Fat), in consequence of his corpulency, Avho 
 was one of the ablest and best sovereigns 
 that ever sat on the French throne. At 
 the time of his accession the immediate 
 dominions of the King of France consisted 
 of the five cities of Paris, Melun, Etampes, 
 Orleans, and Sens, with the district sur- 
 rounding each. These towns were separated 
 from each other by the strong fortresses of 
 nobles, who interrupted the communication 
 between them, and carried on a regular 
 system of brigandage, pillaging travellers, 
 and seizing and imprisoning them in their 
 dungeons, from which they could only 
 escape by payment of a heavy ransom. 
 Public law was trodden under foot by these 
 marauders, and no such thing as order or 
 security existed in any part of the kingdom. 
 The first care of Louis VI. was to put a 
 
FEOM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 635 
 
 stop to this state of affairs, and he accom- 
 plished this by encouraging the people to 
 combine and resist the rapacious and sedi- 
 tious barons. Suger, Abbot of St. Denis, 
 whom he made his confidential friend and 
 prime minister, induced the church to give 
 the king and the commons a hearty and 
 effective support in their contest with the 
 nobles. This struggle, which lasted for 
 eight years, resulted in what is known in 
 French history as the " Enfranchisement 
 of the Communes." Encouraged by the 
 king, the various communes united for 
 defence against their feudal lords, and com- 
 pelled them to grant them not only a bare 
 security of personal freedom, but those 
 great privileges of internal organization 
 and self-government by which the commons, 
 or tiers etat, became one of the great con- 
 stituent orders of the state and a check 
 upon the power of the great feudal nobility. 
 Much as Louis contributed to this move- 
 ment, he did not originate it. " The foun- 
 dation of the communes was the Avork, not 
 of Louis VI., nor of any other sovereign, 
 but of the citizens themselves, the result of 
 a simultaneous insurrectionary movement 
 throughout France, for defence against 
 oppression, the maintenance of the rights 
 of property and the protection and devel- 
 opment of commerce. Louis did not origi- 
 nate the movement, but he contributed to 
 its success by making himself the champion 
 of public order, by laboring to redress 
 wrongs and reform abuses, and by asserting 
 the supremacy of the crown over all its 
 vassals, most of Avhom had thrown off all 
 idea of subordination." The forms of 
 municipal government adopted varied in 
 the north and south of France. In the 
 south the cities had never lost the municipal 
 privileges bestowed upon them by the 
 Romans. They now simply asserted them 
 by choosing their own magistrates, and arm- 
 ing for the common defence. In the north 
 the liberties of the towns were generally 
 wrung from the feudal lord. There was 
 also a third class of towns, consisting of 
 those which w-ere voluntarily enfranchised 
 by their feudal lords, and granted personal 
 freedom, security of property, and certain 
 commercial privileges, but w^hich did not 
 possess the right of chosing their own 
 magistrates or conducting their own govern- 
 ment 
 
 Another result of this organization of the 
 communes was the increase of the royal 
 power. The sovereign was frequently 
 
 called upon to mediate between the nobles 
 and the people ; both sides regarded his 
 decision as final ; and hence he came to be 
 recognized as the supreme power of the 
 state. Most of the boroughs were required 
 to pay an annual contribution to the royal 
 treasury, and to furnish a stated force of 
 militia upon the requisition of the king. 
 With the supplies thus obtained, the French 
 kings were enabled to extend their domains 
 and make their authority respected by their 
 rebellious vassals. Assisted by the counsels 
 of Suger, Louis ruled his kingdom so firmly 
 and intelligently that he not only restored 
 the power of the crown, and revived the 
 prosperity of the country, but enlarged his 
 dominions to something like their natural 
 and ancient dimensions. The best proof 
 of his merits as a ruler is the strong affec- 
 tion which his people bore him. 
 
 The reign of Louis VI. was marked by 
 several wars. Robert of Normandy, return- 
 ing from the Holy Land, was captured by 
 his brother Henry I., who had become 
 King of England, and imprisoned for 
 life in Cardiff" castle. His son, William 
 Cliton, escaped from the pursuit of Henry, 
 and appealed to Louis of France to place 
 him in possession of his father's duchy of 
 Normandy. Louis responded to his appeal, 
 and a war of several years ensued with 
 Henry. AVilliam w^as killed in 1128, and 
 thus the chief cause of the quarrel between 
 France and England was removed. Henry, 
 in order to strengthen himself in France, 
 married his only daughter, the Empress 
 Matilda, to Geoffrey Flantagenet, the eldest 
 son of Foulques V., the reigning Count of 
 Anjou. This was a shrewd move, for in 
 1129 Foulques abdicated his dominions in 
 favor of Geoffrey, and set out for the Holy 
 Land, thus bringing one of the most im- 
 portant portions of France under the influ- 
 ence of the English crown. Henry I. died 
 in 1135, and was succeeded on the English 
 throne by Stephen of Boulogne, who also 
 claimed Normandy. That duchy was con- 
 tested by Geoffrey Flantagenet in right of 
 his Avife, and a bloody struggle ensued for 
 its possession. Geoffrey was worsted, and 
 the son of Stephen gained the duchy with 
 the assistance of the French king. Louis 
 gained another advantage near about the 
 same time. William X., Duke of Aqui- 
 taine, in order to atone for his many crimes, 
 went on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. 
 James of Compostella in Spain, where he 
 died in April, 1137. Before setting out he 
 
636 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 named his only daughter Eleanora the sole 
 heiress of his dominions, and placed her 
 under the guardianship of Louis VI., on 
 condition that she should be given in mar- 
 riage to the son of the king, called Louis le 
 Jeune to distinguish him from his father. 
 Louis VI. eagerly accepted the offer which 
 brought to the heir to his crown almost the 
 whole of France, south of the Loire, and the 
 marriage was solemnized in August in the 
 Cathedral of Bordeaux. The king himself 
 died on the day previous to the marriage, 
 and Louis VII. became king. His king- 
 dom extended fi-om the river Somme and 
 the borders of Flanders to the Adour and 
 the base of the Pyrenees. 
 
 The reign of Louis VI. was a period of 
 great intellectual activity in France, and is 
 illustrated by such names as Roscelin, St. 
 Ansel ra, Peter Abelard, William de Cham- 
 peaux and St. Bernard. 
 
 Louis VII. inherited neither the talents 
 nor good sense of his father. In 1141, four 
 years after he began to reign, he quarrelled 
 with the pope about the right to nominate 
 an Archbishop of Bourges. The pope was 
 supported by the Count of Champagne, be- 
 tween whom and Louis war broke out the 
 next year. Louis was obliged by his super- 
 stitious fears to yield two years later, and 
 added another victory to the triumphs of 
 the Holy See. He took part in the struggle 
 between the houses of Blois and Anjou for 
 the possession of Normandy, by siding with 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, and secured him in 
 the possession of that duchy. In the end 
 a compromise was effected, by which Ste- 
 phen retained the English throne during 
 his life, and Geoffrey's eldest son Henry- 
 was named as Stephen's heir. In 1147 
 Louis VII. left France to take part in the 
 Second Crusade. He gained no credit in 
 this expedition, and after visiting Jeru- 
 salem, and failing to captui'e Damascus, 
 and lingering in Palestine for a whole year 
 for very shame, Louis returned to France 
 in 1149. His kingdom had been well ad- 
 ministered in his absence by the Abbot 
 Suger, one of the wisest statesmen France 
 ever produced, and who had vainly striven 
 to prevent the king from engaging in the 
 crusade, and Louis found his estate in ex- 
 cellent condition upon his return. The 
 death of Suger in January, 1152, deprived 
 the king of his best counsellor. The death 
 of this great man was followed by the prin- 
 cipal political blunder of Louis' life. He 
 had had cause during his visit to Palestine to 
 
 suspect the fidelity of his wife. Queen Elea- 
 nora, and upon his return had confided his 
 trouble to Suger, who begged him for the 
 good of France to conceal and overlook, 
 if possible, the misconduct of the queen. 
 The high-spirited queen despised her in- 
 competent husband, and the breach widened 
 between them daily. Both parties de- 
 manded a separation, and in March, 1152, 
 the Council of Beaugeucy pronounced their 
 marriage null and void, on the convenient 
 plea of the affinity existing between them. 
 Eleanora, resuming her rank as Duchess 
 of Aquitaine, assumed the government of 
 her hereditaiy dominions, and thus stripped 
 the French crown of more than half of its 
 possessions. Six weeks later, Eleanora be- 
 stowed her hand upon Henry Plantagenet, 
 Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou. 
 In October, 1154, Henry became, by the 
 death of Stephen, King of England, and 
 the most powerful sovereign of Europe. 
 Thus was laid the foundation of the life- 
 long enmity which existed between these 
 two sovereigns. Louis was no match for 
 Henry, who managed to gain the advantage 
 of him at every turn, but he gave his rival 
 no little trouble in the course of his reign. 
 He gave shelter and protection to the ex- 
 iled primate of England, Thomas a Becket, 
 and aided and abetted the rebellion of 
 Queen Eleanor and her sons Henry, Geof- 
 frey, and Richard against Henry. Upon 
 the suppression of this rebellion, however, 
 he was glad to make peace with England. 
 He died on the 18th of September, 1180, 
 and was succeeded by Philip II., called Au- 
 gustus, his son by a third marriage with 
 Alice, the sister of the Count of Cham- 
 pagne. 
 
 Philip was fifteen years old. His sur- 
 name of Augustus is said by some writers 
 to have been given him because of his hav- 
 ing been born in the month of August; 
 others regard it as synonymous with " Great." 
 Soon after the commencement of his reign, 
 he married Isabella, the daughter of Count 
 Baldwin of Hainault, and niece of Philip 
 of Flanders, who received as her dowry the 
 town of Amiens and the promise of a part 
 of Flanders at the death of her uncle, 
 Philip's first act of importance was indica- 
 tive of the future policy of his reign — to 
 increase the power of the crown at the ex- 
 pense of the great feudatories. He com- 
 pelled the powerful Duke of Burgundy, wha 
 had robbed the church and refused restitu- 
 tion, to make ample reparation for the in- 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 637 
 
 juries he had inflicted, and to submit him- 
 self to the clemency of the sovereign. 
 Upon the submission of the duke, he treated 
 him with a wise generosity. In 1182 he 
 gave another proof of the decisive energy 
 of his character by banishing the Jews from 
 his kingdom and confiscating their syna- 
 gogues to the church, and by denouncing 
 heavy penalties against profane swearers, 
 blasphemers, gamblers, and the heretical 
 sect of the Paterini, of the last of which 
 many suffered death. 
 
 War broke out again in 1187 between 
 France and England, and a considerable 
 part of the English possessions in Berry 
 was overrun by the French king before 
 Henry could ari'ive. A truce was arranged 
 before a battle was fought, and Philip and 
 Henry met near Gisors in 1188 to arrange 
 a definite peace. At this meeting the news 
 was received of the capture of Jerusalem 
 by Saladin, and the venerable Archbishop 
 of Tyre made a powerful appeal for aid 
 against the Moslems. The kings, losing 
 sight of their own interests, arranged a set- 
 tlement, and solemnly pledged themselves 
 to assume the cross and rescue the Holy 
 City from the infidel. Their example 
 was followed by the chivalry of France, 
 England, and Normandy, and two years 
 were assigned for preparations for the cru- 
 sade. 
 
 In spite of this arrangement, however, the 
 next summer witnessed the renewal of the 
 war. Philip found an ally in Richard 
 Coeur de Lion, the son of Henry of Eng- 
 land, who ppenly rebelled against his father, 
 and did homage to Philip for his couti- 
 Tiental possessions. Henry was obliged to 
 sue for peace, and to sign a humiliating 
 treaty, by which he made an unqualified 
 submission to his rival, renounced all claim 
 to the sovereignty of Berry, jDurchased by 
 a heavy payment the restoration of the 
 towns captured by the French, and con- 
 sented that all the barons who had taken 
 arms in behalf of Richard should remain 
 the vassals of that prince. He died from 
 grief and mortification in 1189, and was 
 succeeded by his son Richard. 
 
 Philip Augustus, and Richard I. of Eng- 
 land, set out to join the Third Crusade in 
 1190, and reached Palestine early in the 
 spring of 1191. Their first operation was 
 the siege of Acre, of which Richard was 
 the hero, as he was indeed of the whole cru- 
 sade. Philip, who was a statesman rather 
 than a warrior, bitterly resented the glory 
 
 of his rival, and upon the surrender of 
 Acre left Palestine and returned to Europe, 
 having first bound himself by a solemn 
 oath to respect the rights and territories of 
 Richard. He repaired at once to Rome, 
 where he endeavored to persuade the pope 
 to absolve him from this oath, but Pope 
 Celestine III., to his credit, refused to grant 
 his request. Failing in his effort, Philip 
 returned to France, fully resolved to strike 
 a blow at Richard at the first opportunity. 
 The occasion soon oflTered itself. John, the 
 brother of Richard, was busy plotting to 
 make himself King of England and Duke 
 of Normandy, and Philip at once entered 
 into his plot. John did homage to the 
 French king, not only for Normandy, but 
 for England also, and Philip proceeded to 
 overrun the dominions of Richard in 
 France. The English king, in the mean- 
 time, had been captured by the Duke of 
 Austria, who Avas his enemy, on his return 
 from the Holy Land, and was held a pris- 
 oner for more than a year. He recovered 
 his liberty just as Philip and John believed 
 that their schemes were about to be crowned 
 with entire success. Richard soon appeared 
 in Normandy at the head of his barons, 
 won back the territory taken from him by 
 Philip, and inflicted a stinging defeat upon 
 him at Fretteval, near Vendome, on the 
 15th of July, 1194. Hostilities went on 
 without any decisive result for either side 
 until January, 1199, when Pope Innocent 
 III., a bold and resolute pontiff, interfered, 
 and compelled both parties to make peace. 
 A treaty was concluded allowing each king 
 to retain his actual possessions. In April 
 of the same year the death of Richard re- 
 lieved Philip of his ablest antagonist. 
 Philip thereupon embraced the cause of 
 Arthur, Duke of Brittany, the nephew of 
 King John, who disputed with his uncle the 
 crown of England and Normandy, but 
 Philip did not yet proceed to an open rup- 
 ture with John. He was too deeply in- 
 volved in a quarrel Avith the church to un- 
 dertake the hazard of a foreign war. 
 
 After the death of his first wife, Isabella 
 of Hainault, Philip had contracted a mar- 
 riage with Ingelberga, the daughter of the 
 King of Denmark, a princess described as 
 beautiful, virtuous, and amiable. At his 
 first meeting with her, however, he conceived 
 such an aversion to her that he compelled the 
 bishops to dissolve the marriage. The queen 
 appealed to Rome, and the pope refused to 
 sanction the acts of the French bishops. 
 
638 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 In spite of this refusal, however, Philip 
 married the beautiful Agnes de Meran, 
 daughter of the Marquis of Istria. Poj^e 
 Celestine III. endeavored to turn him from 
 his purpose, but in vain. Celestine's suc- 
 cessor. Innocent III., was a pontiff after the 
 style of Gregory VII., and commanded 
 Philip to put away Agnes and take back 
 his lawful wife. Upon the refusal of the 
 king to do this, the pope placed the whole 
 kingdom under an interdict, and for. eight 
 months the churches wei'e closed, and the 
 people were deprived of all the rites of their 
 religion, except the baptism of infants and 
 the extreme unction for the dying. The 
 growing discontent of his people obliged 
 Philip to yield, and he put away Agnes, 
 who died a few weeks later. Ingelberga 
 was reinstated in her outward position, but 
 in private the king treated her with brutal 
 severity. Upon the submission of the king 
 the interdict was removed from France. 
 
 The quarrel of Philip Augustus with the 
 pope concerning his marriage prevented 
 him from taking any active measures 
 against John of England in support of the 
 claim of Arthur of Brittany to the English 
 crown. A compromise was therefore ar- 
 ranged, by the terms of which the Infanta 
 Blanche of Castile, the niece of John, was 
 given in marriage to Prince Louis, the el- 
 dest son of Philip, John bestowing on his 
 niece as a dowry the sum of 30,000 marks 
 of silver and the city and county of Evreux. 
 He also declared her the sole heiress of his 
 continental dominions in case of his dying 
 without direct heirs. Philip undertook 
 that Arthur should renounce all his preten- 
 sions to John's dominions, and should do 
 homage to John for his duchy of Brittany. 
 These matters being arranged, Prince Louis 
 and Blanche of Castile were married on 
 the 23d of May, 1200. 
 
 Peace was not yet to be restored. John, 
 becoming violently enamored of the beauti- 
 ful Isabella of Angouleme, the affianced 
 bride of Hugh de Lusignan, Count de la 
 Marche, repudiated his own wife, Hawise 
 of Gloucester, and carried off Isabella and 
 married her. The Count de la Marche de- 
 manded justice, and his demand being sup- 
 ported by the nobles of Poitou and Limou- 
 sin, Philip, as the feudal lord of all, sum- 
 moned John to appear at his court of Paris, 
 in May, 1202, and answer the charges 
 brought against him. John disregarded the 
 summons, and war instantly ensued. Philip 
 promptly invaded Normandy and reduced 
 
 several important towns. John attempted 
 to defend his territories, and captured the 
 Count de la Marche and Arthur of Brit- 
 tany, whom Philip had put forward to head 
 the uprising in Poitou against his uncle. 
 The fate of Arthur is shrouded in mystery, 
 but the common belief at the time was that 
 he was murdered by King John's own 
 hand in the Castle of Rouen and thrown 
 into the Seine, April 3d, 1203. This bar- 
 barous crime made John an object of bitter 
 hatred to his people. Poitou rose against 
 him and ranged itself on the side of the 
 French king. Normandy was the next 
 object of Philip's operations, and by the 
 spring of 1204 the entire duchy was over- 
 run by him and annexed to the crown of 
 France. In 1205 the districts of Saintonge 
 and Angouleme were subdued and annexed 
 by Philip. In 1206 John crossed thechan- 
 nel and made a feeble effort to regain his 
 lost territories, but after some trifling suc- 
 cesses was obliged to make peace. He re- 
 nounced all claim to the sovereignty of 
 Normandy, Brittany, Maine, and so much 
 of Anjou and Tourraine as lies north of the 
 Loire, ceding also to Philip the city of 
 Poitiers and the surrounding territory. 
 Thus in three years' time Philip had nearly 
 doubled the size of his kingdom, for he had 
 also acquired the provinces of Vermandois 
 and Artois, and soon after added Auvergne 
 to these. These accessions of strength 
 made France, next to the German empire, 
 the most powerful and populous state of 
 Europe. 
 
 The French king was now a powerful ter- 
 ritorial sovereign, and had steadily carried 
 forward the policy upon which he had con- 
 ducted his reign — the advancement of the 
 royal power at the expense of that of the 
 nobles. In the south a series of events 
 greatly increased his authority and posses- 
 sions. The people of southern France, be- 
 ing an enlightened community in which 
 the arts and sciences were liberally culti- 
 vated, and a spirit of inquiry encouraged, 
 had never rendered to the Roman see the 
 blind and unquestioning obedience which 
 characterized the north. In the course of 
 time there had sprung up a sect in Langue- 
 doc known as Albigenses, who denounced 
 the ambition and corruption of the court 
 of Rome, denied the supremacy of the pope, 
 and the doctrines of the sacrifice of the 
 mass, purgatory, and image worship. In- 
 nocent III. resolved to crush out these bold 
 heretics, and turned them over to the ter- 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 639 
 
 rible tribunal known as the Inquisition, 
 which was given power to search out and 
 punish their heresy. Raymond VI., Count 
 of Toulouse, was the protector of the Albi- 
 genses, whose belief he shared. The papal 
 messengers endeavored to induce him to 
 surrender his subjects to the tortures of the 
 Inquisition, and failing in this, threatened 
 him with the vengeance of the pope. In- 
 dignant at this insult to his lord, one of the 
 attendants of the count slew one of the 
 papal envoys in January, 1208. Innocent 
 III. thereupon declared Raymond excom- 
 municated and deprived of his throne, and 
 proclaimed a crusade against him. A large 
 army was assembled at Lyons in the sum- 
 mer of 1209, and placed under the orders of 
 Simon deMontfort. War was immediately 
 begun. It lasted six years, and resulted in 
 the conquest of Languedoc by the crusad- 
 ers with the most horrible cruelties. Ray- 
 mond was deprived of his territories, which 
 were bestowed upon Simon de Moutfort. 
 The sufferings inflicted upon the Albigenses 
 form one of the darkest records in history. 
 
 Philip Augustus took no part in this 
 war. In 1213, Innocent III., who had laid 
 England under an interdict, invited him to 
 undertake the conquest of that country. 
 Philip collected an immense army at a 
 heavy expense, and was on the point of 
 setting out, when he was forbidden by the 
 papal legate to attack England, which John 
 had made a fief of the holy see. Although 
 thoroughly indignant at such treatment, 
 Philip obeyed the papal mandate. He 
 turned northward and marched against the 
 Count of Flanders, who had thrown off his 
 allegiance and had allied himself with the 
 Emperor Otto IV., the nephew of John of 
 England. This action threw Philip on the 
 side of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, and was 
 a great gain for the young king. Philip 
 gained important advantages over the 
 Flemish count, who, to check him, formed 
 a coalition against France, comprised of the 
 emperor, John of England, and all the 
 great nobles of the Low Countries. The de- 
 cisive battle of this war was fought at 
 Bouvines, between Lille and Toui-nay, on 
 the 27th of August, 1214. The imperial 
 army, commanded by the Emperor Otto in 
 person, was about 150,000 strong, and con- 
 tained a body of English archers com- 
 manded by the Earl of Salisbury, the ille- 
 gitimate brother of King John. Philip 
 attacked this army with an inferior force, 
 and in one of the hardest fought battles in 
 
 history routed it with immense loss, taking 
 many of its leaders prisoners, among them 
 the Count of Flanders and the Earl of Salis- 
 bury. The victory put an end to the power 
 of the Emperor Otto, and settled the dis- 
 pute for the empire in favor of Frederick 
 II. John of England, who had utterly 
 failed to accomplish anything, and had re- 
 treated within the farthest limits of Poitou, 
 obtained a truce for five years on payment 
 of 60,000 marks. The Counts of Flanders 
 and Boulogne forfeited their fiefs, and the 
 former Avas imprisoned for life. The prin- 
 cipal result of the war was the moral pres- 
 tige acquired by the crown and monarchy 
 of France. 
 
 Upon the return of John to England the 
 discontents of the barons of that kingdom 
 broke out in the struggle which resulted in 
 the granting of Magna Charta, the founda- 
 tion and bulwark of English liberty. The 
 pope bitterly denounced the great charter, 
 and forbade the king and the barons, on 
 pain of excommunication, to observe it. 
 The barons refused to yield to the pope, 
 and war again broke out between them and 
 the king. The barons, driven to despair by 
 the unscrupulous king, invited Prince Louis, 
 the son of the King of France, to come 
 over and assume the English crown. Louis 
 with great difficulty obtained his father's 
 consent to bis enterprise, and sailed for 
 England in May, 1216, from Calais. He 
 landed at Sandwich, where he was joyfully 
 received, and was conducted to London and 
 proclaimed King of England in right of his 
 wife, Blanche of Castile, who was a grand- 
 daughter of Henry II. John retreated to 
 the northern counties, and lost ground so 
 rapidly that the enterprise of Louis seemed 
 on the point of being crowned with entire 
 success. The sudden death of John, on the 
 19th of October, 1216, instantly changed 
 the whole state of affiiirs. England was 
 freed from her tyrant, and the heir to the 
 crown was an innocent child. The barons 
 deserted Louis with remarkable rapidity, 
 and ranged themselves on the side of the 
 young Henry III. Thus deserted by his 
 partisans, the situation of Louis became 
 critical. The pope excommunicated him 
 and his followers, and his father declined to 
 come to his assistance. He was beaten at 
 sea and on land in several engagements, 
 and shut up in London. Driven to capitu- 
 lation, he renounced all right to the Eng- 
 lish crown and was permitted to withdraw 
 into France. 
 
640 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 In 1216 Raymond of Toulouse and his 
 chivalric son set up their standard for the 
 recovery of their rights. They were joy- 
 fully welcomed by their people, and in the 
 iall of the next year entered their capital 
 of Toulouse in triumph. Simon de Mont- 
 fort at once besieged Toulouse, but was 
 killed in June, 1218. All Languedoc im- 
 mediately renewed its allegiance to the 
 Count of Toulouse, and drove out the son 
 and heir of de Montfort. Pope Honorius III. 
 proclaimed another crusade, and invited 
 Philip Augustus to possess himself of the 
 territories of Count Raymond. Philip put 
 an army in the field under his son, Prince 
 Louis, but after an inglorious failure the 
 prince abandoned the crusade. Count 
 Raymond died in 1222, and was succeeded 
 in his estates by his son, Raymond VII. 
 The next year Philip Augustus died, after 
 a reign of nearly forty-three years. He was 
 the first king of the national monarchy 
 of France, for under him France first as- 
 sumed the character of a united nation, 
 and he was by far one of the ablest and best 
 sovereigns that ever ruled in France. He 
 was prudent, energetic, firm and persever- 
 ing, and however selfish his policy may 
 have been towards others, he ruled his 
 people with wisdom and with justice. 
 Few if any of his successors excelled him 
 in these qualities. He was a generous friend 
 to the city of Paris. He enlarged and re- 
 fortified it, and adorned it with noble edifices. 
 Better than all, he liberally encouraged its 
 rising schools, and sought to make it the 
 intellectual centre of Europe. In the king- 
 dom at large he did much to establish a 
 regular administration of justice, and to put 
 into operation a proper fiscal system. 
 
 At the death of Philip the crown passed 
 to his eldest son, Louis VIII., who opened 
 his reign with a war with Henry III. of 
 England. After two campaigns a truce of 
 five years was concluded, and Louis was 
 able to give his attention to the more im- 
 portant struggle in Languedoc. The Coun- 
 cil of Bourges, in 1225, had excommuni- 
 cated Count Raymond VII. of Toulouse, 
 and had transferred his possessions to Louis 
 of France. In the summer of 1226 Louis 
 advanced into Languedoc Avith a large 
 army, and by the middle of the autumn 
 was master of all the important towns ex- 
 cept Toulouse, where Raymond still held 
 out. At the close of the campaign Louis 
 died at Montpensier, in Auvei-gne, on the 
 8th of November, 1226, leaving his crown 
 
 to his young son, Louis IX., then twelve 
 years of age. 
 
 During the minority of Louis IX. the 
 kingdom was ruled by his mother, Blanche 
 of Castile, as regent. She was a woman of 
 strong good sense and firm will, and gov- 
 erned wisely and well. Immediately after 
 the death of her husband a coalition of 
 some of the principal nobles of the kingdom 
 was formed for her overthrow, but she suc- 
 cessfully maintained her authority, and 
 after a struggle of five years compelled the 
 insurgent barons to submit, A. D. 1231. 
 During her regency the Albigensian war 
 was brought to a close, to the advantage 
 of the French crown. A treaty was signed 
 at Paris in 1229 between the king (Louis 
 IX., who had been crowned in the mean- 
 time), the papal legate and Raymond of 
 Toulouse. A small portion of his former 
 territories was granted to Raymond in fief 
 during his life. At his death this territory 
 was to pass to Aljihonso, Count of Poitiers, 
 the brother of the King of France, who was 
 to wed Jeanne, the only daughter of Ray- 
 mond. The remainder of Languedoc was 
 definitely united with the French crown. 
 The marriage between Alphonso and 
 Jeanne took place in 1241. In order to 
 consolidate the conquest the Inquisition 
 was established at Toulouse in 1229, and 
 for long years the people of southern France 
 groaned under the tortures of this infamous 
 tribunal. 
 
 In ] 234, Louis, being nineteen years old, 
 married Marguerite, daughter of Raymond 
 Beranger IV., Count of Provence, aged 
 thirteen, a bride selected for him by his 
 mother. Queen Blanche had carefully 
 educated her son, and though she had in- 
 clined him too much towards superstition, 
 she had successfully laid the foundations 
 of the noble character which Avas in after 
 yeai's to render this good king deservedly 
 illustrious. 
 
 In 1241, upon the marriage of his 
 brother Alphonso Avith Jeanne of Toulouse, 
 Louis in\'ested him Avith the government of 
 Poitou and Auvergne, according to the pro- 
 visions of their father's Avill. This act brought 
 to a crisis an extensive conspiracy among 
 the barons of Poitou against the sovereign 
 claims of Louis IX. and his family, based 
 on the ancient connection of Poitou Avith 
 the royal house of England. The conspir- 
 acy Avas headed by the Count de la Marche, 
 on Avhom Queen Isabella had conferred her 
 hand within a few months after the death 
 
FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. 641 
 
 of King John, and who wished to recover 
 for her son, Henry III., the former posses- 
 sions of the Euglish crown. Louis took 
 the field in support of his brother, and 
 Henry III. crossed over from England to the 
 assistance of his friends ; but in the battle 
 of Saintes, fought July 22d, 1242, the Eng- 
 lish and their allies were beaten. The in- 
 surgeut barons returned to their allegiance, 
 and Henry III. was obliged to accept a 
 truce of five years, which was signed in 
 March, 1243. By this treaty all of Aqui- 
 taine as 'far as the Gironde passed to the 
 French crown. Another important result 
 of the war was the loss of independence by 
 the feudal nobility and the firm establish- 
 ment of the supremacy of the crown over 
 its vassals. From this time feudalism be- 
 gan to decline, and the 
 monarchy to grow 
 stronger. The royal 
 house of France re- 
 ceived another accession 
 of strength in 1246 by 
 the marriage of Charles, 
 Count of Anjou and 
 Maine, the king's 
 brother, to the heiress 
 of Provence. 
 
 In August, 1248, 
 Eouis sailed for Pales- 
 tine to engage in the 
 holy war, leaving the 
 government in the hands 
 of his mother during 
 his absence. He was 
 unsuccessful, and was 
 defeated and captured 
 by the Sultan of Egypt, 
 who released him upon 
 the payment of a heavy 
 ransom and the conclusion of a ten years' 
 truce. The death of his mother in 1253 
 recalled the king to France. He reached 
 Paris in September, 1254. 
 
 For the next sixteen years France en- 
 joyed the blessings of the presence and the 
 wise government of her excellent king. 
 Throughout the kingdom justice was scru- 
 pulously administered, and so perfect was 
 the confidence reposed in the king by all 
 classes that his decisions were accepted 
 without question. He was accessible to all 
 his subjects, and patiently investigated and 
 redressed all complaints laid before him. 
 His rule was marked by moderation, but 
 also by firmness, and the power of the 
 crown advanced steadily. In 1259, feeling 
 
 41 
 
 that Philip Augustus had unjustly acquired 
 some of the possessions of the English 
 crown, he voluntarily restored to Henry 
 III. the districts of Limousin, Perigord, 
 Mercy and Saintonge. Henry, on his part, 
 surrendered his claims to Normandy, An- 
 jou, Maine, Touraine and Poitou. The 
 English king and his barons subsequently 
 paid Louis the highest tribute in theii- 
 power by agreeing after years of sanguinary 
 strife to submit their quarrel to his arbitra- 
 tion. When Pope Urban IV. offered him 
 the crown of Sicily in 1262, Louis refused 
 it, as he would not accept anything which 
 was not rightly his, nor would he allow his 
 son Robert to accept it. Charles of Anjou 
 was less conscientious, and readily accepted 
 the pope's offer. Louis would not discour- 
 
 PALACE OF JUSTICE, PAEIS. 
 
 age him, but at the same time granted him 
 no active aid. He was no doubt glad to 
 have him removed from France. The his- 
 tory of Charles' conquest of Sicily has been 
 related. 
 
 Since the close of the last crusade Louis 
 had been determined to undertake another 
 effort for the Christian cause, and although 
 discouraged by the pope himself, held to 
 his purpose. The successes and cruelties 
 of the Sultan Bibars, who rapidly overran 
 the Christian possessions in Asia, determined 
 the king to lose no time. In 1270 he sailed 
 from France, and strangely proceeded to 
 attack Tunis, in Africa. Before he could 
 accomplish anything he died on the 25th 
 of August, 1270, at the age of fifty -six, and 
 
642 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 after a reign of forty-four years. He was 
 not a great king, judged by ordinary stand- 
 ards, but he was " an ever memorable in- 
 stance of the inherent power of high moral 
 and religious principle, when faithfully and 
 consistently carried out through a Avhole 
 life." Though he was neither a very 
 learned man nor a great commander, and 
 though he frequently forbore through his 
 extreme moderation and conscientiousness 
 to seize advantages which were justly his, 
 he exercised more than any sovereign of 
 his day a wide-spread and commanding 
 influence upon Europe, and no king ever 
 had the good fortune of more effectually 
 promoting the advancement and the happi- 
 ness of his people. Voltaire has summed 
 up his character in the terse but just re- 
 mark : " It is not given to man to carry 
 virtue to a higher point." The merits of 
 Louis were rewarded by the church. In 
 August, 1297, he was canonized by Pope 
 Boniface VIII. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE 
 DEATH OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Cessioti of Toulouse to the French Crown — France 
 also Gains Navarre — War of the Houses of Ara- 
 pon and Anjou in Sicily — The Sicilian Vespers — 
 Philip Invades Aragon — His Death — Philip the 
 Fair — Results of his Reign — Brings the War 
 M-ith Aragon to a Close — War with Edward I. of 
 England — Flanders Annexed to the French Crown 
 — Revolt of the Flemings — Battle of Courtrai — 
 Peace with Flanders — Philip's Quarrel with the 
 Pope — Seizure of the Pontiff — Death of Pope Bon- 
 iface VIII. — Philip Procures the Election of 
 Clement V. — The Infamous Compact — Destruc- 
 tion of the Templars — Martyrdom of Jacques du 
 Molay — Death of Clement and Philip — Character 
 of the King — Louis X. — Philip V. — The Salic 
 Law — Charles IV. — Troubles in England — Queen 
 Isabella — Philip VI. — Navarre and France Sep- 
 arated — Expedition of Philip to Flanders— Quar- 
 rel with Edward III. of England — Robert of Ar- 
 tois — War Between France and England — The 
 Flemings Embrace the English Cause— The Eng- 
 lish Defeat the French Fleet off Helvoetsluys — 
 Truce Between France and England — Disputed 
 Succession in Brittany — The Countess de Mont- 
 fort — Murder of the Barons of Brittany — Edward 
 Invades France— Battle of Crecy — Siege of Calais 
 — Truce with England — Death of Philip — Dau- 
 phine Annexed to France — The Dauphin — John 
 the Good — Arrests Charles the Bad of Normandy 
 —War Breaks Out in Aquitaine — Battle of Poi- 
 tiers—Surrender of King John — His Captivity — 
 The Dauphin Charles Becomes Regent — Insurrec- 
 tion in Paris under Etienne Marcel — Meeting of 
 the States General — Insurrection of the Jacquerie 
 — The Peace of Bretigny — Release of King John 
 — The Second Duchy of Burgundy Founded — 
 Charles V.— War with Pedro the Cruel of Castile 
 —The War with England Renewed — Successes 
 
 of the French — Death of the Black Prince — An- 
 nexation of Brittany — Revolt of the Briton.s — 
 Death of Du Guesclin and Charles V. 
 
 HILIP III., surnamed "the Bold," 
 the eldest son and successor of 
 Louis IX., made a mournful en- 
 try into his capital on the 21st of 
 May, 1271. He brought with 
 him the dead bodies of his father, 
 his wife Isabella, his sister Isabella, Queen 
 of Kavarre, and his uncle Alphonso, Count 
 of Poitou and Toulouse, and his wife 
 Jeanne. His character was in marked 
 contrast with that of his father. His edu- 
 cation had been neglected, and his charac- 
 ter was feeble, superstitious, and without 
 an element of greatness. The death of Al- 
 phonso and Jeanne without heirs brought 
 the whole of their extensive possessions to 
 the king. Of these the pope now received 
 a part in virtue of an agreement with Ray- 
 mond of Toulouse. This consisted of the 
 city of Avignon and the surrounding coun- 
 try, known as the county of Venaissin. It 
 remained in the possession of the Holy See 
 until the French Revolution of 1789. The 
 possessions of the crown were also increased 
 by the death of the king's brothers, Jean 
 Tristan and Pierre, without heirs, by which 
 the crown gained Valois and Alencon. In 
 1274 Henry, King of Xavarre, died, and 
 his widow, a French princess, fled to the 
 court of Philip for jirotection. Philip re- 
 ceived her kindly, and when her daughter 
 became of a marriageable age wedded her 
 to his son and heir, thus uniting the crowns 
 of France and Navarre. Champagne also 
 belonged to the crown of Navarre, and thus 
 passed into the hands of the son of Philip, 
 In 1284 Philip went to war w'ith Aragon 
 in support of his uncle Charles of Anjou, 
 King of Sicily. The massacre known as 
 the Sicilian Vespers had made this a popu- 
 lar measure in France, and the king did 
 not lack the hearty support of his people. 
 He invaded Aragon in the spring of 1285, 
 and captured Gerona after a siege of nearly 
 three months; but his other operations 
 Avere unsuccessful, and he was compelled 
 to retreat into France. On reaching Per- 
 pignan he died on the 5th of October, 1285, 
 at the age of forty. On the 11th of No- 
 vember of the same year, his antagonist, 
 Pedro II. of Ai-agon, died, of the same ma- 
 lignant fever that ended the life of Philip. 
 Philip IV., surnamed "the Fair," suc- 
 ceeded to his father's crown. His reign of 
 twenty-nine years is one of the most impor- 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES V. 
 
 tant in French history. He increased the 
 royal power to such an extent that in his 
 hands it became a despotism. The inde- 
 pendence of the great vassals was totally 
 destroyed, and they were reduced to com- 
 plete submission to the crown. The king 
 persistently advanced the bourgeoisie or 
 middle classes, and while he protected them 
 against the nobility, skilfully made them 
 the subservient instruments of accomplish- 
 ing his plan of absolute rule. In his reign 
 
 643 
 
 the people. Philip the Fair also struck 
 the first successful blow at the vast fabric 
 of the papal power which had overshad- 
 owed every state of Europe, and shattered 
 It so completely that it ceased to be formid- 
 able. 
 
 Philip began his reign by bringing to a 
 close the war with Aragon, which had 
 proved fatal to his father. Charles of 
 Valois, upon whom the pope had bestowed 
 the Aragouese crown, renounced his claims 
 
 EDWARD III. OP ENGLAND DOES HOMAGE TO PHILIP VI. OF FRANCE. 
 
 the forms of feudalism began to be replaced 
 by civil institutions. Throughout the king- 
 dom justice was administered in the name 
 of the king, and the Parliament of Paris 
 became the recognized organ of the su- 
 preme central administration. The states 
 general, or the great legislative body of 
 the nation, appears in this reign in its mod- 
 ern constitutional form, consisting of the 
 three distinct and equal orders of nobles, 
 clergy, and tiers etat, or representatives of 
 
 to it, and the King of Aragon agreed that 
 his brother James should restore Sicily to 
 the house of Anjou. It was not possible 
 to accomplish this, and Sicily continued in- 
 dependent of the French kingdom at Na- 
 ples. This settlement was brought about 
 through the mediation of Philip's kins- 
 man, Edward I. of England. In spite of 
 this service, Philip took advantage of Ed- 
 ward's difficulties with Scotland to attempt 
 to seize his duchy of Guienne or Aquitaine. 
 
644 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The pretext was a quarrel between some 
 English and Norman sailors in the port of 
 Bayoune, which brought on a fierce war 
 between the merchant seamen of the two 
 nations, unsanctioned by either govern- 
 ment. In 1293 the English gained such 
 advantages that Philip interfered and sum- 
 moned Edward as Duke of Aquitaine to 
 appear before him in January, 1294, and 
 answer for the conduct of his subjects. 
 Edward appeared by his representative, 
 who was his brother Edmund, Earl of Lan- 
 caster. Philip demanded that Aquitaine 
 or Guienne should, as a mere matter of 
 form, be placed in his hands until the mat- 
 ter could be adjusted ; but when he had 
 gotten possession of the principal towns of 
 that duchy, he threw off the mask, declared 
 Edward contumacious by reason of his 
 failure to appear in person, and pronounced 
 all his fiefs forfeit to the French crown. 
 Edward at once took the field to maintain 
 his rights, and was supported by the Duke 
 of Brittany, the Count of Flanders, and 
 Adolph of Nassau, King of the Romans. 
 The war began in Gascony in 1294, and 
 was continued for two years with the gen- 
 eral advantage on the side of the French. 
 The war of Edward with Scotland prevented 
 him from making a determined effort, and 
 frequent insurrections of the Welsh also 
 hampered him. Pope Boniface VIII. at- 
 tempted to bring about a peace, but with- 
 out success, and drew upon himself the 
 bitter enmity of Philip. In 1297 Philip 
 invaded Flanders with a strong force, and 
 reduced that country to submission. The 
 pope now tendered his mediation a second 
 time ; it was accepted by all parties, and 
 a treaty of peace was signed between Eng- 
 land and France in June, 1299. In ac- 
 cordance with its terms Edward I. married 
 Marguerite, the eldest sister of Philip, and 
 his son Edward, Prince of Wales, was affi- 
 anced to Philip's daughter Isabella, then 
 six years old. Edward abandoned by this 
 arrangement the cause of his ally, the Count 
 of Flanders, and Philip left his Scotch al- 
 lies to the vengeance of Edward. 
 
 The peace with England left Flanders 
 at the mercy of Philip the Fair, and the 
 year 1300 saw a strong French army, com- 
 manded by Charles of Valois, over the 
 border. Donai, Bethune and Damme sur- 
 rendered without a blow. The Count of 
 Flanders threw himself into Ghent, and 
 prepared for a desperate resistance; but 
 seeing the hopelessness of his position. 
 
 yielded to the representations of Charles of 
 Valois, who assured him that the French 
 king was kindly disposed toward him, and 
 surrendered the city, together with himself, 
 his two sons, and his principal nobles. 
 Charles at once sent his prisoners to Paris, 
 where they were treated with the harshness 
 which their knowledge of Philip's un- 
 scrupulous character might have led them 
 to expect. Count Guy and his sons were 
 confined in the gloomy fortress of the Chat- 
 elet, and the Flemish barons in the various 
 fortresses near Paris. Philip declared Flan- 
 pers forfeited, and annexed it to the French 
 crown. A few months later he visited that 
 country with his queen, Jeanne of Navarre, 
 and was joyfully received by the Flemings, 
 with whom Count Guy had never been 
 popular. A richer prize had never fallen 
 to the lot of the French king, and Philip 
 went back to Paris in high glee, leaving as 
 his viceroy in Flanders Jacques de Chatil- 
 lon, a man well suited to represent the most 
 unscrupulous of kings. 
 
 It was not long before the Flemings dis- 
 covered that in accepting the French king 
 as their lord they had placed themselves in 
 the hands of a stern tyrant, who regarded 
 their ancient privileges with contempt. The 
 exactions of the king soon began to cripple 
 their commerce, and the insolent viceroy 
 trod their liberties beneath his feet. At 
 length a resolute blow was struck for their 
 freedom. One night in March, 1302, the 
 tocsin sounded at midnight in Bruges, and 
 the citizens springing to arms put all the 
 French to death, to the number of three 
 thousand. Chatillon fled to Paris, and 
 Philip at once sent an army, under Robert 
 of Artois, into Flanders to chastise the 
 burghers into submission. This splendid 
 force was defeated by the Flemings at 
 Courtrai on the 11th of July, 1302. So 
 great was the slaughter of knights and 
 higher officers that their gilt spurs were 
 collected by the bushel after the battle. 
 Among the slain were the Count of Artois, 
 the commander of the French army, and 
 Chatillon, the viceroy. 
 
 Philip met this disaster with characteristic 
 firmness, and at once set to work to repair 
 it. A truce for a year was arranged with 
 the Flemings, and by the end of this time 
 the vigorous measures of the king enabled 
 him to take the field at the head of an army 
 of 70,000 well-equipped troops, while he 
 assailed the northern coastof Flanders with 
 a fleet of Genoese galleys, which he had 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES V. 645 
 
 taken into his pay. The Flemings were 
 defeated in a naval battle by this fleet, and 
 Philip gained an important victory over 
 their array eighteen days after the cam- 
 paign opened, August 18th, 1304. The 
 Flemings were made of stouter material 
 than the king had supposed, and rallying 
 from their reverse -within three weeks' time, 
 again confronted him with an army of 
 60,000 men. Their resolute patriotism ex- 
 torted the admiration of the French king, 
 and he offered them an honorable peace. 
 By the terms of the treaty, which Avas 
 signed on the 5th of June, 1305, Philip 
 invested the eldest son of the late Count 
 Guy de Dampierre Avith the county of Flan- 
 ders in fief, and engaged to respect the 
 ancient liberties and privileges of tlie people. 
 The Flemings on their part paid the king a 
 large indemnity for the expenses of the 
 war, and as a guarantee of the payment of 
 this sum, placed four of their principal 
 towns and all French Flanders in his hands. 
 Thus closed the first of the struggles by 
 which the valiant burghers of Flanders 
 preserved the liberties of their country. 
 
 Philip had conducted the war with the 
 Flemings in the midst of a bitter quarrel 
 with the pope. This quarrel had begun 
 towards the close of the last century, but it 
 did not gather full strength until the four- 
 teenth century had opened. In order to 
 raise the means necessary to carry on his 
 government, the king included the clergy 
 in the tax levied upon the nation. The 
 reigning pontiff, Boniface VIIL, was a man of 
 haughty, overbearing temper, and dreamed 
 of bringing back to the papacy the power 
 it had enjoyed during the days of Gregory 
 VII. and Innocent III. Philij) had a truer 
 understanding of the age in which he lived, 
 and knew that such an effort on the part of 
 the pope was hopeless, and he did not hesi- 
 tate to advance the royal power at the ex- 
 pense of that of the church. It seemed but 
 right to the king and the nation that the 
 clergy, who owned a very large proportion 
 of the wealth of the kingdom, should bear 
 their share of the burdens of the state. The 
 pope had long been watching for an oppor- 
 tunity to humble the French king, and 
 seizing this occasion he issued in 1296 a 
 bull forbidding the clergy to pay any tax 
 or subsidy to any secular prince without 
 the consent of the Holy See, and forbade 
 any such prince to demand or accept such 
 payment on pain of excommunication. 
 Philip met this step with a decree for- 
 
 bidding the exportation from the kingdom, 
 without the royal consent, of any gold or 
 silver, coined or uncoined, plate, jewels, 
 arms, horses, or military stores. Though 
 the pope was not named in this edict it was 
 directed at him, as the measure rendered it 
 impossible for him to receive the large in- 
 come which was paid him annually by the 
 French clergy. The pontiff, alarmed by 
 the prospect of losing his revenues, receded 
 somewhat from his position, and a recon- 
 ciliation was seemingly effected between 
 Boniface and the French king. 
 
 The jubilee of 1300, in which Boniface 
 beheld Rome crowded with devout pilgrims 
 from all parts of Christendom, led him to 
 form a wrong estimate of the moral strength 
 of the papacy in Europe, and so elated him 
 with pride that he renewed all his preten- 
 sions, and most unwisely proceeded to take 
 measures by which he hoped to compel the 
 submission of Philip. He had to deal, 
 however, with a king who scrupled at noth- 
 ing to accomplish his ends, who feared 
 not the spiritual weapons of the pope, and 
 who was Avise enough to knoAV that the day 
 had gone by Avhen they could be used 
 against the master of a compact and poAver- 
 ful kingdom. Philip had demanded the 
 homage of the Vicomte of Narbonne and 
 the Bishop of Mauguelonne, Avho held their 
 fiefs of the church. The pope forbade them 
 to obey, and sent to France as his legate to 
 arrange the matter with the king the Bishop 
 of Pamiers, who Avas personally obnoxious 
 to Philip, who suspected him of treasonable 
 designs. The legate treated the king Avith 
 such insolence that Philip arrested him, 
 and placed him in the custody of the Arch- 
 bishop of Narbonne. The pope thereupon 
 issued a bull, couched in language the 
 most insulting to Philip, summoning the 
 French bishops to meet in council at Rome, 
 and there arrange a plan for the settlement 
 of the disorders Avith which he considered 
 that France AA'as afflicted. Philip caused 
 the bull to be publicly burned in Paris, and 
 for the first time summoned the states 
 general, which body met in April, 1302, 
 and enthusiastically pledged him the sup- 
 port of the kingdom in his contest Avith the 
 pope. A few months later Boniface issued 
 the famous bull "Unam Sauctam," in Avhich 
 he asserted the claims of the papacy with 
 more audacity than ever. " There are two 
 swords," he declared : " the spiritual and 
 the temporal. . . . Both are in the poAver 
 of the church : the one, the spiritual, to be 
 
646 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 used by the church, the other, the material, 
 for the church ; the former that of the 
 priests, the latter that of kings and soldiers, 
 to be wielded at the command and by the 
 sufferance of the priest. One sword must 
 be under the other, the temporal under the 
 spiritual. . . . The spiritual instituted the 
 temjioral power, and judges whether that 
 power is well exercised. ... If the terajDo- 
 ral power errs it is judged by the spiritual. 
 . . . We therefore assert, define, and pro- 
 nounce that it is necessary to salvation to 
 believe that every human being is subject 
 to the Pontiff of Rome." On the 13th of 
 April, 1303, the pope excommunicated 
 Philip. The king retaliated by charging 
 Boniface with a series of scandalous crimes, 
 and demanding that he should be tried by 
 a general council of the church. 
 
 Philip now resolved to get the pope into 
 his power by seizing his person. Whether 
 he meant to punish him, or merely to pre- 
 vent him from committing further acts of 
 hostility, is uncertain ; but that he intended 
 to seize him is clear. Boniface made it 
 known that on the 8th of September he 
 would publish a bull deposing the French 
 king and forbidding his subjects to render 
 him any further allegiance. Two partisans 
 of Philip — William de Nogaret, a distin- 
 guished lawyer, whose ancestors had been 
 persecuted by the Inquisition at Toulouse ; 
 and Sciarra Colonna, a younger son of the 
 noble Roman family of that name — resolved 
 to lose no time in carrying out the known 
 wishes of the king, though it would seem 
 that they had no orders from him to that 
 efiect. The pope was residing at his native 
 city of Anagni. De Nogaret and Colonna 
 hastened to Italy, and at the head of a few 
 hundred armed men stormed the palace of 
 the pope, compelled his defenders to sur- 
 render, and forced their way into the pres- 
 ence of the aged pontiff, who received them 
 seated on his throne, crowned with the 
 tiara, arrayed in the stole of St. Peter, and 
 grasping the keys in his hand. Though 
 deserted by all his friends, the intrepid old 
 man did not quail in the presence of his 
 enemies. Nogaret overwhelmed him Avith 
 furious reproaches, and it is said that 
 Colonna struck him with his iron gauntlet, 
 and was with difficulty prevented from 
 killing him on the spot. The pope Avas 
 then placed on a vicious horse, with his face 
 towai'ds its tail, and led thx'ough the town 
 to prison. Two days later the people of 
 Anagni rose against the soldiers, drove 
 
 them and their leaders from the town, and 
 released the pope, who hastened to Rome 
 to take vengeance on his enemies. The 
 shock of the outrage, and his own ungovern- 
 able temper, added to the infirmities of 
 age, were more than the pontiff could en- 
 dure. He was seized with a fever Avhich 
 resulted in frenzy and death, according to 
 some accounts. Other, and perhaps more 
 trustworthy writers, describe him " as sadly 
 but quietly breathing his last, surrounded 
 by eight cardinals, having confessed the 
 faith and received the consoling offices of 
 the church." He died on the 11th of Octo- 
 ber, 1303. 
 
 Philij), though relieved from the violence 
 of Boniface, pursued his memory with un- 
 relenting hostility. He demanded of the 
 new pope, Benedict XI., the formal con- 
 demnation by a council of Boniface for her- 
 esy and other crimes. Benedict refused to 
 pursue the memoiy of his predecessor, and 
 pronounced a sentence of excommunication 
 upon the persons concerned in the arrest 
 of Pope Boniface, and all others who might 
 in any Avay have aided or encouraged their 
 acts, among Avhom it AA'as evident that he 
 included the King of France himself. A 
 month later the pope died suddenly, and it 
 Avas believed that he Avas carried off by 
 poison administered by the agents of the 
 French king. 
 
 Philip Avas now determined that the next 
 pope should be a Frenchman, and one who 
 would consent to be his dependant and his 
 tool. By bribing the cardinals he suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining their promises to ratify 
 his nomination. He then summoned to his 
 presence Bertrand de Goth, Archbishop of 
 Bordeaux — a man as unscrupulous as him- 
 self — and ofiered to make him pope if he 
 Avould swear to comply with six conditions. 
 Five of these Avere named to him on the 
 spot. They Avere to remove all the ecclesi- 
 astical censures pronounced upon Philip 
 and his followers ; to grant him a tenth of 
 the revenues of the church in France for 
 five years ; to condemn the memory of Bon- 
 iface VIII. ; to restore the Colonna family 
 to their honors ; and to confirm as cardinals 
 several persons nominated by Philip. The 
 sixth and last condition Philip reserved to 
 be named at a subsequent time and place, 
 but the archbishop swore a solemn oath to 
 grant it Avhen demanded of him. The in- 
 famous bargain being closed, Philip caused 
 the archbishop to be elected pope, and he 
 took the name of Clement V., June, 1305. 
 
FJt03I THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES V. 647 
 
 He was crowned at Lyons, and fixed his 
 residence at Avignon instead of Rome, as 
 has been related. By this change he placed 
 himself in the power of Philip, and it was 
 not long before he found him a relent- 
 less master. Clement promptly fulfilled the 
 five conditions Philip had named to him, 
 and awaited with no slight anxiety the an- 
 nouncement of the sixth. 
 
 The order of the Knights of the Temple, 
 since their expulsion from Palestine, had 
 continued to exist as one of the richest and 
 most powerful institutions in Europe. They 
 formed a body of 15,000 veteran knights, 
 exempt from the royal jurisdiction, and 
 governed by their own peculiar laws and 
 officers, and were established in every coun- 
 try of Europe. Their enormous wealth, 
 their pride and avarice, and their insolent 
 treatment of the people rendered them un- 
 popular wherever they were established. 
 They had aroused the hostility of Philip by 
 their resistance of some of his tyrannical 
 measures, and he resolved to destroy them. 
 The prospect of confiscating all their vast 
 wealth in France made him all the more 
 determined to proceed against them. To 
 accomplish the destruction of an order so 
 largely ecclesiastical and under the imme- 
 diate protection of the pope, it was neces- 
 .sary to secure the aid of the church. When, 
 therefore, Clement V. was fairly seated 
 upon the papal throne, Philip named to 
 him his sixth condition which he had 
 sworn to grant, and which was the destruc- 
 tion of the Templars. The pope at first 
 shrank from the measure in horror, but he 
 was helpless in Philip's hands, and was 
 obliged to do his master's will. Jacques du 
 Molay, the Grand Master of the Templars, 
 and the leading officers of the order, were 
 invited into France on the pretext of taking 
 measures with the pope for a new crusade. 
 They were received with distinction at first 
 by Philip, and were then seized and thrown 
 into prison on the loth of October, 1307. 
 The property of the order throughout 
 France was seized by the officers of the 
 crown, and all the knights in the kingdom 
 were arrested and imprisoned. The Tem- 
 plars were accused by the king of idolatry, 
 atheism, Mohammedanism, and a number 
 of infamous practices. With all their 
 faults, they were doubtless innocent of the 
 charges brought against them by Philip. 
 Numbers of them were compelled by tor- 
 ture to confess the crimes of which they 
 were accused, and the confessions thus ob- 
 
 tained were used to establish the guilt of 
 the order. Others bravely endured their 
 sufferings and protested their innocence to 
 the last. Nevertheless, with the evidence 
 he had collected, Philip procured the con- 
 demnation of the order by the states gen- 
 eral in May, 1308, and compelled the pope 
 to consent to the sacrifice of the Templars, 
 Many of the knights were burned at the 
 stake, where they died with the unshaken 
 courage which had rendered their order in- 
 vincible in battle. In March, 1312, the 
 pope, in the Council of Vienne, solemnly 
 abolished the order of the Templars through- 
 out Europe, and bestowed their landed 
 estates and all their privileges upon the 
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Two- 
 thirds of the movable property of the Tem- 
 plars was given to the King of France to 
 compensate him for the expenses of the 
 prosecution. This amounted to a very con- 
 siderable sum. The last victims of Philip 
 were Jacques du Molay, the Grand Master, 
 and the Preceptor of Normandy, who, after 
 being kept in prison for seven years, were 
 burned at the stake at Paris in March, 
 1314. They protested their innocence to 
 the last, and died with a fortitude which 
 drew tears from the spectators, 
 
 A few weeks later Clement V. died — • 
 April 20th — and on the 29th of November, 
 1314, Philip himself followed the pope to 
 the grave. He was one of the most unscru- 
 pulous of the French sovereigns, and he 
 was one of the most successful. He failed 
 in nothing that he undertook. He hum- 
 bled the church in his treatment of Boni- 
 face and Clement, and by crushing the 
 Templars struck the hardest blow that had 
 yet been delivered to the feudal nobility. 
 He restored the supremacy of the civil law, 
 and protected the common people against 
 the aggressions of the nobles, though he did 
 not respect their rights himself. His great 
 talents and the success of his measures 
 justly entitle him to be classed among the 
 great kings of France. Yet with all his 
 talents he was so unscrupulous, rapacious, 
 vindictive, and cruel that he won no per- 
 manent good for his country, and left a 
 character which is noted chiefly for its dis- 
 honesty. 
 
 Philip was succeeded by Louis, the eldest 
 of his three sons, all of whom subsequently 
 became kings of France. Louis X., sur- 
 named "le Hutin," reigned two years, and 
 during this time a violent reaction set in 
 from all classes — the nobles, clergy, and 
 
648 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 commons — against the despotism established 
 by Philip. Each won back some portion 
 of its lost rights, and had there been a wise 
 and disinterested leader to guide the move- 
 ment, it might have resulted in the perma- 
 nent establishment of a free constitution in 
 France. As it was, the nobles managed to 
 exalt themselves at the expense of the com- 
 mons. Louis died in June, 1316, leaving 
 no heir. About four months later his 
 queen, Jeanne of Navarre, gave birth to ason, 
 Avho died in six days, and is not usually- 
 reckoned among the Kings of France. 
 
 Philip, the brother of Louis X., had 
 been appointed regent at the death of that 
 king, and upon the death of his infant 
 nejihew he caused himself to be solemnly 
 crowned king at Rheims on the 9th of 
 January, 1317. The Duke of Burgundy 
 claimed the kingdom for his niece, the 
 Princess Jeanne, the daughter of Louis 
 X. by his first wife, but the states general 
 being summoned by Philip, enacted a law 
 declaring females incapable of inheriting 
 the crown of France. This measure is 
 known as the "Salic Law," from its being 
 based upon an obscure article from the old 
 Salian code, which forbade the transmission 
 of the allodial property of the tribe to 
 women. It has since then remained an es- 
 sential feature of French constitutional law. 
 It at once silenced the opposition to the new 
 king, and confirmed him in his usurpation, 
 and in succeeding ages it proved of the 
 greatest benefit to France by excluding for- 
 eign princes from the throne, and retaining 
 the sovereignty in the hands of a race of 
 native-born kings. Whatever were the 
 faults of future sovereigns, it could never 
 be said of them that they were not natives 
 of the soil, and possessed of as deep an in- 
 terest in the country as any of their sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Philip v., surnamed "the Long," reigned 
 six years. He was a mild, generous prince, 
 and was the author of many useful laws, 
 one of which declared the royal domain 
 inalienable. He died in 1322. 
 
 Charles IV., surnamed "le Bel," or "the 
 Fair," the third and youngest son of Philip 
 IV., succeeded his brother Philip, who left 
 no son. He took advantage of the struggle 
 between Edward II. of England and his 
 subjects to attempt to get possession of the 
 duchy of Guienne, and succeeded in cap- 
 turing La Rochelle. Queen Isabella, the 
 wife of Edward and the sister of Charles 
 the Fair, was sent to Paris by her husband, 
 
 in May, 1325, to negotiate a peace ; but she 
 set to work immediately upon her arrival 
 in France to plot against her husband, and 
 was aided by her brother with men and 
 money. She returned to England in Sep- 
 tember, 1326, and brought on the struggle 
 which resulted in the overthrow and murder 
 of Edward II. Upon the accession of Ed- 
 ward III., the French king restored to him 
 the duchy of Guienne upon payment of an 
 indemnity of 50,000 marks sterling. Charles 
 died on the 31st of January, 1328, leaving 
 no male heir. Two months later, his queen 
 gave birth to a princess. By the death of 
 Charles the direct line of the house of 
 Capet, which had held the throne in un- 
 broken succession of father and son for 
 more than three centuries, was ended. In 
 the popular sentiment this failure of heirs 
 was a judgment sent by God for the pun- 
 ishment of the crimes of Philip /V. 
 
 The nobles of the kingdom, upon the 
 birth of 'the princess, conferred the crown 
 upon Philip, Count of Valois, grandson of 
 King Philip III. He was the first cousin 
 and nearest relative on the male side of 
 Charles the Fair, and it was judged that 
 under the Salic law the crown belonged of 
 right to him. He was crowned at Rheims 
 on the 29th of May, 1328, and is known as 
 Philip VI. Philip was thirty-five years old, 
 and was possessed of many good qualities. 
 He was brave, generous and affable, and 
 fond of pomp and display. He established 
 a magnificent court, at which the great no- 
 bles, and the Kings of Bohemia, Navarre 
 and Majorca, with their splendid retinues, 
 habitually resided. In the midst of this 
 magnificence the king was able silently to 
 increase the power of the crown until the 
 sovereign became as strong and as despotic 
 as in the days of Philip the Fair. 
 
 Philip VI. began his reign by establish- 
 ing the Count and Countess of Evreux on 
 the throne of Navarre. The countess was 
 the daughter of King Louis X., and but 
 for the Salic law would have inherited the 
 French crown at her father's death. In re- 
 turn the count and countess renounced 
 their pretensions to the French crown. The 
 Flemings having revolted against the Count 
 of Flanders, that prince sought the aid of 
 Philip, who promptly marched to his assist- 
 ance, defeated the Flemings in the battle of 
 Cassel, and re-established the count's au- 
 thority. He now thought himself strong 
 enough to summon Edward III. of England 
 to appear at his court and do feudal homage 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES V. 649 
 
 for his duchy of Guienne. Edward, who 
 was not prepared to go to war, deemed it 
 more prudent to obey, and did homage to 
 Philip at Amiens in 1329. He made a 
 secret reservation, in concert with his coun- 
 cil of state, however, not to surrender his 
 rights as an independent prince, but to vin- 
 dicate them at the first propitious moment. 
 He suffered six years to pdss by, and during 
 this time Philip succeeded in winning the 
 enmity of Robert, Count of Artois, who 
 had been one of his most devoted and use- 
 ful friends, and who was his brother-in-law. 
 Robert endeavored by a base imposture, 
 and, as it was believed, by causing two of 
 his relatives to be poisoned, to obtain a res- 
 toration of the county of Artois, of which 
 he had been deprived in a previous reign. 
 His fraud was detected, he was sentenced to 
 perpetual banishment and his property was 
 confiscated. He had fled the kingdom be- 
 fore this sentence was pronounced, and at 
 once began to plot against Philip, whom he 
 hated for not shielding him from the con- 
 sequences of his crimes. Philip, fearful of 
 his enmity, pursued him from country to 
 country, and caused the different princes 
 with whom he sought refuge to refuse him 
 shelter. At length Robert fled to England, 
 and was received with distinguished favor 
 by Edward III., Philip's jealous and ever 
 watchful rival, A. r>. 1333. 
 
 The restless plotting at the English court 
 of the Count of Artois induced Philip to 
 bring matters to a definite issue. In the 
 early j^art of the year 1366 he proclaimed 
 Robert of Artois a traitor and an enemy of 
 the state, and forbade all his vassals, of 
 whatever rank, whether within or beyond 
 the French territory, to receive or assist 
 him on pain of confiscation of their fiefs. 
 Edward accepted the insult as addressed 
 to him, and regarding it also as a declara- 
 tion of war on the part of the French king, 
 began with energy to prepare for the strug- 
 gle. The Flemings, under their leader, 
 James Van Artevelde, the famous brewer 
 of Ghent, now embraced his cause, and at 
 the advice of Van Artevelde, Edward in 
 1337 formally assumed the title of King of 
 France, which he claimed in virtue of his 
 descent from Philip the Fair, who was his 
 mother's father. The Flemings at once 
 acknowledged him as their feudal lord, and 
 in 1339 he crossed over to Flanders and in- 
 vaded France from that direction. The first 
 campaign was indecisive, and therefore un- 
 favorable to the English, who retired into 
 Hainault. 
 
 In the spring of 1340 Edward returned 
 to Flanders with a powerful fleet andastrong 
 body of troops. In the meantime a French 
 army had been sent into Hainault, and the 
 French fleet, consisting of 400 well-manned 
 and equipped ships, was sent into the Flem- 
 ish waters to prevent the landing of the 
 English king. The French took position 
 near the mouth of the Scheldt at Helvoets- 
 luys. The English fleet came in sight in 
 the afternoon of the 23d of June, and the 
 next morning Edward attacked the French. 
 The battle lasted until late in the afternoon. 
 The French were overwhelmingly defeated 
 with a loss of 30,000 men, and the capture 
 of almost their entire fleet. The French 
 navy was annihilated, and the maritime 
 supremacy of England was established be- 
 yond all prospect of failure. The English 
 loss was slight compared with that of the 
 French. Edw^ard himself was slightly 
 wounded. A few weeks later he marched 
 into France at the head of a large army, in 
 which were 60,000 Flemings under Van 
 Artevelde, and laid siege to Tournay. As 
 in the previous campaign, however, he 
 gained no advantage, and a truce was con- 
 cluded, which was observed by both parties 
 beyond the period named, until the middle 
 of the summer of 1342. It might have 
 grown into a permanent peace, had not a 
 new source of trouble reopened the quarrel 
 between the two kingdoms. 
 
 The succession to the duchy of Brittany 
 was disputed between Charles of Blois, and 
 John, Count of Montfort. The French 
 king sustained the claim of Charles, who 
 was his nephew, while Edward embraced the 
 cause of Montfort, whom he created Earl of 
 Richmond in addition to his Breton title. 
 lu August, 1341, Charles captured the town 
 of Nantes, which was held by Montfort, 
 took his rival prisoner, and sent him to 
 Paris. The Countess of Montfort now took 
 up the cause of her husband, and defended 
 it with ability and gallantry. She threw 
 herself into the town of Hennebon, and 
 held it against her enemy until the arrival 
 of a large reinforcement, sent by Edward to 
 her assistance, compelled the French to raise 
 the siege, 1342. Edward himself came 
 over, but nothing definite was accomplished, 
 and on the 19th of January, 1343, a three 
 years' peace was signed between the two 
 sovereigns, and included their allies and 
 partisans on both sides. Neither party had 
 any idea of observing the treaty, but Philip 
 was the first to break it. Before the year 
 was out he invited fifteen of the most pow- 
 
650 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 erful barons of Brittany to a tournament at 
 Paris, and then treacherously arrested them 
 on an unsupported charge of intriguing 
 with the English. On the 29th of Novem- 
 ber, 1343, they were beheaded without trial, 
 by order of the king, and early in 1344 
 three Norman barons were seized and ex- 
 ecuted in like manner. 
 
 QUEEN PHILIPPA PLEADING FOR THE CITIZENS OP CALAIS 
 
 The murder of these nobles— for it was 
 nothing else — excited a feeling of universal 
 indignation against Philip. Edward, pro- 
 claiming that the treaty had been broken 
 by the King of France, declared war against 
 Philip in 1345, and the next year invaded 
 France at the head of about 30,000 infantry. 
 He landed at Cape La Hogue in Normandy 
 on the 12th of June, 1346, and marched 
 almost to Paris, ravaging the country with 
 
 fire and sword. He then retreated to Flan- 
 ders, followed by Philip with an army of 
 100,000 men. The French king endeavored 
 to force his enemy to an engagement, in 
 which he hoped his great preponderance 
 of numbers would give him the victory. 
 Edward skilfully eluded him till he had 
 passed the Somme, and secured his retreat 
 into Flanders. Then tak- 
 ing position on the edge 
 of the forest of Crecy, about 
 twelve miles from Abbe- 
 ville, he awaited the ap- 
 proach of the French. 
 Philip having failed to pre- 
 vent the passage of the 
 Somme by the English, 
 crossed that river at 
 Abbeville, and marched 
 rapidly towards the Eng- 
 lish position, arriving be- 
 fore it on the 26th of Au- 
 gust, 1346. He intended 
 to defer the attack until 
 the next day, but his ad- 
 vanced troops engaged 
 Avithout orders, and so 
 brought on the battle. The 
 French were decisively de- 
 feated, with a loss of 1,200 
 knights, 80 bannerets, 
 30,000 men-at-arms, and a 
 large number of princes, 
 counts, and superior offi- 
 cers. Among the slain 
 were the Counts of Alen§on 
 and Flanders, and the vet- 
 eran knight-errant, King 
 John of Bohemia, now old 
 and nearly blind. The 
 English gave no quarter, 
 and Philip, who had borne 
 himself gallantly in the 
 battle, seeing that the day 
 was lost, fled from the field 
 and took refuge in Amiens. 
 The victory was due to the 
 gallantry of the Prince of 
 Wales, who commanded the first division 
 of his father's army, and the steadiness and 
 skill of the English archers, before ■\\hose 
 fatal volleys the undisciplined French were 
 unable to stand. 
 
 From Crecy Edward marched to Calais 
 and laid siege to the town, while his fleet 
 blockaded it from the sea. It resisted him 
 for eleven months, and was finally starved 
 into submission. The town was surrendered 
 
FE03f THE DEATH OF LOUIS IX. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES V. 651 
 
 ou the 4th of August, 1347, Edward at 
 first intended to hang the principal citizens, 
 but was induced by the entreaties of Queen 
 Philippa to spare them. Edward estab- 
 lished a large English colony in Calais, and 
 for more than two centuries that town con- 
 tinued one of the most valuable possessions 
 of the English crown. On the 28th of 
 September of the same year, a ten months' 
 truce was arranged between the two kings, 
 and Edward went back to England. At 
 the expiration of the truce hostilities were 
 not resumed. During the years 1348 and 
 1349 the terrible plague known as the 
 Black Death, of which we have already 
 spoken, raged in France and England, and 
 swept off thousands. Fifty thousand per- 
 sons died in Paris alone, and among these 
 were the Queens of France and Navarre. 
 Philip himself died of a lingering sickness 
 on the 22d of August, 1350, having reigned 
 twenty-two years. 
 
 During the reign of Philip VI. two 
 events of importance occurred. The king 
 imposed a tax on salt, called the Oahelle, 
 and thus originated the government monop- 
 oly of salt, which in after years became 
 so profitable to the treasury, and so odious 
 to the people. In the last year of the king's 
 life, Humbert II., the Dauphin of Vienne, 
 so called from the Dolphin or Dauphin 
 Avhich he bore as his device, retired into a 
 monastery. Being without children, he 
 ceded to Philij) for the king's grandson, 
 Prince Charles, his hereditary estates, in 
 consideration of the sum of two hundred 
 thousand florins paid to him by the king. 
 One of the conditions of the cession stipu- 
 lated that the province of Dauphine should 
 never be united to the crown of France. 
 In consequence of this provision, and to 
 mark the importance of the acquisition, 
 when the young Prince Charles became 
 King of France as Charles V., he ordered 
 that the title of Dauphin should from that 
 time be borne by the eldest son and heir of 
 the reigning King of France. 
 
 John, surnamed " le Bon," or " the 
 Good," ascended the throne at the death of 
 Philip. He was in his thirty-second year, 
 and resembled his father in character, be- 
 ing, like him, proud, obstinate, presump- 
 tuous, cruel, fond of pomp and luxury, dis- 
 play and pleasure. He was also brave 
 and could be generous when he chose, and 
 sincerely desired to be a true knight. 
 
 At the outset of his reign John seized 
 and put to death the Constable of France, 
 
 Raoul de Nesle, without trial, and bestowed 
 the office of constable upon his chosen com- 
 rade, Charles de la Cerda, and also gave 
 him the county of Angouleme, which had 
 been ceded to the crown by Charles the 
 Bad, the new King of Navarre, upon the 
 promise of other territories in exchange. 
 John withheld these territories, and thus 
 won the bitter enmity of Charles, who was 
 destined to bring many afflictions upon 
 France during this reign. He vowed ven- 
 geance against the Constable de la Cerda, 
 and made good his words by causing him 
 to be assassinated in his bed in January, 
 1354. King John at once prepared to invade 
 Charles' territories of Navarre and Evreux, 
 but as Charles was a most formidable an- 
 tagonist, he consented to a reconciliation, 
 which Avas arranged by their relatives. The 
 reconciliation was a hollow pretence. The 
 King of Navarre instigated the Dauphin 
 Charles to place himself at the head of a 
 party opposed to his father. John was ren- 
 dered furious by this conduct. Upon learn- 
 ing it he proceeded at once to Rouen, 
 where the dauphin, as Duke of Normandy, 
 held his court, and arrested Charles the 
 Bad with his own hands, and would have 
 put him to death, had not the dauphin in- 
 duced him to change his purpose. The 
 King of Navarre was sent to Paris, and im- 
 prisoned in the Chatelet, where he was 
 treated with great severity, April, 1356. 
 
 The quarrel of the King of Navarre Avas 
 taken up by his brother Philip in the sum- 
 mer of the same year, and he with a num- 
 ber of the discontented French lords joined 
 the Duke of Lancaster, and levied war upon 
 the French king in Normandy. John took 
 the field against them and drove them 
 back, and laid siege to Breteuil, a fortress 
 belonging to the King of Navarre. While 
 thus engaged, he learned that the Prince 
 of Wales, better known as the Black 
 Prince, had marched out of his duchy of 
 Guienne with an army of 8,000 men, and 
 had advanced as far into the French terri- 
 tories as Bourges. John at once raised the 
 siege of Breteuil, and hastened into Poitou 
 by forced marches for the i)ur])ose of cut- 
 ting the communications of the Black 
 Prince and intercepting his retreat into 
 Guienne. He succeeded in throwing his 
 army of 60,000 men across the route of 
 Edward, who, seeing that he must either 
 fight or surrender, took up a strong posi- 
 tion at Poitiers, where, undismayed by the 
 immense superiority of the French, he 
 
652 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 awaited their attack. On the morning of 
 the 19th of September, 1356, King John 
 made a gallant attack upon the English 
 army, but was defeated. The French were 
 thrown into confusion by the deadly vol- 
 leys of the English archers, and broke and 
 fled before the decisive charge of the Black 
 Prince's line. Only one division, com- 
 manded by King John in person, attempted 
 to stay the English advance, but this was 
 beaten, and John himself was made pris- 
 oner. The French lost 2,500 nobles and 
 knights, and between 7,000 and 8,000 com- 
 mon soldiers. The prisoners numbered 
 more than two or three times the total force 
 of the English army. Edward treated the 
 captive king with the most respectful con- 
 sideration, and generously endeavored to 
 make him forget the loss of his freedom. 
 He was taken to Bordeaux, and in the 
 spring of 1357 was sent to England, where 
 he was courteously received by King Ed ward, 
 and assigned the old palace of the Savoy 
 as a residence. Efforts Avere made, with- 
 out success, to bring the war to a close ; 
 but a truce was arranged for two years 
 from Easter, 1357. 
 
 The Dauphin Charles, who escaped from 
 the fatal field of Poitiers, reached Paris ten 
 days after the battle, and assumed the 
 government as lieutenant-general of the 
 kingdom. The capture of the king had 
 thrown the whole kingdom into confusion. 
 Charles summoned the states general at 
 once, and it was evident that the commons 
 intended to take advantage of the occasion 
 to regain some of their lost rights. They 
 were led by Etienne Marcel the head of 
 the municipality, or mayor, of Paris, and 
 Robert Lecoq, Bishoj^ of Laon, men of 
 great abilities and of sincere patriotism. 
 Charles was obliged to yield to the de- 
 mands of the commons, which were just 
 and moderate, but at the same time se- 
 cretly procured from his father an order to 
 disregard all his promises as well as the acts 
 of the 'states general. This brought on an 
 insurrection of the people, who released 
 Charles the Bad, and urged him to assert 
 his claim to the croAvn, wdiich would have 
 been indisputable had it not been drawn 
 from the female branch of the royal family. 
 The insurgents murdered two of the most 
 trusted advisers of the dauphin before his 
 eyes and compelled him to sanction their 
 measures. Charles was now a prisoner in 
 the hands of Marcel, who could have used 
 his power to compel the dauphin to grant 
 
 some permanent measure of constitutional 
 freedom to the country, but instead of do- 
 ing this, he allowed Charles to leave Paris 
 and retire to Compiegne, where he was 
 speedily joined by the nobility. The states 
 general met and sustained him, and a strong 
 reaction in favor of the royal cause set in. 
 A civil war ensued, which lasted about five 
 months, and resulted in the triumph of the 
 dauphin. An episode of the war w^as the 
 frightful insurrection of the Jacquerie, or 
 peasantry — " a general rising of the en- 
 slaved peasants of the provinces against the 
 nobles, prompted not so much by the love 
 of liberty as by the desperation of utter and 
 hopeless misery and a ferocious thirst of 
 vengeance upon their tyrants." One battle 
 sufficed to quell the revolt. No quarter 
 was shown on either side, and the insurrec- 
 tion, though brief, was one of the most ter- 
 rible known in history. The triumph of 
 the dauphin over Marcel and his party was 
 the extinction for a long period of any hojje 
 of imposing a constitutional check upon 
 the arbitrary and irresponsible power of the 
 French monarch s. 
 
 Charles of Navarre continued his war 
 upon the kingdom for some time longer, and 
 in August, 1359, the dauphin, in order to 
 obtain peace, signed a treaty favorable to 
 the Navarese king. At the same time it 
 became known that the captive King John 
 had concluded a treaty with Edward III. 
 of England, ceding to him, in absolute sov- 
 ereignty, Aquitaine, Normandy, Touraine, 
 Poitou, Saintonge, and the Limousin — 
 about one-half of the kingdom of France. 
 The indignant dauphin summoned the 
 states general, and the treaty was repudi- 
 ated, with a patriotic declaration of the 
 willingness of the French people to suf- 
 fer any hardships rather than consent to 
 such a shameful dismemberment of the 
 kingdom, Edward, furious at the rejection 
 of the treaty, invaded France in October, 
 1359, and though he gained no victory 
 over Charles, compelled him to consent to 
 a treaty known as the peace of Bretigny, in 
 May, 1360. The terms of this treaty were 
 almost as hard as those of the one that had 
 been rejected. Aquitaine, Poitou, Angou- 
 mois, Limousin, and Saintonge, were ceded 
 to Edward in full sovereignty ; that is, inde- 
 pendently of all homage to the French 
 crown. Edward, on his part, renounced 
 for himself and the Prince of Wales all 
 claims to the crown of France, and all pre- 
 tensions to Normandy and the other ancient 
 
FBOjV the death of LOUIS IX. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES V. 653 
 
 possessions of the Plantagenets north of the 
 Loire. King John's ransom was fixed at 
 three millions of crowns, to be paid in six 
 annual instalments. The king was to be 
 set free upon the payment of the first half 
 million crowns, and was to place a number 
 of the first lords of France in Edward's 
 hands as hostages for the payment of the 
 rest. Charles, with great difficulty, raised 
 the necessary sum, and King John was set 
 free. He was received with joy by his peo- 
 ple, the exhausted condition of the country 
 makingpeace at any price seem sweet to them. 
 In 1361 the reigning Duke of Burgundy 
 died, and with him ended the direct line 
 of this ancient house. King John, in the 
 absence of direct heirs, claimed the duchy 
 as the nearest male relative of the late duke, 
 and disregarding theclaim of Charles theBad 
 of Navarre, which was equal if not superior 
 to his own, took possession of Burgundy, 
 and added it to the royal domain. One of 
 the hostages delivered by King John to 
 Edward of England for the fulfilment of 
 the treaty of Bretigny, was Louis of Anjou, 
 John's second son. The young prince 
 broke his parole, effected his escape from 
 Calais, and hastened to Paris. John, who 
 was a faithful knight, was deeply mortified 
 by his son's breach of faith, and resolved to 
 atone for it by returning to England and 
 surrendering himself as a prisoner once 
 more. Before leaving France he created 
 his youngest and favorite son Philip, Duke 
 of Burgundy. The young prince had 
 fought like a hero at his father's side at 
 Poitiers, and the king expressly stated in 
 the grant that it was to reward him for his 
 courage and devotion. This grant, though 
 creditable to the king as a father, was an 
 act of short-sighted and mistaken policy. 
 Philip the Bold, as the new duke came to 
 be called, became the founder of the later 
 ducal houseof Burgundy, which in the next 
 century proved a formidable rival to the 
 royal family of France. John returned to 
 England in January, 1364, and was received 
 with courtesy and distinction. A short 
 time after his arrival he was seized with a 
 fatal illness, and died on the 8th of April, 
 at the age of forty-five. 
 
 Upon the death of his father, Charles V., 
 called " le Sage," or " the Wise," came to 
 the throne. Unlike his father, he was 
 quiet and studious in his habits, was a well- 
 learned man for the times, and was by na- 
 ture cautious and prudent. His body was 
 too weak to permit him to engage in the 
 
 rough life of a soldier, but he possessed the 
 happy faculty so necessary in the head of a 
 great state, of promptly recognizing and 
 readily using the men best suited for carrying 
 out his plans. It was this quality that led 
 him to choose and to sustain with unwaver- 
 ing firmness as the principal leader of his 
 armies the great soldier, Bertrand du 
 Guesclin, who by the opening of this reign 
 had given evidence of his remarkable mili- 
 tary genius. 
 
 At the time of Charles' accession a civil 
 war was raging in the Spanish kingdom of 
 Castile between Pedro the Cruel and his 
 natural brother, Henry of Trastamara. 
 Henry, being driven into France, begged 
 assistance from Charles, who in 1365 sent 
 an army into Spain under Du Guesclin. 
 The Castilians at once rose against Pedro, 
 who was forced to fly, and Henry gained 
 the throne without striking a blow. Pedro 
 fled to the court of the Black Prince at 
 Bordeaux, and succeeded in inducing him 
 to enter Spain to his assistance at the head 
 of 10,000 troops. On the 3d of April, 
 1367, a battle was fought at Navarette be- 
 tween the army of Pedro, commanded by 
 the Black Prince, and that of Henry, com- 
 manded by Du Guesclin. The latter was 
 routed with fearful slaughter, and Du Gues- 
 clin was captured. Henry escaped, and 
 took shelter with the pope at Avignon. 
 This war led to results the most important 
 to the French kingdom. Pedro of Castile 
 failed to furnish the funds to pay the troops 
 of the Black Prince, whose army was com- 
 posed of the mercenary soldiers known as 
 the Free Companies, and Prince Edward 
 was unable to raise the money for this pur- 
 pose upon his return from Spain. The 
 army broke up into numerous bands, and, 
 discontented and indignant, began to com- 
 mit such outrages in Edward's dominions 
 that he was forced to demand their with- 
 drawal. They then passed into France, and 
 indulged in such excesses that the people 
 of the suflTering districts were furious against 
 the Black Prince. In order to raise the 
 funds to pay these troops, the Black Prince 
 levied a heavy tax upon his subjects. The 
 nobles remonstrated, and refused to pay the 
 tax, and three of the most powerful in 1368 
 appealed to the King of France, as lord 
 paramount, to protect them against the ex- 
 actions of their prince. Charles had se- 
 cretly encouraged this disaffection, and he 
 had chosen his time well. The Black 
 Prince was slowly dying of an incurable 
 
654 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 disease, and Edward III. was old and in- 
 firm. The French people were very sore 
 over the sacrifices made by the treaty of 
 Bretigny, and the provinces ceded to Eng- 
 land were anxious for a reunion with 
 France. As a first step in the plan on 
 which he had resolved, Charles secured the 
 services of the free companies, and sent 
 
 IXTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF ST. DEXIS. 
 
 now threw off the mask, and disavowing the 
 treaty of Bretigny, summoned the Black 
 Prince to answer before him the complaints 
 of his vassals. 
 
 "War now broke out simultaneously in 
 the north and south of France. The cau- 
 tious policy of Charles was successful, and 
 the failure of the health of the Black Prince, 
 who became so ill that he 
 was obliged to relinquish 
 the direction of the war and 
 return to England (a. d. 
 1370), gave the French a 
 great advantage. By the 
 close of the year 1372 Du 
 Guesclin, who had been 
 made Constable of France, 
 had regained the whole 
 district between the Gi- 
 ronde and the Loire. In 
 1373 Brittany was overrun, 
 and the majority of the Bre- 
 ton fortresses fell into the 
 hands of the king. Ed- 
 ward III. now despatched 
 a powerful army to France 
 under John of Gaunt, Duke 
 of Lancaster. The duke 
 lauded in France in July, 
 1373. Charles adopted the 
 Fabian policy, and his gen- 
 erals steadily retired before 
 the English commander, re- 
 fusing to fight a decisive 
 battle. " Let the storm 
 rage," he said to his com- 
 manders ; " retire before it ; 
 it will soon exhaust itself." 
 The result vindicated his 
 wisdom. By the time the 
 Duke of Lancaster reached 
 Bordeaux he had lost at 
 least a third of his army 
 by sickness, fatigue, cap- 
 ture, or death in the nu- 
 merous petty attacks Avith 
 Avhich the French harassed 
 them on their march ; and 
 out of 30,000 horses, 24,000 
 had died. The privations 
 
 and sufferings of the win- 
 
 them to Spain under Du Guesclin to restore ter completed the work, and the English 
 
 "~ ' ' army was ruined without having been 
 
 able to fight a single battle. The towns 
 and castles of Gascony now rapidly de- 
 
 Henry of Trastaraara to the throne of Cas 
 tile. The effort was successful. Pedro was 
 defeated and captured, and soon after slain, 
 and Henry, with whom Charles had con- 
 cluded an alliance offensive and defensive, 
 was acknowledged King of Castile. Charles 
 
 serted to the French side, and by the 
 close of the year 1374 the only important 
 places in France held by the English were 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 655 
 
 Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne. In June, 
 1375, a truce for two years was arranged by 
 the pope. The next year the Black Prince 
 died, and was followed by his father, Ed- 
 ward III., in 1377, and France was thus 
 relieved of her two most inveterate ene- 
 mies. 
 
 Immediately after the death of King 
 Edward the combined fleets of France and 
 Castile made a descent upon the English 
 coast and ravaged the shores of the Isle of 
 Wight and the neighboring counties. The 
 possessions of the English in Guienne and 
 the duchy of Brittany were entirely sub- 
 dued and annexed to the crown, and the 
 King of Navarre, being detected in another 
 attempt against Charles V., was compelled 
 to purchase peace by the surrender of sev- 
 eral of the strongest castles of his kingdom. 
 The annexation of Brittany took place in 
 1379. The measure gave great offence to 
 the Bretons, who were unwilling to sur- 
 render their independence. They promptly 
 rebelled against Charles, recalled their ex- 
 iled duke, Avho landed at St. Malo in Au- 
 gust, 1379, and was received with enthu- 
 siasm. All the Breton generals in the 
 French service threw up their commands 
 and joined their countrymen, and even the 
 noble-hearted Du Guesclin, who was de- 
 votedly attached to Charles, resigned his 
 office and retired from court. Charles 
 begged the constable to resume his post, 
 and Du Guesclin consented, but steadily 
 refused to draw his sword against his coun- 
 trymen. With an obstinacy singular in so 
 excellent a sovereign, Charles persisted in 
 his designs against Brittany, and hopelessly 
 alienated the Bretons from the crown. 
 Troubles now broke out in Languedoc, in 
 consequence of the misgovernment of the 
 Duke of Anjou. The English seized the 
 occasion to possess themselves of several 
 towns and castles along the frontier of 
 Languedoc, and Charles sent Du Guesclin 
 to expel them. Du Guesclin was seized 
 with his last illness and died while besieging 
 Chuteauneuf de Randau, and the governor 
 of that place, who had sworn to surrender 
 to none but Du Guesclin himself, brought 
 the keys of the fortress to the tent of the 
 constable and silently laid them on the 
 breast of the dead hero. Du Guesclin was 
 mourned throughout all France, and by 
 none more deeply than by Chai'les V. The 
 l<ing caused his body to be brought to 
 Paris, and buried him with almost royal 
 honors in the Abbey of St. Denis, among 
 
 the Kings of France. Two months later 
 Charles V. died, September 16th, 1380. 
 In him France lost one of her best kings ; 
 for though his rule was despotic, he sin- 
 cerely desired and constantly sought the 
 good of his people, and his success in win- 
 ning back the provinces held by the Eng- 
 lish was in itself enough to stamp him as 
 one of the most illustrious of French sov- 
 ereigns. He was the author of many wise 
 and useful laws in his kingdom. Being a 
 learned man himself, he was a liberal friend 
 of learning. He founded the Royal Library 
 at Paris, and gave great encouragement to 
 the arts, especially to architecture. He 
 built the vast and famous Hotel de St. Pol, 
 at Paris, which became his favorite resi- 
 dence, and also began the fortress of the 
 Bastile. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO 
 THE DEATH OF LOUIS XII. 
 
 Charles VI. — The Regency — Philip, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy — Preparations for the Invasion of England 
 — Charles Assumes the Government — His Illness 
 and Insanity — The Duke of Burgundy the Ruler 
 of France — Peace with England — Hostility Be- 
 tween the Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans — Mur- 
 der of the Duke of Orleans — The Armagnacs — 
 Civil War — Henry V. of England Invades France 
 — Battle of Agincourt — Alliance Between the 
 Queen and the Duke of Burgundy — ilassacre of 
 the Armagnacs — Murder of the Duke of Burgundy 
 — His Son Joins the English— Treaty of Troyes — 
 Marriage of Henry V. with the Princess Catha- 
 rine — Death of Henry V. and Charles VI. — The 
 Duke of Bedford Regent for Henry VI. — Charles 
 VII.— Jacqueline, Countess of Holland — Coolness 
 Between the Dukes of Bedford and Burgundy- 
 Siege of Orleans — Jeanne Dare, the Maid of Or- 
 leans—Her Success — Charles VII. Crowned at 
 Rheims — Capture and Death of Jeanne Dare — Re- 
 verses of the English in France — Reconciliation 
 of the Duke of Burgundy with the French King — 
 The English Driven out of Paris — The States 
 General at Orleans— A Standing Army Formed — 
 Treasonahle Conduct of the Dauphin — Death of 
 Charles VII. — Louis XL Becomes King — His 
 Character — Revokes the Pragmatic Sanction — 
 Increases the Royal Territories — League of the 
 Public Good— Treaty of Conflans— Louis Regains 
 Normandy — Charles the Bold Becomes Duke of 
 Burgundy — Enmity Between Louis and Charles 
 — Visit of Louis to Peronne— Hard Terms Imposed 
 Upon the King— He Evades them— Intervenes in 
 the Affairs of England— Death of the Duke of 
 Guienne — War Between France and Burgundy — 
 Defeat of Charles the Bold by the Swiss— Death 
 of Charles — Louis Seizes Burgundy and Picardy — 
 War with JIaxiinilian— Death of "Louis — Charles 
 VIII. — The Regency — Anne of Brittany — Marries 
 Charles — Peace of Senlis — E.xpedition of Charles 
 to Italy — Louis XII. Afarries Queen Anne — Re- 
 news the Italian War— Failure of the War— Death 
 of Louis XII. 
 
Qd6 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 promise. 
 
 ,-Q_(^HARLES VI., surnamed "the 
 Well Beloved," was not twelve 
 years old at the time of his father's 
 death. His four uncles at once 
 began to quarrel over the regency, 
 and at length agreed upon a cora- 
 The Duke of Anjou was pro- 
 claimed regent; the custody of the king's 
 person was committed to the Dukes of Bur- 
 gundy and Bourbon ; and the Duke of 
 Berry was made Governor of Languedoc 
 and Aquitaine. By the dying command 
 of Charles V., Olivier de Clisson, the trusted 
 lieutenant of Du Guesclin, was made con- 
 stable. The Duke of Anjou, a man of no- 
 torious avarice, soon brought on a violent 
 commotion in the kingdom by his attempts 
 to raise money by unpopular taxes. The 
 troubles lasted nearly two years, and were 
 with difficulty quieted. Peace being re- 
 stored, the king, attended by his uncles, 
 returned to Paris in May, 1382. Immedi- 
 ately afterwards the Duke of Anjou, who 
 had been adopted as her heir by his cousin 
 Joanna, Queen of Naples, set out for that 
 kingdom. He died there in 1384, and the 
 direction of the kingdom passed into the 
 hands of Philip, Duke of Burgundy, the 
 ablest of Charles's uncles. By the advice 
 of the duke Charles entered Flanders with 
 a large army, defeated the Flemings under 
 Philip Van Artevelde, at Rosebecque, and 
 restored the Count of Flanders to his throne, 
 November, 1382. Elated by his easy vic- 
 tory over the champions of civil liberty in 
 Flanders, Charles returned to Paris, and 
 entering the city at the head of his army, 
 proceeded to crush the popular party there 
 and place the city under the most absolute 
 despotism. The chiefs of the popular party 
 were put to death, all the unpopular taxes 
 were reimposed, and the king levied a fine 
 of 960,000 francs upon the citizens, after 
 which he graciously consented to pardon 
 them for their share in the late disturbances. 
 Rheims, Troyes, Chalons, Orleans, and the 
 principal cities of northern France were 
 punished in a similar manner The civil 
 wars which marked the latter part of 
 Charles' reign were the direct result of this 
 deliberate destruction of the rights and 
 liberties of the people. 
 
 In January, 1384, the Count of Flanders 
 died, leaving no male heir. Philip the 
 Bold, Duke of Burgundy, who had married 
 the only daughter of the Flemish count, 
 succeeded to his dominions, which consisted 
 of Flanders, Artois, the counties of Rhetel 
 
 and Nevers, and other territories in Cham- 
 pagne. He soon added the duchy of Bra- 
 bant to his other possessions, and thus 
 became one of the most powerful sovereigns 
 of Europe. He promptly settled the trou- 
 bles which had long existed between the 
 Counts of Flanders and the people of 
 Ghent, and peaceably extended his author- 
 ity over the whole province. Philip had 
 connected himself with one of the most 
 powerful houses of Germany by marrying 
 his eldest son to the daughter of Duke 
 Albert of Bavaria, and he now brought 
 about a marriage between his nephew, the 
 King of France, and Isabella, the daughter 
 of Duke Stephen of Bavaria — a union des- 
 tined to be fruitful of trouble to France — 
 A. D. 1385. 
 
 In 1386 a powerful army and a numer- 
 ous fleet were collected for the invasion of 
 England, but the expedition failed through 
 losses by tempest and the quarrels of the 
 leaders ; and what the storms left of the 
 fleet was captured or destroyed by the Eng- 
 lish fleet iu the harbor of Sluys. An at- 
 tempt to renew the expedition the next 
 year also failed through the enmity of the 
 Duke of Brittany toward the Constable De 
 Clisson. 
 
 In 1388 Charles, being twenty-one years 
 of age, was induced by the entreaties of his 
 people and the advice of the Cardinal- 
 Bishop of Laon to put an end to the re- 
 gency and assume the control of the gov- 
 ernment. He accordingly relieved his 
 uncles, the Dukes of Burgundy and Berry, 
 from their duties, and these, not daring to 
 resist, left the court. On the day of their 
 departure the Bishop of Laon, who had 
 advised their dismissal, was found dead, 
 with evident marks of having been poi- 
 soned. The king, who had no taste for the 
 duties of his station, left the government in 
 the hands of his ministers, the most influen- 
 tial of whom was De Clisson, the constable. 
 They concluded a three years' truce with 
 England, and introduced many useful re- 
 forms into the government, so that these 
 three years were passed in comparative 
 tranquillity. The king's uncles now sought 
 to destroy De Clisson, whom they hated. 
 The constable was attacked and left for 
 dead in the street one night in June, 1392, 
 by a band of bravos led by a nobleman 
 named De Craon, who had been instigated 
 to the deed by the royal dukes. De Craon 
 fled to the Duke of Brittany. The king, 
 enraged at this attack upon one of the high- 
 
FR03I THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XII 657 
 
 est officers of the state, swore that he would 
 signally avenge it. He demanded the sur- 
 render of De Craou, and upon the reply of 
 the Duke of Brittany that he knew nothing 
 of either De Craon or his offence, Charles 
 took the field against his uncle to punish 
 him for his complicity in the affair and his 
 falsehood. On the march he was seized 
 with a dangerous illness, which resulted in 
 insanity. Though he recovered his reason 
 to a certain extent soon after, he was never 
 afterwards capable of sustained effort or 
 close application. During the remainder 
 of his life he was a hopeless imbecile, often 
 breaking out into fits of violent mania, and 
 sometimes, but rarely, enjoying lucid ra- 
 tional intervals. The king being incapable 
 of administering the government, the Duke 
 of Burgundy was placed at the head of 
 affairs, and one of his first measures was to 
 deprive De Clisson of his office and drive 
 him into exile. During one of the lucid 
 intervals of Charles a definite treaty of 
 peace was concluded with England, and the 
 Princess Isabella, a child of six years, was 
 married to Richard II. of England, 1396. 
 
 The first eight years of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury were passed in quarrels between the 
 Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy for the 
 possession of the regency of the kingdom. 
 Philip the Bold died in April, 1404, but 
 his son and successor, John the Fearless, 
 continued all his father's pretensions and 
 carried the quarrel with his rival to a still 
 greater extent. On the 23d of November, 
 1407, the Duke of Burgundy caused the 
 Duke of Orleans to be assassinated, and by 
 destroying his enemy made himself the real 
 master of the kingdom. In 1410 a league 
 was formed by the young Duke Charles of 
 Orleans and his brother, children of the 
 murdered duke, the Dukes of Berry, Bour- 
 bon, and Brittany, Count Bernard d'Ar- 
 magnac, and the Constable D'Albret, for 
 the overthrow- of the Duke of Burgundy. 
 The head of this league was the Count 
 d'Armagnac, whose daughter was married 
 to the young Duke of Orleans, aud the par- 
 tisans of the house of Orleans were hence- 
 forth known by his name. He gathered a 
 large array in southern and western France, 
 aud ravaged the country up to the gates of 
 Paris. The next year, 1411, the Armag- 
 nacs got possession of Paris, but were driven 
 out by the Duke of Burgundy and forced 
 to retreat to Orleans. The duke then put 
 to death large numbers of the adherents of 
 the Armagnacs in Paris, and the streets of 
 
 42 
 
 the city flowed with the blood of the de- 
 feated party. 
 
 The position of the Armagnacs was now 
 desperate. Outlawed by the king and pur- 
 sued with brutal fury by the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, they had but one resource — to ap- 
 peal to England for aid. Accordingly, in 
 May, 1412, they entered into a treaty with 
 Henry IV. of England, by which they 
 agreed to assist the English to regain their 
 former possessions in the south of France. 
 Henry engaged to aid them with a force of 
 4,000 picked troops. These negotiations 
 were discovered by the French king, and 
 war ensued. The result of the struggle was 
 that the Duke of Burgundy was driven 
 from power and forbidden to come to Paris 
 without the king's permission, and the Ar- 
 magnacs remained complete masters of the 
 government. The king being imbecile, the 
 real ruler of the kingdom was the dauphin. 
 The war closed in 1414, and reduced France 
 to a very low condition. 
 
 Taking advantage of this weakness, 
 Henry V. of England revived his claim to 
 the French crown and demanded the hand 
 of the Princess Catharine in marriage, to- 
 gether with the restitution of all the prov- 
 inces ceded by England in the treaty of 
 Bretigny, and of Normandy also. War 
 was the alternative. The dauphin, know- 
 ing the weakened condition of the kingdom, 
 did not resent the insult offered by England, 
 but tendered Henry the hand of the prin- 
 cess, with a large dowry in money, and all 
 of Aquitaine and Limousin. Henry at once 
 rejected this proposition, and on the 14th 
 of August, 1415, landed at the mouth of 
 the Seine Avith a large army, and laid siege 
 to Harfleur, which surrendered a month 
 later. Being greatly weakened by disease 
 in his army, Henry resolved to delay active 
 operations until the next year, and marched 
 northward towards Calais, intending to win- 
 ter there. On his march he was attacked 
 at Agin court, on the 19th of October, by 
 the French army, which sought to intercept 
 his retreat. He inflicted a terrible defeat 
 upon the French, who lost eight thousand 
 knights of noble blood out of a total loss of 
 ten thousand men. Among the slain were 
 the Dukes of Alencon and Brabant and 
 the Constable d'Albret, the commander of 
 the French army. The Dukes of Orleans 
 and Bourbon were captured. Henry, un- 
 able, from the weakened condition of his 
 army, to follow up his victory, continued 
 his withdrawal to Calais. 
 
658 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The Count d'Arniagnac ^vas now made 
 Constable of France. The dauphin died 
 in December, 1415, and was succeeded by 
 his brother John, Duke of Touraiue, who 
 died in a little more than a year later. It 
 was believed that he was poisoned by the 
 constable. The king's third sou, Charles, 
 a boy of fourteen, now became dauphin. 
 He was thoroughly devoted to the Orleauist 
 faction, among whom he had been educated, 
 and Avas entirely uuder the influence of the 
 Constable d'Armagnac, who, in order to 
 remove the queen from power, induced 
 Charles to take measures to punish her for 
 her scandalous life. Her paramour was 
 seized, tortured, and drowned in the Seine, 
 and the queen herself sent into an honora- 
 ble but strict captivity in the Castle of 
 Tours. 
 
 From this time Queen Isabella never 
 ceased to regard her son with a furious 
 and vindictive hatred. The Duke of Bur- 
 gundy had maintained a sullen neutrality 
 throughout the whole struggle with the 
 English, and he and the queen had hitherto 
 been declared enemies. They now had a 
 bond of sympathy and union — their hatred 
 of the Armagnacs. Before she had been 
 long in confinement Isabella managed to 
 open negotiations Avith the duke, who 
 marched to Tours with a sufficient force, 
 and released her. The queen now declared 
 herself regent of the kingdom, and the civil 
 war broke out anew and with increased 
 fury. The English taking advantage of it, 
 captured Caen, Bayeux and some other 
 towns in Normandy. In May, 1418, the 
 Burgundians were admitted into Paris by 
 a citizen who had become angry with the 
 constable, and a terrible massacre of the 
 Orleanist faction ensued. The Constable 
 d'Armagnac, several bishops, and a large 
 number of nobles were cruelly put to death. 
 For three days the streets of Paris were a 
 general scene of massacre, the work of the 
 Burgundians being taken up by a band of 
 Parisian cut-throats called Cabochiens, led 
 by a butcher named Capeluche. One of 
 the leaders of the Orleanist party succeeded 
 in securing the escape of the dauphin to 
 Melun at the beginning of the massacre. A 
 few weeks later, the queen and the Duke 
 of Burgundy entered Paris, and were joy- 
 fully received. The Cabochiens began their 
 bloody work again, and were with difficulty 
 restrained by the Duke of Burgundy, who 
 was obliged to hang Capeluche. 
 
 Early in 1419 Henry V. captured Rouen 
 
 and made himself master of all Normandy. 
 Both of the parties which divided France 
 sought to open negotiations with him, but 
 he haughtily declined to treat with either, 
 and marched to Pontoise, from which he 
 threatened Paris. The danger of the con- 
 quest of the whole country by the English 
 now caused the parties to the civil war to 
 become friends for the time, but only for 
 the time. Tauneguy Duchatel, one of the 
 Armagnac chiefs, and the one who had 
 effected the escape of the dauphin from 
 Paris, knowing that no dependence was 
 to be placed upon the professions of the 
 Duke of Burgundy, resolved to put an end 
 to his life. Accordingly Avhile the duke 
 was engaged in a conference with the dau- 
 phin on the bridge of Montereau, he was 
 set upon and killed by Tauneguy Duchatel 
 and other chiefs of the Armagnacs, Septem- 
 ber 10th, 1419. 
 
 This murder was productive of the most 
 serious consequences. Philip, the son and 
 successor of the murdered duke, at once 
 went over to the English, sinking all con- 
 siderations of patriotism in his desire to 
 avenge his father. He was supjoorted by 
 the queen, who wished to jDunish her son, 
 the dauphin. The Parisians also, who were 
 warmly attached to the Duke of Burgundy, 
 embraced the English cause. Negotiations 
 were at once begun with the English by 
 the queen's party, and in April, 1420, the 
 idiot king, Charles VI., at the dictation of 
 Queen Isabella and the Duke of Burgundy, 
 signed the most shameful treaty ever sub- 
 scribed by a French sovereign. It was 
 agreed that Henry should marry the Prin- 
 cess Catharine ; that he should be declared 
 regent of the kingdom, and heir to the 
 crown at the death of Charles VI. ; that the 
 crowns of France and England should 
 henceforth forever remain united in one 
 and the same person ; and the parties to the 
 treaty bound themselves to enter into no 
 engagement or transaction whatever with 
 Charles, " calling himself Dauphin of 
 Vienne," except by the mutual and unan- 
 imous consent of all parties to the treaty. 
 Thus was the afflicted Charles VI. com- 
 pelled to betray his country and repudiate 
 his own son. To such a low state had the 
 civil war reduced the courage and patriot- 
 ism of the French that this treaty — the 
 most shameful transaction in their history 
 — was received with joy throughout the 
 northern part of the kingdom. The terms 
 being settled, Henry V. and the Princess 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OB' CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 659 
 
 Catharine were married with great pomp 
 at Troyes, on the 2d of June, 1420. 
 
 Meanwhile the Dauphin Charles and his 
 followers retired beyond the Loire. The 
 provinces south of that river were favorable 
 to the dauphin, who, notwithstanding his 
 despicable character and his lack of mili- 
 tary skill, was the last champion of the 
 independence of the nation against foreign 
 dominion. The death of Henry V., which 
 occurred on the 31st of August, 1422, was 
 a great advantage to the national party, as 
 it removed their greatest antagonist. His 
 son and heir was only nine months old. On 
 the 21st of October of the same year, 
 Charles VI. died at Paris. The infant 
 Henry VI. was proclaimed his successor at 
 Paris ; and at the same time Charles VII., 
 the rightful King of France, was pro- 
 claimed at Melun. John, Duke of Bed- 
 ford, uncle of Henry VI., was made regent 
 of the kingdom. His chief strength lay in 
 his alliance with Philip of Bui'gundy. The 
 national party made repeated efforts to de- 
 tach Philip from his league with the Eng- 
 lish, but without effect, and in 1423 the 
 union was made still stronger by the mar- 
 riage of the regent to one of Philip's sisters. 
 
 Charles VII., surnamed " the Victori- 
 ous," caused himself to be crowned king at 
 Poitiers and established his government at 
 Bourges, from which fact he Avas contemp- 
 tuously styled by the English, " King of 
 Bourges." His party, however, was by no 
 means contemptible, as he was supported 
 by neai'ly the whole of France south of the 
 Loire, by the house of Anjou, and the 
 Counts of Alen§on and Clermont. Besides 
 this, he had a large force of troops fur- 
 nished by the Duke of Milan and the King 
 of Scotland. The Scots Avere commanded 
 by the Earl of Douglas, whom Charles 
 created Duke of Touraine. The Scotch 
 Earl of Buchan was made Constable of 
 France. In 1423 and 1424 Charles was 
 unable to gain any advantage, and was de- 
 feated in two pitched battles by the Regent 
 Bedford, 
 
 A singular cause now prevented the 
 English and Burgundians from acting to- 
 gether with the vigor necessary to follow 
 up their successes. Jacqueline, Countess 
 of Hainault and Holland, had contracted a 
 distasteful marriage Avith the Duke of Bra- 
 bant, the cousin of the Duke of Burgundy, 
 Avho Avas his nearest relative and heir. Un- 
 able to endure her husband, the countess 
 fled in 1421 from Hainault, and, obtaining 
 
 from the deposed Pope Benedict XIII. 
 (Pedro de Luna) a dispensation dissolving 
 her marriage, soon after bestowed her hand 
 upon Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, a 
 younger brother of the Regent Bedford. 
 Philip of Burgundy, whose right of succes- 
 sion to Jacqueline's territories Avas endan- 
 gered by this union, now interfered, en- 
 couraged the Duke of Brabant to resist, 
 defied the Duke of Gloucester to mortal 
 combat, and captured Jacqueline and 
 placed her in confinement at Ghent, until 
 the case could be decided by the legitimate 
 Pope Martin V. A breach was thus opened 
 between the English and the Burgundians, 
 and Bedford lost faith in Duke Philip, 
 whose defection from the cause he regarded 
 as only a matter of time. The breach Avas 
 still further Avidened by the decision of 
 Pope Martin V., Avho dissoh^ed the mar- 
 riage of Jacqueline and Humphrey. Jac- 
 queline escaped from the custody of Philip, 
 and a sharp struggle ensued between the 
 duke and herself, in Avhich the countess was 
 defeated. Humphrey submitted to the pope's 
 decision and Avent back to England, and 
 Jacqueline was compelled to recognize 
 Philip as the heir to her dominions and to 
 promise rot to marry again Avithout his 
 consent. These matters caused a suspension 
 for several years of the hostilities between 
 the English and the French. Charles, 
 however, failed to take advantage of this 
 respite, and the jealousies and plots of his 
 followers, together Avith the Aveakness of his 
 own character, made his situation more em- 
 barrassing and critical Avith the lapse of 
 time. 
 
 At length the Regent Bedford resolved 
 to attempt a decisive camjiaign, and in Oc- 
 tober, 1428, laid siege to Orleans, the key 
 to the Avhole region sovith of the Loire, 
 Avhich Avas defended by Dunois, one of the 
 bravest of the French knights. It was 
 understood on both sides that the failure of 
 Charles to hold Orleans Avould be decisive 
 of the fate of his kingdom. Diinois being 
 severely Avounded in a sally early in 1429, 
 and the Count of Clermont having Avith- 
 draAvn from the city Avith 2,000 men, the 
 people of Orleans Avere left alone to hold 
 their city against the English. Reduced to 
 extremities, and Avithout hope of succor, 
 they offered to surrender the city to the 
 Duke of Burgundy, if the regent Avould 
 consent to raise the siege. Phi4ip agreed 
 to the proposal, but Bedford, Avhose distrust 
 of the Duke of Burgundy had steadily in- 
 
660 
 
 JEANNE DARC AT THE STORMING OF ORLEAN- 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 661 
 
 creased, refused to entertain it. Philip re- 
 tired to Flanders iu anger, and ordered all 
 Ijis vassals to withdraw from the English 
 army. 
 
 At this juncture the JFrench received an 
 unexpected reinforcement in the person of 
 Jeanne Dai-c, a young peasant girl from 
 the village of Domremy, in Lorraine. She 
 believed herself commissioned by Heaven 
 to free her country, and succeeded in in- 
 spiring both the king and the people with 
 her enthusiasm. Placing herself at the 
 head of a force for the relief of Orleans, she 
 defeated the English before that city, aud 
 compelled them to raise the siege, May, 
 1429. She succeeded in inducing the king 
 to advance towards Rheims, and gained two 
 victories over the English on the march, 
 one at Jargeau on the 10th of June, and 
 the other at Patay on the 18th of that 
 month. Troyes was captured a little later 
 by her energy and determination, and on 
 the 17th of July the king entered Rheims 
 and was recrowned with solemn pomp in 
 the cathedral of that city. 
 
 Bedford, now thoroughly alarmed, re- 
 newed his alliance with the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, who came to Paris, and raised a 
 considerable force for the defence of the 
 capital. By his double-faced policy Philip 
 succeeded in delaying Charles, and thus 
 much precious time was lost by the king. 
 The Maid of Orleans, as Jeanne Dare was 
 now called, endeavored to infuse her own 
 energy into the indolent Charles, but her 
 efforts were thwarted by the mean jealousy 
 of the confidants of the king. At last she 
 induced the king to advance to St. Denis, 
 in August, 1429, but her attack on Paris 
 was brought to failure by the jealousy with 
 which the French leaders regarded her, and 
 the singular apathy aud irresolution of the 
 king. There was nothing now but for the 
 royal army to retire beyond the Loire for 
 the winter. 
 
 In the spring of 1430, Jeanne took the 
 field again, leaving Charles sunk in indo- 
 lence at the chateau of Sully. On the 23d 
 of May she was captured by the Burgun- 
 dians in a battle near Corapiegne, and sold 
 to the English. The Duke of Bedford re- 
 fused to treat her as a prisoner of war, and 
 had her burned as a sorceress or witch in the 
 market-place of Rouen, May 30th, 1431. 
 Charles VII., who owed her his crown, 
 made no effort to save her, and she died a 
 martyr for her country's freedom. 
 
 Bedford had expected that the death of 
 Jeanne would turn the tide of fortune in 
 his favor. He caused the young Henry 
 VI. to be crowned king at Notre Dame, 
 but the ceremony aroused no enthusiasm, 
 and the conduct of the Parisians was so 
 openly hostile that Henry soon withdrew to 
 Normandy. Reverses came thick and fast 
 upon the English. Chartres surrendered to 
 the royal forces under Dunois, and Bedford 
 himself was beaten in a pitched battle at 
 Lagny. In November, 1432, the Duchess 
 of Bedford, the sister of Philip of Burgundy, 
 died, aud the tie which bound the two 
 dukes being thus severed, a coolness sprang 
 up between them which was soon increased 
 by the remarriage of Bedford without con- 
 sulting or communicating with Philip. 
 Disgusted with the English alliance, Philip 
 broke openly with the regent, and entered 
 into negotiations with King Charles. A 
 reconciliation was arranged in 1435, and 
 Bedford having died, Philip openly em- 
 braced the cause of his sovereign against 
 the English. He made Charles pay liber- 
 ally for this reconciliation. The king ren- 
 dered ample satisfaction to the duke for 
 the murder of his father, pleading his ex- 
 treme youth at the time in extenuation of 
 his share in the crime. He ceded to Philip 
 the counties of IMacon and Auxerre, and 
 some other territories on the Somme aud in 
 Ponthieu. He also released him from all 
 homage to the French crown, and recog- 
 nized him as an independent sovereign. 
 Thus, after twenty-nine years of civil war, 
 France was united again. Isabella of Ba- 
 varia, the mother of Charles VII., who had 
 brought so many woes upon the country by 
 her reckless intrigues, died at Paris, three 
 days after the treaty between Charles and 
 Philip was signed. Universally despised, 
 her funeral was performed at St. Denis with 
 haste, and Avithout any of the honors due to 
 her rank. 
 
 The Duke of Burgundy now united his 
 arms with those of the King of France, and 
 in the spring of 1436 their combined forces 
 drove the English out of Paris. A general 
 amnesty was proclaimed by Charles, who 
 was joyfully acknowledged king by the 
 Parisians. The reign of violence had pre- 
 vailed so long that brigandage had suc- 
 ceeded the war upon such a large scale that 
 great efforts were necessary to put a stop to 
 it. Many of the royalist soldiers formed 
 themselves into predatory bauds and spread 
 
662 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 terror through the country. They Avere 
 exterminated with a stern hand by the Con- 
 stable de Richemont. 
 
 Charles, now secure in the possession of 
 his crown, dis2:)layed an amount of energy 
 and nobility for which no one had given 
 him credit. In October, 1439, he sum- 
 moned the states general at Orleans, aud 
 published in this assembly a measure of the 
 highest importance. The old feudal levies 
 of the nobles wei'e abolished, and it Avas 
 made high treason for the nobles to enroll 
 troops without the royal permission. A 
 regular military force was established for 
 the defence of the kingdom, to be paid from 
 the public treasury. The officers were to 
 be appointed by the king. Thus was formed 
 the standing army of France. It was the 
 death-blow of feudalism in the kingdom. 
 The measure was opposed by the Dukes of 
 Bourbon and Alencon, and by some of the 
 other nobles. The Dauphin Louis was per- 
 suaded to join the movement, but it failed 
 to receive the popular support, and Avas 
 sternly discountenanced by the Duke of 
 Burgundy. The king soon put down the 
 rebellion, and compelled the rebels to sub- 
 mit. 
 
 In 1444 a truce of twenty-two months 
 was obtained by the English, who had sus- 
 tained some sharp reverses in Gascony and 
 Normandy, and a marriage was negotiated 
 between Henry VI. of England aud Mar- 
 guerite of Anjou, niece of the Queen of 
 France. The marriage took place at Nancy 
 in the spring of 1445. In 1449 the war 
 with the English was renewed. They were 
 steadily driven from the soil of France, and 
 at the close of 1453 they had lost all their 
 conquests but the towns of Calais and 
 Guines, with the narrow strip of adjacent 
 territory. 
 
 The last years of the reign of Charles, 
 which should have been his best, as he had 
 freed the kingdom from his enemies and 
 restored peace to France, were the most 
 unhappy of his life. He gave himself up 
 to his mistresses and favorites, and neglected 
 the affairs of state. He quarrelled with 
 the Dauphin Louis, who held his court in 
 Dauphine. Louis became the centre of 
 every intrigue against his father, and mar- 
 ried a princess of the house of Savoy in op- 
 position to his father's wishes. He main- 
 tained a close intimacy with the Duke of 
 Burgundy, the hereditary rival of the 
 French monarchy, and finally took refuge 
 at the Flemish court at Brussels. In his 
 
 last years, Charles was tormented with the 
 idea that Louis was constantly plotting 
 against his life, and sank into a state of 
 insanity which he had inherited from his 
 father. He finally Refused to take any food 
 for fear of being poisoned, and died miser- 
 ably in July, 1461, having reigned thirty- 
 nine years. 
 
 Louis XL Avas in Flanders at the time 
 of his father's death. He at once returned 
 to France, and stopping at Rheiras to cele- 
 brate his coronation, hastened to Paris, and 
 took charge of the gOA'ernment. The ncAV 
 king Avas one of the most remarkable men 
 that ever ruled France. He Avas thirty-nine 
 years old, and Avas therefore in the full vigor 
 of manhood and of matured experience. He 
 had for some years ruled his province of 
 Dauphine as an independent prince in de- 
 fiance of his father's Avill, and had there 
 learned the difficult and delicate business 
 of statecraft, and had become a proficient in 
 the art of judging men. He Avas by nature 
 a man of cool, clear understanding, profouud 
 sagacity, and strong Avill, and he had 
 learned to sacrifice CA'ery personal feeling 
 and interest to the success of his plans. He 
 came to the throne Avith the determination 
 to destroy the last vestiges of feudalism, and 
 to erect upon the ruins of that system an 
 absolute monarchy. Throughout his reign 
 his constant policy Avas to reduce the great 
 nobles to a position of insignificance, and to 
 concentrate CA^ery power of the state in the 
 hands of the sovereign. " No man Avas 
 ever better qualified to succeed in such an 
 enterprise. Government Avas Avith him a 
 science ; he had studied it profoundly, and 
 had learned how to profit to the utmost by 
 the Aveaknesses, the vices, and the passions 
 of mankind. A consummate master of the 
 arts of dissimulation and duplicity, he made 
 it the main business of his life to o\'erreach 
 and circumvent others, and accounted suc- 
 cessful fraud the most conspicuous proof of 
 talent. Where his predecessors AA^ould have 
 employed violence, Louis trusted to cajolery, 
 corruption and perfidy. He understood to 
 perfection hoAV to play off" one class of in- 
 terest against another ; hoAV to scatter the 
 seeds of division and estrangement so as to 
 profit afterward by the discord he had fo- 
 mented. The victims whom his cunning 
 had entrapped Avere treated, when he saw 
 fit, Avith a tyrannical cruelty Avhich has 
 seldom been exceeded, and which shoAvs 
 that his heart was callous to the most ordi- 
 nary feelings of our nature. Such a char- 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 663 
 
 acter in such a station could not but pro- 
 duce important results, not only in France, 
 but on the'general policy and social condi- 
 tion of Europe. At the same time his his- 
 tory is full of strange contrasts and anoma- 
 lies. Louis realized his objects as a sovereign 
 by sacrificing without scruple all his obli- 
 gations as a man ; and the consequence is 
 that he will be estimated very differently, 
 according as we regard him in his public 
 or in his private capacity. Few princes 
 have done more to extend the power and 
 exalt the dignity of France; few have left 
 upon the page of history a personal por- 
 trait of darker or more odious coloring." 
 
 Louis began his reign by revoking the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, the famous enactment 
 of his father's reign, by which the liberties 
 of the Galilean Church were guarded against 
 the encroachments of Rome. This action 
 was promptly resented by the nobility and 
 clergy, and opened a source of trouble which 
 contliQued unsettled throughout the reign. 
 Louis, though anxious to oblige the_ pope, 
 sided first with him and then with his own 
 subjects, as his policy required, and skil- 
 fully contrived to avoid an open quarrel 
 with either. 
 
 In 1462 John II. of Aragon, being in 
 need of money for the prosecution of a war 
 against the revolted Catalans, borrowed a 
 considerable sum from the King of France, 
 and placed in Louis' hands as security the 
 territories of Rousillon and Cerdagne. A 
 little later Louis increased his dominions by 
 concluding an arrangement with the Duke 
 of Burgundy by which he redeemed for the 
 sum of 400,000 crowns the towns of Amiens, 
 Abbeville, and St. Quentin, which his 
 father had ceded to Duke Philip by the 
 treaty of Arras. Charles, Count of Charo- 
 lais, afterwards Charles the Bold of Bur- 
 gundy, the son and heir of Philip, believing 
 that Louis had committed an act of spolia- 
 tion of his father in this transaction, be- 
 came as bitter an enemy as he had for- 
 merly been a devoted friend of the French 
 king. 
 
 In the meantime the tyranny and wanton 
 oppression of Louis had aroused a feeling 
 of deep hostility to him, which pervaded 
 all classes of his subjects. The Duke of 
 Brittany and the Count of Charolais made 
 an alliance against the king, who had en- 
 deavored for his own purposes to bring 
 about a war between them, and in 1464 
 this league was joined by the disaffected 
 French nobles, chief among whom were the 
 
 Dukes of Bourbon, Lorraine, Alenyon, 
 Nemours, and Berry. The coalition as- 
 sumed the name of the "League of the 
 Public Good." A civil war ensued, and a 
 bloody but indecisive battle was fought at 
 Mont I'Heri, July 16th, 1465, between the 
 king and the Count of Charolais. Louis, 
 though he failed to secure the victory, made 
 himself master of Paris, and won over the 
 citizens by his promises and flattery. He 
 then opened negotiations with the members of 
 the league, and the princes who had been 
 so anxious for the "public good" lost their 
 zeal under the temptation of the advantages 
 which the king offered them as the price of 
 peace. A treaty was signed at Conflans, 
 a little later. The important line of the 
 Somme was again relinquished to the Duke 
 of Burgundy ; the Duke of Berry was 
 made Duke of Normandy; the Duke of 
 Brittany was given the counties of Etampes 
 and Montfort ; and the Count de St. Pol 
 was made Constable of France. Each of 
 the others reaped some advantage from the 
 treaty. The league was then dissolved. 
 
 These wei-e humiliating conditions, and 
 Louis Avas resolved from the first not to ex- 
 ecute them. He accomplished by the treaty 
 his purpose, which was to gain time and 
 divide the confederates. Then he set to 
 work to deprive them of their possessions, 
 and bring them to his feet. Parliament 
 refused to ratify the grant of Normandy to 
 the Duke of Berry, on the ground that the 
 king had no right to alienate the possessions 
 of the crown, and Louis in a little while 
 put an end to the duke's authority in that 
 province. He then provoked a quarrel be- 
 tween the Dukes of Berry and Brittany, 
 and won over the latter to consent to his 
 seizure of Normandy. He incited the citi- 
 zens of Liege to revolt against the authority 
 of Philip of Burgundy, and thus tied the 
 hands of the Count of Charolais, who was 
 engaged in suppressing this revolt, and was 
 unable to interfere with the king's efforts to 
 regain Normandy, which were brought to a 
 successful close in January, 1466, when 
 Louis, having captured Rouen without a 
 blow, formally resumed the government of 
 the duchy. 
 
 In June, 1467, Philip of Burgundy died 
 at Bruges, and was succeeded by his son 
 Charles, surnamed the Bold. In 1468 Louis 
 invaded lower Normandy and Brittany with 
 two powerful armies, and compelled the 
 Dukes of Berry and Brittany to sign a 
 peace by which they agreed to abandon the 
 
664 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 alliance of the Duke of Burgundy, and to 
 pledge themselves to support the king 
 against him. Charles the Bold was already 
 at Peronne, where he was assembling an 
 army with which he intended to march to 
 the assistance of the dukes. In the midst 
 of his preparations he was informed of the 
 success of the king's measures against the 
 French dukes, and at once demanded of 
 Louis the execution in good faith of the 
 treaty of Conflans, threatening instant war 
 in case of his refusal. Had Louis answered 
 his threat by marching against him at once, 
 he might have defeated him ; but such a 
 straightforward course did not suit the tor- 
 tuous policy of the king, and, in opposition 
 to the earnest entreaties of his most trusted 
 counsellors, he yielded to the advice of Car- 
 dinal de Balue, who was secretly in league 
 with the Duke of Burgundy, and adopted 
 the extraordinary resolution of seeking a 
 personal interview with Charles. Having 
 procured a written safe-conduct from the 
 duke, Louis set out for Peronne with a 
 small escort in October, 1468. He was re- 
 ceived by the duke with great courtesy and 
 was lodged in the Castle of Peronne. Ne- 
 gotiations were begun between the king and 
 the duke, and were continued for several 
 days, when news was received of a fresh 
 and more formidable outbreak of the people 
 of Liege, which it was charged had been 
 brought about by the intrigues of the 
 French king. Charles burst into a storm 
 of fury, and ordered the gates of the castle 
 to be closed and guarded. In his rage he 
 determined to put Louis to death and make 
 the Duke of Berry, Louis' younger brother, 
 King of France in his place. He was dis- 
 suaded from this desperate measure chiefly 
 by Philip de Coniines, and was induced to 
 grant the king his liberty on terms the most 
 humiliating to Louis. Louis bound him- 
 self by a solemn oath on a relic which he 
 regarded with the most superstitious vener- 
 ation, to execute the treaty of Conflans in 
 good faith, and to bestow the provinces of 
 Champagne and Brie upon the Duke of 
 Berry in place of Normandy. Charles also 
 compelled him to accompany him in his 
 march against the people of Liege, and wit- 
 ness the merciless punishment which the 
 duke inflicted upon that city for a rebellion 
 incited and supported by the king himself. 
 Louis was then released, and, unwilling to 
 return to Paris, went to Tours to lay his 
 plans for avenging his humiliation. 
 
 He determined not to bestow Champagne 
 
 and Brie upon his brother, the Duke of 
 Berry, as the possession of those territories 
 would make the duke the neighTjor as well 
 as the ally of Charles the Bold, and he 
 resolved to substitute the more distant 
 Guienne or Aquitaine for them. His 
 plan was betrayed to the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy by Cardinal de Balue. His letters 
 falling into the hands of the king, the car- 
 dinal was arrested and confined in an iron 
 cage in the Castle of Loches. Louis then 
 succeeded in inducing the Duke of Berry 
 to accept the duchy of Aquitaine, and that 
 prince broke off" his alliance with Charles 
 the Bold, and affi'onted him by refusing 
 the hand of Mary, the daughter and heiress 
 of Charles, 1469. 
 
 Both Louis and Charles now took part in 
 the quarrels between the houses of York and 
 Lancaster, which divided England. Louis 
 supported the latter and Charles the former. 
 The failure of the efforts to restore Henry 
 VI. to the English throne greatly encour- 
 aged the Burgundians, and depressed Louis 
 to a corresponding degree. The Duke of 
 Guienne renewed his former alliance with 
 Charles the Bold, and the Duke of Brit- 
 tany took up arms to assist them. Louis 
 sought to avert the danger with which this 
 combination threatened him, by offering the 
 most abject concessions to the confederates, 
 but the sudden death of the Duke of 
 Guienne, which was regarded as the king's 
 work, removed the danger for the time. 
 
 Undismayed by the loss of his most im- 
 portant ally, Charles the Bold invaded 
 France in June, 1472, and took and bar- 
 barously sacked the toAvn of Nesle in Pi- 
 cardy. He was defeated in his efforts to 
 capture Beauvais, towards the last of July, 
 and was compelled to agree to an armistice 
 of five months, which was subsequently pro- 
 longed for more than two years. Louis 
 took advantage of this peace to avenge 
 himself on the feudal nobles who had re- 
 fused to submit to his will. The Duke of 
 Alengon was stripped of his estates and im- 
 prisoned for life ; the Count of Armagnac 
 was slain in the presence of his Avife ; and 
 the Duke of Lorraine died suddenly, poi- 
 soned, it was believed, by the agents of the 
 French king. 
 
 In 1475 the Duke of Burgundy made an 
 alliance with Edward IV. of England, and 
 the Duke of Brittany, by which Edward 
 agreed to revive the claims of his pre- 
 decessors to the French crown. In the 
 summer of that year King Edward landed 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VL TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 665 
 
 at Calais with a splendid army of 30,000 
 men, but Charles, who had lost half his 
 army in a foolish invasion of the territory 
 of Cologne, was unable to take the field to 
 assist him, and the other confederates prov- 
 ing lukewarm, the expedition failed. Louis 
 at once opened negotiations with Edward, 
 and a treaty was arranged for seven years. 
 Louis agreed to pay the expenses incurred 
 by the English king in the war, and be- 
 trothed his son, the Dauphin Charles, to 
 Edward's eldest daughter, engaging to cele- 
 brate the marriage as soon as the parties 
 attained the proper age. In accordance 
 with the terms of this treaty, the Constable 
 
 price for his abandonment of the Constable 
 tSt. Pol. This ambitious prince, already 
 one of the richest and most powerful sover- 
 eigns of Europe, was not satisfied with his 
 possessions, but had conceived the idea of 
 restoring the old kingdom of Lotharingia 
 by becoming master of the territory be- 
 tween France and Germany, between the 
 North and the Mediterranean Seas. In 
 pursuance of this design, he proceeded to 
 take possession of the Duchy of Lorraine, 
 driving out the young Duke Rene. As 
 the price of the surrender of St. Pol, Louis 
 permitted Charles to seize Lorraine without 
 opposition from him, but at the same time 
 
 NOTRE DAME— FROM THE AKCHBISHOP'S BRIDGE. 
 
 St. Pol, who had been concerned in the war 
 against his sovereign, was surrendered to 
 Louis. His treason was so evident that he 
 was promptly condemned by the Parliament 
 of Paris, and was executed on the Place de 
 Greve, on the 10th of December, 1475. 
 This execution was the boldest blow Louis 
 had yet struck at the great feudal aristoc- 
 racy. The constable, apart from his vast 
 possessions and great personal influence, 
 was a member of the imperial family of 
 Luxembursr. had married a sister of the 
 Queen of France, and was connected with 
 several of the roval houses of Europe. 
 Charles the Bold had exacted a larjre 
 
 he encouraged the Swiss to treat the duke 
 with such insolence that after becoming 
 master of Lorraine Charles turned his arms 
 against them. Louis was well convinced 
 that an encounter with these hardy moun- 
 taineers would prove the ruin of his rival, 
 and he was not surprised to hear that 
 Charles had sustained a terrible defeat at the 
 hands of the Swiss in the battle of Granson, 
 fought on the 2d of March, 1476. Three 
 months later, the Swiss were again victori- 
 ous over the Burgundians at Morat, near 
 the Lake of Bienne. The flower of the 
 Burgnndian army fell upon this fatal field, 
 and the subjects of Charles broke into open 
 
666 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 disaffection, and reproached him bitterly for 
 his rashness and ambition. Lorraine in- 
 stantly rose against him, and the young 
 Duke Rene re-entered Nancy in triumph. 
 Charles, with the recklessness of despair, 
 collected what was left of his army, and 
 laid siege to Nancy. Duke Rene, with the 
 aid of funds furnished by Louis of France, 
 collected an army of 20,000 Swiss and Al- 
 satians, and advanced to the relief of his 
 capital. A decisive battle was fought be- 
 fore Nancy in January, 1477, and Charles 
 was defeated and slain. 
 
 The death of the Duke of Burgundy 
 without male heirs was a golden opportu- 
 nity for Louis. He at once seized the Bur- 
 gundian territories, and claiming the duchy 
 of Burgundy as a lapsed fief, annexed it to 
 the crown of France, from which it was not 
 afterwards separated. He proclaimed him- 
 self the guardian of Mary of Burgundy, the 
 daughter of Charles, who was his kins- 
 woman, and pledged himself to watch faith- 
 fully over her interests. In spite of these 
 professions, Louis incited the Flemings to 
 rebel against the princess, and made such 
 embarrassments for her, that after vainly 
 appealing to him to carry out his promises 
 to her in good fiiith, Mary, with the full 
 approval of her subjects, secured to herself 
 a powerful protector in the person of the 
 Archduke Maximilian of Austria, on whom 
 she bestowed her hand. The marriage was 
 solemnized at Ghent on the 18th of August, 
 1477, much to the chagrin of Louis, who 
 had hoped to marry the dauphin to the 
 princess, or at least to cheat her out of her 
 territories. This marriage laid the founda- 
 tion of the future greatness of the house of 
 Austria, and also began th6 jealous enmity 
 between that power and France which 
 caused so many wars in Europe in the next 
 two centuries. Louis vented his rage on 
 the Duke of Nemours, who had been con- 
 cerned in the " League of the Public 
 Good," and had been watched with a jeal- 
 ous eye ever since by the king. The duke 
 had been arrested in August, 1476. After 
 a cruel imprisonment of a year he was exe- 
 cuted in August, 1477. 
 
 The death of the Duchess Mary of Bur- 
 gundy, in 1482, enabled Louis to conclude 
 a definite peace with her subjects, who 
 since her death no longer regarded Maxi- 
 milian as their sovereign. Louis kept the 
 duchy of Burgundy and the county of 
 Picardy. Marguerite, the daughter of 
 Mary and Maximilian, was affianced to the 
 
 Dauphin Charles, and was sent to France 
 to be educated. It was agreed that she 
 should receive as a dowry the free county 
 of Burgundy and the counties of Artois, 
 Macon, and Auxerre, which, in the event 
 of the failure of issue of the marriage, or 
 the non-performance of the marriage, were 
 to revert to her brother Philip, the son of 
 Mary. Louis renounced his claims to 
 French Flanders, and agreed never again 
 to encourage insurrection among the Flem- 
 ings. It will be remembered that by the 
 treaty of Pequigny the dauphin had been 
 betrothed to the Princess Elizabeth, the 
 daughter of Edward IV. of England. Ed- 
 ward was furious at the insult to him con- 
 veyed by the treaty of Arras, and began 
 preparations for the invasion of France. 
 His sudden death in Aj)ril, 1483, relieved 
 Louis from this danger. 
 
 Louis was now at the height of his 
 power, and had greatly enlarged the king- 
 dom by means generally more or less dis- 
 creditable. Besides the territories wrested 
 from the house of Burgundy at the death 
 of Charles the Bold, he about this time ob- 
 tained possession of the duchy of Anjou by 
 the bequest of Rene, the last duke ; and of 
 the counties of Maine and Provence, a year 
 later, by the same bequest. The duchy of 
 Guienne and the counties of Alenyon and 
 Perche were also annexed to the posses- 
 sions of the crown by less honorable means. 
 The districts of Rousillon and Cerdagne, 
 pawned by the King of Aragon, also be- 
 came the property of the crown. Of the 
 great feudal fiefs only Brittany remained. 
 The boldness with which the king had 
 struck at the nobles had awed them into 
 submission, and his acknowledged skill and 
 success in the management of diplomatic 
 affairs had made Louis one of the most in- 
 fluential and powerful sovereigns of Europe. 
 
 In the midst of this prosperity the king 
 was seized, in March, 1480, with a stroke 
 of apoplexy. It was conquered, but was 
 followed by a second attack in 1481. 
 Quailing at the thought of death, Louis 
 retired to the strong Castle of Plessis-les- 
 Tours, and shut himself up there, with 
 orders to the garrison to fire at every living 
 thing that approached the walls. His only 
 companions were his " gossip " Tristan 
 I'Herraite, who had been the unscrupulous 
 instrument of his cruelties and crimes, and. 
 his physician Jacques Coittier, a brutal 
 Avretch, who employed his power over the 
 king to wring from him large sums of 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 667 
 
 money. Louis piled the altars of the 
 churches with costly offerings to the Virgin 
 and the saints ; but in vain. He died on 
 the 30th of August, 1483, in the sixty-first 
 year of his age. 
 
 Charles VIII., the eldest son of Louis, 
 was a child of thirteen and of feeble health. 
 The regency was disputed by the Duke of 
 Orleans, the brother of Louis, and the 
 Princess Anne, Louis' daughter, who sub- 
 sequently became Duchess of Bourbon by 
 the death of her husband's elder brother. 
 The Duke of Orleans took up arms in 1488 
 to drive his niece from power, but was de- 
 feated and made prisoner, and the Duchess 
 
 self to his guardianship. These demands 
 being refused, a French army was sent into 
 Brittany, and Brest and other important 
 towns were captured. This invasion 
 aroused the alarm of England, Germany, 
 and Spain, who regarded the growth of 
 France with undisguised jealousy, and a 
 league was formed between them for the 
 preservation of the independence of Brit- 
 tany. In the spring of 1489 an English 
 and Spanish force landed in Brittany, but 
 no decisive action took place. The Eng- 
 lish soon withdrew, and the young duchess 
 was persuaded to contract a marriage by 
 proxy, in the summer of 1490, with Max- 
 
 ClIURCH OF SAINT EUSTACHE, PARIS. 
 
 of Bourbon remained supreme in the king- 
 dom. 
 
 In September, 1488, the Duke of Brit- 
 tany, who had been the soul of the con- 
 spiracy of the Duke of Orleans, died, leav- 
 ing his estates to his elder daughter, Anne 
 of Brittany, a child of thirteen. The 
 Duchess of Bourbon, resolving to seize the 
 opportunity of adding Brittany to the 
 Fi-ench crown, induced her brother Charles 
 to require that Anne should not assume her 
 title until the question of succession had 
 been judicially decided between herself and 
 the king, and that she should submit her- 
 
 imilian of Austria. Anne then assumed 
 the title of Queen of the Romans, but to 
 her disappointment received no assistance 
 from Maximilian, who was engaged in a 
 war with Hungary. In the meantime the 
 country was reduced to great suffering. In 
 the same year Charles VIII., who was 
 twenty years old, assumed the government 
 of the kingdom. His first step was to re- 
 lease the Duke of Orleans, to whom he was 
 sincerely attached, and bring about a 
 reconciliation of that prince with the Duch- 
 ess of Bourbon. This won over to the 
 king's side the Count of Dunois, who had 
 
G68 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 been the chief adviser of the Duchess of 
 Brittany. Dunois had advised the alliance 
 with Maximilian, and he now induced the 
 Duchess of Brittany to end her difficulties 
 by marrying the King of France. Re- 
 duced to despair, and left alone by Maxi- 
 milian, she consented to this arrangement, 
 and in December, 1491, the marriage was 
 solemnized at the Chateau of Langeais in 
 Touraine. In order to make the union of 
 Brittany with France permanent, it was 
 stipulated in the marriage contract that in 
 the event of the. death of Charles without 
 issue, the queen should marry his successor, 
 or if he were married, should wed the next 
 heir of the crown. This marriage was a 
 double affront to Maximilian. It deprived 
 him of his bride, and his daughter Anne, 
 who had been betrothed to Charles VIII. 
 in her childhood, of a husband. That 
 princess, and the counties of Artois, Franche 
 Comte (free county of Burgundy), and 
 Charolais, which had been ceded as her 
 dowry, were restored to Maximilian. Maxi- 
 milian was unable to avenge the insult by 
 reason of the war with Hungary and trou- 
 bles in Flanders, which tied his hands. 
 He submitted with as good a grace as pos- 
 sible, and on the restoration of the Bur- 
 gundiau territories just named, made peace 
 with France. The treaty was signed at 
 Senlis in May, 1493. Peace was made 
 with England soon after by payment of a 
 large sum to Henry VII. to indemnify him 
 for the expenses of the war in ^Brittany, 
 and Spain was reconciled by the surrender 
 by the French king of the territories of 
 Rousillon and Cerdagne, which had been 
 pawned to Louis XI. by John II. Charles 
 restored them without asking the return of 
 this loan. 
 
 Charles had sacrificed a great deal to 
 procure peace, but he hoped to be more 
 than repaid by a new expedition in which 
 he wished to engage. Ludovico Sforza, 
 who had dispossessed his nephew of the 
 duchy of Milan, fearing that the King of 
 Naples would seek to restore the deposed 
 duke, who was his son-in-law, had invited 
 Charles, who had inherited a shadowy claim 
 to the Neapolitan throne from the house of 
 Aujou, to attempt the conquest of that 
 kingdom, and had promised to aid him 
 with all his resources. Charles had ac- 
 cepted the invitation, and had purchased 
 peace with England, Germany, and Spain 
 at such a high price in order to be free to 
 make the attempt. He pictured to him- 
 
 self a great career — the conquest of Italy, 
 the expulsion of the Turks from Europe, 
 and the rescue of Jerusalem from their 
 hands — for in spite of his lack of bodily 
 vigor, he was full of romantic and chival- 
 rous ideas and aspirations. The Duchess 
 of Bourbon and his most devoted and ex- 
 perienced ministers urged him to imitate 
 the reserve of his father and avoid the dan- 
 gerous mazes of Italian politics ; but he 
 held to his purpose, and collecting a splen- 
 did army at Lyons, entered Italy in Sep- 
 tember, 1494. The events of the Italian 
 campaign have already been related, and 
 need not be repeated here. We have seen 
 the success which attended Charles's first 
 eflTorts, and the natural reaction which 
 drove him from Italy and forced him to 
 return to his own country. After his fail- 
 ure in Italy Charles relapsed into his usual 
 habits of intemperance and immorality, and 
 neglected the government. In 1497 he 
 made a feeble eflJbrt against the Duke of 
 Milan and an attempt to capture Genoa. 
 Both movements were unsuccessful, and 
 were followed by a truce with the emperor 
 and the other parties to the League of Ven- 
 ice. The king, now in feeble health, sud- 
 denly surprised and gratified his friends by 
 abandonirig his evil habits and applying 
 himself with great diligence to the govern- 
 ment of his kingdom, in which he produced 
 many salutary reforms. He died of apo- 
 plexy in the midst of his labors, on the 7th 
 of April, 1498. 
 
 Charles was succeeded by the Duke of 
 Orleans, who ascended the throne as Louis 
 XII. He was the grandson of the duke 
 who had been assassinated by the Duke of 
 Burgundy in 1407, and the gi-eat-grandson 
 of King Charles V. He was in the prime 
 of life, and soon rendered himself popular 
 by his remarkable moderation and good 
 judgment. His former rival, the Duchess 
 of Bourbon, was distinguished by special 
 marks of favor and regard, and those who 
 had taken part against the Duke of Or- 
 leans in the struggle for the regency, during 
 the minority of Charles VII., were assured 
 that they need have no fear of losing their 
 positions, as the King of France had for- 
 gotten the injuries of the Duke of Orleans. 
 
 The widowed Queen Anne had retired to 
 Nantes soon after the death of Charles 
 VIII., and had resumed the government 
 of the duchy of Brittany, Louis XII. was 
 already married to a wife whom Louis XI. 
 had compelled him to espouse, and who, 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIL 669 
 
 though deformed in person, was a princess 
 of blameless reputation and great merit. 
 In order to carry out the treaty for the 
 union of Brittany with the crown, it was 
 necessary for Louis to divorce his wife and 
 marry Queen Anne, as he had no children. 
 A dispensation was obtained for this pur- 
 pose from Pope Alexander VI., who got in 
 return for his part in the iniquitous transac- 
 tion the title of Duke of Valentenois, in 
 Dauphine, and a handsome pension for his 
 son Caesar Borgia. Louis was then married 
 to Anne of Brittany. The queen, always 
 jealous of her rights as Duchess of Brit- 
 tany, retained the administration of the 
 duchy in her own hands, and it was stipu- 
 lated that in case of the failure of children 
 by this marriage the duchy should revert 
 to the descendants of its ancient house of 
 princes, and that if two sons were born to 
 Louis and Anne the second should be Duke 
 of Brittany. 
 
 Louis now prepared to renew the war in 
 Italy, which he imagined was bequeathed 
 to him by his predecessor. He claimed not 
 only the crown of Naples, but that of Milan 
 also as the representative of his grandmother 
 Valentine Visconti, daughter of the last 
 duke of that family. He purchased the 
 concurrence of the pope, and secured by 
 skilful negotiations the neutrality of Ger- 
 many, Spain, Venice, Florence, and Savoy. 
 The French army entered Italy in August, 
 1499, the Duke of Milan fled to the Tyrol, 
 and on the 14th of Sej)tember the city of 
 Milan was occupied by the French. So far 
 not a shot had been fired. 
 
 The loss of the duchy of Milan and its 
 reconquest by Louis XIL, and the efforts 
 of the French king to make himself master 
 of Naples, the subsequent expulsion of the 
 French by the Spaniards and the transfer 
 of the Neapolitan kingdom to Ferdinand 
 of Spain, which opened the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, have been related. The loss of Na- 
 ples was so acutely felt by Louis that it 
 threw him into a dangerous illness, in which 
 his life was despaired of. He subsequently 
 became reconciled to Ferdinand, and in 
 1508 joined the League of Cambray against 
 Venice. As Duke of Milan it was his true 
 policy to sustain that republic as a barrier 
 against the encroachments of Austria, but 
 his eager desire to increase his Italian pos- 
 sessions at the cost of Venice blinded him 
 to his real interests. The events of the war 
 which began in 1509 have been related. 
 Then followed the formation of the Holy 
 
 League, the story of which has been told. 
 The death of Gaston de Foix, at Ravenna, 
 sealed the fate of the French in Italy. They 
 were soon driven from the peninsula, and 
 Maximilian Sforza was made Duke of Milan. 
 Genoa recovered her independence, and the 
 Holy League was completely successful. 
 Not even these reverses could cure Louis 
 of his obstinate desire to obtain northern 
 Italy, and in 1513, in alliance with the 
 Venetians, he made another attempt to get 
 possession of Milan. Maximilian was driven 
 out of that city, which was occupied by the 
 French. The French army was defeated 
 by the Swiss, however, in the attempt to 
 capture Novara, and was driven across the 
 Alps with heavy loss, and Lombardy was 
 once more lost to Louis. 
 
 The reverses of the French in Italy en- 
 couraged the enemies of Louis to attack him 
 in his own kingdom. Ferdinand, always 
 treacherous, began to threaten his southern 
 frontier from Aragon ; Henry VIII. landed 
 at Calais Avith 20,000 men ; and the Swiss 
 invaded Franche Comte. In August, 1513, 
 the English army laid siege to Terouenne. 
 It was in this siege that the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian I. served as a volunteer in the Eng- 
 lish army for one hundred crowns a day. 
 Louis despatched a force to the relief of 
 Terouenne, but it was defeated. Among 
 the prisoners taken by the English was the 
 famous Chevalier Bayard, one of the com- 
 manders of the army. This engagement 
 is known as the " Battle of the Spurs," be- 
 cause the French cavalry, after a slight re- 
 sistance, became panic-stricken and fled 
 from the field at full speed. Terouenne 
 soon surrendered, and its fall was followed 
 by that of Tournay, but Henry VIII. 
 quickly grew weary of the war, and return- 
 ing to England, put an end to the cam- 
 paign. In the same summer the English 
 defeated and slew Louis' most constant ally, 
 James IV. of Scotland, at Flodden. In 
 1514, Anno of Brittany, the wife of Louis, 
 to whom he was deeply attached, died, and 
 the king, now anxious for peace, concluded 
 a treaty with all his enemies except the 
 Swiss, who refused to treat with him. By 
 the terms of this treaty he married the 
 Princess Mary, the sister of Henry VIII. 
 of England, on the 7th of August, 1514. 
 He did not long survive this marriage, and 
 died on the 1st of January, 1515. He was 
 sincerely mourned by his people, for not- 
 withstanding his costly and useless foreign 
 wars, he was one of the best of French kings. 
 
670 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 His government of his kingdom exhibited 
 a wise commingling of justice, clemency, a 
 careful economy, and a liberal and gener- 
 ous patronage of the arts and sciences. 
 Agriculture and commerce experienced a 
 marked imj)rovement under him, " and the 
 general increase of the wealth of the nation 
 became apparent in the superior elegance 
 and luxury of domestic architecture, furni- 
 ture, and dress." 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO 
 THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 
 
 Francis I. Becomes King — Invades the Duchy of 
 Milan — Battle of Marignano — Treaty with the 
 Swiss — Francis Declines an Alliance Avith Venice 
 ■ — His Error — Charles VI. Becomes King of Spain 
 — Treaty of Noyon — Charles Chosen Emperor — 
 Alliance of Charles with Henry VIII. of England 
 —The Field of the Cloth of Gold— War Between 
 France and Spain — The French Driven from 
 Milan — Eevolt of the Duke of Bourbon — He De- 
 feats the French in Italy — Battle of Pavia — Fran- 
 cis Taken Prisoner — His Captivity — Treaty of 
 Madrid — Francis Evades the Treaty — Renewal of 
 the War — Reverses of the French in Italy — The 
 Peace of Camb ray — Francis Persecutes the French 
 Protestants — -War Breaks Out Between France 
 and Spain— Charles Invades Provence, but is 
 Forced to Retreat — Death of the Dauphin — Peace 
 with the Emperor — Charles in France — Francis 
 Becomes the Ally of the Sultan — Progress of the 
 War — Treaty of Crespy — Persecutions of the 
 French Protestants — Death of Francis — Henry II. 
 — Influence of the Guises — The Scotch Alliance — 
 Marriage of the Dauphin to Mary of Scotland — 
 War Between France and Spain— Capture of Ca- 
 lais by the French — The Peace of Catteau Cam- 
 bresis — Death of Henry — The Reformation in 
 France — Reign of Francis II. — Conspiracy of Am- 
 boise — Charles IX. — Catharine de' Medici Re- 
 gent — Struggle Between the Catholics and the 
 Huguenots— The Civil War— Treaty of St. Ger- 
 mains — Marriage of Henry of Navarre to Margue- 
 rite of Valois — Massacre of St. Bartholomew — The 
 Civil War Renewed— Siege of Rochelle — Death 
 of Charles IX. — Henry III. — Successes of the 
 Huguenots — The Catholic League — The Duke of 
 Anjou in the Netherlands — His Death — Alliance 
 Between Sjmin and the Duke of Guise — Wars 
 Against the League — ^Murder of the Duke of Gxiise 
 — Insurrection Against the King — His Reconcilia- 
 tion Avith Henry of Navarre — They Besiege Paris 
 — Assassination of Henry III. — Henry IV. Suc- 
 ceeds to the French Crown — His Early Difficulties 
 — Battle of Ivry — ^Its Results — Recantation of 
 Henry — He is Acknowledged Throughout the 
 Kingdom — His Wise Policy — The Edict of Nantes 
 — France under Henry IV. — His Plan for the Re- 
 adjustment of Europe — He is Assassinated — Louis 
 XIII. — Marie de' Medici Regent — Retirement of 
 Sully — Meeting of the States General — Marriage 
 of the King — Rise of Richelieu — Death of Mar- 
 shal D'Ancre and his Wife — Richelieu Reconciles 
 the King with his Mother — Death of De Luynes — 
 Richelieu Made a Cardinal — Becomes Prime Min- 
 ister — His Vigorous Policy — Takes La Rochelle — 
 War in Italy — Treaty of Cherasco — The " Day of 
 
 Dupes "—Richelieu Foils the Conspiracies Against 
 France — The Thii'ty Years' War — Richelieu Aids 
 the German Protestants — Conspiracy of Cinq Mars 
 — Death of Richelieu — Death of Louis XIII. 
 
 S Louis XII. left no son, the crown 
 passed to Francis of Angouleme, 
 Duke of Valois, the husband of the 
 Princess Claude, the eldest daugh- 
 ter of Louis XII. and Anne of 
 Brittany. Francis I. Avas a young 
 man of brilliant accomplishments. He 
 was of noble stature, brave, full of spirits, 
 a proficient in all the exercises of arms, and 
 fond of pleasure and military glory. He 
 was a favorite with all classes, and his ac- 
 cession was hailed with delight by all. 
 Although arrived at man's estate, he was 
 still thoroughly in subjection to his mother, 
 Louise of Savoy, a woman of ability, but 
 of immoral character and ungovernable 
 temper. The king immediately created her 
 Duchess of Angouleme, and she dictated 
 the first appointments of the new sovereign, 
 one of which was the bestowal of the con- 
 stable's sword upon Charles, Duke of 
 Bourbon. 
 
 Francis I. began his reign with the de- 
 termination to win back the Italian lauds 
 that had been lost by Louis XII. An army 
 of 60,000 men under the Constable de Bour- 
 bon, the immortal Bayard, and other able 
 commanders, was assembled, together with 
 an immense train of artillery. The Swiss 
 held the passes of Mont Cenis and Mont 
 Genevre, but Trivulzio and Lautrec, two 
 of the French generals, with the assistance 
 of the engineer Navarro, made a route over 
 the Col d' Argentiere, and this large army, 
 with all its guns and baggage- train, was 
 transported across the Alps by paths which 
 had never been attempted save by the cha- 
 mois hunters. By this brilliant movement, 
 the French army turned the enemy's posi- 
 tion, and entered Italy before it was be- 
 lieved that their march had begun. The 
 Swiss fell back upon Novara, and the 
 French advanced to Turin, and thence 
 towards Milan. The Swiss having been 
 reinforced by a body of 20,000 of their 
 countrymen, attacked the French camp at 
 Marignano, ten miles from Milan. The 
 battle began at four o'clock in the afternoon, 
 and raged with great fury until midnight. 
 Both sidesslept on their arms, and the con- 
 flict was renewed at daybreak. The result 
 this time was decisive. The Sw'iss were 
 badly beaten and forced to retreat with a 
 loss of 10,000 men. The victors lost 6,000 
 
FBOM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 671 
 
 men, among whom were some of the noblest 
 of their kingdom. Francis, who had dis- 
 played the greatest gallantry in the battle, 
 received knighthood on the field from 
 the hands of its most illustrious ornament, 
 the Chevalier Bayard. The victory settled 
 the fate of the Milanese duchy, which passed 
 iuto the hands of the French. The Swiss, 
 deeply impressed with the vigor of Francis, 
 responded readily to the efforts he made to 
 secure their alliance. A treaty of peace 
 and friendship and alliance was signed be- 
 tween the Swiss rejiublic and the French 
 king, and remained unbroken until the 
 revolution of 1789. 
 
 Master of northern Italy, Francis might 
 easily have added the kingdom of Najjles 
 to his conquests, but he conceived the fool- 
 ish notion that the mer- 
 chants and manufacturers 
 of Venice were not fit to 
 be the allies of a great 
 king, and breaking with 
 them, made a close alli- 
 ance with the Medici of 
 Florence and the pope, 
 who succeeded in stripping 
 him of all his advantages. 
 At the solicitation of the 
 pontiff, Francis ^consented 
 to defer his attack upon 
 Naples until the death 
 of Ferdinand of Spain. 
 Leaving the Constable de 
 Bourbon to govern Milan, 
 Francis then I'eturned to 
 France. 
 
 In January, 1516, Fer- 
 dinand of Spain died, and was succeeded by 
 his grandson Charles of Austria. Charles' 
 position at this time was both delicate and 
 dangerous, and appi-eciating the importance 
 of securing the good-will of the French king, 
 he made a treaty of peace and alliance with 
 him at Noyon in August of the same year. 
 For more than two years tlie two sovereigns 
 continued good friends, and profound peace 
 reigned throughout western Europe. In 
 1519 the Emperor Maximilian died, and 
 Francis and Charles became rivals for the 
 imperial crown. The election resulted in 
 favor of tlie latter, who became the Em- 
 peror Charles V. Charles soon won another 
 triumph over Francis. Both sovereigns 
 courted the friendship and alliance of Henry 
 VIII. of England. Charles crossed over to 
 Dover in 1520, without invitation, and in a 
 series of confidential interviews succeeded 
 
 in inclining Henry favorably towards him- 
 self, and by artfully flattering the hopes of 
 Henry's great minister, Cardinal Wolsey, 
 who aspired to the papacy, completely won 
 him over to his side. From this conference 
 Henry and Wolsey j^roceeded to France to 
 meet Francis by appointment. The inter- 
 view between the French and English sov- 
 ereigns is known as the " Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold," from the magnificence of the dis- 
 play made by Francis in honor of his guest. 
 The entertainment lasted for eighteen days, 
 at the end of which time Henry returned 
 home rather piqued than pleased at the 
 splendors of Francis, which far surpassed 
 his own. Before returning to England he 
 had a second interview with the emperor at 
 Gravelines, who sought to remove any fav- 
 
 THE LOTJVKE GALLERY. 
 
 orable impression his rival might have 
 made. He succeeded in winning from 
 Henry a promise to conclude no engage- 
 ment hostile to the imperial interests. The 
 warm friendship of Francis and Charles 
 had groAvn weak since the election of the 
 latter to the imperial dignity. Francis re- 
 sented the good fortune of his rival, and 
 was reasonably jealous of the concentration 
 of so much power in the hands of his enter- 
 prising neighbor. Both he and Charles 
 were convinced that their interests would 
 soon array them against each other. 
 
 The open rupture came about in 1521. 
 In that year a French army was sent across 
 the Pyrenees to aid Henry d'Albert to re- 
 cover the kingdom of Navarre, which had 
 been wrested from him by Ferdinand of 
 Spain. In the same year a secret treaty 
 was negotiated between the pope and the 
 
672 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 emperor for the expulsion of the French 
 from Italy. In October, 1521, their com- 
 bined forces took the field, and by the 
 spring of the next year the French were 
 once more expelled from the Milanese duchy. 
 Influenced by Wolsey, Henry VIII. of 
 England now openly embraced the cause of 
 the emperor, and declared war against 
 France in May, 1522. 
 
 Francis prepared to recover his lost 
 ground in Italy, but as he was about to set 
 out for that country an event occurred 
 which was more injurious to him in its con- 
 sequences than all the attacks of his ene- 
 mies. The Constable de Bourbon, the most 
 powerful subject of the crown, had gained 
 his wealth by his marriage with Susanna, 
 the heii'ess of the elder branch of the house 
 of Bourbon. On the death of his wife, 
 Louise of Savoy, the mother of the king, 
 attracted by his great reputation and bril- 
 liant qualities, offered him her hand in 
 marriage. Bourbon refused it with inso- 
 lent disdain, and the duchess, furious at 
 the insult, resolved to destroy him. She 
 was the daughter of the sister of the last 
 Duke of Bourbon, and as such claimed to 
 be his nearest heir, and demanded of the 
 constable the surrender of the estates 
 brought him by his wife. She succeeded 
 in drawing the king into the scheme, and a 
 royal decree was issued, depriving the con- 
 stable of his possessions and bringing him 
 to the verge of ruin. In this extremity 
 Bourbon suddenly executed a scheme he 
 had meditated for a long time in secret. 
 He renounced his allegiance to Francis, 
 abandoned his service, and went over to 
 the Emperor Charles. An arrangement 
 was effected by which Bourbon was given 
 the command of an army destined to invade 
 France from the German frontier, while at 
 the same moment another army was to enter 
 that kingdom from Spain. The King of 
 England agreed to make a descent upon 
 ]S"ormandy and Pieardy, and the emperor 
 promised to Bourbon the hand of his sister 
 Eleanora, and the independent sovereignty 
 of a kingdom to be erected out of Dauphine 
 and Provence. The danger which thus 
 threatened his kingdom made it necessary 
 for Francis to remain in France, but un- 
 willing to lose the opportunity of invading 
 Italy, he sent an army over the Alps under 
 the Admiral Bonnivet, an incompetent 
 favorite, whose failure has been related. 
 
 In the summer of 1524 Bourbon invaded 
 Provence with a strong army, and after 
 
 taking Toulon, Frejus, and Aix, laid siege 
 to Marseilles. The city was stubbornly de- 
 fended, and the approach of the king with 
 a large force compelled the duke to raise 
 the siege and retreat into Italy. Francis, 
 instead of following the enemy along the 
 coast, crossed the Alps by forced marches, 
 entered Lombardy, and seized Milan. In- 
 stead of following up his advantages, he 
 turned aside to besiege Pavia, and was de- 
 layed before that city for three months. 
 This gave Bourbon time to raise a new 
 army in Germany and join the Spanish 
 commanders De Lannoy and Pescara, at 
 Lodi. On the 24th of February, 1525, the 
 imperial army, thus strengthened, attacked 
 the French at Pavia, inflicting upon them 
 a total defeat and a loss of 8,000 men, in 
 which were included all their best gen- 
 erals. Francis was made prisoner, and was 
 conveyed to the Castle of Pizzighittone, near 
 Milan, from which he sent news of his cap- 
 tivity to his mother. 
 
 The news of the defeat at Pavia and the 
 captivity of the king created a feeling of 
 dismay in France. Louise of Savoy was 
 regent, and acted in this emergency with 
 resolution and promptness. She at once 
 opened negotiations with the pope, the King 
 of England, the Venetians, the Florentines, 
 and even with the Turkish sultan. The 
 great power and undisguised ambition of 
 Charles had alarmed all the European 
 states, and Louise had no difficulty in con- 
 cluding a treaty of neutrality and defensive 
 alliance with Henry of England, in August, 
 1525. Henry stipulated among other 
 things that the freedom of the King of 
 France should never be purchased by the 
 cession of any of his territory, and bound 
 himself to use every effort to secure the re- 
 lease of that monarch. A little later a 
 secret league was formed between the pope, 
 England, Venice, and Francesco Sfbrza, 
 for the expulsion of the Sj^aniards from 
 Italy. 
 
 In the meantime Francis was conveyed 
 to Madrid, and imprisoned in the gloomy 
 tower of the Alcazar. The emperor refused 
 to see him, and the king fell ill. At lengrth, 
 
 -r • o ' 
 
 in January, 1526, worn out with his con- 
 finement, Francis signed, under a secret 
 protest, which permitted him to violate it 
 at pleasure, the treaty of Madrid. By this 
 instrument he agreed to cede Burgundy, 
 Flanders, and Artois to the emperor, re- 
 nounced all claim to Naples and Milan, re- 
 stored to the Duke of Bourbon all his for- 
 
674 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 felted domains, and promised to attend the 
 emperor with a fleet and army when he 
 went to be crowned at Rome, or marched 
 against the Turks. The two sons of Francis 
 were delivered to Charles as hostages for 
 the fulfilment of this treaty, and Francis 
 bound himself to return to his captivity in 
 ease of his failure to deliver up Burgundy 
 within four months. 
 
 Immediately upon his return home, 
 Francis set to work to evade the execution 
 of these humiliating conditions, which he 
 declared were not binding upon him be- 
 cause of being wrung from him while a 
 
 MUSEUM OP ARTILLERY, PARIS. 
 
 prisoner. When the Viceroy Lannoy urged 
 him to fulfil his engagement respecting 
 Burgundy, he summoned at Cognac a 
 meeting of deputies from that duchy, who, 
 in the presence of the Spanish envoys, de- 
 clared that the king had no right to alienate 
 the duchy from the crown of France, as his 
 coronation oath forbade him to do so, and 
 that they would never consent to such a 
 step. The king declared his readiness to 
 execute the other stipulations of the treaty, 
 and in place of Burgundy offered the em- 
 peror an indemnity of two millions of 
 crowns. Charles, finding himself duped, 
 
 demanded that Francis should return to 
 his captivity, but the king paid no heed to 
 this demand, and was soon absolved by the 
 pope from his engagements with the em- 
 peror. Francis then gave himself energeti- 
 cally to advancing the aflPairs of the Holy 
 League. The fate of this combination, and 
 the capture and plunder of Rome by the 
 Spanish army under the Duke of Bourbon, 
 have been related. In 1528 Francis de- 
 spatched an army to conquer Naples, but, 
 as has been stated, he deprived himself of 
 the alliance of the Genoese by his treatment 
 of them. They went over to the side of the 
 emperor, and the French 
 army, unsuccessful in its oper- 
 ations, and decimated by a 
 terrible epidemic, was obliged 
 to abandon the siege of Na- 
 ples, and retreat to Aversa, 
 where the remnant soon sur- 
 rendered to the imperial forces. 
 Out of 30,000 men who had 
 marched into the Neapolitan 
 kingdom, scarcely 5,000 re- 
 mained to take part in this 
 surrender. Genoa also re- 
 volted against the French, 
 under the leadership of Doria, 
 and remained independent of 
 France until the wars of the 
 Great Revolution. Both sides 
 were now tired of the war. 
 Francis, disheartened by his 
 losses and the heavy cost of 
 the struggle, was willing to 
 abandon his pretensions to 
 Italy, which he saw he could 
 not maintain, and Charles, 
 uneasy at the rapid growth 
 of Lutheranism in Germany, 
 desired peace with France in 
 order to give bis attention to 
 that danger. A treaty of 
 peace was arranged and signed at Cambray 
 in July, 1529. All the conditions of the 
 treaty of Madrid, save the cession of Bur- 
 gundy, were Embraced within it. In lieu 
 of that duchy the emperor accepted an in- 
 demnity of two millions of crowns oflTered 
 by Francis, who also bound himself not to 
 engage in any enterprise in Italy or else- 
 where hostile to the emperor, and to assist 
 him when called upon with a fleet and a 
 subsidy of 200,000 crowns. The king also 
 agreed to marry Eleanora, queen dowager 
 of Portugal, the sister of Charles. This 
 marriage took place in July, 1530, and the 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XHL 675 
 
 sons of Francis, who had been detained as 
 hostages at Madrid, were released. The 
 peace of Cambray was a severe humiliation 
 to Francis. He not only put an end by it 
 to all hope of French dominion in Italy, 
 but meanly sacrificed his allies to the neces- 
 sity of obtaining peace. 
 
 During the interval of peace which fol- 
 lowed this treaty, Francis inflicted another 
 indelible stain upon his character by per- 
 secuting those of his subjects who had em- 
 braced the opinions of the reformers. They 
 had grown very strong in France, and the 
 king's sister Marguerite, afterwards Queen 
 of Navarre, and some of the noblest persons 
 in the kino-dom, were among tlieir number. 
 Francis was naturally inclined to toleration, 
 but his chief minister, Cardinal Duprat, led 
 him to adopt a course opposed to his incli- 
 nation. A severe persecution was begun, 
 and a number of victims were cruelly 
 burned to death in the capital and in the 
 provinces. In a little while, however, 
 Francis, Avishing to strengthen himself 
 against the emperor by cultivating the 
 friendship of the Lutheran princes of Ger- 
 many, discontinued the persecution, and 
 made overtures of amity towards them. 
 The savage cruelties wiiich had marked his 
 persecution of the reformed filled the Ger- 
 man brethren with horror, and the Lutheran 
 princes turned a deaf ear to the persuasions 
 of the French king and made their peace 
 with the emperor. Francis endeavored still, 
 by showing them increased attention and 
 restoring to liberty those who had been im- 
 prisoned for holding the reformed opinions, 
 to win them over to his side, but they had 
 no faith in him, and thus his short-sighted 
 cruelty accomplished its legitimate results. 
 In order to conciliate the pope, Francis 
 negotiated a marriage between his second 
 son, Henry, Duke of Orleans, and Catharine 
 de' Medici, daughter of the late Duke of 
 Urbino, a relative of Pope Clement. The 
 marriage was solemnized by the pope in per- 
 son at Marseilles on the 28th of October, 
 1533. The next year Clement died, and 
 his successor was friendly to the emperor. 
 
 In 1533 Charles deeply offended King 
 Francis by seizing and beheading without 
 trial the confidential agent of the latter at 
 the court of Milan. Francis, watching his 
 opportunity to renew the war, advanced, in 
 1535, a baseless claim to the duchy of Sa- 
 voy, and rapidly overran both Savoy and 
 Piedmont with his troops. The emperor at 
 once took the field against him, and invaded 
 
 Provence at the head of 50,000 men. 
 Francis retired before him, removing the 
 inhabitants, burning the towns, and laying 
 waste the country. He thus inflicted im- 
 mense suffering upon his own people, but he 
 defeated the invasion of the emperor with- 
 out striking a blow. Charles found it im- 
 possible to subsist his troops and animals, 
 and though his march was unimpeded, 
 famine and disease swept away his array. 
 He attempted to lay siege to Aries and 
 Marseilles, but was driven off with ease, 
 and hearing of the growing strength of the 
 French army, he retreated into Italy, hav- 
 ing lost about half of his forces and gained 
 nothing. During this campaign the dau- 
 phin, the eldest sou of Francis, died on the 
 10th of August. The Duke of Orleans suc- 
 ceeded his brother as dauphin and heir to 
 the crown. The war went on without ac- 
 complisliing anything until the summer of 
 1538, when a truce of ten years was ar- 
 ranged by the pope, each sovereign being 
 left in possession of w'hat he held at the 
 time. The ]\Iilanese duchy remained with 
 the emperor, and Francis kept Savoy and 
 the greater part of Piedmont. This truce 
 was followed by a personal interview of the 
 sovereigns, at which it seemed that their 
 old cordiality had been revived. 
 
 Fi'ancis now applied himself to the task 
 of conciliating the emperor, and broke off 
 his relations with Henry VIII. and the 
 sultan, and became once more the enemy 
 and persecutor of the Protestants. In 1539 
 Ghent rebelled against the emperor and ap- 
 pealed to Francis for support, promising in 
 return to restore the sovereignty of France 
 in that city and in the other cities of Flan- 
 ders. Francis, who was anxious to lay the 
 emperor under an obligation to him, not 
 only refused the proposition, but informed 
 Charles of it and offered him a safe passage 
 through France to the Netherlands, Charles 
 at once accepted the offer, and was magnifi- 
 cently entertained by Francis during his 
 progress through France. The king was 
 urged by several of his confidential advisers 
 to detain the emperor now that he had him 
 in his power, until he consented to comply 
 with all his demands ; but Francis refused 
 to break his AS'ord, and accompanied his 
 guest to the frontier, where he arrived in 
 February, 1540. Francis had demanded of 
 him the investiture of Milan, and Charles 
 had delayed his answer. Upon reaching 
 Flanders, he denied having given Francis 
 any encouragement to hope for a favorable 
 
676 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 answer, and a few months later made his 
 son Philip Duke of Milan, Francis, angry 
 at this refusal, renew^ed his negotiations with 
 the Lutherans, and made an alliance with 
 the Sultan Solyraan, whose fleet joined that 
 of France at Marseilles in May, 1543. The 
 allies then proceeded to Nice, which was 
 sacked and burned. The French army 
 under the Count d'Enghien defeated the 
 imperialists at Cerisolles in Savoy, on the 
 14th of April, 1544. 
 
 Francis was in no condition to profit by 
 these advantages, however, for Charles had 
 succeeded in drawing Henry VIII. into an 
 alliance with him. A treaty was signed by 
 the emperor and Henry in February, 1543, 
 by which they agreed to attempt the con- 
 quest of France, and if successful to divide 
 the kingdom between them. In July, 1544, 
 Henry landed at Calais with 30,000 men, 
 and laid siege to Boulogne and Montreuil; 
 and Charles advanced into Champagne and 
 laid siege to St. Dizier-sur-Marne, which 
 detained him in front of it for six weeks by 
 its gallant resistance, and gave Francis 
 time to collect a large army, with which he 
 covered the approaches to Paris. The em- 
 peror deeming it imprudent to risk a battle 
 with this force halted at Compiegne, and 
 opened negotiations with the French king, 
 and a treaty of peace was arranged between 
 them on the 18th of September of that 
 year. Each surrendered the territory he 
 had taken since the truce of Nice. Francis 
 again renounced his claims to Naples and 
 Flanders, and agreed to surrender Savoy 
 on condition of the investiture of his third 
 son, the Duke of Orleans, with the duchy 
 of Milan, and his marriage to a daughter 
 of the emperor or of the Archduke Fer- 
 dinand. The death of the duke within a 
 year prevented the execution of the articles 
 concerning Savoy and Milan. Henry VIII. 
 refused to take part in this treaty, and the 
 war between England and France went on 
 in a desultory manner until June, 1546, 
 when peace was signed between them. 
 
 One of the articles of the treaty of Crespy 
 bound Francis and Charles to make sti-en- 
 uous and combined efibrts for the propaga- 
 tion of the doctrines of the church. Fran- 
 cis undertook to carry out his part of the 
 agreement by seeking to exterminate the 
 Vaudois of Provence. Three towns and 
 twenty-two hamlets were totally destroyed, 
 3,000 people, many of whom were women 
 and children, were butchered in cold blood, 
 and 700 others were condemned to the gal- 
 
 leys for life. On the 31st of March, 1547, 
 Francis died of a painful malady, from 
 which he had long suffered, and which was 
 the result of his dissolute life. 
 
 With all his faults, and they were many 
 and deep, Francis must be considered one 
 of the greatest of the sovereigns of France. 
 His besetting sin lay in allowing himself 
 to be ruled by his mother and his mistresses, 
 to whose folly the most of his reverses were 
 due. His sagacity, however, clearly dis- 
 cerned the danger with which the ambition 
 of the house of Austria threatened the in- 
 dependence of his country, and not only of 
 France, but of all Europe. For thirty 
 years he struggled, single-handed, against 
 the mightiest monarchy since the days of 
 Charlemagne, and left his kingdom not 
 only unimpaired, but increased in territorial 
 dimensions. He was a liberal and intel- 
 ligent friend of the great revival of learn- 
 ing and the arts wdiich marks his era, and 
 many of the noblest monuments of France 
 date from his reign. 
 
 Henry II. succeeded his father in his 
 twenty-ninth year. On his death-bed Fran- 
 cis had advised his son not to employ Mont- 
 morency in any post of authority, and to 
 curb with a strong hand the rising power 
 and ambition of the Guises. Henry began 
 his reign by dismissing all his father's min- 
 isters, recalling the Constable Montmorency 
 to court, and bestowang the highest honors 
 upon the Guises. 
 
 The family of Guise was a younger 
 branch of the sovereign house of Lorraine, 
 which owed allegiance only to the empire. 
 Its founder was Claude, the first Duke of 
 Guise, who had married a French princess 
 of the house of Bourbon. His oldest 
 daughter Mary married James V. of Scot- 
 land, and after the death of her husband, 
 and during the long minority of her daugh- 
 ter, Mary, "Queen of Scots," exercised a 
 controlling infliience upon the government 
 of that country in favor of France. Of 
 the seven sons of Duke Claude, the eldest, 
 Francis, succeeded him as Duke of Guise ; 
 the second became Archbishop of Eheims 
 and afterwards Cardinal of Lorraine. The 
 duke was an able general, and a bold and 
 sagacious politician ; the cardinal was 
 shrewd, learned, eloquent, and a master of 
 dissimulation. Both of the brothers held 
 important oflSces in the council of Henry 
 II. The policy of the Guises was selfish, 
 but it was bold and skilful, and pointed 
 plainly to a renewal of the war with the 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS L TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 677 
 
 by the Duke of Guise, and Charles was 
 obliged to abandon his attempt after a siege 
 of three months, A. d. 1553. In 1555 and 
 1556 the Emperor Charles resigned his va- 
 rious crowns to his son and brother, as has 
 been related, and withdrew from political 
 life. 
 
 Philip II., King of Spain and the Indies 
 and of the Two Sicilies, inherited his father's 
 quarrel with France. The Duke of Guise, 
 who was a descendant of Rene of Anjou, 
 cherished the hope of winning the Neapol- 
 itan crown, and in 1556 was sent into Italy 
 to attack the kingdom of Naples. He was 
 
 Etnj^eror Charles. In the interval of peace 
 they exerted themselves to strengthen the 
 alliance with Scotland, and secured the be- 
 trothal of their niece Mary, the young 
 queen of that kingdom, to the Dauphin 
 Francis. Mary had been betrothed to Ed- 
 ward VI. of England, but the queen dow- 
 ager and the regent Arran broke this en- 
 gagement, and sent the young queen to 
 France under the protection of a French 
 fleet, there to be educated, and to reside 
 until her marriage. The refusal to com- 
 plete the engagement with Edward VI. 
 brought on a war between England and 
 
 PALACE OF FONTAINEBLEATJ— THE FOUNTAIN COURT. 
 
 Scotland, with France as the ally of the 
 latter. The French recaptured Boulogne, 
 which had been taken from them by Henry 
 A^IIL, and peace was made between all 
 parties in 1550. 
 
 Henry II. now took part in the struggle 
 between the Elector Maurice of Saxony and 
 the emperor. "We have already related this 
 incident. Henry seized the three bishop- 
 rics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. After the 
 peace of Passau between Maurice and 
 Charles, the emperor turned upon Henry to 
 punish him for his interference in his affliirs. 
 Charles laid siege to Metz with an army 
 of 60,000 men. The citv was defended 
 
 opposed by the Spanish viceroy, the Duke 
 of Alva, who prevented him from accom- 
 plishing anything, and compelled him to re- 
 treat towards Rome. Before he had fairly 
 recovered from the fatigues of his campaign, 
 he was summoned home to meet a new 
 danger there. 
 
 The Spanish array, commanded by Em- 
 manuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, and rein- 
 forced by an English force under the Earl 
 of Pembroke, marched from the Nether- 
 lands into France, and laid siege to St. 
 Quentin, which was defended by a weak 
 garrison under the Admiral de Coligni. 
 The Constable de Montmorency attempted 
 
678 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to relieve it with the main army, and Avas 
 defeated by the superior force of the 
 Spaniards on the 10th of August and made 
 prisoner. The way to Paris was open, and 
 the Duke of Savoy was anxious to press 
 forward and seize the city. Philip ordered 
 him to wait until he had taken St. Queutin, 
 which was captured seventeen days later. 
 Philip then seized several other places, but 
 made no effort to follow up his victory. 
 This delay enabled the Duke of Guise, who 
 had arrived from Italy, to collect a new 
 army at Compiegne. He acted with vigor 
 and ability, and soon placed matters on a 
 better footing. Detaching one division of 
 his army to make a feint towards Luxem- 
 burg, he marched rapidly to Calais and 
 captured that city on the 8th of January, 
 1558. Guines was taken on the 21st, and 
 thus in three weeks England was stripped 
 of the last vestiges of her ancient dominion 
 in France. This success made Guise the 
 most popular man in France. On the 8th 
 of April, 1558, his niece, the young Queen 
 of Scotland, was married to the dauphin, 
 and it was stipulated by a secret article of 
 the marriage treaty that the crowns of 
 France and Scotland should be forever 
 united. This marriage made Guise the 
 most powerful as well as the most popular 
 prince in the kingdom. Towards the close 
 of the year negotiations for peace were 
 begun. England demanded the restitution 
 of Calais, and was supported by Spain. 
 The death of Queen Mary of England in 
 November, 1558, interrupted the negotia- 
 tions, but they were resumed at Cateau 
 Cambresis, early in 1559, and Philip, seeing 
 that his influence was at an end in England, 
 no longer supported the demand for Calais. 
 Peace was signed on the 2d of April, 1559. 
 France kept Calais, Guines, Metz, Toul and 
 Verdun, but abandoned all of Savoy and 
 Piedmont, except Turin and four other 
 fortresses, and restored her conquests in 
 Italy and the Low Countries. By this 
 treaty France surrendered 189 towns and 
 fortresses in various parts of Europe. The 
 terms were considered hard for France. 
 Several important marriages were arranged 
 by the treaty. Henry's daughter Elizabeth 
 was united to Philip of Spain, and the 
 Duke of Savoy married the Princess Mar- 
 guerite, Henry's sister. During the re- 
 joicings at Paris which hailed the peace, 
 Henry took part in a tournament, and was 
 mortally wounded by accident in an en- 
 comter with Montgomery, the captain of 
 
 his Scotch guards. He died eleven days 
 later, on the 10th of July, 1559. 
 
 During Henry's reign the government 
 was utterly corrupt. The king's mistress, 
 Diana of Poitiers, sold the offices of the 
 state in the most shameless manner. The 
 queen, Catharine de' Medici, was neglected 
 and without authority during the whole 
 reign. 
 
 The Reformation made extraordinary 
 progress in France during this reign, in the 
 last year of which the Huguenots, as the 
 reformed were called, are said to have had 
 2,000 places of worship in the kingdom, at- 
 tended by congi'egations numbering over 
 400,000. The acknowledged chief of this 
 party was the first prince of the blood, An- 
 toine de Bourbon, who had become King of 
 Navarre by his marriage with Jeanne d'Al- 
 bret, the heiress of that crown. The Prince 
 of Conde, the Admiral de Coligny, his 
 brother, the Sire d'Andelot, and other great 
 nobles, were among the Huguenot leaders. 
 The growing strength of this party filled 
 the court with alarm. At the peace of Ca- 
 teau Cambresis a secret article was negoti- 
 ated pledging the Kings of France and 
 Spain to exterminate heresy within their 
 dominions. The pope issued a bull, with 
 the approval of Henry, setting up a special 
 tribunal in France, composed of three prel- 
 ates, for the trial of offences against religion ; 
 but the parliaments of Paris and the prov- 
 inces and the courts of justice opposed a 
 sturdy resistance to this measure. Henry 
 was very angry at this determined opposi- 
 tion to his will, and prepared to crush it 
 with a strong hand. The Protestants, ap- 
 preciating their danger, organized for their 
 defence, and appealed for aid to their 
 brethren in Germany. At this juncture 
 Henry died. 
 
 Francis II., the eldest of Henry's seven 
 children, was scarcely sixteen years old 
 when he succeeded to the throne. He was 
 a weak, sickly youth, and was completely 
 under the influence of his wife, Mary of 
 Scotland, who in her turn was ruled by her 
 uncles, the Guises, who Avere thus the real 
 masters of France. The queen mother, 
 Catharine de' Medici, allied herself Avith the 
 Guises, and patiently Avaited until a favor- 
 able moment should enable her to overthrow 
 them and take their place. The new gov- 
 ernment began by a relentless persecution 
 of the Huguenots, and thus aroused a spirit 
 of resistance. The Guises were regarded as 
 foreigners, and Avere held responsible for 
 
FB03I: THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS L TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 679 
 
 the cruelties inflicted upon the Protestants. 
 The arrogant course of these princes made 
 them many enemies even among the Cath- 
 olics, and the party opposed to them was to 
 a great extent a national party. They de- 
 manded a meeting of the states general, 
 and being refused by the government, or- 
 ganized the conspiracy of Amboise, for the 
 purpose of driving the Guises from power. 
 The plot was betrayed, and the Guises took 
 a bloody vengeance upon their enemies. 
 Twelve hundred persons are said to have 
 been executed for complicity in the con- 
 spiracy. 
 
 The cruelties perpetrated by the Guises 
 produced a reaction in favor of the Prot- 
 
 after all. Those princes bent all their en- 
 ergies to destroy the King of Navarre and 
 the Prince of Coude, the leaders of the 
 movement against them, and having pro- 
 cured evidence implicating them in the 
 conspiracy of Amboise, obtained their ar- 
 rest and the sentence of Conde. The sud- 
 den death of Francis II., which took place 
 on the 5th of December, 15.60, alone saved 
 the Bourbon princes from death. 
 
 Charles IX., a child of less than ten 
 years, succeeded his brother on the throne, 
 and Catharine de' Medici became regent 
 without opposition. The King of Navarre 
 having resigned his claims to the regency, 
 Catharine appointed him lieutenant-general 
 
 PALACE OF THE TTJILERIES. 
 
 estants, and so far from destroying, really 
 strengthened that sect. The queen mother 
 now advocated milder counsels, and pro- 
 cured the appointment of Michel de I'Hop- 
 ital as chancellor. His first act was to se- 
 cure the publication of the Edict of Ro- 
 morantin, which committed the punishment 
 of offences against religion exclusively to 
 the bishops. This was really a gain for 
 the reformers, as it prevented the estab- 
 lishment of the Inquisition in France. The 
 king also agreed to summon the states 
 general, which had not met for seventy- 
 six years. The Huguenots were greatly 
 elated by these concessions, and began to 
 entertain hopes of overthrowing the Guises 
 
 of the kingdom, and Conde was transferred 
 from his prison to a seat at the council 
 board. The policy of Catharine was to hold 
 the balance of power evenly between the 
 two parties, and to strengthen her own 
 power by allowing neither to predominate. 
 On the 13th of December, 1560, the states 
 general met at Orleans, and in a session of 
 less than two months made some salutary 
 reforms in the government and put a stop 
 to the religious persecutions. The Catho- 
 lics bitterly resisted these concessions, and 
 the Huguenots, elated by their success, 
 were led into some serious errors. Wher- 
 ever they found themselves in the majority 
 they took forcible possession of the churches. 
 
680 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 'and profaned the altars and destroyed the 
 images. The Catholic leaders made good 
 use of these outrages to excite the alarm of 
 their party, and serious disturbances broke 
 out in various parts of the country. As a 
 means of restoring order, the queen mother, 
 supported by Conde, the Chatillons, and 
 the chancellor, granted complete religious 
 tolerance throughout the kingdom, but re- 
 quired the Huguenots to restore the relig- 
 ious i^roperty they had seized, and to desist 
 from preaching against the Catholic fiiith. 
 
 The gulf between the two parties was 
 too deep to be filled up so easily. The 
 Catholic leaders, and especially the Guises, 
 whose zeal for their religion was stimulated 
 by their ambition, began to prepare for 
 war. Kothing would satisfy them but the 
 complete submission of the other party. 
 The Duke of Guise, who had retired into 
 Lorraine, and was collecting troops, was 
 alarmed by the concessions to the Hugue- 
 nots, and resolved to return to Paris, where 
 his presence was impatiently awaited by 
 his party. He set out at the head of 200 
 horsemen, and on the way halted at the 
 village of A^assy, in Champagne, one of the 
 possessions of liis house. The Huguenots 
 of the district were assembled for religious 
 worship in a lai'ge barn at the time, and 
 the duke marched his men to the place and 
 attempted to break up the meeting. A 
 melee ensued. The Huguenots were un- 
 armed, and endeavored to close the doors 
 of the building. These were broken open 
 by Guise's men, who rushed in. They 
 were received with a volley of stones, one 
 of which struck the duke on the cheek. 
 He at once ordered his men to exterminate 
 the heretics, and was literally obeyed. 
 Over 250 of the congregation were killed 
 or w^ounded, and all would have shared 
 this fate had not the Duchess of Guise 
 implored her husband to put a stop to 
 the massacre. Guise then proceeded to 
 Paris, where he was greeted with enthu- 
 siasm as the defender of the faith. The 
 queen mother, foreseeing the consequences 
 of the massacre at Vassy, and being unwil- 
 ling to become again subject to the power 
 of the Guises, attempted to escape with the 
 king from Paris, but was overtaken by 
 Guise with an armed force at Fontaine- 
 bleau and compelled to return with the 
 king to the Louvre. From this time until 
 his death Guise was master of France. 
 
 The massacre at Vassy was followed by 
 similar scenes in other parts of France. 
 
 At Tours the dead were so numerous that 
 the banks of the Loire were covered with 
 them for some distance. The Huguenots^ 
 though taken by surprise, flew to arms, and 
 a bloody civil war ensued, in which the 
 Duke of Guise was killed. He was assas- 
 sinated while besieging Orleans in 1563. 
 AVith his last breath Guise advised the 
 queen mother to make peace with the Hu- 
 guenots. In Mai'ch, 1563, a hollow peace 
 was patched up at Amboise, but no one 
 bel ieved it would be effectual. The Catholic 
 party charged the Admiral de Coliguy, one 
 of the principal leaders of the Huguenots, 
 with having caused the death of the Duke 
 of Guise, but Coligny denied the accusa- 
 tion. 
 
 Charles having now entered upon his 
 fourteenth year, was declared to have at- 
 tained his majority, and nominally assumed 
 the government. He relinquished all real 
 power to his mother, however. He spent 
 the whole of 1564 in visiting the different 
 parts of the kingdom with her. At Ba- 
 yonne, Catharine received a visit from her 
 daughter, the Queen of Spain, who was at- 
 tended by the Duke of Alva, Philip's con- 
 fidential minister. IMany secret confer- 
 ences wei-e held between Catharine and the 
 duke, the object of which was beyond a 
 doubt to concert measures for the speedy 
 extermination of heresy in France and the 
 Netherlands. How much of the fearful 
 course which was afterwards carried out in 
 France was agreed upon here, is unknown. 
 
 These conferences were known to the 
 Huguenot leaders, and when Alva began 
 his dreadful persecution of the reformers 
 of the Netherlands, they believed that their 
 own doom had been determined upon by 
 the court, and was at hand. They at once 
 made an attempt to seize the king's person, 
 but were defeated by the Catholic army 
 under the Constable de Montmorency at 
 St. Denis, in November, 1567. The con- 
 stable was killed in this battle. No suc- 
 cessor was appointed to his office, but, by 
 naming her favorite son, the Duke of 
 Anjou, lieutenant-general of the kingdom, 
 which post had been made vacant by the 
 death of the King of Navarre in 1562, 
 Catharine retained the control of the royal 
 armies in her own hands. The war went 
 on through the year. In 1568 a treaty 
 was made, but in 1569 hostilities broke out 
 more fiercely than ever. On the 13th of 
 March the Huguenots were defeated at 
 Jarnac, and the Prince of Conde was 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 681 
 
 wounded and taken prisoner, and assas- 
 sinated after his surrender. Tlie death of 
 this able leader was a severe blow to the 
 Huguenots. They promptly recognized 
 Henry, the young King of Navarre, as their 
 leader, but the direction of the war was re- 
 tained by the veteran Admiral Coligny. 
 In October of the same year the Huguenots 
 suffered another and a severer reverse at 
 Moncontour, but in 1570 their operations 
 were generally successful, and the Catholics 
 in their turn were depressed. Catharine 
 was now sick of the wai*, and in August, 
 1570, a treaty was signed at St. Germains, 
 by which the Huguenots were granted the 
 free exercise of their religion throughout 
 the kingdom, except in Paris, and were 
 placed on an equality with Catholics with 
 respect to public offices and all professions. 
 As a guarantee for the execution of these 
 conditions the cities of La Rochelle, Cognac, 
 Montauban, and La Charite, were placed 
 in the hands of the Huguenots to be garri- 
 soned by their troops. These terms were 
 not granted willingly by Catharine. They 
 were wrung from her by the successes of 
 the Huguenots. The Catholic party was 
 bitterly hostile to the treaty, and the King 
 of Spain and the pope remonstrated strongly 
 against it as humiliating to the church. 
 
 Catharine simply wanted a respite from 
 war to enable her to re-establish the author- 
 ity of the crown, which had been se- 
 riously weakened by the long strife. There 
 is good reason to believe that she meant 
 sooner or later to strike a crushing blow at 
 the Huguenots which she hoped Avould ut- 
 terly destroy them. For the present, how- 
 ever, she carried out the terms of the treaty 
 in good faith, and so much favor was shown 
 the Huguenots by the king and his mother 
 that the pope was ready to regard her as 
 an apostate from the faith. The treaty of 
 1570 gave France a respite of nearly two 
 years, and the conduct of the court lulled 
 the Huguenots into a false sense of security. 
 Catharine now proposed that, in order to 
 cement the new bonds between the religious 
 parties in the kingdom, her daughter, Mar- 
 guerite de Valois, should wed Henry of 
 Beam, the young King of Navarre, the 
 recognized leader of the Huguenot party. 
 The mother of Henry had reared her son 
 in the reformed faith, and being a woman 
 of good sense, received the proposal of this 
 alliance with distrust. The Admiral de 
 Coligny and some of the other Huguenot 
 leaders, however, won her over to it, for, 
 
 though they had not much faith in Catha- 
 rine's professed friendship for their party, 
 they believed that the proposed marriage 
 might result in benefit to the country. The 
 consent of all parties being obtained, there 
 remained an obstacle in the way. Henry 
 was a Protestant, Marguerite a Catholic. 
 Between such a pair no priest of the Roman 
 church could celebrate a marriage without a 
 special dispensation from the pope. Pius V. 
 was applied to for such a dispensation, but 
 refused it. Charles IX., who was very anx- 
 ious for the match, declared that if the 
 pope would not consent to the marriage, he 
 would have his sister married in "open con- 
 venticle," by a Huguenot preacher. A 
 dispensation was obtained. Vauvilliers, in 
 his " Histoire de Jeanne UAlbret" says 
 that Catharine forged it. The marriage 
 was unpopular, however, and the Catholic 
 party fomented the discontent occasioned 
 by it to the highest pitch. 
 
 In the meantime Coligny had conquered 
 his feeling of distrust and gone to court. 
 The king was at Blois and received him 
 with marked favor. The noble character 
 of the admiral won the genuine regard of 
 Charles, who loaded him with honors and 
 ftivors. A few months later the Queen of 
 Navarre . followed - the admiral's example. 
 Catharine was alarmed by the influence of 
 Coligny over the king, and resolved upon 
 his speedy destruction. She became the 
 cordial ally of the Guises, who exerted 
 themselves to inflame the hatred of the 
 Catholics against the Huguenots. The 
 principal men of the Huguenot party were 
 invited to Paris to take part in the wedding 
 festivities, and also in order that they might 
 be within reach of the vengeance of Cath- 
 arine and her fellow conspirators. They 
 were received courteously and were hand- 
 somely entertained by the court. On the 
 9th of July, 1572, the Queen of Navarre 
 died suddenly. It was believed that she 
 was poisoned by order of the queen mother. 
 The historian Davila, himself a Catholic, 
 says that this was the cause of her death, 
 and that she was exempted from the gen- 
 eral massacre because of her royal condi- 
 tion. This event was taken by many 
 Huguenots as a warning, and they escaped 
 from Paris. Coligny was urged by his 
 friends to quit the capital before it was too 
 late, but he refused to doubt the royal 
 word. 
 
 Early in the summer the king sent a 
 force into Flanders to assist the patriots of 
 
682 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that country against Philip of Spain. The 
 expedition won some successes at first, but 
 having met with a reverse, it became neces- 
 sary to decide upon the future course of 
 France. Coligny and his party were for 
 an immediate declaration of war against 
 Spain ; Catharine and the Guises were for 
 an opposite policy. This made the queen 
 mother all the more determined to carry out 
 her plan. Her chief confidants in her atro- 
 cious plot were her son, the Duke of Aujou, 
 afterwards Henry IH., the Duke of Guise, 
 Marshal de Tavannes, the Count de Retz, 
 and the Duke of Nevers. They delib- 
 erately planned and carried out the dia- 
 bolical events which now followed. The 
 priests of the Catholic Church lent a cordial 
 aid to the plot in preparing their followers 
 for the part they were to play in its execu- 
 tion. 
 
 On the 18th of August, 1572, Henry of 
 Navarre and Marguerite of Valois were 
 married by the Cardinal de Bourbon. The 
 marriage greatly exasperated the Catholic 
 party, and ominous rumors began to per- 
 vade the capital. The court was given up 
 to revelry and feasting, but Catharine and 
 her confederates were busy preparing for 
 the execution of their plot. Orders were 
 sent to the governor of Lyons not. to let the 
 messenger who bore the tidings of the mar- 
 riage proceed on his way to Rome until 
 after the 24th of August. On the 22d of 
 August the conspirators struck their first 
 blow. An assassin hired by the Duke of 
 Guise fired upon Coligny as he was return- 
 ing from the court to his lodgings, and in- 
 flicted a severe wound upon him. Charles 
 IX. visited the wounded admiral and ex- 
 pressed his firm determination to bring his 
 assailants to justice. The admiral warned 
 the king of the pernicious effects of Cathar- 
 ine's misgovernment, implored him to de- 
 prive her of power, and offered to support 
 him in such a course with the whole force 
 of the Huguenots. Charles went away 
 much affected by the admiral's words. 
 The conspirators were in great alarm. If 
 the king remained faithful to Coligny they 
 were lost. They had gone too far to re- 
 treat. The masses behind them, whose 
 fanaticism they had inflamed to its highest 
 pitch, could not be restrained from violence, 
 and they resolved to carry their plot 
 through to success. The day after the 
 king's visit to the admiral was passed by 
 them in seeking to win him over to their 
 scheme. They excited the alarm and 
 
 wrath of the weak-minded monarch with 
 
 relations of plots of the Huguenots against 
 him, and urged him to consent to the death 
 of Coligny and the other Protestant leaders. 
 
 Wrought up to a pitch of delirious fury 
 by these recitals, the king declared that 
 since it was necessary to slay the admiral, 
 not a single Huguenot should escape. The 
 conspirators took him at his word. It was 
 agreed that the admiral should be killed 
 first, and that his death should be followed 
 by a general massacre of the Huguenots in 
 Paris. The public arms in the royal 
 arsenals were distributed among the Roman 
 Catholic citizens, Avho were to be distin- 
 guished by wearing white scarfs around 
 their left arms and white crosses on their 
 hats. The royal guard was increased by 
 calling in the detachments from the sub- 
 urbs. All through the 23d the Catholic 
 leaders were busy posting their forces and 
 preparing the citizens to make common 
 cause with them. 
 
 Between three and four o'clock on the 
 morning of August 24th, 1572 — the Feast 
 of St, Bartholomew — the Duke of Guise 
 attacked the house of Coligny, and had the 
 admiral despatched by one of his men. 
 As soon as she heard the report of this 
 murder, Catharine ordered the priests of the 
 church of St. Germain 1' Auxerrois to sound 
 the signal agreed upon from their bell. It 
 was instantly repeated from every belfry in 
 the city. Paris, until now so silent and 
 peaceful, became instantly full of confusion 
 and strife. Lights gleamed from every 
 house, and swarms of armed men poured 
 forth into the streets and began the work of 
 death. Throughout the whole day and 
 until nightfall the massacre went on. 
 Neither age, sex, nor condition was re- 
 spected. The Huguenots had been marked 
 and, being taken by surprise, were unable 
 to resist. Catharine and her attendants 
 viewed the massacre from the palace win- 
 doAvs. These fearful scenes went on for 
 several days, and were repeated by order 
 of the king in many of the principal pro- 
 vincial towns — at Orleans, Troyes, Bburges, 
 Lyons, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Rouen. The 
 number of victims is variously estimated 
 by different writers at from 10,000 to 
 100,000. The Duke of Sully places the 
 number at 70,000; De Thou at 30,000. 
 The King of Navarre and the Prince of 
 Conde narrowly escaped death during the 
 massacre. Their attendants were despatched 
 in the courtyard of the Louvre. 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS L TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 683 
 
 The massacre had hardly ceased before 
 Catharine and her fellow-conspirators found 
 that they had committed a terrible political 
 blunder, and had inflicted upon the king- 
 dom a wound which they could not cure. 
 They endeavored to throw the blame upon 
 the Duke of Guise, but that _ 
 
 nobleman refused to bear it, 
 and they finally induced the 
 king to declare before the 
 Parliament of Paris, on the 
 26th of August, that he was 
 responsible for the massacre, 
 that it was a political and 
 not a religious act, and was 
 necessary in order to sup- 
 press a dangerous conspiracy 
 of the Huguenots. The Papal 
 Nuncio Salviati pronounced 
 this declaration " false in 
 every respect." When Philip 
 of Spain received Catharine's 
 letter, informing him of the 
 massacre, he laughed aloud 
 for the first and only time in 
 his life ; and with good cause, 
 for the best soldiers of France 
 had fallen in those terrible 
 August days. At Rome the 
 news was received with a 
 triumphal salute' from the 
 Castle of St. Angelo, an il- 
 lumination of the city, and a 
 Te Deum, at which the pope 
 and the cardinals assisted. 
 A medal was struck by order 
 of the pontiflT to commem- 
 orate the massacre. 
 
 The massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew struck a terrible 
 blow at the Huguenots, but 
 did not destroy them. The 
 survivors took up arms and 
 the war broke out again. The 
 Prince of Conde managed to 
 escape from court, and headed 
 the movement. The Hugue- 
 not stronghold, the city of 
 La Rochelle, was besieged by the royal 
 army, without success. In July, 1573, a 
 treaty was arranged which gave the Hu- 
 guenots liberty of conscience and worship 
 in La Rochelle, Nismes and Montaubau. 
 
 Charles IX. had been ailing since the 
 day of the massacre. He suffered from a 
 dangerous affection of the lungs, and this 
 was complicated by an excessive nervous 
 affection which had never left him since the 
 
 fatal day of St. Bartholomew. He saw 
 visions of his victims, and was haunted by 
 a terrible remorse. His strength gave way 
 daily, and he died on the 30th of May, 
 1574. His next brother, the Duke of 
 Anjou, had been elected King of Poland, 
 
 CATHEDRAL OF NOTKE DAME— FRONT VIEW. 
 
 and Catharine was left regent until his re- 
 turn to France. 
 
 The Duke of Anjou at once returned 
 from Poland, and ascended the throne as 
 Henry III. He had stolen away from Po- 
 land like a criminal, carrying with him the 
 crown jewels of that country, and as he 
 passed through Italy the Duke of Savoy in- 
 duced him to give up Pignerol and the 
 other fortresses held by France in Pied- 
 
684 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 inont. He was contemptible and licentious 
 beyond any of his predecessors, and Avas 
 utterly unfit to govern a state in the condi- 
 tion of France. He began his reign by 
 announcing his determination to make no 
 concession to the Huguenots, but failed to 
 take any vigorous measures against them. 
 He married Louise de Vaudemont, a mem- 
 ber of the younger branch of the house of 
 Lorraine, and this marriage served to aug- 
 ment the power of the Guises, which was 
 already too great for the safety of the 
 crown. The head of the house of Guise 
 now was Henry, the son of Duke Francis 
 of the previous reign. Though on the 
 whole inferior to his father, he was brave, 
 talented, and popular. He also had pre- 
 tensions to the crown in case the king died 
 without heirs. Henry IH. was the last 
 representative of the house of Valois. 
 Henry of Navarre, as the head of the 
 house of Bourbon, was entitled to the suc- 
 cession ; but the Duke of Guise intended to 
 contest his right, basing his claim upon his 
 descent from Charles of Lorraine, the last 
 of the Carolingian dynasty. 
 
 In 1576 the Huguenots, under the leader- 
 ship of the King of Navarre, compelled 
 Henry IH. and the queen mother to make 
 the most humiliating concessions in order 
 to obtain peace. The demands of the 
 Huguenots were granted to their fullest 
 extent. The treaty was regarded by the 
 Catholics as humiliating to the country and 
 to their religion, and a league was formed 
 by them, with the Duke of Guise at its 
 head, nominally to maintain the royal 
 authority, but really to establish more 
 firmly that of the Duke of Guise. Henry 
 was won over to the league by his necessi- 
 ties, and the privileges granted to the 
 Huguenots were greatly curtailed, A. D. 
 1577. 
 
 In 1581 the Duke of Anjou, the next 
 brother of the king, with the consent of 
 Henry, led a considerable French army into 
 the Low Countries in support of the Flem- 
 ish patriots. He captured Cambray, which 
 was defended by the Prince of Parma. 
 Anjou was a suitor for the hand of the 
 English Queen Elizabeth, whose alliance 
 was of vital importance to the people of the 
 Netherlands. He was warmly received by 
 the Flemings, and was proclaimed Duke of 
 Brabant and Count of Flanders. His pop- 
 ularity vai ished, however, when Elizabeth 
 positively refused his hand. Soon after 
 this he attempted to make himself absolute 
 
 master of Flanders, and was driven back 
 into France by the indignant people. He 
 died of disease and disappointment in June, 
 1584. His death greatly encouraged the 
 Duke of Guise in his aspirations to the 
 crown. It was evident that Henry III. 
 would have no heirs, and Henry of Navarre 
 was a heretic. Still, in order to hide his 
 own designs. Guise supported the Cardinal 
 de Bourbon, a very weak man, as the 
 legitimate heir to the throne. 
 
 In January, 1585, a secret treaty was 
 signed between Philip of Spain and the 
 chiefs of the league. Both parties agreed 
 to exert their power to exterminate heresy 
 in France and the Netherlands, and Philip 
 promised the leaguers a subsidy of 50,000 
 crowns a month. The compact was ap- 
 proved by the pope, and a manifesto was 
 put forth in the name of the Cardinal de 
 Bourbon, declaring the object of the league 
 to be the defence of the Catholic religion. 
 Hostilities began almost immediately. The 
 north, east, and southeast of France sup- 
 ported the league. Henry yielded to this 
 show of force, though, as the Huguenots 
 oflTered to support him, he might have suc- 
 cessfully resisted the league had he been a 
 man of more energy and decision. He was 
 compelled to accept all the aims and the 
 entire policy of the league, and to revoke 
 all the concessions he had made to the 
 Protestants. He was thus forced to become 
 the ally of the men who were seeking to 
 destroy his throne. The Protestants, under 
 the leadership of Henry of Navarre, who 
 was now formally excommunicated by Pope 
 Sixtus v., took up arms to defend them- 
 selves, and civil war once more burst upon 
 the kingdom. Henry III., though the ally 
 of the league, at heart wished its defeat, as 
 he knew that its success meant his ruin. 
 Early in 1587 a plot was detected in Paris 
 which had for its object the dethronement 
 of the king. Still the power of Guise was 
 so great that the king dared not take any 
 action against him. Henry gave himself 
 up to his dogs and monkeys, and left the 
 league to manage affairs. Meanwhile a 
 division of the royal army sent against 
 Henry of Navarre was badly beaten by 
 him at Coutras. Henry failed to follow up 
 his victory, and the result was that a large 
 German force which had been sent to the 
 assistance of the Protestants was defeated 
 with heavy loss by the Duke of Guise and 
 driven back into Germany. 
 
 In spite of the orders prohibiting the en- 
 
FE03£ THE ACCESSION OF FEANCIS 1. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 685 
 
 trance of the chiefs of the league into Paris, 
 the Duke of Guise, who was the idol of the 
 people of that city, went to the capital, 
 where he was received with delight by the 
 people. The kiug, pale with rage and ter- 
 ror, demanded of the duke why he had 
 disobeyed his express orders, and was an- 
 swered that he had come to defend himself 
 against the accusations of his enemies. The 
 Hotel de Guise was guarded by the mob, 
 and the duke's strength was so evident that 
 Henry became alarmed and ordered the 
 royal troops stationed near Paris to enter 
 the city. This brought on an uprising of 
 the citizens, which was incited by the 
 league, and the king was at the mercy of 
 the duke. This insurrection is known as 
 the "Day of the Barricades." The king 
 escaped from Paris and fled to Chartres, 
 and Guise assuming the powers of a dicta- 
 tor, overawed the Parliament of Paris, 
 placed his own creatures in all the civil and 
 military offices of the state, and seized the 
 fortified towns near Paris to prevent a sur- 
 prise of the city. A " Council of Sixteen," 
 representing the various sections, took pos- 
 session of the city government and held it 
 for six years. Guise was not yet ready to 
 raise the standard of open rebellion, and 
 began to negotiate with the king. After 
 some hesitation, Henry was obliged by his 
 necessities to accept the hard conditions of 
 the duke, and au edict of union was signed 
 at Rouen in July, 1588. All the demands 
 of the league were granted. Guise was 
 made lieutenant-general of the king- 
 dom, and Henry was left king only in 
 name. 
 
 Henry had been driven into this humili- 
 ating reconciliation only by the hard neces- 
 sities of the moment. He had fully made 
 up his miud to be rid of the Guises, and as 
 there was but one way to accomplish that, 
 he resolved upon their assassination. The 
 duke was invited to a consultation in the 
 royal bedchamber in the Castle of Blois, 
 on the 23d of December, 1588, and was 
 killed by the king's attendants as he passed 
 through the antechamber. Henry brutally 
 kicked the body of his dead rival, and de- 
 scending to the room below, where his 
 mother lay upon her death-bed, saluted her 
 with the words : " Now, madam, I am once 
 more King of France, for I have put to 
 death the King of Paris." The Cardinal 
 of Lorraine Avas arrested and privately put 
 to death in prison. Catharine de' Medici 
 did not long survive these events. She 
 
 died, universally execrated, on the 5th of 
 January, 1589. 
 
 The news of the murder of the Guises 
 was received in Paris with an outburst of 
 fury. The Sorbonne — the great ecclesiasti- 
 cal authority of the kingdom — declared all 
 Frenchmen released from their oaths of alle- 
 giance. The parliament, attempting to 
 quiet the people, was thrown into the Bas- 
 tile, and was obliged to purchase its release 
 by confirming the decision of the Sorbonne. 
 The Duke of Aumale, a younger brother of 
 the murdered Duke of Guise, was made 
 commander of Paris, and the Duke of May- 
 enne, another brother of Guise, was named 
 by the parliament, which had been purged 
 of its refractory members, lieutenant-general 
 of the kingdom. The pope summoned 
 Henry to ai:>pear at Rome to answer for the 
 murder of the Cardinal of Lorraine, and 
 the league declared its intention to drive 
 him from the throne. 
 
 Henry was dismayed by the power of the 
 combination against him, and the refusal 
 of the leaguers to come to any accommoda- 
 tion with him compelled him to ally him- 
 self with the King of Navarre and the 
 Huguenots. This alliance was completed 
 in April, 1589, and the two kings, joining 
 their forces, laid siege to Paris. The King 
 of France, thus supported, was in a fair 
 way to crush the league, and the chiefs of 
 that party saw their danger clearly. Paris 
 was weakly garrisoned, and it was well 
 known that upon the fall of the city, which 
 was inevitable, the king would exact a 
 heavy penalty of the citizens for their rebel- 
 lion and many insults to him. The leaguers 
 and the priests, and above all the Duchess 
 of Montpensier, the sister of the murdered 
 Duke of Guise, openly declared that noth- 
 ing but the murder of one or both of the 
 kings could save the kingdom. An assas- 
 sin was found at last — an ignorant Domini- 
 can monk named Jacques Clement — who 
 was brought to believe that the murder of 
 the King of France would be an act highly 
 pleasing to heaven. It was known that a 
 general assault of the combined armies was 
 ordered for the 2d of August, and Clement 
 was hurried forward to his task, and pre- 
 pared for it by the administration of the 
 sacrament. On the 1st of August, having 
 entered the royal lines, he obtained au in- 
 terview with Henry IH. and stabbed him 
 in the stomach. He was at once cut down 
 by the royal guard. Henry lingered 
 through the day, and feeling his end at 
 
686 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 hand, summoned the King of Navarre to 
 his presence, acknowledged him as his suc- 
 cessor, and caused the nobles to swear alle- 
 giance to him. He died between two and 
 three o'clock on the morning of August 2d, 
 1589. With Henry III. euded the house 
 of Valois, which had held the throne for 
 two hundred and sixty-one years, and given 
 thirteen kings to France. 
 
 Henry of Navarre, although the rightful 
 heir to the throne, had considerable diffi- 
 culty in procuring the recognition of his 
 claims by the leaders of the royal forces 
 before Paris. The Catholic nobles, not- 
 withstanding the oath they had taken in 
 the presence of the dying Henry IH., 
 
 summon a lawful national council within 
 six months, and to abide by its decisions, 
 and to place in the hands of the Catholics 
 all the fortresses and towns except those 
 granted to the Protestants by the last treaty. 
 The Duke d'Epernon, however, arrogantly 
 refused to recognize Henry even upon these 
 terms, and withdrew w'ith his force of 7,000 
 men to Saintonge. The Huguenots of Poi- 
 tou and Gascony, headed by La Tremouille, 
 Duke of Thouars, also withdrew from the 
 army, as they regarded the king's promises 
 to the Catholics as a betrayal of their cause. 
 There were now no less than eight claim- 
 ants of the crown. Of these Philip H. of 
 Spain, whose wife was the daughter of 
 
 THE CHAMBER OF HENKY IV., PALACE OF THE LOUVKE. 
 
 showed a strong disinclination to acknowl- 
 edge a heretic as King of France. They 
 plainly told him that he must become a 
 Catholic in order to become King of France. 
 Henry at first remonstrated with dignity 
 against such treatment, but finally agreed 
 to submit to the instruction of a national 
 council, and to give all necessary guaran- 
 tees for the protection of the Catholic re- 
 ligion. The nobles agreed to recognize him 
 on these terms, and on the 4th of August 
 Henry signed, as King of France and 
 Navarre, a solemn declaration binding 
 himself to maintain the Catholic faith and 
 the property and rights of the church, to 
 
 Henry II., was the most powerful, and 
 Henry of Navarre, who had neither money 
 nor troops enough to meet his rivals on 
 equal terms, was the poorest. His cause 
 indeed seemed hopeless. He was a heretic, 
 had been the favorite leader of the Protes- 
 tant cause, and had been the ally of the 
 murderer of the Duke of Guise. The Duke 
 of Mayenne, who was a weaker and less 
 daring man than Henry of Guise, did not 
 venture yet to claim the crown, but pro- 
 claimed the Cardinal de Bourbon, then a 
 prisoner at Tours, king, as Charles X., and 
 took for himself the title of "Lieutenant- 
 General of the State and Crown of France." 
 
FR03f THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS L TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 687 
 
 Henry of Navarre was seriously disheart- 
 eued by the obstacles in his way, and 
 would have withdrawn into the south of 
 France had he not been persuaded by the 
 historian D'Aubign^ one of his most faith- 
 ful friends, to remain in the north. It was 
 this determination which saved him his 
 crown. 
 
 Finding his force too mucli weakened to 
 continue the siege of Paris, Henry broke 
 up his camp on the 8th of August, and 
 marched into Normandy. The Governor 
 of Dieppe at once submitted to him and 
 placed the town in his hands, thus giving 
 him an important sea-port from which he 
 could communicate with England, whose 
 queen had promised him aid. Caen next 
 espoused his cause, and in September Henry 
 defeated in several engagements, at Arques, 
 a superior force under the Dukeof Mayenne. 
 He was soon made to feel the good effect of 
 these early successes. His brilliant man- 
 agement and his good fortune began to in- 
 spire confidence in him, and in a few months 
 his forces had increased to 20,000 men. 
 During the winter he was recognized as 
 king in the greater part of Normandy, 
 Brittany, Touraine, Poitou, Saintonge, and 
 Gascony, and had a strong following in 
 Dauphine, Provence, and Languedoc. All 
 the Protestant courts had recognized him 
 as King of France, and Pope Sixtus V. had 
 expressed himself favorable to his claim. 
 Ou the 11th of January, 1590, he won 
 another important victory over the forces 
 of the league commanded by the Duke of 
 Mayenne at Ivry. The army of Mayenne 
 was doubly as strong as that of the king. 
 At the moment of engaging the enemy, 
 Henry said to the troops, "My friend's, 
 yonder is the enemy, here is your king ; 
 and God is on our side. If you lose your 
 standards, rally round my white plume; 
 you will always find it in the path of honor 
 and victory." The victory of Ivry was one 
 of the most glorious and complete in the 
 annals of war, and had Henry been able to 
 press on to Paris, that city would have fallen 
 into his hands. His advance was delayed 
 by the necessity of reducing several impor- 
 tant posts on the way. He reached the 
 vicinity of Paris in May, blockaded the 
 city, and by the last of July was master of 
 all the suburbs. The fall of the city seemed 
 inevitable, when Philip of Spain sent the 
 Prince of Parma, the ablest general of his 
 day, with 14,000 Spanish infantry, to the re- 
 lief of Paris. The prince completely out- 
 
 general led the king, threw provisions and 
 reinforcements into Paris, and compelled 
 Henry to raise the siege. Greatly morti- 
 fied, Henry withdrew to Compiegne, Sep- 
 tember, 1591. The next spring Henry en- 
 deavored to force the Prince of Parma to a 
 decisive battle, but that commander skil- 
 fully evaded him, and secured his retreat 
 into the Netherlands without the loss of a 
 man or a cannon. 
 
 All parties were now weary of this inde- 
 cisive and exhausting war, and in July, 
 1593, Henry, having resolved to give peace 
 to the country by the sacrifice of his reli- 
 gious convictions, made a public profession 
 of his adhesion to the doctrines of the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church, and was received 
 into that communion by the Archbishop of 
 Bourges in the Chui-ch of St. Denis. The 
 king had never made any pretensions to a 
 religious life, and his change of belief was 
 not a matter of much consequence to him. 
 It was in a political point of view an act 
 of the profoundest statesmanshij). It struck 
 a death-blow to the league, and removed 
 the last obstacle to the union of the parties 
 that had so long divided France. Henry 
 was crowned king at Chartres, and was gen- 
 erally acknowledged throughout France. 
 On the 22d of March, 159-4, he entered 
 Paris, which had submitted to him, and the 
 submission of the capital was followed by 
 that of the provinces. 
 
 Henry IV. was now undisputed ruler in 
 France. He signalized his triumph by his 
 liberal treatment of his former enemies. 
 Generous and warm-hearted by nature, he 
 found it impossible to harbor resentment, 
 and his conduct towards his recent fies 
 showed that he had forgotten as well as for- 
 given their offences. Naturally such a king 
 made friends ou all sides, and was served 
 with a devotion that has few parallels in 
 history. He had shown himself a great 
 soldier ; he was now to prove himself a 
 great statesman. 
 
 Now that he was firmly seated upon the 
 throne, Henry resolved to bring to a de- 
 cisive issue his quarrel with Philip of Spain, 
 His determination was increased by the at- 
 tempt of an emissary of Philip and the 
 Jesuits to assassinate him. He punished 
 the Jesuits by a decree of the Parliament 
 of Paris expelling them from the kingdom 
 within fifteen days; and on the 17th of 
 January, 1595, declared war against Philip. 
 During the latter part of the year Pope 
 Clement VIII. formally acknowledged 
 
688 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Henry as King of France, and early in 
 1596 the Dukes of Mayenue and Epernon 
 made their submission. The league was 
 now at an end. The war with Spain com- 
 pelled the king to put forth all his energies. 
 The Spaniards captured Calais, Ardres, and 
 Amiens, Henry won back Amiens, Avhich 
 surrendered on the 25th of September, 1597. 
 This was the last operation of the war. 
 
 HENEY IV. 
 
 which was brought to an end by the treaty 
 of Vervins in May, 1598. Philip surren- 
 dered all his conquests in France except the 
 citadel of Cam bray. 
 
 A few days j^revious to the conclusion of 
 this treaty, Henry, in order to secure the 
 Huguenots in the full possession of their 
 rights, signed the memorable document 
 known as the Edict of Nantes, by which he 
 guaranteed to all his subjects universal lib- 
 
 erty and equality as to religious profession 
 and worship. All the towns, about seventy- 
 five in number, that had been obtained by 
 the Huguenots by the treaty of 1577, were 
 permanently secured to them. Among 
 these were La Rochelle, Nismes, Mont- 
 pellier, Grenoble, and several other impor- 
 tant cities. The Protestants were ad- 
 mitted on equal terms to all the offices 
 
 and dignities 
 of the state, 
 both civil 
 and military, 
 and special 
 courts were 
 instituted 
 throughout 
 the kingdom 
 for their pro- 
 tection. Lib- 
 erty was 
 granted to 
 the reformed 
 to hold a gen- 
 eral assem- 
 bly once in 
 three years, 
 to deliberate 
 upon matters 
 concerning 
 their welfare, 
 and to peti- 
 t io n the 
 crown for 
 redress of 
 grievances. 
 The Catholic 
 clergy and 
 the more 
 zealous of the 
 laity bitterly 
 resisted and 
 denounced 
 the Edict of 
 Nantes, but 
 it was never- 
 theless regis- 
 tered by the 
 Parliament of Paris on the 25th of Febru- 
 ary, 1599, and secured peace and prosperity 
 to France for nearly a century. The house 
 of Bourbon was now peacefully established 
 on the throne, and continued in power until 
 the outbreak of the great revolution in 
 1789. 
 
 The kingdom being at peace, Henry was 
 now able to devote his energies to the task 
 of arranging its internal afiairs upon a se- 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 689 
 
 cure basis. The finances were in a deplor- 
 able state. The public debt was upward 
 of 300,000,000 of francs, a sum equivalent 
 to about $160,000,000 in our money. The 
 collection of the revenue was let out to offi- 
 cials called Farmers General, who defrauded 
 the government to such an extent that out 
 of 200,000,000 of francs paid annually as 
 taxes by the people, not more than 30,000,- 
 000 reached the treasury. In 1598 the 
 king placed Maximilian de Bethune, Baron 
 of Rosny, whom he had created Duke of 
 Sully, in charge of the finances. Sully 
 was one of the ablest statesmen that ever 
 served France, and a man of the sternest 
 integrity. His vigorous measures soon pro- 
 duced a change in financial matters. The 
 frauds from which the government had suf- 
 fered were sternly checked, useless and ex- 
 pensive offices and titles were abolished, 
 and the levying of arbitrary taxes was 
 stopped. The taxation was reduced to 
 26,000,000 per annum, and of this sum 
 20,000,000 were paid into the treasury. 
 The i^ublic debt was reduced nearly one- 
 half, and a reserve fund of over 26,000,- 
 000 of livres was accumulated. Henry 
 gave a cordial and unswerving support to 
 his great minister, and the kingdom soon 
 began to feel the good effects of the change. 
 Agriculture was encouraged by the king 
 and the minister, as were commerce, manu- 
 factures, and all the branches of industry. 
 Commercial treaties were negotiated with 
 England, Holland, Spain, and Turkey, and 
 colonies were founded in America. Marshes 
 were drained, roads, bridges, and canals 
 were constructed, and measures were taken 
 for the preservation of the forests. There 
 was scarcely a subject connected with the 
 welfare of the kingdom that did not receive 
 their personal care and attention. 
 
 Although so successful in his public life, 
 Henry was very unfortunate in his private 
 relations. The unmitigated immoralities of 
 his wife, Marguerite de Valois, had caused 
 him to separate from her many years be- 
 fore, and as he had no legitimate heir, he 
 now seriously thought of obtaining a di- 
 vorce from his wife and marrying his mis- 
 tress, Gabrielle d'Estrees, who had borne 
 him several children, and whom he had 
 created Duchess of Beaufort. Many of 
 the leading nobles f:^vored this union, but 
 Sully sternly opposed it, and held the king 
 back from it. The duchess unwisely de- 
 manded the disgrace of the minister, but 
 Henry answered her bluntly that if it were 
 44 
 
 necessary to part with either herself or the 
 duke, he would stand by Sully. This de- 
 cisive blow to her hopes threw her into an 
 illness, of which she died in April, 1599. 
 In December, 1599, the pope, at the request 
 of the king, dissolved his marriage with 
 Marguerite de Valois. Henry now gave a 
 written promise to a new mistress, the beau- 
 tiful Henriette d'Entragues, whom he made 
 Marchioness of Verneuil. Sully, upon be- 
 ing shown this paper, tore it to pieces, and 
 exerted himself to find a fitting partner 
 for the king. The choice of the monarch fell 
 upon Marie de' Medici, daughter of the late 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the marriage 
 was celebrated in October, 1600. Several 
 children were the fruit of this marriage, the 
 eldest of whom was born on the 27th of 
 September, 1601. He subsequently became 
 Louis XIII. 
 
 The treaty of Vervins required the sur- 
 render to France by the Duke of Savoy of 
 the Marquisate of Saluces. This was re- 
 tained by Savoy iu spite of the treaty, and 
 in 1600 the duke proceeded to Paris to 
 negotiate with the king concerning it, and 
 took advantage of his visit to organize a 
 conspiracy against the king. He drew 
 into it many of the former members of the 
 league, the principal person being Marshal 
 de Biron, Henry's old companion-in-arms, 
 and whom the king esteemed his most de- 
 voted friend. Biron was ambitious, how- 
 ever, and very vain. Satisfied \vith his 
 work, Charles Emmanuel went back to 
 Savoy, and refused to make the surrender 
 required of him by treaty. He hoped that 
 his plot, which had for its object nothing 
 short of the dismemberment of France into 
 feudal states under the suzerainty of the 
 King of Spain, was in a fair way to succeed, 
 and he was anxious for w'ar. Henry grati- 
 fied him, and invading Savoy with an army, 
 iu which Marshal de Biron held one of the 
 chief commands, rapidly overran the duchy, 
 and on the 21st of August occupied Cham- 
 berry, the capital. The Duke of Savoy 
 was obliged to ask for peace, and as the 
 price of it was compelled to surrender the 
 district of La Bresse, between Lyons and 
 Geneva, in return for Saluces. Upon his 
 return to France, Henry was informed of 
 the conspiracy, and of Biron's share in it; 
 but upon the avowal of his guilt by his old 
 friend, the king frankly forgave him, and 
 sent him on a mission to England. Biron, 
 however, failed to profit by the generosity 
 of the king, and renewed his intrigues with 
 
690 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the enemies of France. His plots being 
 discovered, the king offered him a chance 
 to confess his guilt, intending to pardon 
 him if he showed any sign of remorse; but 
 as the marshal haughtily refused to ac- 
 knowledge his crime, he was tried, con- 
 victed, and executed on the 31st of July, 
 1632. This was a wise measure as well as 
 a severe one. It effectually put an end to 
 the plots against Henry, and secured the 
 internal tranquillity of France. Three 
 years of unbroken peace followed, and 
 Henry was enabled to devote himself to the 
 improvement of his kingdom. 
 
 The king now began seriously to consider 
 the execution of a scheme which he had 
 long meditated for the rearrangement of 
 the European system of states, and the 
 humiliation of the house of Austria, He 
 desired to form a gi'eat European confed- 
 eration of nations, which should embrace 
 within itself upon a footing of perfect 
 equality, the three prevailing forms of 
 Christianity, the Catholic, the Lutheran, 
 and the Reformed. Each member was to 
 be guaranteed the free and full enjoyment 
 of the political institutions it preferred. 
 Six hereditary and six elective monarchies 
 and three republics were to be embraced in 
 the confederacy. The hereditary mon- 
 archies were to be France, Spain, Great 
 Britain, Denmark, Sweden, and northern 
 Italy, or Savoy ; tlie elective monarchies, 
 the Empire, Poland, Hungary, Venice, Bo- 
 hemia, and the Papal States ; the republics, 
 the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the Ita- 
 lian republics, which last were to embrace 
 Genoa, Lucca, and the other small states. 
 The acceptance of this programme by 
 Europe would have weakened Spain by 
 severing from her the Netherlands, Franche 
 Comte, and Lombardy ; and Austria would 
 have been proportionately weakened by 
 the loss of Bohemia, Hungary, and the 
 Tyrol. An equilibrium would thus be 
 established between the great powers, and 
 was to be preserved by a diet or federal 
 council, to which disputes between the states 
 were to be referred, and the decisions of 
 which were to be final. Henry hoped by 
 the enforcement of such a system to weaken 
 Spain, to humble Austria, both of which 
 powers were too strong for the welfare of 
 Europe, to put an end to the religious 
 wars and quarrels, and to establish a sys- 
 tem of international law which should be 
 binding upon all Europe. It was a grand 
 design, but it was not to be carried out. 
 
 As a first step towards the enforcement 
 of his design Henry devoted himself to the 
 task of weakening the house of Austria. 
 The death without heirs of Duke William 
 of Jiilich, Cleve, and Berg, in 1609, has been 
 mentioned in our account of Germany, and 
 we have also spoken of the support which 
 Henry IV. gave to the Elector of Branden- 
 burg and the Count Palatine of Neuburg, 
 who seized the lauds of the dead duke. By 
 a treaty signed at Halle in January, 1610, 
 Henry agreed to support them with a force 
 of 10,000 men. He thus distinctly arrayed 
 himself as the enemy of the house of Aus- 
 tria, as the emperor claimed the estates of 
 Duke William as a lapsed fief. Henry 
 began his military preparations on an ex- 
 tensive scale. He assembled a force 
 of 30,000 men, with which he intended 
 to invade Germany in person ; a second 
 army, 14,000 strong, was to join the 
 Duke of Savoy and attack Lombardy ; 
 while a third, 25,000 strong, was assembled 
 at the foot of the Pyrenees for the invasion 
 of Spain. Henry delayed his departure 
 from Paris in order to celebrate the coro- 
 nation of Marie de' Medici, as queen, having 
 already appointed her regent during his 
 absence. She was crowned with great 
 splendor at St. Denis on the 13th of May, 
 1610. The next day, as the king was on 
 his way to visit Sully, who was ill at the 
 arsenal, he was assassinated in his car- 
 riage by a man named Franyois Ravaillac. 
 Ravaillac was put to the torture to draw 
 from him his motives for committing the 
 crime, and the names of his accomplices. 
 He made no revelations, however, and was 
 executed on the 27th of May with the most 
 appalling cruelties, and amidst the curses 
 of the populace. The motives of the assas- 
 sin remain shrouded in mystery. It was 
 believed by many at the time that the 
 murder was instigated by the Austrian and 
 Spanish courts ; by others it was attributed 
 to the Jesuits. 
 
 In Henry IV. France lost one of her 
 greatest kings. He was a profound states- 
 man, as well as a brilliant and successful 
 warrior, and had proved himself a wise and 
 vigorous ruler. Under his enlightened and 
 firm sway France was rapidly increasing in 
 strength and in prosperity, and his death 
 was a great misfortune to the country. 
 His brilliant courage, sparkling wit, and 
 warm-hearted generosity have always made 
 him an especial favorite of the French 
 people, and he richly merited the adraira- 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 691 
 
 tion which succeeding generations have be- 
 stowed upon him. At the same time his 
 character was marred by vices and follies 
 of a most serious nature, which the faithful 
 historian is obliged to record opposite the 
 story of his many noble and great qualities. 
 He was in his fifty-eighth year at the time 
 of his death. 
 
 Louis XIII. was less than nine years old 
 at the time of his father's murder. Sully 
 and Epernon at once took measures to se- 
 cure the regency to the widowed queen 
 during the minority of her son. This ac- 
 
 foster-sister, Leonora Galigai, and her hus- 
 band, Coucino Conciui, an obscure Floren- 
 tine adventurer. Coucino's wife was first 
 lady of the bed-chamber to the queen, and 
 he was rapidly promoted from post to post 
 until he was finally created Marquis d' An- 
 cre, and then Marshal of France. Under 
 the guidance of these persons the regent 
 formed a secret council or cabinet, consist- 
 ing of Concini, the Jesuit Cotton, the pope's 
 nuncio, and the Spanish ambassador, and 
 surrendered her judgment entirely to this 
 clique. Marie de' Medici was induced to 
 
 CHATEAU DE SAINT GERMAINS. 
 
 tion was not strictly legal, but as the 
 necessity for a peaceful settlement of the 
 government was urgent, all parties acqui- 
 esced in it. 
 
 Marie de' Medici was a weak woman, of 
 narrow understanding, and was in every 
 way unsuited to the difiicult and dangerous 
 position she had assumed. She began her 
 reign by retaining all of the ministere of 
 Henry IV., and confirming to Sully the 
 same influence he had enjoyed during the 
 life of her husband. The troops prom- 
 ised by Henry were sent to the aid of 
 the German Protestants, and the Edict of 
 Nantes was solemnly confirmed and re- 
 newed. As time passed on, however, the 
 regent fell under the evil influence of her 
 
 establish the most friendly relations with 
 both Austria and Spain, to strengthen 
 which a marriage was contracted between 
 Louis XIII. and the Infanta Anne of 
 Austria, and his eldest sister, the Princess 
 Elizabeth, was betrothed to Philip, Prince 
 of the Asturias. In short, the entire policy 
 of Henry IV. was reversed, and the inter- 
 ests of France were made subservient to 
 those of her most deadly foes. Sully viewed 
 the course of the queen with deep regret, 
 and as he could not sanction such an over- 
 throw of the designs of his great master, 
 remonstrated with her. As she persisted in 
 her course, he resigned his office in disgust 
 in 1611, and retired to his estates. He took 
 no further part in public affairs, though he 
 
692 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was frequently consulted concerning them 
 by Marie during the remainder of his life. 
 He died in 1641, at the age of eighty -two. 
 
 On the 28th of September, 1614, Louis 
 XIII., who had attained his majority on 
 the previous day, at the ripe age of thir- 
 teen, assumed the nominal charge of the 
 government, the queen mother continuing 
 to exercise the real power of the kingdom. 
 On the 14th of October the states general 
 met at Paris. The three orders were all 
 numerously I'epresented, and among the 
 deputies of the clergy was one who was des- 
 tined to achieve a world-wide fame as the 
 greatest statesman of France. He was 
 Armand Duplessis de Kichelieu, then 
 Bishop of Luyon. At the close of the ses- 
 sion he summed up the demands of the 
 nobility and clergy in an eloquent address 
 which attracted universal attention. The 
 session was passed in wrangling, and the 
 dissensions of the various orders enabled the 
 government to put them off with promises 
 which it never meant to fulfil. Their quar- 
 rels disgusted the whole nation, and the 
 crown was not sorry to see the national 
 legislature give so complete a spectacle of 
 incapacity for discharging its duties. On 
 the 24th of March, 1615, the states general 
 were suddenly dissolved by the king. They 
 were not again convoked until 1789, one 
 hundred and seventy-four years later, on 
 the eve of the Revolution. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 1615 Louis 
 XIII. was married to Anne of Austria. 
 This marriage was bitterly opposed by a 
 party led by the Prince of Conde, who had 
 twice taken up arms to compel the court to 
 cease its intimate relations with Austria 
 and Spain and to renew the alliances of 
 Henry IV. He was supported by the par- 
 liament, which refused to register the de- 
 crees by which the court sought to destroy 
 hira and his party, and the queen mother 
 was obliged to make lavish grants to him 
 to silence his opposition. Conde directed 
 his hostility principally against the favor- 
 ite, Marshal d'Ancre, and that worthy feel- 
 ing himself unsafe at court, took refuge in 
 Normandy. It was believed that Conde 
 meditated a forcible removal of the queen 
 mother from power, but at this point he met 
 with a powerful antagonist in Richelieu, 
 who had risen rapidly since the meeting of 
 the states general, and now occupied a seat 
 in the council of state. He supported the 
 interests of the queen mother with vigor, 
 and took the decisive step of advising the 
 
 arrest of the Prince of Conde, who in 
 August, 1616, was taken into custody as he 
 was leaving the council chamber, and was 
 imprisoned in the Bastile. The other lead- 
 ers of his party fled from Paris, but their 
 followers attempted to raise an insurrection 
 in the city, and plundered and destroyed 
 the splendid mansion of Marshal dAncre. 
 The riot was soon suppressed, and DAncre 
 returned to the caj^ital, where he behaved 
 with such insolence that he became hated 
 by all but the queen mother. Richelieu 
 was rewarded for his services against Conde 
 by being made secretary of state in No- 
 vember, 1616. 
 
 Louis XIII. was now sixteen years old, 
 and was beginning to chafe under the re- 
 straints imposed upon him by the queen 
 mother and her favorite, the latter of whom 
 he despised. He had chosen as his confi- 
 dant the Sieur de Luynes, a young man of 
 pleasing manners, intelligence, and of great 
 ambition. He endeavored to advance his 
 own fortunes by prejudicing Louis against 
 Marshal d'Ancre, and succeeded so well 
 that on the 24th of April the marshal was 
 arrested by order of the king. A slight 
 movement of the marshal being interpreted 
 as an effort at resistance, he was shot down 
 by the royal guard. Louis the next mo- 
 ment appeared at a window of the Louvre 
 and thanked the captain of the guard for 
 the murder, declaring that he was now a 
 king in reality. The fall of the favorite 
 was hailed with delight by the people of 
 Paris, who disinterred his body, dragged it 
 through the streets, and burned it. The 
 wife of D'Ancre was tried on the frivolous 
 charge of sorcery, and was executed on the 
 Place de Greve. The property of the hus- 
 band and wife w^as confiscated and bestowed 
 upon De Luynes, On the day of the mur- 
 der of the marshal, Marie de' Medici was 
 placed under arrest, and was subsequently 
 exiled to Blois, and Richelieu was dismissed 
 to his bishopric of Lucon. 
 
 De Luynes was now at the head of affiiirs. 
 He set to work to enrich himself and his 
 family. He was made a duke and peer of 
 France, and Governor of the Islede France 
 and Picardy, and obtained the hand of the 
 daughter of the Duke de Montbazon in 
 marriage. Two of his brothers were also 
 created dukes. His rapacity soon rendered 
 him universally unpopular, and the discon- 
 tented nobles flocked to the court of the 
 queen mother at Blois, which became the 
 centre of a dangerous and determined op- 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS L TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 693 
 
 position to the king and his favorite. On 
 the 22d of February, 1619, Marie was res- 
 cued from the Castle of Blois by the Duke 
 d'Eperuon and conducted in safety into 
 Augouleme. 
 
 The danger of civil war was great, and 
 Louis and De Luynes were seriously 
 alarmed. The latter, conscious of his ina- 
 bility to meet the approaching storm, ap- 
 pealed to Richelieu, who had remained 
 tranquilly in his retirement, awaiting what 
 he knew must be the result of the attempt 
 of De Luynes at government. He repaired 
 to the court of the queen mother, and suc- 
 ceeded in effecting a reconciliation between 
 herself and her sou, and averted the danger 
 
 kingdom conferred the constable's sword 
 upon De Luynes. Hostilities began in the 
 spring of 1621. De Luynes was thoroughly 
 incompetent to the task imposed upon him, 
 and after some slight successes in Poitou, 
 laid siege to Montauban, the principal for- 
 tress of the Huguenots in Languedoc. 
 Here the constable's incapacity was thor- 
 oughly manifested, and in spite of the 
 efforts of the royal army, the king was com- 
 pelled, by the advance of the Duke de 
 Rohan to the relief of the place, to raise 
 the siege, after having lost 8,000 of his 
 troops. De Lj.xynes did not long survive 
 this humiliation; he died on the 14th of 
 December, 1621, from the effects of a malig- 
 
 GAKDENS OP THE PALAIS KOYAL, PARIS. 
 
 of war. The Prince of Conde was liberated 
 from the Bastile, and attached himself to 
 the party of De Luynes, who hoped he 
 would prove a valuable ally against the 
 queen mother and her party. 
 
 The king now proceeded to annex the 
 little Protestant province of Beam to the 
 crown, and ordered that the Roman Cath- 
 olic religion should be re-established in it. 
 This brought on an insurrection of the 
 people of the province, whose cause was 
 quickly taken up by the Huguenots through- 
 out the kingdom. The king put an army 
 into the field to reduce the Huguenots to 
 submission, and to the disgust of the whole 
 
 nant fever. His loss was regretted by 
 none ; not even by the king. The war was 
 continued with vigor after the death of De 
 Luynes, and the next year the Huguenots 
 suffered a severe loss in the defection of 
 Marshal Lesdiguieres, one of the first sol- 
 diers of his day, who abandoned their 
 cause, embraced the Catholic faith, and was 
 made Constable of France by the king. 
 The revolt was quelled in Languedoc and 
 Guienne, and at last Montpellier was forced 
 to surrender to the royal forces. A treaty 
 was signed at this place on the 19th of 
 October, 1691, by which the Huguenots 
 surrendered all the fortified towns guaran- 
 
694 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 teed them by the former treaties, retaining 
 only Moutauban and La Rochelle. 
 
 The death of De Luynes left the position 
 of confidential minister to the king vacant, 
 and for some time it was warmly contested 
 by the queen mother and the Prince of 
 Conde. Richelieu gave a zealous support 
 to the former and enabled her to triumph 
 over her opponent. His genius had already 
 begun to make itself felt in the royal coun- 
 cils, and his ambition was more than sus- 
 pected. Men of all parties instinctively 
 felt that, given the opportunity, he would 
 make himself their master, and all united 
 in an effort to exclude him from the coun- 
 cil of state. The king personally disliked 
 him, and long refused to admit him to any 
 share of power ; but at length, yielding to 
 the solicitations of his mother, he fulfilled 
 the promise he had long ago made to Riche- 
 lieu, and demanded of the pope a cardinal's 
 hat for him. Ou the 5th of September, 
 1622, Richelieu was created by his holiness 
 a cardinal of the Holy Roman Church. 
 This was but the first step to his triumph. 
 The weakness of the royal government was 
 growing more apparent every day, and the 
 ambitious designs of Austria and Spain 
 were causing serious alarm in France. The 
 king changed his ministers repeatedly, but 
 no one was competent to conduct the king- 
 dom safely through the perplexities in 
 which it was involved, and at last Louis 
 was compelled to listen to the urgent solici- 
 tations of his mother and summon Riche- 
 lieu to a place in the council of state. This 
 he did on the 26th of April, 1624. Louis 
 had intended that the cardinal should 
 occupy a subordinate position in the coun- 
 cil, but he could not prevent the genius of 
 the great man whom he had so unwillingly 
 summoned to his aid from asserting itself. 
 Before he had been six months in the coun- 
 cil Richelieu was the real ruler of France, 
 and his supremacy was acknowledged by 
 the king, the court, and the entire nation. 
 He infused his indomitable energy into 
 every branch of the public service, and the 
 government suddenly acquired a strength 
 which was felt in every part of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 The condition of France when Richelieu 
 came into power is thus summed up by the 
 cardinal himself: "I may say with truth 
 that at the time of my entrance upon office 
 the Huguenots divided the power of the 
 state with your majesty ; that the great 
 nobles conducted themselves as if they were 
 
 not your subjects, and the governors of 
 provinces as if they were independent sub- 
 jects in their own dominions. Foreign 
 alliances were depreciated and misunder- 
 stood ; private interests preferred to those 
 of the state ; and, in a word, the majesty of 
 the crown was degraded to such a depth of 
 abasement that it was scarcely to be recog- 
 nized at all." From the moment of his en- 
 trance upon office, Richelieu pursued a 
 consistent and undeviating policy, the chief 
 objects of which were the destruction of the 
 Huguenots as a political party, the firm 
 establishment of the royal authority over 
 the nobility, and the reconquest by France 
 of her supremacy in Europe by the system- 
 atic humiliation of Austria. 
 
 In pursuance of this policy Richelieu 
 sought to weaken the empire and Spain by 
 forming an alliance between France and 
 the Protestant powers of northern Europe. 
 His first step was to negotiate a marriage 
 between Charles, Prince of Wales, the son 
 of James I. of England, and the Princess 
 Henrietta Maria, a sister of Louis XIII. 
 A match which had been previously ar- 
 ranged between Charles and a Spanish in- 
 fanta was broken off, and the marriage ar- 
 ranged by Richelieu was celebrated in May, 
 1625. The German Protestants were fur- 
 nished with funds and were allowed to col- 
 lect troops in France, and a French army 
 was sent into the Valteline, which was held 
 by the Austrians and Spaniards, and which 
 furnished them a direct communication be- 
 tween northern Italy and the Tyrol. In a 
 campaign of a few weeks the Austrian forces 
 were completely expelled, and all the for- 
 tresses were occupied by the French. The 
 pope looked with open disfavor upon these 
 attacks upon the chief Catholic powers of 
 Europe, and protested against the course of 
 the cardinal ; but Richelieu told him 
 plainly that while he acknowledged his 
 duties as a prince of the church, his first 
 allegiance was due to France, whose inter- 
 ests and dignity were his first objects under 
 any and all circumstances. 
 
 A sudden and unexpected revolt of the 
 Huguenots under the Dukes de Rohan and 
 Soubise, in the summer of 1625, obliged 
 Richelieu to suspend the operation of his 
 plans against Austria. Ho proceeded with 
 vigor against the insurgents, with the as- 
 sistance of a fleet furnished by England 
 and Holland, defeated their fleet off' Ro- 
 chelle, and reduced that town to extremities. 
 He now became aware of the existence of a 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIIL 695 
 
 formidable conspiracy against his adminis- 
 tration and his life, and in order to devote 
 himself to its suppression, made peace with 
 the Huguenots upon favorable terms in 
 February, 1626. In March a treaty was 
 signed with Spain, by which it was agreed 
 that France should restore the Valteline to 
 the Grisons, from whom Spain and Austria 
 had taken it. Richelieu was severely cen- 
 sured and ridiculed for his leniency to the 
 Huguenots upon this occasion ; but he knew 
 full well that the time for the success of his 
 plans against them had not yet arrived. 
 
 The plot to which we have referred had 
 been skilfully organized. The chief actor 
 in it was Gaston, Duke of Anjou, the only 
 brother of the king, and it embraced many 
 of the greatest nobles of France. The 
 young queen was also a party to it. It was 
 the intention of the conspirators to assas- 
 sinate the cardinal at his country house, and 
 make Gaston his successor in power. The 
 plot was discovered by the cardinal. Gaston 
 betrayed his confederates and threw him- 
 self upon the mercy of the king. His 
 treachery was rewarded by his promotion 
 to the duchy of Orleans, with its enormous 
 revenues, but the other conspirators were 
 executed or banished. The young queen 
 was summoned before the council of state 
 and severely reprimanded for her share in 
 the conspiracy, and the coldness which had 
 for some time existed between herself and 
 the king was increased. From this moment 
 the queen and the cardinal became declared 
 and bitter enemies. The result of the con- 
 spiracy was to establish the power of the 
 cardinal more firmly than ever. The next 
 year he gave a startling evidence of the 
 vigor with which he meant to bring the 
 nobles to the foot of the throne. A royal 
 ordinance forbade duelling, which had be- 
 come a serious evil among the gallants of 
 the court. In defiance of it the Counts de 
 Bouteville and Des Chapelles had a desper- 
 ate encounter in the Place Royale at Paris. 
 They were arrested by order of the cardinal, 
 tried, convicted, and executed with a grim 
 firmness which struck terror to the whole 
 of the turbulent class to which they be- 
 longed. 
 
 Trouble with the Huguenots of Rochelle 
 again broke out, and this time England 
 took sides with the people of Rochelle 
 against the French king. The Duke of 
 Buckingham had conceived a foolish pas- 
 sion for the Queen of France, which Riche- 
 lieu had exposed and ridiculed. The duke, 
 
 in the hope of being revenged upon the 
 cardinal, induced the King of England to 
 give aid to the Huguenots. The cause was 
 popular in England, and had a more capa- 
 ble leader than Buckingham been chosen, 
 the Huguenots might have derived some 
 solid advantage from the alliance. A fleet 
 of one hundred vessels and a strong force 
 of troops were despatched to the relief of 
 Rochelle under the command of Bucking- 
 ham, in July, 1627. 
 
 In the meantime Richelieu had made ex- 
 traordinary exertions for the reduction of 
 Rochelle. A powerful and splendidly 
 equipped army laid siege to the place, 
 under the nominal command of the king, 
 but really under the direction of the car- 
 dinal, who proved himself an able general 
 as well as a great statesman. The town 
 was defended with heroic valor, and an in- 
 effectual effort was made for its relief by 
 the English fleet, which was defeated with 
 heavy loss. Buckingham then bore away 
 for England, and Rochelle was left to con- 
 tend single-handed with the royal forces. 
 Richelieu closely invested the town by land 
 and built a mole across the mouth of the 
 harbor, which he fortified, thus cutting off* 
 relief for the city from the sea. Two Eng- 
 lish fleets were sent to relieve the starving 
 town, but were unable to enter the harbor 
 in consequence of the barrier erected by the 
 cardinal, and withdrew. After a siege of 
 fifteen months, during which half the popu- 
 lation died from hunger and the garrison 
 was reduced to less than two hundred men, 
 the town surrendered on the 28th of Octo- 
 ber, 1628. Richelieu used his victory with 
 moderation. He declared that the age of 
 persecution for conscience sake was past, 
 and that the king had made war upon the 
 Rochellois not as Huguenots but as rebels. 
 He confirmed the people of the town in the 
 exercise of their religion, but as a punish- 
 ment for their rebellion deprived them of 
 their political rights and destroyed the 
 fortifications of the city. In August, 1629, 
 Montauban, the last Protestant stronghold 
 in France, was taken, and the Huguenots as 
 a political party ceased to exist. 
 
 Spain took advantage of the war with the 
 Huguenots to endeavor to injure France in 
 Italy by expelling the Duke de Nevers, a 
 Frenchman, from Mantua and Montferrat, 
 to which he had just succeeded. Richelieu, 
 as soon as the siege of Rochelle was con- 
 cluded, induced the king to cross the Alps 
 in March, 1629, with an army of 36,000 
 
696 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 men to the assistance of the Duke of Man- 
 tua. The Duke of Savoy, who was hostile 
 to France, was compelled to make a treaty 
 of peace, and the Spaniards were obliged 
 to discontinue their designs upon Mantua 
 and Montferrat. The Freuch had scarcely 
 repassed the Alps when the Spaniards and 
 Austrians again invaded Mantua and occu- 
 pied the country of the Grisons. The Duke 
 of Savoy made a secret alliance with the 
 enemies of France, and prepared to prevent 
 the French army from passing through his 
 territory into Italy. Richelieu obtained 
 the supreme command of the army, and 
 chose Marshals Bassompierre and Schora- 
 berg as his lieutenants. He moved rapidly 
 
 France, Richelieu now found himself sur- 
 rounded by personal enemies, and plots 
 against him began to thicken. On his way 
 to join the army iu Italy, the king was 
 seized with a dangerous illness at Lyons, 
 and Marie de' Medici, who, as she could 
 not rule Richelieu, had become his enemy, 
 took advantage of the king's weakness to 
 extort from him a promise that he would 
 dismiss the cardinal. Louis consented on 
 condition that no step should be taken 
 against the cardinal till the close of the 
 war. Recovering his health he began to 
 ^how his unwillingness to deprive France 
 of the services and himself of the aid of his 
 great minister, but the clamors of his wife 
 
 GALLERY OF ANCIENT SCULPTURES, PALACE OP THE LOUVRE, PARIS. 
 
 into Savoy, took Pignerol after a siege of 
 three days, and a number of other fortresses. 
 Savoy and the marquisate of Saluces were 
 soon overrun by the French, and the allies 
 were obliged to make peace. Mantua was 
 evacuated by the Austrians, and the Duke 
 de Nevers received the investiture of that 
 duchy from the emperor. Savoy was com- 
 pelled to cede Pignerol and two other for- 
 tresses to France. The war was ended by 
 the treaty of Cherasco in April, 1631. One 
 of the principal negotiators was Giulio 
 Mazarini, then an agent of the pope at the 
 court of Savoy, and afterwards famous as 
 Cardinal Mazarin. 
 
 Though successful against the foes of 
 
 and mother and the courtiers for the re- 
 moval of the cardinal grew greater every 
 day. Finally, Richelieu, who had come to 
 court in the meanwhile, became involved 
 in an open quarrel with the queen mother 
 in the king's presence. Louis ended it by 
 quitting the palace and hastening to Ver- 
 sailles. The whole court now regarded the 
 cardinal's ruin as certain, and his enemies 
 were open in their exultation. Richelieu 
 himself was confident that he would be dis- 
 graced, and was surprised to receive a sum- 
 mons to join the king at Versailles. Louis 
 received him cordially, and assured him 
 that he would not only listen to no charges 
 against him, but would remove from court 
 
FROM THE ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. TO DEATH OF LOUIS XIII. 697 
 
 all who had the will or the ability to injure 
 or thwart him. The 11th of November, 
 1630, the day upon which tliese events took 
 place, is still known in France as the " Day 
 of Dupes." 
 
 The cardinal now proceeded to act with 
 vigor against those who had sought to in- 
 jure him, and caused Marshal de Marillac 
 to be executed on a charge of peculation, 
 and banished his brother, the keeper of the 
 seals, to Chateaudun. He then endeavored 
 to persuade the king that there would be 
 no peace at court as long as the queen 
 mother was allowed to continue her plot- 
 tings. Louis was greatly averse to any se- 
 
 fled to Brussels. His followers were im- 
 prisoned or banished. Gaston continued 
 his plotting at Brussels, and succeeded in 
 drawing into his schemes a number of the 
 discontented nobles of France, among whom 
 was the Duke de Montmorency, one of the 
 most illustrious men in France. Gaston 
 invaded France in 1632 with a small force, 
 but his army was defeated, and he was 
 forced to fly again. The saddest result of 
 the insurrection was the execution of Mont- 
 morency on the 30th of October, 1632. 
 
 The thirty years' war had been going on 
 for many years in Germany. True to his 
 policy of weakening Austria, Richelieu in 
 
 EGYPTIAN MUSEUM, PALACE OF THE LOUVRE— PARIS. 
 
 vere measures against his mother, but in 
 1631 a fresh rebellion of the Duke of Or- 
 leans, which was instigated by Marie, in- 
 duced him to take a decisive step against 
 her. She was exiled from court and sent 
 to Compiegne. A few days later the king 
 ordered her to retire to Moulins. She re- 
 fused to obey, and escaped across the fron- 
 tier to the Spanish court at Brussels. This 
 act was fatal to her. Louis sternly refused 
 to allow her to return to France, and in 
 1642 she died in exile at Cologne. Gas- 
 ton's rebellion was put down, his estates 
 were confiscated, and he took refuge in Lor- 
 raine, but being refused a shelter there, he 
 
 1631 entered into an alliance with Gustavus 
 Adolphus of Sweden, as has been related ; 
 promising him an annual subsidy of 400,- 
 000 crowns, and thus openly siding with 
 the Protestants of Germany against the 
 emperor and the Catholic League. After 
 the death of Gustavus, the alliance was re- 
 newed by a treaty with Oxenstiern, the 
 Swedish chancellor. The victory of the 
 imperialists at Nordlingen in September, 
 1634, seemed to establish the success of the 
 emperor ; but Richelieu set to work with 
 vigor to neutralize it. Treaties were con- 
 cluded by France with Holland, Sweden, 
 the Protestant Princes of Germany, Switz- 
 
698 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 erland, and the Duke of Savoy, and France 
 agreed to place four large armies, amount- 
 ing in the aggregate to 120,000 men, in the 
 field for the assistance of her allies. The 
 events of the next three years were un- 
 favorable to France. In 1636 the imperial 
 army penetrated far into Picardy, and se- 
 riously threatened Paris, but was at length 
 compelled to withdraw with loss. In 1638 
 matters took a more favorable turn. Duke 
 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, who had en- 
 tered the French service, cajDtured several 
 fortresses on the upper Rhine, and defeated 
 the imperialist ai'my in a great battle at 
 Rheinfeld, on the 3d of March. In De- 
 cember of the same year he compelled the 
 surrender of the strong fortress of Breisach, 
 after a siege of nearly six months. The 
 events of 1639 were equally fortunate to 
 France, and the death of Duke Bernhard, 
 who had established himself at Breisach in 
 the hope of obtaining Alsace as an inde- 
 pendent sovereignty, enabled Richelieu to 
 annex it to France. The Count Harcourt, 
 the French commander in Italy, defeated 
 the imperialists in Piedmont and overran 
 that country, and in September, 1640, cap- 
 tured Turin after a spirited siege of more 
 than four months. In thesame year the 
 French expelled the Spaniards from Artois, 
 and annexed that valuable province to the 
 crown of France. 
 
 In the meantime the good fortune of 
 Richelieu had attended him. He discov- 
 ered a secret correspondence between the 
 queen and the Spanish court at Brussels, 
 and the queen, in terror at the discovery of 
 her offence, confessed her fault to Richelieu 
 and signed a solemn pledge never to be 
 guilty of a like crime again. The cardinal 
 on his part undertook to bring about a 
 reconciliation between Anne and Louis, 
 and succeeded to the entire satisfaction of 
 both parties. The royal pair had been 
 married for more than twenty years, but no 
 children had been born to them. Anne 
 now became the mother of a son, who was 
 born at Saint Germains on the 5lh of Sep- 
 tember, 1638, and who afterwards became 
 Louis XIV. In 1642 the gay and brilliant 
 Marquis of Cinq-Mars, whom Richelieu 
 had selected as the companion of the king, 
 organized a formidable conspiracy against 
 the cardinal, who had undertaken to check 
 his ambitious schemes, and opened a trea- 
 sonable correspondence with the Spaniards. 
 Richelieu detected the conspiracy, and ob- 
 tained a copy of the treaty between the 
 
 conspirators and Spain. Cinq-Mars was 
 arrested, together with De Thou, one of the 
 conspirators, and both were executed at 
 Lyons on the 12th of September, 1642. 
 
 In the same year Perpignan was taken, 
 and completed the conquest of Rousillon, 
 which was annexed to France ; and the 
 principality of Sedan became the property 
 of the crown, having been confiscated as a 
 penalty imposed upon the Duke of Bouillon 
 for his complicity in the plot of Cinq-Mars. 
 
 Richelieu was now at the height of his 
 power. In France he was supreme, and he 
 had made his country great at home and 
 feared abroad. He had humbled the pride 
 of the house of Austria and effectually de- 
 stroyed its ambitious schemes for advance- 
 ment, and in every quarter he had beaten 
 and crippled the enemies of France, which 
 under his skilful guidance became the first 
 power in Europe. All this while he was 
 -sinking under a mortal disease, and on the 
 4th of December, 1642, died in the fifty- 
 eighth year of his age. Louis, who owed 
 everything to Richelieu, received the an- 
 nouncement of his death with the cold re- 
 mark, "There is a great politician gone." 
 He made no change in the ministry chosen 
 by Richelieu, except to appoiut Cardinal 
 Mazarin to a seat in the council. In less 
 than six months Louis XIII. followed his 
 great minister to the grave. He died at 
 Saint Germains on the 14th of May, 1643, 
 in the forty-second year of his age, having 
 reigned exactly thirty-three years. He 
 left the regency to his widow, Anne of Aus- 
 tria, and named the Duke of Orleans lieu- 
 tenant-general of the kingdom. A council 
 of state was also appointed by the will of 
 the king, consisting of the Cardinal Ma- 
 zarin, the Prince of Conde, Seguier, the 
 chancellor, and Chavigny and Bouthillier, 
 secretaries of state. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE REIGN OP LOUIS XIV. 
 
 Regency of Anne of Austria — Mazarin Prime Min- 
 ister — Battle of Rocroi — Capture of Dunkirk — 
 The Prince of Conde at Lerida— Peace of West- 
 phalia—Close of the Thirty Years' War— Position 
 of France — Financial Troubles — The War of the 
 Fronde Begun— Turenne Quits France — Arrest 
 of the Prince de Conde and his Brothers— Revolt 
 of Guienne— Mazarin Obliged to Leave France — 
 Revolt of Conde— Turenne Returns to France- 
 Battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine— Conde Joins 
 the Spaniards — Close of the War of the Fronde — 
 War with Spain— Peace of the Pyrenees — Mar- 
 riage of Louis XIV. to the Spanish Infanta — 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 699 
 
 Death of Mazarin — Louis Takes the Government 
 into his own Hands — His Character— Colbert 
 Made Minister of Finance— Alliance with Holland 
 — War with England— The Treaty of Breda — 
 Louis Claims the Spanish Netherlands— Invades 
 Flanders — The Triple Alliance— Treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle — Louis Makes War upon the Dutch 
 Eepublic — Treaty with England — The French 
 Cross the Rhine — Their Successes — William of 
 Orange Made Stadtholder — His Successful De- 
 fence of Holland — England Withdraws from the 
 War — Turenne's Campaign in Alsace — Death of 
 Turenne — Retirement of the Great Conde — Naval 
 Victories of the French — Peace of Nimwegen — 
 Louis at the Height of his Power — Seizes Stras- 
 burg — Private Life of Louis — Madame de Main- 
 tenon — Persecution of the Huguenots — Madame 
 de Maintenon and the Jesuits Attempt the King's 
 Conversion — The Dragonnades — Marriage of the 
 King to Madame de Maintenon — Revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes — French Industry Nearly 
 Ruined by the King's Bigotry — Savage Persecu- 
 tion of the Huguenots — Flight of the Protestants 
 from France — The League of Augsburg — The 
 Prince of Orange Becomes King of England — 
 James II. in France — Louis Declares War — The 
 Palatinate Ravaged by the French — The Coalition 
 against France — Failure of the French Expedi- 
 tion to Ireland — ^Battle of Fleurus — Death of Lu- 
 vois — The French Fleet Destroyed in the Chan- 
 nel — Capture of Mons — Battles of Steinkirk and 
 Neerwinden — The Duke of Savoy Abandons the 
 Coalition — The Peace of Ryswick — The War of 
 the Spanish Succession — The Second Grand Al- 
 liance — Marlborough— Prince Eugene — The Cam- 
 paign of 1702 — Marshal Villars' Cam))aign in 
 Germany — Battle of Hochstadt— The Duke of 
 Savoy Joins the Alliance — Revolt of the Protes- 
 tants of tlie Cevennes — Battle of Blenheim — Spain 
 Loses Gibraltar — Campaign of 1706 — Reverses of 
 the French — Events of the Year 1707 — Battle of 
 Oudenarde — Famine in France — Progress of the 
 War — Domestic Afflictions of Louis — The Peace 
 of Utrecht — Consequences of the War to France — 
 Death of Louis — The "Age of Louis XIV." 
 
 S soon as she had been confirmed in 
 the regency, Anne of Austria dis- 
 missed the council of regency, and 
 made Cardinal Mazarin her chief 
 minister. This choice was a mat- 
 ter of surprise to all parties, as 
 Mazarin had been the faithful subordinate 
 of her old enemy Richelieu. The choice 
 was a good one, however. Mazarin Avas a 
 man of great genius, and as Louis XIV. 
 was less than five years old, the regent 
 was aware that she would need a competent 
 adviser during the long minority of the 
 king, and she chose the one best suited to 
 the position. 
 
 The war policy of Richelieu was carried 
 on with great vigor by his successor. Im- 
 mediately upon the death of Richelieu the 
 house of Austria resumed hostilities, and 
 the Spanish forces from the Netherlands 
 laid siege to the fortress of Rocroi. On 
 the 19lh of May, 1643, they were decisively 
 defeated in the battle of Rocroi by the 
 
 young Duke d' Enghien, afterwards famous 
 as the great Prince of Conde. Two years 
 later, in 1645, Marshal Turenne and the 
 Duke d' Enghien inflicted a crushing de- 
 feat upon the imperialist forces at Nord- 
 lingen on the 7th of August. In October, 
 1646, the Duke d'Enghien, aided by the 
 Dutch fleet under Admiral Van Tromp, 
 captured Dunkirk, the most frequented and 
 valuable seaport on the German ocean. 
 In 1647 a treaty of peace was signed be- 
 tween Spain and the United Provinces of 
 Holland. The Duke d'Enghien now re- 
 turned to France, and about the same time 
 succeeded, by the death of his father, to the 
 title of Prince of Conde. Mazarin, dread- 
 ing his influence at court, sent him to Cata- 
 lonia, where he began the siege of Lerida 
 in May, 1647. In spite of his great genius 
 he was compelled to abandon this enter- 
 prise, and returned to France in disgust, 
 and bitterly reproached INIazarin for failing 
 to sustain him. Mazarin was j^rofuse in 
 his excuses, and at once appointed him to 
 the command of the army in Flanders. 
 He took the town of Ypres in May, 1648, 
 drove the imperialists out of Picardy, and 
 inflicted a terrible defeat upon them at 
 Lens, in Artois, on the 29th of August. 
 The imperialist army was almost an- 
 nihilated. 
 
 In the meantime Marshal Turenne had 
 been quite as successful in Germany. In 
 1648, in conjunction with the Swedes, he 
 defeated the Bavarian army under Monte- 
 cuculi at Augsburg, and was only pre- 
 vented from advancing upon Vienna by a 
 sudden rise of the river Inn. 
 
 These successes of the French, and es- 
 pecially the victory of Lens, gave a power- 
 ful impetus to the negotiations for peace 
 which had been going on since 1644, and 
 on the 24th of October, 1648, the treaty of 
 Westphalia was signed. The details of this 
 treaty have been given in the German his- 
 tory of this period. It closed the Thiity 
 Years' War, and was highly advantageous 
 to France, Avhich obtained in full sov- 
 ereignty the whole of Alsace except Stras- 
 burg, thus gaining the Rhine as a boundary. 
 The towns of Pignerol, in Piedmont, and 
 Breisach, on the German side of the Rhine, 
 were ceded to her, aud the fortress of 
 Philipsburg was to be garrisoned by French 
 troops. She was confirmed in her posses- 
 sion of the " three bishoprics " of Metz, 
 Toul and Verdun, which had been con- 
 quered in the last century ; and the duchy 
 
700 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Lorraine was practically surrendered to 
 her by being left in her hands until an 
 amicable arrangement could be effected with 
 the dispossessed duke. Thus, on the whole, 
 France had good reason to be satisfied with 
 the results of the Thirty Years' War. The 
 power of the house of Austria was greatly 
 humbled, the empire was practically de- 
 stroyed in Germany, and France had be- 
 come the leading state in Europe. Spain 
 was not included in the treaty, and the war 
 
 travagance of the court recourse was had 
 to expedients more or less oppressive and 
 hateful to the people. A tax was levied 
 upon all merchandise brought into Paris 
 for sale by laud or by water, and this 
 impost was levied indiscriminately upon all 
 classes. It gave rise to a serious opposition 
 on the part of the parliament, which placed 
 that body in direct antagonism to the 
 crown. The quarrel grew more bitter 
 every day, and at length the court com- 
 
 VIEW OF DUNKIRK. 
 
 between that country and France went on 
 without interruption. 
 
 In the meantime serious troubles were 
 gathering over France at home. The ra- 
 pacity and misgovernment of Mazarin, 
 whose influence over the queen was abso- 
 lute, were rapidly involving the state in 
 serious financial embarrassments, which 
 were destined to result in a disastrous 
 civil war. Richelieu had left a full 
 treasury, but the resources so carefully 
 husbanded by him were quickly squandered 
 by his successor, and in order to meet the 
 enormous expenses of the war and the ex- 
 
 mitted the mistake of taking advantage of 
 the rejoicings which greeted the news of 
 the victory of Lens, to arrest three of the 
 principal leaders of the opposition in par- 
 liament, Blancmesnil, Charton, and Brous- 
 sel, the last of whom was very popular. 
 
 The people of Paris had all along sided 
 with the parliament, and they now broke 
 into open revolt against the government. 
 Barricades were thrown up in the principal 
 streets, and an angry crowd surrounded the 
 Palais Royal, demanding the release of 
 Broussel. The Cardinal De Retz, Arch- 
 bishop coadjutor of Paris, represented to 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 701 
 
 the queeu the danger of the situation, and 
 urged her to comply with the popular de- 
 mands and release Broussel, but Anne re- 
 fused to do so, and troops were inarched 
 into the palace for the protection of the 
 court. De Retz, upon the refusal of the 
 queen to take his advice, joined the insur- 
 rection and became one of its principal 
 leaders. The next day, August the 27th, 
 1648, the insurrection showed so much 
 more vigor, and such alarming signs of 
 spreading, that the queen released the 
 arrested members of parliament, who re- 
 turned to Paris the next day amid the re- 
 joicings of the people. Though the matter 
 seemed settled for the time, the trouble had 
 in reality just begun, and from the 27th of 
 August, 1648, we may reckon the com- 
 mencement of the civil war of the Fronde. 
 
 Though outward order seemed restored, 
 the parliament proved so insolent and un- 
 manageable, that the queen quitted Paris 
 with tlie young king and Mazarin and went 
 to Rueil. The Prince of Conde now inter- 
 vened and brought about a reconciliation 
 between *the queen and the parliament in 
 October, by which the demands of the lat- 
 ter were unconditionally granted. Anne 
 shed tears as she signed this document, and 
 pronounced it as the suicide of royal au- 
 thority in France. 
 
 Not long afterwards Conde became dis- 
 gusted with the arrogance and insubordina- 
 tion of the Parisians, and offered his services 
 to the court to reduce them to obedience. 
 He assembled a force of 8,000 troops near 
 Paris, and on the 6th of January, 1649, the 
 queen, the young king, and the rest of the 
 royal family, accompanied by Cardinal 
 Mazarin, secretly withdrew from Paris to 
 St. Germains. At the same time a royal 
 order commanded the parliament to transfer 
 its sittings to Montargis. Parliament re- 
 fused to comply with this order, and de- 
 nounced Mazarin as an enemy of the state, 
 and demanded his banishment from the 
 kingdom. Many of the most distinguished 
 and powerful nobles of the kingdom em- 
 braced the cause of the Fronde, which was 
 also sustained by a majority of the provin- 
 cial parliaments. There was some fighting 
 between Conde's troops and the parliamen- 
 tary forces near Paris, but the cause of the 
 Fronde grew stronger each day. Marshal 
 Turenne joined it, and the insurgents were 
 promised aid by Archduke Leopold, the 
 Governor of the Spanish Netherlands. The 
 -court was now anxious to treat for peace, 
 
 and a treaty was negotiated at Rueil be- 
 tween Mazarin and a parliamentary depu- 
 tation headed by the President Mole on the 
 11th of March, 1649. The terms of the 
 treaty were not as favorable as parliament 
 had desired, and that body at first refused 
 to register it. Mole and his associates in 
 the negotiation were in danger of assassina- 
 tion at the hands of the angry mob. Maz- 
 arin secured the acceptance of the treaty 
 by parliament by modifying some of its 
 most objectionable provisions. He also 
 won over the principal officers of Turenne's 
 army, who left the marshal and declared 
 for the court. Turenne immediately with- 
 drew into Holland, and the Fronde was left 
 without a competent leader. In August, 
 1649, the court returned to Paris. 
 
 The Prince of Conde presuming upon the 
 great services he had rendered the state, 
 now sought to get the whole power of the 
 government into his hands. His insolence 
 and insubordination became so unbearable 
 and dangerous that the regent and Mazjuin 
 determined to arrest him. Accordingly 
 Conde, his brother, the Prince of Conti, and 
 his brother-in-law, the Duke de Longueville, 
 were arrested in the council chamber on the 
 18th of January, 1650, and were imprisoned 
 in the Castle of Vincennes. The partisans 
 of Conde at once took up arms. Burgundy, 
 of which province he was governor, broke 
 into open revolt, and the Duchess de Lon- 
 gueville succeeded in exciting disturbances 
 in Normandy, of which her husband was 
 governor. Bordeaux took up arms for 
 Conde, and placed itself under the oiders 
 of the daring and devoted Princess of 
 Conde, the niece of Richelieu. Normandy 
 was soon tranquillized by the royal forces, 
 and this success was followed by the reduc- 
 tion of Burgundy to submission. Bordeaux, 
 after a siege, during which the Princess of 
 Conde displayed heroic courage, was com- 
 pelled to surrender. The princess and her 
 adherents were allowed to retire peaceably 
 to their estates, but the court sternly re- 
 fused her petition for the liberation of her 
 husband and his fellow-captives. Turenne 
 having been joined by a Spanish force, 
 gained some important successes in Picardy, 
 but on the loth of December was totally 
 defeated near Rhetel by the Marshal du 
 Plessis-Praslin, and fled with a few follow- 
 ers into Lorraine. 
 
 The triumph of the court now seemed as- 
 sured, but at this juncture a reaction in 
 favor of the imprisoned princes set in at 
 
702 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Paris, and a coalition was formed against 
 Mazarin, headed by the leaders of the origi- 
 nal Fronde. The banishment of the cardi- 
 nal was demanded by the parliament, and 
 Mazarin, becoming terrified at the strength 
 of the opposition, fled secretly to Havre on 
 the 8th of February, 1651. The queen 
 prepared to follow him with the young king, 
 but was prevented by the leaders of the 
 Fronde, who insisted upon entering the 
 palace and satisfying themselves of the 
 presence of the court. Mazarin in the 
 meantime hastened to Havre and gave or- 
 ders for the liberation of the captive princes. 
 He had hoped to win their support by his 
 
 to his government of Guienne, and took up 
 arms in open rebellion against the court. 
 The queen met this movement by declaring 
 Louis XIV. of age, and the young king 
 took his place at the head of the army 
 destined to operate against the insurgent 
 prince. Mazarin, for whose return Condi's 
 rebellion had prepared the way, now boldly 
 rejoined the court. Turenne, who had also 
 made his peace with the crown, Avas given a 
 command in the royal army. A desultory 
 W'arfare ensued, in which neither party ac- 
 complished anything, and late in the spring 
 of 1652 both armies — the royalists under 
 Turenne, and the Frondeurs under Conde 
 
 ^^^nHtSlllLTOtl. =^ 
 
 BIED'S-EYE view of the palace and park of VERSAILLES. 
 
 promptness, but they treated him coldly, 
 and hastened to Paris. The cardinal with- 
 drew to Bruhl in the territory of Cologne, 
 and from his place of refuge kept up a cor- 
 respondence Avith the queen, by which he 
 continued to direct the affairs of the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Conde expected to find himself supreme 
 in power upon his return to Paris, but he 
 found the queen regent still bitterly hostile 
 to him, and the leaders of the Fronde indis- 
 posed to acknowledge his authority. At 
 last the queen brought matters to a crisis 
 by accusing him before parliament of 
 a traitorous correspondence with Spain. 
 Cond6, enraged by this accusation, hastened 
 
 — directed their march upon Paris, which 
 had as yet declared for neither party. A 
 severe battle was fought in the Faubourg 
 Saint Antoine on the 2d of July, which was 
 decided by Mademoiselle de Montpensier, 
 the daughter of the Duke of Orleans, who 
 at the critical moment caused the cannon 
 of the fortress of the Bastile to open upon the 
 royal forces. The citizens then threw open 
 the Porte St. Antoine and allowed the army 
 of Conde to enter the city. Turenne, who 
 had been sure of victory, now drew off" his 
 forces to St. Denis. 
 
 For a while Conde was master of Paris, 
 and it seemed that the capital was about to 
 thoroughly espouse the cause of the Fron- 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 703 
 
 deurs, but by a sudden change the Parisians 
 turned against the insurgents, and began to 
 treat with the king. Conde found his in- 
 fluence entirely destroyed by the trickery 
 of the Cardinal de Retz, and he quitted 
 Paris in disgust in October, and joined the 
 Spanish army under the Duke of Lorraine. 
 A few days later Louis XIV. and his 
 mother, escorted by the army of Turenne, 
 entered Paris amid the rejoicings of the 
 people, and occupied the Louvre. _ A gen- 
 eral amnesty was granted by the king, from 
 which Conde, the Duke of Beaufort, and 
 several other leaders of the Fronde were 
 specially excepted. Conde was condemned 
 to death as a traitor. The Duke of Orleans 
 was ordered to retire to Blois, where he died 
 in 1660. De Retz, who had done more 
 than any other man to foment the troubles 
 of the kingdom, was imprisoned in Vin- 
 cennes. He subsequently regained his lib- 
 erty, but the remainder of his life Avas 
 passed in obscurity. 
 
 Thus closed the revolt of the Fronde. It 
 was the last expiring struggle of the nobility 
 of France against the absolute power of the 
 crown. It had entailed the greatest dis- 
 comfort and even actual privation upon the 
 royal family, and its effect was to confirm 
 Louis XIV. in his ideas of despotic rule. 
 The effort of the nobles to limit the power 
 of the crown utterly failed, and upon the 
 ruins of the revolt the young king was 
 enabled to erect an absolute monarchy. 
 
 The civil war being at an end, Mazarin 
 was now able to turn his attention 'to the 
 Spaniards, who had profited greatly by the 
 internal troubles of the kingdom. They 
 had regained Dunkirk, Ypres, and Grave- 
 lines, and also Barcelona and Casale. Their 
 army on the frontier of Picardy was now 
 commanded by the great Conde, and during 
 the summer of 1653 that able commander 
 spread his ravages as far as the banks of 
 the Sonime. The French army was com- 
 manded by Turenne, who in spite of his 
 disadvantage in numbers w^as able to keep 
 his great antagonist in check during the 
 whole campaign. In 1654 Conde and the 
 Archduke Leopold, with 25,000 Spanish 
 troops, laid siege to Arras. The siege was 
 conducted with great ability, but Turenne 
 compelled Conde to abandon it and retreat, 
 leaving 3,000 prisoners in the hands of the 
 French. The campaign of 1656 was signal- 
 ized by one of Conde's most brilliant ex- 
 ploits. He attacked the division of Mar- 
 shal de la Ferte, which was separated from 
 
 the main army of Turenne then engaged in 
 the siege of Valenciennes, almost annihi- 
 lated it, and made prisoners of the mar- 
 shal himself, nearly all his officers, and 
 4,000 men. Mazarin now succeeded in 
 bringing about an alliance with the com- 
 monwealth of England. Reinforced by a 
 division of 6,000 English infantry under 
 General Reynolds, Marshal Turenne, in 
 1656, captured Montmedy, St. Venant, 
 and Maa-dyke. The latter fortress was 
 turned over to the English. The next 
 effort of the allies was to lay siege to Dun- 
 kirk. A Spanish army under Conde and 
 Don John of Austria marched to its relief, but 
 was defeated with great loss by Turenne in 
 the battle of the Dunes on the 14ih of June, 
 1658. Dunkirk immediately surrendered, 
 and was ceded to England by France in 
 accordance with the treaty. Turenne then 
 proceeded to the reduction of Gravelines, 
 and overran Flanders, advancing to within 
 two days' march of Brussels. 
 
 Spain was so disheartened by these 
 reverses that she began to wish for peace. 
 Her anxiety on this point was increased by 
 the formation of a league by Mazarin 
 between France, Bavaria, and the German 
 states, for the maintenance of the treaty of 
 Westphalia. This league virtually isolated 
 Spain from the rest of Europe. In October, 
 1658, Philip IV. opened the negotiations 
 by proposing that Louis XIV. should wed 
 the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa. Louis 
 Avas deeply in love with the beautilul ^Maria 
 Mancini, the niece of Mazarin ; but the 
 cardinal removed her from court, and in- 
 duced the king to accept the offer of Philip. 
 The cardinal proceeded to the frontier and 
 met the Spanish prime minister, Don Luis 
 de Haro, on the Isle of Pheasants, in the 
 Bidassoa, a small stream which forms a 
 part of the boundary between France and 
 Spain. Negotiations for peace and for the 
 royal marriage were carried on with suc- 
 cess. Spain insisted positively that the 
 Prince of Conde should receive a full and 
 free pardon, be reconciled to the court, and 
 be restored to all his honors and possessions. 
 Mazarin refused this demand for a long 
 time, and only yielded when the Spanish 
 minister threatened to form a principality 
 for Conde in Flanders. Conde was par- 
 doned by the French king for his treason, 
 and was restored to his government of 
 Burgundy ; and on the 7th of November 
 the peace of the Pyrenees was signed. 
 
 By the terms of this treaty the Spanish 
 
704 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Infanta was contracted to Louis XIV., and 
 in consideration of her surrender of all her 
 claims to the succession to the Spanish 
 crown was promised, by her father, a mar- 
 riage portion of half a million of crowns. 
 All the children resulting from this mar- 
 riage and their descendants were also 
 solemnly excluded from the possibility of 
 succeeding to the Spanish crown. Spain 
 ceded to France the county of Artois, and 
 the towns of Gravelines, Landrecies, Thion- 
 ville, Montmedy, Avesnes, and several 
 others, and received Rousillon and Cer- 
 dagne. Lorraine was nominally restored 
 to its duke, but in reality remained 
 annexed to tlie French crown. As in the 
 case of the treaty of Westphalia, France 
 was the gainer by the war with the house 
 of Austria, and succeeded in securing for 
 herself the place of supremacy in Europe 
 it had held for a century and a half. 
 
 Louis XIV. repaired to St. Jean de Luz, 
 in May, 16G0, and, after a splendid inter- 
 view with the King of Spain at the Isle of 
 Pheasants, married the Princess Maria 
 Theresa in the church of St. Jean de Luz 
 on the 9th of June. 
 
 The treaty of the Pyrenees and the mar- 
 riage of the king placed Mazarin at the 
 height of his power. Like Richelieu he 
 did not long survive this fulfilment of his 
 hopes, but died on the 8th of March, 1661, 
 at the age of fifty-nine. He was one of the 
 ablest and most unscrupulous of the states- 
 men who have ruled France, and but for 
 his inordinate and insatiable love of money 
 might have left a better name behind him. 
 
 Immediately upon the death of Cardinal 
 Mazarin, Louis XIV. announced his inten- 
 tion to take the government into his own 
 hands, as he was determined to rule France 
 in actual fact as well as in name. He was 
 well qualified for the task he assumed. 
 Mazarin used to say of him, "There is 
 enough in him to make four kings and one 
 honest man." He was a man of good 
 judgment, of a firm, determined will, of 
 great sagacity and penetration, and of in- 
 domitable energy and perseverance. His 
 powers of application were very great, and 
 throughout his reign he was occupied in 
 the labors of the cabinet for eight hours 
 each day. He had imbibed the loftiest 
 ideas of his divine right to rule, and re- 
 garded himself as the absolute master of 
 the lives, liberties, and property of his 
 subjects, which he became in actual fact. 
 Believing that he w'as given his authority 
 
 direct from Heaven, he regarded himself 
 as the author and source as well as the 
 dispenser of all law and justice. His will 
 was to be the law of his kingdom, and for 
 his conduct he was responsible only to God. 
 His celebrated saying, "The state is my- 
 self," expresses in a few words the essence 
 of his theory of government. He was 
 faithful to his principles throughout his 
 reign, and succeeded in making his king- 
 dom one of the most perfect specimens of 
 an absolute and irresponsible despotism 
 known to history. 
 
 Louis' first efibrts were directed to the 
 finances, which had fallen into a sad state 
 of confusion through the peculations of the 
 brilliant but dishonest minister, Nicholas 
 Fouquet. Fouquet was arrested and sent 
 to the Bastile in September, 1661, and the 
 king appointed in his place the famous 
 Jean Baptiste Colbert, who, in addition to 
 his duties as minister of finance, directed 
 the affairs of the departments of commerce, 
 agriculture, and public works. Colbert 
 found the finances in about the same state 
 the great Sully had found them in the reign 
 of Henry IV., and he set to work with 
 energy and skill to reform them. In the 
 course of a few years he placed them upon 
 a sure and stable footing, and raised the 
 gross income of the state to upward of one 
 hundred millions, of which over ninety 
 millions found its way into the public 
 treasury. Throughout his superintendence 
 of the finances he was always able to pro- 
 vide funds for the costly wars and extrava- 
 gance of the king, and that without greatly 
 increasing the rate of taxation. He intro- 
 duced a rigid economy into the administra- 
 tion of his departments, and thus saved vast 
 sums for the king to squander. Colbert 
 wisely fostered every species of industry 
 which could contribute to the wealth of the 
 kingdom, and so made the royal demands 
 easier to be borne. 
 
 While he was thus infusing energy into 
 every department of his government, Louis 
 gave to Europe characteristic proof of his 
 determination to maintain his royal dignity. 
 The Spanish ambassador at London having 
 ofl^ended him by taking precedence of the 
 French ambassador, Louis demanded satis- 
 faction of Philip IV. of Spain, and threat- 
 ened war in case of his refusal to make 
 amends for the affront. Philip was com- 
 pelled to make an humble apology, and to 
 send a special envoy to the French court, 
 who promised in the presence of the whole 
 
THE EEIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 705 
 
 diplomatic body and iu tlie name of his 
 master never again to give similar cause of 
 complaint. In the course of the same year 
 he inflicted a similar mortification upon the 
 pope himself. Some of the pontiff's Cor- 
 sican guard having insulted the French 
 ambassador at Rome, the pope (Alexander 
 VII.) was compelled to offer an apology, 
 disband his guard, and erect an obelisk at 
 Rome, ^vith an insciiptiou relating the 
 offence and its expiation. 
 
 Louis had entered upon the active por- 
 tion of his reign with the determination to 
 dismember Spain by annexing to his own 
 crown her dominions in the Low Countries, 
 and every act of the early years of his rule, 
 which were passed in peace, was directed 
 toward the furtherance of this object. He 
 encouraged the Portuguese, who had won 
 their independence of Spain, and brought 
 about the marriage of Charles II. of Eng- 
 land and the Portuguese Princess Catharine. 
 He secured the good will of Charles by 
 buying Dunkirk of him for five millions of 
 livres in November, 1GG2. Having secured 
 the friendship of England, Louis next 
 entered into an offensive and defensive 
 alliance with the United Provinces of Hol- 
 land, and thus prevented their siding with 
 Spain against him. 
 
 War broke out between England and 
 Holland in 1G65, and the Dutch appealed 
 to Louis, as their ally, for aid. He was 
 unwilling to go to war with England, and 
 vainly attempted to mediate between the 
 combatants. Finding it impossible to 
 accomplish anything, Louis sent a force of 
 6,000 troops to the Dutch, and declared 
 w'ar against England in January, 1666. 
 The war was fought chiefly at sea between 
 the English and Dutch fleets. It was 
 brought to a close by the peace of Breda 
 on the 31st of July, 1667. England re- 
 stored to France all the places in North 
 America and the AVest Indies that had been 
 taken from her during the struggle. 
 
 Before the close of this war, however, 
 Louis had embarked in the great contest 
 which he had long foreseen, and for which 
 he had long been preparing. In Septem- 
 ber, 1665, Philip IV. of Spain died, and 
 was succeeded by his only son Charles II., 
 the issue of a second marriage. Brabant, 
 Flanders, and all the Spanish possessions 
 in the Low Countries w'ere at once claimed 
 by Louis XIV. on the plea that his wife, 
 who was the child of the first marriage of 
 Philip IV., had a superior claim to that of 
 
 45 
 
 Charles, who was the issue of his father's 
 second marriage. The Spanish court re- 
 fused to acknowledge the claim, and re- 
 minded Louis of his wife's surrender of all 
 her rights at the time of her marriage. 
 Louis answered that this surrender on the 
 part of his wife was conditional upon her 
 dowry, which had never been paid, and that 
 it was therefore null and void. The argu- 
 ment was cut short by Louis, who on the 
 24th of May, 1667, poured his army under 
 Marshal Turenne across the border of 
 Flanders, and overran that province with 
 scarcely any opposition. The majority of 
 the towns submitted upon the first demand, 
 but Lille did not surrender until the 28th 
 of August. Louis now suddenly paused in 
 his career of conquest, made a truce for 
 three months with the Spaniards, and re- 
 turned to Paris. 
 
 The ambitious designs and the rapid 
 success of the King of France alarmed all 
 Europe, and England and Holland re- 
 solved to put a stop to his aggrandizement. 
 On the 23d of January, 1668, a treaty, 
 known as the Triple Alliance, was signed 
 at the Hague between England, Holland, 
 and Sweden. These powers agreed to 
 mediate a peace between France and Spain, 
 and to compel an adjustment between them 
 by a threat of war in case of their refusal. 
 They engaged to obtain from Spain the 
 cession of all the places already conquered 
 by France, upon which condition Louis 
 was to promise to cease to urge liis claim 
 upon the Spanish possessions in right of his 
 wife. Before he w'as officially informed of 
 this treat)', Louis had sent an army of 
 20,000 men under the Prince of Conde into 
 Franche-Comte, which province was over- 
 run in fifteen days. Well satisfied with 
 this splendid exploit, Louis consented to 
 treat for peace, and on the 2d of May, 1668, 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed. 
 Spain ceded to France all her conquests on 
 the Sambre, the Scheldt, the Scarpe, and 
 the Lys, and also Bergues and Fumes on 
 the sea. France restored Franche-Comt^, 
 but in a crippled condition, all its fortresses 
 having been dismantled by the French 
 troops. The parties to the Triple Alli- 
 ance, together with the emperor and the 
 German states, guaranteed the integrity of 
 the rest of the Spanish possessions. 
 
 Though the Triple Alliance was the 
 means of ending this war, it was the origin 
 of another of still greater importance and 
 severity. The Dutch republic had mor- 
 
706 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tally offended Louis in presuming to aid 
 in limiting the career of conquest he had 
 marked out for himself, and he resolved to 
 punish it. His ministers, Louvois and 
 Colbert, encouraged the king's design by 
 representing to him that before he could 
 reduce the Spanish Netherlands, it was 
 necessary to humble and subdue the states 
 of Holland. Louis at once set to work to 
 destroy the Triple Alliance, and succeeded 
 in buying off the unprincipled Charles II. 
 of England, who, in consideration of an 
 annual subsidy of one hundred and twenty 
 thousand pounds, the possession of the 
 island of Walcheren, and two fortresses on 
 the Scheldt in case of the conquest of Hol- 
 land, agreed to desert his allies. He 
 pledged himself to assist France with a 
 force of 6,000 men and fifty ships of war, 
 and to make a public profession of the 
 Roman Catholic religion, and exert all his 
 power to re-establish it in England. In 
 case this effort to change the faith of the 
 kingdom produced a rebellion in England, 
 Louis engaged to assist Charles with men 
 and money. The French king then se- 
 cui'ed the neutrality of Sweden and of the 
 emperor, and formed an active alliance 
 with the Electors of Cologne and Hanover 
 and the Bishop of Munster. These things 
 were accomplished by bribery. Many of 
 the German princes organized themselves 
 into a league to opj^ose the designs of the 
 French king, and the Great Elector of 
 Brandenburg remained the faithful friend 
 and ally of Holland. Spain, anxious to 
 check the increase of the French power, 
 made an alliance with Holland in December, 
 167L 
 
 In April, 1672, Louis began his wicked 
 and impolitic war against the Dutch repub- 
 lic. With an army of 200,000 men he 
 crossed the lower Rhine on the 12th of 
 June, at three points, and during the next 
 few weeks overran the provinces of Guel- 
 derland, Utrecht, Overyssel, and a part of 
 Holland. Louis was nominally in com- 
 mand of his army, which was really directed 
 by Conde and Turenne. 
 
 The Dutch were at first rendered help- 
 less by terror. The Grand Pensionary De 
 Witt, hopeless of doing more than securing 
 what yet remained to the republic, offered 
 the most abject terms. Luvois, the French 
 minister of war, induced Louis to reject 
 these terras, and the refusal of the French 
 king was made in such an insulting manner 
 that a storm of popular indignation burst 
 
 forth against the pensionary, and a revolu- 
 tion followed, in which the Pensionary De 
 Witt and his brother, the admiral, were 
 murdered by the mob, and the direction of 
 affairs passed into the hands of William, 
 Prince of Orange, who was given dictatorial 
 powers. It was a fortunate choice, as the 
 sequel will show. William set to work to 
 infuse new vigor into his countrymen, and 
 to arouse in them a more determined spirit 
 of resistance. He proposed to the states 
 that, rather than yield to the French, the 
 whole population should embark on board 
 the fleet with such movable property as 
 they could carry with them, and seek new 
 homes among their possessions in the In- 
 dies. 
 
 The genius and determination of William 
 soon placed matters on a different footing. 
 The Dutch fleet was able to hold its own 
 at sea against the combined fleets of France 
 and England. On land the progress of the 
 French was checked by the grim resolution 
 of William, Avho opened the great sluices 
 around Amsterdam and laid the country 
 under water. The French were thus con- 
 fined to the more elevated portions of the 
 land, and the Dutch fleet was enabled to 
 come up to the capital and co-operate in its 
 defence. Valuable time was thus gained 
 for preparation for resistance. The Elector 
 of Brandenburg entered into an alliance 
 Avith the Dutch, and the emperor, notwith- 
 standing his promise of neutrality, also 
 joined the alliance. An imperialist army 
 of 40,000 men, under Montecuculi, marched 
 upon the Rhine, but Turenne defended that 
 river with such masterly ability that the 
 imperialists were not able to effect the pas- 
 sage of it or to join the Prince of Orange. 
 The Elector of Brandenburg lost patience, 
 and retired into his own dominions, pursued 
 by Turenne as far as the Elbe. These 
 movements afforded the Dutch some relief, 
 though they did nothing more for them. 
 
 In 1673 Louis again invaded Holland 
 with a force of 30,000 men, and captured 
 the important cities of Maestricht and 
 Treves. In the same year he occupied the 
 ten imperial cities of Alsace, the prefecture 
 of which had been guaranteed him by the 
 treaty of Westphalia, deprived them of all 
 the privileges guaranteed them by that 
 treaty, and reduced them to perfect sub- 
 mission to him. France was now threatened 
 by a coalition between Holland, the empire, 
 Spain, and several of the German states, 
 and the struggle seemed about to become a 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 707 
 
 European Avar. The Prince of Orange 
 captured Naarden after a siege of twelve 
 days, and, in spite of Tureune's effoi'ts to 
 prevent it, effected a junction with the army 
 of Montecuculi. The allies then captured 
 Bonn after a short siege, and thus obtained 
 the command of the Khine. England had 
 been for some time anxious to put an end 
 to the degrading alliance which her king 
 had formed with France, and at length the 
 parliament compelled Charles to abandon 
 his connection with Louis, and to make 
 peace with Holland. A treaty between 
 that country and England was signed in 
 February, 1674. Louis, thus left with 
 Sweden as his only ally, was obliged to 
 evacuate Holland, and retire towards his 
 own frontiers. The republic was saved 
 from the ambition of the "great king," 
 who, of all liis conquests, retained only 
 Grave and Maestricht. 
 
 The theatre of the war was now entirely 
 changed. In May, 1674, Louis invaded 
 Franche-Comte, and by the 1st of July re- 
 duced it to submission. This time he meant 
 to hold on to his conquests in this quarter. 
 Turenne with an inferior force drove the 
 imperialists out of Alsace, and ravaged the 
 Palatinate with a barbarity which has left 
 an indelible stain upon his name. Later 
 in the year the imperialists gained some 
 advantages in Alsace, but by a brilliant 
 campaign in the depth of the winter, which 
 is regarded as the most splendid effort of 
 his genius, Turenne drove them across the 
 Rhine again, and secured Alsace perma- 
 nently for France. A severe battle was 
 fought at Seneffe, in Flanders, on the 11th 
 of August, 1674, between the French under 
 Conde and the allies under William of 
 Orange. The result was indecisive, but 
 the campaign closed to the general advan- 
 tage of the allies. 
 
 In 1675 Louis again crossed the Rhine 
 with a powerful army under Turenne, but 
 on the 27th of July that great commander 
 was killed by a spent cannon-ball, and the 
 French army was forced, after a bloody 
 conflict at Altenheim, to recross the Rhine. 
 Turenne was honored with a splendid 
 funeral, and was buried in the Abbey of St. 
 Denis, amid the kings of France. He was 
 succeeded in his command by the Prince of 
 Conde, the only man in France capable 
 of cari-ying out the dead hero's plans with 
 credit. Conde found that the imperial 
 army, under Montecuculi, had passed the 
 Rhine at Strasburg, and were besieging 
 
 Haguenau. He forced them to raise the 
 siege of that ];)lace, aud put a stop to their 
 advance ; but, following out the system of 
 Turenne, refused to be drawn into a general 
 engagement. At length Montecuculi with- 
 drew from Alsace, and went into winter 
 quarters at Spires. Conde now finding 
 himself too old for active service, resigned 
 his command and retired to his estates, 
 where he passed the remainder of his life in 
 privacy. He died in 1686. This Avas also 
 Montecuculi's last campaign ; the veteran 
 was vanquished by the same poA\'er that had 
 ended the career of Conde. 
 
 In 1676 the principal events of the war 
 occurred at sea. In three naval battles in 
 the Mediterranean, off the coast of Sicily, 
 the French were entirely successful ; and in 
 the last of these engagements De Ruyter, 
 the heroic commander of the Dutch fleet, 
 was mortally wounded. 
 
 In 1677 the French army under the king 
 and INIarshal Luxemburg" laid siege to Val- 
 enciennes. The operations AA^ere directed 
 by the great engineer Vauban, and the 
 toAvn Avas quickly taken. The capture of 
 Cambrai and St. Oraer soon followed, and 
 Luxemburg inflicted a sharp defeat at 
 Cassel, on the 11th of April, upon the 
 Prince of Orange, who was marching to the 
 relief of St. Omer. On the Rhine frontier 
 the French army Avas commanded by the 
 Marshal de Crequy, Avho in this campaign 
 proved himself the Avorthy successor of 
 Turenne, and one of the first soldiers of 
 France. He defeated the Duke of Lor- 
 raine at Kochersberg, near Strasburg, and 
 captured the city of Freyburg on the 16th 
 of November. 
 
 In the meantime measures had been set 
 on foot for a close of the war, aud through 
 the mediation of Sweden a congress had 
 been assembled at Nirawegen in 1675. The 
 Dutch, Avho had been the chief sufferers by 
 the conflict, Avere anxious to conclude a 
 separate peace Avith France; but this jilan 
 Avas urgently opposed by William, Avho 
 wished to AA'in England over to his side and 
 compel Louis to make peace upon terms 
 favorable to Protestantism. Charles II. 
 had again sold himself to Louis, this time 
 for a pension of 200,000 livres per annum, 
 and had promised not to form any alliance 
 without the consent of France. The Eng- 
 lish Parliament, however, Avarmly sup- 
 ported the views of William, and the House 
 of Commons urged the king to declare Avar 
 against France, promising him a liberal 
 
703 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 support. The pressure upon Charles grew 
 stronger every day, and at length he was 
 compelled to accede to the national wish. 
 AViliiam of Orange repaired to England, 
 and on the 23d of October, 1C77, wjis mar- 
 ried to the Princess Mary, the eldest daugh- 
 ter of the Duke of York, and in December 
 of that year an offensive and defensive alli- 
 ance between England and Holland was 
 concluded. The two powers agreed to force 
 the French king to accept terms of peace. 
 Louis was not averse to i^eace, but was de- 
 termined to make his own terms. By a 
 bold movement he seized Ypres and Ghent, 
 the possession of which enabled him to ob- 
 tain his own conditions. With the news 
 of these conquests, the Prince of Orange 
 received satisfactory evidence that the 
 
 PORTE ST. DENIS, PARIS. 
 
 King of England was insincere in his alli- 
 ance. This determined the Dutch ministers 
 to accept the terms offered by Louis, and 
 to enter into a separate treaty with him 
 regardless of their allies. Accordingly the 
 treaty of Nimwegen was signed between 
 Holland and France on the 14th of 
 August, 1678. Holland ceded to France 
 her settlements in Senegal and Guiana, 
 which had been captured by the French. 
 On the 17th of September Spain signed the 
 treaty, ceding to France all of Franche- 
 Comte and eleven towns on the frontier of 
 Flanders, among which were Valenciennes, 
 Cambrai, Ypres, and St. Omer — all im- 
 portant fortresses. Thus Spain was the 
 cliief loser by the war which had been be- 
 
 gun for the subjugation of Holland. On 
 the 5th of February, 1G79, the treaty was 
 signed by the emperor, and the war was 
 over. 
 
 The peace of Nimwegen saw Louis XIV. 
 at the summit of his power and glory. The 
 citizens of Paris solemnly bestowed upon 
 him the title of "the Great," and erected 
 the triumphal arches of the Porte St. Mar- 
 tin and Porte St. Denis in his honor. lie 
 was the most powerful sovereign iu Europe, 
 and he was greatly elated by his successes, 
 which he imagined were due to his own 
 merits. He regarded himself as master of 
 Europe as well as of France. The treaty 
 had not satisfied him, and in September, 
 1681, he seized the ancient free city of 
 Strasburg and annexed it to his crown. It 
 
 -==^ was made impregnable by 
 
 7=m^ fortifications constructed 
 by Vauban, and was held 
 by France until 1870. 
 Encouraged by this suc- 
 cess, he continued his dep- 
 redations. A league of 
 the European powers was 
 formed by the Prince of 
 Orange to enforce the 
 terms of the treaty of Nim- 
 wegen, but they were all 
 so much exhausted ly the 
 war that they Avere not 
 willing to renew hostili- 
 ties. Louis was enabled 
 to wrest twenty cities from 
 the neighboring princes 
 and annex them to his 
 dominions. Between 1681 
 and 1683 he overran the 
 province of Luxemburg 
 with his army, and made 
 it a part of his kingdom. War was evi- 
 dently on the point of breaking out again, 
 when the states general of Holland inter- 
 posed, and on the 15th of August, 1681:, 
 negotiated a twenty years' truce between 
 France, Spain, and the empire. It was 
 only a temporary settlement. The powers 
 that had been robbed of their territory by 
 Louis were fully determined to make an- 
 other effort to crush him. Though he was 
 at the height of his power, he had aroused 
 the hatred of all Europe, and had sown the 
 seed which were to bring forth countless 
 troubles and mortifications in his later 
 years. 
 
 Thus far we have considered Louis in 
 relation to his foreign policy. We must 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 709 
 
 land gave evidence of more than usually 
 skilful culture, the owner was almost sure 
 to be a Huguenot. The Huguenots were 
 noted for their integrity as well as their in- 
 dustry. "The Huguenot's word was as 
 good as his bond, and to be 'honest as a 
 Huguenot' passed into a proverb. This 
 quality of integrity — which is essential in 
 the merchant who deals with foreigners 
 whom he never sees — so characterized the 
 business transactions of the Huguenots that 
 the foreign trade of the country fell almost 
 entirely into their hands. The English and 
 Dutch were always found more ready to 
 open a correspondence with them than with 
 the Roman Catholic merchants, though re- 
 ligious affinity may have had some influ- 
 
 now examine his character as a man, and 
 
 relate some of the most notable instances 
 
 of his internal government. During the 
 
 earlier years of his reign Louis gave him- 
 self up to the unrestrained indulgence of 
 
 his licentious passions. He openly insulted 
 
 his queen by retaining at court the succes- 
 sive mistresses to whom his affections were 
 
 given for the time. His first mistress was 
 
 the beautiful and unfortunate Louise de la 
 
 Valliere, who, after having borne him two 
 
 children, retired to a convent, heart-broken 
 
 and penitent, in 1674. She was succeeded 
 
 ill the royal affections b.y the Marchioness 
 
 de Montespan, who continued to hold her 
 position for many years, and bore eight 
 
 children to the king, all of whom he legiti- 
 mated. Madame de Montespan chose 
 as the governess of her children 
 Francoise D'Aubigne, the widow of 
 the cotnic poet Scarron. She was 
 good-looking and higlily accomplished, 
 attractive in manner, and possessed 
 of great tact. The king saw her fre- 
 quently while in charge of his chil- 
 dren, and she acquired over him an 
 influence which she retained during 
 the remainder of his life. As Madame 
 de Maintenou she was destined to 
 play an important part in the history 
 of tlie latter part of this reign. In 
 spite of her many good qualities, she 
 was an uncompromising bigot in mat- 
 ters of religion, and this quality was 
 destined to make her the evil genius 
 of France. 
 
 Madame de Maintenon professed to 
 be shocked by the evil ways of the 
 king, and set to work to reform him. 
 Louis was as superstitious as he was 
 licentious, and as cruel as he was 
 superstitious. Madame de Maintenon took ' once in determining the preference. 
 
 BED-CHAMBER OF LOUIS XIV., PALACE OF VERSAILLES, 
 
 advantage of these ti'aits to persuade him 
 that he could not render a better atonement 
 for his evil life than by ridding his king- 
 dom of heresy. France at this time con- 
 tained about one million of Protestants, Avho 
 had grown rich and prosperous under the 
 wise protection of the Edict of Nantes. 
 They were sober, earnest, faithful men, and 
 had nearly monopolized the productive in- 
 dustry of the country. Their silks, paper, 
 velvet, and other manufactured articles 
 were the boast of the kingdom ; and through 
 their efforts France seemed on the point of 
 becoming the chief manufacturing country 
 of the world. The reformers were excellent 
 farmers and vine-dressers, and wherever the 
 
 And 
 thus at Bordeaux, at Rouen, at Caen, at 
 Metz, at Nismes, and the other great cen- 
 tres of commerce, the foreign business of 
 France came to be almost entirely con- 
 ducted by Huguenot merchants." Colbert 
 had fostered the industries of the Hugue- 
 nots, and had encouraged them to prosecute 
 them in every possible quarter. 
 
 The Jesuits and the Roman Catholic 
 Church had always looked with stern dis- 
 favor upon the tolerance shown to the 
 Protestants, and the former had exerted 
 themselves with some degree of success to 
 renew the persecutions of the last century. 
 For twenty years the Huguenots had been 
 treated with stern severity, and notwith- 
 
710 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 standing their great usefulness to the state, 
 the king had been led to regard them with 
 open hostility. The Jesuits now took ad- 
 vantage of Louis' infatuation for Madame 
 de Maintenon, and secured her alliance by 
 offering to favor the scheme upon Avhich 
 she had set her heart. The death of Queen 
 Maria Theresa, in 1683, had left Louis free 
 to marry again, and Madame de Maintenon 
 had determined to become his wife. She 
 carefully established her influence over him, 
 and, as we have said, set to work to per- 
 suade him that he could render heaven 
 ample satisfaction for his past sins by root- 
 ing out heresy from his kingdom. She was 
 materially assisted by the bad health of her 
 royal paramour, who was anxious during 
 his fits of illness to quiet the qualms of con- 
 science which he experienced for his past 
 dissoluteness of life. Penance must be 
 done, but not by himself. "Those who 
 boasted of having converted him," says 
 Sismondi, "had never represented to him 
 more than two duties — that of renouncing 
 his incontinence, and that of extirpating 
 heresy in his dominions." Madame de 
 Maintenon was well seconded by the Jesuit 
 Pere la Chaise, the king's confessor. In- 
 fluenced by them, Louis let loose upon his 
 Huguenot subjects all the horrors that 
 bigotry could devise or a fiendish cruelty 
 execute. In 1683, the year of Colbert's 
 death, the military executions began. 
 Life was made intolerable to the Hugue- 
 nots. Every avocation w^as closed against 
 them, and they were given the alternatives 
 of abjuring their faith or starving. Their 
 churches were closed or destroyed ; their 
 pastors forbidden to preach ; and whole 
 congregations were butchered by the royal 
 troops. From Grenoble to Bordeaux 
 cruelty reigned supreme. The reformed 
 were massacred in the Viverais and the 
 Cevennes. It was generally understood 
 that a Huguenot had no claim to the pro- 
 tection of the law, and that any one who 
 wished to maltreat him was free to do so. 
 Children were torn from their parents to be 
 brought up Catholics. The fiercest and 
 most brutal of the royal soldiery were 
 turned against the helpless communities of 
 the reformed. The horrors of the Dragon- 
 nades, as these military executions were 
 termed, cannot be related here. We have 
 not the space. A refusal to abjure the 
 Protestant faith was invariably followed by 
 death or imprisonment. Many yielded and 
 were " converted." In September, 1685, 
 
 Luvois wrote to the king : " Sixty thousand 
 convei'sions have been made in the district 
 of Bordeaux, and twenty thousand in that 
 of Montauban. So rapid is the progress 
 that before the end of the month ten thou- 
 sand Protestants will not be left in the district 
 of Bordeaux, where there were one hundred 
 and fifty thousand on the 15th of last 
 month." 
 
 " The farce of Louis' conversion went 
 on," says Smiles. " In August, 1684, 
 Madame de Maintenon wrote thus : ' The 
 king is prepared to do everything that shall 
 be judged useful for the welfare of 
 religion ; this undertaking will cover him 
 with glory before God and man.' The 
 dragonnades were then in full career 
 throughout the southern provinces, and a 
 long wail of anguish was rising from the 
 persecuted all over France. In 1685 the 
 king's suflferings increased, and his conver- 
 sion became imminent. His miserable body 
 was beginning to decay ; but he was willing 
 to make a sacrifice to God of what the 
 devil had left of it." 
 
 The Jesuits now made an agreement 
 with Madame de Maintenon to advise the 
 king to marry her on condition that she 
 should induce him to revoke the Edict of 
 Nantes. The infamous bargain was car- 
 ried out. Pere la Chaise advised a secret 
 marriage, and the ceremony was perfojmed 
 at Versailles by the Archbishop of Paris 
 in the presence of the confessor and two 
 more witnesses. The union was never ac- 
 knowledged, and the position of Madame 
 de Maintenon at court remained in conse- 
 quence anomalous and equivocal ; but her 
 influence over the king was supreme, and 
 immediately after the marriage she induced 
 him to revoke the Edict of Nantes. The . 
 revocation was made on the 17th of Octo- 
 ber, 1685, and the Huguenots were de- 
 prived of every privilege granted them by 
 Henry IV. and Louis XIII. The exercise 
 of the Protestant religion was absolutely 
 prohibited in every part of the kingdom, 
 except in Alsace ; the destruction of the 
 Protestant churches was commanded, and 
 their pastors were ordered to quit France 
 within fifteen days. The reformed them- 
 selves were forbidden to leave the kingdom 
 on pain of confiscation of their j^roperty 
 and penal servitude in the galleys. They 
 were required to embrace the Catholic re- 
 ligion and to cause their children to be 
 educated in that faith. 
 
 The revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 711 
 
 was greeted with rejoicings by the Catholic 
 world, but it struck a death-blow to the 
 prosperity of France. The fierce soldiery 
 of the French army, and thousands of mer- 
 cenaries hired abroad, were turned against 
 the Huguenots in all parts of France, and 
 the most dreadful cruelties followed. 
 Every Huguenot dwelling was invaded by 
 these savage dragoons, from the hut of the 
 herdsman to the castle of the noble, and 
 their occupants subjected to the grossest 
 outrages. Men and women were murdered 
 at their own firesides, little children were 
 snatched from their parents' arms and put 
 to death in their sight, and wives and 
 maidens were ravished amidst the ruins of 
 
 The persecution was so severe that the 
 reformed fled from France by thousands, 
 notwithstanding the cruel laws against emi- 
 gration. Many were shot down by the 
 soldiers in their efforts to escaj^e ; and many 
 others were captured and sent to the 
 galleys. The purest and gentlest of men 
 were sent there and chained to the side of 
 the vilest criminals. Over each galley was 
 placed a Jesuit chaplain. To each cap- 
 tive Huguenot he constantly held out the 
 offer of pardon if he would abandon his re- 
 ligion for that of Rome. In spite of the 
 sufferings of the captives, there were few 
 apostates among them. About 200,000 
 persons fled from France, and many thou- 
 
 BASIN OF NKl'TUXE— VKESAILLES. 
 
 their homes. The Huguenots were forbid- 
 den to bury their dead, or to comfort their 
 dying. The bodies of those who died 
 without the last ofiices of the Roman 
 Church were removed from their dwellings 
 by the public hangman, and thrown into 
 the common sewer. Those who refused 
 the viaticum when sick were punished, if 
 they recovered, with the galleys, or im- 
 prisonment for life, and the confiscation of 
 all their property. 
 
 It has been said that the king probably 
 knew nothing of these horrors ; but a sov- 
 ereign who gave such close personal atten- 
 tion to the affairs of his kingdom could not 
 have been kept in ignorance of these every- 
 <l:iv occurrenc;'s. 
 
 sands were killed in the dragonnades. 
 Among the exiles were some of the noblest 
 names of France. Marshal Schomberg, 
 one of Louis' most gifted commanders, 
 escaped into Holland and joined the army 
 of the Prince of Orange. Many literary 
 men of high distinction, such as Basnage, 
 Bayle, Jurieu, Lenfant, Beausobre, Saurin, 
 Rapin, and others, were among the exiles. 
 The greater number of the refugees, how- 
 ever, belonged to the industrial, commercial 
 and manufacturing classes. The industry 
 of France was almost destroyed by the 
 emigration. Lyons, Tours, and Nantes 
 were ruined. The first-named city was a 
 century in recovering its prosperity; the 
 last has not yet rallied from the losses of 
 
712 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the emigration. The industry thus lost to 
 France was transplanted to other countries. 
 England, Holland, Switzerland and Prot- 
 estant Germany were enriched by the skill 
 and labor of the exiles. New branches of 
 manufacture and commerce were estab- 
 lished in those countries, which have grown 
 steadily until the present day. 
 
 The cruelties practised upon the Hugue- 
 nots aroused a fierce hatred of France and 
 her tyrannical king in all Protestant Eu- 
 rope, and the position of William of 
 Orange, who was universally regarded as 
 the leader of the Protestant cause, as well 
 as the inveterate foe of Louis, Avas greatly 
 improved. William was able to organize a 
 powerful coalition against France in July, 
 1686. It was known as the League of 
 Augsburg, and the parties to it were the 
 emperor, the Kings of Spain and Sweden, 
 the Electors of Bavaria and Saxony, and 
 the Elector Palatine. Holland did not at 
 once join it, as it was not to William's in- 
 terest to break openly with Louis just yet. He 
 was secretly preparing to drive his father- 
 in-law, James II., from the English throne. 
 He skilfully concealed his designs from 
 Louis until it was too late for that king to 
 oppose them. Louis angrily Avarned Wil- 
 liam that any attempt against James II. 
 would lead to war Avith France, but the 
 League of Avigsburg kept him so busy that 
 he could notiuterfere Avith William's move- 
 ments, and the Prince of Orange Avas able 
 to emlaark Avithout molestation in the ex- 
 pedition which, in November, 1688, drove 
 James II. from England, and placed the 
 Prince of Orange and his Avife on the Eng- 
 lish throne as William and Mary. James 
 and his queen and infant son sought refuge 
 in France, where they Avere generously re- 
 ceived and maintained by Louis. 
 
 The accession of William and Mary to 
 the English throne was a severe blow to 
 Louis, as it deprived him of his only ally, 
 and made England his most resolute enemy. 
 He determined to lose no time in striking a 
 vigorous blow at the coalition against him. 
 The leading states of Europe had combined 
 to resist his insatiable and ever-grasping 
 lust for territory, and either he must aban- 
 don his schemes of spoliation or break up 
 the combination opposed to him. Taking 
 advantage of the election of a Bavarian 
 prince to the electorate of Cologne over a 
 candidate of his own, as a pretext for 
 beginning the war, he invaded the Palati- 
 nate in October, 1688, with an army of 
 
 80,000 men, commanded by the dauphin 
 and Marshals Duras and Vauban. Philips- 
 burg Avas taken after a month's siege, and 
 Manheim Avas reduced immediately after- 
 Avard. The Avhole of the Palatinate on the 
 left bank of the Rhine Avas occupied by a 
 division under the Marquis de Boufflers, 
 and Dinant, in the bishopric of Liege, was 
 seized by Marshal d' Humieres. Unable 
 to occupy the Avhole of the Palatinate, 
 Louis, at the instigation of the brutal 
 Luvois, his minister of Avar, caused it to be 
 laid Avaste Avith fire and SAvord. Heidel- 
 berg, Avith its magnificent electoral palace, 
 Manheim, Worms, Spires, Oppenheim, and 
 Bingen Avere burned, and the beautiful 
 country Avas made a blackened desert. 
 Those of the inhabitants who could retire 
 took refuge in other countries, but over one 
 hundred thousand of the peasantry w'an- 
 dered helpless amid the ruins of their 
 homes, imploring the curse of heaven upon 
 the merciless tyrant Avho had reduced them 
 to such suflTerings. The effect upon Ger- 
 many of the cruelties of the French Avas to 
 arouse a passionate hatred of them in the 
 German mind, Avhich has not yet died out. 
 
 Another important result of these cruel- 
 ties Avas the formation of a dcav coalition 
 against France, consisting of England, 
 Holland, and the parties to the League of 
 Augsburg. Three armies of the allies took 
 the field. The first, under the Prince of 
 Waldeck, entered the Netherlands, defeated 
 Marshal D'Humieres at Walcourt, and 
 forced the French back from the line of the 
 Sambi'e, The second, under the Duke of 
 Lorraine, and the third, under the Elector 
 of Brandenburg, advanced upon the Khine, 
 and took Mayence and Bonn, after Avhich 
 they Aveut into winter quarters in the 
 Palatinate, Avhich Avas still able to support 
 them in spite of the barbarous ravages of 
 the French. 
 
 The soul of the coalition Avas England, 
 now under the vigorous rule of William of 
 Orange. Louis endeavored to weaken 
 England by assisting James II. to recoA'er 
 his throne. He sent James to Ireland Avith 
 a considerable body of troops, in March, 
 1689, and in the summer of 1690 despatched 
 a fleet of seventy-eight ships-of-the-line to 
 make a descent upon England. This fleet 
 Avas encountered off" Beachy Head on the 
 30th of June by the allied fleets of England 
 and Holland. The Dutch sustained the 
 brunt of the engagement Avith great gal- 
 lantry, but the English admiral is said to 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 713 
 
 have held off, as he was secretly in the 
 interests of James. The allied fleet was 
 compelled to withdraw and seek shelter in 
 the Thames, and for a while it was confi- 
 dj'iitly expected that England would be 
 invaded by the French. On the day after 
 this engagement, however (July 1st, 1690), 
 William totally defeated the forces of James 
 ill Ireland in the battle of the Boyue. 
 James soon after fled to France, and the 
 war in Ireland was brought to a close in 
 July, 1691. The Frencn troops were al- 
 lowed to return to their own country, and 
 with them went a large body of Irish, who 
 did good service to the King of France. 
 
 Early in 1690 Louis appointed Marshal 
 Luxeml)urg to the command of his army 
 ill the Netherlands. Luxemburg forced 
 the passage of the Sambre in spite of the 
 resistance of the Prince of Waldeck, and 
 defeated him in tlie great battle of Fleurus, 
 on the 30tli of June, 1690. In the spring 
 of 1691 the French army, commanded by 
 the king in person, captured Mons after a 
 siege of nine days. In the summer of this 
 year Luvois, the able but brutal minister 
 of war, died. His death was regretted by 
 few save the king, who found it hard to fill 
 his place. In May, 1692, a French army 
 of 30,000 men was assembled near Cher- 
 bourg for the purpose of invading England 
 and replacing James upon his lost throne. 
 It was commanded by King James and 
 Marshal Bellefonds. Tourville, with a 
 fleet of forty-four ships-of-the-line, was 
 ready to embark the troops, when he was 
 ordered by Louis to attack an English and 
 Dutch fleet of ninety-nine ships-of-the-line 
 which had entered the channel. Though 
 he did not expect victory in the face of such 
 odds, Tourville obeyed the royal order 
 without hesitation, and attacked the allies 
 on the 19th of May off the Isle of Wiglit. 
 He held his own during the day, but at 
 night withdrew. The most of his vessels 
 gained the roadstead of La Hague, where 
 they were stranded with their broadsides 
 to the enemy. They were attacked by the 
 English, under Admiral Rooke, on the 
 23d of Miy, and were utterly destroyed. 
 James II. witnessed the engagement from 
 the cliffs, and though it destroyed his hopes, 
 could not restrain his admiration at the 
 heroism of the English sailors. Louis was 
 so greatly disheartened by the loss of his 
 fleet that he abandoned the cause of James, 
 who spent the remainder of his life in 
 pious seclusion at St. Germains. 
 
 On the 25th of May, 1692, Louis began 
 in person the siege of Namur, the strongest 
 fortress of the Low Countries. The skill 
 of Vauban was irresistible, and the fortress 
 surrendered on the 5th of June. King 
 William advanced to the relief of the place 
 with an army of 70,000 men, but Luxem- 
 burg kept him back with such skill that he 
 was unable to cross the Sambre at any 
 point. On the 24th of July William, wish- 
 ing to end the campaign by a decisive blow, 
 attacked Marshal Luxemburg at Steinkirk, 
 in Hainault. The battle was contested with 
 great obstinacy, but William was at length 
 obliged to retreat. He conducted this 
 movement with his accustomed skill, and 
 retired to Brussels. 
 
 William opened the campaign of 1694 
 by seeking to draw Louis, who was in com- 
 mand of the French army, into a decisive 
 engagement near Louvain. Although the 
 conditions were greatly in favor of the 
 French king, he declined to meet his great 
 antagonist, and abi'uptly left the army and 
 sent a part of his troops into Germany. 
 This act greatly damaged his reputation as 
 a commander, and he never again appeared 
 at the head of his army. On the 29th of 
 July the bloody battle of Neerwinden was 
 fought between King William and Marshal 
 Luxemburg. It resulted in the defeat of 
 the king, who conducted his retreat with 
 that masterly ability which caused his ad- 
 versaries to say that he was more formid- 
 able in defeat than others in victory. In 
 the same year Marshal Catinat defeated the 
 Duke of Savoy at Marsiglia. On the 27th 
 of June Adraii'al Tourville attacked the 
 English fleet under Admiral Rooke in La- 
 gos Bay. The English were engaged in 
 convoying an immense fleet of merchant- 
 men richly laden. Four men-of-war and 
 forty merchantmen were captured by the 
 French. The English commerce also suf- 
 fered greatly from the ravages of the 
 French privateers. 
 
 In January, 1695, the ablest of the 
 French commanders. Marshal Luxemburg, 
 died at the age of sixty-seven. He was 
 succeeded by Marshal Villeroi, who began 
 his career by allowing King William to re- 
 capture Namur, a success which produced 
 a marked improvement in the fortunes of 
 the allies. 
 
 France had now been for seven years en- 
 gaged in a constant and ruinous war, and 
 was exhausted. Her finances Avere no 
 longer directed by the .genius of Colbert, 
 
714 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and were involved in confusion and dishon- 
 esty. Louis was anxious for peace, and he 
 set to Avork to break up the coalition. By 
 surrendering Pignerol and restoring Nice 
 and all the conquered possessions of the 
 house of Savoy, he succeeded in inducing 
 the Duke of Savoy to abandon the coali- 
 tion and sign a treaty of peace and alliance 
 with France on the 30th of May, 1696. 
 The example of the duke, though con- 
 demned at first, was soon followed by the 
 other members of the coalition. Sweden 
 offered her mediation for a general peace, 
 and the treaty of Ryswick was signed on 
 the 30th of September, 1697, between 
 France, England, Spain and Holland. 
 
 SALLE DE L'CEIL-DE-BCEUF— PALACE OF VERSAILLES 
 
 France surrendered to Spain all her con- 
 quests in Catalonia, the Duchy of Luxem- 
 burg, and the towns of Charleroi, Mons, 
 Ath and Cambrai. Louis acknowledged 
 William III. as King of England, and en- 
 gaged to make no further effort in behalf 
 of James. A month later the Emperor 
 Leopold, with great reluctance, signed the 
 treaty. France relinquished to him all the 
 imperial territory gained by her since the 
 treaty of Nimwegen, but retained Strasburg. 
 The duchy of Lorraine was restored to its 
 rightful duke. These were humiliating 
 terras to Louis, but the necessities of his 
 exhausted kingdom allowed him no choice. 
 Peace was indispensable to France, and be- 
 sides, Louis was anxious to obtain a respite 
 
 which would enable him to attempt the 
 execution of the designs he had long con- 
 templated upon the succession to the Span- 
 ish crown. Charles II., the reigning King 
 of Spain, was slowly dying and was without 
 heirs. His throne was claimed in the event 
 of his death by three parties. 
 
 These parties derived their claims from 
 the daughters of Philip IV. The elder 
 daughter, Maria Theresa, had married 
 Louis XIV. of France, and the younger 
 Margarita had espoused the Emperor Leo- 
 pold. The issue of the elder daughter was 
 clearly entitled to the succession, but the 
 Spaniards pleaded the surrender of Maria 
 Theresa upon her marriage, of all her 
 rights, as debarring her issue from the 
 royal inheritance. Louis, however, 
 maintained that this surrender had 
 been rendered null and void by the 
 ncju-payment of the dowry upon which 
 it depended, and that the claim of his 
 wife's children was good and valid. 
 The emperor claimed the throne tor 
 his second son, the Archduke Charles, 
 the child of Margarita, the daughter 
 til'PhilijD IV. A third claim was ad- 
 vanced in behalf of the Electoral 
 l*rince of Bavaria, whose mother was 
 the daughter of the Emperor Leo- 
 pold and the Empress Margarita. 
 He was generally regarded by the 
 Spanish people and by Charles II. 
 himself as the rightful heir to the 
 throne. Louis XIV. did not expect 
 to secure the success of his claim 
 without difficulty, but he hoped by 
 continuing his intrigues to obtain at 
 least a share of the Spanish domin- 
 ions. To this end he negotiated a 
 treaty with William III. in October, 
 1698, for the partition of the Spanish do- 
 minions, upon the death of Charles 11. 
 Spain, with her possessions in America and 
 the Spanish Netherlands, were to be assigned 
 to the Electoral Prince of Bavaria ; France 
 was to have the kingdom of Naples and 
 Sicily, certain specified seaports in Tuscany 
 and the border province of Guipuzcoa, 
 while the duchy of Milan was to go to the 
 Archduke Charles. In spite of the precau- 
 tions of the contracting parties, Charles II. 
 was informed of this insolent attempt to 
 divide his dominions Avithout consulting 
 him, and at once declared by a solemn act 
 of succession the Prince of Bavaria the sole 
 heir to the dominions of Spain. Soon after 
 this the Prince of Bavaria died suddenly 
 
THE BEIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 715 
 
 at Brussels on tlie 6tli of February, 1699, 
 and it was suspected that his death was due 
 to the determiuatioa of Austria to remove 
 him. 
 
 Upon the death of the Electoral Prince 
 of Bavaria, Charles II. of Spain was in- 
 duced by the French influence, which now 
 reigned supreme at his court, to declare 
 Philip of Anjou, the second son of the dau- 
 phin, and the grandson of Louis XIV., his 
 heir. On the 1st of November, 1700, 
 Charles died. Louis XIV. at first hesi- 
 tated whether to remain faithful to the 
 treaty with William III., or to sustain his 
 grandson as King of Spain. He finally 
 decided to adopt the latter course. The 
 young prince was proclaimed King of Spain 
 at Madrid as Philip V., and on the 5th of 
 December left Versailles for his new domin- 
 ions. Philip was acknowledged as king in' 
 all parts of the Spanish dominions, and his 
 title was recognized by England, Holland, 
 and several other foreign powers. The em- 
 peror, as we have stated elsewhere, protested 
 against his elevation, and prepared for war 
 for the purpose of securing the Spanish 
 crown for his son, the Archduke Charles. 
 The other European j^owers Avere greatly 
 averse to war, and a general contest might 
 have been avoided had not Louis exasper- 
 ated England and alarmed Holland by his 
 mistaken policy at this period. Upon the 
 death of James II., he recognized his eldest 
 son, the pretender, as King of England, in 
 violation of his engagements with William, 
 and about the same time expelled the Dutch 
 garrisons from several towns in the Nether- 
 lands which had been granted to Holland 
 as a frontier in that direction. William 
 III., indignant at the recognition of the 
 pretender, which was equivalent to a decla- 
 ration of war against England, brought 
 about the second grand alliance between 
 England, the emperor, Holland, Prussia, 
 and the Elector Palatine. The objects of 
 this alliance were to prevent the union of 
 the crowns of France and Spain in the 
 person of the same sovereign, to procure 
 reasonable satisfaction for the emperor re- 
 specting the Spanish succession, and the 
 establishment of the Spanish Netherlands 
 as a barrier between France and Holland. 
 
 Hostilities broke out in Italy before this 
 alliance was concluded. The imperial army, 
 under Prince Eugene of Savoy, entered 
 Lorabardy in May, 1701, and drove the 
 French under Marshal Catinat from the 
 region between the Adige and the Adda. 
 
 Marshal Villeroi succeeded Catinat, but 
 was beaten by Eugene at Chiari and Cre- 
 mona. The year closed to the great disad- 
 vantage of the French, and before the sea- 
 son for active operations arrived again, 
 William III. died on the 8th of March, 
 1702. His successor, Queen Anne, declared 
 her intention to continue his jiolicy, and 
 placed Lord ]\Iarlborough in command of 
 the English forces on the continent. 
 
 Marlborough was invested with the com- 
 mand of the imperial forces also, and in the 
 campaign of 1702, by his masterly ma- 
 noeuvres, forced the French under Marshal 
 Boufflers to abandon the ■whole line of the 
 Meuse. Venloo, Stephausworth, and Ku- 
 remonde surrendered to him in succession, 
 and on the 28th of October Liege was taken 
 by storm. This brilliant campaign raised 
 Marlborough to the front rank of European 
 generals, and greatly increased the impor- 
 tance of England in European affairs. The 
 war in Piedmont was conducted by Prince 
 Eugene, and for a few months Philip V. 
 nominally commanded the French and 
 Spanish forces. No decisive event occurred 
 in this quarter during this year. The cam- 
 paign in Germany was also indecisive. At 
 sea the allies were more fortunate. On the 
 22d of October their fleet succeeded in cap- 
 turing or sinking in the Bay of Vigo the 
 entire Spanish West India fleet, laden with 
 gold and silver. 
 
 In 1703 Marlborough, who had been cre- 
 ated a duke, conquered the electorate of 
 Cologne, the ruler of which w-as the ally of 
 Fi'ance, as was also his brother, the Elector 
 of Bavaria. The allies likewise captured 
 Limburg and Guelders. The principal 
 successes of this year were won by the 
 Fi'ench Marshal Villars. He passed the 
 Rhine and effected a junction with the 
 Elector of Bavaria in the valley of the 
 Danube. The Austrian forces were en- 
 gaged in suppressing an insurrection in 
 Hungary, and the way to Vienna was open. 
 Villars proposed to the elector to march at 
 once upon the imperial capital, which must 
 have fallen, but the elector shrank from 
 such a bold movement, and undertook the 
 conquest of the Tyrol. He seized Innsbruck, 
 but was soon driven out by the Tyrolese, 
 who rose against him en masse. The impe- 
 rial army noAV entered Bavaria in two col- 
 umns and threatened Munich. By a skilful 
 manoeuvre, Villars interposed between these 
 columns, and on the 20th of September de- 
 feated one under Count Stvrum at Hoch- 
 
716 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 stadt. Villars now again urged the elector 
 to invade Austria, and upon being refused 
 a second time, asked the king to relieve 
 him of his command. He was succeeded 
 by Marshal Marsin. A little later the 
 elector endeavored to carry out Villars' 
 plan, but it was too late ; the decisive mo- 
 ment had gone by. The advantages won 
 for France by Villars were counterbalanced 
 by the defection of the Duke of Savoy, who 
 abandoned France and Spain, and on the 
 25th of October joined the allies, thus cut- 
 ting off the communication between Spain 
 and Italy. Portugal also made a perpetual 
 alliance with England and the United Neth- 
 erlands. By this accession to their cause 
 the allies obtained the means of invading 
 the Spanish Peninsula at any moment. 
 They now enlarged their plans, and in ad- 
 dition to claiming the Spanish possessions 
 in Italy and the Netherlands for the Arch- 
 duke Charles, claimed also the crown of 
 Spain for him. 
 
 During this war an insurrection had 
 been in progress among the Protestants of 
 the Cevennes mountains, on the borders of 
 Languedoc. They were driven into revolt 
 by the cruelties they had suffered at the 
 hands of the Romish church and the gov- 
 ernment, and for several years maintained 
 a vigorous and successful defence of their 
 mountain homes. Upon his return from 
 Germany Marshal Villars was sent by the 
 king to put down the revolt. He succeeded 
 in doing so by a mixture of firmness and 
 generosity in his treatment of the rebels. 
 Tlie chief troubles were quieted by the 
 close of the year 1704, but the rebellion 
 was not totally suppressed until 1710. 
 
 In the year 1704 the war was transferred 
 to Germany. Marlborough crossed the 
 Neckar on the 4th of June, and effected a 
 junction with the impei'ial army under 
 Prince Eugene. On the 13th of August 
 these commanders gained a decisive victory 
 over the French and Bavarians at Blen- 
 heim. In consequence of this great victory 
 the French were obliged to retreat beyond 
 the Rhine and leave Germany to the allies. 
 The Elector of Bavaria fled from his domin- 
 ions to the Netherlands. Germany was 
 freed from invasion, and France was seri- 
 ously threatened. In August the allied 
 fleet under Admiral Rooke captured the 
 strong fortress of Gibraltar, and defeated 
 the effort of the French fleet to regain pos- 
 session of it. In October, 1705, the city of 
 Barcelona was taken by the Earl of Peter- 
 
 borough, and Charles III. was proclaimed 
 and acknowledged throughout Aragon, 
 Catalonia, and Valencia. In Italy the 
 French were more fortunate, and in August^ 
 1705, the Duke of Vendome defeated 
 Prince Eugene at Cassano. 
 
 Tlie events of the year 1706 were very- 
 disastrous to the French. In April Prince 
 Eugene gained another victory over the 
 French at Cahdnato, and was preparing to 
 follow up this success by driving them out 
 of Turin, when he was ordered to join the 
 Duke of Marlborough in Flanders. The 
 junction was successfully effected, and on 
 the 23d of May the French army, under 
 Marshal Villeroi, was overwhelmingly de- 
 feated at Ramillies. The whole of Brabant 
 and the greater part of Flanders fell into 
 the hands of the allies in consequence of 
 this victory. Brussels was occupied by 
 them and Charles III. was proclaimed. 
 Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend, Menin, Termonde, 
 and Atlie submitted shortly afterwards. 
 In the autumn of 1706 Turin was invested 
 by the French under the Duke of Orleans, 
 the nephew of the King of France, and 
 Marshal Marsin. Prince Eugene, having 
 returned from Flanders, effected a junction 
 with the Duke of Savoy, and advanced to 
 the relief of Turin, On the 7th of Septem- 
 ber he stormed the French intrenchments 
 and drove the besieging army in utter rout 
 towards the Alps, capturing the French 
 camp and the whole train of siege artillery. 
 Lombardy was at once occupied by the 
 victors, and Charles VII. was proclaimed 
 at Milan. In Spain the allies were no less 
 fortunate. Alicante and Carthagena were 
 captured by the English fleet, and Madrid, 
 from which Philip V. and his court had 
 fled, was occupied by the army under Lord 
 Gal way. Charles III. was proclaimed at 
 Madrid, and Philip V. fled to Burgos. It 
 was seriously proposed at Versailles that 
 Philip should relinquish Spain to his rival, 
 and retain the vast colonial possessions of 
 that country as his kingdom. Louis XIV., 
 however, refused to sacrifice the interests 
 of his grandson. 
 
 The year 1707 brought a change in the 
 state of affairs. The Spaniards, preferring 
 the French to the Austrian succession, rose 
 against the allies and drove them into 
 Valencia, and Philip re-entered Madrid 
 amid the rejoicings of the people. In the 
 decisive battle of Almanza, the Anglo- 
 Portuguese army, under Lord Galway, was 
 routed by the Duke of Berwick, a son of 
 
THE BEIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 717 
 
 James II., who was in the service of the 
 French. The disaffected provinces of Spain 
 submitted to Philip, and the Bourbon cause 
 was triumphantly established in that coun- 
 try. An invasion of France in the direc- 
 tion of Provence by the allied army under 
 Prince Eugene and the Duke of Savoy was 
 unfortunate. They were forced by Marshal 
 Tesse to raise the siege of Toulon after 
 having sacrificed over 10,000 men. Ven- 
 dome held Marlborough in check in the 
 Low Countries during the year, and Mar- 
 shal Viliars performed the brdliant feat of 
 forcing the lines of Stolhoffen, until now 
 believed to be impregnable. In Italy, how- 
 ever, the French were obliged to abandon 
 
 on all sides. Chamillart, the finance min- 
 ister, was replaced by Desmarets, a nephew 
 of the great Colbert, but he was powerless 
 to afford relief to the country. Louis had 
 nearly ruined the industry of France to 
 gratify his religious bigotry, and he was 
 reaping the results of his unstatesmaulike 
 policy. 
 
 In 1708 the allies took the field in heavy 
 force in the Netherlands, under Marlbor- 
 ough and Eugene, and on the 11th of July 
 gained a brilliant victory over Vendome at 
 Oudenarde. This success placed the north- 
 ern frontier of France at their mercy, and 
 Artois and Picardy were rapidly oveirun, 
 Lille was besieged, and was forced to sur- 
 
 PLACE DV PALAIS KOYAL, PARIS, SHOWING THE PALACE AND THE LOUVRE. 
 
 the whole of northern Italy, and a small 
 imperial army under Marshal Daun con- 
 quered the kingdom of Naples and pro- 
 claimed Charles III. 
 
 Though France was thus momentarily 
 successful, her situation was growing more 
 critical every year. The country was ex- 
 hausted by the enormous cost of the war. 
 Every means of raising money had been 
 tried — " loans at ruinous rates of interest, 
 the creation of new and frivolous offices, 
 assignments on the revenue of future years, 
 vexations taxes, immense issues of paper 
 money." Each new expedient was followed 
 by a fresh embarrassment, and the nation 
 was discontented and murmurs were heard 
 
 render on the 22d of October, after a gal- 
 lant defence by Marshal Boufflers. Ghent 
 and Bruges were taken a little later. Brus- 
 sels was regained from the Elector of 
 Bavaria, and all Spanish and a part of 
 French Flanders passed into the hands of 
 the allies. 
 
 To add to the miseries of exhausted 
 France, the winter of 1708-9 was one of 
 unprecedented severity. Even the Rhone 
 was frozen over. Vineyards, orchards, and 
 the grain that had been sown were frozen 
 and destroyed, and it was evident that a 
 severe famine was inevitable for the ensuing 
 season. Whole families were frozen to 
 death in their wretched cottages, and from 
 
718 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 one end of France to the other suffering 
 and misery prevailed. There was universal 
 discontent throughout the kingdom, and the 
 popular opposition to the war broke out in 
 riots and other violent demonstrations. 
 Humbled and mortified, Louis made pi'o- 
 posals of peace to the allies. His overtures 
 were scornfully rejected, and the most 
 humiiiatiug terms were demanded of him, 
 which he could not accept without sacri- 
 ficing his honor. Among other things, the 
 allies demanded that he should turn his 
 arms against his grandson Philip V., and 
 pledge himself to exclude the Bourbon 
 family from the Spanish throne. He re- 
 fused to listen to such a proposal, and ap- 
 pealed to the j)atriotisni of the nation to 
 sustain him in another effort. The king 
 and many of the nobles sent their plate to 
 the mint, and by a series of vigorous meas- 
 ures funds were raised for the expenses of 
 the ensuing year. The sum of thii'ty-five 
 millions was also obtained from the Span- 
 ish colonies in the West Indies. 
 
 Marshal Villars was placed in command 
 of the army in Flanders, and advanced 
 upon the allied forces under Marlborough 
 and Eugene, which had captured Tournay 
 and were threatening the fortress of Mens. 
 The two armies came in conflict on the 
 11th of September, 1709, at Malplaquet. 
 The battle which ensued was the most ter- 
 rible and stubbornly contested of the whole 
 war. Marshal Villars was wounded and 
 borne from the field, and this no doubt 
 greatly assisted in the defeat of his army. 
 The allies lost over 20,000 men — a much 
 heavier loss than that of the French. The 
 defeated army reti*eated in good order to 
 Valenciennes, and Villars wrote to tlie 
 king that another such defeat would render 
 France safe from the efforts of the Grand 
 Alliance. The allies occupied Mons, which 
 surrendered immediately after the battle. 
 
 In 1710 Louis renewed his efforts to 
 bring about a peace, and offered to aid the 
 allies with a million livres a month in their 
 effort to drive Philip V. out of Spain ; but 
 they haughtily insisted that he should aid 
 them with his troops in this attempt. " If 
 I must needs fight," exclaimed the aged 
 king, "I prefer fighting against my ene- 
 mies to fighting against my own chirdren." 
 Two brilliant victories were gained by Ven- 
 dome — one over the English at Brihuega, 
 on the 9th of December, and the other over 
 the main army of the imperialists under 
 Charles III., at Villa Viciosa, on the 11th 
 
 of December. Charles was driven out of 
 Spain, and Philip was finally established 
 on the throne of that country. 
 
 Matters now underwent a sudden and 
 unexpected change. England was weary 
 of the war, of which she had borne the 
 heaviest burdens and reaped the smallest 
 advantages. The Whigs went out of 
 power, and Marlborough's enemies acquired 
 the control of the English government. 
 They were resolved to withdraw England 
 from the war. The sudden death of the 
 Emperor Joseph I., in 1711, placed the 
 Archduke Charles upon the Austrian 
 throne. He was soon after elected emperor 
 as Charles VI. The allies now found 
 themselves placed in the position of sup- 
 porting the claim of the emperor to the 
 Spanish crown, the success of which would 
 be more dangerous to the peace of Europe 
 than the continuance of Philip V. on his 
 throne. It would be simply the revival of 
 the universal mouai'chy which they had 
 prevented in the case of Louis XIV. This 
 conviction gave a great impetus to the 
 negotiations for peace, and in October, 1711, 
 two months before the coronation of the 
 Emperor Charles VI., a preliminary treaty 
 of peace was signed at London between 
 France and England. 
 
 Hostilities went on in the meanwhile, and 
 in 1711 Marlborough fought his last cam- 
 paign, which was made memorable by two 
 of his most important successes. He 
 stormed and carried the intrenched camp 
 established by Villars at Arleux, and cap- 
 tured the strongly fortified town of Bou- 
 chain. The malice of his enemies at home 
 proved too strong for him, and he was 
 recalled and stripped of all his offices. The 
 war during the year 1712 was conducted by 
 Prince Eugene on the side of the allies, and 
 he was opposed by Marshal Villars on the 
 side of France. Eugene was outgeneralled 
 by the French commander, and the allied 
 force under Lord Albemarle was defeated 
 and captured at Denain. Douai, Le Ques- 
 noy, and Bouchain were regained in rapid 
 succession by Villars, and the northern bor- 
 der of France was successfully restored. 
 A peace congress had been in session at 
 Utrecht since January, 1712, and these 
 successes very materially improved the in- 
 terests of France in the deliberations of that 
 body. 
 
 Louis had been sadly afflicted. In April, 
 1711, the dauphin, his only legitimate son, 
 died, and was succeeded as heir to the 
 
THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 719 
 
 throne by the Duke of Burgundy, a young 
 prince of great promise. In February, 
 1712, the young dnuphiness, Adelaide of 
 Savoy, who was greatly beloved by the 
 king and the court, died of a malignant 
 fever, which, a Aveek later, carried off also 
 the dauphin. Their eldest child, the Duke 
 of Brittany, died a month later. His 
 brother, the Duke of Anjou, now became 
 dauphin. He was a weak and sickly child, 
 and the next heir to the throne was Philip 
 V. of Spain. The allies now saw that there 
 was danger, unless peace was made at once, 
 that the crowns of France and Spain might 
 be united in the person of Philip V., and 
 
 ordered to be garrisoned by the Dutch as a 
 barrier between France and the Low Coun- 
 tries. Lille was restored to France, and 
 the fortifications of Dunkirk were disman- 
 tled. Louis agreed to recognize Queen 
 Anne as the rightful sovereign of Great 
 Britain, and also the succession of the Elec- 
 tor of Hanover to the English crown, as 
 provided for by the Act of Settlement, and 
 to compel the pretender and his family to 
 quit France. Gibraltar, Newfoundland, 
 Nova Scotia, and Port Mahon were con- 
 firmed to England. The Duke of Savoy 
 received back his territories. Philip V. 
 was recognized by the allies as King of 
 
 THEATRE FRAXfAIS — PA I!IS. 
 
 the object of the war be thus defeated. 
 This fear was more powerful than all the 
 arguments of the diplomatists, and on the 
 11th of April, 1713, the peace of Utrecht 
 was signed by France, England, Holland, 
 Spain, Portugal, Prussia, and Savoy. It 
 was stipulated by the terms of this treaty 
 that the crowns of France and Spain should 
 never be worn by the same sovereign. 
 Naples, the duchy of jNIilan, the island of 
 Sardinia, and the Spanish Netherlands were 
 ceded to Austria by Spain. The island of 
 Sicily was assigned to the Duke of Savoy, 
 Avith the title of king. A line of frontier 
 fortresses from Furnes, on the sea-coast, to 
 Charleroi and Namur was designated, and 
 
 Spain, and that country and Portugal re- 
 sumed their former boundaries. 
 
 The emperor refused to accede to the 
 treaty, and the result Avas another campaign 
 between France and Austria. It was con- 
 ducted with great success by Marshal Vil- 
 lars in the Palatinate. The Austrian forces 
 Avere beaten, and Spires, Worms, Landau, 
 and Freiburg Avere taken by the French. 
 Austria noAv consented to make peace, and 
 a series of conferences Avas held betAveen 
 Villars and Prince Eugene which resulted 
 in the treaty of Rastadt between France 
 and Austria, in INFarch, and the treaty of 
 Baden, betAvcen France and the German 
 princes, in September, 1714. The terras of 
 
720 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 these treaties were substantially those of 
 the treaty of Utreeh t. 
 
 France emerged from the war greatly 
 cripplad, and it was considered in that 
 country a matter for serious congratulation 
 that, in spite of all her reverses and suffer- 
 ings, she had been able to preserve her in- 
 dependence and her frontiers. Louis had 
 been forced to abandon the magnificent 
 dreams of his youth, and was glad to accept 
 even this humiliating peace, since it gave 
 him an opportunity to retrieve the broken 
 fortunes of his kingdom. The credit of 
 France was almost destroyed. The public 
 debt amounted to S430,600,000, and the 
 revenues were mortgaged for many years to 
 come. Agriculture, manufactures, and all 
 branches of industry were reduced to the 
 lowest state of depression ; bankruptcy was 
 general ; and thousands of the laboring 
 classes were dying of disease and famine. 
 Such was the price paid by France for the 
 seating of a Bourbon upon the throne of 
 Spain, which had been stripped by treaty 
 of some of its njost valuable possessions. 
 
 Louis did not long survive the close of the 
 war. His health had been failing for some 
 time. Feeling that his end was near, he 
 appointed a council of regency, with the 
 Duke of Orleans as president, to conduct 
 the government during the minority of his 
 great-grandson, a child of five years; and 
 in order to provide for the succession in 
 case of the death of this prince, caused his 
 two sons by Madame Montespan — the Duke 
 of Maine and the Count of Toulouse — to be 
 legitimated and placed in the line of succes- 
 sion. He Avas soon seized with his last 
 sickness, and died at Versailles on the 1st 
 of September, 1715, at the age of seventy- 
 seven, having reigned seventy-two years. 
 
 The "Age of Louis XIV." was in many 
 respects the most brilliant period of France. 
 Apart from the events we have related, it 
 witnessed the triumphs of Corneille, Boileau, 
 Moliere, and Racine in dramatic literature, 
 and of Pascal, Malebranche, Mabillon, 
 Ducauge, Nicole, La Rochefoucauld, and 
 La Bruyere in the higher walks of litera- 
 ture. Its orators were Fenelon, Bourda- 
 loue, Massillon, and Flechier. Its painters 
 Poussin, La Sueur, Claude Lorraine, Le- 
 brun, and Mignard. Mansard and Perrault 
 illustrated its architectural genius. The 
 court of France was a model of magnifi- 
 cence and refinement, but was sadly lacking 
 in the more substantial virtues. At no 
 
 period of the history of France did the 
 great and rich display such splendor in 
 every department of life. Good manners, 
 wit, and chivalrous courtesy were the sure 
 means of distinction, and gave a charm to 
 Fiench manners and customs which were 
 regarded throughout Europe as models of 
 elegance. Under all this splendor the peo- 
 ple were impoverished, discontented, and in 
 the last years of the reign, starving. The 
 government of France during this period 
 was an absolute despotism ; the lives, f()r- 
 tunes, and liberties of the people were at the 
 uncontrolled mercy of the king, who centred 
 in his own person all the powers of the 
 state. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OP LOUIS XIV. TO THE 
 MEETING OF THE STATES GENERAL. 
 
 Louis XV. — Regency of the Duke of Orleans — The 
 Most Corrupt Period of French History — The 
 Abbe Dubois — The Quadruple Alliance — Coldness 
 Between France and Spain — Cons])iracy of Celle- 
 niare — War with Sjiain — John Law — The Missis- 
 sippi Scheme — Its Failure — I^ouis Assumes the 
 Government — Marriage of Louis to Maria Lesz- 
 czynski — Ilesentnient of Spain — The Pragmatic 
 Sanction — Disgrace of the Duke of Bourbon- 
 Cardinal Fleury — His Able ^Measures — The War 
 of the Polish Succession — TheTreaty of Vienna — 
 The War of the Austrian Succession — Death of 
 Cardinal Fleury — Battle of Dettingen — Louis 
 Joins his Army — His Illness at Metz — Death of 
 the Emperor Charles VII. — Battle of Fontenoy — 
 Marshal Saxe Conquers Belgium — The Peace of 
 Aix-la-Chajielle — Madame de Pompadour — Fi- 
 nancial Troubles — Attempt on the King's Life — 
 The Seven Years' War — France Joins the i^lli- 
 ance Against Prussia — Success of the French — 
 The Convention of Kloster-Seven — Choiseul W\n- 
 ister — Treaty of Paris — France Loses her Ameri- 
 can Possessions — The Jesuits Expelled — Death 
 of iladame de Pompadour and tlie Dauphin — 
 Madame du Barry — France Secures Corsica — Fall 
 of Choiseul — Reckless Tyranny of Louis— Popu- 
 lar Discontents — The Encyclopaedia — Death of 
 Louis XV. — Louis XVI. King — His Character — 
 Marie Antoinette — Turgot's Financial Measures — • 
 Neckar — France Aids the American Colonies — 
 War with England — Spain Assists France — Battle 
 of Cape St. Vincent — The "Armed Neutrality " — 
 France Gives More Active Aid to the United 
 States of America — Surrender of Cornwallis at 
 Yorktown — Defeat of the French Fleet in the 
 West Indies — Siege of Gibraltar — The Peace of 
 Versailles — Financial Troubles — Neckar Resigns 
 — Failure of M. de Calonne — Extravagance of the 
 Court — Growing Discontent of the People — The 
 Assembly of Notables — Dismissal of Calonne — 
 The Cardinal de Brienne Imposes New Taxes — 
 They are Resisted — Demand for the Meeting of 
 the States General — Riots in Paris and the Prov- 
 inces — Weak Conduct of Louis — The King Sum- 
 mons the States General — Neckar Recalled — The 
 Winter of 1788-89. 
 
FROM DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 721 
 
 _^/||0UIS XV. was five years old. The 
 ^Jl (^ first act of his reign was the viola- 
 tion, by the Duke of Orleans, of 
 the will of Louis XIV. He set 
 a;side the council of regency, 
 seized the full powers of the gov- 
 ernment and conducted it himself. He 
 possessed some good qualities, but was on 
 the whole a bold, bad man, and his regency 
 
 tion of Spain. It was no secret that Philip 
 V. meant, in the event of the death of Louis 
 XV., to claim the French crown, notwith- 
 standing his oath of renunciation, and as 
 Philip and the regent were declared ene- 
 mies, it was not diflficult to persuade the 
 regent to adopt the plau of Dubois. An 
 alliance was effecte<l between France, Eng- 
 land and Holland, in January, 1717, for 
 
 BATTLE OF AGOSTA. 
 
 forms one of the most corrupt periods of 
 French history. Arbitrary measures were 
 adopted for the purpose of improving the 
 financial condition of the kingdom, but the 
 desired result was not produced. The 
 regent's confidential friend was the Abbe 
 Dubois, a profligate wretch, who was in the 
 pay of England. He succeeded in inducing 
 the regent to reverse the policy of Louis 
 XIV., to withdraw his countenance from 
 the pretender, and to cultivate the friend- 
 ship of England as an offset to the ambi- 
 
 46 
 
 the purpose of maintaining the terms of the 
 treaty of Utrecht. In August, 1718, it was 
 joined by the emperor, and was known 
 thenceforth as the Quadruple Alliance. 
 Sicily was annexed to Austria in exchange 
 for Sardinia, which was bestowed upon the 
 Duke of Savoy, who became King of Sar- 
 dinia. By this alliance France made an 
 enemy of Spain, her natural ally, and 
 entirely reversed the policy of Louis XIV. 
 The efforts of Spain to acquire Sardinia 
 and regain her former comnuiudinjr influ- 
 
722 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OE THE WORLD. 
 
 ence in European affairs involved her in a 
 war with France, which was hastened by 
 the discovery of a conspiracy in France, at 
 the head of which was the Marquis of 
 Cellemare, and which had for its object the 
 seizure of the regent and the placing of 
 Philip V. at the head of the French gov- 
 ernment. The parties implicated in this 
 plot were treated with great severity, many 
 being executed, and on the 10th of January, 
 1719, France declared Avar against Spain. 
 The French army, under the Duke of Ber- 
 wick, gained some successes in Spain, and 
 the allied fleet drove the Spaniards out of 
 Sicily. Philip was now alarmed, and 
 sought peace. In February, 1720, peace 
 
 shares in an organization known as the 
 Mississippi Company, and based upon a 
 monopoly of trade with Canada and Louisi- 
 ana. The Mississippi scheme became im- 
 mensely popular, and all France plunged 
 recklessly into the speculation. The shares 
 could not be sold fast enough to supply the 
 demand for them. All classes bought 
 them, and the bonds of the government 
 were readily exchanged for the paper 
 money, which was preferred to gold because 
 it could be counted more readily. In this 
 way the public debt disappeared. It is 
 most likely that the managers of this delu- 
 sion were ignorant of the true principles of 
 finance, and did not intend to perpetrate a 
 
 PALACE AND GARDENS OF THE LUXEMBOURG— PARIS. 
 
 was restored, Philip signifying his accept- 
 ance of the terms of the quadruple treaty. 
 
 Louis XIV. had left France burdened 
 with a debt of over $400,000,000. The in- 
 terest on this immense sura was a terrible 
 drain upon the resources of the kingdom. 
 Various expedients of relief were proposed, 
 and the regent, who was a man of ac- 
 knowledged talent, vainly sought to utilize 
 the vast, but as yet undeveloped, wealth of 
 the American possessions of France as a 
 means of relief from the embarrassments of 
 the kingdom. At this juncture John Law, 
 a Scotch banker, proposed to issue an 
 enormous sum of paper money secured by 
 
 deliberate fraud ; but the results were the 
 same. In 1720 the bubble burst. The 
 notes of Law's bank were found to be 
 irredeemable in specie, and the stock of the 
 Mississippi Company w-as worthless. Its 
 holders, who believed themselves rich, were 
 reduced to beggary, and the public credit 
 received a blow which was as disastrous as 
 the results of the most costly war could 
 have been. 
 
 Louis XV. having attained his legal 
 majority in 1723, the regency of the Duke 
 of Orleans came to an end. He retained 
 his place in the government as president of 
 the council of state, and secured a seat in 
 
FEOM DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 723 
 
 that body for Dubois, for whom he had 
 some time before procured a cardinal's hat. 
 Louis was now betrothed to the Infanta of 
 Spain, the eldest daughter of Philip V., and 
 the young princess was brought to France 
 to be educated. A little later the Cardinal 
 Dubois died, and on the 2d of December, 
 1723, was followed by the Duke of Orleans, 
 both being the victims of their debaucheries. 
 The Duke of Bourbon, first prince of the 
 blood, succeeded the Duke of Orleans as 
 prime minister. He was a dull, indolent 
 man, and was thoroughly under the in- 
 fluence of his mistress, the Marchioness of 
 Prie, who is said to have been in the pay 
 of the English ministry, and who was in her 
 turn governed by a clever and unscrupu- 
 lous financier named Paris Duvernay. 
 Philip of Spain had offended the Mar- 
 chioness of Prie, and she now had her re- 
 venge upon him. The king's health was 
 feeble, and it was deemed best to provide 
 for the succession. The Spanish infanta 
 was too young to be married, and she was 
 accordingly sent back to Madrid in the 
 bluntest manner., and with scarcely an 
 explanation, in January, 1725. The Duke 
 of Bourbon then sought to obtain for the 
 king the hand of an English princess, but 
 without success, and then, in concert with 
 his mistress, selected as the bride of the 
 king the amiable Marie Leszczynski, the 
 daughter of the dethroned Polish King 
 Stanislaus Leszczynski, who was living in 
 retirement in Alsace. The marriage was 
 celebrated at Fontainebleau on the 4th of 
 September, 1725. The object of the duke 
 and Madame de Prie in negotiating this 
 marriage was to retain their influence at 
 court by attaching the queen to them by 
 the gratitude she would naturally feel 
 towards those to whom she owed her 
 elevation. 
 
 Philip deeply and not unnaturally re- 
 sented the insult put upon him by the re- 
 jection of his daughter, and met it by a 
 change of his foreign policy. He now took 
 sides openly against France, and made an 
 offensive and defensive alliance with the 
 emperor against France and England, and 
 guaranteed the pragmatic sanction by 
 which the emperor secured his Austrian do- 
 minions to his daughter, Maria Theresa. 
 England, France, and Prussia thereupon 
 made a counter alliance, and it seemed that 
 Europe was once more to be involved in a 
 general war. Fortunately the Duke of 
 Bourbon fell into disgrace, and was ordered 
 
 to absent himself from court, and with him 
 passed away Madame de Prie and Duver- 
 nay, the last of whom had done consider- 
 able damage by tampering with the finances. 
 Cardinal Fleury, the king's preceptor, was 
 made prime minister. He was seventy 
 years old, and a man of upright and noble 
 character. His wise and peaceful policy 
 not only averted the threatened European 
 war, but restored order in the finances, and 
 revived the confidence of the nation. He 
 remained at the head of the state for seven- 
 teen years, and during that period managed 
 to preserve tranquillity in the kingdom, and 
 gave to France an opportunity to repair 
 the losses occasioned by the wars of Louis 
 XIV., and greatly increased her commerce 
 and wealth. Philip of Spain suddenly at- 
 tacked Gibraltar in February, 1727, but 
 Fleury managed to confine the struggle to 
 the peninsula, and in 1729 peace was made 
 between Fr^ince, England, and Spain. 
 
 In 1733 Augustus II., Elector of Saxony 
 and King of Poland, died. He was suc- 
 ceeded as Elector of Saxony by his son 
 Frederick Augustus, who also claimed the 
 Polish crown. His claim was sustained by 
 Russia and by the Emperor Charles VI., 
 whose niece he had married. Louis XV. 
 determined to restore his father-in-law, 
 Stanislaus Leszczynski, who was a native 
 of the country, and the choice of a majority 
 of the people. The Polish crown beirtg 
 elective, both parties used money lavishly 
 to secui-e the votes of the electors. Stanis- 
 laus was chosen by the majority, but a mi- 
 nority cast their votes for Augustus III., 
 who was immediately proclaimed, and was 
 recognized by Austria and Russia. Stanis- 
 laus was obliged to quit Warsaw, and took 
 refuge in Dantzic. A Russian army cap- 
 tured this city in 1734, and Stanislaus fled 
 to the court of Frederick William of Prus- 
 sia, who protected his person, but aided 
 Russia and Austria with a contingent of 
 10,000 men. The European poAvers eagerly 
 availed themselves of the war of the Polish 
 succession as a pretext for fighting out their 
 quarrels. France began the war in 1733 
 by seizing the imperial province of Lor- 
 raine, and Spain being resolved to take ad- 
 vantage of the struggle to recover her lost 
 Italian possessions, sided with France. 
 Marshal Villars, with a French and Pied- 
 montese army, conquered the duchy of 
 Milan. The army of the Rhine, under the 
 Duke of Berwick, took Kehl, Treves, and 
 Trarbach, and laid siege to Philipsburg. 
 
724 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATE!) HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Berwick was killed during the siege of this 
 place in June, 1734, and Villars died at 
 Turin a few days later. Spain sent an 
 army into Italy, which quickly conquered 
 Naples, where the Austrian rule was de- 
 tested. The conquest of this kingdom was 
 completed in May, 1734, and Sicily was re- 
 duced soon after. Don Carlos, the son of 
 Philip v., Avas proclaimed as Charles III., 
 and the rule of the Spanish Bourbons in 
 Italy was successfully established. 
 
 The emperor, having lost all his Italian 
 possessions, was now anxious for peace. 
 Hosfilities ceased in 1735, and in 1738 the 
 third treaty of Vienna was signed. The 
 
 national feeling was very strong, hoAvever, 
 and all parties demanded that the govern- 
 ment should take advantage of this favor- 
 able opportunity to ruin the hereditary foe 
 of France. Cardinal Fleury had not the 
 firmness to resist this demand, though his 
 judgment condemned the war; and in May, 
 1741, made an alliance with Bavaria, which 
 was followed soon after by a secret treaty 
 with Prussia. The French army sent to 
 the assistance of the Bavarians was driven 
 from Prague, which city it had occupied ; 
 and made a terribly disastrous retreat to its 
 own country. It reached the French fron- 
 tier in January, 1743, having lost 38,000 
 
 BOULEVARD DU TEMPLE— PAKIS. 
 
 emperor was obliged to relinquish the Two 
 Sicilies and the duchy of Lorraine. The 
 Sicilian kingdom was confirmed to Charles 
 III., and Stanislaus resigned his claim to 
 the Polish crown and accepted the duchies 
 of Lorraine and Bar. The pragmatic 
 sanction was guaranteed by France, Spain, 
 and Sardinia, and Francis, Duke of Lor- 
 raine, the husband of the emperor's daughter, 
 Maria Theresa, Avas made Grand Duke of 
 Tuscany to indemnify him for the loss of 
 his hereditary duchy. 
 
 France had no real interest at stake in 
 the war of the Austrian succession, the 
 causes and events of which we have related 
 in the German history of this period. The 
 
 men out of 50,000. Fleury Avas crushed 
 by this disaster, and died on the 29th of 
 January, 1743, at the age of ninety. 
 
 Louis XV. was constitutionally indolent 
 and indisposed to attend to the duties of his 
 position, and for some years after Fleury's 
 death the affairs of the kingdom were left 
 to the various ministers at the head of the 
 different branches of the public service. 
 The real ruler of France during this period 
 Avas the king's mistress, the Duchess de 
 Chateauroux, a woman of talent and am- 
 bition, Avho exerted herself to rouse Louis 
 to a sense of his duty as a king. 
 
 In 1743 Frederick II. of Prussia, hav- 
 ing obtained Silesia, withdrew from the 
 
FROM DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 725 
 
 alliance with France and Bavaria, and Na- 
 ples and Sardinia were compelled to do 
 likewise by the threats of Great Britain. 
 France was thus left to bear the burdens of 
 the war alone. On the 27th of June, 1743, 
 the allied army under King George II. of 
 England defeated the French under Mar- 
 shal de Noailles at Dettingen. This vic- 
 tory was due rather to the disobedience of 
 Noaille's orders by one of his lieutenants 
 than to the skill of the allied commanders. 
 Its chief result was the escape of their army 
 from a dangerous position. 
 
 In March, 1744, France declared war 
 against Great Britain, and Louis took the 
 field at the head of his army. The real 
 command was exercised by Maurice, Count 
 of Saxony (a natural son of Augustus II. 
 of Poland), afterwards famous as Marshal 
 Saxe. Frederick II. of Prussia now broke 
 his engagements with Austria, and in June 
 an alliance against Austria was signed by 
 France, Prussia, the Emperor Charles VII. 
 and Sweden. In August, Louis fell ill at 
 Metz, and came near dying. On his I'e- 
 covery France broke out into rejoicings and 
 hailed him by the title of " Eien-aime," 
 ''the well-beloved ;" a title which he in no 
 way merited, and which surprised no one 
 more than himself. 
 
 In January, 1745, the Emperor Charles 
 VII. died. His son made peace with the 
 Queen of Hungary by renouncing his claim 
 to the imperial dignity, and received back 
 his hereditary possessions. Thus Bavaria 
 was withdrawn from the war, and as the 
 cause of the struggle was removed in great 
 part by this arrangement, France proposed 
 terms of peace. They Avere rejected by 
 Maria Theresa, who thenceforth fought for 
 vengeance, while France sought only an 
 honorable peace. 
 
 In the spring of 1745 the French army 
 under Marshal Saxe and the king invested 
 Tournay. The allies under the Duke of 
 Cumberland marched to the relief of that 
 place. Leaving a division to continue the 
 siege, Saxe marched against them, and in- 
 flicted a terrible defeat upon them at Fon- 
 tenoy on the 11th of May. The victory 
 was follow^ed by the surrender to Marshal 
 Saxe of Tournay, Ghent, Bruges, Ouden- 
 arde and several other important cities 
 of Flanders. Louis returned to Paris and 
 was received as a conqueror. In Septem- 
 ber, 1745, Francis I., husband of Maria 
 Theresa, was elected emperor, and soon after 
 peace was made between Austria and Prus- 
 
 sia. This enabled the empress-queen to re- 
 inforce her army in Italy, and in the spring 
 of 1746 the imperial forces in Lombardy 
 resumed the offensive. They inflicted a de- 
 cisive defeat upon the allied French and 
 Spanish army at Piacenza on the 16th of 
 June. The French fled to Genoa, and con- 
 tinued their retreat into France, which they 
 entered in September, closely followed by 
 the Austrians, who crossed the Var and 
 ravaged the country as far as the Durance. 
 Marshal Belleisle, by a series of masterly 
 manoeuvres, checked the invasion and drove 
 the Austrians back across the frontier in 
 February, 1747. 
 
 Saxe in the meantime had followed up his 
 victory at Fontenoy by besieging Brus- 
 sels, which he captured after a siege of three 
 months. Antwerp was taken by him in 
 May, 1746, and in September Namur was 
 captured also. Then concentrating his 
 forces he inflicted a decisive defeat upon the 
 Austrians under Prince Charles of Lor- 
 raine, at Raccoux, on the Meuse, near Liege, 
 and made himself master of all Belgium. 
 On the 17th of April, 1747, France de- 
 clared war against Holland, and the French 
 army under Marshal Saxe crossed the Dutch 
 frontier and captured the whole line of for- 
 tresses on the Scheldt, from Antwerp to the 
 sea, in less than a month. Great Britain 
 now induced Russia to join the league 
 against France, but before anything could 
 result from this accession of strength, Saxe 
 defeated the Duke of Cumberland at Law- 
 feld, and drove him behind the Meuse. In 
 April, 1748, he captured Maestricht. A 
 suspension of hostilities Avas immediately 
 proclaimed, and in October, 1748, the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed. France and 
 England mutually restored their conquests. 
 Francis I. was recognized as emperor, and 
 the j^i'^gn^^tic sanction was once more 
 guaranteed. Silesia was confirmed to Prus- 
 sia ; and the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, 
 and Guastalla were ceded by Austria to 
 Don Philip of Spain. France gained noth- 
 ing by the war. Her public debt was 
 nearly doubled, her commerce was almost 
 ruined, and her navy was seriously crip- 
 pled by the struggle ; but she gained no 
 advantage to oflset these losses. 
 
 During the war Louis had shown proofs 
 of possessing courage, energy, and practical 
 sense, but peace was no sooner restored than 
 he fell back into his old habits. Under 
 a wise and firm sovereign Fi-ance would 
 have advanced rapidly in wealth and ma- 
 
726 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 terial prosperity, for she had attained a 
 proud position among the powers of Eu- 
 rope, and was making rapid strides in intel- 
 lectual development, and the seven years 
 following the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle were 
 peaceful and quiet. Louis, however, neg- 
 lected the interests of his kingdom, and 
 gave himself up to sensual enjoyments. 
 Upon the death of Madame de Chateau- 
 roux he promoted to her place Madame Le- 
 normaut d'Etioles, a woman of mean origin, 
 but of decided talent and great beauty. 
 She was soon created Mai-chioness of Pom- 
 padour, and for twenty years was the real 
 ruler of France, the king being entirely 
 submissive to her will. She arranged and 
 
 sisted by the privileged orders, and espe- 
 cially by the clergy, and when the govern- 
 ment proceeded to order a survey of all 
 ecclesiastical property in the kingdom with 
 the avowed object of taxing it, the bishops 
 undertook to defeat the measure by ordering 
 the clergy to refuse the last sacraments, and 
 Christian burial to all who were unj)ro- 
 vided with certificates of confession attesting 
 their acceptance of the bull Unigenitus. 
 This produced a conflict which extended to 
 every branch of society in France. The 
 whole nation opposed with great bitterness 
 this attempt to revive the ecclesiastical des- 
 potism of the Middle Ages, and the new 
 school of free-thinking philosophers, whose 
 
 bird's t-YIl \ltW Oi iHt LOLMvt AND lil^ 1 LlLLivILS— 1 \1 > 
 
 directed all the leading matters of state, 
 dispensed the favor of the government, 
 promoted military officers, and appointed 
 the clergy to the ecclesiastical honors. 
 When her beauty began to wane, she man- 
 aged to retain her influence over the king 
 by means more discreditable than those by 
 which she had gained it. 
 
 The financial condition of the kingdom 
 had been greatly improved by the wise ad- 
 ministration of Cardinal Fleury. It was 
 now thrown into confusion again by the ex- 
 travagance and the shameful misgovern- 
 raent of the king. To remedy these troubles, 
 Machault, the finance minister, levied a tax 
 r.-ion all incomes. This measure was re- 
 
 ablest teacher was Voltaire, gained many 
 adherents. The king pursued a shifting 
 policy, favoring the church party some- 
 times, and the popular party at others, and 
 finally sided with the former, and attempted 
 to compel the Parliament of Paris to sustain 
 the measures by which he sought to aid the 
 churchmen. The magistrates, indignant at 
 this interference with their privileges, re- 
 signed their offices. 
 
 The popular wrath was very great, and 
 had a leader been found to conduct the 
 movement, Paris would have risen in insur- 
 rection against the king. As it was, a 
 lunatic named Damiens was wrought up by 
 the excitement of the struggle to attempt 
 
FBOM DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 
 
 the life of the king, and on the 5th of Jan- 
 uary, 1757, stabbed him in the side with a 
 penknife, as he was stepping into his car- 
 riage at Versailles. He declared that he 
 intended to punish the king for his treat- 
 ment of the Parliament of Paris, and for his 
 failure to prevenf'the refusal of the sacra- 
 ments. The king's wound was slight ; but 
 Dainiens was put to death with the most 
 horrible cruelty. This attempt on the 
 king's life led to a revulsion of feeling on 
 the part of the people, and a settlement of 
 the dispute was effected. 
 
 "While thesex matters were occupying at- 
 tention -at home, the conflicting claims of 
 Fj-ance and England to the, valley of the 
 Ohio, in America, led those countries into 
 a conflict, which'^-began in America, for the 
 possession of that* region, but whieh subse- 
 quently expanded into a general European 
 war. The events of the struggle' in America 
 will be related elsewhere. War Avas not 
 declared betw^en^ France and JCngland 
 until January, 1756, smhough hostilities 
 had beeu carried on in America and at sea 
 during the whole of 1755. Both France 
 and England sought alliances. Austria 
 had long desired to secure the aid of France, 
 far the Empress Maria Theresa was deter- 
 mined to make the war the occasion of de- 
 stroying the kingdom of Prussia. By the 
 advice of her minister, Kaunitz, this great 
 woman condescended to write a letter to 
 Madame de Pompadour, styling her " my 
 cousin." The favorite was delighted, and 
 the result was that France became the cor- 
 dial ally of her inveterate foe, Austria. On 
 the 1st of May, 1756, a treaty was signed 
 between the two powers for the conquest 
 and partition of Prussia. This alliance was 
 subsequently joined by Russia, Saxony, and 
 Sweden. Frederick, apprised of the danger 
 which threatened him, struck the first blow, 
 and began the Seven Years' War by seizing 
 Leipzig and Dresden. Thus the hatred of 
 one woman and the vanity of another were 
 able to plunge Europe into one of the most 
 terrible struggles of history. It is our pur- 
 pose here to relate only the course pursued by 
 France in this war, having already told the 
 story as regards Germany. 
 
 In the first year of the war the operations 
 of tlie French army under the Duke de 
 Richelieu were confined to the lower Rhine, 
 and were directed against the forces of 
 Great Britain under the Duke of Cumber- 
 land. The English commander was obliged 
 to evacuate all of Hanover and Brunswick ; 
 
 and a little later he concluded an inglorious 
 convention with the French at Kloster- 
 Seven on the Elbe, by which all of Han- 
 over was surrendered to them until the 
 conclusion of peace. In the same year 
 Richelieu captured the island of Minorca, 
 and the French fleet took Port Mahon. la 
 1757 a second French army under the 
 Prince of Soubise, with an auxiliary corps of 
 Germans, invaded Saxony to drive out the 
 Prussians. They Avere defeated by Fred- 
 erick the Great at Rosbach on the 3d of 
 November. The next year (1758) the con- 
 vention of Kloster-Seven having been repu- 
 diated by the British government, the 
 Prince of Soubise entered Hanover and 
 defeated the allies at Lutterberg, on the 7th 
 of October. 
 
 In November, 1758, the Duke de Choi- 
 seul succeeded the Cardinal de Bernis as 
 minister of foreign afl^airs. He proposed to 
 carry the war into England, and a powerful 
 fleet was assembled at Toulon and Brest for 
 a descent upon that country. The projected 
 invasion was defeated by the gallantry of 
 the English fleet. The Toulon squadron, 
 while seeking to unite with that of Brest, 
 was defeated by the English fleet under 
 Admiral Boscawen oW Cape Lagos, and on 
 the 14th of November the Brest squadron 
 was annihilated by the fleet of Admiral 
 Hawke oflT Belleisle These decisive defeats 
 caused France to abandon the contest at sea. 
 
 In 1759 the French continued their oper- 
 ations in Westphalia. On the 1st of 
 August they were decisively defeated at 
 Minden, on the Weser, by Prince Ferdi- 
 nand of Brunswick, and abandoned Han- 
 over, and nearly all Munster and West- 
 phalia. In the same year, by the capture 
 of Quebec by the English, France lost her 
 province of Canada in North America. 
 
 In August, 1761, Choiseul negotiated a 
 treaty of close alliance Avith the Spanish 
 branch of the house of Bourbon. This 
 treaty is known as the "Family Compact." 
 By its terms Louis XV. and Charles III. 
 guaranteed their respectiA^e territories in all 
 parts of the AA'orld, and agreed to make com- 
 mon cause against any and all of their 
 enemies. No poAver external to the house 
 of Bourbon Avas to be admitted to this 
 treaty, Avhich Choiseul hoped Avould enable 
 France to add the strength and resources 
 of Spain to her own power. It failed to 
 accomplish all he desired, but brought about 
 a rupture between England and Spain in 
 January, 1762. 
 
728 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THEr WORLD. 
 
 On the lOth of February, 17G3, the treaty 
 of Paris was signed between France, Eng- 
 land, and Prussia. France surrendered all 
 her American possessions on the Atlantic 
 seaboard to Great Britain, and also that 
 part of Louisiana lying east of the Missis- 
 sippi. She ceded also the West Indian 
 islands of Grenada, Tobago, St. Vincent, 
 and Dominica, and the settlement of Sene- 
 gal, on the coast of Africa. Minorca was 
 restored to Great Britain, and France re- 
 covered Martinique, St. Lucia, and Belle- 
 isle. The peace of Hubertsburg followed 
 the treaty of Paris on the 15th of February 
 and closed the Seven Years' War. Its con- 
 
 died at the age of forty-four, having re- 
 tained her influence over the king to the 
 last. In 1765 the dauphin, an excellent 
 prince, died of consumption, at the age of 
 thirty-six, leaving three sons, who were 
 afterwards kings of France as Louis XVI., 
 Louis XVIII. , and Charles X. In June, 
 1768, the queen, who had been neglected 
 for years by Louis, died. Some years pre- 
 vious her father, Stanislaus, had died, 
 leaving the duchies of Lorraine and Bar to 
 the crown of France. Louis showed great 
 grief for his patient and much-enduring 
 wife, and promised to amend, but in less 
 than a year he installed Jeanne Vauber- 
 
 POXT DtS ARTS, SHOWING THE LuUVIlE AND THE TUILEIUES— I'AKIS. 
 
 ditions Avere related in the German history 
 of this century. 
 
 Immediately after the close of the war 
 the Duke de Choiseul in concert with Ma- 
 dame de Pompadour took tlie bold step of sup- 
 pressing the order of the Jesuits in France. 
 The duke was the mortal enemy of the 
 order, and niadame had come to hate them 
 for trying to break up her connection Avith 
 the king. On the 26th of November, 1764, 
 the order of the Jesuits was formally sup- 
 pressed in France by a royal decree, and its 
 members ordered to quit the kingdom. Its 
 vast property was confiscated to the state. 
 
 In April, 1764, Madame de Pompadour 
 
 uier, a woman of infamous character, in 
 Madame de Pompadour's place. He com- 
 pelled an officer of his court to marry her, 
 and she took her 2)lace at court as the 
 Countess du Bai-ry. Choiseul opposed this 
 step of the king with all his power, but in 
 vain, and so earned for himself the hatred 
 of the new mistress. For the present, how- 
 ever, this able and enlightened minister 
 continued to direct the affairs of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 In 1768 the island of Corsica, which had 
 thrown off the Genoese yoke, was relin- 
 quished to France by Genoa. A large 
 military force was despatched to the island 
 
FROM DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 729 
 
 by Choiseul, and after a short resistance 
 Corsica submitted, and was formally an- 
 nexed to France. 
 
 The Jesuits now made common cause 
 with Madame du Barry and her followers, 
 and succeeded in bringiugaboutthedownfall 
 of Choiseul, who, on the 24th of December, 
 1770, was deprived of his office and ban- 
 ished to his estate at Chanteloup. Thus 
 
 tion of justice was violently changed by the 
 forcible suppression of the ancient parlia- 
 ments of the realm in all parts of France. 
 The discontent aroused by this proceeding 
 w'as shared by all classes, and the king was 
 solemnly warned by the leading men of 
 France of the danger of permitting such in- 
 fractions of the ancient constitution of the 
 kingdom. The nation was rapidly sinking 
 
 VIKW OF THE BASTILE. 
 
 Louis, to please his infamous mistress, and 
 the unscrupulous enemies of mankind, the 
 Jesuit party, robbed France of her first 
 living statesman. Choiseul carried into his 
 retirement the respect and confidence of the 
 greater part of the nation. 
 
 Under the guidance of Madame du Barry 
 and her supporters, France sank rapidly 
 into financial difficulties. The administra- 
 
 into financial ruin, and the groAving discon- 
 tent of the people threatened the most seri- 
 ous consequences. Speculation was ram- 
 pant ; combinations were formed to raise the 
 price of grain ; enormous and ruinous taxes 
 \vere levied upon the nation, and went to 
 support the infamous and dissolute court 
 of Versailles. All complaint was silenced 
 with imprisonment in the Bastile. Men 
 
730 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 were arrested upon secret warrants, im- 
 prisoned without knowing their offence, and 
 without hope of trial or release. Liberty, 
 justice, commercial integrity, the prosperity 
 of the kingdom, were all sacrificed to gratify 
 the malice and avarice of a debauched king 
 and an abandoned woman. Louis selfishly 
 refused to summon the states general, or to 
 take any measures to put a stop to the 
 trouble. The present state of affairs, he 
 
 taire, Diderot, D'Alembert, Helvitius, Con- 
 dillac, the Abbe Reynal, and others — were 
 shaking the faith of the people in the great 
 principle of authority, and were arousing 
 the nation to a sense of its rights and its in- 
 juries. Above all, the writings of Jean 
 Jacques Rousseau, whose brilliant genius 
 blinded men to his contemptible character, 
 were filling the minds of his readers — and 
 they were the nation — with his ideas of 
 social reconstruction, and 
 were dealing terrible 
 blows to the structure of 
 religion, morality and le- 
 gitimate government. The 
 great masses of the people 
 were beginning to feel 
 their strength, and men 
 began to talk of an era 
 in which the present state 
 of affairs should give way 
 to freedom of thought 
 and faith, security for 
 life and property, equal- 
 ity before the law, the 
 abolition of privileges 
 and monopolies, equal 
 taxation for all orders, 
 and freedom of trade. 
 
 LOUIS XVI. 
 
 declared, would outlast his reign, and his 
 successor could try to settle the troubles to 
 which he was heir. "After us the deluge," 
 was the motto of both king and court. 
 
 Meanwhile the discontent of the people 
 was growing greater every day. The Pii- 
 cyclopsedists, as the contributors to The 
 Encyclopaedia, which was published during 
 this reign, were called — Montesquieu, Vol- 
 
 These were ominous signs, 
 but they were not recog- 
 nized by the court or the 
 nobility, who continued 
 their pleasures, regardless 
 of the sufferings or the 
 growing imj^atience of the 
 people. 
 
 In the midst of this state 
 of affairs Louis XV. died 
 of an attack of malignant 
 small-pox, on the 10th of 
 May, 1774, at the age of 
 sixty-four, having reigned 
 fifty-eight years. D e - 
 serted in his last hours 
 by his mistress and at- 
 tendants, he was buried 
 in haste at St. Denis, de- 
 spised by the nation 
 which had once styled him " The Well- 
 Beloved." 
 
 Louis XVI., the third son of the dauphin, 
 was twenty years old at the time of his ac- 
 cession to his grandfather's crown. He had 
 been imperfectly educated, and was not 
 fitted by his character for the august station 
 to Avhich he was called. He was a weak, 
 good-natured man, who sincerely desired 
 
FROM DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 731 
 
 the welfare of his subjects, but did not 
 know how to accomplish his ends. His 
 motives were good, but he had neither 
 energy nor strength of character, and was 
 timid and hesitating. He could be firm 
 when he chose, but, unfortunately for him, 
 he chose to be so always at the wrong mo- 
 ment ; and he invariably yielded when he 
 should have been firm. He was not lack- 
 ing in good sense, and was, unlike his race, 
 a man of pure morals, and was naturally 
 kind-hearted. He w^as married to Marie 
 Antoinette, a daughter of the Empress 
 Maria Theresa, a young, beautiful, and 
 accomplished woman, Avho inherited the 
 imperious temper of her mother, and pos- 
 sessed a levity of manner which soon won 
 her the dislike of the French people. Her 
 influence over Louis was supreme, and her 
 counsels were too often ill-judged, and were 
 the cause of many of his misfortunes. 
 
 Louis XVI. began his reign by making 
 the Count de JNIaurepas prime minister, and 
 a little later made M. Turgot minister of 
 finance. JNIaurepas w^as a man of slender 
 abilities, but Turgot possessed real genius. 
 He at once addressed himself to the task of 
 restoring the finances to a healthy condi- 
 tion, and instituted a series of reforms, 
 based upon the contribution of all classes 
 in their just proportion to the support of 
 the state. He also sought to remove some 
 of the unequal burdens borne by the lower 
 order of the people. He had succeeded in 
 making a great reduction in the public 
 debt, when, in May, 1776, he was driven 
 from office by the selfish hostility of the 
 nobles and the other parties interested in 
 maintaining the old abuses. 
 
 Turgot was succeeded in the control of 
 the finances by M. Necker, a wealthy 
 banker of Geneva, who Avas considered one 
 of the leading financiers of Europe. He 
 sought to curtail the enormous waste of the 
 public funds in useless offices, and hoped 
 to remedy the financial troubles of the 
 nation by raising immense loans upon the 
 public credit. He swept away six hundred 
 superfluous offices and introduced a more 
 economical method of collecting the 
 revenue, thereby securing an immense 
 saving to the state. 
 
 In the meantime France, which, since 
 the loss of Canada, had been watching for 
 an opportunity to cripple England in 
 America, decided to give her support to 
 the revolted colonies of her rival, which 
 had thrown off" their allegiance and or- 
 
 ganized the independent republic of the 
 United States of America, The king and 
 his ministers were opposed to this step, as 
 it was sure to involve them in a war with 
 Great Britain, but were unable to resist the 
 popular sentiment, which was overwhelm- 
 ingly in favor of aiding the Americans. 
 Seci-et aid was given at first, but on the 
 8th of February, 1778, a treaty of com- 
 merce and alliance was concluded between 
 France and the United States, and France 
 bound herself, in case a war with England 
 should ensue, not to make peace until the 
 King of Great Britain should recognize the 
 independence of the United States. As 
 soon as this treaty was known the British 
 ambassador was recalled from Paris, and, 
 though no formal declaration of war was 
 made, hostilities immediately began by the 
 seizure of the vessels lying in the ports of 
 the two countries. On the 27th of July, 
 1778, the English Admiral Keppel en- 
 countered a French fleet of about equal 
 force off" Cape Ushant, and compelled it, 
 after a running fight, to return to Brest to 
 refit. 
 
 Spain was now summoned by France, in 
 accordance with the family compact, to 
 come to her assistance. A Spanish fleet 
 attempted to capture Gibraltar, but was 
 defeated by Sir George Rodney off" Cape 
 St. Vincent on the 8th of January, 1780. 
 
 In 1780 a coalition of the northern 
 powers, known as the "Armed Neutrality," 
 was organized by Russia, Prussia, Den- 
 mark, Sweden and Holland. It was sub- 
 sequently joined by Portugal and the Two 
 Sicilies. Its objects were to protect mer- 
 chandise carried in neutral vessels against 
 the I'ight of search, which Great Britain, 
 in consequence of her supremacy at sea, 
 had exercised for many years. War broke 
 out between Holland and England in con- 
 sequence of the fiwor shown to America by 
 the Dutch. Holland appealed to France 
 for help, and received it. The French 
 government now decided to prosecute the 
 war with renewed vigor, and a powerful 
 armament was sent across the Atlantic to 
 the assistance of the Americans. It enabled 
 Washington to bring the struggle in the 
 United States to a successful close by the 
 capture of the army of Lord Cornwallis at 
 Yorktown, on the 19th of October, 1781. 
 The French were also successful in several 
 naval engagements in the West Indies; 
 but their effort to capture Jamaica was 
 thwarted by the decisive defeat of the fleet 
 
732 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the Count de Grasse by Admiral Rod- 
 ney ou the 12th of April, 1782. This de- 
 feat was fatal to the maritime power of 
 France and Spain in the West Indies. 
 Minorca was captured by a combined 
 French and Spanish fleet in February, 
 1782. The allies then attempted to take 
 Gibraltar. A fleet of forty French and 
 Spanish vessels blockaded the harbor, and 
 an army of forty thousand men invested 
 the place by laud. It was gallantly de- 
 fended by General Elliot, and Lord Howe 
 managed to enter the harbor with his fleet 
 and throw supplies into the fortress. The 
 defence was continued until the end of the 
 war. 
 
 France was now anxious for peace, the 
 war having cost over $280,000,000. Peace 
 was signed at Versailles on the 3d of Sep- 
 tember, 1783, between England and 
 France, Spain and the United States. 
 France received fair and honorable terms. 
 She recovered her possessions in the East 
 Indies and obtained considerable new terri- 
 tory around Pondicherry and Carical. 
 Tobago in the West Indies, and Senegal 
 and Goree in Africa were ceded to her. 
 She restored to England all the islands she 
 had captured in the West Indies. 
 
 The war had very greatly increased the 
 difficulties of the financial problem with 
 which Necker had to deal. Still he man- 
 aged to make a favorable showing, and his 
 administration was regarded with confi- 
 dence by the nation, but when he under- 
 took to reform the abuse of the exemption 
 of the nobility from taxation, he roused the 
 bitter hostility of that order and of the 
 king, who was persuaded by the queen and 
 courtiers that Necker's course tended to 
 degrade the authority of the crown. The 
 minister was forthwith subjected to a series 
 of annoyances, which drove him, in utter 
 disgust, to resign his office on the 25th of 
 May, 1781. After two incompetent succes- 
 sors were tried and proved unfit for the 
 post, M. de Calonne, a favorite of the 
 queen, was at her instance placed at the 
 head of the finance department. 
 
 Calonne was a dissipated profligate, 
 though a man of talent, and undertook to 
 administer the finances upon the plan he 
 had adopted in his efforts to rid himself of 
 his own overwhelming debts. He made 
 light of the difficulties of the situation, and 
 so won the confidence of the king. He 
 retained his hold upon the queen by readily 
 providing her with funds for the gratifica- 
 
 tion of her extravagant desires Every de- 
 mand of the greedy courtiers was granted, 
 and Calonne was immensely popular at 
 court. Under the lead of such a minister 
 economy was ridiculed and present gratifi- 
 cation alone considered. Every expedient 
 for raising money was tried in rapid succes- 
 sion. All this while the financial difficul- 
 ties increased rapidly. The burdens upon 
 the people grew heavier with each year, and 
 the popular discontent increased at an 
 alarming rate. The extravagance of the 
 queen and the royal princes was bitterly 
 and openly denounced in all quarters. The 
 court became the object of popular hatred, 
 and the most discreditable stories concern- 
 ing the queen were circulated, and, worse 
 still, were generally believed. 
 
 At length it was found impossible to pay 
 the interest on the national debt, and 
 Calonne in alarm proposed to the king a 
 series of reforms, and advised him to 
 summon the assembly of notables to give 
 these measures a sort of' national sanction. 
 After some hesitation Louis summoned this 
 assembly, which met _ at Versailles on the 
 22d of February, 1787. It was composed 
 of one hundred and forty-four members, 
 belonging entirely to the privileged classes. 
 It refused to sanction Caloune's measures — 
 one of which was equal taxation, the night- 
 mare of the privileged classes — and the 
 enemies of the finance minister succeeded 
 in inducing the king to dismiss him from 
 office and banish him into Lorraine. Even 
 the queen turned against him. 
 
 Calonne was succeeded by the Cardinal 
 de Brienne, another creature of Marie 
 Antoinette. He presented several of the 
 measures of his predecessor to the assembly, 
 and they were, after considerable opposi- 
 tion, accepted. The king then dissolved 
 the assembly on the 25tli of May, 1787. 
 The measures accepted by the assembly 
 were so many concessions to the rights of 
 the people, but they were now stoutly re- 
 sisted by the Parliament of Paris, which 
 constituted itself the champion of the old 
 abuses. That body refused to register the 
 measures of De Brienne, and declared that 
 the imposition of new and unusual taxes 
 could be decreed only by the states general. 
 This mention of the great legislative body 
 of the nation, which had not met for a cen- 
 tury and a half, was caught up by the 
 people, and a general demand ensued that 
 the states general should be summoned to 
 find a remedy for the troubles of France. 
 
FB03I DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. TO MEETING OF STATES GENERAL. 733 
 
 De Brienne tried to force the Parliament 
 ■of Paris to register his measures, and find- 
 ing tiie magistrates still obstinate, induced 
 the king to banish them to Troyes. Serious 
 riots in Paris and in the provinces followed 
 this unwise step. In the end De Brienne, 
 whose incompetency involved him in fatal 
 mistakes, was obliged to recall the parlia- 
 ment, and a compromise was 
 effected. The cardinal a little 
 later proposed to raise a loan 
 of four hundred and twenty 
 millions of livres, to be raised 
 in five years, and the king 
 most unwisely undertook to 
 compel the parliament to give 
 its assent to the measure. The 
 parliament violently resented 
 this interference with its in- 
 dependence, and refused its 
 consent to the loan. The king 
 at once arrested two of the re- 
 fractory magistrates, and ban- 
 ished the Duke of Orleans, who 
 had made himself prominent 
 as a leader of the party op- 
 posed to the court, to his es- 
 tates. In January, 1788, the 
 parliament presented a peti- 
 tion of grievances to the king, 
 who met this step with the 
 arrest and imprisonment of 
 two of the most obnoxious 
 leaders of the opposition. 
 Louis, by the advice of De 
 Brienne, followed up this step 
 by one of greater boldness. 
 He took from the parliament 
 the privilege of registering the 
 royal decrees, and conferred 
 it upon a " cour pleniere," or 
 council composed of nobles, 
 clergy, or other persons of 
 rank, named by himself. He 
 adopted this violent and arbi- 
 trary course in the hope of 
 avoiding the necessity for 
 summoning the states general, 
 but his action produced only 
 opposition. Many of the bishops and nobles 
 refused to accept seats in the new council, and 
 those who did accept them were everywhere 
 denounced as enemies of the country. Riots 
 broke out in many parts of the kingdom, 
 and the court was everywhere regarded 
 w'ith open enmity. The Cardinal de 
 Brienne now found himself at the end of 
 his resource!--. He could not even raise 
 
 money to defray the ordinary expenses of 
 the government. In this humiliating 
 emergency he advised the king to convene 
 the great council of the nation, and with 
 extreme reluctance Louis summoned the 
 states general to meet at Versailles on the 
 1st of May, 1789. The cardinal, foreseeing 
 the storm, resigned his office in August, 
 
 APOLLO GALLERY— ST. CLOUD. 
 
 1788, and at once left France and went to 
 Italy. 
 
 Louis was now forced to recall Necker, 
 and confided to him the direction of the 
 government. Necker's return was hailed 
 with applause throughout the kingdom, and 
 he at once set to work to repair as far as 
 possible the mistakes of the Cardinal de 
 Brienne. The cour pleniere was abolished, 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and the parliament was restored its ancient 
 privileges, and its imprisoned members 
 were liberated. A vast improvement was 
 made in the financial condition of the 
 country, and the government was able to 
 raise immediately the loans it needed for its 
 Avants. Preparations were made for the 
 meeting of the states general, whose num- 
 bers were fixed by royul proclamation at 
 one thousand. The elections for the depu- 
 ties took place amid great excitement, and 
 it was manifest to thinking men that the 
 people had at last determined to take their 
 affairs into their own hands. 
 
 The winter of 1788-89 was very severe. 
 The harvest had been a failure, and pro- 
 visions were scarce and high. Great suffer- 
 ing prevailed among the poor, especially in 
 Paris, and this increased the popular dis- 
 content very greatly. Efforts were made 
 to relieve their distress, and Necker gener- 
 ously gave a large part of his private means 
 to buy bread for the poor of Paris, who 
 were threatened with starvation. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Meeting of the States General— The National As- 
 sembly Organized — The " Oath of the Tennis 
 Court " — Tlie Koyal Sitting — Fusion of the Three 
 Orders — The Assembly Warns the King — Troops 
 Concentrated at Paris — Capture and Destruction 
 of the Bastile — Louis at the Hotel de Ville — TMur- 
 der of Foulon — Relinquishment of Privileges- 
 Banquet at Versailles — The Mob of Paris at Ver- 
 sailles — Attack on the Palace — The Royal Family 
 Forced to Remove to Paris — The National As- 
 sembly at Paris — Measures of the Assembly — 
 Confiscation of the Church Property— The Assig- 
 nats — Emigration of the Nobility — Fete of the 
 Federation — Death of Mirabeau — Flight of the 
 Royal Family — They are Captured at Varennes 
 and Forced to Return to Paris — The New Consti- 
 tution—The Legislative Assembly — The Parties 
 in it — Decrees Against the Emigrants — Petion 
 Mayor of Paris — Error of the Court — France De- 
 clares War Against Austria — Insurrection of the 
 20th of June — The Country Declared in Danger — 
 March of the Federates to Paris — Proclamation 
 of the Duke of Brunswick— The 10th of August 
 — Capture of the Tuileries by the Mob — The King 
 Deposed — The Royal Family Committed to the 
 Temple — Defection of Lafayette — The Prussians 
 Invade France— Ca])ture of Longwy and Verdun 
 — Massacres of September — Battles of Valmy and 
 Jemappes — Belgium Conquered — The National 
 Convention — Trial of the King — His Condemna- 
 tion and Execution — League of the European 
 Powers against France — Treason of Dumouriez — 
 Fall of the Girondins — Insurrection in La Vendee 
 — Execution of the Queen, the Duke of Orleans, 
 and the Girondists — The Reign of Terror — Fall 
 and Death of Robespierre — The Convention Sup- 
 presses the Jacobin Outbreaks — Success of the 
 Republican Armies in Belgium and Italy — The 
 Austrians Driven Across the Rhine — Conquest of 
 
 Holland — Peace with Prussia and Spain — Death 
 of Louis XVII. — Release of the Princess Royal — 
 Insurrection in La Vendee Sui^pressed— The Di- 
 rectory — Revolt of the Sections — It is put Down 
 by Napoleon Bonaparte — Financial Troubles — 
 Bonaparte in Command of the Army of Italy — 
 His Campaign in Piedmont — Peace with Sardinia 
 — Battle of Lodi — Milan Occujiied — Siege of 
 JIantua — Battles of C'astiglione, Roveredo, and 
 Bassano — Operations of Jourdan and Jloreau in 
 Bavaria — Battles of Arcole and Rivoli — Fall of 
 Mantua — End of the Venetian Republic — Dissen- 
 sions in France — The Coup d'Etat of the 4th of 
 September, 1707 — Treaty of Campo Forraio — The 
 French Seize the Papal Territories — The French 
 in Switzerland — The Expedition to Egyjjt — Battle 
 of the Pyramids — Napoleon in Syria — Siege of 
 Acre — Return of Napoleon to France — Coalition 
 Against France — Congress of Rastadt — Assassina- 
 tion of the French Envoys — The French Con- 
 quests in Italy Lost. 
 
 /"^^ (HE situation was gloomy and dark, 
 when, on the 5th of May, 1789, the 
 states general assembled at Ver- 
 sailles, and was opened with great 
 pomp by the king. The complex- 
 ion of this body was ominous. It 
 consisted of 1,145 members, and was divided 
 among the three orders as follows : clergy, 
 291 ; nobles, 270 ; deputies of the tiers 
 etat, or representatives of the people, 584. 
 Two-thirds of the clerical deputies were 
 parish priests, and were in sympathy with 
 and ready to sustain the tiers etat. The 
 power of the people was therefore over- 
 whelming in the assembly. They had met 
 to redress their wrongs, and they were de- 
 termined to do so. The tiers etat met in 
 the great hall of assembly, and the clergy 
 and nobles in separate halls. The latter 
 orders were invited by the commons to join 
 them in organizing the states general, and 
 to settle the all important question of voting,, 
 which the commons were resolved should be 
 together and numerically, and not sepa- 
 rately and by orders. The proposal was de- 
 clined, and the nobles and clergy met in 
 their own halls, and completed their sepa- 
 rate organization. The tiers etat thereupon 
 declared that in the absence of the other 
 two orders they were unable to organize for 
 legislation. Several weeks passed away, all 
 efforts to remove the disagreement proving 
 futile. At length, being joined by a few 
 members of the clergy, the tiers etat, on 
 the 17th of June, declared the title of 
 States General abolished, and organized 
 themselves into a National Assembly. 
 They declared themselves the sole legisla- 
 tive body in France and that they would 
 at once proceed to enact the measures needed 
 by the state of the country. On the 19th 
 
736 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of June, the clergy, by a small majority, 
 decided to unite with the national as- 
 sembly. 
 
 The court was astounded at the boldness 
 of the tiers etat, and the king was urged 
 by the nobles to crush the spirit of inde- 
 pendence with a firm hand. The king 
 yielded to these entreaties, and ordered the 
 assembly to suspend its sessions for three 
 days, at the end of Avhich time he intended 
 to iiold a royal sitting in their hall, and to 
 announce his intentions concerning them. 
 The next morning the members of the as- 
 sembly found the doors of their hall locked 
 and guarded by the royal troops, who re- 
 fused to allow them to enter the hall. 
 Bailly, the president of the assembly, indig- 
 nantly protested against this invasion of 
 the rights of that body, and the members 
 adjourned to a neighboring tennis court, 
 where they took a solemn oath "that they 
 would continue to meet for the despatch of 
 business wherever circumstances might re- 
 quire, until the constitution of the kingdom 
 had been established upon sound and solid 
 foundations." On the 22d the assembly 
 met in the Church of St. Louis, in spite of 
 the efforts of the court to prevent it, and 
 here it was joined by 149 of the clerical 
 deputies, with the Archbishop of Vienne at 
 their head. The royal sitting was held on 
 the 23d, as had beeu determined by the 
 court, and the king ordered the assembly 
 to undo its action and resume the old con- 
 stitution of the states general by assembling 
 the next day in the separate chambers as- 
 signed them. Upon his withdrawal he was 
 followed by the nobles and a part of the 
 clergy, but the tiers etat kept their seats. 
 In a little while the Marquis de Breze re- 
 turned. "Gentlemen," he said, "you have 
 heard the orders of the king." "Yes," 
 answered the president, "and I am now 
 about to take the orders of the assembly." 
 Count Mirabeau, who had already taken 
 his place as the great leader of the popular 
 party, rose and said sternly to the royal 
 messenger: "AVe have heard the king's 
 intentions ; and you, who have no seat or 
 voice in this assembly, are no fit organ to 
 remind us of liis speech. Return and tell 
 your master that we are here by the power 
 of the people, and that nothing short of the 
 bayonet shall drive us hence." The mar- 
 quis withdrew, and the assembly proceeded 
 to declare the personal exemption of its 
 members from arrest, and denounced the 
 penalty of death against any one who should 
 
 attack their liberties. The conflict between 
 the king and the people was now distinctly 
 joined, and the revolution was begun. 
 
 The king now had the weakness to ask 
 the nobles and the rest of the clergy, as a 
 personal favor to himself, to join the sit- 
 tings of the assembly. They consented 
 with great reluctance, and on the 27th of 
 June the fusion of the three orders com- 
 pleted the constitution of the national as- 
 sembly. Thus the king entirely surrendered 
 all his claims, and sanctioned the unconsti- 
 tutional action of the tiers etat. After 
 such folly he had nothing to hope for but 
 ruin. 
 
 In spite of this surrender, Louis yielded 
 to the ill advised counsels of the queen and 
 her party, and resolved to maintain his au- 
 thority by force ; and accordingly an army 
 of 40,000 men was assembled at Paris under 
 Marshal Broglie. A number of the regi- 
 ments of this force were composed of Swiss 
 and German mercenaries. Feeling himself 
 safe under the protection of this army, the 
 king dismissed Necker, who was disliked 
 and feared by the court party, from his 
 offices, and ordered him to quit France at 
 once. He immediately withdrew to Brus- 
 sels. 
 
 The dismissal of Necker produced the 
 most profound agitation in Paris. The 
 people at once rose in insurrection, and re- 
 sisted an effort of the royal troops to dis- 
 perse them. An assembly of electors at 
 the Hotel de Ville directed the outbreak, 
 and ordered the enrolment of the national 
 guard or militia. To arm this force large 
 quantities of arms, cannon, and ammunition 
 were seized at the Hotel des Invalides, and 
 50,000 pikes were manufactured in two 
 days. Paris was completely in the hands 
 of the mob, and the royal troops, encamped 
 in the Champs Elysees, made no effort to 
 interfere Avith the populace, their officers 
 being profoundly convinced that they could 
 not be relied upon to act against the people. 
 On the 14th of July the populace made a 
 desperate attack upon the Bastile, the ter- 
 rible fortress prison which had become so 
 odious to the nation as the stronghold of 
 tyranny. It was defended with gallantry 
 by the governor, De Launay, and a small 
 garrison of 200 Swiss, but was carried by 
 assault after a contest of five hours. The 
 governor and three of his officers were put 
 to death by the mob. 
 
 The king, now thoroughly alarmed, went, 
 on foot and unattended, to the national as- 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 IZl 
 
 sembly the next day, and promised to dis- 
 miss the foreign troops, recall Necker, and 
 rely upon the loyalty of the people. He 
 was hailed with enthusiasm as the saviour of 
 his country, and was escorted back to his 
 palace by a deputation of the assembly. 
 The next day, at the instance of Lafayette, 
 and of Bailly, now Mayor of Paris, he vis- 
 ited Paris escorted by an armed mob. He 
 was welcomed at the Hotel de Ville by 
 Bailly with a loyal 
 speech, and the keys 
 of the city were placed 
 in his hands. He 
 then assumed the tri- 
 colored cockade, ap- 
 pointed Lafayette, 
 whose services in the 
 American war of in- 
 dependence had made 
 him popular with the 
 people, commander of 
 the national guard, 
 and returned to Ver- 
 sailles. 
 
 The mob was not to 
 be pacified without 
 blood, however, and 
 Foulou, Necker's suc- 
 cessor in the ministry, 
 and his son-in-law 
 Berthier, were seized 
 and hung to the lan- 
 tern at the corner of 
 the sti-eet. The spirit 
 of mob violence was 
 not confined to the 
 capital. The people 
 had been so tyran- 
 nized over and crushed 
 down by oppressive 
 laws, that in their new- 
 found liberty their 
 first impulse was to 
 be revenged upon 
 their oppressors. In 
 the provinces the peas- 
 antry rose against the 
 
 landed proprietors, and, especially in Dau- 
 phiny, Provence, and Burgundy, com- 
 mitted fearful outrages upon them. The 
 national assembly undertook to provide 
 measures for restoring order, and for the 
 purpose of removing the abuses of which 
 the people complained, the Viscount de 
 JNoadles and the Duke D'Aiguillon pro- 
 posed that all feudal rights and exclusive 
 privileges should be abolished. The pro- 
 47 ^ 
 
 posal was accepted with delight by the as- 
 sembly, and in a moment of generous en- 
 thusiasm the ancient feudal constitution of 
 France was entirely changed. Serfdom was 
 abolished, civil and military appointments 
 were thrown open to all classes, the woods 
 and streams of France were made free to 
 all, the compulsory tithes for the support 
 of the clergy were annulled, and the state 
 assumed the support of the church, an iu- 
 
 MIKABEATJ. 
 
 consistency which did not escape the sar- 
 casm of Abbe Sieyes. It was hoped that 
 these measures would remove the evils from 
 which the state was suffering, and the as- 
 sembly proceeded to frame a new constitu- 
 tion, the principles of which it embodied in 
 a Declaration of the Rights of Man, which, 
 at the motion of Lafayette, included the 
 right to resist oppression. 
 
 In the midst of its constitutional labors 
 
738 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the assembly was startled by a new out- 
 break ill Paris. At a banquet given to one 
 of the royal regiments at Versailles on the 
 3cl of October, the tri-colored cockade was 
 trampled under foot, and the white cockade 
 of the Bourbons cheered with enthusiasm. 
 This evidence of hostility to the people was 
 reported in Paris while the city was agitated 
 by disturbances of the hungry poor. It 
 produced intense excitement, and on the 
 morning of the 5th, a furious mob, Ifed by 
 a band of excited women, set out for Ver- 
 sailles, without having any definite purpose 
 in view. A portion of them burst into the 
 hall of the national assembly, and a ruffian 
 named Maillard demanded instant relief 
 for the starving poor of Paris. The presi- 
 dent of the assembly was directed to go at 
 once to the king to see Avhat could be done, 
 and a number of Avomen accompanied him. 
 The king received them with a kindness 
 that disarmed them, and promised to do 
 Avhat he could for their relief. In the 
 meantime a conflict had broken out be- 
 tween the royal guard and the rest of the 
 rioters, and the mob gave utterance to furi- 
 ous threats against the court, and especially 
 against the queen. They then built fires in 
 the streets and bivouacked around them for 
 the night. Towards midnight Lafayette 
 arrived from Paris with the national guard, 
 for the protection of the king. About five 
 o'clock the next morning a party of rioters 
 attacked the chateau, forced their way into 
 the royal apartments, and but for the firm- 
 ness of a jxirt of the body guard, who de- 
 fended the door of the queen's chamber 
 until cut down, would most likely have 
 massacred the entire royal family. La- 
 fayette succeeded in driving out the mob 
 with the aid of some of the grenadiers, and 
 quelled the disturbance. 
 
 The mob now demanded that the king 
 should return to Paris, where he would be 
 under the control of the revolutionary 
 leaders. Seeing that it was impossible to 
 prevent a renewal of the conflict in any 
 other way, Lafayette advised the king to 
 comply with the demand. On the 6th of 
 October the royal family set out for Paris, 
 accompanied by an immense throng of the 
 lowest class, which made the journey even 
 more humiliating by their brutal exulta- 
 tions over their conquest of the king. Upon 
 reaching Paris, the royal family proceeded 
 at once to the palace of the Tuileries, which 
 had not been occupied for more than a 
 century. 
 
 The national assembly now transferred 
 its sessions to Paris, and henceforth con- 
 ducted its business without distinction of 
 rank, nobles, priests, and commons sitting 
 side by side. It resumed its labors upon 
 the new constitution, and for a year con- 
 ducted them without interruption. It swept 
 away all the ancient privileges and disabil- 
 ities. All religious creeds were placed on 
 an equality ; and all classes were declared 
 equal before the law ; the civil and mili- 
 tary offices of the kingdom were thrown 
 open to all Frenchmen without regard to 
 rank or religious belief; the right of suc- 
 cession by primogeniture was abolished, and 
 parents were required to divide their pos- 
 sessions equally between their children ; the 
 administration of justice was improved, and 
 the death penalty was affixed to a smaller 
 number of crimes; the right of suffi-age 
 was granted to nearly every citizen ; and 
 the ancient division of the country into 
 provinces was swept away, and France was 
 divided into eighty-three nearly equal de- 
 partments, which were subdivided into dis- 
 tricts and cantons. Hereditary titles of 
 nobility were suppressed, and the nobles 
 were reduced to the ordinary rank of citi- 
 zens. 
 
 The finances also received the attention 
 of the assembly. Necker, upon being re- 
 called, proposed two heavy loans and an 
 extraordinary tax, amounting to one-fourth 
 of the income of the persons assessed. The 
 measures were adopted after a prolonged 
 debate, but the loans could not be negoti- 
 ated, and as the incomes of the citizens 
 were estimated by themselves, the tax 
 yielded but a very unsatisfactory amount. 
 In this emergency the assembly ordered the 
 confiscation and sale of all the ecclesiastical 
 propei'ty in France, and to meet the neces- 
 sities of the moment the municipalities 
 which purchased this property were allowed 
 to issue promissory notes or bonds secured 
 upon it. These were called Assignats ; 
 they were given a forced currency, and 
 were circulated as money in the place of 
 coin. Assignats were subsequently issued 
 by the government, which pledged the na- 
 tional faith for their redemption. They 
 finally became so much depreciated as to 
 be worthless. 
 
 Since the fall of the Bastile the nobility 
 had been steadily leaving France and seek- 
 ing safety in Italy, Switzerland and Ger- 
 many. All the princes of the blood and 
 the great nobles abandoned both king and 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 739 
 
 country, and provided for their own safety 
 in foreign lands. 
 
 Ou the 14th of July, 1790, the anniver- 
 sary of the taking of the Bastile, the fete 
 of the federation was held ou the Champs 
 de Mars. An altar was erected in this vast 
 square, before which two thrones of equal 
 splendor were prepared, side by side. On 
 one sat the king, on the other the president 
 of the assembly. The royal family were 
 seated in tlie rear of the thrones, and the 
 square was occupied by the members of the 
 assembly, the national guard and the troops 
 of the line, 60,000 federates, and an im- 
 mense concourse of citizens. High mass 
 was said by Talleyrand de Perigord, Bishop 
 of Autun, and the oath to the new consti- 
 tution was taken by the king, Lafayette, 
 and the whole body of federates. At the 
 moment the oath was pronounced by the 
 king the queen held up the little dauphin 
 in her arms, as if to associate him in his 
 father's act. The greatest enthusiasm pre- 
 vailed. Unhaj^pily it was followed in the 
 provinces by serious disturbances, in which 
 many persons were killed. Necker finding 
 that his measures were unsuccessful, and 
 that he was becoming unpopular, resigned 
 his office and retired into Switzerland in 
 September, 1790. 
 
 Mirabeau was now president of the na- 
 tional assembly, and he conceived a plan 
 by which he hoped to save the monarchy and 
 preserve the liberties of the nation. He 
 believed himself strong enough to unite all 
 moderate men upon his plan, but unhappily 
 for the king, he died on the 2d of April, 
 1791, and his measures perished with him. 
 He was a great man, and his death was a 
 serious misfortune to his country, as he 
 might have saved both the monarchy and 
 constitutional liberty. With Mirabeau the 
 last hope of the king passed away, and, 
 wearied with the annoyances to which he 
 was subjected, Louis consented to attempt 
 to escape from Paris, and join the army at 
 Montmedy. Negotiations were completed 
 with the Emperor of Germany and several 
 foreign sovereigns to assist the French king 
 with troops. On the night of the 20th 
 of June, the royal family secretly left 
 Paris, and proceeded as far as Varennes, 
 on the way to Montmedy. There they 
 were apprehended and brought back to 
 Paris with brutal insults. Louis was de- 
 clared by the assembly to be suspended 
 from his royal functions, but it was decided 
 that he could be restored to his throne upon 
 
 the promulgation of the new constitution. 
 This decree greatly enraged the revolution- 
 ary party, which hoped the king's flight 
 would be made the occasion of his dethrone- 
 ment, and by order of the .facobin and Cor- 
 delier clubs, a violent demonstration Avas 
 made against it on the Champs de Mars on 
 the 17th of July. The assembly ordered 
 Bailly and Lafayette to maintain order, and 
 after vainly endeavoring to disperse the 
 mob peaceably, Bailly, as Mayor of Paris, 
 ordered the national guard to fire on the 
 people. He was obeyed, and a number of 
 the rioters were slain. This decisive con- 
 duct won for the assembly, the mayor, and 
 Lafayette the dislike of the revolutionists. 
 
 The new constitution was presented to 
 the king, who, after several days of deliber- 
 ation, accepted it, and in the presence of 
 the assembly, on the 14th of September, 
 1791, swore to maintain it. He was there- 
 upon restored to his kingly office. The 
 president declared the constituent assembly 
 at an end, and having passed an act dis- 
 qualifying any of its members from serving 
 in the forthcoming assembly, it was dis- 
 solved on the 30th of September, 1791. 
 
 On the 1st of October the Legislative 
 Assembly met. It consisted of 745 members, 
 who were almost entirely men of the middle 
 class and unknown to the country, and who 
 could in no way be said to represent the 
 wealth, the intelligence, or the real senti- 
 ments of France. It embraced several dis- 
 tinctly marked parties. The Right was 
 composed of the Feuillants (or Constitution- 
 alists), so called from their club, which was 
 held in the old Convent of the Feuillants. 
 They were satisfied with what had already 
 been accomplished in the way of reform, 
 and sustained the new constitution as se- 
 curing the rights of the people while pre- 
 serving the forms of the monarchy. This 
 party kept up a friendly intercourse with 
 the king, and was supported by Lafayette. 
 The Left consisted of Revolutionists, more 
 or less extreme in their views. It em- 
 braced many of the ablest men in the as- 
 sembly. Its recognized leaders were from 
 the department of the Gironde, from which 
 fact the party was named the Girondins. 
 Closely allied with the Girondins was a 
 small party of extremists, known as the 
 Mountain, from their occupying the highest 
 benches at the extreme left of the hall. 
 They wished to overthrow the monarchy 
 and establish a republic. They were the 
 leaders of the mob of Paris, to whom they 
 
740 
 
 THE ILLUSTBA'^ED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 looked for support, and exercised their 
 power chiefly through the radical clubs 
 known as the Jacobins and the Cordeliers. 
 The chief of the former club was Maxi- 
 milian Robespierre ; the leaders of the latter 
 were Danton, Marat, Camille Desmoulins, 
 and Fabre d'Eglautine. The Centre was 
 composed of weak and timid men, who 
 voted generally with the Girondins, and had 
 no influence. . 
 
 The assembly began its career by order- 
 ing the Count of Provence (afterwards 
 Louis XVIII. ), who had emigrated, to re- 
 turn to France within sixty days, on pain 
 of forfeiting his claim to the regency. This 
 
 was questioned, and he was denounced as au 
 accomplice in the plots of the emigrants. 
 The assembly next proceeded to decree that 
 the clergy who refused to take the oath to 
 the new constitution should be deprived of 
 the support granted them by the state, and 
 placed under the surveillance of the police. 
 As all but a few of the clergy were non- 
 jurors, this was a sweeping measure. It 
 was vetoed by the king, who denounced it 
 as an unmitigated persecution. 
 
 The court now committed a serious error. 
 Lafayette, a sincere friend of the constitu- 
 tional monarchy, and Petion, au ardent 
 Girondist, were candidates for the mayor- 
 
 BOULEVAED MONTMAETEE — PAEIS. 
 
 measure was approved by the king. The 
 obles, who had emigrated, had formed an 
 army on the German side of the Rhine, 
 under the Prince of Conde, and were ear- 
 nestly seeking to bring about a counter revo- 
 lution in favor of the king. The assembly 
 ordered them to return to France, and de- 
 clared that if they were found in arras on the 
 1st of January, 1792, they would be pun- 
 ished by the confiscation of their estates, and 
 with death if captured. As the emigrants 
 were in arms in the king's behalf, Louis 
 vetoed this measure, though he issued a 
 proclamation commanding the emigrants to 
 return, and threatening them with severe 
 measures in case of refusal. His sincerity 
 
 alty of Paris. Lafayette was disliked by 
 the queen, who induced the court to cast its 
 influence in favor of Petion, an enemy of 
 the constitution and the monarchy. With 
 the aid of this influence he was elected. 
 This placed the municipal government of 
 the capital entirely in the hands of the rev- 
 olutionists, as the municipal council was 
 already ruled by Danton, Robespierre, Ta- 
 lien, Billaud-Varennes, and other sworn 
 revolutionists. 
 
 The German states now intervened for 
 the purpose of restoring Louis XVI. to the 
 authority originally enjoyed by him, and of 
 undoing the work of the Revolution. Upon 
 the accession of the Emperor Francis II., 
 
741 
 
742 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Austria addressed an ultimatum to France, 
 demanding the restoration of the French 
 monarchy, the surrender of the provinces 
 of Alsace and Lorraine to the dispossessed 
 princes, the return of the county of Venais- 
 sin to the pope, and the restoration of the 
 confiscated property to the church. This 
 interference of Austria was met by the as- 
 sembly with decisive measures. The king 
 was obliged to dismiss his constitutionalist 
 ministry, and to summon one composed of 
 Girondins. On the 20th of April, 1792, 
 war was declared against Austria. In all 
 Europe there was not a man who had any 
 conception of the terrible and overwhelming 
 character the struggle now commencing was 
 to assume. It was to change both the map 
 and the character of Europe. 
 
 The confiscation of the church property 
 had given the government a full treasury. 
 Three strong armies were stationed to pro- 
 tect the French frontier. General Rocham- 
 beau with 48,000 men held the line from 
 Dunkirk to Phillippeville, from which 
 place to Lauterbourg it was held by the 
 command of General Lafayette, 52,000 
 strong, and Marshal Lucker with 42,000 
 men occupied the country between Lauter- 
 bourg and Basle. Two strong detachments 
 were routed by the Austrians near Lisle 
 and Valenciennes, and these defeats were 
 at once attributed to treachery. The Giron- 
 dins, who were now supreme in the assem- 
 bly, endeavored to pacify the mob by order- 
 ing the banishment of all non-juring priests, 
 the disbanding of the royal guard, and the 
 establishment of a camp of 20,000 federal 
 troops near Paris. The king consented to 
 the dismissal of his guards, but vetoed the 
 other measures. The Girondin ministry 
 remonstrated with considerable violence, 
 and was dismisse(^ by the king on the 12th 
 of June, 1792. Louis then formed a new 
 constitutionalist ministry. The new minis- 
 ters made a feeble effort to save the new 
 constitution, and Lafayette wrote from his 
 camp on the Belgian frontier to the assembly 
 demanding the suppression of the Jacobin 
 faction and the clubs allied with it. At the 
 same time the king despatched a secret 
 envoy with confidential instructions to the 
 emigrants and the princes of the coalition 
 in his behalf. The measures of the ministry 
 and the letter of Lafayette brought matters 
 to a crisis, and the Girondins and Jacobins 
 combined to destroy their opponents. 
 
 On the 20th of June a body of 20,000 
 rioters, armed with scythes, clubs, and 
 
 pikes, burst into the hall of the assembly, 
 led by Sauterre, a brewer, who harangued 
 the assembly and marched his men through 
 the hall. The mob then departed to the 
 Tuileries and entered the palace. They 
 were met with firmness by the king, and did 
 nothing but insult and menace the royal 
 family, after which they departed. The 
 firm conduct of the king produced a slight 
 reaction in his favor, of which the ministry 
 endeavored to take advantage. Lafayette 
 returned to Paris, and attempted to raise a 
 forcetoiDutdown the Jacobins. Notahundred 
 men answered his call, and in despair he re- 
 turned to the army, and he and his party 
 made no further effort to save Louis from 
 the fate which they now saw was inevitable. 
 
 France was now menaced with a foreign 
 invasion, and at the same time her internal 
 troubles threatened to plunge her into a 
 bloody civil war. The assembly solemnly 
 proclaimed, on the llth of July, that " the 
 country was in danger," and called on the 
 people to rally to its defence. In obedience 
 to this call thousands of volunteers rose in 
 all parts of France and hastened by forced 
 marches to Paris. While this general up- 
 rising was in progress, the Prussian army 
 of invasion was approaching the frontier. 
 Its commander, the Duke of Brunswick, 
 issued a most ill-advised proclamation, 
 commanding the French nation to submit 
 at once to Louis XVI. as its lawful sover- 
 eign, and threatening, in case the least vio- 
 lence was offered to the royal family, to lay 
 Paris in ruins. At the same time the duke 
 insolently promised, in case his orders 
 were promptly obeyed, to obtain from 
 Louis XVI. a general amnesty for the re- 
 bellious French people. 
 
 This proclamation aroused a storm of 
 indignation in France, and especially in 
 Paris. On the 3d of August the sections 
 of Paris, headed by Petion, proceeded to 
 the assembly, and demanded the immediate 
 deposition of the king. On the 6th the same 
 demand was made by the vol unteers. The as- 
 sembly hesitated, and finally resolved by a 
 large majority not to arrest or bring the king 
 to trial. This refusal exasperated the sec- 
 tions so greatly that they resolved to take 
 the matter in their own hands, and, having 
 secured the municipal government, they 
 rose in arms on the night of the 9th of 
 August, and before daylight marched to 
 attack the Tuileries. 
 
 The force for the defence of the Tuileries 
 had been greatly strengthened in anticipa- 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 743 
 
 tion of an attack, and was prepared to 
 offer a deterruiiied resistance to the mob. 
 Mandat, the commander of this force, was 
 summoned before the commune, or muni- 
 cipal council, at the Hotel de Ville, and 
 went to receive their orders. As he turned 
 to depart he was shot down, and the force 
 at the Tuileries was left without a com- 
 mander and helpless. By seven o'clock on 
 the morning of the 10th of August the 
 palace was invested on all sides by the 
 mob, and fifty pieces of cannon were trained 
 upon it. The national guard, intrusted 
 Avith the defence of the palace, went over to 
 the people, and the king, who had shown 
 neither courage nor good judgment in this 
 crisis, decided to leave the palace and seek 
 the protection of the assembly. It Avas a 
 decisive step, being equivalent under the 
 circumstances to an abdication of his throne, 
 but it was the only means by which he 
 could save the lives of the queen and her 
 children and of the devoted friends who 
 surrounded them. Under the protection 
 of a small party of armed gentlemen and 
 national guards, the royal family left the 
 palace, and walked to the hall of the assem- 
 bly, at the opposite side of the gardens. 
 The king, upon entering, said Avith dignity 
 that he had come among the assembly to 
 prevent the commission of a great crime. 
 The president replied that his majesty 
 might count upon the firmness of the as- 
 sembly, which had sworn to die in defence 
 of the people and the constituted authorities. 
 The royal family were then provided with 
 seats behind the president's chair, and the 
 assembly resumed its deliberations. 
 
 In the meantime the mob made a fierce 
 attack upon the palace, carried it by as- 
 sault, and massacred the handful of Swiss 
 guards who bravely sought to hold them at 
 bay. By eleven o'clock the insurgents were in 
 full possession of the palace and of the city. 
 The mob then rushed into the hall of the 
 assembly, and dictated its terms to that 
 body. In accordance with these terras the 
 assembly declared that " the chief of the 
 executive power" was provisionally sus- 
 pended from his office, and the Palace of the 
 Luxembourg was temporarily assigned him 
 as a residence. A national convention was 
 to be summoned at once, and charged with 
 the task of determining the form of the 
 future government. 
 
 The Jacobins were thus the masters of 
 Paris, and undertook to administer the na- 
 tional government by means of their muni- 
 
 cipal council. They retained the assembly, 
 now entirely subservient to their will, in 
 order to give a color of legality to their 
 proceedings. A committee of safety was 
 established under the presidency of Marat, 
 a blood-thirsty wretch, which, under the 
 pretence of detecting conspiracies against 
 the state, inaugurated an infamous system 
 of espionage and domiciliary visitation. A 
 special tribunal, consisting of nine judges, 
 was created for the trial of persons accused 
 of conspiracy against the state. It was 
 governed in its proceedings by martial law, 
 and its decisions Avere final. On the loth 
 of August, by order of the commune, the 
 royal family were removed from the Lux- 
 embourg and imprisoned in the gloomy 
 fortress of the Temple. Their confinement 
 was made from the first cruel and rigorous, 
 and they Avere subjected to constant insult 
 and outrages by the municipal guard. The 
 assembly sent messengers to the army to an- 
 nounce the revolution of the 10th of August, 
 and to secure the adhesion of the troops. La- 
 fayette refused to recognize the change, and 
 arrested the messengers. He Avas declared 
 a traitor by the assembly, and finding him- 
 self deserted by his troops and in danger of 
 his life, he abandoned his command and 
 sought safety in the camp of the allies. 
 They held him as a prisoner, and subse- 
 quently sent him to the Austrian fortress 
 of Olmutz, Avhere he Avas kept a captive for 
 five years. He was succeeded in his com- 
 mand by General Dumouriez. 
 
 In the meantime the allied army, one 
 hundred and ten thousand sti'ong, under 
 the command of the King of Prussia, en- 
 tei-ed France on the 30th of July, and on 
 the 20th of August invested Longwy, which 
 surrendered on the 23d. The allies then 
 advanced upon Verdun, sending a corps to 
 lay siege to Thionville. Verdun was taken 
 a feAV days later, and the invaders now 
 threatened Paris. 
 
 The news of the successes of the Prus- 
 sians created the most profound excitement 
 and alarm in France. It Avas thought im- 
 possible to prevent the capture of Paris, 
 and it was seriously proposed that the goA'- 
 ernment should leave the city and retire 
 south of the Loire. Dan ton opposed this 
 proposal, and declared that"itAvas neces- 
 sary to strike the royalists with terror." 
 This ominous declaration was at once acted 
 upon by the committee of safety, which 
 arrested all the persons in the city belie\'ed 
 to be hostile to the revolution. On the 
 
744 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 745 
 
 night of the 30th of August 3,000 per- 
 sons were arrested and confined in the 
 various prisons, already full to overflowing. 
 It had been decided from the first to put 
 these prisoners to death. On the 2d of 
 September the tocsin was rung, and the 
 rumor was cirenlated that the royalists were 
 about to rise, release the prisoners, and be- 
 tray the city to the Prussians. The most 
 intense excitement prevailed, in the midst 
 of which the commune sent a band of hired 
 ruffians to murder the prisoners. For five 
 days the massacre was continued ; the 
 prisons were successively emptied, and as 
 their inmates passed out into the opaii air 
 
 Dumouriez, Lafayette's successor, time to 
 occupy the defiles of the forest of Argonne 
 with a force of 30,000 men. After several 
 indecisive battles, the principal of which 
 was that of Valmy, fought on the 20th of 
 September, 1792, the Duke of Brunswick, 
 whose army had been reduced to a deplor- 
 able condition by sickness and a lack of 
 provisions, was compelled to withdraw 
 across the Rhine, with a loss of 30,000 men 
 in this badly conducted expedition. 
 
 Dumouriez now received the pennission 
 of the convention to drive the Austrians 
 out of the Netherlands. On the 23d of 
 October he completely defeated their army 
 
 CHURCH OF THE MADELEINE— PARIS. 
 
 they were cut down by the assassins. 
 Among those who perished was the young 
 and beautiful Princess de Lamballe, the 
 confidential friend of Marie Antoinette. 
 Several thousand persons were killed in 
 Paris, and the frenzy spread to the prov- 
 inces, where about 2,000 more royal- 
 ists perished. The leaders of the massa- 
 cre at Paris were Dantou, Robespierre and 
 Marat. 
 
 The capture of Verdun left the road to 
 Paris open to the allies, but the Duke of 
 Brunswick, instead of marching upon that 
 city at once, lingered ten days upon the 
 line of the Meuse, and thus gave General 
 
 at Jemappes. By this victory he became 
 the master of the whole of the Austrian 
 Netherlands. On the 14th of November 
 he entered Brussels. The people at once 
 rose, renounced their allegiance to Austria, 
 and organized a republic. On the 19th of 
 November the convention ordered that the 
 French commanders should, in all territory 
 conquered by them from foreign nations, 
 overthrow the old governments, confiscate 
 the property of the priests and nobles, and 
 establish a republican form of government. 
 On the 21st of September, 1792, the 
 legislative assembly gave place to the 
 national convention. It was a thoroughly 
 
746 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 revolutionary body, but was divided into 
 two bitterly hostile parties, the Giroudins 
 and the Mountain, the latter of which was 
 supported by the Jacobins and the mob of 
 Paris. The former was the more intelligent 
 as well as the more numerous ; the latter 
 the more audacious and determined. On 
 the first day of the session it was decreed 
 that " royalty was abolished in France," 
 and that the republic should date its ex- 
 istence from that day. All titles were 
 abolished ; men were to be called " citizen," 
 women " citizeness ; " the emigrants were 
 condemned to perpetual banishment, and 
 were to be punished with death if they re- 
 entered Fi'ance, or were taken in arms. 
 
 A fierce discussion now ensued between 
 the Girondists and the Mountain as to tlie 
 punishment of the king ; and resulted in 
 the victory of the latter party. It was or- 
 dered that " Louis Capet," as the king was 
 styled, should be brought to trial before the 
 convention. On the 10th of December the 
 indictment against Louis was read. The 
 principal charges against him were, having 
 invited foreign powers to invade France, 
 having, by his neglect of the army, caused 
 the loss of Longwy and Verdun, and 
 having incited the insurrection of the 10th 
 of August in order to cause a massacre of 
 his people. The trial of the king was 
 begun on the 11th of December. He was 
 defended, and his innocence clearly shown, 
 by three able lawyers, who risked their 
 heads by this service, but his death had 
 been determined on from the first, and he 
 was declared guilty by an almost unanimous 
 vote. The convention was then called upon to 
 decide the manner of his punishment. By 
 a bare majority the king was sentenced to 
 death. The Girondins sincerely desired to 
 save the life of the king, but they were 
 lacking in courage and determined effort. 
 Among those who voted for the death of 
 the king was the notorious Duke of Orleans, 
 his cousin, who sat in the convention under 
 the name of Philip Egalite. The conven- 
 tion ordered the sentence to be executed 
 within twenty-four hours. The king was 
 granted the privilege of seeins: his family 
 without witnesses, and was allowed the at- 
 tendance of a confessor of his own choice, 
 the Abbe Edgeworth. 
 
 On the morning of the 21st of January, 
 1793, Louis was conveyed in a carriage, 
 under a strong guard of troops, from the 
 Temple to the Place de la Revolution (now 
 th3 Place de la Concorde), in the centre of 
 
 which the guillotine had been erected. 
 The crowd preserved a respectful silence, 
 and the king, who bore himself with 
 coux'age and dignity, attempted to address 
 the throng. Santerre, the commander of 
 the troops, ordered the drums to be beaten, 
 and the king's voice was drowned. He 
 then submitted himself to the executioner, 
 and his head was severed from his body. 
 The executioner held up the gory head to 
 the crowd, and cried, "Long live the re- 
 public!" Louis was in his thirty -ninth 
 year and had reigned nearly nineteen years. 
 His brother, the Count of Provence, who 
 was in exile, declared himself regent for his 
 little nephew, Louis XVII., then a prisoner 
 in the Temple. 
 
 The execution of the king aroused a 
 feeling of horror and indignation through- 
 out Europe, and was regarded by the Eu- 
 ropean governments as a general menace 
 to all the monarchies of the world, and the 
 French were held to be the common ene- 
 mies of mankind. All the kings and princes 
 now made common cause against France. 
 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, the empire, 
 Sardinia, the Two Sicilies, and Portugal 
 entered into an alliance against her. The 
 French ambassadors were ordered to quit 
 those countries, and French citizens re- 
 siding in them were either expelled or ar- 
 rested. France at once declared war 
 against the rulers of England, Holland and 
 Spain, a distinction being made by the 
 convention between the people and the 
 sovereigns. It was clearly understood that 
 the war was to be a death-struggle for the 
 republic, and an army of 500,000 men was 
 ordered to be raised and placed in the field 
 at once. Sweden, Denmark and Switzer- 
 land were the only states with which the 
 republic remained on friendly terms. 
 
 Dumouriez, upon the capture of the 
 Austrian Netherlands, had made great 
 efforts to save the life of the king and the 
 constitutional monarchy. During the de- 
 bate upon the fate of Louis he returned to 
 Paris, and exerted himself actively to avert 
 the execution. Seeing that his efforts were 
 hopeless, he returned to his head-quarters. 
 Soon afterwards he was ordered by the con- 
 vention to march against the Austrians 
 under the Prince of Coburg. He did so, 
 and was defeated at Neerwinden on the 
 18th of March, with a loss of 4,000 men. He 
 now entered into a treaty with the Austrian 
 generals for the purpose of overthrowing 
 the republic, and restoring the constitu- 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 747 
 
 tional monarchy, with the Duke de Char- 
 tres (afterwards king as Louis Philippe), 
 the eldest sou of the Duke of Orleans, at 
 its head. News of his treasonable conduct 
 was conveyed to Paris, and four commis- 
 sioners were sent into his camp to arrest 
 him. He seized them and delivered them 
 to the Austrians, and called on 
 his troops to follow him in an 
 effort to rescue France from the 
 tyranny of the convention. His 
 troops deserted him, and he 
 fled to the Austrian camp for 
 safety. He was never permitted 
 to re-enter France. 
 
 In the meantime the conflict 
 between the Jacoljins and Giron- 
 dins hastened to a crisis. On 
 the 10th of March, 1793, a 
 " Revolutionary Tribunal " was 
 established, to decide, without 
 appeal, the fate of all persons 
 accused of crimes against " lib- 
 erty, equality, and the indivisi- 
 bility of the republic." "A 
 Committee of Public Safety" 
 was established on the 27th of 
 May, consisting of nine mem- 
 bers, and this terrible body was 
 given full dictatorial powers in 
 the management of the govern- 
 ment. The government was 
 now thoroughly in the hands 
 of the Jacobins, who were thus 
 the masters of France. The 
 great majority of the nation 
 wished for a return of peace and 
 order ; but they were compelled 
 to obey the will of the savage 
 mob of Paris. On the 2d of 
 June a mob of over 80,000 
 armed men surrounded the 
 Tuileries and compelled the 
 convention to order the arrest 
 of its Girondin members. 
 Thirty-two were arrested and 
 imprisoned. Seventy-three more 
 were expelled from the conven- 
 tion for protesting against the arrest of 
 their fellow-members. Many of them at 
 once left Paris and sought safety in the 
 provinces. They repaired to Caen and 
 placed themselves at the head of a rebellion 
 against the convention which had sprung 
 up in the western departments. A rival 
 government was set up at Caen, and com- 
 munications were opened with Bordeaux, 
 Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon, and other 
 
 disaflfected cities, an armed force was raised, 
 and it seemed that a formidable civil war 
 was about to break out. At this juncture 
 Charlotte Corday, a young woman of Caen, 
 went to Paris, and obtaining admission to 
 the house of Marat, one of the most blood- 
 thirsty of the Jacobin leaders, stabbed him 
 
 ROBESPIERRE. 
 
 to the heart. She made no eflTort to escape, 
 and was sentenced to death by the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal. She met her fate with 
 firmness. 
 
 A royalist insurrection in La Vendee 
 was crushed with remorseless severity, and 
 the city of Lyons, which had resisted the 
 authority of the convention, was forced to 
 surrender, and was punished by the sum- 
 mary execution of nearly 2,000 of its 
 
748 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 inhabitants by order of a revolutionary 
 tribunal, and the destruction of its public 
 buildings. Toulon was devoted to the 
 royal cause, and procured the aid of an 
 English fleet under Admiral Hood. It 
 was attacked by an army under General 
 Dugommier, and was reduced mainly by 
 the skilful dispositions of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, a young officer serving in the army 
 as commandant of artillery. Toulon was 
 evacuated by the British on the 19th of 
 December, and several thousand French 
 royalists escaped in the fleet. 
 
 The Jacobins, being now triumphant, 
 proceeded to punish their enemies, and in- 
 augurated a period of hon-or, which will 
 always be known as the Reign of Terror. 
 Robespierre, now one of the committee of 
 public safety, Barrere, Carnot, Couthon, 
 St. Just, and Billaud-Varennes were the 
 leading spirits of this period. A general 
 levy of the citizens of France was ordered 
 for the defence of the country, a " law of 
 the suspected " gave the government power 
 to deprive any citizen of liberty or life, and 
 its operations crowded the prisons of France 
 with about 200,000 captives. General 
 Custine was guillotined for his defeat at 
 Mayence and the loss of Valenciennes. The 
 queen, Marie Antoinette, who had been a 
 prisoner all this time, was now brought to 
 trial. She was charged with having exer- 
 cised a criminal influence over her husband, 
 with having wasted the public treasure, and 
 with having instigated foreign invasion. 
 She was condemned to death, and was exe- 
 cuted on the 16th of October, 1793. The 
 next victims were the twenty-one proscribed 
 Girondius. One of them committed suicide 
 in the court, but the remainder were guil- 
 lotined on the 31st of October. The mem- 
 bers of this party who had escaped to the 
 provinces were hunted with a ferocity which 
 has no parallel in history. On the 6th of 
 November the Duke of Orleans, the noto- 
 rious Philip Egalite, was guillotined amid 
 the savage curses of the mob. Among the 
 victims of the next few days were Madame 
 Roland, the gifted Avife of one of the Giron- 
 din leaders, Bailly, the former mayor of 
 Paris, and Madame du Barry, the mistress 
 of Louis XV. In the provinces the same 
 cruelties were perpetrated. At Nantes a 
 revolutionary tribunal was established 
 under the presidency of a bloodthirsty 
 wretch named Carrier. Not less than 
 15,000 persons were put to death by 
 his orders at Nantes during the last three 
 months of the year 1793. 
 
 The convention, under the lead of the 
 extreme Jacobins, now abolished the 
 Gregorian calendar, and substituted a 
 ridiculous system of its own. The French 
 era Avas dated from the 22d of September, 
 1792, and every tenth day was set apart as 
 a period of rest. What little had been 
 left of the Christian religion was formally 
 abolished by the convention. A well- 
 known dancer from the opera was enthroned 
 on the high altar at the Cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, and was worshipped by all the au- 
 thorities of the state and city as the goddess 
 of reason. Over the cemeteries was placed 
 the legend, " Death is an eternal sleep." 
 The sepulchres of the kings of France at 
 St. Denis were violated, and the remains 
 of the dead monarchs were cast into the 
 common ditch. 
 
 These excesses were committed by the 
 Hebertists, the most ultra faction of the 
 Jacobins. Robespierre was not in favor 
 of them, and seized the first opportunity to 
 cause the flebertists to be denounced. They 
 had attempted an unsuccessful insurrection, 
 and their leaders were seized and were 
 guillotined on the 24th of March, 1794, 
 Robespierre, under all his assumption of 
 moderation, was aiming at the possession 
 of the supreme power of the state. Be- 
 tween him and the object of his desires 
 there was but one obstacle — his great rival, 
 Danton. He determined to destroy him 
 and his supporters at one blow. On the 
 1st of April, 1794, Danton, Camille Des- 
 moulins, Fabre d' Eglantine, Herault de 
 Sechelle, and eleven others were arrested 
 and imprisoned. They were not allowed to 
 defend themselves, and, after a mock trial, 
 were guillotined on the 6th of April. 
 
 Robespierre was now master of France. 
 He at once dropped the mask of modera- 
 tion, and the work of the guillotine went 
 on more mercilessly than ever. Between 
 the 10th of June and the 27th of July, 
 1794, over fourteen hundred persons were 
 guillotined in Paris. For three months 
 Robespierre held undisputed power. He 
 was not an atheist, and one of his flrst acts 
 was to restore the worship of a supreme 
 being, which he did with impious cere- 
 monies designed for his own glorification. 
 The immortality of the soul was also pro- 
 claimed as an article of the national faith. 
 
 The fall of this monster was but a ques- 
 tion of time. A powerful opposition to him 
 was silently gathering strength in the con- 
 vention. He received intimations of his 
 danger, and prepared to avert it by sending 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 749 
 
 Lis enemies to the guillotine. A secret list 
 of those he meant to destroy was discovered, 
 and was found to contain the names of the 
 hest men in the convention. The discovery 
 brought matters to a crisis, and on the 27th 
 of July, Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and 
 other leaders of the conspiracy against him, 
 denounced Robespierre in the convention. 
 Robespierre vainly endeavored to obtain a 
 hearing, but his voice was drowned in shouts 
 of "Down with the tyrant!" He was ar- 
 rested, together with four of his associates. 
 The commune at once took up arms, rescued 
 him from his prison, and carried him in 
 triumph to the Hotel de Ville. The con- 
 vention was now bound to triumph or per- 
 ish. Its troops were at once placed under 
 arras, and the Hotel de Ville was surrounded. 
 Robespierre, afraid to meet the fate he had 
 inflicted upon thousands of his countrymen, 
 made an unsuccessful attempt at suicide. 
 The commune surrendered, and on the 28th 
 of July Robespierre and the members of 
 the commune were guillotined amid the re- 
 joicings of the populace. With the death 
 of Rabaspierre the Reign of Terror came to 
 an end. The cruel Carrier and the infa- 
 mous Fouquier-Tinville, the public prose- 
 cutor during the Reign of Terror, were guil- 
 lotined by order of the convention. 
 
 Tallien, Fouche, Legendre, and their as- 
 sociates, into whose hands the government 
 had now passed, were not naturally dis- 
 posed to moderation, but the public senti- 
 ment had set so strongly in favor of a more 
 humane course, that they wisely yielded to 
 it. The seventy-three deputies who had 
 protested against the arrest of the Giron- 
 dins were readmitted to the convention, 
 and 10,000 persons, detained in prison on 
 suspicion, were released in Paris alone. A 
 similar measure was put in force through- 
 out France. The Jacobin club was sup- 
 pressed ; the laws banishing the priests and 
 nobles were repealed, and the Christian 
 faitli and worship were restored. 
 
 The sufferings of the people were not 
 ended, however. The winter of 1794-95 
 was very rigorous, and bread and fuel were 
 scarce and high. The assignats were worth- 
 less, and there was no other currency to re- 
 place them. The distress of the people was 
 extreme. The Jacobins endeavored to take 
 advantage of this distress to regain their 
 lost power, and on the Ist of April and 20th 
 of May, 1795, the mob of Paris rose in 
 arras to demand bread and the restoration 
 to liberty of the terrorist leaders. These 
 
 outbreaks were summarily quelled, and the 
 people of the Faubourg St. Antoine, the 
 chief seat of the disturbances, were com- 
 pelled to surrender their arms to the con- 
 vention. In the provinces a counter-revo- 
 lution set in against the Jacobins, and was 
 marked by as much cruelty as the Reign of 
 Terror had produced. 
 
 While these terrible scenes were transpir- 
 ing in France, the republic was compelled 
 to maintain a life and death struggle against 
 the foreign powers which were seeking its 
 overthrow. The armies of the republic 
 were thirteen in number, and amounted to 
 between 600,000 and 700,000 men. The 
 army of the Sambre and the Meuse was 
 commanded by General Jourdan. On the 
 26th of June, 1794, he defeated the allies 
 at Fleurus. He then formed a junction 
 with the army of the north under General 
 Pichegru, and on the 9th of July the French 
 occupied Brussels. The allies under the 
 Duke of York now fell back into Holland, 
 and abandoned the whole of Belgium to 
 the French. Pichegru now advanced to the 
 Meuse, and prepared for the invasion of 
 Holland, while Jourdan drove the Austri- 
 ans back towards the Rhine, inflicted a 
 crushing defeat upon them at Ruremonde, 
 on the 5th of October, and compelled them 
 to retreat into Germany. Cologne and 
 Treves were quickly occupied by the 
 French, who by the end of October held 
 the Rhine from Worms to Nimwegen. On 
 the Spanish and Italian frontiers the armies 
 of the republic were equally successful dur- 
 ing this year. The French were not with- 
 out their reverses, however. An English 
 fleet under Lord Howe won a brilliant vic- 
 tory over the French fleet off* the Isle of 
 Ushant, on the 1st of June, and Corsica 
 revolted and placed itself under the protec- 
 tion of England. 
 
 Pichegru crossed the Meuse on the ice in 
 the last week of December, and on the 11th 
 of January, 1795, defeated the English and 
 Dutch at Nimwegen, and compelled them 
 to make a disastrous retreat. The Dutch 
 welcomed the French with delight, and the 
 stadtholder fled to England, and on the 
 20th of January Pichegru entered Amster- 
 dam in triumph. The English army, after 
 much suffering on their retreat, reached 
 Bremen, and sailed from that port for Eng- 
 land. Holland at once submitted, and the 
 conquest of that country was accomplished 
 without a single battle. A republican gov- 
 ernment, modelled upon that of France, 
 
750 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was set up by the French, and Holland be- 
 came known as the Bataviau Kepublic. 
 Negotiations were now opened with Prussia, 
 which was tired of the war, and on the 5th 
 of April a treaty of peace was signed be- 
 tween that country and France, Prussia 
 surrendering to the republic ail her posses- 
 sions on the left bank of the Rhine. The 
 King of Prussia was now more anxious to 
 enjoy his ill-gotten share of the Polish ter- 
 ritory than to aid the French Bourbons. 
 Peace was soon after made with the princes 
 of the empire through the mediation of 
 Prussia. A similar treaty was also negoti- 
 ated with Spain. That power insisted that 
 
 In the summer of 1795 a fresh insurrec- 
 tion of the royalists broke out in La Ven- 
 dee, under Generals Stofflet and Charette. 
 An English squadron with 3,000 French 
 emigrants joined the insurgents, and the 
 Count of Provence, the brother of Louis 
 XVI., was proclaimed king as Louis XVIII, 
 A force under General Hoche was sent 
 against them by the government, and a 
 bloody and desperate Avar was maintained 
 until March, 1796, when, Charette and 
 Stofflet having been taken and put to death, 
 the struggle in La Vendee came to a close. 
 It is said to have cost the lives of 100,000 
 Frenchmen. 
 
 EUE DE RIVOLI, AND THE TOWEE OF ST. JACQUES— PARIS. 
 
 the children of Louis XVI., who were still 
 prisoners in the hands of the convention, 
 should be set at liberty. The death on the 
 11th of June, 1795, at the age of eleven, of 
 the unhappy dauphin, who was styled Louis 
 XVII. by his adherents, removed the chief 
 obstacle to the treaty. Spain recognized the 
 French republic, and ceded to it her West 
 Indian island of St. Domingo in return for 
 the French conquests in northern Spain. 
 The young daughter of Louis XVI. was then 
 liberated from the Temple, and exchanged 
 for the commissioners of the convention 
 who had been betrayed to the Austrians by 
 Dumouriez. 
 
 In the meantime the convention ap- 
 pointed a committee, almost exclusively 
 Girondist, to draft a new constitution for 
 the republic. Their report was presented 
 to the convention, and adopted on the 22d 
 of August, 1795. The new constitution re- 
 stored to the middle class its legitimate in- 
 fluence in the state. It provided that the 
 legislative power should be confided to two 
 chambers. The first of these, the council 
 of five hundred, so called from the number 
 of its members, was to have the sole power 
 of originating laAVS ; the other, the council 
 of the ancients, was to consist of 250 mem- 
 bers, who must be over forty years of age. 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 751 
 
 They had the power of accepting the laws 
 presented by the lower council, or could 
 veto them. The executive authority was 
 vested iu a directory of five members, ap- 
 pointed by the two legislative chambers, 
 one director retiring each year. This con- 
 stitution was bitterly opposed by the royal- 
 ists, who had returned to Paris in great 
 numbers since the fall of Robespierre, and 
 also by the sections. 
 
 It was evident to the convention that an 
 outbreak was at hand, and measures were 
 taken to crush it. Barras was made com- 
 mander of the troops of the convention, 
 and chose, as his second in command. Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte, then a general of brigade, 
 and in Paris awaiting orders. He intrusted 
 him with the defence of the convention, and 
 the young general took his measures with 
 promptness and decision. On the 5th of 
 October the sections made their attack 
 upon the Tuileries, but so well had Bona- 
 parte prepared for them, that they were 
 beaten and put to flight with heavy loss. 
 Bonaparte was rewarded for his services by 
 the appointment to the second place in the 
 army of the interior. A little later, upon 
 the retirement of Barras, he succeeded him 
 as commander-in-chief. 
 
 The convention used its victory with 
 moderation. A general amnesty was pro- 
 claimed to all except emigrants and their 
 families. Only one of the conspirators was 
 put to death, and a few imprisoned. Bel- 
 gium was declared to be incorporated with 
 France. On the 26th of October, 1795. the 
 convention closed its labors, and passed 
 into history. 
 
 The new government at once entered 
 upon its duties. La Reveillere-Lepaux, 
 Rewbell, Carnot, Letourneur, and Barras 
 were chosen directors. They were all 
 staunch republicans. The Luxembourg 
 palace was allotted to them as a residence, 
 a liberal revenue allowed them, and an 
 armed guard assigned for their protection. 
 
 The state of the treasury demanded the 
 immediate attention of the directory. It 
 was utterly bankrupt. The currency was 
 so depreciated that the notes of the govern- 
 ment would not command the cost of print- 
 ing them. The poor of Paris were reduced 
 to two ounces of bread and a small quantity 
 of rice to each person per day, and this the 
 government was obliged to furnish. The 
 country was full of bands of robbers, who 
 committed the grossest outrages without 
 fear of punishment ; the roads, bridges, and 
 
 canals were in ruin ; the army was in need 
 of clothes and rations, and the troops were 
 clamorous for their pay. The measures of 
 the directory for the remedying of these 
 evils were successful. Confidence was re- 
 vived ; a better financial system was in- 
 augurated ; commerce resumed its former 
 footing ; and France began to experience 
 some degree of her old prosperity. These 
 changes were gradual, but they were marked 
 and successful. 
 
 Pichegru, after his conquest of Holland, 
 found his good fortune to desert him. He 
 was attacked by the Austrians in his posi- 
 tion on the Rhine near Mayence, and was 
 defeated, and lost all his artillery, stores, 
 and baggage. He had hoped to use the 
 favor which his conquest of Holland had 
 won him with his countrymen for the resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons, but his movements 
 were indecisive, and ruined the cause he 
 meant to serve. He then retired from the 
 army iu disgust. 
 
 The directory resolved to put three armies 
 in the field for the campaign of 1796. Two 
 of these were designed for service in Ger- 
 many under Generals Moreau and Jourdan ; 
 the third was to conduct the campaign in 
 Italy under General Bonaparte. The last- 
 named general, whose services we have al- 
 ready noticed, was a native of the island of 
 Corsica, and of Italian descent. He was 
 twenty-seven years old, but had already 
 given proof of his great genius as a soldier. 
 Since his victory over the sections he had 
 been promoted to the command of the army 
 of the interior, and had married Madame de 
 Beauharnais, a lady of great beauty and 
 the friend of Barras, Tallien, and Carnot, 
 the three most powerful men in France. 
 This marriage was a decided gain for him 
 at the time. Twelve days after it was cel- 
 ebrated he left Paris for the head-quarters 
 of his army at Nice, Avhich he reached on 
 the 27th of March, 1796. 
 
 The army of Italy numbered about 
 35,000 men, and was in a wretched state of 
 discipline, and in want of clothing and pro- 
 visions. Opposed to it was an army of 
 60,000 splendid Austrian and Piedmontese 
 troops. Bonaparte lost no time in infusing 
 into his wretched force his own enthusiastic 
 energy, and electrified the troops with the 
 promise of victory and wealth in Italy. He 
 then began a forward movement upon 
 Genoa, his plan being to interpose his army 
 between the imperialists and the Piedmon- 
 tese, and prevent their union. His troops, 
 
752 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 but a few weeks before a band of malcon- 
 tents, followed him with enthusiasm. His 
 plan was completely successful. The Aus- 
 trians fell back toward Milan, the Pied- 
 montese toward Turin. Bonaparte defeated 
 a detachment of the Austrians at Monte- 
 notte, and following the Piedmontese army 
 captured the fortified town of Cherasco, and 
 completely cut off the Sardinians from the 
 imperialists. He then forced the King of 
 Sardinia to accept a humiliating armistice, 
 and compelled him to cede Savoy and Nice to 
 France, to exj)el all French emigrants, even 
 his own daughters, who were the wives of 
 the brothers of Louis XVI., from his do- 
 minions, and to place Alexandria, Tortona, 
 and the other chief fortresses of his kingdom 
 in the hands of the French as surety for 
 his neutrality until the conclusion of a gen- 
 eral peace. 
 
 This armistice concluded, Bonaparte 
 marched at once against the Austrians, and 
 defeated them in the desperate battle of 
 Lodi, on the 10th of May, driving them 
 back to the Mincio. Milan was uncovered 
 by this retreat, and was occupied by the 
 French amid the rejoicings of the people, 
 on the 15th of May. 
 
 These rapid successes, and the boldness 
 of the young general in venturing to treat 
 independently with the Piedmontese king, 
 astonished and alarmed the directory. They 
 proposed to restrain him by dividing the 
 command in Italy between himself and Gen- 
 eral Kellerman. Bonaparte refused to ac- 
 cept this divided command, and offered his 
 resignation to the directory. His brilliant 
 successes in Italy had rendered him so pop- 
 ular at home that the directors did not 
 dare to accept his resignation, and left him 
 without interference. From his head- 
 quarters at Milan, Bonaparte dictated 
 l^eace to the minor princes of Italy, and 
 compelled them to purchase it upon his own 
 conditions. Money, materials of war, and 
 works of art were demanded from them and 
 sent to Paris to supply the needs of the 
 republic and adorn the French capital. 
 
 After allowing his army twelve days of 
 rest at Milan, Bonaparte advanced to Man- 
 tua, and laid siege to that strong fortress. 
 It was the chief Austrian stronghold in 
 Italy, and the key to all further operations 
 in that country. An Austrian army was 
 despatched to its relief under Marshal 
 Wurraser, one of the most trusted generals 
 of the empire. While it was on the march 
 Bonaparte left a strong detachment to con- 
 
 tinue the blockade of Mantua, and by a 
 rapid movement overran the States of the 
 Church with the rest of his army, and dic- 
 tated an armistice with the holy see. The 
 pope was compelled to pay to France the 
 sum of twenty-one millions of francs, together 
 with one hundred valuable pictures and 
 other works of art, and to allow Bologna, 
 Ferrara, and Ancona to be garrisoned by 
 the French. The Grand Duke of Tuscany 
 was compelled to receive a French garrison 
 at Leghorn, in order to prevent the English 
 from trading with that port. 
 
 Marshal Wurmser, at the head of 70,000 
 men, twice entered Italy from the Tyrol to 
 the assistance of Mantua. He was no 
 match for his youthful opponent, and was 
 defeated at Brescia, Castiglione, Roveredo, 
 and Bassano. Finding himself unable to 
 keep the field, Wurmser, on the 19th of 
 September, retired with the remains of his 
 army within the walls of Mantua, which 
 fortress was well provisioned, and capable 
 of holding out during a long siege. 
 
 In the meantime the campaign in Ger- 
 many was conducted by the armies of 
 Moreau and Jourdan, who were opposed 
 by the Archduke Charles, a general of 
 great ability, with an army of over 100,000 
 men. Moreau crossed the Rhine between 
 Strasburg and Kehl, and Jourdan at May- 
 ence. On the 3d of September Jourdan was 
 defeated at Wurtzburg, and was obliged to 
 retreat across the Rhine into France. Mo- 
 reau, who had advanced as far as Munich, 
 was thus left in an exceedingly dangerous 
 jiosition, and the Archduke Charles made 
 great exertions to cut him off from France. 
 Moreau then resolved to retire into France 
 by the valley of the Danube, and in spite of 
 the efforts to intercept him made a masterly 
 retreat through the Black Forest into 
 France, which he reached without serious 
 loss in twenty-six days. 
 
 The retreat of Moreau and Jourdan left 
 the army in Italy to bear the full weight 
 of the Austrian power, and a third Austrian 
 army, 60,000 strong, was assembled under 
 Marshal Alvinzi, for the purpose of driving 
 Bonaparte out of Italy. The French were 
 far inferior in strength to the Austrians, 
 and Alvinzi believed he would have an 
 easy victory. In the first part of the cam- 
 paign the Austrians were successful, and 
 the French army became disheartened. 
 Bonaparte, by a series of bold and rapid 
 movements, soon changed the condition of 
 affairs. On the 14th of November he at- 
 
48 
 
 753 
 
754 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tacked Alvinzi at Arcole, and in a three 
 days' battle drove him back upon Monte- 
 bello, and re-entered Verona in triumph. 
 Alvinzi was reinforced, and early in Janu- 
 ary, 1797, appeared on the Adige with an 
 army of 60,000 men. On the 14th of Jan- 
 uary he was utterly routed at Rivoli. The 
 French were greatly inferior in force to the 
 Austrians, and the victoi-y was due to the 
 superior genius of the French commander. 
 It Avas followed by the surrender of Mantua 
 by Wurmser, on the 2d of February, 1797, 
 by w^hich 20,000 Austrians yielded them- 
 selves prisoners of war to the French. 
 
 Bonaparte now invaded the papal ter- 
 ritories, and rapidly overran them. He 
 had orders from the directory to destroy 
 the papal government, but on his own 
 responsibility disregarded these instructions, 
 and concluded with the helpless pontiff the 
 peace of Tolentino, on the 19th of February, 
 by wliich the pope ceded to France the 
 legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and the 
 Romagna, and Avignon and its territory 
 in France, and paid a second contribution 
 of fifteen millions of francs, and a number 
 of the choicest art treasures of Rome. Thus 
 far the brilliant success of Bonaparte had 
 won for France a third of the papal states, 
 and Savoy and Nice ; had detached the 
 King of Sardinia and the states of northern 
 and central Italy from the coalition against 
 France, and had laid Genoa and Venice 
 under heavy contributions. The expenses 
 of the campaign had not only been defrayed 
 by the conquered territory, but Bonaparte 
 had been able to remit thirty millions of 
 francs to the directory. The officers and 
 men of the conquering army had grown 
 rich from the spoils of the war. Piedmont 
 and Lombardy had been conquered, and 
 four Austrian armies had been defeated or 
 cajitured. It was the most brilliant cam- 
 paign that had been conducted by the 
 French since the commencement of the 
 war. 
 
 The capture of Mantua opened the way 
 to Austria, and Bonaparte advanced rapidly 
 through the Tyrolese Alps, and drove the 
 Archduke Charles beyond the Save, defeat- 
 ing him in a series of sharp engagements. 
 On the 9th of April, 1797, the French were 
 at Leoben, a few days' march from Vienna. 
 The Austrian government now proposed a 
 suspension of hostilities w^ith a view to 
 arranging a treaty of peace. The pro- 
 posal was accepted by Bonaparte, and on 
 the 18th of April the preliminaries of 
 
 peace were signed between France and the 
 empire. 
 
 During the progress of these negotiations, 
 the Venetians, encouraged by a report that 
 Bonaparte had been defeated in the Tyrol, 
 rose in insurrection against the French at 
 Bergamo, Verona, and other places. At 
 Verona the French garrison was massacred. 
 Bonaparte at once marched into the Vene- 
 tian territory, having first declared war 
 against the republic. The city of Venice 
 was occupied by a French division ; the 
 Venetian republic was overthrown ; the 
 Council of Ten abolished, and a democratic 
 government set up. A fine of six millions 
 of francs was levied upon the republic by 
 the French, and its territory was occupied 
 by French garrisons, and a large number 
 of works of art, manuscripts, etc., were car- 
 ried oft' to Paris. Thus perished the ancient 
 commonwealth of Venice. 
 
 While her arms were thus successful 
 abroad, France was passing through a 
 serious crisis at home. In the elections of 
 1797 the royalists succeeded in returning 
 over 200 of their partisans to the national 
 legislature, and a strong party was formed 
 in that body in opposition to the directory, 
 which was itself divided by the alliance of 
 Barthelemy and Carnot with the majority 
 in the legislature. The royalists made no 
 secret of their design of getting the govern- 
 ment into their own hands for the purpose 
 of overthrowing the republic. Barras, 
 Rewbell, and La Reveillere were resolved 
 to maintain the republic, even if they had 
 to go to the length of a coup d'etat to do 
 so. They therefore sought aid of General 
 Bonaparte and General Hoche, the latter 
 of whom was then in command of one of 
 the armies on the Rhine, Hoche rapidly 
 advanced upon Paris with a large body of 
 troops, and Bonaparte sent Augereau, one 
 of his most trusted lieutenants, who was 
 appointed commander of the army of Paris. 
 On the 4th of September, 1797, the three 
 directors struck the decisive blow. Carnot 
 and Barthelemy, and the obnoxious mem- 
 bers of the legislature, including Pichegru 
 and Barbe-Marbois, were arrested and im- 
 prisoned. The remaining members of the 
 directory then produced the correspondence 
 of Pichegru with the exiled Bourbons, and 
 the councils justified the course of the 
 directors. The prisoners were exiled to 
 Cayenne, and new elections were ordered to 
 fill the places of the members of the coun- 
 cils thus exiled. 
 
755 
 
756 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 This clanger averted, the negotiations for 
 peace with Austria were concluded, and a 
 treaty was signed at Campo Forniio on the 
 17th of October. France acquired the 
 Austrian Netherlands, the Rhine frontier, 
 and the Ionian islands. The states of Italy- 
 were erected into the Cisalpine republic, as 
 has been related. France ceded to the 
 emperor Venice, Friuli, Istria, Dalmatia, 
 and the islands of the Adriatic. The treaty 
 concluded, Bonaparte returned to France. 
 
 the papal states were thoroughly discon- 
 tented. Berthier marched to Rome, and 
 was received as a deliverer. He proclaimed 
 the restoration of the Roman republic ; 
 made Pope Pius VI. a prisoner, and 
 stripped him of all his property. He was 
 conveyed to the Convent of Bieua, and was 
 subsequently removed to France, where he 
 was detained in captivity. In the summer 
 of 1799 Rome was pillaged by the French 
 army, and the efforts of the people to pro- 
 
 THE BATTLE OF THE NILE, OR ABOUKIR. 
 
 He was received iu Paris with a magnifi- 
 cent ovation, and was the most popular man 
 in France. Efforts were made to obtain for 
 him some substantial recognition of his 
 great services, but the government refused 
 to make the deserved award. The directors 
 were already afraid of him. 
 
 Upon the return of Bonaparte from Italy, 
 General Berthier Avas ordered by the direc- 
 tory to carry out its instructions respecting 
 the papal government, which Bonaparte 
 Jiad declined to execute. The people of 
 
 tect their property wei-e put down with 
 great severity. Berthier, who had engaged 
 to respect the private property of the city, 
 was disgusted with the course of the direc- 
 tory and the conduct of his army, and 
 demanded to be recalled. 
 
 France now attempted to get possession 
 of Switzerland, and incited insurrections in 
 the southern cantons, which were put down 
 by the government. Upon the pretext of 
 guaranteeing the independence of the Swiss, 
 a French force entered Switzerland, and in 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 757 
 
 spite of a determined resistance by the 
 people, reduced the confederacy to a de- 
 pendence upon France. The ancient con- 
 federation was replaced with the " Helvetic 
 Republic, one and indivisible." A treaty 
 of peace and alliance was made with the 
 new government, which secured to France 
 two important military roads — one into the 
 south of Germany ; the other by way of the 
 Simplon Pass into ltal3^ 
 
 The only enemy with which France was 
 now at war was England. The directory 
 seriously contemplated the invasion of 
 Great Britain by a force under Napoleon 
 Bonaparte. After further consideration, it 
 was resolved to substitute for this plan the 
 conquest of Egypt, by which a base would 
 be secured for operations against the British 
 dominions in India, or for an intervention 
 in the affairs of Turkey. The possession 
 of Egypt would make France mistress of 
 the Mediteri-anean. 
 
 A fleet of twenty ships of war and a large 
 number of transports was assembled at 
 Toulon, nnder Admiral Brueys. An army 
 of 36,000 men, under General Bonaparte, 
 embarked in this fleet, and on the 19th of 
 May, 1798, the expedition put to sea. A 
 numerous body of scientific men accom- 
 panied the expedition. Before the departure 
 of the fleet Bonaparte had been in corre- 
 spondence with the Knights of St. John, 
 who held Malta, for the surrender of that 
 island to France for a specified considera- 
 tion. The French fleet at once sailed to 
 Malta, and after a show of resistance on the 
 part of the knights, took possession of it by 
 a formal convention on the 10th of June. 
 A garrison of 3,000 men was left at La 
 Valetta, and the fleet set sail for Egypt, 
 barely eluding the English fleet of Admiral 
 Nelson, who was trying to intercept it. The 
 Egyptian coast was reached on the 1st of 
 July, and the next day the troops landed 
 near Alexandria, and occupied that city. 
 
 Egypt, though nominally a part of the 
 Turkish empire, was held by the Mame- 
 lukes, a race of warriors. Mourad Bey, 
 one of their most powerful chiefs, had taken 
 position to cover Cairo with his troops. 
 Bonaparte advanced at once to attack him, 
 and, after a painful march through the 
 scorching sands of the desert, the French 
 army on the 21st of July encountered the 
 army of Mourad Bey, 30,000 strong, in the 
 great plain of the Pyramids, opposite Cairo. 
 A desperate battle ensued, and the steadi- 
 ness of the French squares was tested as it 
 
 had never been before by the furious charges 
 of the Mameluke horse ; but the Mamelukes 
 were defeated with heavy slaughter, and 
 driven from the field. They fled into upper 
 Egypt, and thence into Syria. The battle 
 of the Pyramids was followed by the occu- 
 pation of Cairo the next day by the French. 
 It virtually decided the fate of Egypt, which 
 submitted to General Bonaparte with but 
 little more resistance. 
 
 The brilliant victory of the Pyramids 
 was followed by a disastrous reverse. The 
 English Admiral Nelson, who had vainly 
 sought to encounter the French fleet on its 
 way to Egypt, discovered it in the bay of 
 Aboukir, near Alexandria, and on the 1st 
 of August attacked it. The battle was 
 resumed the next day, and resulted in the 
 defeat or capture of the entire French fleet. 
 This reverse left the French in Egypt 
 without the means of communicating with 
 Europe, and entirely dependent upon the 
 resources of the country they occupied. 
 
 Undismayed by his disaster, Bonaparte 
 undertook the task of organizing the 
 government of Egypt, and of reducing that 
 country to a permanent dependence upon 
 France. His eflTorts were not well received 
 by the people of the country, and the in- 
 habitants of Cairo rose in revolt on the 22d 
 of October. The suppression of this out- 
 break cost the lives of several hundi-ed 
 Frenchmen, and about 5,000 of the inhabi- 
 tants. The sultan also declared war against 
 France, and made an alliance with Russia. 
 Two Turkish armies were assembled — one 
 at Damascus and the other at Rhodes. The 
 news of the presence in the East of these 
 armies determined General Bonaparte to 
 advance into Syria and assume the oflfen- 
 sive, instead of waiting to be attacked in 
 Egypt. He began his march with 13,000 
 men, commanded by his best generals, in 
 February, 1799. He had marked out a 
 magnificent programme for himself. He 
 meant to conquer Syria and Asia Minor; 
 capture Constantinople, and advance upon 
 Germany from that city with an army re- 
 cruited from the conquered peoples along 
 his route. El Arish, the frontier fortress 
 of Syria, was taken, and Jafi^a was carried 
 by assault on the 13th of March. Its resist- 
 ance was punished by the cold-blooded 
 massacre of its garrison. Acre held out 
 against the French. Its garrison consisted 
 of 1,000 Turks and 300 English marines, 
 assisted by a small English squadron in the 
 roads under Sir Sidney Smith. During 
 
758 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the siege a large Turkish army advanced 
 from Damascus to the assistance of Acre, 
 but was routed near Mount Tabor on the 
 16th of March by an inferior force under 
 General Bonaparte. Acre held out for 
 sixty days, and the plague having broken 
 out in the French army, Bonaparte ordered 
 a last assault, which was unsuccessful. He 
 raised the siege and retreated into Egypt, 
 having lost one-third of his army. The 
 remainder were seriously disheartened. 
 Cairo was reached on the 14th of June. 
 During the absence of General Bonaparte 
 Desaix, whom he had left in command at 
 Cairo, had reduced Egypt as far as the 
 Cataracts of the Nile, the most advanced 
 post ever held by Rome. The disasters of 
 the French encouraged the Mameluke 
 leaders to excite an insurrection in upper 
 Egypt, and at the same time a Turkish 
 array arrived by sea from Rhodes, to the 
 number of 18,000 men, and lauded at 
 Aboukir on the 11th of July, where they 
 intrenched their position. On the 25th 
 Bonaparte attacked them, and gained over 
 them one of his most brilliant victories. 
 The Turkish army was annihilated. This 
 victory left the French undisputed masters 
 of Egypt, and it but remained for them 
 to secure what they had won. 
 
 News now reached Napoleon of the re- 
 verses of the French army in Italy, of the 
 incapacity and misgovernmeut of the direc- 
 tory, and the general discontent of the 
 French people. He clearly recognized the 
 opportunity which this disturbed state of 
 affairs held out to him of seizing the supreme 
 power, and at once determined to avail him- 
 self of it. Two frigates were gotten in readi- 
 ness in Alexandria, and leaving the army 
 in command of General Kleber, Bonaparte 
 embarked on the 25th of August, accom- 
 panied only by five generals, wholly devoted 
 to his interests. He lauded at Frejus on 
 the 9th of October, and proceeded to Paris, 
 greeted everywhere along the route by the 
 acclamations of the people. He reached 
 Paris on the 16th, and took up his residence 
 in a modest mansion in the Rue de la Vic- 
 toire. 
 
 In the meantime a second coalition had 
 been formed against France by Russia, 
 Turkey, Great Britain, Austria, and the 
 Two Sicilies. The King of the Two Sicilies, 
 before the treaties were signed between these 
 powers, advanced upon Rome with an army 
 of 40,000 men. The French drove back 
 this force, and pursued King Ferdinand 
 
 IV. into the Neapolitan territories. He 
 was driven out of Naples, and forced to 
 take refuge in Sicily. The Neapolitan ter- 
 ritory on the mainland was then erected 
 into the Parthenopean republic. 
 
 In March, 1799, France declared war 
 against Austria and Tuscany. The army 
 of Massena was successful in some of its 
 earlier engagements, but the Archduke 
 Charles defeated General Jourdan at Os- 
 trach and Stockach, and compelled him to 
 retire to the French side of the Rhine. This 
 retreat neutralized the successes of the 
 armies in Italy, and brought to an end the 
 labors of the Congress of Rastadt. The im- 
 perial envoy was recalled, and the French 
 envoys were assassinated by order of the 
 Austrian government, an outrage upon the 
 laws of civilized nations which Austria did 
 not hesitate to commit. 
 
 In the meantime France had lost her 
 hold upon Italy. In 1798 a powerful Rus- 
 sian army, under the famous Marshal Su- 
 warof, entered Italy and formed a junction 
 with the Austrians under General Kray. 
 This force successively defeated the French 
 army under General Sherer at Verona and 
 Magnano. Sherer was succeeded by Moreau, 
 who was defeated by Suwarof at Cassano. 
 The allies then occupied Milan, and Moreau 
 would have been crushed had not the Aus- 
 trian government ordered Suwarof to lay 
 siege to Mantua, Peschiera, and other places 
 which were considered essential to the pres- 
 ervation of the territory he had won. Prof- 
 iting by this delay, Moreau took position 
 at Coni, where he could communicate with 
 Genoa and with France. Reinforcements 
 were hastening to him, but desiring to dis- 
 tinguish himself by some decisive act before 
 their arrival, Moreau left his position and 
 attacked Suwarof near the Trebia, and was 
 utterly routed. This defeat was followed 
 by the loss of Piedmont. The allies occu- 
 pied Turin, Pignerol, Susa, and other im- 
 portant points, and the Cossacks of Suwarof a 
 army passed the Alps, and invaded Dau- 
 phine. Joubert was sent to supersede 
 Moreau, but was defeated and slain in the 
 bloody and decisive battle of Novi, on the 
 15th of August, 1799. Later in the year 
 the city of Naples surrendered to the army 
 of Ferdinand IV. and the English fleet 
 under Lord Nelson. A combined force of 
 Russians, Turks, and Neapolitans advanced 
 upon Rome, which city was surrendered by 
 the French on the 27th of September, 1799. 
 By these reverses all of central and south- 
 
760 
 
 THF ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ern Italy were lost to the French, who had 
 already been driven from northern Italy. 
 
 In Switzerland the French were more 
 successful. A second Russian army under 
 Korsakoff entered Switzerland, and Suwarof 
 moved from Italy into that country to co- 
 operate with it. Massena marched against 
 Korsakoff and encountered him in the val- 
 ley of the Linth near Zurich, and routed 
 him and drove him out of Switzerland, 
 while another French army under General 
 Soult defeated the Austrians under General 
 Hotze. Suwarof was advancing from Italy 
 by the St. Gothard Pass, when he learned 
 of these disastei's, and at once made a hasty 
 and disastrous retreat into Bavaria. Dis- 
 gusted by these reverses, the czar soon with- 
 drew from the coalition. In September, 
 1799, the Englisli made a descent upon the 
 coast of Holland, but were defeated. On 
 the 18th of October tlie Duke of York 
 signed a capitulation at Alkmaar, and re- 
 embarked with the wreck of his army for 
 England. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 Intrigues Against the Directory — Coalition of Sieyes 
 and Bonaparte — Revolution of the 9th of Novem- 
 ber — Overthrow of the Directory — Sieyes, Bona- 
 parte, and Roger Duces Appointed Consuls — 
 "Constitution of the Year VIII." — Napoleon 
 Bonaparte Elected First Consul — Endeavors to 
 JIake Peace with England — Campaign of 1800 — 
 Napoleon Crosses the Alps — Battle of Marengo — 
 Jloreau in Bavaria — Battle of Hohenlinden — 
 Peace of Luneville — The French Expelled from 
 Egypt — Peace of Amiens — Internal Administra- 
 tion of the First Consul — The " Code Napoleon " 
 The Concordat — Attemj)ts to Kill Napoleon — He 
 is Chosen Consul for Life — His Ambition — Revo- 
 lution in St. Domingo — War with England — 
 Seizure of Hanover — Consi^iracy of Georges Ca- 
 doudal and Pichegru — Arrest and Execution of 
 the Duke of Enghien^ — Napoleon Proclaimed Em- 
 peror of the French — His Coronation — Is Crowned 
 King of Italy — His Letter to George III. — Coali- 
 tion of England, Austria, and Russia Against 
 France — Napoleon Takes the Field Against Aus- 
 tria — Capitulation of Ulm — Napoleon Enters 
 Vienna — Battle of Trafalgar — Battle of Austerlitz 
 — Treaty of Pressburg — The Bourbon Kingdom 
 of Naples Overturned — The Crown Given to Jo- 
 seph Bonaparte— The Confederation of the Rhine 
 Established — "War with Prussia — Battle of Jena — 
 Napoleon Occupies Berlin — Prussia Crushed — 
 The Berlin Decrees— The Continental System — 
 Battles of Eylau and Friedland — Peace of Tilsit 
 — Domestic Measures of Napoleon— The Censor- 
 ship of the Press — Interference of Napoleon in 
 the Affairs of Spain and Portugal — Portugal Oc- 
 cupied by the French — Dissensions in the Royal 
 Family of Spain — Najioleon Forces the Spanish 
 King to Surrender his Crown — Makes Joseph 
 Bonaparte King of Spain — Insurrection of the 
 Spaniards— British Expedition to Portugal — Bat- 
 
 tle of Vimiera — Napoleon Enters Spain — Occupies 
 ^ladrid — Battle of Coruniia — Second War with 
 Austria-^Battle of Eckmiihl^ — Vienna Again Oc- 
 cupied — Revolt of the Tyrolese — Execution of 
 Hofer — Battles of Essling and Aspern — Battle of 
 Wagram — Treaty of Schonbrunn — The Papal 
 States Annexed to France — The Pope a Prisoner 
 — The War in Spain — Battle of Talavera — Divorce 
 of Josephine — Marriage of the Emperor to Maria 
 Louisa — Birth of the King of Rome — Bernadotte 
 Made Crown Prince of Sweden — The Peninsular 
 War — Battles of Busaco and Salamanca — -The 
 English Occupy Madrid — Lord Wellington Re- 
 tires from Burgos — War Between France and 
 Russia — Napoleon Invades Russia — Battle of 
 Borodino — Destruction of Moscow — Retreat of the 
 French — A Terrible March — Passage of the Bere- 
 sina — Napoleon Hastens to Paris — Vigorous Meas- 
 ures of the Emperor — Prussia Declares War 
 Against France — Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen 
 — Austria Joins the Allies — Battle of Dresden — 
 Defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig — The Retreat to the 
 Rhine — Reverses of the French in Spain — The 
 Campaign of 1814 in France — Brilliant Efforts of 
 Napoleon — Surrender of Paris to the Allies — Ab- 
 dication of Napoleon — Close of the War in Spain 
 — Napoleon at Elba — Treaty Between Louis 
 XVIII. and the Allies — Tlie Congress of Vienna 
 — Return of Napoleon from Elba — " The Hundred 
 Days " — Battle of Waterloo — Napoleon sent4;oSt. 
 Helena. 
 
 HE elections in the spring of 1799 
 
 II were unfavorable to the directory, 
 and a powerful opposition to the 
 i government was organized in the 
 councils. The leader of this move- 
 ment was the Abbe Sieyes. On 
 the 18th of June, 1799, he succeeded in 
 bringing about a revolution which placed 
 in power a new directory consisting of 
 Barras, Sieyes, Gohier, Roger Ducos, and 
 Moulin. The leading spirit of the new 
 government was Sieyes. He regarded the 
 directorial system as hopelessly corrupt and 
 incompetent, and was resolved upon its 
 overthrow. Believing that the time for 
 striking a decisive blow was at hand, he 
 entered into negotiations with General 
 Bonaparte, who had just returned from 
 Egypt. In the new system he meant to in- 
 augurate Sieyes expected to be the control- 
 ling spirit. Bonaparte, he believed, would 
 be useful in crushing out the opposition to 
 it ; and his participation in the scheme 
 would secure the support of the army. On 
 the 9th of November, the Council of Five 
 Hundred, sitting at St. Cloud, was dispersed 
 by the troops of Bonaparte. A small 
 minority of the members assembled in the 
 hall, and in concert with the Council of 
 Ancients, which was favorable to the revo- 
 lution, decreed the abolition of the direc- 
 tory. The new government was to be in- 
 trusted to three consuls — Bonaparte, Sieyes, 
 and Roger Ducos. A committee of the 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 761 
 
 councils was appointed to prepare a new 
 system of government, and on the 15th of 
 December, 1799, promulgated, as the result 
 of their labors, the "Constitution of the 
 Year VIII." 
 
 The new government was to consist of 
 three consuls, elected for ten years, and a 
 council of state nominated by the consuls. 
 The consuls and the council were to origin- 
 ate measures, and to submit them for dis- 
 cussion to a tribunate of one hundred 
 
 Bonaparte was chosen by a large majority 
 first consul. Sieves declined the post of 
 second consul, and Napoleon, who had the 
 power to nominate his colleagues, appointed 
 Cambaceres and Lebrun to the other con- 
 sulates. The former was a man of talent, 
 the latter a nonentity. 
 
 On the 19th of February, 1800, the first 
 consul occupied the Tuileries as his official 
 residence, and soon gathered about him a 
 brilliant court modelled upon that of the 
 
 BONAPARTE DISSOLVING THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. 
 
 members. The legislative assembly was 
 composed of three hundred members, and 
 had the power of accepting or rejecting 
 these measures, without discussion. A 
 conservative senate, appointed for life by 
 the consuls, consisted of eighty members, and 
 was charged with the duty of watching over 
 the constitution, and punishing infractions 
 of it. The real power and authority of the 
 government was vested in the first consul, 
 the other two being merely counsellors. 
 Elections were at once held, and Napoleon 
 
 old monarchy. Immediately upon entering 
 upon the duties of his office Napoleon ad- 
 dressed a letter to the King of England, 
 expressing his desire to put a stop to the 
 war and making overtures for peace. The 
 English government replied that the only 
 substantial security for peace which France 
 could give was the restoration of the Bour- 
 bon dynasty. Failing in his efforts to se- 
 cure peace with England, the first consul 
 prepared to continue the war, and also to 
 take the field against Austria in the spring. 
 
762 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 la the meantime he addressed himself with 
 vigor and success to the iuternal govern- 
 ment of France. The infamous law of 
 hostages was repealed ; the churches were 
 reopened for the worship of the Christian 
 religion, and the "Decades" of the revolu- 
 tion gave place to the observance of Sun- 
 day. Several thousand non-juring priests, 
 who had been in prison for several years, 
 were set at liberty, and large numbers of 
 emigrants were allowed to return to France. 
 Great attention was paid to the finances, 
 which, under the able management of Gau- 
 diu, the minister, improved rapidly. 
 
 Austria still continuing hostile. Napoleon 
 resolved to take the field against her. In 
 April, 1800, the Austrian army in Italy 
 under Baron Melas attacked the French 
 under Generals Sou It and Massena, and 
 drove them back to Genoa, while another 
 French division under General Suchet was 
 forced to retreat upon Borghette. Melas 
 sent a strong force to besiege Genoa, while 
 with the remainder of his army he followed 
 Suchet, intending to force him back and 
 to invade France by way of Provence. 
 
 Napoleon now put in execution a brilliant 
 and daring plan for preventing the invasion 
 of France by the Austrians and for driving 
 them out of Italy. He proposed to cross 
 the Alps of Switzerland with his army, and 
 plant it in Italy in the rear of tlic Austri- 
 ans. He began his march from Geneva 
 with a force of 35,000 men. The French 
 engineers had examined the pass of the 
 Great St. Bernard, and had reported that it 
 was barely possible to cross the mountain. 
 Napoleon at once gave orders to make the 
 attempt. The cannon were dismounted, 
 placed in the hollowed trunks of trees, and 
 were dragged over the frozen paths by the 
 troops. By the most indefatigable exer- 
 tions the mountain was passed, and on the 
 16th of May the advanced guard of the 
 French army under Lannes entered Pied- 
 mont. Another division under General 
 Moncey crossed Mont St. Gothard, and 
 a third under General Thuneau passed over 
 Mont Cenis. These divisions were re- 
 united in Lombardy, and on the 2d of June 
 Napoleon occupied Milan without oppo- 
 sition. The passage of the Alps by the 
 French army has always been regarded as 
 one of the most remarkable feats in military 
 history. 
 
 In the meantime Massena, who had held 
 Genoa for sixty days against the efforts of 
 the enemy to capture it, was reduced to the 
 
 necessity of capitulating, and on the 5th of 
 June evacuated the place with the remains 
 of his force. The exultation of the Aus- 
 trians was suddenly checked by the start- 
 ling news of the passage of the Alps by the 
 French and their presence in Milan. Na- 
 poleon was between the Austrians and their 
 base of operations, and they must fight to 
 recover their communications with their 
 own country. Melas hastily fell back to 
 Alessandria, and concentrated his forces 
 there. Napoleon took position in the great 
 plain of Marengo, where on the 14th of 
 June the decisive battle of the campaign 
 was fought. The Austrians were successful 
 in the morning, but the arrival of Desaix 
 with a fresli corps in the afternoon enabled 
 Napoleon to renew the battle, and the 
 Austrians were defeated and driven in con- 
 fusion across the Bormida. Each army 
 lost about 7,000 men killed. The heroic 
 Desaix was mortally wounded. Their de- 
 feat left the Austrians in such a critical 
 condition that Melas was compelled to 
 enter into negotiations with the first consul. 
 An agreement was signed by which the 
 Austrian army withdrew beyond the Miucio, 
 and twelve fortresses, including Milan, 
 Turin, Genoa, Piacenza, and Alessandria, 
 passed into the hands of the French. By 
 his single victory Napoleon regained all the 
 territory he had won in his earlier cam- 
 paigns and which had been lost by France 
 during his absence fi-ora Italy. Austria lost 
 all her conquests in northern Italy. A sus- 
 pension of hostilities was agreed upon until 
 the Austrian commander could receive 
 definite instructions from Vienna as to a 
 treaty of peace ; and Napoleon returned to 
 Paris, where he was received with an ova- 
 tion. 
 
 While this campaign was in progress 
 another French army under General Mo- 
 reau advanced from the Rhine towards Vi- 
 enna, driving the Austrians before it. Mo- 
 reau had occupied Munich, when the news 
 of the armistice agreed upon between the 
 first consul and General Melas caused a 
 corresponding cessation of hostilities in Ger- 
 many. The armistice was broken towards 
 the last of November, and on the 2d of 
 December, 1800, Moreau inflicted a crush- 
 ing defeat upon the Austrian army under 
 the Archduke John at Hohenlinden. The 
 Austrian army lost 7,000 men killed and 
 wounded, 8,000 prisoners and 100 cannon. 
 The imperial government was so disheart- 
 ened by this defeat that it proposed a cessa- 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 763 
 
 tion of hostilities. Moreau consented to 
 this, and negotiations for peace between 
 France and Austria were begun. On the 
 9th of February, 1801, the peace of Lune- 
 ville was concluded. The terms of the 
 treaty have been stated in the German his- 
 tory of this century. 
 
 France was not without her reverses at 
 this period, however. Malta was captured 
 by the British in September, 1800, and the 
 British government resolved to drive the 
 French from Egypt. Kleber, whom Na- 
 poleon had left in com- 
 mand of that country, was 
 assassinated by a fanatical 
 Turk on the 14th of June, 
 1800, and General Menou, 
 who succeeded him, was 
 a man of small capacity. 
 The English forced a land- 
 ing at Aboukir on the 8th 
 of March, 1801, and on 
 the 21st defeated the 
 French in a bloody battle 
 near Alexandria. On the 
 31st of August General 
 Menou signed a conven- 
 tion with the English com- 
 mander, in virtue of which 
 the French army was at 
 once withdrawn from 
 Egypt. 
 
 Mr. Pitt, the most deter- 
 mined enemy of Napoleon 
 and of France, withdrew 
 from the British cabinet 
 in February, 1801, and 
 shortly afterwards a con- 
 gress met at Amiens, and 
 on the 27th of March, 
 1802, concluded a peace 
 between France, Great 
 Britain, Spain and the 
 Batavian republic. Eng- 
 land surrendered all her 
 conquests during the war 
 save Ceylon and Trinidad. 
 Malta was to be restored to the Knights of 
 St. John, and made neutral territory. 
 Egypt Avas given back to the Sultan of 
 Turkey. France pledged herself to evac- 
 uate the Neapolitan kingdom and the States 
 of the Church, and to restore the territory 
 she had taken from Portugal. The peace 
 was hailed with delight in both France and 
 England. 
 
 This interval of peace gave the first con- 
 sul an opportunity to turn his attention 
 
 once more to the internal affairs of France. 
 Every department of the state felt the im- 
 pulse of his wonderful genius and energy, 
 and his measures were for the most part 
 statesmanlike and beneficial to the country. 
 The most important as well as the most en- 
 during was the arrangement of the confused 
 mass of provincial traditions and laws into 
 a systematic digest of national law. The 
 work was intrusted to a commission of able 
 jurists, headed by the second consul, Cam- 
 baceres, but Napoleon gave it his personal 
 
 VESTIBULE OF THE NEW OPEKA HOUSE — PAKIS. 
 
 supervision and contributed in a marked 
 degree to its success. The labors of the 
 commission extended over a period of 
 three years, and the Code Civil, or, as it is 
 more commonly known, the Code Napoleon, 
 was formally promulgated on the 21st of 
 March, 1803. A concordat was concluded 
 with the pope on the 15th of July, 1801, by 
 which the Roman Catholic religion was 
 formally re-established in France. The 
 liberties of the Galilean Church were se- 
 
764 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cured by a series of carefully considered 
 provisos. The first consul was to nominate 
 all bishops, but the See of Rome was to 
 confer the canonical institution. The pope 
 sanctioned the sale of the church property, 
 and the French government undertook the 
 support of the clergy, who were required to 
 take the oath of allegiance to that govern- 
 ment. Somewhat later a general amnesty 
 was extended to emigrants with certain ex- 
 ceptions. On the 19th of May, 1802, the 
 first consul founded the Legion of Honor, 
 an order designed to reward distinguished 
 services in military life, in science, and civil 
 pursuits. 
 
 During this period the republicans and 
 royalists, whose hopes had been defeated by 
 the vigor and success of Napoleon's gov- 
 ernment, attempted to remove him by as- 
 sassination. The most of their plots were 
 detected, but one came near succeeding. 
 An infernal machine was exploded on the 
 24th of December, 1800, in a crowded street 
 through which the first consul and his wife 
 were passing in their carriages to the opera. 
 The carriage of Madame Bonaparte was 
 damaged, but its occupants escaped unhurt. 
 The first consul had passed by a minute or 
 two before the explosion, which killed and 
 wounded fifty-two persons in the street. 
 
 The wisdom and success of Napoleon's 
 measures greatly added to his popularity 
 with the nation, and on the 2d of August, 
 1802, he was elected, by a vote of over three 
 millions and a half, consul for life. He 
 had now reached the point at which a le- 
 gitimate ambition should cease. He was 
 the head of a great nation, which supported 
 him with enthusiasm, and he had already 
 proved himself a great ruler and the first 
 general of his age. Had he been content 
 to consolidate his power in France, and to 
 refrain from interfering in the affairs of 
 other nations, he might have enjoyed a long 
 and prosperous tenure ofoffice and have made 
 France the strongest and most influential 
 power in Europe. His ambitiou, however, 
 was to make himself master of the world ; 
 and in attempting this he arrayed the world 
 against him, and brought about great mis- 
 fortunes as well as great glory for his 
 country, and in the end accomplished his 
 own ruin. 
 
 In 1802 the constitution of the Cisalpine 
 republic was revised, and Napoleon was 
 made its president. Piedmont was formally 
 annexed to the French dominions in Sep- 
 tember, 1802, and about the same time the 
 
 duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla 
 were seized and placed under a French ad- 
 ministration, riie authority of France was 
 established by force over Switzerland, which 
 was compelled to restox-e the republican 
 constitution adopted during the French 
 revolution. Geneva, Basle and the canton 
 of Valais were annexed to France. 
 
 A successful insurrection headed by Tous- 
 saint rOuverture, a negro of unusual abil- 
 ity, having broken out in the island of St. 
 Domingo, a powerful army was sent from 
 France to suppress it, under the command 
 of General Leclerc, who had married Pau- 
 line Bonaparte, Napoleon's sister. The out- 
 break was quelled, but the French army 
 was almost destroyed by the yellow fever, 
 20,000 out of the 30,000 troops dying from 
 the scourge. General Leclerc was among the 
 victims. While the army was in this weak 
 state, war having in the meantime broken 
 out between France and England, St. Do- 
 mingo was captured by an English fleet in 
 November, 1803, and this valuable colony 
 was forever lost to France. 
 
 It had never been believed on either side 
 of the channel that the peace of Amiens 
 would be lasting ; and the conclusion of the 
 treaty was followed by a series of bitter dis- 
 putes between France and England. Great 
 Britain refused to evacuate Malta, as she 
 was bound by the treaty to do. In his dis- 
 cussions with Lord Whitworth, the British 
 ambassador, on this point, Napoleon lost his 
 temper, and insulted the ambassador, who 
 demanded his passports and left Paris on 
 the 13th of May, 1803. Great Britain at 
 once seized all the French vessels in her 
 harbors, thus inflicting upon French com- 
 merce a loss of $15,000,000. Napoleon, in 
 retaliation, seized all British subjects at that 
 time in France. Several thousand persons 
 belonging chiefly to the higher classes, who' 
 had taken advantage of the peace of Amiens 
 to visit the continent, were thus consigned 
 to captivity. 
 
 War was at once begun. In the latter 
 part of May, 1803, a French force occupied 
 the electorate of Hanover, which submitted 
 after a brief resistance. Another force 
 under General St. Cyr occupied Tarento, 
 Otrauto, and Brindisi, in the kingdom of 
 Naples. Napoleon conceived the bold de- 
 sign of invading England, and collected a 
 large and splendidly appointed army, along 
 the coast of the channel, between Havre 
 and Ostend, and a fleet of near 2,000 
 vessels of all kinds in the channel ports. 
 
CORONATION OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 765 
 
76G 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The danger of invasion aroused the British 
 war spirit to the highest pitch. In the 
 course of a few weeks the English fleet was 
 increased to the enormous force of 600 ships 
 of war, and 300,000 volunteers enrolled 
 themselves for the defence of the country. 
 
 The war had no sooner begun than the 
 conspiracies against Napoleon's life were re- 
 sumed. The most formidable of these was 
 headed by Georges Cadoudal, a Vendean 
 chief, General Pichegru, and two members 
 of the Polignac family. They were landed 
 in France by a British vessel, and re- 
 paired to Paris, where they endeavored to 
 engage General Moreau in the conspiracy. 
 Moreau does not appear to have coun- 
 tenanced the plot. It was detected by the 
 police, and the leaders were arrested. Na- 
 poleon seized the occasion to destroy Mo- 
 reau, whom he regarded as a rival, and 
 caused him to be arrested for complicity in 
 the plot, on the 15th of February, 1804. 
 As a means of striking terror to the royal- 
 ists, and compelling them to cease plot- 
 ting against \\\t^ life, Napoleon now pro- 
 ceeded to a most unwarrantable act. He 
 caused the young Duke of Enghien, the 
 eldest son of the Duke of Bourbon, and 
 grandson of the Prince of Conde, who was 
 residing in the imperial duchy of Baden, a 
 few miles from the French frontier, and 
 who had gone there in the hope of being 
 able to engage in an attempt to restore his 
 family to the French throne, to be seized 
 and conveyed to Paris. He was taken to 
 Vincennes, and a few hours after his arrival 
 was tried before a military commission, and 
 sentenced to death for complicity in the 
 conspiracy of Pichegru and Cadoudal. He 
 was shot in the moat of the Castle of Vin- 
 cennes, at six o'clock on the morning of the 
 21st of March, 1804. This fearful deed 
 caused a thrill of horror and indignation 
 throughout Europe. 
 
 The conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru 
 caused Napoleon to hasten a step he had 
 long resolved upon. He determined to 
 make himself absolute master of France 
 without further delay. The senate in an 
 address to him urged him to establish a 
 more fixed and stable government, as repub- 
 lican institutions had failed to meet the 
 necessities of the country. The legislative 
 chamber concurred in this address, and on 
 the 18th of May, 1804, an "organic senatus 
 consultura" proclaimed Napoleon Bona- 
 parte Emperor of the French, and declared 
 the throne hereditary in his family in the 
 
 order of male succession. This act was 
 submitted to the people, who by 3,572,329 
 affirmative votes, against 2,569 votes in the 
 negative, ratified the action of the cham- 
 bers. 
 
 On the 28th of May, 1804, the parties 
 engaged in the conspiracy against Napoleon 
 were brought to trial. General Moreau be- 
 ing included in this number. Pichegru had 
 committed suicide in prison on the 7th of 
 April. Cadoudal and eighteen of his ac- 
 complices were condemned to death ; and 
 Moreau was sentenced to two years' impris- 
 onment. Napoleon commuted Moreau's 
 sentence to two years' exile to the United 
 States of America. Cadoudal and ten of 
 his accomplices were executed ; the remain- 
 ing eight were pardoned by Napoleon. 
 
 Preparations were now made for the cor- 
 onation of the emperor. Pope Pius VII. 
 came from Rome to Paris to j^erform the 
 ceremony, and the coronation was performed 
 Avith great pomp in the Cathedral of Notre 
 Dame at Paris, on the 2d of December, 
 1804. Napoleon took the crown from the 
 hands of the pope, and placed it on his 
 own head, and then crowned the Empress 
 Josephine, who knelt before him. A few 
 months later the Cisalpine republic having 
 been transformed into the kingdom of Italy, 
 Napoleon was crowned King of Italy, in 
 the Cathedral of Milan, on the 26th of 
 May, 1805, the ancient iron crown of Lom- 
 bardy being used on this occasion. The 
 emperor appointed his stepson, Eugene de 
 Beauharnais, his representative in Italy, 
 with the title of viceroy. On the 30th of 
 June, 1805, the Genoese territory was organ- 
 ized as three French departments and for- 
 mally incorporated with France. 
 
 The emperor now made an effort to bring 
 about a peace with England, but the Brit- 
 ish government met his overture with con- 
 tempt, and in reply intimated to him that a 
 new European coalition was being formed 
 for his destruction. In April, 1805, an 
 alliance was entered into against France by 
 England and Russia, and was soon joined 
 by Austria. Napoleon in the meantime 
 had been actively pushing forward his 
 preparations for the invasion of England. 
 As soon as the accession of Austria to the 
 league against him was known to him, he 
 at once broke up his camp near Boulogne, 
 and moved his immense army rapidly acrcss 
 France to the Rhine. 
 
 An Austrian army of 80,000 men, under 
 General Mack, crossed the Inn on the 7th 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 of Septetnbjr, !iii 1 moved upon Munich. 
 Napoleou crossed the Khine, and by a bold 
 and rapid movement gained Mack's rear 
 and seized his communications with Vienna. 
 The Austrian commander attempted to 
 
 of three weeks the masterly movements of 
 Napoleon had destroyed an army of 80,000 
 men without having fought a single great 
 battle. From Ulm he advanced rapidly 
 upon Vienna, and entered that city without 
 
 .o»jE^*:l" 
 
 >»?r^ ^^ ^^^^r^ .r-==^' 
 
 recover them in a series of engagements, 
 but was beaten and driven within the walls 
 of Ulm, which he was forced to surrender, 
 together with his army of 30,000 men, on 
 the 20th of October. In the short space , 
 
 BATTLE OF ATISTERLITZ. 
 
 opposition on the 13th of November. Dur- 
 ing these movements Marshal Mass^na 
 drove the Archduke Charles out of Italy, 
 and occupied the Tyrol with his forces. 
 In the midst of these successes Napoleon 
 
708 
 
 THE TLLVSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was startlo(l by the tlolVut of the Fiviu-h 
 tioot by tho l£nuli>h lloot undor Lord Nel- 
 son, in the pivnt battle of Tralhlijar, on tho 
 21st of October, by which tho French navy 
 was annihilated. 
 
 TluHiLrh iu possession of the ,\.u?;trian 
 capital, the situation of Xapoleon was by no 
 means free tVoni danger. A powerful army 
 of Russian and Austrian trooj^swas advanc- 
 iiiiX from Moravia, and the Archdukes 
 Charles and John had gathered si large 
 ibrco in Hungary. Xapoleon determined 
 to prevent the union of these armies, and 
 i-esolveil to attack the Austro-Kussian army 
 lii-st. He accordingly crossed the Danube 
 and marched upon l>runn. On the 2d of 
 December, 180,"), he inilicted a terrible de- 
 iVat upon the allied armv at Austerlitz. 
 The allies lost 10,000 kilfed, 20,000 pris- 
 oners, and 120 pieces of cannon. The vic- 
 tory was decisive of the war. The Austrian 
 emjHM'or asked lor an armistice and sought 
 an interview with Napoleon. The prelimi- 
 naries of j\ peace were agreed upon, and on 
 the 20th of December the peace of Press- 
 burg was signed. The terms of this treaty 
 have been given in our account of the Ger- 
 man history of this century. The Kussiau 
 army was permittetl to retire unmolested 
 into its own country. The del'eat of the 
 coalition had an elfect most unexpected to 
 Xapi>leon. It was the cause of the death 
 of William Pitt, Xapoleon's most deter- 
 mined enemy, who expired on the 2od of 
 January, 180t>. 
 
 Naples had entered into a treaty of neu- 
 trality with France ; but under the iutluence 
 of Ijueen Caroline, a sister of the unfor- 
 tunate Marie Antoinette, it had taken sides 
 with the allies. Napoleon at once pro- 
 claimed that " thtf house of Btnirbon had 
 ceased to ivign in Naples;'* and in Febru- 
 ary. 1800. sent a powerful army, under 
 Joseph Bonaparte and ^lai-shal ^[assena, 
 into the Neapolitan territory. The royal 
 tamily tie^l to Sicily : Naples was occujned 
 by the French, and the emperor c«>nferred 
 the Neapolitan crown upon his eldest 
 brother, Joseph Bonaparte. The emperor 
 also erected Holland into a kingdom, of 
 whii'li he juade his brother Louis king. 
 Various tluchies and principalities in Italy. 
 Dalmatia, and elsewhere were a^uferreil ivs 
 "immediate liefs of the empire" on the 
 most eminent French generals .and minis- 
 ters, and were made hereditary in their 
 fiunilies. The royal familv of Naples made 
 rv^peated etl'orts to drive King Joseph from 
 
 Ibis new throne, but the insurrection was 
 snj^pressed by the French troops. 
 
 In the summer of 1800 Napoleon, in 
 , order to strengthen his power in Germanv, 
 establisheil the Confetleration of the Ehine, 
 the organization of which we have related 
 j in the German history of this century. The 
 t organization of this confederacv gave great 
 ortence to Prussia, which power, as we have 
 j related elsewhere, had other causes of quar- 
 ! rel with France. Influenced by these 
 j causes, Prussia recklessly rushed into war 
 with France, without being in any way pre- 
 pared for such a struggle. Napoleon, with 
 his accustomed energy, crossed the Rhine, 
 and advanced rapidly into Prussia. On the 
 14th of October, 1800, he defeated the 
 Prussian army with great slaughter in th.^ 
 decisive battle of Jena, taking over 20.000 
 ]n-isoners and oOO pieces of artillery. The 
 Prussian fortresses surren<lered to the con- 
 querors, and King Fretlerick William with- 
 drew with the wreck of his force to Konigs- 
 berg, where he awaited, the approach of the 
 Emperor Alexander of Russia, who was 
 marching to the Vistula to his assistance. 
 
 Napoleon entered Berlin without opposi- 
 tion, and proceeded to insult and plunder 
 the Prussian capital and peojde. His 
 course here has been related. During his 
 occupation of this place he issueil, on the 
 21st of November, 1800, his famous " Ber- 
 lin Decree,'' in retaliation for an English 
 " Order in Council," which prohibited trade 
 with France. He declareii the whole 
 British coast in a state of blockade, forbade 
 all intercourse or trade with England under 
 heavy penalties, ordered the contiscation of 
 all merchandise and property belonging to 
 British subjects, and forbade any vessel 
 coming Irom Great Britain or her colonies, 
 or which had touched at any port subject to 
 Great Britain, from entering the harboi"s of 
 the French empire. 
 
 The emperor now advanced from Berlin 
 into Pohuul. and took up his quartet's at 
 Wai"saw. He was solicited by the Poles to 
 restore their ancient kingtlom, but he took 
 care not to ciMumit himself openly to such a 
 restoration, as he had no wish to add Aus- 
 tria just then to his other enemies. 
 
 In January, 1807, the Russian army 
 under Beningsen took the field, though the 
 season was bitter cold. Napoleon at once 
 advanced to meet it, and on the 8th of 
 February attacked! it at Eylau. The battle 
 which ensued was one of the bhvdiest and 
 most desperate ever fought by Nap^deon, 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 769 
 
 and resulted in liis complete repulse, with 
 the loss of 30,000 men. The Kussiiins lost 
 20,000 men. Tlie French emperor retired 
 to the line of the Vistula, and exerted him- 
 self to refill his ranks with such success that 
 in June lie was enabled to resume operations 
 with an army of 200,000 men. On the 14th 
 of June, the anniversary of Marengo, he in- 
 flicted a decisive defeat upon the Kussians 
 at Friedland. The Russian army withdrew 
 in good order, and on the 19th of June 
 halted at Tilsit, near tlie llussiau frontier. 
 
 Both Napoleon and Alexander were anx- 
 ious for j)eace, and an interview was ar- 
 ranged between them. It was held on a 
 
 measures adopted by Napoleon against 
 England. 
 
 Returning to Paris after the peace of 
 Tilsit, Napoleon was received with enthu- 
 siasm by the French people, lie was now 
 at the height of his power, which he pro- 
 ceeded to strengthen. lie abolished the 
 Tribunate, the only body which had pre- 
 served any vestige of independent legisla- 
 tive action, and established a rigid censor- 
 ship of the press, which was forbidden to 
 publish any news that had not first been 
 inserted in the Moniteur, the official journal 
 of the government. The education of the 
 young was placed under the immediate 
 
 MALMAISON— FAVORITE KESIDENCE OF NAPOLEON I. 
 
 raft in the middle of the river Niemen, on 
 the 25th of June. The terms of peace were 
 agreed upon, and were formally embodied 
 in the treaty of Tilsit, which was signed 
 between France and Russia on the 7th, and 
 between France and Prussia on the 9th of 
 July. We have related the terms of this 
 treaty in the German history of this century. 
 Out of the territory taken from Prussia and 
 Hanover, Napoleon erected the kingdom of 
 Westphalia, which he bestowed upon his 
 brother Jerome. Prussia was literally dis- 
 membered, but the Russian emperor was 
 treated as a friend and an ally, and was 
 only required to give his adhesion to the 
 40 
 
 control of the government, and was so ar- 
 ranged as to give the greatest encouragement 
 to the adoption of a military career. 
 
 The emperor now ventured upon a step 
 full of the most serious and fatal conse- 
 quences to himself and to France. Under 
 the pretext of compelling Spain and Portu- 
 gal to accept his " Continental System," 
 and exclude British goods from their mar- 
 kets, he determined to overthrow the exist- 
 ing governments in those countries and 
 convert them into appendages to the French 
 empire. He ordered Portugal to close her 
 ports against British vessels, and to confis- 
 cate all British property and arrest all 
 
770 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 British subjects within her limits, on pain 
 of war Avith France. The Portuguese 
 prince regent obeyed reluctantly, as he was 
 unwilling to sacrifice the ancient alliance 
 of his country with England, and his slow- 
 ness displeased Napoleon, who declared 
 that " the house of Braganza had ceased to 
 reign in Europe," and ordered General 
 Junot to enter Portugal with 30,000 troops. 
 The prince regent fled, and sailed to the 
 Portuguese possessions in Brazil, and on the 
 30th of November, 1807, the French occu- 
 pied Lisbon. 
 
 Having secured Portugal, the emperor 
 
 THE AECH OP TRIUMPH — PARIS. 
 
 turned his attention to Spain. A bitter 
 quarrel existed between Prince Ferdinand, 
 the heir to the Spanish crown, on the one 
 side, and the kiug and queen, his parents, 
 and the favorite Godoy on the other. 
 Napoleon adroitly seized upon this quarrel 
 to ruin all the parties to it. Under various 
 pretences he occupied the northern provinces 
 of Spain Avith an army of 100,000 men. 
 The king endeavored to reach the coast 
 and follow the example of the Portuguese 
 government by sailing for his American 
 possessions, but was prevented, and abdi- 
 cated in favor of his son, who ascended the 
 
 throne on the 19th of March, 1808, as Fer- 
 dinand VII., amid the rejoicings of the 
 people. The old king, Charles IV., re- 
 pented his abdication, and asked the aid of 
 Napoleon to regain his crown. The em- 
 peror induced the whole royal family, in- 
 cluding the favorite, to meet him at Bay- 
 onne. A disgraceful quarrel broke out 
 between the father and sou in the presence 
 of the emperor, who compelled them to re- 
 sign their sovereign rights to him. Charles 
 IV. received, in exchange for Spain and 
 the Indies, the Castle of Chanibord, in 
 France, and a pension of 7,500,000 francs a 
 year. Ferdinand was offered the 
 kingdom of Etruria, but refused 
 to sell his inheritance for it, and 
 was imprisoned, with his brother 
 Carlos, in the Castle of Valeugai. 
 Napoleon then conferred the 
 Spanish crown upon his brother 
 Joseph, who resigned his king- 
 dom of the Two Sicilies to his 
 brother-in-law Murat, one of the 
 most brilliant marsluds of the 
 empire. 
 
 Though the Council of Castile 
 gave a formal consent, under com- 
 pulsion from Napoleon, to the 
 elevation of King Joseph to the 
 Spanish throne, the people of 
 Spain were justly indignant at 
 being bartered away like sheep, 
 and a formidable resistance to 
 the French was organized 
 throughout the kingdom. Juntas 
 were appointed in every town, of 
 which that of Seville was the 
 chief. Ferdinand VII. w'as de- 
 clared the rightful King of Spain, 
 and six French war vessels were 
 seized by the patriots in the har- 
 bor of Cadiz. Marshal Moncey 
 at once moved forward towards 
 Valencia to put down the insurrection, but 
 was defeated. Somewhat later the Span- 
 iards were defeated at Medina del Rio Seco, 
 but they more than atoned for this defeat 
 by a brilliant victory over the French Gen- 
 eral Dupont at Baylen, in Andalusia, by 
 Avhich that commander and 20,000 of his 
 troops became j^risoners of war. The city 
 of Saragossa was besieged by the French, 
 but maintained an heroic defence for two 
 months, until the besiegers were obliged to 
 withdraw after suffering fearful hard- 
 ships. King Joseph found himself un- 
 able to maintain his jwsition at the 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 771 
 
 capital, and was obliged to retire beyond 
 the Ebro. 
 
 Portugal, encouraged by the success of 
 
 defeated General Junot at Vimiera, and 
 compelled him to accept the convention of 
 Cintra, by ^vhich the French commander 
 
 
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 NAPOLEON I, 
 
 the Spanisli revolt, rose in rebellion and 
 declared for the house of Braganza, and 
 the British government sent 8ir Arthur 
 Wellesley with an army to her aid. He 
 
 agreed to evacuate the whole of Portugal. 
 The English occupied Lisbon in triumph 
 on the 12tii of September, and by the 30th 
 not a French soldier remained in Portup-al. 
 
772 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Napoleon now resolved to make a grand 
 effort for the recovery of his lost ground in 
 the peninsula, and in order to be free to do 
 so drew closer his alliance with Russia. 
 He met the Emperor Alexander at Erfurt, 
 and the czar consented to all the changes 
 in Italy and the Spanish peninsula, and 
 agreed to support Napoleon with 150,000 
 men in case war ensued between France 
 and Austria. In return Napoleon agreed 
 to the acquisition of Moldavia, Wallachia, 
 and Finland by Russia. 
 
 Great Britain now resolved to prosecute 
 the war in the peninsula with vigor, and 
 her army in Portugal was largely reinforced 
 and placed under the command of Sir John 
 Moore. Napoleon about the same time 
 took command of his armies in Spain in 
 person, defeated in succession three Spanish 
 armies which endeavored to stay his prog- 
 ress, and on the 4th of December entered 
 Madrid in triumph. The junta fled in 
 confusion, and the only resistance offered to 
 the conqueror was that of the English army 
 under Sir John Moore. Napoleon being 
 called to the north by the sudden hostility 
 of Austria, intrusted to Marshal Soult the 
 task of driving Moore out of the peninsula. 
 Moore, finding himself unable to oppose the 
 greatly superior force under Soult, re- 
 treated to Corunna, intending to embark 
 from that port for England. On the 16th 
 of January, 1809, Soult attacked him with 
 the hope of preventing his embarkation, 
 but was repulsed. Sir John Moore pur- 
 chased his victory with his life ; he was 
 killed in the heat of the battle, and was 
 buried on the field. The English then em- 
 barked and sailed for their own country, 
 leaving the French masters of Spain. 
 
 The sudden departure of Napoleon from 
 Spain was owing to the action of Austria, 
 which power, since the peace of Pressburg, 
 had been preparing to renew the war. 
 England having promised to assist her with 
 $20,000,000, Austria collected an army of 
 500,000 men, and selecting as the most 
 favorable moment the time when Napoleon 
 was engaged in his contest with the Span- 
 iards, moved her forces into the territory 
 of Bavaria, the ally of France. The army 
 of the Archduke Charles, the Austrian 
 general-in-chief, crossed the Inn on the 9 th 
 of April, 1809. Napoleon had reached 
 Paris when he heard of this step. Though 
 taken by surprise and somewhat at a dis- 
 advantage, he hastened into Germany, 
 organized the forces of Wurtemberg and 
 
 Baden, and united them with his own. On 
 the 18th, four days after his departure from 
 Paris, his head-quarters were at Ingolstadt. 
 On the 22d of April he attacked and de- 
 cisively defeated the army of the Archduke 
 Charles at Eckmiihl. The archduke re- 
 treated to Ratisbon, pursued by the French, 
 who carried that town by storm and drove 
 the Austrians into Bohemia. The way to 
 Vienna was thus left open to the French, 
 and on the 13th of INIay Napoleon entered 
 Vienna the second time as a conqueror. 
 
 The Austrians under the Archduke John 
 had invaded Italy at the beginning of the 
 campaign. They were driven out of that 
 kingdom by the viceroy, Eugene Beauhar- 
 nais, who followed them into their own 
 country, and united his army with that of 
 Napoleon before Vienna on the 26th of 
 May. 
 
 The Tyrolese, under the leadership of 
 Andreas Hofer, rose in rebellion against the 
 French and Bavarians at the outset of the 
 war. The insurrection was crushed, and 
 Hofer was subsequently captured and shot 
 by the French, as we have related else- 
 where. 
 
 The Archduke Charles with a force of 
 80,000 men now advanced to drive the 
 French out of Vienna, and on the 21st and 
 23d of May the desperate battles of Essling 
 and Aspern were fought. The French lost 
 30,000 men, and the Austrians 20,000. 
 Marshal Lannes, Duke of Montebello, on 3 
 of the most gifted leaders of the French 
 army, was mortally wounded. Napoleon 
 retreated from the field, but the archduke 
 was unable to profit by the French reverse. 
 On the 4th of July, Napoleon having been 
 reinforced by Eugene Beauharnais' army 
 and other troops, advanced once more upon 
 the Austrians with an army of 150,000 
 men, and on the 6th of July inflicted a 
 crushing defeat upon the Archduke Charles 
 at Wagram. Twenty-five thousand men 
 fell on the side of the French. The Aus- 
 trian loss was larger. 
 
 Thoroughly disheartened by the result 
 of the battle of Wagram, the Austrian em- 
 peror sought peace. An armistice was 
 signed, which was followed by the treaty 
 of Schonbrunu, which was more humili- 
 ating to Austria than the peace of Press- 
 burg. The terms of this treaty are stated 
 in the German history of this period. The 
 Emperor of Austria agreed to adopt the 
 " Continental System " of Napoleon against 
 British commerce, and to hold no friendly 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 773 
 
 intercourse with England. This treaty 
 greatly weakened the influence of Austria 
 in European affairs. 
 
 In the midst of his struggle with Austria, 
 Kapoleon brought his quarrel with the pope 
 to an end. The pontiff had refused to 
 adopt the " Continental System " of the 
 French emperor, and also to recognize 
 Muratas King of Naples, On the 17th of 
 May, 1809, Napoleon by a decree dated 
 from Schonbruun declared the papal states 
 annexed to the French empire, and assigned 
 to the deposed pope the use of the Vatican 
 quarter and a revenue of two millions of 
 francs per annum. Pius VII. met this de- 
 cree with a bull excommunicating Napoleon 
 and all his adherents and counsellors. Na- 
 poleon at once caused the pontiff to be 
 seized in his palace at midnight, and con- 
 veyed to France. He was kept in an hon- 
 orable captivity in the Palace of Fontaine- 
 bleau until the downfhll of the empire. 
 
 In the meantime Spain had been reduced 
 by the French armies after the retreat of 
 the English. Portugal remained to be 
 conquered, and in April, 1809, Soult in- 
 vaded that country and occupied Oporto. 
 The English army at Lisbon was strongly 
 reinforced, and Sir Arthur AYellesley was 
 assigned the chief command in the penin- 
 sula. He drove the French out of Portugal 
 into Galicia, and entered Spain, where he 
 was joined by a Spanish force under Gen- 
 eral Cuesta. King Joseph, collecting all 
 the troops he could, joined the army of 
 ]\[arshal Victor, which was seeking to stay 
 the advance of the English. On the 28th 
 of July a great battle was fought at Tala- 
 vera, in which the French were defeated 
 with a loss of 7,000 men. The English 
 lost upwards of 5,000. Immediately after 
 liis victory Sir Arthur Wellesley was in- 
 formed that Marshals Soult, Ney, and INIor- 
 tier were advancing against him, and 
 promptly fell back to the Portuguese fron- 
 tier. The French made no further effort to 
 molest him, and about the middle of De- 
 cember the campaign was brought to a 
 close. In the rest of Spain, it had been 
 very favorable to the French. Saragossa 
 surrendered to them in February, 1809, 
 after a defence which must ever rank among 
 the most heroic in history. Forty thousand 
 people were killed during the siege. On 
 the whole, in spite of their defeat at Tala- 
 vera, the year 1809 closed favorably to the 
 French. 
 
 Napoleon now committed the chief error 
 
 of his life. He was tenderly attached to 
 his wife, the Empress Josephine, but their 
 marriage had been childless. He believed 
 that the i)erpetuation of his dynasty de- 
 manded a son to inherit his crown, and he 
 resolved to divorce Josephine, and find a 
 wife who might give him a lineal heir to 
 his throne. The empress, after a j^ivinful 
 struggle, consented to the divorce, which 
 was pronounced by the senate on tlie 15th 
 of December, and was ratified by the eccle- 
 siastical court of Paris. The title of empress 
 and a revenue of two millions of francs per 
 annum were secured to Josephine during 
 
 TUJi AKCHDUKE CHARLES. 
 
 her life. Napoleon then demanded of the 
 Emperor of Austria the hand of his daugh- 
 ter, the Princess Maria Louisa, in marriage. 
 Francis, unable to refuse, consented, and 
 the marriage was celebrated by proxv on 
 the 11th of March, 1810. The bride re- 
 paired at once to Paris, where the nuptial 
 ceremony was repeated in the chapel of the 
 Tuileries on the 2(1 of April. The divorce 
 and the Austrian marriage of Napoleon 
 were among the chief mistakes of his life. 
 The Empress Josephine was greatly be- 
 loved by the French people, who regarded 
 Maria Louisa with indifference. The mar- 
 
774 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 riage with an Austrian princess was re- 
 garded by the French nation as an aban- 
 donment by Napoleon of the principles 
 which had raised him to gi-eatness ; so that 
 on the whole it was a loss rather than a gain 
 to him. The Empress Maria Louisa, on 
 the 2Uth of March, 1811, gave birth to a 
 son, who received the august title of King 
 of Rome. The event was hailed with great 
 rejoicings throughout the empire. 
 
 The years 1810 and 1811 were passed in 
 comparative tranquillity. Napoleon's in- 
 fatuation for his " Continental Svstem " led 
 
 nephew, annexed Holland to France on 
 the 10th of July, 1810, and declared Am- 
 sterdam the third city of the empire. His 
 course was viewed with great disfavor in 
 France as well as in the rest of Europe. 
 
 In 1810 the emperor also seized and 
 added to his dominions, without just cause, 
 the Hanseatic towms, Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and Lubeck, and the whole north coast of 
 Germany, between the Ems and the Elbe. 
 Among the German princes thus despoiled 
 was the Duke of Oldenburg, a connection 
 of the Emperor of Russia both by blood 
 
 BATTLE OF Ul'SACO. 
 
 him to the commission of acts which were 
 in the end fatal to him. Louis Bonaparte, 
 King of Holland, refused to sacrifice the 
 interests of his subjects by enforcing the 
 " Continental System," and the emperor, to 
 compel obedience on his part, sent a force 
 of 20,000 French troops into Holland, under 
 Marshal Oudinot, who established his head- 
 quarters at Amsterdam. Louis at once 
 abdicated his crown in favor of his son, and 
 took refuge in the Austrian territory. Na- 
 poleon, disregarding the rights of his 
 
 and marriage. Alexander deeply resented 
 the spoliation of his relative, and addressed 
 a protest against it to Napoleon, and issued 
 a decree opening the ports of Russia to 
 British commerce, and levying a prohib- 
 itory duty upon articles of French manu- 
 facture imported into his dominions. 
 
 All through the Revolution, and until 
 now, Sweden had been the cordial friend 
 of France. The Prince of Holstein, heir to 
 the Swedish throne, having died, the Swe- 
 dish diet, anxious to strengthen their rela- 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 775 
 
 ti'ons with France and to gratify Napoleon, 
 elected Marshal Bernadotte, whom the em- 
 peror had created Prince of Ponte Corvo, 
 to the vacant rank of crown prince. It 
 was a wise choice as far as Sweden was 
 concerned. Bernadotte had never been a 
 warm supporter of Napoleon, though he 
 had served him with zeal and ability, and 
 was by no means a favorite of the emperor. 
 Napoleon offered no opposition to his eleva- 
 tion to his new dignity, and Bernadotte set 
 out for Stockholm in September, 1810; but 
 from this time the relations between France 
 and Sweden became more and more uncer- 
 tain. Bernadotte soon gave proof that he 
 was not disposed to sacrifice the interests 
 of Sweden to those of France by his open 
 unwillingness to enforce the " Continental 
 vSystem," and in a short while Swedish 
 Pomerania became the principal place 
 through which English merchandise found 
 its way into the continent. 
 
 Being at peace with the nations of conti- 
 nental Europe, Napoleon now gave his 
 attention to the prosecution of the war in 
 *Spain. His army, under Marshal Massena, 
 Prince of Essling, was reinforced to 80,000 
 men, and a vigorous effort was made to re- 
 gain possession of Portugal. Massena 
 promptly reduced Ciudad Rodrigo, which 
 surrendered on the 10th of July, 1810. Its 
 fall was followed by that of Almeida, one 
 of the strongest frontier fortresses of Portu- 
 gal. The loss of these places compelled 
 Wellington, whose army consisted of but 
 28,000 English and about 25,000 Portu- 
 guese, to fall back. He determined to 
 make a stand for the defence of Lisbon at 
 tlie strong position of Torres Vedras, which 
 he had already fortified for such a contin- 
 gency. He was attacked on his retreat, at 
 Busaco, by the French on the 27th of Sep- 
 tember, but repulsed them, and on the 9th 
 of October his army was safe in the strong 
 lines of Torres Vedras, which were almost 
 impregnable to any attack. Massena made 
 several attempts upon these lines, but was 
 repulsed each time, and finally took position 
 at Santarem, where he passed the winter. 
 In the spring of 1811, finding that he 
 coidd make no impression upon Welling- 
 ton's lines, and that his own army was suf- 
 fering from scarcity of provisions, he fell 
 back into Spain. Wellington at once fol- 
 lowed him closely, but the French com- 
 mander conducted his retreat with such 
 skill that his adversary could gain no ad- 
 vantage over him. 
 
 The British army now blockaded Al- 
 meida, while another division under Marshal 
 Beresford formed the siege of Badajoz. 
 Massena, hoping to relieve Almeida, ad- 
 vanced from Ciudad Rodrigo, and attacked 
 the English at Fuentes de Onor, on the 5th 
 of May, but was defeated with the loss of 
 3,000 men, after one of the most stubbornly 
 contested battles of the peninsula war. 
 He retreated across the Spanish frontier to 
 Salamanca, where he was soon after relieved 
 of his command by Marshal Marmont, 
 Duke of Ragusa. 
 
 Marshal Soult, Duke of Dalmatia, now 
 marched from Seville to the relief of Bada- 
 joz, and attacked the army of Marshal 
 Beresford at Albuera, on the 16th of May. 
 The British were victorious, but bought 
 their success at the cost of about 7,000 men. 
 The French lost 8,000 men. Wellington 
 was soon after informed that a strong force 
 was marching from Salamanca to join Mar- 
 shal Soult, and caused Beresford to raise 
 the siege of Badajoz on the 18th of June, 
 and retreat into Portugal. Nothing more 
 of importance occurred during the year. 
 
 The year 1812 was opened by the capture 
 of Ciudad Rodrigo by Lord Wellington on 
 the 19th of January. On the 6th of April 
 Badajoz was carried by assault. The Eng- 
 lish army now advanced into the interior 
 of Spain, and on the 22d of July, 1812, de- 
 feated the French under Marshal Marmont 
 in the great battle of Salamanca, inflicting 
 upon them a loss of 8,000 killed and 
 wounded and 7,000 prisoners. Following 
 up this victory, Wellington advanced to 
 Madrid, and occupied that city. Proceed- 
 ing farther northward, he laid siege to Bur- 
 gos, but finding that the French were con- 
 centrating against him from all parts of the 
 peninsula, raised the siege on the 21st of 
 October, and retreated to Ciudad Rodrigo. 
 Soult pursued him with a force of 80,000 
 men, but was not able to profit by his supe- 
 rior numbers. Reaching Ciudad Rodrigo, 
 the army of Wellington went into winter 
 quarters. King Joseph returned to Madi'id, 
 but his authority w^as at an end south of the 
 capital. 
 
 Since the battle of Wagram, in 1809, 
 the relations between France and Russia 
 had been growing colder every year. 
 Towards the close of 1811 the two countries 
 became involved in a diplomatic contro- 
 versy of no little bitterness, but neither 
 seemed desirous of engaging in open hos- 
 tilities. Russia had grave cause of com- 
 
776 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 plaint. The continental system had ruined 
 her commerce, and the creation of the 
 duchy of Warsaw was a menace to her in- 
 ternal tranquillity. The seizure of the 
 duchy of Oldenberg by Napoleon was a 
 personal affront to the czar, and the con- 
 tinued occupation of the Prussian fortresses, 
 and the concentration of French troops be- 
 tween the Oder and the Vistula, were con- 
 stant sources of uneasiness to her. The 
 czar prepared for the struggle which he 
 saw was inevitable, but shrank from hasten- 
 ing it. 
 
 Sweden, in the meantime, had drawn 
 upon herself the hostility of Napoleon by 
 her increasing unwillingness to sustain the 
 continental system. Swedish ships were 
 seized in German harbors and their crews 
 sent in irons to Antwerp ; and on the 27th 
 of January, 1812, without any previous 
 declaration of war, a column of 20,000 
 Frenchmen, under Marshal Davoust, sud- 
 denly entered and occujiied Swedish Pom- 
 erania, imprisoned the Swedish officials 
 at Hamburg, and filled their places Avith 
 Frenchmen. Beruadotte, who was admin- 
 istering the government of Sweden during 
 the illness of the king, appealed to Russia 
 for aid, and his prayer was granted by the 
 czar, whose army was at once set in motion. 
 In the struggle which followed, Austria 
 and Prussia supported France ; and on the 
 other side were Russia, Great Britain and 
 Sweden. 
 
 On the 9th of May Napoleon left Paris 
 to place himself at the head of his arm)% 
 which was already on its march to the Vis- 
 tula. At Dresden, where he remained 
 several weeks, he was joined by the Em- 
 peror of Austria, the King of Prussia, and 
 a crowd of German princes, whom he en- 
 tertained in magnificent style. He then 
 resumed his advance, and upon reaching 
 the frontier of Russia declared war against 
 the czar. His army consisted of over 450,- 
 000 men and 1,200 pieces of artillery. It 
 crossed the Niemen in five columns. On 
 the 28th of June Napoleon reached Wilna, 
 the capital of Lithuania, and remained 
 there seventeen days to arrange for the 
 proper sustenance of his prodigious army. 
 The movements of his troops were delayed 
 by a terrible storm which raged throughout 
 Lithuania. 
 
 The Russians fell back steadily, destroy- 
 ing all the provisions within reach of the 
 French, who had already begun to suffer 
 for want of food. Pressing on. Napoleon 
 
 concentrated his whole army for an attack 
 upon Smolensko, which city he assaulted 
 with vigor on the 17th of August. He 
 failed to carry the Russian defences, how- 
 ever, and lost 12,000 men ; and that night 
 the Russians set fire to the town and aban- 
 doned it. In pursuance of the same policy 
 the Russians burned and abandoned Doro- 
 gobourg, Viazina and Gjatsk. The French 
 secured only the blackened sites of these 
 places, but pressed on with grim resolution, 
 each day drawing nearer to Moscow and 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 The czar now changed his plan of resist- 
 ance, and placing the veteran soldier 
 KutusofF at the head of his army, ordered 
 him to bring on a general engagement. 
 Kutusoff took position in front of the river 
 Moskowa, his centre occupying the village 
 of Borodino. His position was protected 
 by strong redoubts and batteries, and was 
 unusually formidable. On the 5th of Sep- 
 tember the French array arrived in front 
 of the Russian position, and on the 7th 
 stormed it and carried it after one of the 
 most desperate struggles in the annals of 
 war. The losses were immense on both 
 sides. The French lost 12,000 killed and 
 20,000 wounded; the Russians 15,000 
 killed, 30,000 wounded, and 2,000 prisoners. 
 The success of the French was limited to 
 the capture of the intrenchments. The 
 Russians retreated in good order, and with- 
 out any material loss of enthusiasm. 
 Kutusoff fell back upon Moscow, but in- 
 stead of attempting to defend that city 
 withdrew the inhabitants and removed from 
 it everything of value that could be carried 
 away. The Russians had determined that 
 the occupation of their ancient capital by 
 the French should prove their ruin. The 
 Russian army marched out of Moscow on 
 the 14th of September, followed by the 
 larger part of the inhabitants, and retired 
 towards Kolomna. The French army had 
 pushed forward after the battle of Borodino, 
 hoping to find comfortable winter quarters 
 in Moscow, and on the 14th and 15th en- 
 tered that city, which they were astounded 
 to find deserted. Napoleon established his 
 head-quarters in the Kremlin, the ancient 
 palace of the czars. In the night the 
 French were startled with the cry that the 
 city was on fire. The flames were extin- 
 guished with difficulty, but the next night 
 burst forth again, and this time gained such 
 headway that they could not be checked. 
 For five days the city was a prey to the 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 flames, and 7,000 houses, or nine-tenths of 
 the city, were destroyed. The fire was the 
 deliberate work of the Russians, who de- 
 stroyed their ancient capital rather than 
 allow it to shelter the French through the 
 winter. Napoleon was deeply dejected at 
 this disaster. The winter was coming on, 
 and his army would not be able to pass it 
 in such a region without shelter. He must 
 either make peace or retreat at once. He 
 attempted to negotiate with the czar, but 
 
 earlier than usual and with uncommon 
 severity. With the appearance of the snow 
 began the horrors of the retreat. The 
 French soldiers suffered terribly, and per- 
 ished by hundreds in the drifts and at 
 night around the bivouac fires. The roads 
 were rendered very difficult by the snow, 
 and troops of Cossacks hung upon the 
 route of the army, ready to cut off any 
 straggler from the main body. In a single 
 night several thousand men and nearly all 
 
 VIEW IN MOSCOW. 
 
 Alexander refused to treat while the French 
 were on Russian soil, and there remained 
 nothing to Napoleon but to retrace his 
 steps to the Russian border. On the 19th 
 of October the French army evacuated 
 Moscow. By the express orders of Napo- 
 leon the rear-guard blew up the Kremlin 
 before withdrawing from the city. 
 
 On the 6th of November a heavy fall of 
 snow announced the arrival of the terrible 
 Russian winter, which opened this year 
 
 the horses were frozen to death. When 
 the army reached Smolensko, on the 12th 
 of November, it was found that 30,000 men 
 had died from cold, exposure, and hunger, 
 that almost the whole cavalry force was 
 dismounted, and that over 300 pieces of 
 artillery had been abandoned for want of 
 means to drag them. 
 
 Napoleon divided his army into four 
 columns and hastened on from Smolensko 
 without delay. The roads were so slippery 
 
778 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 with ice as to be almost impassable, and 
 the cold was intense. On the 17th the 
 French found their road barred by a force 
 of 60,000 Russians, under KutusofF, at 
 Krasaoi. Napoleon's personal exertions 
 alone saved his army from utter destruction 
 in the conflict which ensued. Ney, who 
 commanded the rear-guard, had not yet 
 come up, and his absence ai'oused the 
 gravest fears of the emperor, who felt that 
 he must be overwhelmed by the superior 
 forces of the enemy. Ney, however, sur- 
 mounted his difficulties. He engaged the 
 Russians in a furious battle on the Los- 
 mina, and managing to elude their pursuit, 
 crossed the Dnieper on the ice, and rejoined 
 Napoleon at Orcza with but 1,500 men, the 
 wreck of his splendid corps. The Russians 
 
 PALACE OP ST. CLOUD. 
 
 now put forth their utmost exertions to pre- 
 vent the French from crossing the Beresina. 
 Napoleon about thesame time was reinforced 
 by the comparatively fresh corps of Mar- 
 shals Victor and Oudinot, and succeeded 
 in laying two bridges across the Beresina 
 and in transporting the greater part of his 
 troops to the opposite bank. Victor's corps 
 covered the passage of the river, and was 
 driven back in confusion on the bridges. 
 One of these broke under the weight of the 
 artillery, and the other Avas blown up by 
 Victor's orders. The Russian artillery 
 kept up a fatal fire upon the struggling 
 masses of the French, cutting down thou- 
 sands. Thousands were di'owned in the 
 Beresina, and thousands were made pris- 
 oners. This terrible disaster completed 
 the demoralization of the French army, of 
 which scarcely 20,000 men remained with 
 their colors. 
 
 Leaving the command of the array to 
 the King of Naples, the emperor now set 
 out with all speed for Warsaw, whence he 
 hastened to Paris, accompanied by Caulain- 
 court and two other officers. He reached 
 Paris on the 18th of December, and found 
 the capital in a state of great excitement, 
 caused by the reports of the disasters of the 
 army and a report of his own death. The 
 broken fragments of the grand army were 
 conducted by Murat to the Niemen, which 
 was crossed on the 13th of December. The 
 Russian pursuit now ceased, and the 
 French could count their losses. Of the 
 450,000 men who had entered the Russian 
 territory six months before, scarcely 100,000 
 remained. At least 125,000 had falkn in 
 battle, and over 130,000 had perished of 
 — — ^ cold, hunger, and fatigue dur- 
 
 i, ing the retreat. Never, since 
 ' the days of Xerxes, had an 
 army experienced such terrible 
 suffering, or been forced to such 
 ^ a disastrous retreat. The whole 
 
 French empire was filled with 
 mourning. 
 
 The return of the emperor to 
 Paris was attended with the 
 happiest results. In spite of 
 his immense losses in Russia, 
 his ascendency over the French 
 people was so great that every 
 demand he made upon them 
 for men and money to repair his 
 losses and to coi:tiuue the strug- 
 gle was promptly i-esponded to, 
 and by the opening of the 
 year 1813 he had succeeded in placing in 
 the field a fresh army of 350,000 men, ex- 
 clusive of the troops employed in Spain. 
 
 As has been related, Germany had been 
 for some time watching an opportunity to 
 throw off tlie French yoke. Prussia had 
 been jDreparing for this struggle for free- 
 dom ever since the battle of Jena. It 
 seemed that no better opportunity could 
 offer itself than that presented by the disas- 
 trous retreat from Russia. An alliance 
 was formed between Prussia and Russia 
 for the purpose of expelling the French 
 from Germany, and on the 11th of March, 
 1813, the Russian army entered Berlin, 
 where it was received with enthusiasm. 
 On the 16th of March Prussia formally de- 
 clared war against Fi'ance. Austria pro- 
 fessed her intention to act as a mediator 
 between the combatants, but Napoleon was 
 well convinced that she was jj'-eparing to 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 779 
 
 join his enemies ia case they were suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 Napoleon left Paris on the 15th of April 
 and hastened to Erfurt, where he assumed 
 the command of his army, and advanced 
 against the allies. On the 2d of May he 
 defeated them after a hard struggle at 
 Lutzeu, and compelled them to letreat. 
 Dresden was at once occupied by Napoleon, 
 who replaced his ally, the King of Saxony, 
 on his throne. He then hastened ou to- 
 wards the Russians and Prussians, and 
 found them posted in an intrenched camp 
 near Bautzen. Two battles were fought 
 here on the 20th and 21st of May, and the 
 allies were driven from their position. The 
 losses on both sides were immense, but the 
 defeated army retreated in good order, 
 leaving not a single trophy to the French. 
 Ou the 22d Napoleon began the pursuit of 
 the enemy. Marshal Duroc, to whom he 
 was warmly attached, was mortally wounded 
 during the pursuit, to the great grief of the 
 emperor. The allies fell back to Schweid- 
 nitz, and the French continued the jiursuit 
 to Breslau. The former now asked for an 
 armistice, and Napoleon consented to a sus- 
 pension of hostilities for eight weeks — from 
 June 4th to July 28th — for the purpose of 
 endeavoring to arrange a peace. In the 
 meantime he established his head-quarters 
 at Dresden. 
 
 The allies were insincere, and used the 
 time afforded by the armistice to organize 
 a coalition of all the powers of Europe 
 against France. Austria pushed forward 
 her military preparations with all speed, 
 and at length submitted her ultimatum to 
 Napoleon. She demanded as the price of 
 her assistance the surrender by France of 
 Poland, Holland, Spain, Switzerland, and 
 half of Italy, the dissolution of the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine, and the re-estab- 
 lishraent of the pope at Rome. These terms 
 were indignantly rejected by the French 
 emperor. The peace congress met at Prague, 
 however, according to agreement, on the 5th 
 of July, and negotiations were carried on 
 there for several weeks. They proved fruit- 
 less, and on the 10th of August the war was 
 renewed. Austria now formally joined the 
 coalition against France. 
 
 The allied army numbered 370,000 men, 
 and was placed under the command of the 
 Austrian Prince Schwartzenberg. It was 
 accompanied by the Emperors of Russia 
 and Austria, the King of Prussia, and a 
 number of German princes. It advanced 
 
 at once upon Dresden, and on the 26th of 
 August attacked the French army before 
 that place. The battle was renewed on the 
 27th, but the allies were repulsed with a 
 loss of 25,000 men, and retreated towards 
 Bohemia. Being reinforced by 60,000 
 Russians, they again advanced into Saxony 
 and took position ou the left bank of the 
 Elbe. Their design was to concentrate a 
 strong force in the rear of the French at 
 Dresden, and cut off their retreat to France. 
 Bavaria now abandoned her alliance with 
 France and joined the coalition with her 
 forces. Napoleon, who had passed several 
 days in indecision as to his course, fell back 
 from Dresden, and on the 15th of October 
 reached Leipzig. His army was 140,000 
 strong, but was largely outnumbered by 
 that of the allies, who confronted him with 
 a force of 230,000 men. 
 
 Napoleon, conscious of the disadvantage 
 under which he labored, resolved to risk 
 everything upon a decisive battle. On the 
 16th of October began the terrible battle 
 of Leipzig. The first day's conflict was 
 favorable to the French, and at night the 
 French emperor made proposals of peace, 
 but the allies, who knew their strength 
 must tell in the end, and W'ho were expect- 
 ing fresh reinforcements every hour, refused 
 to treat with him. On the 18th the battle 
 was renewed, and the French were driven 
 back at all points. During the battle the 
 troops of Saxony and Wurtemberg deserted 
 Napoleon, and went over to the Swedish 
 army uuder Bernadotte, in a body. They 
 numbered 12,000 men. 
 
 The safety of the French army now lay 
 in a j^rompt retreat. It was begun at day- 
 light on the 19th. A single, long, narrow 
 bridge across the Pleisse, the Elster and 
 the marshes which lay between them, offered 
 the only means of escape to the beaten 
 force. It was crowded to its utmost capac- 
 ity, and a large part of the army crossed 
 over in safety, but by a mistake of the en- 
 gineer the bridge was blown up before all 
 the troops had crossed, and several divisions 
 were cut off, and compelled to surrender. 
 In this fearful battle the losses of the 
 French army amounted to over 70,000 men. 
 
 From Leipzig the French fell back to 
 Erfurt in utter confusion. A halt of two 
 days enabled the emperor to collect 80,000 
 men, and with this force he defeated the 
 Bavarians, who sought to intercept him at 
 Hanau, on the 30th of October. He con- 
 tinued his retreat to the Rhine, which he 
 
780 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 crossed at Mayence on the 2d of November. 
 Leaving his army to watch the frontier, the 
 emperor hastened to Paris, where he ar- 
 rived on the 9th of November. 
 
 The allies advanced to the Rhine in pur- 
 suit of the French immediately after the 
 battle of Leipzig, and on the 5Lh of Novem- 
 ber the Emperor Alexander established his 
 head-quarters at Frankfort. The mighty 
 empire of Napoleon now fell rapidly to 
 pieces. The French garrisons on the Elbe, 
 the Vistula, and the Oder surrendered dur- 
 ing the remaining montlis of the year. The 
 Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved ; 
 the kingdom of Westphalia was over- 
 
 whole Spanish frontier. Marshal Soult was 
 once more sent to oppose him, but was 
 driven back in a series of encounters, and 
 forced to retreat into France. San Sebas- 
 tian was carried by storm by the British 
 on the 31st of August, and on the 7th of 
 October the British army crossed the Bi- 
 dassoa, and in a short while secured a firm 
 lodgment in the French territory. 
 
 Upon his return to Paris Napoleon 
 frankly laid before the senate a statement 
 of the actual condition of affairs, and de- 
 manded a fresh levy of 300,000 men. His 
 demand was granted, and new taxes were 
 added to the already heavy burdens of the 
 
 HOTEL DE VILLE — PARIS. 
 
 thrown ; Hanover was restored to Great 
 Britain ; Holland expelled the French au- 
 thorities and proclaimed the house of Orange, 
 and Austria recovered all her possessions 
 on the Adriatic. Murat, King of Naples, 
 who had quitted Napoleon at Erfurt, offered 
 to join Austria against France with all his 
 forces, provided his kingdom of Naples 
 were guaranteed to him. 
 
 The year 1813 was equally unfavorable 
 to the French in Spain. On the 21st of 
 June the French army was routed by Wel- 
 lington at Vittoria, with a loss of 10,000 
 men and 150 pieces of cannon. Within a 
 fortnight Wellington was master of the 
 
 empire to meet the expenses of the approach- 
 ing campaign. The legislative chamber 
 was not so subservient, and the emperor 
 dissolved it. With all his exertions he 
 could succeed only in raising a force of 
 about 110,000 men, not including the troops 
 opposed to Wellington. 
 
 Not content with the liberation of Ger- 
 many, the allies now resolved to invade 
 France and drive Napoleon from the throne. 
 The Austrian array under Schwartzenberg 
 crossed the Rhine at Basle, regardless of 
 the neutrality of the Swiss, on the 21st of 
 December, and advanced by easy stages to 
 Langres, which surrendered on the 16th of 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 781 
 
 January, 1814. The Prussian army under 
 Blucher crossed the Rhine between May- 
 ence and Coblentz, and advanced to Nancy, 
 which city was occupied by it. A third 
 army of Russians and Prussians entered 
 France by way of Cologne, Liege, and 
 Namur, and advanced towards Soissons. 
 By the end of January, 1814, the allied line 
 extended from Laugres to Namur, and was 
 held by them with a force of about 200,000 
 men. 
 
 Having completed his preparations for 
 the campaign, the emperor summoned the 
 commander and principal officers of the 
 national guard of Paris to the Tuileries, on 
 the 23d of Januaiy, 1814, and confided the 
 empress and his infant son, the King of 
 Rome, to their protection ; and on the 25tli 
 left Paris and proceeded with all speed to 
 Chalons-sur-Marne, where he assumed the 
 command of his army. In none of his pre- 
 vious campaigns had he ever shown such 
 marvellous skill, such rapidity of movement, 
 and such astounding fertility of resource, as 
 he exhibited in this last effort of his genius, 
 in which during the next few weeks he, 
 with a handful of men, kept back the heavy 
 masses of the allies and struck them blow 
 after blow with telling effect. The em- 
 peror first encountered the army of Blucher 
 at Brienne, and was defeated by him. Un- 
 dismayed by this reverse he attacked the 
 Prussian commander repeatedly, and finally 
 drove him back towards the array of Von 
 Billow, which was advancingfrom the Rhine. 
 Wheeling at once upon Schwartzenberg the 
 emperor inflicted a severe defeat upon him 
 at Montereau, and the Austrians made pro- 
 posals of peace. Blucher again advanced, 
 and in the battle of Laon was victorious, 
 Marmont and Mortier were left by the em- 
 peror to contest the march of the Prussians 
 to Paris, while he turned upon the Aus- 
 trians again, and attacked Schwartzenberg 
 at Arcis-sur-Aube on the 20th of March. 
 The battle which ensued was the most ob- 
 stinate of the whole campaign, but was in- 
 decisive. 
 
 It was not possible to maintain this un- 
 equal struggle much longer, for the superior 
 numbers of the allies were sure in the 
 nature of things to give them the victory. 
 Napoleon was fully aware of this, and after 
 the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, resolved upon 
 fl. movement, which could be excused only 
 by the desperate situation in which he was 
 placed, so full of peril was it. Abandoning 
 the line of the Aube, he moved his army 
 
 rapidly into the rear of the Austrians, 
 menaced their communications with the 
 Rhine, and threatened to carry the war into 
 Germany. His design was revealed to the 
 allies by means of an intercepted letter. 
 They hesitated for a while, but at length 
 bolder counsels ])revai]ed, and they resolved 
 to take advantage of the opportunity to 
 march upon Paris, and bring the war to an 
 end. Leaving a force of 10,000 men under 
 Winzingerode to engage the attention of 
 Napoleon, the Austrian and Prussian col- 
 umns united and set out with all speed for 
 Paris. Napoleon at first fell into the snare, 
 but on the 27th learned of the movement 
 of the allies. He was then at St. Dizier, 
 and countermarched with marvellous speed 
 to Troyes, which he reached on the night 
 of the 29th, only to learn that the allies 
 were three days in advance of him. Still 
 he hoped that the force under Marshals 
 Marmont and Mortier, aided by the national 
 guard of Paris, would be sufficient to hold 
 the capital until he could arrive to its relief. 
 
 Vain hope. Marmont could only muster 
 8,000 troops of the line and 30,000 national 
 guards for the defence of Paris. On the 
 29th of March the Empress Maria Louisn, 
 attended by the high officials of the govern- 
 ment, quitted Paris and took the road to 
 Blois. On the 30th the allies arrived be- 
 fore Paris, and attacked the whole line of 
 defences. Their immense superiority of 
 numbers neutralized the gallant efforts of 
 the French, and by noon the arrival of 
 Blucher with 100,000 fresh troops made the 
 case hopeless. To save Paris from the 
 horrors of an assault, Marmont and King 
 Josejih agreed to an armistice, and con- 
 sented to surrender the city to the allies 
 the next day. The French troops of the 
 line were to be permitted to march out with 
 their arms, and retire towards the Loire. 
 
 On the morning of the 31st of March the 
 French troops marched out of Paris, and 
 the allied forces, led by the Emperor of 
 Russia and the King of Prussia, entered 
 the city, and occupied it with a force of 
 230,000 men. The sovereigns were received 
 with enthusiasm by the fickle populace of 
 Paris. After a conference with the princi- 
 pal officers of the French government, the 
 allied sovereigns issued a proclamation de- 
 claring that they would not treat with Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte, nor with any member of 
 his family. The next day the senate for- 
 mally pronounced the deposition of the 
 emperor from his throne. 
 
782 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 In the meantime Napoleon had pushed 
 on ahead of his army, and had reached 
 Fontainebleau at a late hour on the night 
 of the 30th of March. There he learned 
 of the capitulation of Paris. Feeling that 
 all was lost, he abdicated his throne in favor 
 of his son. The allies refused to accept this 
 abdication, well knowing that the emperor 
 was at their mercy. His means of resist- 
 ance being at an end, the emperor was com- 
 pelled to sign an unconditional abdication; 
 and on the 11th of April the treaty of Fon- 
 tainebleau was signed between Napoleon 
 and the allied powers. Napoleon resigned 
 for himself, his heirs and descendants all 
 right to the crowns of France and Italy. 
 In return for this surrender he was to re- 
 tain the title of Emperor for life, and was 
 given the sovereignty of the island of Elba, 
 and a revenue of two millions of francs. 
 
 While these events were in progress in 
 the north, the struggle between Wellington 
 and Soult in the south of France was 
 brought to a close. On the 27th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1814, Soult Avas defeated by Wel- 
 lington at Orthez, and again on the 10th of 
 April at Toulouse. The French at once 
 evacuated Toulouse, which was entered in 
 triumph by the Anglo-Spanish army. The 
 authorities of the city immediately raised 
 the white flag of the Bourbons, and pro- 
 claimed Louis XVIII. On the 18th of 
 April, the news of Napoleon's abdication 
 having been received, a convention Avas 
 signed between Soult and Wellington, and 
 the war was brought to a close. 
 
 On the 20th of April, having previously 
 taken a touching leave of his old guard. 
 Napoleon left Fontainebleau. He era- 
 barked at Frejus on board a British frigate, 
 and landing at Porto Ferrajo, on the 4th 
 of May, took possession of his little island 
 of Elba. 
 
 The allies now proceeded to settle the 
 government of France to their own satis- 
 faction. The Emperor of Russia, with 
 characteristic generosity, insisted that a 
 liberal constitution should be secured to the 
 French people, and carried his point. It 
 being settled that the Bourbon kingdom 
 of France should be restored, Louis XVIII., 
 after signing the new constitution, was per- 
 mitted to make his public entry into Paris 
 on the 3d of May, 1814. He was greeted 
 with enthusiasm by the royalist party, but 
 the mass of the Parisians received him with 
 an ominous silence. The new king dated his 
 first acts in the nineteenth year of his reign. 
 
 thus ignoring the existence of the republic 
 and the empire. 
 
 On the 30th of May a treaty was con- 
 cluded between Louis and the allies, by 
 which France resumed her territorial limits 
 of 1792, with a few slight additions. She 
 recovered her colonial possessions, with the 
 exception of the islands of Tobago, Ste 
 Lucie, and Mauritius, but was forbidden to 
 erect any species of fortification in her East 
 Indian colonies. Malta and its dependen- 
 cies were ceded to Great Britain in full 
 sovereignty. Holland and Belgium were 
 united into one kingdom under the house 
 of Orange. The allied armies Avere with- 
 drawn from France, after the conclusion of 
 this treaty, and Louis XVIII. was left to 
 administer the affairs of his kingdom. 
 
 On the 4th of June the chambers were 
 opened by the king, who promulgated the 
 new charter, or constitution, Avhich differed 
 in several respects from the one to which 
 he had pledged himself before his entry 
 into Paris. He declared that the whole 
 authority of the government of right re- 
 sided in his person ; but that in view of the 
 altered condition of the times, he, after the 
 example of several of his predecessors, was 
 determined to make several alterations in 
 the fundamental law of the kingdom, and 
 of his own free sovereign will granted this 
 charter to his subjects. The peers of France 
 were to constitute an upper chamber of the 
 legislature, and were to be nominated by 
 the crown, either for life or with hereditary 
 descent. Their number was not limited. 
 No one could be chosen to the chamber of 
 deputies unless he should be forty years of 
 age, and should pay taxes to the amount of 
 1,000 francs annually. The right of suf- 
 frage Avas restricted to persons of thirty 
 years and over, Avho should pay an annual 
 tax of 300 francs. The king possessed the 
 sole poAver to propose laAvs. The chambers 
 might request him to propose a law upon 
 any subject they deemed necessary. If he- 
 should refuse their request, they could not 
 rencAv it until the next session. The Ro- 
 man Catholic faith was declared the religion 
 of the state, but full toleration Avas granted 
 to all Christian sects. This Avas hardly 
 such a constitution as the Emperor Alex- 
 ander had pledged himself to secure ; but 
 it remained the fundamental law of France 
 until a comparatively recent period. 
 
 In the meantime the sovereigns and 
 plenipotentiaries of the allied poAvers met 
 in congress at Vienna. The action of this 
 
THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE. 
 
 783 
 
 congress aud its results have been related 
 in the German history of this period, to 
 which the reader is referred. Its conten- 
 tions aud labors were suddenly interrupted 
 by the news that Napoleon had escaped 
 from Elba aud had landed in the south of 
 Frauce. The great powers of Europe rep- 
 resented at Vienna once more combined 
 against Napoleon. They proclaimed him 
 an outlaw, and agreed to prosecute the war 
 until he should be rendered incapable of 
 again disturbing the peace of Europe. 
 Three immense armies were organized : the 
 first of Austrian troops under Prince 
 Sell wartzeu berg ; the second of British, 
 Hanoverians, Belgians, and Prussians, 
 uuder the Duke of \Yelliugton ; aud the 
 third of 200,000 Russians uuder the com- 
 mand of the Emperor Alexander. 
 
 In exiling the Emperor Napoleon to Elba, 
 the allies had committed a mistake. He 
 was left so close to Frauce that ho could 
 and did easily maintain a correspondence 
 with his friends in that country. The army 
 was still devoted to him, and the Bourbon 
 king was heartily disliked by the great ma- 
 jority of the French people. The allies 
 had withdrawn from Frauce, and it seemed 
 to Napoleou that by a bold and determined 
 effort he could rally the army to his sup- 
 port, and regain his lost throne. Having 
 arranged his plaus with his friends in 
 Frauce he left Elba on the 26th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1815, and on the 1st of March landed 
 near the town of Cannes. The first body 
 of troops scut against him broke their ranks 
 at the sight of him, and crowded around 
 him with enthusiasm. Ney, who had vol- 
 unteered to bring Napoleon a prisoner to 
 Paris, was sent against him with an army 
 corps, but both the marshal and his troops 
 were conquered by the sight of the emperor 
 and joined him. This defection reduced 
 Louis XVIII. to despair, and he fled with 
 his court to Ghent, where he remained until 
 the final overthrow of the emperor. Na- 
 poleon meanwhile advanced rapidly by way 
 of Lyons aud Auxerre, his forces growing 
 larger each day. On the 20th of ]March 
 he entered Paris in triumph, aud was es- 
 corted to theTuileries amidst an euthusiasni 
 which defies description. This success had 
 been achieved without firing a shot or spill- 
 ing a drop of French blood. 
 
 When the first burst of enthusiasm was 
 over and Napoleon had leisure to examine 
 his position, he found himself obliged to 
 make great sacrifices in order to conciliate 
 
 the liberal party of the French people, 
 which plainly intimated to him that he 
 could reign in the future only as a cousti- 
 tutional sovereign, as far as the nation was 
 concerned, and on the 21st of April he pro- 
 claimed a new imperial system, which went 
 far beyond the charter of Louis XVIII. in 
 its concessions to the people. But, how- 
 ever he might conciliate the people, the em- 
 peror was well aware that his tenure of 
 power depended solely upon the issue of his 
 struggle with combined Europe. He la- 
 bored incessantly day and night in the or- 
 ganization of his army, aud by the 1st of 
 June he had collected and equipped a force 
 of 217,000 effective troops of the line, and 
 150,000 national guards. He subsequently 
 declared that had he been able to postpone 
 the commencement of the war for three 
 months longer, he would have had 800,000 
 men for the defence of France, " a wall of 
 brass which no earthly power would have 
 been able to break through." The English 
 aud Prussian armies, however, under Wel- 
 lington and Blucher, were threatening the 
 Belgian frontier, and the emperor resolved 
 to attack them at once and endeavor to 
 crush them before the Austrian and Rus- 
 sian armies should enter Frauce. 
 
 On the 14th of June the French army 
 crossed the Belgian frontier. It was 115,- 
 000 strong, and was commanded by Napo- 
 leon in person. The plan of the emperor 
 was to attack the Prussians, who constituted 
 the left of the allied line, while Ney, with 
 45,000 men, should hold Wellington in 
 check, and prevent him from joining 
 Blucher. Having defeated the Prussians, 
 he would reinforce Ney, and crush the Eng- 
 lish array. This plan was betrayed to 
 Blucher by General Bourmont, who de- 
 serted to the Prussians with his staff on the 
 uight of the 14th. On the 15th the em- 
 peror with the main army attacked the 
 Prussians, 80,000 strong, at Ligny, and Ney 
 was ordered to make himself master of Le 
 Quatre Bras, after which he was to assail 
 the rear of the Prussian army. The battle 
 at Ligny began at four o'clock in the after- 
 noon, and lasted until a late hour in the night, 
 when the Prussians were driven from their 
 positions with a loss of 15,000 men. The 
 loss of the French w'as about 10,000 men. 
 In the meantime the advance guard of 
 Wellington's army had occupied Quatre 
 Bras, and Ney's attack on the afternoon of 
 the IGth was repulsed, with a loss to him 
 of 4,000 men. This repulse put an end to 
 
784 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Napoleon's hope of interposing his army 
 between the English and Prussians and 
 beating them in detail. Blucher, however, 
 having fallen back upon AVavre, Welling- 
 ton, in order to maintain his communica- 
 tions with him, was obliged to fall back 
 from Quatre Bras. He occupied a pre- 
 viously selected position near the village of 
 Waterloo, by which he covered Brussels 
 and maintained his communications with 
 Blucher unimpaired. 
 
 On the 18th of June Napoleon attacked 
 the British army at Waterloo. His troops 
 never displayed more splendid valor than 
 on this fatal day, but the English held their 
 positions with a grim tenacity that baffled 
 every effort of the French. Late in the 
 day the Prussian army under Blucher began 
 to arrive on the field, but the result of the 
 battle had been decided before their arrival. 
 Napoleon's last effort was made about seven 
 o'clock in the evening, when the imperial 
 guard was hurled against the English centre. 
 It was broken and driven back in confusion 
 by the British guards, and Wellington, 
 profiting by this success, advanced his Avhole 
 army and drove the French line back in 
 utter demoralization. The emperor, upon 
 witnessing this disaster, exclaimed : "All is 
 lost ! " and turning his horse left the field 
 at a gallop. The Prussians took up the 
 pursuit, and continued it with savage fury, 
 taking no prisoners. The French loss at 
 Waterloo was over 37,000 killed, wounded 
 and prisoners. 
 
 Napoleon left to Marshal Soult the task 
 of rallying the fugitives of his army, and 
 hastened to Paris with all speed, reaching 
 there on the morning of the 21st in advance 
 of the news of the disaster of Waterloo. 
 It was at once made known, and the capital 
 was thrown into an agony of terror. The 
 emperor abdicated his throne a second time 
 and proclaimed his son his successor as 
 Napoleon II. The assembly, without recog- 
 nizing the imperial dignity of Napoleon II., 
 sent a commission to treat for peace with 
 the allies. They refused to enter upon any 
 negotiations unless " Bonaparte " should be 
 surrendered to them as a guarantee against 
 his ever again disturbing the peace of Europe. 
 The victorious armies advanced rapidly, and 
 on the 6th of July entered Paris a second 
 time. Louis XVIII. was reinstated upon 
 his throne. 
 
 In the meantime Napoleon had fled to 
 the coast, intending to take refuge in the 
 United States. Finding it impossible to 
 
 elude the vigilance of the British cruisers, 
 he determined to throw himself upon the 
 generosity of the British nation. On the 
 14th of July he despatched General Gour- 
 gaud with a letter to the prince regent 
 (afterwards George IV.), announcing that, 
 his political career being ended, he came, 
 "like Themistocles, to throw himself on the 
 hospitality of the British people, claiming 
 the protection of their laws." On the 15th 
 he embai'ked at Rochefort with his suite on 
 board the line-of-battle ship Bellerophon, 
 and sailed for England, landing at Torbay 
 on the 24th. Napoleon now found to his 
 cost that he had appealed to a quality which 
 the prince regent did not possess. He was not 
 even allowed to land, and he found that his 
 enemies having him in their power, were 
 determined to hold him fast, caring nothing 
 for the infamy of such a course. After 
 being detained on board the Bellerophon 
 for several weeks, he was transferred to the 
 Northumberland, the flag-ship of Sir George 
 Cockburn, and conveyed to St. Helena, 
 which he reached on the 16th of October. 
 He was accompanied by a small retinue of 
 devoted friends, who remained faithful to 
 him to the last. 
 
 In the meantime Louis XVIII. made his 
 second entry into Paris on the 8th of July, 
 the day after the occupation of the city by 
 the allies. He was received with marked 
 coldness by the citizens. Paris was treated 
 by the allies as a conquered city. Blucher 
 was with difficulty prevented from blowing 
 up the Pont de Jena and the Vendome 
 Column. The works of art of which Napo- 
 leon had deprived the various nations of 
 Europe were restored to their rightful 
 owners. The immense armies of the allies 
 were quartered in the various parts of the 
 kingdom, and occupied nearly the whole of 
 the French territory. All who had held 
 office during the "Hundred Days" — the 
 period between Napoleon's return from 
 Elba and the battle of Waterloo — were 
 dismissed from the employment of the state. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Second Treaty of Paris— Execution of ISfarshal 
 Ney — Treaty of Vienna— The Holy Alliance- 
 Dissolution of the Chamber— Assassination of the 
 Duke of Berry— Birth of the Duke of Bordeaux- 
 Death of Napoleon — Insurrections in Spain and 
 Naples— A French Army Restores the Rule of the 
 Bourbons in Spain— Death of Louis XVIII. — 
 
786 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Charles X. King — Reactionary Measures — The 
 National Guard Disbanded — Success of the Liberal 
 Party in the Elections — Capture of Algiers — The 
 Polignac Ministry — The Ordonnances of the 25th 
 of July — The Revolution of 1830 — Capture of the 
 Tuileries— Flight of Charles X.— The Duke of 
 Orleans Becomes King as Louis Philippe I. — The 
 Constitutional Monarchy — The Revolution in 
 Belgium — The Belgian Kingdom Established — 
 Attempt to Assassinate Louis Philippe — MM. 
 Thiers and Guizot — Prince Louis Napoleon at 
 Strasburg — France Intervenes Between Turkey 
 and Egypt— The Quadruple Treaty — Fortification 
 of Paris — Removal of the Remains of Napoleon I. 
 to France — The Spanish Marriages — Death of the 
 Duke of Orleans — Conquest of Algeria^-The Ses- 
 sion of 1847— Revolution of 1848— The Republic 
 Proclaimed — Flight of the Royal Family to Eng- 
 land — The Provisional Government — Its Troubles 
 with the Socialists — Insurrection of June, 1848 — 
 It is Suppressed— Cavaignac Dictator — The New 
 Constitution — Louis Napoleon Elected President 
 of the Republic — Tlie French Expedition to Rome 
 — Dissensions in the National Assembly — The 
 Coup d'etat of December, 1851 — Establishment 
 of the Second Empire — Napoleon III. Emperor — 
 His Marriage — Birth of the Prince Imperial — 
 Alliance with England — The Crimean War — Cap- 
 ture of Sevastopol — Napoleon III. Espouses the 
 Cause of Italy — The Italian War of 1859 — Battles 
 of Magenta and Solferino — Peace of Yillafranca — 
 France Acquires Savoy and Nice — The Alexicaa 
 War — Failure of the French — Death of Maximil- 
 ian — The Plebiscite — The Quarrel with Prussia — 
 The War with Germxny —Disasters of the French 
 — Battle of Sedan — Napoleon III. a Prisoner^ 
 Revolution in Paris — Fall of the Empire — Invest- 
 ment of Paris — Mission of M. Thiers — Siege of 
 Paris— Close of the War — The Republic — M. 
 Thiers President — The Revolt of the Commune — 
 Second Siege and Capture of Paris — Treaty of 
 Fran'.cfort. 
 
 iN" the 20th of November, 1815, the 
 second treaty of Paris was signed 
 between Louis XVIII. and the 
 allies. It was humiliating beyond 
 precedent. An indemnity of 
 700,000,000 francs was exacted of 
 Friuice for the expenses of the war, besides 
 a still larger sum demanded as compensa- 
 tion to the allies for the occupation of their 
 territory by the French troops. France 
 was reduced to her limits of 1790, and in 
 order to prevent her from again engaging 
 in war, her entire frontier was to be occu- 
 pied for five years by a force of 150,000 
 troops from the allied armies, to be com- 
 manded by a general selected by the allies ; 
 the whole to be paid and supported by 
 France. This occupation was subsequently 
 reduced to three years, and was terminated 
 in the autumn of 1818. To strike terror to 
 the Bonapartists, General Labedoy^re, a 
 devoted friend of Napoleon, and Marshal 
 Ney were shot. In the autumn of 1815, 
 Murat, ex-King of Naples, was captured in 
 an eflfort to recover his throne, and was shot 
 on the 14th of October at Naples. 
 
 The work of the Congress of Vienna had 
 been continued during the Hundred Days, 
 as has been related. The treaty of Vienna 
 was signed in June. For its terms the 
 reader is referred to the German history of 
 this period. Not content with this treaty, 
 the Emperor of Russia induced the Emperor 
 of Austria and the King of Prussia to join 
 him in a league known as the Holy Alli- 
 ance, which, though nominally designed to 
 enable them " to remain united in the 
 bonds of true and indissoluble brotherly 
 love ; to govern their subjects as parents ; to 
 maintain religion, peace, and justice," was 
 really intended to make it possible for them, 
 by combining their forces, to compel the 
 submission of all Europe to absolutism in 
 government, and to suppress all movements 
 in favor of popular liberty. 
 
 In September, 1816, the king dissolved 
 the chamber of deputies, the reactionary 
 tendencies of which had disgusted even this 
 believer in absolutism. He announced his 
 intention to govern the kingdom in strict 
 accordance with the principles of the con- 
 stitution, and the elections held a month 
 later resulted in the choice of the candidates 
 of the moderate or constitutional party, 
 which gave the government its hearty sup- 
 port. 
 
 On the night of the 13th of February, 
 1820, the Duke of Berry, the nephew of the 
 king and the second son of the Count of 
 Artois, was assassinated as he was leaving 
 the opera. The assassin was moved to his 
 horrid deed by his hatred of the Bourbons, 
 and the city was rife with rumors of a con- 
 spiracy for the destruction of all the royal 
 family. Under the influence of the excite- 
 ment of these rumors the king yielded to 
 the demands of his brother, the Count of 
 Artois, and the extreme royalist party, and 
 dismissed his moderate ministry. On the 
 29th of September, 1820, the widowed 
 Duchess of Berry gave birth to a son, who 
 received the title of Duke of Bordeaux. 
 This event was hailed with joy by the par- 
 tisans of the Bourbons. 
 
 On the 5th of May, 1821, the dethroned 
 Emperor Napoleon died at St. Helena, 
 after a captivity of nearly six years, in the 
 fifty-second year of his age. His death 
 was sincerely mourned by the mass of the 
 French people, who regarded him as a 
 martyr to the cause of France. 
 
 In 1820 insurrections, caused by the 
 misgovernment of the Bourbons, broke out 
 in Spain and Naples. Ferdinand VII., 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 787 
 
 finding it impossible to put down the out- 
 break, accepted the constitution of 1812 for 
 Spain, and in Naples the king was obliged 
 to accept a constitution modelled upon that 
 of Spain. The members of the Holy Alli- 
 ance were resolved that this effort to estab- 
 lish constitutional government in these 
 kingdoms should not go unpunished. Aus- 
 tria assumed the task of restoring absolutism 
 in Italy ; with what success we have seen. 
 
 aside the charter, and by means of intimi- 
 dation, bribery, and corruption to secure at 
 the elections of 1824 a chamber of deputies 
 which contained only nineteen liberal mem- 
 bers. 
 
 On the 16th of September, 1824, Louis 
 XVIII. died. He was succeeded by his 
 brother, the Count of Artois, who ascended 
 the throne as Charles X. He was a true 
 Bourbon ; ignorant, narrow-minded, a firm 
 
 DEATH OP NAPOLEON. 
 
 A meeting of the sovereigns of the Holy 
 Alliance was held at Verona, and France 
 was selected to restore the absolute rule of 
 Ferdinand of Spain. In the spring of 1823 
 an army of 100,000 French troops entered 
 Spain, and putting down the resistance of 
 the Spaniards, re-established Ferdinand in 
 the exercise of the most odious tyranny in 
 Europe. 
 
 The success of the army in Spain em- 
 boldened the French government to set 
 
 believer in absolute rule, and thoroughly 
 under the influence of the Jesuits. In his 
 disposition he was frank and cordial, and 
 his friends were Avarmly attached to him. 
 He was crowned in the Cathedral of Rheims, 
 on the 29th of May, 1825, and the ancient 
 ceremonial of the Middle Ages was revived 
 in all its details for this occasion. Charles 
 had been the first to emigrate from France 
 in 1790, at the outbreak of the Revolution. 
 He returned to it in 1814 with the same 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ideas aud prejudices he had taken away 
 ■with him. The world had moved far be- 
 youd him in the thirty-five years which 
 had rolled by since he fled from his 
 country. 
 
 The reactionary tendencies of the new 
 government alarmed aud angered the na- 
 tion. The first evidence of this feeling was 
 given at a review of the national guard in 
 the spring of 1827, when the troops, upon 
 passing the king, shouted, " Down with the 
 ministers ! Down with the Jesuits ! " The 
 king at once disbanded the national guard 
 of Paris, but unfortunately for himself left 
 them in possession of their arras. In the 
 elections of 1827 an overwhelming majority 
 against the government was returned to the 
 chamber. The king was obliged to dismiss 
 his ministers and to summon a more liberal 
 cabinet. One of the first acts of the new 
 ministry was to remove the S3'stem of pub- 
 lic education from the control of the Jesuits. 
 This was a very popular measure Avith the 
 nation, but it gave great offence to the 
 king, who, on the 8th of August, 1829, dis- 
 missed the ministei's and aj^pointed a new 
 cabinet, with Prince Poliguac at its head. 
 The appointment of this ministry — every 
 member of which was noted for his devo- 
 tion to absolutism — was regarded by the 
 people as a declaration of war on the part 
 of the king against the charter and all the 
 liberties of Frenchmen. The chamber of 
 deputies j^laiuly told the king that the new 
 ministers did not enjoy the confidence of 
 the country, and was dissolved by the angry 
 sovereign. The deputies were re-elected by 
 the people, and the new chamber was more 
 than ever in the hands of the opposition. 
 
 While this struggle had been going on in 
 France, a foreign dispute had been engag- 
 ing the attention of the government. The 
 Dey of Algiers had robbed the French 
 merchants residing in his dominions of large 
 suras, and had insulted the French consul 
 upon his demanding redress. In the sum- 
 mer of 1829 an expedition under the com- 
 mand of General Bourmont, the minister 
 of war, was despatched to Algiei's to obtain 
 redress by force of arms. It landed before 
 that city, carried its defences by assault, 
 and compelled the dey to surrender. 
 Algiers was at once occupied by the French 
 troops, who were enriched with the spoils 
 of the city. 
 
 As soon as he learned of the success of 
 the liberals in the elections of 1830, Charles 
 X. determined to compel the triumph of his 
 
 absolute power by employing a strained in- 
 terpretation of an article of the constitution 
 which authorized the sovereign " to make 
 regulations and decrees necessary for the 
 execution of the laws and the safety of the 
 state." By virtue of this clause he assumed 
 the right to alter and abrogate some of the 
 most essential provisions of the charter. 
 On the 25th of July he issued five ordi- 
 nances, which appeared in the Moniteur of 
 the 26th. The first of these suspended the 
 liberty of the press; the second dissolved 
 the newly elected chamber of deputies; the 
 third radically changed the system of elec- 
 tion ; the fourth convoked the chambers for 
 the 28th of September following ; and the 
 fifth appointed some ultra royalists to the 
 council of state. 
 
 The appearance of these ordinances threw 
 Paris into a tumult. The national guard 
 took up arms, with the veteran Lafayette 
 at their head ; the streets were barricaded ; 
 the tricolor was disj^layed in the place of 
 the flag of the Bourbons ; and the royal 
 troops were attacked by the citizens. The 
 garrison of Paris was commanded by Mar- 
 shal Marmont, but was insufficient to put 
 down the populace, though it obtained 
 some important successes. At length the 
 troops began to fraternize with the people. 
 The Louvre and Tuileries were carried by 
 the populace, and the troops were compelled 
 to retreat from Paris. Charles X. fled 
 from St. Cloud to Eambouillet, Avhere, 
 hopeless of regaining his throne, he abdi- 
 cated it in favor of his grandson, the Duke 
 of Bordeaux. He then quitted the king- 
 dom and took refuge in England. 
 
 In the meantime a number of leading 
 citizens of Paris, anxious to keep the revo- 
 lution within bounds, had prevailed on the 
 Duke of Orleans, the cousin of Charles X., 
 who was known to possess liberal opinions, 
 to assume the control of the government as 
 lieutenant-general of the kingdom. He 
 convoked the two chambers for the 3d of 
 August, and those bodies upon assembling 
 declared the throne vacant by the abdica- 
 tion of the elder branch of the house of 
 Bourbon, and elected Louis Philippe, Duke 
 of Orleans, " King of the French." Louis 
 Philippe accepted the crown, and declared 
 his intention to reign as a constitutional 
 sovereign. On the 9th of August he took 
 an oath to maintain the charter as amended 
 by the chambers in the interests of popular 
 liberty, and ascended the throne in the 
 presence of the great officers of the state. 
 
FROId THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 789 
 
 Absolutism was dead in France; the will 
 of the people was supreme. 
 
 The new king was the sou of the notorious 
 " Philippe Egalite," Duke of Orleaus, who 
 was beheaded during the French Revolu- 
 tion, and was in his forty-seventh year. 
 He was sincere in his professions of liberal- 
 ity so long as his princij^les did not conflict 
 with his interests ; but he thoroughly under- 
 stood the art of accommodating himself to 
 
 home and peace with foreign powers. In 
 the internal administration of the kingdom 
 the king sought honestly to adhere to the 
 charter. Two legislative chambers secured 
 the rights of the people, and the elections 
 were comparatively free. The press was 
 nominally unshackled, but the government 
 continued to exercise a mild censorship 
 over it. The friendship of foreign powers, 
 especially of England, was cultivated, and 
 
 LOUIS PniLIPPE. 
 
 circumstances. He did not find his new 
 position a pleasant one, for the legitimists, 
 as the partisans of the elder branch of the 
 Bourbon family, who supported the Duke 
 of Bordeaux, were called, denounced him as 
 a usurper and a traitor to his race ; while 
 the Bonapartists declared that he had been 
 made king by a clique in opposition to the 
 will of the people. 
 
 The leading principles of Louis Philippe's 
 reign were constitutional government at 
 
 France scrupulously refrained from engag- 
 ing in the affairs of any European country, 
 except where her own interests were directly 
 concerned. The internal order of the king- 
 dom was seriously disturbed by several 
 popular outbreaks during the first years of 
 the new reign. 
 
 The revolution of 1830 affected the rest 
 of Europe profoundly. In Italy, Germany, 
 and Poland there were outbreaks of greater 
 or less majinitude. Belgium hud never 
 
790 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD 
 
 been satisfied ^vith its compulsory iiuion 
 with Holland in 1815, and now rose in gen- 
 eral insurrection against the Dutch govern- 
 ment. The Dutch troops were driven out 
 of Brussels on the 23d of September, after 
 a stubborn fight, and took refuge in the 
 fortress of Antwerp, The Belgian provinces 
 organized a revolutionary congress, which 
 now appealed to the five great powers of 
 Europe to protect Belgium against Holland, 
 and King William at the same time made 
 an appeal to the same powers to compel the 
 Belgians to submit to his authority. On 
 the 20th of December, 1830, the five powers 
 signed a protocol recognizing and guaran- 
 teeing the independence of Belgium as a 
 separate kingdom, the crown of which was 
 bestowed upon Prince Leopold of Saxe- 
 Coburg, the widowed husband of the Prin- 
 cess Charlotte of England. In June, 1831, 
 Leopold was proclaimed king by the Bel- 
 gian government, and in the course of the 
 following year married the Princess Louisa, 
 the eldest daughter of King Louis Philippe. 
 The King of Holland refused to submit to 
 the decision of the great powers, and de- 
 clined to evacuate Antwerp, which was 
 held by a garrison of 4,000 Dutch troops 
 under General Chasse, He also retained 
 the forts on the Scheldt. A treaty was 
 signed between France and England for 
 the assistance of the Belgians, A French 
 army of 50,000 men entered Belgium in 
 November and laid siege to Antwerp, 
 which, after a memorable defence, was 
 forced to surrender on the 23d of December, 
 The Dutch king now withdrew his troops 
 from Belgium, and the French army at 
 once returned to its own country. 
 
 An attempt was made in the winter of 
 1831 to excite a legitimist ujirising in La 
 Vendee. It was headed by the Duchess 
 of Berri, the mother of the Duke of Bor- 
 deaux, who was at length captured and 
 imprisoned by the government. While in 
 prison she gave birth to a daughter, and 
 was obliged to confess a secret marriage to 
 an Italian nobleman. She was at once al- 
 lowed to withdraw to Sicily amid the 
 general ridicule of the public, and thus, 
 happily for France, ended the first attempt 
 to restore Henry V. to the throne of his 
 fathers. 
 
 The internal disturbances, to which we 
 have referred, were the work of the extreme 
 republicans, or socialists. They gave the 
 government a great deal of trouble, and 
 after a sanguinary outbreak at Lyons, 
 
 whicii was suppressed with difficulty, the 
 government caused the prisoners taken in 
 the insurrections to be transported or im- 
 prisoned for long terms. This was a severe 
 blow to the secret societies of the socialist 
 party, and was resented by them. On the 
 28th of July, 1835, one of their number, 
 Fieschi, a native of Corsica, attempted to 
 assassinate the king by means of an infernal 
 machine. The king escaped unhurt. The 
 Duke of Orleans was slightly wounded, but 
 Marshal Mortier, General Lachasse, and 
 twelve other persons were killed outright. 
 Fieschi was captured on the spot, and was 
 guillotined on the 19th of February, 1836, 
 
 The ministers of Louis Philippe were 
 naturally chosen from the Orleanist jDarty, 
 which had made him king. Prominent 
 among these Avere M. Thiers and M, Guizot, 
 men of great abilities and widely different 
 opinions. The former was regarded as the 
 leader of the more liberal wing of the 
 Orleans party ; the latter was the avowed 
 champion of the extreme monarchical 
 wing, M, Thiers came into office in the 
 ministry of Marshal Soult in the spring of 
 1832, as minister of the interior. He be- 
 trayed a singular inconsistency throughout 
 his whole political career. When out of 
 office he was the champion of the most 
 liberal opinions ; when in office he was as 
 conservative as his great rival, M. Guizot, 
 himself On the 22d of February, 1836, 
 he became prime minister. Spain was at 
 this time torn by civil war, and M. Thiers 
 was very anxious to intervene in her affairs. 
 The king, however, refused to be guided by 
 his advice, and the ministry resigned after 
 an existence of six mouths. 
 
 On the 13th of November, 1836, Prince 
 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of 
 Louis and Hortense, and the nephew of the 
 Emperor Napoleon, made an attempt to 
 excite a revolt of the gan-ison of Strasburg, 
 for the avowed purpose of overthrowing the 
 Orleans monarchy and re-establishing the 
 empire. The troops refused to join him, 
 and he was arrested and sent by way of 
 South America to New York, 
 
 In 1839 Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy of 
 Egypt, threw off* his allegiance to the sultaa 
 and conquered Syria. France, under the 
 guidance of M. Thiers, who was once more 
 prime minister, demanded that Mehemet 
 Ali should be allowed to retain Syria and 
 Egypt. England, on the other hand, in- 
 sisted on the unconditional surrender of 
 Syria to the sultan, and induced the other 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 791 
 
 powers to sustain her. The result was that 
 the other four great powers, without com- 
 municating their inteutions to France, 
 signed a treaty with Turkey, in virtue of 
 which an English, Austrian and Turkish 
 fleet reduced the Syrian ports and com- 
 pelled Mehemet Ali to withdraw his forces 
 from Syria into Egypt. The matter was 
 settled by assigning Egypt, in independent 
 hereditary possession, to Mehemet Ali, and 
 restoring Syria to the porte. 
 
 The " Quadruple Treaty " was regarded 
 by the French as an act of treachery on 
 the part of England, and a general desire 
 was expressed for war with that country. 
 The principal results of the excitement were 
 the fortification of Paris with an euciente 
 and a system of detached forts ; and the 
 fall of M. Thiers' ministry, 
 which was regarded as re- 
 sponsible for the advantage 
 that had been gained by Eng- 
 land. A new ministry, under 
 Marshal Soult, was installed 
 in October, 1840. The guid- 
 ing spirit of this ministry was 
 M. Guizot. The quarrel with 
 England was settled, and as a 
 peace-offering Great Britain 
 agreed that the remains of 
 the Emperor Napoleon should \ 
 be removed from St. Helena a 
 to France. They were disin- 
 terred and conveyed to France 
 by a French squadron, com- 
 manded by Prince de Join- 
 ville, the son of the king. 
 The squadron reached Cher- 
 bourg on the 8th of December, 1840, and 
 the remains were transferred to a smaller 
 vessel and conveyed up the Seine to Paris, 
 where they were interred in the chapel of 
 the Hotel des Invalides with the most im- 
 posing ceremonies. 
 
 In 1846 the hollow friendship between 
 the French and English governments was 
 broken by the question of the Spanish 
 marriages. Queen Isabella of Spain 
 wanted a husband. The British govern- 
 ment wished her to marry Prince Leo- 
 pold of Saxe-Coburg. Louis Philippe 
 wished to strengthen his dynasty by a con- 
 nection with that of Spain, and selected, as 
 the husband of Queen Isabella, her cousin, 
 the weak-minded Don Francisco d'Assis, 
 Duke of Cadiz. This match was warmly 
 opposed by England, but Louis Philippe's 
 policy triumphed, and on the 10th of Octo- 
 
 ber, 1846, the Spanish queen married her 
 cousin ; and on the same day the Infanta 
 Louise was married to the Duke of Mont- 
 pensier, Louis Philippe's youngest son. 
 These marriages gave deep offence to Great 
 Britain, and coldness and suspicion marked 
 the relations of France and England from 
 this time until the downfall of Louis 
 Philippe. 
 
 On the 13th of July, 1842, the Duke of 
 Orleans, the eldest son of Louis Philippe 
 and the heir to the throne, died from the 
 effects of an accident. He left two sons — 
 the Count de Paris and the Duke de Char- 
 tres. The former, who thus became the 
 heir to the throne, was born in 1838. 
 
 The war in Algeria, begun in the last 
 reign, was continued through that of Louis 
 
 TOMB OF NAPOLEON I. 
 
 Philippe, and resulted in the conquest of 
 that country by the French. In 1847 the 
 Arab leader, Abd-el-Kader, was (^ptured, 
 and in violation of the pledge of the French 
 commander, was brought to France and 
 imprisoned in the Chateau of Amboise. 
 This brought the resistance of the Arabs to 
 an end. 
 
 The harvests of 1846 and 1847 were bad, 
 and these failures were followed by an era 
 of high prices and great distress throughout 
 the kingdom. Wages declined and work 
 was scarce. The king had never been en- 
 tirely popular with the people, who wished 
 to be rid of the whole Bourbon family. 
 The general discontent at home was in- 
 creased by the frequent failures in the 
 foreign policy of France. The Spanish 
 marriages, the quadruple treaty, the loss of 
 the English alliance, and other matters, 
 
792 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 greatly tended to increase the dislike which 
 the masses felt for the Orleans monarchy. 
 The republicans eagerly fomented this dis- 
 content, and the policy of the government, 
 which was growing more conservative every 
 year, greatly simplified their task. In the 
 session of the chambers in 1847 the liberals 
 demanded certain reforms which would en- 
 force more literally the terms of the charter, 
 but the government, under the guidance of 
 M. Guizot, firmly refused to graut their 
 demands. 
 
 The liberal members of the chamber now 
 proposed to give a series of " reform ban- 
 quets" in Paris and the provinces as a 
 
 streets of Paris, shouting, " Vive la Re- 
 forme ! " An army of nearly 60,000 men 
 had been collected by the government 
 in the vicinity of Paris, under the veteran 
 Marshal Bugeaud, but no troops were used 
 that day. On the 23d the national guard 
 was placed under arms, but showed unmis- 
 takable symjDathy with the people, and pre- 
 vented the regular troops from dispersing 
 the crowds in the streets. The events of 
 this day opened the king's eyes to the true 
 state of afiairs. M. Guizot at once resigned 
 his office, and was succeeded by Count 
 Mol6, who proceeded to form a new minis- 
 try. It was too late, however, to put down 
 
 THE NEW OPEKA-IIOUSE— PARIS. 
 
 means of manifesting the strength of their 
 party. A banquet was arranged to be 
 given in Paris, but was prohibited by the 
 government, and it Avas determined that it 
 should take place in spite of this prohibi- 
 tion. The arovernraent again forbade the 
 banquet. The king and his ministers 
 fancied themselves secvire, when in reality 
 the popular discontent had reached such a 
 pitch that it w^as ready to break out in revo- 
 lution at any moment. The banquet was 
 abandoned by its projectors, who had ac- 
 complished their plan of placing the gov- 
 ernment in an attitude of hostility to the 
 liberties of the people ; but on the 22d of 
 February, 1848, dense crowds filled the 
 
 the outbreak by a change of ministry. 
 That night a detachment of troops fired 
 upon a body of rioters which had attacked 
 them, killing a number of citizens. The 
 bodies of the slain were paraded by torch- 
 light through the streets of Paiis, and the 
 republicans and socialists at once rose in 
 arm?. Barricades were erected, and shouts 
 of "Vive la Republique!" ro^e from the 
 throng — cries that had not been heaid in 
 France for forty years. Count Mole now 
 declined the task of forming a new min- 
 istry, and M. Thiers was intrusted with it. 
 The first act of the new minister was to in- 
 duce the king to order the troops to with- 
 draw from Paris. Marshal Bugeaud, upon 
 
FBOM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 793 
 
 receiving this order, resigned his command 
 in disgust. This was on the 24th of Febru- 
 ary. On the same day the troops of the 
 line and the national guard joined the peo- 
 ple and marched upon the Tuileries. 
 Louis Philippe, feeling that all was lost, 
 signed his abdication in favor of his grand- 
 son, the Count de Paris, and withdrew to 
 St. Cloud. The insurgents, however, paid 
 no attention to this abdication. The 
 Duchess of Orleans, with her little son, ap- 
 peared in the chamber of deputies and 
 besought them to sustain the claim of her 
 child to his grandfather's throne. The 
 mob broke into the hall at this juncture, 
 and she was compelled to seek safety in 
 flight. The royal family fled to England, 
 where they obtained an asylum. There 
 Louis Philippe died on the 26th of August, 
 1850, at the age of seventy-seven. 
 
 On the 24th of February the republic 
 was proclaimed, and a provisional govern- 
 ment, consisting of Lamartine, Dupont de 
 r Eure, Arago, Ledru-Rollin, Marie, Gai"- 
 nier-Pages, and Cremieux, was installed. 
 There was great danger that the revolution 
 of 1848 would degenerate into a socialist in- 
 surrection, which would have plunged 
 France into deeper misery and have drawn 
 upon her the enmity of all Europe. The 
 eloquence of Lamartine secured the adhe- 
 sion of the populace to the republic. The 
 mob had already sacked the Tuileries, 
 burned the throne, and raised the red flag. 
 Moved by the appeals of Lamartine 100,000 
 national guards declared for the provisional 
 government. The socialists were compelled 
 to submit, and the better class of citizens, 
 who dreaded a triumph of that party, 
 gave their hearty support to the republic. 
 
 The provisional government at once en- 
 tered upon its duties, and was immediately 
 plunged into a series of the most trying em- 
 barrassments. The socialist party insisted 
 that it was the duty of the government to 
 provide work for every citizen willing to 
 labor, and this demand was sustained by 
 the members of the government belonging 
 to that party. The conservative members 
 were forced to yield, and on the 27th of 
 February a decree was issued establishing 
 a system of national workshops, in which 
 all applicants were to be paid by the state 
 fair wages for their work. The workshops 
 were placed under the control of a commis- 
 sion, at the head of which was Louis Blanc. 
 By the beginning of March 40,000 people 
 were employed in the workshops. 
 
 The elections to the new assembly were 
 held on the 27th of April, and a majority 
 of conservative candidates was returned. 
 The assembly met on the 5th of May, and 
 began its career by appointing a supreme 
 executive commission, the members of 
 which were evenly drawn from the con- 
 servative and socialist parties. In the 
 early summer of 1848 the national work- 
 shops were found to be a costly and ruinous 
 mistake, having cost in about three months 
 the enormous sum of $2,835,000. On the 
 22d of June, in the hope of lessening the 
 evil, the government ordered a certain 
 number of workmen to enroll themselves in 
 the army on pain of being refused employ- 
 ment in the national workshops. This de- 
 cree was bitterly resented by the working- 
 men, who were deeply imbued with the 
 pernicious doctrines of the socialist party, 
 and on the 22d they took up arms and 
 attacked the troops, intending to overthrow 
 the government. The assembly acted with 
 firmness. General Cavaignac was appointed 
 to the command of the regular troops 
 and the national guard, and was invested 
 with dictatorial powers. The fighting con- 
 tinued until the 28th, when the last barri- 
 cade of the insurgents was carried. On the 
 27th the venerable Archbishop of Paris 
 was shot by one of the insurgents as he was 
 passing between the lines in the hope of 
 effecting a restoration of peace. The loss 
 of life Avas enormous in these conflicts, and 
 the power of the socialists was broken for 
 the time. The insurrection being crushed, 
 Cavaignac surrendered his dictatorship, 
 and was appointed president of the council, 
 with the right of naming his ministers. 
 On the 4th of July he issued a decree clos- 
 ing the national workshops. 
 
 On the 12th of November the constitution 
 of the republic was formally proclaimed. 
 The executive authority was intrusted to a 
 chief magistrate bearing the title of presi- 
 dent of the republic. He Avas to be chosen 
 for four years, and was not eligible for re- 
 election until a period of four years after 
 his term of office had expired. The legis- 
 lative power was vested in a single cham- 
 ber of 750 members. 
 
 A new element now entered into the poli- 
 tics of the republic. Prince Louis Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, whose attempt at revolution 
 at Strasburg we have related, made a 
 second attempt, at Boulogne, in 1840. He 
 was captured, and sentenced by the court of 
 peers to imprisonment for life in the Castle 
 
794 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Ham. In May, 1846, he made his 
 escape in the disguise of a workman, and 
 sought refuge in England. He was now 
 elected to the assembly from the depart- 
 ment of the Seine. The government de- 
 clared its intention to prevent his return to 
 France, and he resigned his seat. A new 
 election was ordered, and he was returned 
 by five different departments. This decided 
 manifestation of the popular will induced 
 the government to withdraw its opposition. 
 Louis Napoleon then crossed the channel, 
 and on the 26th of September took his seat 
 
 The revolutionary movements in Italy, 
 which we have related elsewhere, now oc- 
 curred. The pope, driven from Rome, ap- 
 pealed to France for assistance. France 
 had long been jealous of the supremacy of 
 Austria in Italy, and President Bonaparte 
 resolved to take advantage of this occasion 
 to intervene in the affairs of that country. 
 An expedition, under General Oudinot, 
 was despatched to Rome in the spring of 
 1849, as has been related. The city of 
 Rome was captured, the republic was over- 
 thrown, and the authority of the pope re- 
 
 THK GRAND HOTEI. — PARIS. 
 
 as a member for the department of the 
 Seine. His name aroused the greatest en- 
 thusiasm among the French people, and 
 without having done anything to deserve 
 it, he found himself the most popular man 
 in France. The cause of his popularity 
 lay in the fact that he was the heir of the 
 great emperor. Profiting by this popu- 
 larity he announced himself a candidate for 
 the presidency of the republic, and at the 
 election on the 10th of December, 1848, 
 was chosen president by a vote of 5,500,000 
 out of a total vote of 7,326,000, receiving a 
 large majority over General Cavaignac and 
 all his other competitors combined. On 
 the 20th of December he entered upon the 
 duties of his office, and took up his official 
 residence at the palace of the Elysee. 
 
 stored. A French garrison was established 
 in Rome and was maintained there for 
 twenty years. 
 
 The national assembly was divided into 
 a number of parties. One of these sup- 
 ported the president ; another was devoted 
 to the interests of the legitimists ; a third 
 to those of the Orleans family ; and a fourth 
 consisted of the socialist deputies. With 
 the exception of the first all of these were 
 hostile to the president. The legitimist 
 and Orleanist parties were plotting for the 
 overthrow of the republic and the restora- 
 tion of the monarchy ; the socialists were 
 busy working for the downfall of the re- 
 public and the inauguration of the reign 
 of communism. These parties hated each 
 other intensely, and were united only in 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 795 
 
 their enmity to the president. They wished 
 to overthrow him first, and then settle their 
 quarrels among themselves. In this un- 
 happy state of affairs the hopes of the 
 nation rested upon the president. Seeing 
 that the fall of the republic was inevitable, 
 and knowing that neither of the contend- 
 ing parties possessed the confidence or 
 represented the wishes of the French peo- 
 ple, Louis Napoleon resolved to overthrow 
 thera all, seize the entire government, and 
 appeal to the people to sustain him. His 
 plans were laid with skill and carried out 
 with boldness and decision. 
 
 On the night of December 1st, 1851, the 
 leading members of the assembly were 
 arrested, and the government printing-office 
 was occupied by trooi:)S. Decrees and 
 proclamations were struck off during the 
 night for use on the morrow. The army 
 was devoted to the president and readily 
 aided him in carrying out this Coup d' Etat. 
 On the morning of December the 2d the 
 Parisians were astonished by proclamations 
 from the president announcing that the 
 national assembly was dissolved ; that uni- 
 versal suffi-age was restored ; that a general 
 election was ordered for the 14th of Decem- 
 ber ; that Paris and the department of the 
 Seine were placed under martial law. An- 
 other decree gave the names of the new 
 ministry, stated that the president would 
 submit to the suffrages of the people a new 
 constitution containing the following pro- 
 visions : a responsible chief magistrate was 
 to be chosen for ten years ; the ministers 
 were to be responsible to the president 
 alone; a council of state was to originate 
 laws, which were to be discussed and voted 
 by a legislative chamber ; and a senate was 
 to be created, whose duty it should be to 
 watch over the constitution and prevent in- 
 fractious of it. This constitution was sub- 
 mitted to the people on the 20th of Decem- 
 ber, and was ratified by the votes of 
 7,500,000 Frenchmen. "With the inaugura- 
 tion of the new government personal rule 
 was re-established, and the experiment of 
 constitutional government in France came 
 to an end. The majority of the French 
 people were satisfied with the change. 
 
 In the meantime, however, the royalists 
 and republicans of Paris, recovering from 
 their surprise, took up arms against the 
 president. An army of 48,000 men was 
 directed against them on the 2d and 3d of 
 December, and their resistance was soon 
 put down. On the 4th the troops, in a 
 
 sudden and causeless panic, fired upon a 
 crowd of unoffending citizens, killing large 
 numbers of them. Many prisoners were 
 taken by the troops from the insurgents. 
 These were put to death in crowds in the 
 prisons, and 26,500 persons were banished 
 to Cayenne. 
 
 It had been foreseen from the first that 
 the president would not rest satisfied with 
 the extension of his term of office. He was 
 following in the footsteps of his uncle, the 
 great emperor, whose heir he was, and the 
 restoration of the empire was the end of his 
 schemes. At a grand banquet given to 
 him at Bordeaux on the 9th of October, 
 
 1852, the president foreshadowed his inten- 
 tions in his memorable utterance, " The 
 Empire is Peace." On the 21st of Novem- 
 ber the electors were called upon to vote 
 upon a plebiscite declaring Louis Napoleon 
 Bonaparte hereditary Emperor of the 
 French, with the right of regulating the 
 order of succession to the throne in his 
 family. It was accepted by 7,824,189 suf- 
 frages, to 253,145 against it. On the 2d of 
 December, 1852, the newly elected sov- 
 ereign, who took the title of " Napoleon III., 
 Emperor of the French," made his solemn 
 entry into Paris. On the 29th of January, 
 
 1853, he married Eugenie Marie de Guz- 
 man, Countess of Teba, a lady of great 
 beauty, and descended from one of the most 
 illustrious families of Spain. By her he 
 had one sou. Napoleon Eugene Louis, born 
 March 16th, 1856. 
 
 The first effort of the new emperor was 
 to gain the moral support which would re- 
 sult from an alliance with Great Britain. 
 In order to effect this alliance he adopted 
 the English policy concerning the Eastern 
 question. Early in 1853 the Czar of Rus- 
 sia, believing that the Turkish empire in 
 Europe was hastening to its fall, made 
 secret overtures to the British government 
 to join him in a division of the dominions 
 of the sultan. The proposals were rejected, 
 and England gladly availed herself of the 
 proffered alliance of France. Matters were 
 not long in coming to a crisis. The Em- 
 peror Nicholas collected a large fleet and 
 army at Sevastopol, and sent Prince Ment- 
 schikoff to Constantinople to demand of the 
 sultan larger powers of control over the 
 holy places of Syria and Palestine, and a 
 protectorate over all the Greek Christians 
 within the Turkish dominions. This would 
 have made him the sovereign of the majority 
 of the sultan's subjects. A few weeks later 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 797 
 
 the Russian armies occupied the Turkish 
 provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 The Turkish government was panic- 
 stricken, and but for the firmness of Lord 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, the British ambas- 
 sador, who assured the sultan of the support 
 of his government, would have yielded to 
 the Russian demand. He encouraged the 
 sultan to resist the unreasonable demands 
 of the czar, and in the meantime a congress 
 of the plenipotentiaries of Austria, Prussia, 
 France, and England met at Vienna, and 
 endeavored to settle the difficulty by nego- 
 tiations. Their efforts failing, the sultan 
 declared war against Russia in October, 
 1853. The Turkish army under Omar 
 Pasha at once crossed the Danube, and de- 
 feated the Russians at Oltenitza. In Janu- 
 ary, 1854, the Russians were repulsed in a 
 four days' assault upon the Turkish lines 
 at Kalafat, and retreated. On the 30th of 
 November, 1853, a Russian fleet from Se- 
 vastopol made a descent upon Sinope, de- 
 stroyed a Turkish squadron in the harbor, 
 and bombarded the town, killing 4,000 
 people. 
 
 The French and English governments 
 now demanded that the czar should with- 
 draw his troops from the Turkish territory. 
 Nicholas refused to answer this note, which 
 informed him that his failure to reply would 
 be taken as a declaration of war. In 
 March, 1854, France and England entered 
 into a close alliance with each other and 
 with Turkey, and declared war against 
 Russia. The Russian army under Prince 
 Paskiewitch laid siege to Silistria, in April, 
 but the Turks defended the place with such 
 vigor that the siege was raised in about a 
 month. A little later the Russians were 
 defeated by the Turks at Giurgevo, and 
 abandoned the Dauubian provinces and re- 
 treated into their own country. 
 
 By this retreat the cause of the interven- 
 tion of France and England was removed. 
 They resolved, however, to break the power 
 of Russia in the Black Sea by destroying 
 the fortifications of the great stronghold of 
 Sevastopol, the chief town of the Crimea. 
 A combined expedition was despatched to 
 the Crimea, and the troops were landed 
 near the mouth of the river Alma. The 
 next day, September 20th, 1854, the Rus- 
 sian position on the heights above that 
 stream was stormed and carried after a 
 gallant resistance. The allies now ad- 
 vanced upon Sevastopol, the fleet following 
 along the coast, and occupied the port of 
 
 Balaklava. Sevastopol was immediately 
 invested. The town was defended by the 
 Russian General Todleben, and its resist- 
 ance of nearly a year is one of the most 
 memorable events in history. The siege 
 was in reality a blockade, as the Russians 
 were able during the whole time to main- 
 tain communication with their country north 
 of the city. They made several vigorous 
 attempts to break up the investment. On 
 the 25th of October, 1854, the battle of 
 Balaklava was fought for this purpose. It 
 was made memorable by a heroic but fruit- 
 less charge of the English " Light Brigade" 
 of cavalry upon the Russian artillery. On 
 the 5th of November the Russians hurled a 
 heavy force upon the English lines at In- 
 kerman, but were held in check until the 
 arrival of a reinforcement of French troops 
 made the victory sure for the allies. Still 
 later, on the 16th of August, 1855, the 
 Russians made their last attempt in the 
 stubbornly fought battle of the Tchernaya, 
 to raise the siege, but were repulsed. Sar- 
 dinia had by this time joined the alliance 
 of France and England, as has been re- 
 lated, and the Piedmontese troops won 
 great credit in this last battle. On the 8th 
 of September, 1855, the French stormed 
 and carried the Malakoff" Tower, the key to 
 the Russian defences, and the English at 
 the same time carried the important work 
 of the Great Redan. These successes cost 
 the allies heavily, but resulted in the evac- 
 uation of Sevastopol by the Russians. The 
 city was occupied by the allies, the Rus- 
 sians retiring to the forts north of the 
 harbor. 
 
 In the meantime the English and French 
 fleets had entered the Baltic and Polar 
 Seas, and had inflicted considerable loss 
 upon the Russians in those quarters. Pre- 
 vious to the fall of Sevastopol a British 
 fleet entered the Sea of Azov, and captured 
 Kertch and Venikale. 
 
 These disasters of Russia were partly 
 atoned for by the success of her forces in 
 the Trans-Caucasian provinces. Kars was 
 taken by the Russian army after a heroic 
 resistance, and other conquests of impor- 
 tance were made. 
 
 Austria, having ends of her own to serve, 
 offered her mediation in the winter of 1855, 
 and through her exertions the preliminaries 
 of a peace were signed at St. Petersburg 
 near the close of 1855, and on the 30th of 
 March, 1856, the treaty of Paris was signed 
 by the plenipotentiaries of France, Great 
 
798 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Britain, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey. 
 Turkey was recognized as a member of the 
 European system of states, and the integrity 
 of her dominions was guaranteed. All con- 
 quests made during the war were restored 
 to their rightful owners ; the Black Sea and 
 the Danube were made free to the commerce 
 of the world, but the former was closed to 
 ships of war. Servia, under the rule of a 
 native prince, was erected into a separate 
 principality, owning a sort of allegiance to 
 
 cretly encouraged by Napoleon III. to per- 
 sist in her resistance to Austria, and em- 
 boldened by this powerful aid ventured to 
 strike the blow for the unity of Italy. 
 
 In April, 1859, the war between Austria 
 and Sardinia began. France at once de- 
 clared war against Austria, and sent a 
 powerful army to the aid of Italy. The 
 Emperor Napoleon accompanied this army, 
 leaving the regency during his absence to 
 the empress. The events of the Italian war 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF SWEABORG. 
 
 the sultan, and was placed under the pro- 
 tection of the great powers. 
 
 The successful close of the Crimean war 
 greatly increased the importance of France 
 in European affairs, and encouraged the 
 Emperor Napoleon to attempt a still more 
 daring enterprise. 
 
 We have already related the reasons 
 which induced Sardinia to seek the alliance 
 of France and England. The congress of 
 Paris was officially informed of the oppres- 
 sion of Italy by Austria, and that body 
 expressed its disapprobation of the existing 
 state of affairs in Italy. Sardinia was se- 
 
 I have been related, and need not be repeated 
 here. Napoleon III. was severely censured 
 for stopping short of his promise to free 
 Venetia. His reasons have been given in 
 the account of the treaty of Villafranca, 
 and it is difficult to see hovf he could have 
 acted otherwise than as he did without per- 
 illing all that had been won for Italy. He 
 remained the firm friend of Italy during the 
 troubled period which followed the war, 
 and it was the conviction on the part of the 
 powers unfriendly to Italy that France 
 would resent any interference with her, that 
 induced them to leave her in peace, and 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 799 
 
 allow the kingdom of Italy to be formed. 
 As the price of her assistance France de- 
 manded of Sardinia the cession of Savoy 
 and Nice. The question was submitted to 
 the people of those provinces, who decided 
 it by large majorities in favor of annexation 
 to France, and in April, 1860, Savoy and 
 Nice became a part of the French empire. 
 
 The Mexican republic was debtor to cer- 
 tain citizens of France, England, and Spain, 
 and resisted every effort of those powers to 
 collect their claims. The debt to these 
 three powers was about $73,- 
 000,000, of which $263,490 
 were due to France. Finding 
 it impossible to collect their 
 claims by negotiation, the three 
 governments in 1861 arranged a 
 joint expedition to Mexico, to 
 compel her to make provision for 
 payment. France from the first 
 determined to make this expedi- 
 tion the means of acquiring a 
 footing in Mexico, which should 
 lead to the conquest of that 
 country, and the establishment of 
 a Latin empire in America. The 
 scheme was in reality a revival 
 in another foi'ra of the old French 
 dream of a great American do- 
 minion. The expedition con- 
 sisted of eighty-one vessels, cai'- 
 rying 1,611 guns and 27,911 
 sailors and troops. It reached 
 Vera Cruz in December, 1861. 
 The city and its defences were 
 evacuated by the Mexicans, and 
 were occupied by the Spanish 
 troops. In the early part of the 
 year 1862 England and Spain, 
 having become convinced of the 
 designs of France, arranged 
 their difficulties with Mexico 
 by the convention of Solidad, 
 signed on the 15th of Feb- 
 ruary, and in April withdrew their forces 
 from the exjjedition. 
 
 Left alone, France reinforced her army, 
 and placed it under command of General 
 Forey. During the remainder of the year 
 1862 the French were put to great exertions 
 to hold their own against the Mexicans. In 
 March, 1863, having been reinforced from 
 France, General Forey laid siege to Fuebla, 
 which was defended with great gallantry 
 by the Mexicans, and captured it on the 
 18th of May, after a siege of two months. 
 The Mexicans had based their hopes of 
 
 saving the capital upon the defence of 
 Puebla, and made no effort to defend the 
 city of Mexico, which was entered by the 
 French army on the 10th of June, 1>^63. 
 
 The Emperor Napoleon now proceeded 
 to carry his designs respecting Mexico into 
 execution. A council of notables was sum- 
 moned, and under a controlling French in- 
 fluence declared in favor of the abolition 
 of the republic, and the establishment of a , 
 hereditary empire as the best form of gov- 
 ernment for the country. The notables 
 
 NAPOLEON III. 
 
 subsequently chose the Archduke Maxi- 
 milian, the brother of the Emperor of Aus- 
 tria, to be Emperor of Mexico. These acts 
 were submitted to the vote of the Mexican 
 people, who, under the intimidation of the 
 French, ratified them. The Archduke 
 Maximilian accepted the Mexican crown, 
 and with the Archduchess Carlotta entered 
 the city of Mexico in June, 1864. He en- 
 deavored to establish a good government in 
 Mexico, but his efforts were thwarted by a 
 large body of the Mexican people, who re- 
 fused to sanction the destruction of the re- 
 
800 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 public, which had been the work of the 
 French and not of the nation. Under the 
 leadership of President Juarez, Monterey 
 became the capital of the republic, and the 
 centre of a vigorous resistance to Maxi- 
 milian and the French. War went on with 
 scarcely any cessation between the imperial- 
 ists and republicans. 
 
 In 1866, the civil war in the United 
 « States being ended, the American govern- 
 ment, which had viewed the course of 
 France in Mexico with avowed displeasure, 
 demanded of the Emperor Napoleon the 
 withdrawal of his troops from Mexico. 
 After some hesitation Napoleon consented 
 to comply with this demand, and the with- 
 drawal of the French troops was begun 
 towards the close of 1866. The last of the 
 French embarked for Europe in March, 
 1867. Napoleon, well aware that the Mex- 
 ican empii'e must fall Avheu left to its own 
 resources, advised Maximilian to seek his 
 own safety by abdicating his crown. The 
 high-souled emperor, however, refused to 
 abandon the Mexican leaders who had 
 risked their lives for his cause, and con- 
 tinued the war in the hope of obtaining a 
 favorable settlement for them. He was 
 overmatched, however, and was finally be- 
 sieged in Queretaro by the republican 
 forces. The town was betrayed to Juarez 
 by General Lopez, the commandant ap- 
 jDointed by Maximilian, and the unfortunate 
 emperor was captured. On the 19th of 
 June he was shot, together with two Mexi- 
 can generals in his service, by order of 
 President Juarez. So ended the ill-starred 
 Mexican empire, and the dream of French 
 dominion on the American continent. The 
 Emperor Napoleon was severely censured 
 by the woi'ld for not making an effort to 
 save Maximilian. 
 
 The reverses of Austria in the •' Seven 
 Weeks' War" in 1866 compelled her to 
 abandon Venetia, which province was ceded 
 by her to the Emperor Napoleon, to be by 
 him transferred to Italy. The transfer was 
 accomplished in the summer of 1866. 
 
 Alarmed by the rapid increase of the 
 power of Prussia, the Emperor Napoleon, 
 through M. Benedetti, his minister at Ber- 
 lin, demanded the transfer to France of 
 the territory on the left bank of the Rhine 
 as a compensation to France for the great 
 growth of the Prussian power. Count 
 Bismarck met the demand with firmness, 
 and immediately pronounced it " inadmis- 
 sible." It was at once withdrawn. France 
 
 then proposed to Prussia a scheme for the 
 annexation of Belgium to France, and 
 declared that if Prussia would support her 
 in it, she in her turn would support Prussia 
 in the subjection of south Germany to the 
 rule of that power. Bismarck gave no 
 definite answer to this proposition, but laid 
 Count Benedetti's draft of the proposed 
 treaty among the Prussian archives. The 
 Emperor Napoleon then attempted to pui*- 
 chase the duchy of Luxembourg from 
 Holland. The Dutch king, who was 
 greatly in need of money, was anxious to 
 sell, but the scheme was foiled by Bismarck, 
 who claimed Luxembourg as a part of the 
 old German Confederation, and garrisoned 
 it with Prussian ti'oops. The North Ger- 
 man Confederation protested against the 
 sale, and the transaction was discontinued. 
 These diplomatic defeats seriously damaged 
 the prestige of France, which had held the 
 first jDlace in Europe since the close of the 
 Italian war of 1859. A considerable party 
 in France was anxious to go to war with 
 Prussia, but the emperor wisely refused to 
 comply with their demand. The French 
 army was inferior to that of Prussia, and 
 had not yet adopted the breech-loading 
 gun, without which it would have been 
 folly to attack a power as well equipped as 
 Prussia. As it was believed that a struggle 
 with Prussia was inevitable, the work of 
 reorganizing the French army was pushed 
 forward with vigor. 
 
 Since the establishment of the empire, 
 France had made a great gain in material 
 prosperity. The eighteen years of Napo- 
 leon's rule were the most prosperous period 
 the nation had ever experienced. The 
 administrative talents of the emperor were 
 second only to those of the great Napo- 
 leon, and under his liberal policy the 
 French commerce w-as carefully built up, 
 the railway system of the country was ex- 
 tended, and the manufacturiug and mining 
 interests were expanded. The principal 
 cities of the empire were enlarged, improved, 
 and beautified, and Paris was made the 
 most splendid capital of Europe. All this 
 was accomplished at an immense outlay, 
 but the heavy taxes of the country were 
 after all but a small price to pay for its 
 wonderful prosperity. The emperor in 
 other respects fell short of what he might 
 have accomplished for his country. The 
 mass of the nation was left in ignorance ; 
 education was kept under the baleful in- 
 fluence of the priests, and free thought was 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 801 
 
 discouraged, if not repressed, wherever it 
 manifested itself. Towards the close of 
 his reign the failing health of Napoleon 
 rendered him incapable of giving to public 
 affairs the attention of former years, and 
 the direction of the state passed into weak 
 and incompetent hands. As he grew 
 feebler, the opposition to his system of per- 
 sonal government became stronger, and at 
 length, in order to conciliate the anti- 
 imperialist party, the senate was ordered to 
 prepare a new constitution embodying 
 many of the leading features of representa- 
 tive government. It was promulgated on 
 the 15th of August, 1869 — the one hun- 
 dredth anniversary of the birth of Napo- 
 leon I. The new system was submitted 
 to a plebiscite, and was approved by 
 an overwhelming majority of the French 
 people. A new parliamentary ministry 
 was organized, with Emil Ollivier at its 
 head. 
 
 In the spring of 1870 the Spaniards 
 endeavored to secure a king, their throne 
 having been left vacant by the revolution 
 of 1868. France was anxious that the 
 young Prince of Asturias, the son of Queen 
 Isabella, should be chosen ; but the choice 
 of the Spaniards fell upon Prince Leopold 
 of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, a distant 
 relative of the King of Prussia. This selec- 
 tion was opposed by France, and was made, 
 as we have seen in our account of the Ger- 
 man history of this century, the pretext for 
 a war with Prussia. The Emperor Napo- 
 leon was by no means anxious for war, but 
 was forced to yield by the popular clamor 
 and the importunities of the empress and 
 his counsellors. At this juncture Count 
 Bismarck published the draft of the secret 
 treaty which M. Benedetti had proposed to 
 hini for the acquisition of Belgium by 
 France. This publication aroused a great 
 deal of indignation towards France in 
 Europe, especially in Great Britain, which 
 had constituted herself the special guardian 
 of Belgian independence. The British 
 government demanded of Napoleon ample 
 guarantees for the observance by France 
 of the neutrality of Belgium in the struggle 
 at hand. War was declared against Prus- 
 sia on the 15th. The hope which the 
 French government had entertained of 
 separating south Germany from the north- 
 ern confederation was destroyed by the 
 prompt action of the south German states 
 in support of Prussia. The military events 
 of the war have been related in the German 
 51 
 
 history of this period, and need not be 
 repeated here. 
 
 Soon after the declaration of war the 
 emperor appointed the Empress Eugenie 
 regent during his absence, and repaired 
 with the prince imperial to Metz. There 
 he found the French army but imperfectly 
 prepared for the struggle before it, not- 
 Avithstanding the assertion of his minister 
 of war that every ])reparation was complete. 
 
 The news of the first French disasters 
 plunged Paris into great despondency. 
 The senate and corps legislatif were con- 
 vened by the empress on the 9th of August, 
 and the Ollivier ministry was forced to 
 resign. A new ministry, under Count 
 Palikao, succeeded it. General Trochu, 
 who was regarded as an able soldier, was 
 appointed Governor of Paris, and measures 
 were pushed forward for the defence of the 
 city. 
 
 The news of the surrender of the em- 
 peror and MacMahon's army at Sedan 
 aroused a storm of excitement at Paris. 
 The streets were filled with a vast throng 
 of citizens and national guards, who sur- 
 rounded the palace of the corps legislatif, 
 and demanded the overthrow of the Bona- 
 partes. Jules Favre, in the legislative 
 chamber, declared that the empire had 
 ceased to exist, and accompanied by a 
 number of republican deputies repaired to 
 the Hotel de Ville, and organized a pro- 
 visional government, consisting of MM. 
 Arago, Cremieux, Favre, Ferry, Gambetta, 
 and others. The mob attacked the Tuil- 
 eries, but met Avith no resistance. The 
 empress, deserted by all her attendants but 
 one, and by every domestic, was saved by 
 the timely ariival of a devoted friend, who 
 enabled her to escape to England, where 
 she was joined by the prince imperial. 
 
 The provisional government was anxious 
 to make peace with Germany, but the 
 King of Prussia demanded the cession of 
 Alsace and Lorraine, which had been 
 partly overrun by his armies, as the price 
 of peace. The demand was refused by the 
 French government, Avhich declared that 
 it would not give up " an inch of its land 
 or a stone of its fortresses." M. Thiers, 
 though seventy-three years old, made a 
 journey to the courts of England, Russia, 
 Austria, and Italy, to ask the mediation 
 and moral support of those powers in 
 behalf of France — but without success. In 
 the meantime the Germans advanced to 
 Paris, and infested the city. Comraunica- 
 
802 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tion between the capital and the provinces 
 was maintained by means of" balloons. 
 
 M. Gambetta, a member of the pro- 
 visional government, escaped from Paris in 
 a balloon, and reached Orleans in safety. 
 He at once began to prepare the pi'ovinces 
 for resistance, and in order to accomplish 
 his ends assumed dictatorial powers. His 
 efforts were liberally responded to by the 
 nation, and, as we have seen, several new 
 armies were placed in the field. The 
 steady advance of the German armies from 
 victory to victory has been related. 
 
 January, 1871, the city and outlying forts 
 were surrendered to the Germans. An 
 armistice of three weeks was entered into 
 in order to give the French people an 
 opportunity to organize a government com- 
 petent to conclude a general peace. Writs 
 were issued for the election of a constituent 
 assembly, which met at Bordeaux on the 
 12th of February. A provisional republic 
 was proclaimed, and M. Thiers was chosen 
 as its chief executive by a large majority 
 of the assembly. 
 
 The new government at once addressed 
 
 THE ESCAPE OF THE EMPRESS EUGENIE FROM FRANCE. 
 
 The winter of 1870-71 was unusually 
 severe, and great suffering was experienced 
 in Paris, where wood and coal were scarcely 
 to be had. On the 27th of December the 
 Prussian batteries on the heights of Sevres, 
 Meudon, Claraart and Chatillon opened 
 fire upon the city, which, in addition to the 
 horrors of a bombardment, soon began to 
 suffer those of famine. The death-rate in 
 the city increased to 5,000 per week, and 
 at length the provisions were exhausted. 
 In this extremity further resistance would 
 have been criminal, and on the 28th of 
 
 itself to the task of concluding a treaty of 
 peace with the victors, and on the 26th of 
 February the preliminaries of peace were 
 signed at Versailles. The terms of this 
 treaty have been stated in the German 
 history of this century. AVith the excep- 
 tion of a garrison of 40,000 men in Paris, 
 all the French troops retired south of the 
 Loire. On the 1st of March a detachment 
 of the German army entered Paris, but 
 withdrew from the city on the 3d. 
 
 The government now transferred its seat 
 from Bordeaux to Versailles. The assem- 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 803 
 
 biy had already become divided between a 
 party favoring the interests of the large 
 towns, and a stronger one which supported 
 the interests of the country districts as op- 
 posed to those of the cities. Under the in- 
 fluence of the latter party the assembly 
 undertook to limit the freedom of elections 
 in the towns. The assembly was largely 
 monarchical in its sympathies, and was in- 
 fluenced in its action by the fact that the 
 cities universally favored the republic. 
 
 In the confusion which followed the sur- 
 render of Paris, the national guard were 
 masters of the city. They seized a large 
 number of cannon, and carried them to the 
 heights of Montraartre, where they in- 
 trenched themselves. General Vinoy, com- 
 manding the garrison of the city, attempted 
 to dislodge them, but without success. 
 Vinoy then withdrew his troops to Ver- 
 sailles for the protection of the assembly, 
 and the insurgents occupied the Hotel de 
 Ville, and organized a government which 
 took the name of the Commune. It declared 
 itself the champion of municipal freedom, 
 and might have accomplished much for 
 that cause, but unhappily the commune now 
 passed out of the hands of its moderate 
 members into those of the revolutionary or 
 socialist element which had given such 
 trouble in 1848, and had been held down 
 by the empire. The worst elements of the 
 city came into power within the walls, 
 robbed the banks, arrested, imprisoned, or 
 put to death the good men who sought to 
 control them, and declared that Paris 
 should be destroyed if they could not hold 
 it. A reign of terror ensued, and the forces 
 of the government, under the command of 
 Marshal MacMahou, which held possession 
 of the majority of the outer forts, invested 
 the city, and subjected it to a second siege. 
 Several severe battles were fought between 
 the troops of the government and those of 
 the commune, and though the latter were 
 routed with great loss, they held the city 
 with such obstinacy that the government 
 was forced to ask leave of Germany to in- 
 crease its army north of the Loire. Paris 
 suffered in this siege more than it had dur- 
 ing the German bombardment. The gov- 
 ernment forces made steady progress, and 
 at length the outer forts were entirely in 
 their possession. As their final defeat be- 
 came apparent the communists avenged 
 themselves by overturning the Napoleon 
 column in the Place Vendome. 
 
 On the 21st of May the government 
 
 troops forced their way into the city, and 
 during the night the communists prepared 
 for their last resistance. For the next 
 eight days a desperate struggle was waged 
 for the possession of the city. The com- 
 munists contested every foot of ground, and 
 as they were beaten back murdered the 
 venerable Archbishop of Paris and a num- 
 ber of other hostages, and set fire to the 
 Louvre, the Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville, 
 and a number of other public buildings. 
 An eflfort was made to burn the city, but 
 was defeated by the government troops. 
 At length, on the 28th and 29th, the last 
 positions of the communists were stormed 
 and the insurrection was at an end. Im- 
 mense numbers of the insurgents of both 
 sexes were shot down by the troops during 
 the fighting, and thousands of prisoners 
 were taken. Multitudes of these were shot 
 by order of the court-martial at Versailles 
 for participation in the insurrection. These 
 military executions continued until the 
 world was sick of them. 
 
 On the 10th of May, 1871, the definite 
 treaty of peace was sigued at Frankfort be- 
 tween France and Germany. Its provi- 
 sions Avere substantially the same as those 
 of the preliminary treaty. 
 
 The revolt of the commune being over, 
 the government devoted itself energetically 
 to the task of restoring the prosperity of the 
 country and putting an end to the occupa- 
 tion of the provinces by the Germans. By 
 the terms of the treaty of Frankfort, the 
 sum of 5,000,000,000 of francs, or $1,000,- 
 000,000, was to be paid to Germany by 
 France as an indemnity. This immense 
 sum was to be paid by instalments rang- 
 ing over three years. As security for the 
 debt, the German army was to occupy, at 
 the expense of France, the greater part 
 of the territory which it had overrun ; but 
 the departments were to be successively 
 evacuated, in a specified order, as the in- 
 stalments were paid. The first effJirt of the 
 government was to raise a loan of $400,000,- 
 000, which enabled it to pay during the 
 month of June three instalments of the 
 German debt, and thus to secure the evacua- 
 tion of the Paris forts and of a considerable 
 portion of the territory held by the Ger- 
 mans. This gained for the government of 
 President Thiers the hearty support of the 
 nation, and the co-operation of the assembly. 
 After the adjournment of the assembly in 
 September, M. Thiers made satisfactory ar- 
 rangements for the pa3'ment of the fourth 
 
804 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 half milliard of the German debt in the en- 
 suing spring, and so restricted the German 
 occupation to six of the eastern departments. 
 M. Thiers also succeeded in perfecting ar- 
 rangements by which the whole of the Ger- 
 man debt was discharged, and the country 
 entirely evacuated by the foreign army, in 
 the early part of September, 1873, a year 
 and a half in advance of the time fixed by 
 the treaty of Frankfort. The money for 
 this purpose was raised by means of popular 
 loans which were readily taken by the 
 French people, who cordially sustained the 
 president's efforts to rid the country of the 
 presence of the conquerors. 
 
 During the latter part of the summer of 
 1871 the title of M. Thiers was changed 
 from "Chief of the Executive Power" to 
 that of " President of the French Republic." 
 
 THE BODY OF NAPOLEON III. LTING IN STATE. 
 
 Liberal measures were adopted by the 
 assembly for the government of the cities 
 and the conduct of elections. On the 8th 
 of June the laws banishing the Bourbon 
 and Orleans princes from France were 
 repealed, and in December the Due d'Au- 
 male and the Prince de Joinville took their 
 seats in the assembly, having been chosen 
 members of that body at the general elec- 
 tions at tlie first of the year. The Count de 
 Chambord, the Bourbon claimant of the 
 French crown, returned to France, and, to 
 the dismay of his followers, issued a pro- 
 clamation declaring that he relinquished 
 none of his claims, and would never re- 
 nounce the white flag of his ancestors for 
 the tri-color. This done, he returned to 
 his residence at Frohsdorff, in Germany. 
 There was a considerable legitimist party 
 in the assembly, which had at first hoped 
 
 that in the end the Count de Chambord 
 might regain the throne of his fathers. The 
 count's declaration so disgusted the entire 
 nation, however, that his followers were 
 compelled to abandon their hopes. It was 
 clear that no other form of government 
 than the republic was possible for the pres- 
 ent. The country generally accepted the 
 republic, and discountenanced all the 
 schemes for replacing it w'ith a Bourbon 
 or Orleanist kingdom or the empire. 
 
 Early in January, 1872, supplementary 
 elections were held for members of the 
 assembly They resulted in the choice of 
 thirteen republicans and four conservatives 
 or monai'chists. About the same time the 
 discussions as to a permanent form of gov- 
 ernment were renewed in the assembly. 
 The majority in that body was composed of 
 conservatives, and 
 for a wdiile it seemed 
 that they would be 
 able to secure the 
 re-establishment of 
 the monarchy. The 
 assembly cared very 
 little for the wish 
 of the nation, which 
 was most pro- 
 nounced in favor 
 of the maintenance 
 of the republic, but 
 the impossibility of 
 reconciling the con- 
 flicting claims of 
 the various preten- 
 ders to the throne 
 prevented the uc- 
 cess of any monarchical scheme, and com- 
 pelled all parties to give their immediate 
 support to the republic. 
 
 The assembly now turned its attention to 
 the task of providing for the immediate 
 Avants of the country. In January, 1872, 
 the government presented a new tariff bill 
 to the assembly, in which new duties and 
 taxes were levied upon raw materials. This 
 was a favorite measure of President Thiers, 
 but was warmly opposed in the assembly 
 and throughout the country. On the 19th 
 of January the bill was rejected by the 
 assembly. President Thiers thereupon sent 
 in his resignation the next day, but the 
 assembly by an almost unanimous vote 
 begged him to withdraw it, and he consented 
 to do so. During the year numerous evi- 
 dences were given by the country of the 
 growth of republican sentiment, and espec* 
 
FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 805 
 
 ially at the supplementary elections, held 
 on October 21st, in which the republicans 
 made large gains. 
 
 Shortly before these elections M. Gam- 
 betta had made a speech to the electors of 
 Grenoble, in which he declared that the 
 political power of the country must be 
 transferred to a new social stratum, a decla- 
 ration which was generally supposed to 
 mean that " the 
 exclusive suprem- 
 acy of artisans 
 and laborers, 
 which had been 
 the chief object 
 of the insurrection 
 of the commune, 
 was to be estab- 
 lished by a demo- 
 cra ti c assembly 
 after the necessary 
 preliminaries of a 
 dissolution." M. 
 Gambetta's words 
 seriously alarmed 
 the conservative 
 parties in the 
 assembly, and 
 united them in a 
 solid body against 
 the republicans. 
 On the 18th of 
 November an ex- 
 citing debate took 
 place in the as- 
 sembly as to 
 whether the gov- 
 ernment had sufB- 
 ciently endeav- 
 ored to suppress 
 the radical move- 
 ments in the 
 provinces, and 
 especially the 
 demonstrations 
 excited by Gam- 
 betta. President 
 Thiers engaged 
 warmly in this 
 debate ; defended his administration, and 
 demanded of the assembly a vote of 
 confidence. The vote was taken, but in 
 a manner so unsatisfactory to the presi- 
 dent that a new quarrel arose between M. 
 Thiers and the assembly. On the 26th 
 of November the committee appointed to 
 draft an address in reply to the president's 
 message made a report, in which that 
 
 document was sharply criticised. M. 
 Thiers, indignant at this treatment, threat- 
 ened to resign, but the matter was compro- 
 mised by the appointment of a committee 
 of thirty charged with drafting a bill defin- 
 ing the relations of the executive and the 
 assembly to one another, and regulating 
 the responsibility of the various branches 
 of the government. The committee was 
 
 PRESIDENT MACMAHON. 
 
 appointed on the 5th of December. On the 
 10th of December a manifesto was pub- 
 lished by Gambetta, Cremieux, and other 
 leaders of the Left, demanding the dissolu- 
 tion of the assembly and the election of a 
 new assembly as the proper means of ascer- 
 taining the will of the country with respect 
 to the questions at issue. Several petitions 
 to the same effect were presented to the 
 
806 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 assembly from the departments, but were 
 rejected by that body. 
 
 On the 9th of January, 1873, the ex- 
 Emperor Napoleon III. died at Chiselhurst, 
 in England, where he had resided since his 
 release from captivity. His death was sin- 
 cerely regretted by the French people, to 
 whom, in spite of his many faults, he had 
 been a wise and generous friend. By the 
 death of the ex-emperor the plans of the 
 imperialist party in France were for the 
 time entirely overthrown. 
 
 Early in January the committee of thirty 
 reported a bill defining the powers of the 
 president and those of the assembly. The 
 report was made the subject of a long and 
 excited debate, during which M. Thiers 
 several times threatened to resign. The 
 result was that the report of the committee 
 was adopted in a greatly modified form on 
 the 13th of March On the 29th of that 
 month a bill was passed exiling the Bona- 
 parte family from France. On the 27th of 
 April supplementary elections for members 
 of the assembly were again held, and resulted 
 in the choice of several radical leaders. 
 
 In May, 1873, President Thiers made 
 several changes in his ministry. The new 
 ministers were not regarded by the majority 
 of the assembly as sufiiiciently conservative, 
 and the action of the president was sharply 
 criticised. None of the parties composing 
 the majority in the assembly accepted the 
 republic in good faith ; each hoped that the 
 uncertain state of affairs in which the coun- 
 try was placed would offer to it the oppor- 
 tunity of overturning the republic and 
 restoring the monarchy to which it was de- 
 voted, and each hoped to obtain the sup- 
 port of the president in such a course. On 
 the 24th of May, however, M. Thiers defin- 
 itely announced the policy of his adminis- 
 tration in an address to the assembly, in 
 which he appealed to that body to lay aside 
 all party feeling and establish the republic 
 as the permanent government of France. 
 This patriotic appeal fell dead upon the 
 assembly, and the majority adopted, by a 
 vote of 360 to 344, a resolution refusing to 
 take any steps towards the establishment 
 of a permanent government, and regretting 
 that the new ministry did not afford sufii- 
 cient guarantees of a conservative policy. 
 
 President Thiers and the ministers at once 
 tendered their resignations, which were 
 promptly accepted by the assembly. At 
 the same sitting Marshal MacMahon was 
 chosen president of the republic. He ac- 
 
 cepted the office, and appointed the Duke 
 de Broglie, the leader of the reactionarv 
 party in the assembly, president of the 
 council, and M. Magne, the ablest financier 
 of the empire, minister of finance. 
 
 For some time after the election of Presi- 
 dent MacMahon the conservative party in 
 the assembly increased by the desertion of 
 members from the liberal ranks. Many 
 monarchists were appointed to ofiice 
 throughout the country, and the govern- 
 ment party was strong enough to forbid 
 the celebration by the people of the 4th of 
 September, the anniversary of the establish- 
 ment of the republic. It soon became evi- 
 dent that the conservative party was bent 
 upon the restoration of the monarchy. The 
 Orleans princes and their principal sup- 
 porters i:>aid a visit to Frohsdorff, and 
 formally acknowledged the hereditary right 
 of the Count de Chambord to the French 
 throne, and the Count de Paris relinquished, 
 on behalf of himself and his family, all 
 rival pretensions to the crown. The breach 
 between the two branches of the Bourbons 
 being thus healed, the conservatives pre- 
 pared to carry out the rest of their plan by 
 proclaiming the restoration of the monarchy 
 under the Count de Chambord, as Henry V. 
 At this juncture the Count de Chambord 
 addressed a letter to M. de Chesnelong, in 
 which, with true Bourbon stubbornness, he 
 declared that he would never consent to 
 surrender the white flag of his ancestors for 
 the tri-color. This declaration entirely 
 broke up the coalition in his favor, and on 
 the night of the 19th of November the 
 assembly adopted a bill conferring the 
 executive power on President MacMahon 
 for a term of seven years. 
 
 The government now felt itself strong 
 enough to proceed with the trial of Marshal 
 Bazaine for the loss of Metz during the war 
 with Germany. He was charged with 
 treason in surrendering his army and the 
 fortress of JNIctz without sufficient cause ; 
 and on the 10th of December was found 
 guilty by the court-martial, and was sen- 
 tenced to death. His sentence was com- 
 muted by President MacMahon to degrada- 
 tion from his rank and twenty years' 
 imprisonment. He was confined in the 
 fortress of the island of St, Marguerite, but 
 succeeded in escaping from it during the 
 summer of 1874. 
 
 The year 1874 was uneventful. It was 
 passed by the parties of the assembly in 
 quarrels. These dissensions forced all parties 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO REIGN OF ALFRED THE GREAT. 807 
 
 to support the septennate, as the govern- 
 ment of Marshal MacMahon was called. 
 On his part, Marshal MacMahon declared 
 his determination to maintain, against all 
 opposition, the power he had received from 
 the assembly to the end of the term of seven 
 years. 
 
 In 1875 a step was taken in the direction 
 of giving greater stability to the republic. 
 During the spring months a new constitu- 
 tion was debated and adopted by the assem- 
 bly. By the terms of this constitution the 
 assembly was to consist of two chambers — 
 the deputies and the senate. The deputies 
 
 were to be chosen by universal suffrage. 
 The number of senators was fixed at 300. 
 Of these seventy-five were to hold office for 
 life, and were to be chosen in the first in- 
 stance by the present assembly, and after- 
 wards by the senate itself. The remainder 
 were to be chosen for shorter periods by the 
 councils general of the departments, with 
 the addition of certain local representatives 
 of the smaller districts. Finally the assem- 
 bly voluntarily placed a limit on its own 
 tenure of power by fixing the 7th of March, 
 1876, as the day for the meeting of the new 
 legislature. 
 
 book: xix:. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ElsraL^]SrH. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REIGN 
 OF ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 Geographical Situation of Great Britain — Britain 
 Known to the Phojnicians — Landing of Julins 
 Caesar — His Account of the Britons — Claudius Be- 
 gins the Conquest of Britain — Caractacus — South- 
 ern Britain Organized as a Roman Province — Rise 
 and Growth of London — Capture of Anglesey and 
 Destruction of the Druids — Revolt of Boadicea — 
 London Destroyed— Agricola's Conquests — Begins 
 the Civilization of Britain — The Roman Walls — 
 Conquests of Severus — Carausius — Withdrawal of 
 the Roman Troops— Inroads of the Picts and Scots 
 — The Introduction of Christianity — The German 
 Invasion — The Angles and the Saxons — Founda- 
 tion of the Teutonic Kingdoms in England — The 
 Heptarchy— King Arthur — St. Augustine Lands 
 in Kent— Conversion of the Saxons to Christianity 
 — Reign of King OfFa — Growth of Wessex — Eg- 
 bert Becomes King of all England — Wars with 
 the Danes — Alfred Becomes King. 
 
 )HE Island of Great Britain lies in 
 the north Atlantic Ocean. It is 
 bounded on the north by the At- 
 lantic, on the east by the North 
 ;s Sea, on the south by the English 
 -Cs) Channel, and on the west by the 
 Atlantic and the Irish Sea. It includes the 
 countries now known as England, Scotland, 
 and Wales. The northern part of the is- 
 land is called Scotland ; the southern Eng- 
 land. Wales comprises a small district in 
 the western part of the island. England 
 and AVales constitute the larger and more 
 important division of Great Britain. The 
 greatest length of England, from north to 
 
 south, is 365 miles, and its greatest breadth, 
 from east to west, is 280 miles. The area 
 of England is 50,922 square miles, that of 
 Wales 7,398 square miles. 
 
 The island of Great Britain was at an 
 early period inhabited by the Britons, a 
 Celtic race, which still exists as a distinct 
 people under the name of the Welsh. They 
 are supposed to have conquered and ex- 
 pelled from the island the primitive in- 
 habitants, who were a savage race, inferior 
 to the Britons in civilization and strength. 
 About the same time another Celtic race, 
 the Scots, settled the neighboring island of 
 lerne, or Ireland, from which, at a later 
 period, they passed over to Great Britain 
 and conquered and settled the northern 
 part of that island, which was called from 
 them Scotia or Scotland. 
 
 Britain was known to the Phoenicians, 
 the Carthaginians, and the inhabitants of 
 Marseilles, all of whom traded with the 
 tribes on the coast. The Phoenicians espec- 
 ially carried on a thriving trade with the 
 people of Cornwall, exchanging their manu- 
 factures for the tin of that region. We 
 know nothing with certainty of Britain, 
 however, until the year B. c. 55, when 
 Julius Ciesar, in the month of August, 
 crossed the Straits of Dover from Gaul, 
 and landed at Deal, in England. He came 
 to England again the next year, but he 
 made no permanent conquests on either oc- 
 casion, and established no garrisons in the 
 island. He saw only the people of Kent, 
 
808 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 whom he describes as the most civilized of 
 the Britons. He states that the population 
 of Britain was large, that the inhabitants 
 possessed numerous buildings, and that they 
 were very rich in cattle. A large part of 
 their military strength consisted of chariots, 
 in driving which they exhibited great skill. 
 Their religion was the Druidical faith, an 
 account of which we have given in the his- 
 tory of France. 
 
 Augustus seriously contemplated the con- 
 quest of Britain, but never attempted it, 
 and Caligula threatened to invade the is- 
 land. It was not until the reign of Clau- 
 dius, however, that Rome undertook to add 
 Britain to her dominions. In A. D. 43 
 Aulus Plautius crossed the channel with 
 an army of four legions, and landed, it is 
 believed, on the coast of Kent. He moved 
 at once towards the lower fords of the 
 Thames, and forced a passage of that river. 
 He was soon joined by the Emperor Clau- 
 dius in person. The Trinobautes, the peo- 
 ple of Essex and Hertfordshire, were soon 
 subdued, and their capital, Camulodunum, 
 now Colchester, was made the seat of the 
 Roman government. This was accomplished 
 in sixteen days. Claudius then returned to 
 Rome, and left Vespasian in command of 
 his army in Britain. This able commander 
 reduced the southwestern parts of the island, 
 as far as the Exe and the Severn. Ostorius 
 Scapula extended the Roman conquests to 
 the Wye and the foot of the Welsh moun- 
 tains ; but here he encountered a desperate 
 resistance from a native chief, named Cara- 
 doc, or Caractacus, who ruled over a tribe 
 dwelling by the Severn. His army was 
 routed by the Romans, but he escaped from 
 the field. He was soon after taken prisoner 
 and sent to Rome. When he saw the 
 splendid city of the Csesars, the British 
 chieftain could not repress his astonishment 
 that the master of such a city should covet 
 his poor cottage in Britain. Claudius was 
 greatly impressed by the bold bearing of 
 Caractacus, and instead of putting him to 
 death — the usual fate of captives — gave him 
 his freedom. 
 
 After the defeat of Caractacus, the south- 
 ern part of the island of Britain, from the 
 Stour to the Exe and Severn or Wye, was 
 organized into a compact province. The 
 only portion of this region over which the 
 Roman dominion did not extend was the 
 independent kingdom of the Regni, in Sus- 
 sex. Beyond the Stour was the native 
 kingdom of the Iceni. Camulodunum (Col- 
 
 chester), in which a military colony had 
 been settled, was the seat of the Roman 
 government, and from this port direct com- 
 munication with the continent was main- 
 tained. Londinium, or London, had been 
 from the first one of the principal towns of 
 the Britons. It was not fortified by the 
 Romans, and remained in the hands of the 
 natives. It soon became a place of con- 
 siderable commercial importance, and the 
 centre of the trade which was growing up 
 between Britain and the continent. Lon- 
 dinium imported and distributed through- 
 out the island the manufactures of Belgium 
 and the cities of the Rhine, and exported 
 corn, cattle, and slaves. " Roads earlier 
 than of Roman construction penetrated the 
 country from Richborough and Dover to 
 Seaton and Brancaster, to the Severn, the 
 Dee, and the northern Ouse, and it was. 
 through Londinium that they all took their 
 course. The centre of the island was gradu- 
 ally yielding to the encroachments of the 
 Roman arms and civilization. Four legions 
 were now planted in Britain ; the second, 
 which, under the command of Vespasian, 
 had recently subdued the southwest, was 
 quartered at Caerlon, on the Usk ; the 
 ninth kept guard over the Iceni at Bran- 
 caster; the twentieth, at Chester, watched 
 the Brigantes, who maintained their inde- 
 pendence in the north; the fourteenth was 
 occupied in carrying on the conquest of the 
 Ordovices in north Wales." 
 
 In A. D. 61 Suetonius Paulinus, the Ro- 
 man commander in Britain, resolved to re- 
 duce the island of Mona or Anglesey, the 
 chief seat of the Druids, which afforded a 
 refuge to the disaffected Britons. The strait 
 which separates the island from the main- 
 land was crossed by the infantry in shallow 
 vessels, while the cavalry swam their horses 
 over. The Britons endeavored to prevent 
 the Romans from landing on the sacred is- 
 land. The warriors stoutly defended the 
 shore, while the priests and women rushed 
 about among their troops with flaming 
 torches and dishevelled hair, uttering the 
 most fearful cries and imprecations. These 
 strange sounds for a moment struck terror 
 to the superstitious Romans, but Suetonius 
 rallied them, and led them to the attack. 
 The Britons were overwhelmingly defeated, 
 the Druids were burned in the fires they 
 had kindled for their expected captives, and 
 the sacred groves and altars were destroyed. 
 
 Suetonius had believed that this bold 
 blow at the religion of the Britons would 
 
FEOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO REIGN OF ALFRED THE GREAT. 809 
 
 induce them to submit to the rule of Rome. 
 He was mistaken. During his absence in 
 Anglesey the Britons rose in revolt on the 
 mainland. They were led by Boadicea, 
 Queen of the leeiii, whose daughter had 
 been outraged and herself scourged with 
 rods by the Romans. The Romans were 
 taken by surprise, and the Britons quickly 
 made themselves masters of a number of 
 settlements. London was next threatened, 
 and Suetonius hastened to its assistance. 
 He found, however, that it was necessary 
 for the general safety to abandon it to the 
 enemy. B^ing an unfortified town, London 
 at onoe fell into the hands of the Britons, 
 who laid it in ashes, and massacred such of 
 the inhabitants as were unable to escape. 
 The Britons showed no mercy in this war, 
 and 70,000 Romans and strangers fell dur- 
 ing the contest. In A. D. 62 Suetonius 
 utterly destroyed the army of the Britons 
 in a great battle, in which 80,030 of them 
 are said to have been slain. Seeing that 
 capture was inevitable, Boadicea committed 
 suicide by taking poison. 
 
 Suetonius was removed from the com- 
 mand in Britain, as he was regarded by the 
 Emperor Nero as too harsh a ruler to re- 
 store order in the island. In A. D. 71 Cere- 
 al is was placed in command by Vespasian, 
 and advanced the Roman dominions by 
 his conquests. In A. D. 78 Julius Agricola 
 was sent to Britain, and ruled the country 
 f)r seven years. During this period he 
 reduced the whole of what is now England 
 to submission to Rome, and as early as the 
 tliird year of his government (a. d. 81) 
 pushed his conquests to the Tay, where he 
 established garrisons. In A. d. 82 he built 
 a line of forts between the Friths of Clyde 
 and Forth, and from this point subsequently 
 made two incursions into Caledonia, or 
 Seotland, and defeated a large force of 
 Scots at the foot of the Grampian Hills. 
 Agricola was not content with compelling 
 tlie submission of the Britons ; he attempted 
 to civilize them also. He introduced the 
 Roman laws and customs among them, in- 
 structed them in letters and science, and 
 induced them to adopt and practise the 
 mode of life of their conquerors. Towns 
 were founded, and roads were built through- 
 out thecouiitrv. " The inhabitants, having 
 experienced how uneipial their own force 
 was to resist that of the Romans, acquiesced 
 in the dominion of their masters, and were 
 graiually incorporated as part of that 
 mighty empire." 
 
 Britain remained tranquil, and no further 
 effort was made to shake off the Roman 
 dominion. The Scots, tempted by the pros- 
 perity of the Roman province, occasionally 
 made forays into it, doing considerable 
 damage. To put a stop to these raids, the 
 Emperor Hadrian, who visited Britain, 
 caused an earthen rampart to be built 
 across the island between the river Tyne 
 and the Sol way Frith. Remains of this 
 wall are still to be seen. It is known 
 as the Picts' Wall. IJt A. D. 140, during 
 the reign of Antoninus Pius, Lollius Ur- 
 bicus built another wall between the 
 Friths of Forth and Clyde, along the line 
 formerly occupied by the forts of Agricola. 
 It was known as the Wall of Antoninus, 
 but is now called Graham's Dike. These 
 walls, however, did not put a stop to the in- 
 cursions of the Scottish tribes. These bar- 
 barians at length became so formidable 
 that the Roman commander was obliged to 
 purchase an exemption from tKeir attacks, 
 and at the same time appealed to the Em- 
 peror Severus to come in person to Britain. 
 Severus, though old and infirm, hastened to 
 Britain, invaded Scotland, and advanced 
 to the northern extremity of the island. 
 He lost 50,000 men in this expedition, but 
 compelled the Scots to enter into a treaty 
 by which they agreed to cease their incur- 
 sions into Britain, and ceded to the em- 
 peror a considerable part of their territory. 
 Severus then caused the wall of Hadrian to 
 be repaired and strengthened. In conse- 
 quence of this the wall commonly bore the 
 name of the later emperor. Severus died 
 at Eboracum, now called York, in A. D. 
 211. 
 
 In the third century Britain was assailed 
 by a new enemy, the Saxon pirates, whose 
 descents upon the eastern shore of the island 
 became so troublesome that the Emperors 
 Diocletian and Maximian appointed an of- 
 ficer specially charged with its defence, who 
 bore the title of " Count of the Saxon 
 Shore." Carausius was the first of these 
 counts. He succeeded in making himself 
 master of Britain, and compelling Max- 
 imian to acknowledge him as his associate 
 in the empire. He was murdered in A. d. 
 293 by Allectus, who took the imperial 
 title, and held it until 296, when he was 
 defeated by the army which Constantius 
 had sent against him. From this time 
 until the fall of the Roman empire Britain 
 remained tranquil. The country improved 
 rapidly in civilization ; many Romans set- 
 
810 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tied in the province, and the Latin lan- 
 guage was largely employed by the natives. 
 
 The necessities of the falling empire 
 compelled the emperors to recall their 
 troops from Britain. The Picts and Scots 
 quickly took advantage of this to renew their 
 forays. In 368 they penetrated as far as 
 London, but were driven back by Theodo- 
 sius, the father of the emperor of that name. 
 In 396 they again swarmed into Britain, 
 but were forced back by Stilicho. Soon 
 after this the R^man troops were with- 
 drawn from Britain for the defence of 
 Gaul, and the island was left at the mercy 
 of the Picts and Scots. In A. D. 418 the 
 emperor responded to the appeals of the 
 Britons for aid, by sending the Roman 
 legions once more into Britain. The Picts 
 and Scots were driven back, and the Ro- 
 mans repaired the fortresses of Britain, and 
 instructed the natives how to make and use 
 the arms necessary for their defence. This 
 done they withdrew from Britain, never 
 again to return. The northern barbarians 
 at once renewed tlieir ravages, and the 
 Britons were plunged into fresh misery. 
 Their sufferings were so great that in A. D. 
 446 they again appealed to Rome for aid. 
 Aetius was the patrician at this time, and 
 to him the British embassadors carried the 
 letter of their countrymen, which was in- 
 scribed " The Groans of the Britons." "The 
 barbarians," said the writers, "on the one 
 hand chase us into the sea ; the sea on the 
 other throws us back upon the barbarians ; 
 and we have only the hard choice left us 
 of perishing by the sword or by the waves." 
 Aetius, however, was prevented by the ne- 
 cessities of his struggle with Attila from 
 sending assistance to the Britons. 
 
 At some time during the Roman do- 
 minion Christianity was introduced into 
 Britain. The exact date of this event is 
 unknown, but it is certain that Christianity 
 was planted in Britain within three cen- 
 turies after the death of Christ. By whom 
 it was introduced is uncertain. It is be- 
 lieved that many Christians, fleeing from 
 persecution on the continent, took refuge in 
 Britain, that many prisoners of war taken 
 by the Roman armies were converted during 
 their captivity, and that there were Chris- 
 tian soldiers in the Roman armies stationed 
 in the island. By the end of the second 
 century there were many Christian churches 
 in Great Britain. They were mainly in the 
 northern and western portions of England 
 and Scotland. Under the Emperor Dio- 
 
 cletian they endured a severe persecution, 
 which drove them almost entirely from the 
 south of England into the north and into 
 Scotland. 
 
 While the Britons were still suffering 
 from the attacks of the Picts and Scots on 
 the north, a new enemy appeared on the 
 coast. The Teutonic tribes of the lower 
 Elbe and Weser, on the continent, the 
 Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, crossed 
 the North Sea in the latter ])art of the fifth 
 century, and conquered southern Britain. 
 These emigrations continued to the close of 
 the sixth century. The Jutes have left 
 behind them scarcely a memorial of their 
 conquests, but the Angles gave to the coun- 
 try its name of England, or "land of the 
 Angles," and the English people are still 
 spoken of as a part of the Saxon race. The 
 intermixture of the various German dialects 
 gave to the island a new language, the 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 The Saxons, as all the Teutonic con- 
 querors were called by the Britons, were a 
 fierce, uncivilized race, caring nothing for 
 the civilization or arts of Rome. They did not 
 adopt the Christian religion as the Goths 
 had done, but retained their pagan belief. 
 They killed and enslaved the Celtic Britons 
 who resisted them, or drove them into the 
 mountains of Wales. Every vestige of civ- 
 ilization Avhich the Romans had implanted 
 in the island was swept away. " The pro- 
 ceedings of civil and criminal jurisdiction, 
 the titles of honor, the forms of office, the 
 ranks of society, and even the domestic 
 rights of marriage, testament, and inherit- 
 ance, were finally suppressed ; and the in- 
 discriminate crowd of noble and plebeian 
 slaves was governed by the traditionary 
 customs which had been coarsely framed 
 for the shepherds and pirates of Germany. 
 The language of science, of business, and of 
 conversation, which had been introduced 
 by the Romans, was lost in the general 
 desolation ; and the Germans preserved 
 and established the use of their natural 
 dialect." 
 
 According to the tradition, the first Teu- 
 tonic kingdom in England was that of 
 Kent, which retained its British name. 
 Vortigern, the native prince, being hard 
 pressed by the Picts and Scots, invited the 
 brothers Hengest and Horsa, two Jutish 
 chiefs, to come to his assistance. They 
 came over with a numerous following, de- 
 feated the Picts and Scots, and then turned 
 their arms against the Britons. They were 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO REIGN OF ALFRED THE GREAT. 811 
 
 joined by fi-esh bands from their own coun- 
 try, and after a long struggle made them- 
 selves masters of Kent. In A. d. 449 they 
 founded the kingdoms of East and West 
 Kent. About a. d. 477 ^elle and Cissa, two 
 Saxon leaders, founded the kingdom of 
 Sussex; and about 495 the kingdom of 
 Wessex, or the West Saxons, was set up by 
 Cerdic and his son Cyuric. In A. D. 547 
 Ida, the Angle, founded the kingdom of 
 Northumbria, which extended from the 
 Humber to the Frith of Forth. At times 
 this kingdom was ruled by two sovereigns. 
 The kingdom of Mercia was almost entirely 
 an Anglian state, and embraced the mid- 
 land counties of England. Immediately 
 north of Kent was another Saxon state, 
 Essex, or the kingdom of the East Saxons, 
 founded about A. d. 527. Towards the end 
 of the sixth century, the region north of 
 Essex was settled by the Angles, and was 
 known as the kingdom of the East 
 Angles. 
 
 These seven kingdoms are usually spoken 
 of as The Heptarchy, or "the Rule of 
 Seven." " The name is misleading, as there 
 were at uo time seven regular and orderly 
 states. They were forever fighting, not 
 only Avith the Welsh, but among each 
 other, and their number was sometimes 
 more and sometimes fewer. At times some 
 one king gained a certain authority over 
 his fellows, in which case he was termed a 
 Bretwalda, or ' Wielder of Britain.' " 
 
 To this period belong the exploits of the 
 flxmous British prince or king, Arthur, 
 whose deeds have been sung in such ex- 
 travagant strains by jDoets that he has be- 
 come more a character of romance than of 
 history. He was Prince of the Silures. In 
 A. D. 520 he defeated the Saxons at Bad- 
 bury, in Dorsetshire, and thus checked 
 their western conquests for a whole genera- 
 tion. Later on they were more successful, 
 and extended their kingdom in every direc- 
 tion exce|)t the Welsh border. 
 
 The principal event of English history 
 during the sixth century is the conversion 
 of the Saxons of Kent to Christianity. The 
 Saxons, as we have stated, were pagans, 
 worshipping Odin and Thor, and maintain- 
 ing the customs of their German fore- 
 fathers. Gregory the Great, having seen 
 some beautiful long-haired boys from Deira 
 (Yorkshire) in the slave-market at Rome, 
 conceived aji ardent desire to convert the 
 Saxons to Christianity. Becoming pope he 
 sent into Enirland a band of missionaries 
 
 under Augustine, afterwards called saint, 
 a Roman monk, to preach the gospel to the 
 Saxons. Augustine landed in Kent in 
 A. D. 597. Ethelbert, the Kentish king, 
 was the most powerful prince of southern 
 England. He had married Bertha, the 
 daughter of Charibert, one of the Frankish 
 kings in Gaul, who was a Catholic, and 
 readily consented to listen to Augustine 
 and his companions. Fearing that the 
 monks might seek to influence him by 
 means of spells or charms, he met them in 
 the open air on the isle of Thauet, as he 
 supposed such arts would be less powerful 
 in the free sunlight. Having heard them, 
 he assigned them a dwelling in the royal 
 city of Canterbury, and ere long yielded to 
 the arguments of Augustine, embraced the 
 Christian religion, and was baptized. His 
 example was freely followed by many of his 
 subjects. Augustine was made Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, and his cathedral, which has 
 been often rebuilt, is still the mother church 
 or metropolitan of all England. Augustine 
 introduced the Roman liturgy in Latin, 
 which, though understood in other parts 
 of Europe, was an unknown tongue in 
 England. 
 
 During the seventh century the Christian 
 religion made great progress in England. 
 Kent for a while relapsed into paganism in 
 consequence of the defection of Eadbald, 
 who married his mother-in-law — a union 
 forbidden by the church. Through the 
 efforts of Laurent] us, the successor of Au- 
 gustine, he was brought back into the 
 church, and all his people with him, having 
 first put away his mother-in-law. 
 
 In A. D. 617 Edwin of Deira ascended 
 the Northumbrian throne, and became the 
 greatest king in Britain. He married Ethel- 
 burgh, daughter of Ethelbert of Kent. She 
 was a Christian, and brought with her to 
 her husband's court Bishop Paulinus, a 
 learned ecclesiastic, through whom her hus- 
 band Avas converted to Christianity. Edwin 
 founded York-Minster, a plain wooden edi- 
 fice at first, and was baptized in it. After 
 his death many of his people relapsed into 
 heathenism, and the work of Christianizing 
 the kingdom was begun again under Os- 
 wald, who mounted the throne in a. d. 634. 
 In A. D. 685 Cuthbert, a Northumbrian 
 monk of Melrose, was made Bishop of 
 Lindisfarne, and devoted himself to preach- 
 ing and teaching in the villages and among 
 the common people, especially among those 
 who were so remote and difficult to reach 
 
812 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that they were avoided by the other niis- 
 siouaries. From Kent aud Northumbria 
 Christianity gradually spread to other parts 
 of England. 
 
 The history of England during the eighth 
 century is unimportant. At first North- 
 umbria was the most powerful kingdom of 
 the heptarchy, and for a long time main- 
 tained its ascendency. Mercia then became 
 the most important state under OA'a, who 
 reigned from A. D. 757 to 796. He built a 
 dike, called by his name, from the Wye to 
 the Dee, to guard the land he had conquered 
 from the Welsh. He was the friend and 
 ally of Charlemagne, and at the request of 
 that king sent to him Alcuin, a clergyman 
 celebrated for his learning, who became the 
 most trusted friend and counsellor of Charle- 
 magne for many years, and was his instruc- 
 tor in the sciences. Offa was, however, a 
 man of cruel and treacherous character. 
 " Desirous," says Hume, " of re-establishing 
 his character in the world, and perhaps of 
 appeasing the remorses of his own con- 
 science, he paid great court to the clergy, 
 and practised all the monkish devotion, so 
 much esteemed in that ignorant and super- 
 stitious age. He gave the tenth of his 
 goods to the church ; bestowed rich dona- 
 tions on the Cathedral of Hereford, and 
 even made a pilgrimage to Rome, where 
 his great power and riches could not fail of 
 procuring him the papal absolution. The 
 better to ingratiate himself with the sov- 
 ereign pontiff, he engaged to pay him a 
 yearly donation for the support of an Eng- 
 lish college at Rome ; and, in order to raise 
 the sum, he imposed the tax of a penny on 
 each house possessed of thirty pence a year. 
 This imposition being aftei-wards levied on 
 all England was commonly denominated 
 'Peter's pence,' and, though conferred at 
 first as a gift, was afterwards claimed as a 
 tribute by the Roman pontiff*." 
 
 Wessex, which had been rapidly growing 
 in power and importance during the eighth 
 century, became the leading state of Eng- 
 land in the first part of the ninth century. 
 In A. D. 802 Egbert succeeded to the throne 
 of Wessex, and extended his authority 
 over all the other kingdoms. He was the 
 first Saxon king of all England, and was a 
 great and powerful sovereign. The Welsh 
 of Cornwall also submitted to him. Dur- 
 ing his latter years the Danes, or North- 
 men, a Teutonic people who gradually 
 formed the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, 
 and Norway, and whose attacks upon Ger- 
 
 many and France have already been 
 noticed, began to harass England. The 
 struggle thus begun went on with but little 
 interruption for two centuries. Egbert was 
 once defeated by the Danes, but at length 
 routed them with great slaughter. He died 
 in A. D. 888, and was succeeded by his son 
 Ethelwolf, Avho had neither the abilities nor 
 the vigor of his lather. The Danes con- 
 tinued their ravages throughout this reign, 
 returning every year, and causing great 
 suffering to the kingdom. At length they 
 seized the isle of Thanet, and establishing 
 their winter quarters there, renewed the war 
 in the following spring, and burnt the cities 
 of London and Canterbury. They were 
 defeated soon after by Ethelwolf, but they 
 continued their aggressions in spite of this 
 disaster. Ethelwolf died in A. D. 858, and 
 his sons Ethelbald and Ethelbert came to 
 the throne as joint rulers of England. 
 Ethelbald was a profligate prince, and dis- 
 gusted his people by marrying his step- 
 mother. He died in 860, and his brother 
 Ethelbert became sole king. He reigned 
 five years with credit. The kingdom was 
 still infested with the Danes, who committed 
 great ravages throughout the country. 
 Ethelbert died in 866, aud was succeeded 
 by his brother Ethel red I. During Ethel- 
 red's reign began the great war with the 
 Danes which caused such suffering to Eng- 
 land, and as to the cause of which there are 
 many stories. In A. D. 866 a powerful 
 Danish army, under Ingvar and Ubba, 
 landed in East Anglia, and in the two fol- 
 lowing years overran Northumberland and 
 Mercia. In 870 they invaded East Anglia 
 and put its young king, Edmund, to death. 
 The remainder of Ethelred's reign was 
 passed in contending with the Danes, whose 
 avowed object was the conquest of all Eng- 
 land ; and in this struggle he was bravely 
 assisted by his younger brother, Alfred. 
 He died in A. D. 871, aud Alfred was left 
 King of England. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF ALFRED THE 
 GREAT TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 England Overrun by the Danes — Guthrum — Alfred 
 Becomes a Fugitive — His Adventures — Alfred 
 Resumes the War — Defeats the Danes at Eding- 
 ton — They Embrace Christianity — Settlement 
 with the Danes — Alfred Rebuilds LgDndon — Estab- 
 lishes a Militia Force — Character of Alfred — His 
 Code — Origin of the Common Law — His Wise 
 Measures — Founds the Universitv of Oxford — His 
 
FBOM ACCESSION OF ALFRED THE OREAT TO NORMAN CONQUEST. 813 
 
 Toreign Relations — Death of Alfred — Reigns ot 
 his Descendants — Introduction of the Monastic 
 System into England — St. Dunstan — Edwy and 
 Elgiva — Edgar King — " Edward the Martyr " — 
 " Etheired the Unready "—The Danes Conquer 
 England — Reigns of Sweyn and Canute — Hardi- 
 canute — Reign of Edward the Confessor — Harold 
 King — Defeats the Danes — William of Normandy 
 Invades England — Battle of Hastings — Death of 
 Harold. 
 
 LFRED was twenty-two years old 
 at the time of his accession to the 
 throne. He found his kingdom 
 half conquered by the Danes, and 
 for the first seven years of his 
 reign maintained a gallant but 
 unequal struggle against them. Early in 
 A. D. 878, however, a Danish army under 
 Guthrum, one of their most powerful chiefs, 
 burst out of East Auglia, which he had con- 
 quered, and overran Wessex so rapidly that 
 it was useless to offer any resistance to him. 
 Many of the English fled beyond the sea, 
 aud the remainder submitted. Alfred, 
 thus deprived of his kingdom, took refuge 
 with a few followers in the woods and 
 .swamps of Somersetshire. Many interesting 
 stories are told of his adventures at this 
 period of his life. At one time he is said 
 to have taken refuge with a herdsman, who 
 kept the true character of his guest a 
 secret even from his wife. One day, while 
 mending his bow aud arrows by the cottage 
 fire, the king was set by the woman to 
 watch some cakes which she was baking. 
 Absorbed in his meditations he sufifered the 
 cakes to burn, aud was soundly berated by 
 the woman, who was ignorant of his quality. 
 Matters began to improve during that 
 winter. Ubba was defeated and slain by 
 the West Saxous, who also captured the 
 magic raven banner, which the Danes be- 
 lieved brought them victory, and which 
 was said to have been woven by the three 
 daughters of Ragnar, the famous sea king, 
 in a single noontide. Alfred and his little 
 band now took heart, and fortifying them- 
 selves in Athelney, made frequent sallies. 
 The king is said to have entered the camp 
 of the Danes in the disguise of a minstrel, 
 in order to learn their strength. He re- 
 mained among them seven days, entertain- 
 ing King Guthrum with his songs, and 
 learning all he wished to know. Profiting 
 by this knowledge, he rallied the West 
 Saxon forces, and inflicted a decisive defeat 
 upon the Danes at Edington, near West- 
 bury. They were reduced to such straits 
 by this defeat that they were obliged to 
 submit. They embraced Christianity and 
 
 Guthrum was baptized, Alfred himself act- 
 ing as his godfather, a. d. 880. The Danes 
 were then received as vassals of the West 
 Saxon king, and were given East Anglia 
 and part of Essex and Mercia. " So after 
 all Alfred's labor, the greater part of Eng- 
 land was left in Danish hands, and conse- 
 quently the English race became largely 
 infused with Scandinavian blood. In this 
 way it comes to pass that so many places 
 have Danish names, marked by the ending 
 by, which answers to the English to7i or 
 town." Alfred rebuilt London and the 
 cities destroyed by the Danes, and estab- 
 lished a regular militia for the defence of 
 the kingdom ; and though he was several 
 times obliged to take arms against the 
 Danes from over the sea, he was enabled to 
 hold his own against them, and finally 
 to drive them out of the kingdom. 
 
 Alfred Avas one of the most remarkable 
 men of his own or any age. He had been 
 educated at Rome, aud had been taught to 
 value the reign of law and order as the 
 greatest happiness of a nation. Having 
 conquered the Danes, he proceeded to give 
 to his kingdom a definite code of laws and 
 a settled administration. His system was 
 formed from the Mosaic law and from the 
 older English codes. He added few la\vs 
 of his own, because he said he did not 
 know how those who came after him might 
 like them. His system is generally deemed 
 the origin of what is termed the common 
 law. He established a fleet of war galleys, 
 and exerted himself to revive the old mari- 
 time spirit of the English, Avhich seemed to 
 be almost extinguished. He also caused 
 his seamen to undertake exploring voyages 
 to the north. He gave liberally to the 
 churches and monasteries, and endeavored 
 to promote the cause of education among 
 his people by establishing schools every- 
 where and by founding the University of 
 Oxford. He introduced and encouraged 
 manufactures of all kinds, and liberally 
 rewarded inventors and improvers for their 
 labors. Commerce and industry found in 
 him a munificent patron, and he neglected 
 no means which could possibly contribute 
 to the moral, intellectual, or material im- 
 provement of his kingdom. He gave 
 largely to the poor, and set apart a seventh 
 of his own income for maintaining a force 
 of workmen, which he employed in rebuild- 
 ing the ruined cities, castles, palaces, and 
 monasteries. He sent embassies to the 
 pope, to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and to 
 
8U 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 India, with alms for the Christian churches 
 there, which are said to have been founded 
 by St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew, the 
 apostles. This was the first intercourse 
 between England and India. In all thinsrs 
 
 and as one of the wisest and best that ever 
 adorned the annals of any nation." 
 
 Alfred the Great died in a. d. 901, and 
 was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward, 
 called the Elder, who was his equal as a 
 
 DimSTAN SEPARATES EDWY AND ELGIVA. 
 
 Alfred set a noble example to his people, 
 and he was "regarded by foreigners, no 
 less than by his own subjects, as the great- 
 est prince after Charlemagne that had 
 appeared in Europe during several ages. 
 
 soldier, but inferior to him as a scholar. 
 He extended his dominions as far north as 
 the Humber, and was called the " Lord of 
 all Britain ; " for the Northumbrians, 
 whether English, Danes, or Norwegians, 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF ALFRED THE GREAT TO NORMAN CONQUEST. 815 
 
 the Scots, and the "Welsh of Cumberland, 
 all did him homage. Edward died in 925, 
 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Athel- 
 stan, who extended his power over all Eng- 
 land, so that he and his successors some- 
 times styled themselves Emperors of Britain, 
 to show that they were masters of the whole 
 island and independent of the German 
 emperors. He died in 940, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Edmund, called the 
 Magnificent from his gallant deeds, who 
 six years later was stabbed by a ruffian 
 whom he endeavored to expel from the 
 royal table. Edmund granted Strathclyde 
 or Cumberland to Malcolm, King of Scots, 
 as a fief. The sons of Edmund were too 
 young to reign at the time of their father's 
 death, and his brother Edred was chosen 
 king. His reign of nine years was unevent- 
 ful. Being a very superstitious man him- 
 self, he introduced into England the order 
 of Benedictine monks, whose efforts to 
 obtain power and to compel the English 
 clergy to adopt a celibate life caused much 
 trouble to the kingdom in after years. The 
 king chose as his chief adviser a monk 
 named Dunstan, who had been made Abbot 
 of Glasteubury by King Edmund. 
 
 Edwy, the eldest sou of Edmund, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne upon the death of his 
 uncle Edred, in A. D. 955. He reigned 
 four years, and this entire period was 
 marked by a sharp struggle between the 
 native clergy and the Romanizing party in 
 the church, led by the monk Dunstan. 
 Many abuses and much corruption had 
 grown up in the English Church, and Dun- 
 stan and his party aimed at the reformation 
 of these. They were not content with this, 
 but endeavored to force upon the secular 
 clergy — that is, those who were not monks, 
 but rectors of parishes, canons of cathe- 
 dials and collegiate churches — the rule of 
 celibacy, and to compel the married clergy 
 to put away their wives. Edwy, though 
 by no means an enemy of the church, took 
 the side of the native clergy, and so drew 
 upon himself the enmity of the party of 
 Dunstan. His marriage with Elgiva, Avho 
 was related to him within one of the de- 
 grees then prohibited by the church, laid 
 him open to the attacks of his enemies. 
 Dunstan and his followers refused to 
 acknowledge the marriage, and Edwy re- 
 sented their course with so much violence 
 that he at length drove Dunstan out of the 
 kingdom. The monks took up the cause 
 of their leader, and fanned the flame of dis- 
 
 content which the king's course had ex- 
 cited throughout the land, and even went 
 to the extreme of torturing and finally 
 murdering the beautiful queen. The Eng- 
 lish, blinded with superstition, listened to 
 them, and in A. d. 957 all England north 
 of the Thames rose in rebellion against 
 Edwy, and set up his brother Edgar as 
 king. The remainder of Edwy's reign was 
 troubled and unhappy. He died in a. d. 
 959. 
 
 By the death of Edwy, Edgar became 
 undisputed King of England. His reign 
 of sixteen years was on the whole peaceful 
 and prosperous. Dunstan, who was ad- 
 vanced to the See of Canterbury, was his 
 chief adviser. Edgar's private character 
 was bad, but as he was a friend and sub- 
 missive follower of the monks, he has been 
 handed down by the historians of the times 
 as a model of excellence. During this 
 reign Dunstan and his party were able to 
 put in force their reforms, and the church 
 Avas placed in possession of the celibate 
 clergy by the expulsion of the married 
 priests from their charges. As a ruler 
 Edgar showed himself endowed with vigor 
 and capacity. He maintained peace and 
 order throughout his dominions, and by 
 creating a powerful and efficient navy, 
 saved the kingdom from invasion. Hence, 
 being at peace with the monks, his reign is 
 one of the most fortunate we meet with in 
 the English history of this period. He died 
 in 975, leaving two sons, Edward and 
 Ethelred. 
 
 Edward, the elder son of Edgar, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne. The struggle between 
 the monks and the secular clergy broke out 
 again. Being hard pressed by their adver- 
 saries, the monks resorted to the working 
 of miracles, at which they were very expert, 
 and so triumphed over their adversaries. 
 After an uneventful reign of four years, 
 Edward was murdered by the agents of his 
 stepmother, who desired to place her son, 
 Ethelred, the younger son of Edgar, on the 
 throne. Edward's tragic end won him 
 from the sympathizing people the surname 
 of " the Martyr," by which he is known in 
 history. 
 
 Ethelred became king by the death of his 
 brother, A. D. 979. He was only ten years 
 old at the time, and for the first nine years 
 of his reign Dunstan kept him within the 
 limits of propriety and so influenced the 
 councils of the monarch that affairs went 
 on well. After the death of that prelate. 
 
816 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 in A, D. 988, Etlielred abandoned himself 
 to unworthy and incompetent favorites, who 
 led him into many blunders. He Avas 
 naturally weak, cowardly, and cruel, and 
 in the hands of his new advisers he soon 
 gained the name of " the Unready," or the 
 Incompetent, a title which he fully merited. 
 In the second year of Ethelred's reign, A. D. 
 980, the Danes began their invasions once 
 more. Ethelred and his advisers weakly 
 bought an exemption from their depreda- 
 tions, and this foolish step only encouraged 
 the Danes to return again. The English 
 now attempted to defeat them, but their 
 plans were betrayed by the infamous Alfric, 
 Duke of Mercia. In A. d. 994 a powerful 
 fleet, under Sweyn, King of Denmark, and 
 Olaf, King of Norway, ravaged England 
 so terribly that Ethelred purchased peace 
 by consenting to pay tribute to Denmark. 
 The taxes levied for this purpose were 
 called Danegeld. The invaders were not 
 satisfied, and returning soon, ravaged 
 southern England with fire and sword, and 
 compelled Ethelred to pay an increased 
 tribute as the price of their departure. The 
 respite thus obtained was only temporary. 
 Peace was not to be obtained so easily. 
 
 Ethelred's weak policy merely encouraged 
 ihe Danes, and their invasions were con- 
 tinued during the remainder of his reigu 
 until at length, in A. D. 1013, Sweyn, King 
 of Denmark, conquered the whole of Eng- 
 land, and was acknowledged king. Ethelred 
 took refuge in Normandy, with Duke Rich- 
 ard the Good, whose sister he had married. 
 London stoutly resisted Sweyn until the 
 whole country had been conquered, and 
 only yielded to him when further resistance 
 was hopeless. In 1014 Sweyn died, and 
 Ethelred was recalled. He also died soon 
 afterwards, and his son Edmund, surnamed 
 Ironside, succeeded to his crown, A. D. 1016. 
 Sweyn's son Canute wag also king over a 
 part of England, and after several battles, 
 he and Edmund agreed to share the king- 
 dom between them — Edmund receiving 
 Wessex, East Anglia, Essex and London, 
 and Canute the remainder of England, with 
 his capital at Southampton. Edmund died 
 in November, the same year, having reigned 
 seven months, and Canute became King of 
 all England. He was a great sovereign, 
 and had, some time before receiving the 
 English crown, embraced the Christian re- 
 ligion. He was King of Denmark also, 
 and conquered Norway and a part of Swe- 
 den, which he annexed to his kingdom. 
 
 He preferred England to his other posses- 
 sions, and made it his home, and ruled the 
 English with wisdom and vigor. Pie di- 
 vided the kingdom into four earldoms — 
 Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and North- 
 umberland. Though he kept about him a 
 body of from 3,000 to 6,000 paid mercena- 
 ries, he never allowed them to oppress or 
 injure his subjects, and never employed 
 them for that purpose himself He died 
 in A. D. 1035, and England was divided 
 between his sons Harold and Hardicanute. 
 Harold was made sole King of England in 
 1037, his brother remaining in Denmark. 
 On his death, in 1040, Hardicanute was 
 called to the throne, and proved himself 
 such an execrable tyrant, that his death in 
 1042 was hailed with joy by the whole na- 
 tion. His death separated the crowns of 
 England and Denmark, which were never 
 reunited. 
 
 Edward, the son of Ethelred and Emma, 
 the last representative of the old royal line, 
 was now chosen king. He had been brought 
 up in Normandy from his childhood, and 
 was an Englishman merely in blood and 
 name, in all things else a Frenchman. His 
 chief wish was to fill the ofiices of the king- 
 dom with his Norman friends, and he even 
 went so far as to make a Norman Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. This tendency gave 
 rise to a strong party opposed to the for- 
 eigners, at the head of which was Godwin, 
 the great Earl of the West Saxons, an elo- 
 quent and popular noble, but who had in- 
 curred the enmity of the king by the sus- 
 picion which attached to him of having 
 been concerned in the death of Alfred, King 
 Edward's brother, who had lost his life in 
 attempting to overthrow Harold I. In A. D. 
 1051 Count Eustace of Boulogne, a Nor- 
 man noble, provoked a difliculty with the 
 men of Dover, in which he was roughly 
 handled ; the Dover men belonged to God- 
 win's earldom, and he refused to punish 
 them until they had had a fair trial by law. 
 This gave mortal offeuce to King Edward 
 and his party, and Earl Godwin was ban- 
 ished the kingdom. The next year he 
 returned at the head of an armed force, 
 and the Norman knights and priests crossed 
 the channel in hot haste. Edward was 
 obliged to sanction the return of Godwin, 
 but the earl died soon after his success. 
 He was succeeded in his rank and power 
 by his son Harold, who became the real 
 ruler of the kingdom, and won himself a 
 considerable name by his victories over 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF ALFRED THE GREAT TO NORMAN CONQUEST. 817 
 
 the Welsh. Edward died iu 1066, and 
 was buried iu Westminster Abbey, which 
 he had completed just before his death. 
 He was a poor king, and neglected his du- 
 ties as a ruler to an extent which brought 
 much suffering upon his people. He was a 
 pious man according to the fashion of the 
 times, and a liberal patron of the church, 
 for which reason the monks soon canonized 
 him, and gave him the title of 
 " the Confessor," by which he 
 is known in history. Yet bad 
 as his reign was, the misery 
 which the English endured 
 under their Norman masters 
 caused them ere long to look 
 back to it with regret. 
 
 Upon the death of Edward, 
 Harold was chosen king by the 
 Witan, and was crowned the 
 day after Edward's burial. His 
 right to the crown was dis- 
 puted by William, Duke of 
 Normandy, the illegitimate son 
 of Robert the Devil, and the 
 cousin of Edward the Confes- 
 sor. The duke claimed that 
 King Edward had promised 
 that he should be his successor, 
 and that Harold, being once 
 in Normandy, had sworn a sol- 
 emn oath to recognize and sup- 
 port William as King of Eng- 
 land. Upon receiving the news 
 of Harold's accession the duke 
 prepared to maintain his claim 
 by force of arms. To gain for 
 his cause the moral support of 
 Christendom, William sent an 
 embassy to the pope, asking his 
 blessing upon his expedition. 
 Hildebrand, then Archdeacon 
 of Rome, warmly supported his 
 request, as he knew that a 
 Norman conquest of England 
 would be the means of bring- 
 ing the English Church into more complete 
 subjection to Rome. Pope Alexander II., 
 under Hildebrand's influence, declared Wil- 
 liam the lawful King of England, and sent 
 him a consecrated banner to lead his attack 
 upon that country. William collected an 
 army of 60,000 men and a fleet of 3,000 
 vessels. The prestige acquired by the Nor- 
 mans in their conquest of southern Italy 
 made all the adventurous spirits of the time 
 eager to follow the banners of the chieftains 
 of this race, and when William announced 
 52 
 
 his intention of invading England, volun- 
 teers flocked to him from all parts of Eu- 
 rope. With this force he set sail from St. 
 Valery in September, 1006. 
 
 In the meantime Harold had been 
 obliged to defend his throne against an in- 
 vasion of the Norwegians led by their king, 
 Harold Hardrada, that is, "Stern in Coun- 
 cil," a man of gigantic stature and one of the 
 
 BATTLE OF HASTINGS— DEATH OF HAROLD. 
 
 bravest warriors of his day. He was joined 
 by Tostig, the brother of the English king, 
 who had been banished by King Edward 
 for his tyrannical government of Northum- 
 berland. After a gallant resistance of some 
 months the English Harold attacked the 
 invaders at Stamford Bridge on the 25th of 
 September, and defeated them with heavy 
 loss, the Norwegian king and Tostig being 
 among the slain. Harold celebrated his 
 victory by a great feast at York, iu the 
 midst of which he was informed that 
 
818 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 WilHani of Normandy and his army had 
 landed without resistance at Pevensey on 
 the coast of Sussex. He at once marched 
 to meet this new danger, and on the 14th 
 of October the two armies met in a deci- 
 sive battle at Hastings. Harold was slain, 
 and his army was utterly routed, with the 
 loss of its best and bravest troogs. The 
 Thanes and household troops, disdaining 
 to fly, were slaughtered almost to a man 
 around their fallen standard. The next 
 day the mother of Harold begged the body 
 of her sou from the conqueror, but was re- 
 fused. The monks of Waltham, however, 
 aided by "Edith of the swan's neck," a 
 former favorite of Harold, found it amongst 
 the heaps of slain and gave it Christian 
 burial. The people of London attempted 
 to make Edgar Atheling, the grandson of 
 Edmund Ironside, king, but being unsup- 
 ported by the rest of the country, they ac- 
 knowledged William as their sovereign, and 
 he was crowned king at Westminster on 
 Christmas day, A. D. 10G6. At a later period 
 the king built Battle Abbey, near Hastings, 
 iu memoiy of his victory over Harold. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM AVILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO 
 EDWARD I. 
 
 "William the Conqueror King of EnEjland — Intro- 
 duction of the Feudal System into England — Re- 
 volt of the English — It is Put Down by William 
 • — Northern England Conquered— Subjection of 
 the Eiicrlish Church — Domesday Book— Charac- 
 ter of William the Conqueror — His Death — Wil- 
 liam Rufus King — His Tyrannical Reign — His 
 Death — Henry I. Seizes the Kingdom — The Char- 
 ter of Liberties — Flis Able Reign — Settles a Col- 
 ony of Flemings in Wales — Death of Henry — The 
 Empress Matilda — Stephen of Blois Seizes the 
 English Crown— War with Scotland— Settlement 
 of the Quarrel between Stephen and Matilda — 
 Henry II. King^His Power — Restores Order to 
 the Kingdom — His Domestic Troubles — The Con- 
 stitutions of Clarendon — Murder of Thomas d 
 Becket — The English Conquer Ireland — Rebel- 
 lions of Henry's Sons — Henry Does Penance at 
 the Shrine of Thomas & Becket — Conquers Scot- 
 land — Death of Henry — Richard Ca3ur de Lion 
 King — Joins the Crusade — Is Made Prisoner by 
 Austria on his Return Home — Prince John— 
 Ricliard Regains his Freedom — His Death — John 
 Becomes King — His Quarrel with France — ]\Iur- 
 der of Prince Arthur — England Loses Normandy 
 — John Quarrels with the Pope — Stephen Lang- 
 ton — John Excommunicated — Submits to the 
 Pope— Makes England a Fief of the Holy See- 
 Wars with the Barons — ;Magna Charta — The 
 French Invasion — Death of John — Henry III. 
 King— His Reign— The Provisions of Oxford- 
 Settlement of the Quarrel between the King and 
 the Barons — The Earl of Leicester Summons a 
 Parliament — Rise of the House of Commons — 
 Prince Edward Defeats Leicester at Eversham — 
 Death of Henry III. 
 
 ■^HE Duke of Normandy was now 
 King of England as William I., 
 surnamed "the Conqueror," but he 
 was not yet master of the king- 
 dom. Southern England alone 
 had been overcome, but the west 
 and north still held out against him. 
 Upon taking possession of the southern 
 counties he claimed all the land as feudal 
 lord of the country, and at once proceeded 
 to parcel it out among his followers as 
 military fiefs. The result was that few of 
 the native English Avere allowed to retain 
 their lands, and many of the great land- 
 owners were either reduced to the grade of 
 small holders, or were beggared. Every 
 man held his land direct from the king, 
 and the feudal syste^n was thus instantane- 
 ously put in full force in England. Six 
 months after the battle of Hastings Wil- 
 liam returned to Normandy to look after 
 his affairs there, leaving England under 
 Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz- 
 Osbern, his lieutenants. Their tyrannical 
 course drove the English to despair, and 
 William upon his return found the better 
 part of the country in arms against him. 
 The English were not disheartened, but 
 they were divided, without a common 
 leader or a general i^lan of operations. 
 Their desultory efforts could accomplish 
 nothing definite against such an able com- 
 mander as William. They were aided by 
 forces from Denmark, but beyond a few 
 trifling successes their operations availed 
 them nothing. Yet it cost William four 
 years of hard and almost constant fighting 
 to get possession of the whole land. In 
 order to crush out the resistance of the 
 north country, the king deliberately laid 
 waste the whole region between York and 
 Dui'ham. For nine years it was a desert, 
 no man having the heart to cultivate the 
 blasted fields or rebuild the ruined towns. 
 This savage cruelty was so successful that 
 William treated the region between the 
 Tyue and the Tees and Cheshire in the 
 same way. Chester was the last city which 
 yielded to him. When the winter came on 
 the sufferings of the people were frightful, 
 and as many as 100,000 persons are said to 
 have died before the end of the season. 
 Only one band of patriots now remained in 
 arms against the Norman — the " outlaws " 
 of the isle of Ely, led by Hereward, " the 
 last of the English," but these too at length 
 became disheartened, and submitted. 
 
 William at first seems to have endeavored 
 
FBOM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD L 
 
 819 
 
 to rule England with justice. He was a 
 stern and determined ruler as well, and in 
 the end he became avaricious and grasping, 
 careless of the oppression inflicted upon his 
 people, so it brought him money. He 
 made Lanfranc, a Lombard monk, who was 
 esteemed the most learned man in Europe, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc grad- 
 ually displaced the native 
 prelates and higher clergy, 
 and supplied their places 
 with foreigners, and thus 
 brought the English 
 Church into complete sub- 
 mission to the pope. In 
 1085 William ordered the 
 making of Domesday 
 Book, "a general survey 
 of all the lauds in the 
 kingdom, their extent in 
 each district, their pro- 
 prietors, tenures, value; 
 the quantity of meadow, 
 pasture, wood and arable 
 land which they con- 
 tained ; and, in some 
 counties, the number of 
 tenants, cottagers, and 
 slaves of all denomina- 
 tions, who lived upon 
 them." This was a really 
 useful work, but it was ,^ 
 regarded with great dis- ^\ 
 like by the people as a \'. 
 step towards an increase / 
 of their taxes. 
 
 In person William was 
 noble and commanding ; • 
 until his last years, when V 
 he became very corpulent. 
 His mental vigor was 
 equalled by his bodily 
 strength. He was as 
 brave as a lion, and as 
 quick in action. He could 
 be generous and cour- 
 teous when he chose, and 
 equally cruel and brutal 
 at will. He could never learn English, 
 though he made an earnest effort to 
 do so. He was married to Matilda, the 
 daughter of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, to 
 whom he bore a devoted affection to the 
 end of his life. His last years were spent 
 in Normandy. We have already related 
 his quarrel with the King of France in the 
 history of that country, and the cause of 
 Vis death. When dying he is said to have 
 
 expressed great contrition for his cruel 
 treatment of the north of England. He 
 left Normandy and Maine to Robert, his 
 elder son, who had several times rebelled 
 against him ; and England to his second 
 son, William, A. D. 1087. 
 
 William II., surnamed Rufus, or the 
 Red, from his ruddy complexion, was 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROK. 
 
 crowned King of England on the 26th of 
 September, seventeen days after the death 
 of his father. An attempt ^Yas made by a 
 party, headed by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, to 
 secure England for Robert of Normandy, 
 the conqueror's elder son, but William 
 made such fine promises to the English 
 that they embraced his cause heartily, and 
 enabled' him to end the rebellion. They 
 soon had cause to re])ent their choice. 
 
820 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 William Rufus was his father's equal in 
 courage, but his interior in everything else. 
 He broke every promise he hacl made to 
 the English, and, in place of the light taxes 
 they had been told to expect, they were 
 required to bear the heaviest burdens to 
 supply the extravagant wants of the king. 
 " Wherever the king and the court went 
 they did as much damage as an invading 
 army, for the royal followers lived at free 
 quarters on the country people, and often 
 repaid their hosts by plundering and selling 
 their property, and, in wanton insolence, 
 washing their own horses' legs with the 
 liquor they did not drink." 
 
 In A. D. 1090 William attempted to 
 wrest Normandy from his brother Robert, 
 but without success. Becoming reconciled, 
 the two brothers turned their arms against 
 their younger brother, Henry, whom they 
 worsted. An invasion of the Scots, under 
 their King Malcolm, recalled William to 
 England. Malcolm was induced to make 
 peace and to do homage to William for his 
 crown. In 1093 the Scottish king invaded 
 England a second time, but was defeated 
 and slain. To guard against such incur- 
 sions, William rebuilt Carlisle, which had 
 long been in ruins, erected a strong castle 
 there, and settled the place with colonists 
 from the south of England. A few years 
 later Normandy, which he had again under- 
 taken to conquer, became his possession in 
 an unexpected manner. Duke Robert, 
 wishing to join the crusade, mortgaged his 
 duchy to his brother William for live years 
 for the sum of 10,000 marks. With this 
 money he joined the army of the cross, and 
 William entered into possession of Nor- 
 mandy. In A. D. 1100, Avhile hunting in 
 the New Forest, in England, William was 
 shot by an arrow from some unknown 
 hand and slain. Walter Tyrell, one of the 
 hunting party, was suspected of the murder, 
 but he always denied it, though he fled the 
 kingdom. The king's body was conveyed 
 by a poor charcoal-burner in his cart to 
 Westminster, where it was buried without 
 religious rites. 
 
 Henry, the youngest son of the Con- 
 queror, seized the throne immediately upon 
 the death of William Rufus, and was 
 crowned King of England three days after 
 his brother's death, thus forestalling his 
 elder brother Robert, who was loitering on 
 his way home from the Holy Laud. He 
 conciliated all parties by an act which he 
 termed the Charter of Liberties, in which 
 
 he bound himself not to sell the vacant 
 benefices of the church, nor to lease them ; 
 to exempt his vassals from certain exac- 
 tions and restrictions, on condition that the 
 barons granted a similar relief to their own 
 vassals, and to confirm and put in force the 
 laws of Edward the Confessor. He removed 
 the evil companions of his brother Rufus 
 from the positions to which that king had 
 appointed them, and recalled Anselm to 
 the See of Canterbury. He won the sup- 
 port of the Scots by marrying Edith, the 
 daughter of Malcolm, King of Scotland, 
 who, upon her marriage, took the Norman 
 name of Matilda. 
 
 Robert of Normandy, relying upon the 
 support of the nobles, the majority of whom 
 were hostile to Henry, invaded England, 
 and attempted to get possession of the 
 throne. The English people stood by King 
 Henry, and Robert was compelled to yield 
 without a battle. Henry then set to work to 
 reduce the barons to a more perfect sub- 
 mission to the crown, an object which he 
 effectually accomplished during the re- 
 mainder of his reign. In 1106 he invaded 
 Normandy ; defeated and made his brother 
 Robert a prisoner, and gained j)ossession 
 of the duchy. He kept Robert a captive 
 at Cardiff Castle until his death in 1135. 
 A quarrel ensued about this time between 
 the king and Archbishop Anselm, upon the 
 claim of the king that the bishops and ab- 
 bots should be nominated by the sovereign 
 and be the vassals of the crown. Anselm 
 defended the right of the pope to make such 
 nominations without interference, and in the 
 end Henry was obliged to yield somewhat 
 of his pretensions, and the power of the 
 pope was thus strengthened in England. 
 Henry planted a colony of Flemings in 
 Wales, in the district of Ross in Pembroke- 
 shire. The Flemish settlers devoted them- 
 selves to the culture of the soil and the 
 manufacture of cloth. They increased rap- 
 idly in numbers and prosperity, and though 
 the Welsh princes endeavored to expel them 
 they succeeded in holding their own against 
 them. William the Conqueror and Rufus 
 had endeavored to restrain the Welsh within 
 their borders by erecting strong castles for 
 the defence of the country, but Henry's 
 wise policy of raising up a brave and indus- 
 trious border population furnished England 
 with a more effectual barrier in this quarter. 
 
 In 1118 Queen Matilda, "the Good," 
 died, and two years later the young Prince 
 William, the only son of Henry and Ma- 
 
FEOM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD L 
 
 821 
 
 tilda, was drowned at sea. The only daughter 
 by this marriage was Matilda, or Maude, 
 who was married to the Emperor Henry V. 
 of Germany. The death of that monarch 
 left her a widow in 1125. Henry I. of Eng- 
 land married Adelais of Louvain, after 
 the death of Queen Matilda, but the mar- 
 riage proved childless. In the absence of 
 male heirs Henry settled the English and 
 Norman crowns upon his daughter, the 
 Empress Matilda, and compelled the barons 
 to swear fidelity to her. To secure her 
 power, and to increase the influence of 
 Eugland on the continent, Henry married 
 Matilda, much against her will, to Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, a youth of 
 sixteen. On the 1st of December, 1135, 
 Henry died, while on a visit to Normandy. 
 He was the only one of the Conqueror's 
 sons that was born in England, and was 
 one of the firmest and most vigorous sover- 
 eigns that ever governed that country. 
 Though he was in many respects harsh and 
 tyrannical, he was, according to the times, 
 a good king. He improved the administra- 
 tion of justice, and granted charters to the 
 towns. He punished robbery, by whomso- 
 ever committed, with a stern hand, and 
 made life and property safe in England. 
 He thus Avon the hearty support of the 
 English, who gratefully treasured his mem- 
 ory in spite of the heavy burdens he laid 
 upon them and of his distrust of them, 
 which prevented him from ever appointing 
 an Englishman to ofiice. 
 
 Upon the death of Henry I., Stephen of 
 Blois, Count of Boulogne, claimed the crown, 
 and was elected king and crowned at West- 
 minster. The barons, who disliked both 
 Matilda and her husband, gave Stephen 
 their supj^ort, and the king, once master of 
 the treasures left by Henry I., was able to 
 purchase the assistance of a large force of 
 mercenaries. War soon broke out between 
 the king and the partisans of Matilda. Her 
 uncle, King David of Scotland, invaded 
 England several times in her behalf, but 
 was utterly routed at the " Battle of the 
 Standard," in August, 1138. Stephen did 
 not derive much advantage from this suc- 
 cess, however. As soon as his money gave 
 out the barons began to throw oflf his author- 
 ity. The kingdom fell into a state of 
 anarchy, and the barons, secure in their 
 strong castles, plundered the country and 
 levied contributions upon the towns with 
 impunity. In 1139 the Empress Matilda 
 lauded in England, and immediately a 
 
 fierce civil war burst upon the kingdom, 
 and continued until 1153, when, by the 
 intervention of the bishops, a treaty was 
 arranged by which Stephen, who had re- 
 cently lost his son and heir, Eustace, was 
 allowed to retain the crown until his death, 
 when it was to pass to Henry, the eldest son 
 of Matilda and Geoffrey. Stephen died on 
 the 25th of October, 1154, and England 
 passed to the house of Anjou by the acces- 
 sion of Henry II. to the throne. 
 
 The reign of Henry II. is one of the most 
 important in English history. He was a 
 great prince before his accession to the 
 throne of England, and was twenty-one 
 years old at the time. He was Count of 
 Anjou by birth ; from his mother he inher- 
 ited Normandy and Maine ; and having 
 married Eleanor of Aquitaine a few weeks 
 after her divorce from Louis VII. of France, 
 he added the duchy of Aquitaine and the 
 county of Poitou, which she brought him, 
 to his other possessions. Thus, though he 
 was a vassal of the French king, he was 
 more powerful than his sovereign, or than 
 the French king and all the crown vas?als 
 combined. His accession to the English 
 throne made him a dangerous rival to 
 France. He was a man of hard, practical 
 sense ; of great energy and firmness of will, 
 and had been carefully educated. He was 
 fond of the company of learned men, and 
 in many respects was a man of broad, 
 liberal views. He devoted himself to the 
 task of restoring order to the sadly distracted 
 kingdom of Eugland, and not only com- 
 pelled the barons to yield obedience to the 
 civil law, but succeeded in obliterating to a 
 great extent the distinction which had pre- 
 viously existed between Norman and Eng- 
 lishman He was the founder of good gov- 
 ernment in England, and provided for the 
 impartial administration of justice by divid- 
 ing the kingdom into circuits, and appoint- 
 ing faithful judges over them. He estab- 
 lished a competent militia force by requii'ing 
 every freeman to provide himself with arms 
 according to his position. In his reign the 
 payment of scutage, or money paid by mili- 
 tary tenants for exemption from service, 
 was first introduced. Yet though so ad- 
 mirable a king, Henry's private life was 
 unhappy. His fierce and ungovernable 
 temper often brought him into trouble, and 
 his marriage, which was entirely one of pol- 
 icy on his part, was an unfortunate one, and 
 the jealousy of his wife embittered his life and 
 was productive of the most serious results. 
 
822 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 In 1162 Henry caused his friend Thomas 
 A Becket, the chancellor, to be elected Arch- 
 bishop of Cauta-bury. Becket immediately 
 abandoned his former pomp, and embracing 
 habits of great austerity, made himself the 
 uncompromising champion of the pope's 
 supremacy in England. Henry resented 
 this. The conqueror had granted to the 
 clergy the right to be tried for their offences 
 by ecclesiastical courts. Henry now sought 
 
 MUEDER OF THOMAS i. BECKET 
 
 to bring them under the rule of the civil 
 law, and in spite of the opposition of the 
 archbishop, secured the passage of a series 
 of measures for this purpose, known as the 
 Constitutions of Clarendon (because of their 
 adoption at that place by an assembly of 
 nobles and prelates), in January, 1164. 
 The pope refused to give his consent to the 
 constitutions, and Henry turned upon 
 Becket with such fury that the archbishop 
 was obliged to take refuge in France, where 
 
 he was protected by Louis VII. For six 
 years Becket remained in exile. In 1170 
 Henry, wishing to secure the succession of 
 his eldest son Henry, had him crowned. 
 Becket and Pope Alexander III. declared 
 that ■ the Archbishop of Canterbury alone 
 possessed the right to crown the English 
 sovereign, and the quarrel between Henry 
 II. and the archbishop Avas thus intensified. 
 Nevertheless, shortly after, influenced either 
 by his fear of the consequences 
 of the pope's hostility, or by 
 the mediation of Louis VII. 
 of France, Henry consented to 
 allow Becket to return to Eng- 
 land. The archbishop came 
 back as haughty and deterr 
 mined as ever, and immedi- 
 ately caused it to be known 
 that he brought with him the 
 sentence of excommunication 
 pronounced by the pope against 
 the Archbishop of York and 
 two other bishops, who had 
 taken part in the coronation 
 of Henry "the Younger King." 
 When this was made known to 
 Henry II., he burst into one of 
 his fearful fits of rage, and ex- 
 claimed furiously, " what cow- 
 ards have I brought up in my 
 court ! not one will deliver me 
 from this low-born priest." 
 Four gentlemen of his house- 
 hold, K- eg in aid Fitz-Urse, 
 William de Traci, Hugh de 
 Moreville, and Richard Brito, 
 took him at his word, and pro- 
 ceeding to England, repaired 
 to Canterbury, where they slew 
 the archbishop before the altar 
 of his own cathedral, and re- 
 tired without meeting any oppo- 
 sition, December 11th, 1170. 
 Thus died one of the most re- 
 markable men England has 
 ever produced, "a prelate of 
 the most lofty, intrepid, and inflexible 
 spirit, who was able to cover to the world, 
 and probably to himself, the enterprises of 
 pride and ambition under the disguise of 
 sanctity, and of zeal for the interests of re- 
 ligion." 
 
 Henry had intended to arrest Becket, but 
 the news of his murder filled him with con- 
 sternation. He protested his innocence of 
 complicity in the deed, and his oath was 
 accepted by the pope. In this dilemma he 
 
FBOM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD L 
 
 823 
 
 Avas obliged to yield to the church some of 
 the jwivileges for which Becket had con- 
 tended. Becket was canonized by the 
 pope under the title of St. Thomas of Can- 
 terbury. 
 
 One of the principal events of Henry's 
 reign was the 
 conquest of Ire- 
 land by the Eng- 
 lish. Immedi- 
 ately upon com- 
 ing to the throne 
 Pope A d r i a n 
 IV., the only 
 Englishman that 
 ever sat on the 
 papal throne, 
 granted Henry 
 authority to in- 
 vade and con- 
 quer Ireland, 
 thus exercising 
 his claim to be- 
 stow of right the 
 kingdoms of this 
 w o r 1 d u p n 
 whom he pleased. 
 Nothing came 
 of this until 
 1169,when Rich- 
 ard of Clare, Earl of Pembroke, better 
 known as " Strongbow," aided by a number 
 of English, conquered the island for Der- 
 mot of Leinster, a fugitive Irish king, who 
 had sought Henry's assistance. Strongbow 
 married Dermot's daughter Eva, and upon 
 the deatli of that king assumed the royal 
 title. This action was resented by Henry, 
 and Strongbow prudently relinquished his 
 conquests to the English king, who visited 
 Ireland in 1171. The sovereignty of Henry 
 was generally acknowledged, and in 1175 
 iRoderick of Connaught, the head King of 
 Ireland, did him homage for his crown 
 From this time Ireland was regarded as a 
 possession of the English crown. The Eng- 
 lish authority was merely nominal, however, 
 and for centuries Ireland remained in a 
 state of utter anarchy, torn by the conten- 
 tions of the English lords and the Irish 
 chiefs. 
 
 The last years of Henry II. were embit- 
 tered by the quarrels of his sons with him- 
 self and with each other. Eleanor of 
 Aquitaine, who had disgusted her first hus- 
 band Avith her infidelities, produced a sim- 
 ilar effect upon Henry by her jealousy. 
 Thoroughly discontented herself, she in- 
 
 STKONGCOW'S MONUMENT. 
 
 duced her sons to rebel against their father, 
 Avhom they endeavored to deprive of his 
 crown and his dominions. In 1173 a league 
 was formed against him by his sons, the 
 Kings of France and Scotland, and many 
 of the nobles of England and Normandy. 
 Henry, who Avas an indulgent father, was 
 deeply wounded by the conduct of his sons, 
 and was induced by the clergy to believe 
 that his misfortunes were caused by the 
 Divine wrath for the murder of St. Thomas, 
 as Becket was now called. He therefore 
 permitted himself to be induced to make a 
 pilgrimage to the shrine of the martyr at 
 Canterbury, and there submitted to be 
 scourged by the monks, as penance for 
 Becket's death. Returning to London, he 
 learned that on the day after his penance 
 William the Lion of Scotland had been 
 beaten and captured at Alnwick. The 
 king now took heart, supposing that 
 Heaven and Thomas a Becket had granted 
 him forgiveness. The rebellion was soon 
 crushed. The King of Scots Avas compelled 
 to surrender the ancient independence of 
 his crown as the price of his liberty. Scot- 
 land Avas made a great fief of the English 
 croAvn, and the Scottish lords, spiritual and 
 temporal, Avere obliged to swear to support 
 the English king even against their own 
 sovereign. In the next reign these gallins: 
 
 THE TOWER — DUBLIN CASTLE. 
 
 conditions AA'ere remitted for a considera- 
 tion, and England retained only a nominal 
 sovereignty over Scotland. 
 
 Henry had noAV extricated himself from 
 his difficulties, with honor, but he did not 
 long enjoy peace. In 1183 his sons made 
 
824 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 war upon him again and quarrelled with 
 each other as well. Henry " the Younger 
 King," who had been led into the struggle 
 against his inclination, died in June of that 
 year, imploring his father's forgiveness. 
 Henry now endeavored to effect a settle- 
 ment with his remaining sons, but Richai-d 
 refused to submit. Geoffrey was pardoned, 
 and Richard soon made his submission. 
 In 1185 Geoffrey, the most violent aud vi- 
 cious of all Henry's sods, rebelled again, 
 but was killed in a tournament at Paris, 
 
 KICHAED CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 the next year. Soon after his death his 
 widow was delivered of a son, named Ar- 
 thur, whom Henry invested with the duchy 
 of Brittany, of which he was. as Duke of 
 Normandy, the feudal lord. In 1188 Rich- 
 ard, encouraged by Philip of France, again 
 rebelled and made himself master of his 
 father's foreign dominions. Henry, greatly 
 disheartened by the constant rebellions of 
 his children, made but a feeble resistance, 
 and submitted to the shameful terms of 
 peace which his enemies imposed upon him, 
 
 and which have been stated in the French 
 history of this century. He demanded to 
 see a list of the barons who had supported 
 Richard against him, and whom he was 
 bound by the treaty to pardon. At the 
 head of the list he saw with horror the 
 name of his youngest and favorite son John, 
 upon whom he had showered kindness and 
 affection. Already broken down with sor- 
 row and mortification, this fresh blow was 
 more than he could bear, and uttering a 
 bitter curse upon bis children, which he 
 could never be persua- 
 ded to retract, he re- 
 tired to the Castle of 
 Chinon, near Sauraur, 
 where he died on the 
 6th of July, 1189. 
 
 Henry was succeeded 
 by his second son, Rich- 
 ard I., surnamed Coeur 
 de Lion, or "the Lion- 
 hearted," whose rebel- 
 lion had brought King 
 Henry to his grave. 
 Richard's penitence for 
 the death of his father 
 was lasting, and was 
 productive of good for 
 England, for, discard- 
 ing the men who had 
 aided his rebellion, he 
 continued in office the 
 faithful ministers of 
 Henry XL, and made 
 them his counsellors 
 and friends. Soon af- 
 ter he began his reign, 
 Richard, having raised 
 the necessary means by 
 the sale of titles, offices 
 of state, and crown 
 lands, set out with' 
 Philip Augustus of 
 France, in the sum- 
 mer of 1190, for Pales- 
 tine, to take part in the Third Crusade. He 
 so greatly distinguished himself by his 
 feats of valor and daring, that he became 
 the hero of the crusade and won the jeal- 
 ous enmity of Philip, who soon went home 
 and began his schemes for getting possession 
 of the continental dominions of Richard. 
 Richard, indignant at the lack of zeal on 
 the part of the crusading princes, disgusted 
 them with his arrogance. Unable to ac- 
 complish anything, and having fallen ill of 
 a fever, which nearly ended his life, he 
 
FROM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD L 
 
 made a truce with Saladin, the sultan. 
 Keceiving news that his brother John and 
 the French King Philip were plotting to 
 deprive him of his crown and his domin- 
 ions, he abandoned the crusade and set out 
 for England. 
 
 Upon leaving England Richard had 
 placed his kingdom under the rule of the 
 chancellor, William Longchamp, Bishop of 
 Ely, who, becoming unpopular with the 
 
 825 
 
 tiye to the Emperor Henry VI., who loaded 
 him with irons and imprisoned him in a 
 castle in the Tyrol. In the end he was 
 brought before the diet and accused of hav- 
 ing procured the assassination of Conrad, 
 Marquis of Montferrat, a fellow-crusader. 
 Richard easily refuted this charge, but the 
 emperor refused to release him, until the 
 pope's threat of excommunication and the 
 growing indignation of the German princes 
 
 KICHARD BEFORE THE GERMAN DIET. 
 
 English, was deposed by the barons, who 
 placed the king's younger brother, John, 
 at the head of the government. John, by 
 nature treacherous and base, was soou in- 
 duced by Philip Augustus of France to 
 attempt to seize the throne. The news of 
 this determined Richard, as has been stated, 
 to leave Palestine. In passing through 
 Austria, on his way home, he Avas seized by 
 Duke Leopold, with whom he had quar- 
 relled in Palestine. Leopold sold his cap- 
 
 compelled him to do so. He then gave 
 Richard his liberty on payment of a ransom 
 so heavy that the vassals of the king were 
 obliged to raise it by the payment of one- 
 fourth of their incomes. The captivity of 
 the king lasted over a year, and he was set 
 free in February, 1194. John, who had 
 endeavored to induce the emperor to retain 
 Richard in captivity, was startled by the 
 announcement from Philip — "Take care of 
 yourself, for the devil is let loose." Rich- 
 
826 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ard, however, inflicted no punishment on 
 John beyond depriving him of his lands 
 and castles. In 1199, while besieging the 
 castle of the Viscount of Limoges, at Chaluz, 
 Richard was mortally wounded, and the 
 hero of the Third Crusade perished in a 
 private quarrel. 
 
 Richard I. was in no sense an English- 
 man. A Frenchman by birth, education, 
 and character, he made England his place 
 of abode but twice during his reign, and 
 then for a few months only. He was of 
 heroic stature, of noble and commanding 
 appearance, and Avas possessed of unusual 
 strength and the most indomitable courage, 
 and of great endurance. He inherited the 
 fierce and ungovernable temper of his father, 
 and was haughty, cruel, domineering, re- 
 vengeful, and ambitious ; but he was also 
 open, frank, generous, sincere, and brave. 
 He was passionately fond of military enter- 
 prises, and dearly loved the glory to be avou 
 in them. He cared little for the English, 
 and his treatment of them was oppressive 
 and arbitrary, but he is the hero of English 
 romance and his fame is cherished by the 
 English people even to this day. He mar- 
 ried Berengaria of Navarre soon after his 
 accession to the throne, but she bore him 
 no children. 
 
 John, the youngest son of Henry II., be- 
 came King of England at the death of his 
 brother Richard. He Avas a weak, coaa^- 
 ardly, cruel and incompetent ruler, and his 
 reign Avas one of continued misfortuue for 
 England. His title Avas disputed in Nor- 
 mandy by his nephew Arthur, Duke of 
 Brittany, the son of his elder brother Geof- 
 frey, Avhose cause was espoused by Philip 
 of France. 
 
 Philip Augustus was unable at first to 
 render any active assistance to Arthur of 
 Brittany against King John, but the abduc- 
 tion by John of Isabella of Angouleme, the 
 afiianced bride of the Count de la Marche, 
 gave Philip an opportunity of making good 
 his promise to Arthur. 1\\ the war which 
 ensued, and Avhich has been related in the 
 French history of this period, John cap- 
 tured Arthur and a number of his adher- 
 ents. Some of the latter Avere starved to 
 death, and Arthur, it Avas believed at the 
 time, Avas stabbed by John himself in the 
 Castle of Rouen, a. d. 1203. Philip sum- 
 moned John before his court to answer for 
 his crime, and upon his refusal to appear 
 declared all his fiefs forfeit to the crown of 
 France. He folloAved up this sentence by 
 
 the conquest of Normandy and all John's 
 other possessions in France, save the duchy 
 of Aquitaine and the Channel islands. In 
 the end this loss proved a great gain for 
 England. Her sovereigns being deprived 
 of their continental territories Avere com- 
 pelled to confine their attention to Eng- 
 land, and thus became Englishmen, and 
 no longer French princes rulmg England. 
 
 This Avar had scarcely come to a close 
 Avhen John became involved in a quarrel 
 Avith Pope Innocent III. The cause of the 
 dispute Avas the mode of electing the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. The king claimed 
 that the right of election lay with the bish- 
 ops of the province ; the pope asserted that 
 this right belonged exclusively to the monks 
 of Christ's Church, Canterbury, and these 
 at his command elected to that dignity an 
 Englishman named Stephen Langton, then 
 in Rome. John refused to recognize the 
 election, and Innocent resorted to his usual 
 Aveapon. He laid the kingdom under an 
 interdict, A. d. 1207. The pope Avas fully 
 aware of the king's unpopularity Avith the 
 nobles, and resolved to ^Jroceed against him 
 Avith great vigor. The power of the king 
 Avas so great that he forced the clergy to 
 disregard the interdict, and in 1212 Inno- 
 cent took the extreme step of excommuni- 
 cating him. He offered the English crown 
 to Philip of France, who prepared to at- 
 tempt the conquest of England. In this 
 dilemma, hated by the people and unsup- 
 ported by the barons, the courage of John 
 failed him. His terror Avas greatly in- 
 creased by the prediction of a hermit of 
 Pomfret, named Peter, that the king should 
 lose his croAvn Avithin the year. John made 
 an humble submission to the pope, accepted 
 Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, and resigning his crown into the 
 hands of the papal legate, received it from 
 him again as a vassal of the Holy See, INIay 
 15th, 1213. The legate receiA'ed this hu- 
 miliating surrender in a manner Avhich 
 made it all the more galling to the English, 
 and then AA^ent over to France and put a 
 stop to Philip's plans of invasion, as Eng- 
 land Avas noAV a fief of the Holy See. John 
 vented his mortification upon poor Peter of 
 Pomfret, Avhom he hanged for a false pro- 
 phet, notAvithstanding the man averred that 
 his prophecy had been fulfilled by John's 
 voluntary loss of the royal and independent 
 crown and his acceptance of the position of 
 a vassal. 
 
 John now attempted to compel his barons 
 
 I 
 
FROM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD L 
 
 ^Tl 
 
 to aid him ia his pi-ojects against France 
 for the recovery of the provinces won from 
 him by Philip, but they refused to accom- 
 
 severity to abandon his purpose. He then 
 completed his reconciliation with the church, 
 and the interdict was removed by the pope 
 
 KING JOHN STTERENDERS HIS CROWN TO THE PAPAL LEGATE. 
 
 pany him. The king then threatened to 
 make war upon them for their refusal, but 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury compelled 
 him by the menace of more ecclesiastical 
 
 on payment of 40,000 marks. John then 
 went to France and engaged in a feeble and 
 fruitless attempt agaiust Philip, in which 
 he had not the courage to risk a battle. 
 
828 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 He was compelled to purchase a five years' 
 peace by the payment of 60,000 marks. 
 
 John returned to England to find the 
 kingdom almost in a state of rebellion. His 
 tyranny had arrayed the barons and people 
 against him, and had caused even Arch- 
 bisho]) Langton and the English Church to 
 make common cause with the barons. 
 Langton, indeed, was the soul of the move- 
 ment, and had formed the design of reform- 
 ing the government and rectifying the 
 abuses which the church in common with 
 the whole people suffered. Under the pre- 
 text of devotion he summoned a meeting of 
 the nobles at St. Edmundsbury on the 20th 
 of November, 1214, and all present swore 
 to withdraw their allegiance from John if 
 he refused their demands. On the day ap- 
 pointed, the barons appeared in London, 
 and demanded of the king his acceptance 
 of the measures proposed by them. John 
 asked for a delay, and promised them an 
 answer to their petition at the next Easter. 
 During the interval John aj^pealed to the 
 pope, who encouraged him to refuse the de- 
 mand of the barons, and, thus inspired, the 
 king swore a furious oatli that he would not 
 grant them liberties which would reduce 
 him to slavery. The barons at once pro- 
 ceeded to levy war upon the king, and hav- 
 ing gained possession of London, compelled 
 him to submit. A conference between them 
 was held at Runnymede, a meadow between 
 Windsor and Stains, on the 15th of June, 
 1215, and John was compelled to sign the 
 charter embodying their demands. Thus 
 was won Magna Charta, or " The Great 
 Charter," which is still regarded as the 
 foundation of the liberties of England. This 
 famous deed granted or secured important 
 liberties and privileges to the three orders 
 of the English people — to the clergy, to the 
 nobles, and to the commons. The liberties 
 of the church Avere secured by the first 
 clause, Avhich granted the clergy freedom of 
 election ; removed the restrictions upon ap- 
 peals to Rome; and regulated the extent 
 of the fines which should be imposed upon 
 the clergy. The grievances of the barons 
 as tenants of the crown were remedied by 
 other clauses, and among these provisions 
 it was specified that " no scutage or aid 
 (assistance in money from a vassal to his 
 lord) except in the three general feudal 
 cases, the king's captivity, the knighting 
 of his eldest son, and the marrying of his 
 eldest daughter, shall be imposed, but by 
 the great council of the kingdom." Meas- 
 
 ures were also inserted to prevent the ar- 
 bitrary seizures of the lands of the nobles 
 by the crown. Having thus secured their 
 own rights, the barons, to their honor, went 
 a step farther, and placed the liberties of 
 the commons on as sound a basis. " It was 
 ordained that all the privileges and immu- 
 nities above mentioned," says Hume, 
 " granted to the barons against the king, 
 should be extended by the barons to their 
 inferior vassals. The king bound himself 
 not to grant any Avrit, empowering a baron 
 to levy aid from his vassals, except in the 
 three feudal cases. One weight and one 
 measure shall be established throughout the 
 kingdom. Merchants shall be allowed to 
 transact all business, without being exposed 
 to any arbitrary tolls and impositions ; they, 
 and all freemen, shall be allowed to go out 
 of the kingdom and return to it at pleasure ; 
 London, and all cities and burgs, shall pre- 
 serve their ancient liberties, immunities and 
 free customs ; aids shall not be required of 
 them but by the consent of the great coun- 
 cil ; no towns or individuals shall be obliged 
 to make or support bridges, but by ancient 
 custom ; the goods of every freeman shall 
 be disposed of according to his will ; if he 
 die intestate, his heirs shall succeed to them. 
 No officer of the crown shall take any 
 horses, carts, or wood, without the consent 
 of the owner. The king's courts of justice 
 shall be stationary, shall no longer follow 
 his person ; they shall be open to every one ; 
 and justice shall no longer be sold, refused, 
 or delayed by them. Circuits sIkiU be 
 regularly held every year : the inferior tri- 
 bunals of justice, the county court, sherifi''s 
 turn, and courtleet, shall meet at their ap- 
 jDointed time and place: the sheriff" shall be 
 incapacitated to hold pleas of the crown ; 
 and shall not put any person upon his trial 
 from rumor or suspicion alone, but upon 
 the evidence of lawful witnesses. No free- 
 man shall be taken, imprisoned, or dispos- 
 sessed of his free tenement and liberties, or 
 outlawed, or banished, or anywise hurt or 
 injured, unless by the legal judgment of his 
 peers, or by the law of the land ; and all 
 who suffered otherwise in this or the two 
 former reigns shall be restored to their 
 rights and possessions. Every freeman 
 shall be fined in proportion to his fault; 
 and no fine shall be levied on him to his 
 utter ruin : even a villain, or rustic, shall 
 not, by any fine, be bereaved of his carts, 
 ploughs, and implements of husbandry." 
 John signed the charter with seeming 
 
FROM WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD L 
 
 829 
 
 cheerfulness, but as soon as he was rid of 
 the presence of the barons he burst into a 
 rage against them, and appealed to the 
 pope, who annulled the charter, and threat- 
 ened the king with excommunication if he 
 observed his part of the agreement, and the 
 barons with the same penalty if they de- 
 manded such observance. Undismayed by 
 this threat the barons prepared to enforce 
 the terms of the charter, and the sentence 
 of excommunication was fulminated against 
 them. Archbishop Langton courageously 
 refused to pronounce it, and was suspended 
 from his office by the pope. The king im- 
 ported a force of mercenary soldiers from 
 
 1216. He was joyfully received in London, 
 and seemed on the point of carrying every- 
 thing before him when John suddenly died 
 at Newark, on the 18th of October, 1216, 
 leaving behind him the reputation of the 
 worst of English kings. John's eldest son 
 by his second wife, Isabella of Angouleme, 
 was a child of ten years. He was crowned 
 at Gloucester ten days later by the royal- 
 ists, and began his reign as Henry III. 
 Louis had alarmed his supporters by grant- 
 ing English lands to his French followers, 
 and they abandoned him, and joined the 
 party of Henry. The young king was in- 
 trusted to the guardianship of William, Earl 
 
 SIEGE OF EOCHESTER CASTLE BY KING JOHN. 
 
 the continent, and made war upon the 
 barons. He conducted his operations with 
 ferocious cruelty. The advantage lay with 
 the king, for the barons having no capable 
 leader were not able to act with harmony 
 or to oppose any regular opposition to the 
 royal arms. They sought the alliance of 
 Alexander II., Kmg of Scots, but John 
 compelled that monarch to confine himself 
 to his own kingdom. In this emergency 
 the barons invited Prince Louis, the son of 
 Philip Augustus of France, who had mar- 
 ried John's niece, Blanche of Castile, the 
 granddaughter of Henry II., to come over 
 and claim the crown. Louis accepted the 
 invitation, and arrived in England in May, 
 
 of Pembroke, an able statesman and a good 
 soldier, and under his vigorous direction 
 Louis was defeated in two battles — one 
 fought in the streets of Lincoln, in which 
 the English were commanded by Pembroke 
 in person, and one off Dover between an 
 English squadron and a superior French 
 fleet. Abandoned by his English follo^yers, 
 and reduced to despair, Louis was obliged 
 to make peace. He surrendered his claims 
 to the English crown and promised never 
 to repass the channel, and was allowed to 
 withdraw into France. The Scotch King 
 Alexander II. and the Welsh Prince 
 Llewelyn were obliged to acknowledge 
 Henry as their feudal lord. 
 
830 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 At the age of twenty-nine Henry mar- 
 ried Eleanor, daugliter of the Count of 
 Provence, a beautiful and accomplished 
 princess. She failed to win her people's 
 friendship, however, in consequence of her 
 partiality for foreigners. Henry also came 
 in for a share of this unpopularity, as he 
 manifested the greatest aflection for the 
 strangers who came to England with his 
 wife, and lavished gifts upon them with the 
 most imprudent generosity. The Proven- 
 9als, on their part, behaved with such 
 haughtiness and disregard of the law as to 
 make the English detest them still more 
 heartily. The gifts lavished upon them by 
 Henry, and the large sums demanded by 
 the king upon the birth of his eldest son 
 
 OLD WESTMINSTER HALL,. 
 
 Edward, gave such offence to the peo- 
 ple of the city of London that they fre- 
 quently indulged in open manifestations of 
 their dislike for the court. Another source 
 of trouble was the greediness with which 
 Kome exacted heavy sums of money from 
 the English. The pope claimed the right 
 to tax the clergy, and a year rarely passed 
 without some heavy demand from him. 
 The pope also induced Henry to accept for 
 his second son, Edmund, the crown of the 
 Sicilian kingdom, and as this crown could be 
 obtained only by the conquest of that king- 
 dom, Henry bound himself to pay the 
 cost of the war for it. It at length became 
 apparent to the king as well as to the 
 barons that the Holy See was simply using 
 the Sicilian war as a pretext to extort 
 
 money from England, and the barons, 
 alarmed at the steady drain upon the re- 
 sources of the kingdom, compelled Henry 
 to agree to the appointment of a commission 
 of twenty-four persons, half to be chosen by 
 themselves and half by the crown, for the 
 purpose of devising some measures of relief. 
 The commission thus appointed drew up a 
 series of measures known as " the Provis- 
 ions of Oxford," by which the royal author- 
 ity was greatly curtailed by being placed 
 in the hands of a council appointed by 
 themselves. Henry was obliged to submit 
 at first, but he availed himself of the first 
 opportunity to recover his power. The re- 
 sult was a war between the king and the 
 barons. The barons had gone too far, and 
 had sought to make the 
 .^ king merely their slave. 
 
 -iz^hy The spirit of the Eng- 
 
 =0, ^*^p lish people was roused 
 
 ^^ "^ against the new oligarchy 
 
 which thus came into 
 power, and they rallied 
 to the support of the 
 crown with such vigor 
 that Henry was enabled 
 to take the field with a 
 fair force. The barons 
 made an alliance with the 
 Welsh, and won such ad- 
 vantages over the king 
 that the parties were at 
 length about evenly bal- 
 anced. At this juncture 
 both parties agreed to 
 submit their difierences 
 to the arbitration of the 
 good Louis IX. of 
 France. The decision 
 of Louis was that the king should be re- 
 stoi-ed the rights and possessions of which 
 he had been unlawfully and violently dis- 
 possessed by the barons. At the same time 
 he provided for the rights of the people by 
 ordering a general amnesty for all past 
 offences, and declaring that " his award was 
 not anywise meant to derogate from the 
 privileges and liberties which the nation 
 enjoyed by any former concessions or char- 
 ters of the crown." This equitable sentence 
 was accepted by the king, but was rejected 
 by the barons, and the civil war began 
 again. 
 
 The leader of the barons was Simon de 
 Montfort, Earl of Leicester, the son of that 
 Simon who had conquered Languedoc and 
 l^ersecuted the Albigenses. He had become 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VII. 831 
 
 Earl of Leicester in right of his mother, 
 had married the Princess Eleanor, the sister 
 of Henry III., and had become as good an 
 Englishman as any of his confederates. 
 He "was ambitious and unscrupulous, and 
 threw himself with great heartiness into the 
 effort to humble the royal authority. He 
 was also an able commander, and defeated 
 the king in the battle of Lewes, on the 14th 
 of May, 1264, and captured his eldest son 
 Edward, and his brother Richard, King of 
 the Romans. This defeat compelled the 
 king to surrender, and closed the war for 
 a while. The government continued to be 
 administered in the king's name, and he 
 was treated with great outward respect, but 
 he was in reality a prisoner in Earl Simon's 
 hands. The jmpal legate endeavored, but 
 Avithout success, to induce the earl to re- 
 lease him, and the pope issued a bull of 
 excommunication against the barons. When 
 that instrument arrived at Dover, it was 
 seized by the men of that place and thrown 
 into the sea. 
 
 The Earl of Leicester acted as the sole 
 master of the kingdom, and violated nearly 
 every provision of the great charter. The 
 nobles regarded his course "with suppressed 
 ill will, and Leicester felt that he could not 
 long maintain affairs in this strange situa- 
 tion. It was clear to him and to all that 
 he must either descend, with some peril, 
 into the rank of a subject, or seize the 
 crown, and there was good reason to suspect 
 him of the latter intention. The queen 
 was in France collecting an army of mer- 
 cenaries for her husband's assistance, and 
 the pope was increasing his efforts to pro- 
 cure the release of the king. The chief 
 element of the strength of Earl Simon "was 
 his popularity with the people, which was 
 in a great measure the result of his cour- 
 ageous defiance of Rome. He noAV resolved 
 to increase this popularity by assembling 
 the great council of the realm, which was 
 already called by the French name of par- 
 liament. He gave to it the form which it 
 has since retained. The greater barons, 
 both spiritual and secular, were summoned 
 then as now to attend in person. The free- 
 holders, or smaller tenants of the crown, 
 "Were ordered to choose two knights to repre- 
 sent each shire or county ; and that the 
 people might, be fully represented, each city 
 and borough was ordered to elect two of its 
 citizens or burgesses. This was the first 
 time the boroughs and cities had ever been 
 represented in the national council, and is 
 
 regarded as the origin of the house of com- 
 mons. Having secured a parliament to his 
 liking, Leicester inaugurated a series of 
 measures for the increase of his own power 
 which alarmed all classes, destroyed his 
 popularity, and arrayed a strong party 
 against him. The haughty and violent 
 conduct of his sons contributed greatly to 
 this result. Prince Edward about this time 
 managed to escape from Leicester's power, 
 and raising the royal standard, was joined 
 by the royalist party. He soon found him- 
 self in a condition to commence hostilities. 
 He surpi'ised and captured Kenilworth 
 Castle, "which "was held by Simon, the son 
 of Leicester, and then advancing upon the 
 earl himself, defeated him at Evesham on 
 the 4th of August, 1265. Leicester com- 
 pelled the king to appear in the baronial 
 ranks, and he was nearly slain by his own 
 friends. Leicester himself was killed, and 
 his body was brutally mangled. The de- 
 feat of Leicester returned the king to power, 
 and peace being restored, his sons Edward 
 and Edmund went to the Holy Land and 
 engaged in the last crusade. During their 
 absence Henry III. died, on the 16th of 
 November, 1272, and the absent Edward 
 was proclaimed king. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF ED"WARD I. TO 
 THE DEATH OF HENRY VII. 
 
 Edward I. King — His Character — Suppresses the 
 Welsh Rebellion — Birth of the First Prince of 
 Wales — Edward Makes John Balliol King of 
 Scotland — Puts Down the Revolt of the Scots and 
 Carries Away their Crown — Sir William Wallace 
 Heads an Uprising of the Scots — His Capture and 
 Execution — Robert Bruce — Becomes King — 
 Death of Edward I. — Edward II. — The Confirma- 
 tion of the Charters — Sir Piers Gavestou — Jlar- 
 riage of Edward — The Barons Administer the 
 Government — Battle of Bannockburn — Edward 
 Bruce in Ireland — Sir Hugh le Despenser — Rebel- 
 lion of the Barons — Intrigues of Queen Isabella 
 Against her Husband — Murder of the King — 
 Edward III. — Roger Mortimer and Queen Isa- 
 bella Obtain the Regency — Edward Seizes the 
 Government — Execution of Mortimer — Edward 
 Claims the French Crown — War with Scotland — 
 The Hundred Years' War Begun — Naval Victory 
 of Sluvs — Battle of Crecv— Surrender of Calais — 
 The Black Death— Battle of Poitiers— The Black 
 Prince — Capture of King John of France — Death 
 of the Black Prince and King Edward — Richard 
 II. — Wat Tyler's Rebellion — Weak Reign of 
 Richard — Death of Queen Anne — The King Mar- 
 ries a French Princess— Rebellion of Henry of 
 Bolingbroke — He Becomes King as Henry IV. — 
 The Statute of Pramunire — John Wycliffe — The 
 First English Bible — Dawn of the Reformation — 
 Death of Ricliard II. — Resistance of tlie Nobles 
 
832 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to the King— Troubles with the Welsh— Defeat 
 of the Scots — Hotspur's Rebellion — Death of 
 Henry- Persecution of the Lollards— The First 
 English Martyr— Henry V. King— Martyrdom 
 of Lord Cobham— Henry Renews the War with 
 France— Capture of Harfleur— Battle of Agin- 
 court— Henry Becomes Regent of France— His 
 Death— Expulsion of the English from France- 
 Henry VL— The Regency— Marriage of the King 
 —Murder of the Duke of Suffolk— Jack Cade's 
 Rebellion— The Wars of the Roses— Capture of 
 the King— The Duke of York Ascends the Throne 
 as Edward IV.— Battle of Towton— Marriage of 
 the King— The Woodevilles— Rebellion of the 
 Earl of Warwick— Murder of Prince Edward- 
 Death of Henry VI.— Failure of the Invasion of 
 France— Death of Edward IV.— The Duke of 
 Gloucester Murders the Sons of Edward IV., and 
 Makes Himself King as Richard III.— The Earl 
 of Richmond Claims the Crown— Defeats Richard 
 at Bosworth— Henry VII. King— His Marriage— 
 His Extortions — The French Expedition — Perkin 
 Warbeck— Death of the Prince of Wales — Empson 
 and Dudley— Death of the King. 
 
 s^-^DWARD I. was a true Euglishman, 
 -e^4T j^jj(j ^^g ^i^g flj.g|; Qf ^ succession 
 
 of able and powerful sovereigns. 
 He was tall, splendidly formed, 
 and was noted for his skill in 
 knightly exercises. He was also 
 an able statesman and a vigorous ruler. 
 The power of the crown was firmly estab- 
 lished in his hands, but he was wise enough 
 to know how far to carry his authority, 
 and when to yield. Soon after his reign 
 began, Edward was called upon to suppress 
 a rebellion of the AVelsh. They were 
 forced to submit, but in 1282 rebelled 
 again under their Prince Llewelyn and his 
 brother David, the latter of whom Edward 
 had loaded with favors. The insurrection 
 was crushed, Llewelyn was slain, and 
 David was captured and executed. Edward 
 now united Wales with England, and upon 
 the birth of his eldest son Edward, April 
 25th, 1284, created him Prince of Wales, 
 a title which has since been conferred on 
 the sovereign's eldest son. 
 
 Trouble now broke out between England 
 and Scotland. The latter country was 
 without a king, the old royal line having 
 ceased. The crown was claimed by a 
 number of nobles, the principal of whom 
 were John Balliol and Robert Bruce, both 
 of whom were of Norman descent. Edward 
 Was appealed to, to decide between them. 
 He met the Scottish estates at Norham on 
 the 10th of May, 1291. After claiming 
 the allegiance of the Scots as their feudal 
 lord, he decided the controversy in favor 
 of John Balliol, who did him homage for 
 his crown. It was not long, however, 
 before Balliol threw off his allegiance, and 
 
 allying himself with France, went to war 
 with England. He so occupied Edward's 
 attention at home that the English king 
 was unable to do anything for the assist- 
 ance of the Count of Flanders, with whom 
 he had formed an alliance against France. 
 The Scots were defeated by Edward, who 
 deprived Balliol of his crown, and took 
 possession of Scotland as a forfeited fief. 
 He was acknowledged by the Scotch estates, 
 and filled the offices of the kingdom with 
 Englishmen to secure his power. Edward 
 carried away the Scotch crown and regalia, 
 and among other things a fragment of rock 
 which had been kept at Scone, and on 
 which the Scottish kings had always stood 
 to be crowned. It was popularly believed 
 to be the pillow of stone used by the 
 patriarch Jacob at Bethel, and it was 
 believed by the people that where that 
 stone was, there the Scots should reign. 
 Edward conveyed it to Westminster Abbey, 
 and enclosed it in a throne. Both stone 
 and throne are preserved there, and upon 
 them the new sovereign sits to receive the 
 crown of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Though Edward was not a harsh sover- 
 eign, English rule in any form Vvas so hate- 
 ful to the Scots that they soon began to 
 organize for its overthrow. Sir William 
 Wallace acquired the principal command 
 of the rebels, and having defeated the 
 English Earl of Surrey, who governed 
 Scotland for Edward, and having ravaged 
 Northumberland and Cumberland, he 
 either made himself, or was chosen, ruler 
 of Scotland, with the modest title of Guar- 
 dian of the Kingdom. He did not long 
 enjoy his honor. Edward entered Scotland, 
 defeated the rebels at Falkirk, July 22d, 
 1298, and Wallace and his followers were 
 driven to the open country, where for a few 
 years they maintained an unequal struggle. 
 The Scottish nobles at length made their 
 peace with the king, but Wallace dis- 
 dained to accept the mercy of the con- 
 queror of his country. He was captured, 
 carried to London, and hanged at Tyburn, 
 August 24th, 1305. His countrymen re- 
 garded him as a martyr, and he has been 
 honored since his death as the national 
 hero of Scotland. 
 
 The capture and execution of Sir William 
 Wallace did not end the troubles in Scot- 
 land. The Scots very keenly felt their 
 subjection to the English, and were only 
 held down by the superior strength of the 
 latter. A leader was soon found in a 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VII. 833 
 
 young noble named Robert Bruce, Earl of 
 Carrick, the grandson of the Robert Bruce 
 who had claimed the throne in the last 
 century. He conceived the design of free- 
 ing his country, and communicated his 
 plans to John Corayn of Badenoch, the 
 representative of the rival house of Balliol. 
 Comyn at first agreed to Bruce's plan, but 
 finally betrayed him to Edward. A friend 
 of Bruce at the English court, hearing of 
 his danger, and not daring to communicate 
 with him in person, sent him a purse of 
 gold and a pair of spurs, and the sagacious 
 Scot, rightly interpreting the friendly warn- 
 ing, succeeded in making his escape. He 
 hastened to Dumfries, in Annandale, the 
 chief seat of his family interest, and fortu- 
 nately found a number of the Scottish 
 nobility assembled there, the traitor Comyn 
 being among them. Bruce appealed to 
 them to join him in an effort to free the 
 country of the English, and being opposed 
 by Comyn, attacked that noble as he was 
 leaving the place of conference, and slew 
 him in the cloisters of the Grey Friars. 
 Then summoning the Scots to his standard, 
 he was solemnly crowned king by the 
 Bishop of St. Andrews at Scone. Edward 
 was greatly enraged by the murder of 
 Comyn, and prepared to put down the 
 revolt of the Scots. Being too old and 
 feeble to take the field in person, he placed 
 his army under his son Edward, Prince of 
 AVales, who opened the campaign with 
 such a cruel devastation of the country 
 that his father was compelled to stop him. 
 Bruce and his followers were driven about 
 from place to place by Edward's lieutenant, 
 Sir Aymer de Valence, and were defeated 
 in a battle at Methven, in Perthshire. In 
 spite of this defeat, Bruce won some suc- 
 cesses, which so irritated Edward that he 
 took the field in person, and advanced from 
 Carlisle about the 1st of July, 1307. He 
 was so feeble, however, that this exertion 
 was fatal to him, and he died at Burgh-on- 
 the-Sands, within sight of Scotland, on the 
 7th of July, in the sixty-ninth year of his 
 age, " hated by his neighbors ; but extremely 
 respected and revered by his own subjects." 
 With his dying breath he charged his son 
 and successor to continue the Avar until 
 Scotland was finally subdued. 
 
 In the reign of Edward I. the practice 
 of summoning parliaments of lords and 
 commons, which had been originated by 
 Simon de Montfort, Edward's bitter enemy, 
 was regularly continued and became a 
 53 
 
 definite part of the English system of 
 government. From this time the parlia- 
 ment became the great law-making body 
 of the realm, and from the first began the 
 task which it successfully performed at 
 length of checking the arbitrary power of 
 the crown, and establishing a system of 
 constitutional liberty for the nation. In 
 1297 the great measure of th^ reign was 
 adopted, and the king was compelled by a 
 show of force on the part of the barons, 
 and greatly against his will, to give his 
 consent to a law known as the Confirmation 
 of the Charters, by which he surrendered 
 his power of levying arbitrary taxes upon 
 the people. Henceforth the sovereign 
 could impose taxes only with " the common 
 assent of the realm." 
 
 Edward II. was twenty-two years old 
 when he began to reign, in 1307. His first 
 act was to disregard the solemn injunction 
 of his father to continue the Scottish war. 
 He gave up the enterprise and disbanded 
 his army, greatly to the disgust of his 
 nobles. These, seeing that he was too weak 
 to hold the reins of government as firmly as 
 his father had done, began to entertain but 
 little respect for the royal authority, and 
 to practise every insolence with impunity. 
 The young king also violated another 
 promise. In his early youth Edward had 
 been assigned as a companion, by his 
 father, a Gascon knight of good family 
 named Piers or Peter of Gaveston. Gaves- 
 ton was a man of elegant manners and 
 many accomplishments, and excelled in all 
 the knightly and courtly graces of the 
 time. He soon gained an entire ascendant 
 over the younger Edward, and led him 
 into such wild and lawless courses that 
 Edward I., after vainly seeking to check 
 his sou's frivolous career, banished Gaves- 
 ton from the kingdom, and on his death-bed 
 made his son swear never to recall him. 
 Edward II. had no sooner become king, 
 however, than he summoned Gaveston 
 back to England and installed him in the 
 chief place in his favor. This act gave 
 great offence to the English nobles, who 
 resented the inferior birth and the haughty 
 and insolent bearing of the favorite. 
 
 Early in 1308 Edward went to France 
 and married the Princess Isabella, the 
 daughter of Philip the Fair, .to whom he 
 had been affianced since 1299. He left 
 the kingdom in charge of Gaveston, and 
 this act fanned the discontent of the barons 
 to a flame. Upon the return of the king, 
 
834 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the new queen, wishing to rule her husband 
 herself, bocaiue jealous of Gavestou's in- 
 lluonce and joined the party against him, 
 and soon after the coronation the barons 
 djaianded of the king the banishment of 
 the favorite. Edward I'cluotantly con- 
 sented, but instead of sending him out of 
 the country altogether, made Gavestou his 
 lieutenant in Irelautl, and went with him 
 on his journey as far as Bristol, and be- 
 stowed upon him new estates in England 
 and Gasc'ony. Gave.ston was a brave and 
 cucrg''tic man, and not without talents, 
 and his administration in Ireland was, on 
 the whole, creditable. Edward, anxious to 
 recall his favorite, softened the hostility of 
 
 ST. Patrick's cathedral — dublin 
 
 the barons by concessions to them, and ob- 
 tained from the pope a dispensation absolv- 
 ing Giveston from the oath he had taken 
 never to return to England, and the favorite 
 was recalled. Unfortunately for him he 
 continued the same course which had ex- 
 cited the hostility of the barons before, 
 and a fresh outbreak was the result. In 
 1310 the barons compelled the king to re- 
 linquish the government for one year into 
 the hands of a committee of twelve peers, 
 who were styled the " Ordainers." These in- 
 stituted a series of measures, some of which 
 were useful and praiseworthy, as they 
 lessened the arbitrary powers of the 
 crown. Gnveston was banished the king- 
 dom, fhousrh Edward beggrod piteously 
 that he might be permitted to remain. 
 
 Gaveston went to Flanders, and in less 
 than a year the king removed the court 
 to York and recalled the favorite. The 
 barons now resolved to make short work 
 of the favorite. They took arms under 
 Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the king's 
 cousin, and captured Scarborough Castle, 
 into which Gaveston had thrown him- 
 self. Gaveston was conducted to War- 
 wick Castle, and there beheaded without 
 trial, by order of his enemies, on the 19th 
 of June, 1312. Edward, furious at the 
 death of his favorite, swore vengeance upon 
 those concerned in the murder ; but as he 
 had not energy enough to hold to a pur- 
 pose requiring such efforts, he soon con- 
 sented to a reconciliation 
 ^-__, with the barons, and tran- 
 
 quillity was restored to 
 the kingdom. 
 
 During these quai-rels 
 between Edward II. and 
 his barons. King Robert 
 Bruce was energetically 
 following up his advan- 
 tages, and was rapidly 
 becoming master of all 
 Scotland. Only one for- 
 tress in Scotland held out 
 for the English king. This 
 was Stirling Castle, which 
 was vigorously besieged 
 by Edward Bruce, the 
 brother of Robert. The 
 governor of the castle, re- 
 duced to great straits, 
 agreed to surrender the 
 post if not relieved by the 
 Feast of St. John the 
 Baptist, now close at 
 hand. Edward, for very shame, was 
 compelled to raise a powerful army 
 and attempt the relief of Stirling. He 
 entered Scotland with a force estimated 
 by Scotch writers at 100,000 men. 
 Robert Bruce took post at Bannock- 
 burn, about two miles from Stirling, 
 to cover that place. Here he was at- 
 tacked by Edward on the 24th of June. 
 The English army was utterly routed and 
 driven from the field. King Edward him- 
 self fled in hothaste to Dunbar, closely pur- 
 sued by some Scottish knights, and from 
 that town returned to England by sea. 
 The English camp, with all its treasures 
 and supplies, fell into the hands of the vic- 
 torious Scots. The defeat at Bannockburn 
 was the greatest reverse the English had 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VH. 835 
 
 sustained since the battle of Hastings. It 
 fixed Bruce on the throne of Scotland and 
 established the independence of that coun- 
 try. Bruce now retaliated upon his ene- 
 mies by invading England and ravaging 
 the border counties. 
 
 Encouraged by his success in Scotland, 
 Bruce attempted to wrest Ireland from the 
 English, and sent his brother Edward to 
 that island with an 
 army to accept the Irish 
 crown, which had been 
 ofTorcd to Edward by 
 the O'Neill and other 
 chiefs of Ulster. Ed- 
 ward landed in Ulster 
 in 1315, and, after win- 
 ning some successes, 
 was crowned King of 
 Ireland at Carrickfer- 
 gus. The English and 
 their adherents rallied 
 for a supreme effort, 
 and inflicted upon Ed- 
 ward a crushing defeat 
 at Athenree on the 10 th 
 of August, 1316. In 
 1318 Edward Bruce 
 was slain in a battle 
 near Dundalk, and thus 
 closed the effort to free 
 Ireland from English 
 rul 2. 
 
 Ill the meantime Ed- 
 ward II. had found a 
 now favorite. Sir Hugh 
 l3 Dospenser, or Spen- 
 ser, a young English 
 gentleman of noble 
 birlh. He was very 
 much such a man as 
 Gaveston ; but his fa- 
 ther, whom Edward also 
 took into his favor, was 
 a man of wisdom and in- 
 tegrity, of advanced age 
 and pure life, and well fitted to be coun- 
 sellor to such a prince as Edward. The 
 fovor with which the king regarded the 
 Sp' -users provoked another outbreak of the 
 barons, who took arms under the lead of 
 the Earls of Hereford and Lancaster. 
 They were defeated at Bomughbridge. 
 Hereford was shiin and Lancaster was cap- 
 tured and beheaded. Roger Mortimer, 
 one of the same party, and the lover of 
 the queen, was captured and condemned to 
 
 death, but his sentence was subsequently 
 changed to imprisonment in the Tower. 
 
 Charles IV. of France took advantage of 
 the troubles in England to attempt to gain 
 possession of the English territories in 
 France, and at length Edward sent his 
 wife, wdio Avas the sister of Charles, to France 
 to arrange matters with her brother. Queen 
 Isabella was soon joined by her young son, 
 
 EDWARD III. 
 
 the Prince of Wales, and also by her para- 
 mour, Roger Mortimer, who had escaped 
 from the tower, A. D. 1325. Instead of try- 
 ing to bring about a peace, Isabella began 
 to plot her husband's overthrow, and was 
 aided by the French king with men and 
 money. In 1326 she landed in Suffolk at 
 the head of an army composed mainly of 
 foreigners. She was joined by the discon- 
 tented barons, and King Edward's friends 
 deserted him so rapidly that he was obliged 
 
836 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to fly from London and take refuge in the 
 Welsh marshes. Bristol was taken by the 
 queen's troops, and the elder Spenser, who 
 commanded there, an old man of ninety, 
 was barbarously put to death. King Ed- 
 ward and Sir Hugh le Despeuser were cap- 
 tured in Glamorganshire. The latter was 
 crowned with nettles and hanged ; and the 
 king was imprisoned in Kenilworth Castle. 
 Parliament declared Edward II. unworthy 
 of his crown, and ordered that the Prince 
 of Wales should reign in his stead. The 
 queen, the real author of the misery of her 
 husband, burst into a flood of hypocritical 
 tears at this announcement, and the Prince 
 of Wales, touched by her seeming sorrow, 
 swore that he would never consent to de- 
 prive his father of his crown. Thereupon 
 an abdication was extorted from King Ed- 
 ward, whose reign was formally declared at 
 an end. The queen and her partisans then 
 endeavored, by cruel usage, to shorten the 
 life of Edward II., but this process being too 
 slow to suit Roger Mortimer, he caused 
 King Edward to be murdered with the 
 most horrible cruelty at Berkeley Castle in 
 
 1327. The only crime of Edward 11. was 
 his incapacity for his august position ; but 
 while the nobles upon whom he devolved 
 the duties of government were the real au- 
 thors of the grievances of which the people 
 complained, the king was held responsible 
 for them. He was in his forty-third year 
 at the time of his death. In his reign the 
 order of the Knights Templars was sup- 
 pressed in England, and its property con- 
 fiscated. 
 
 Edward III. came to the throne in 1327. 
 He Avas but fourteen years old, and a coun- 
 cil of regency was formed to administer the 
 government. A renewal of the war with 
 Scotland marked the opening of the reign, 
 but it was without any decisive results. 
 Isabella and Roger Mortimer now renewed 
 their intrigues, and soon had the supreme 
 power in their own hands. In March, 
 
 1328, they concluded a treaty with Scot- 
 land, acknowledging the independence of 
 that country. Mortimer, feeling sure of 
 his power, conducted himself so insolently 
 and with such reckless disregard of the 
 rights of others, that he soon raised a deter- 
 mined opposition to him. His infamous 
 course in procuring the execution of the 
 king's uncle, the Duke of Kent, and the 
 imprisonment of the Earl of Lancaster, 
 deepened the hostility with which he was 
 regarded, and at length the eyes of Edward 
 
 himself were opened. The king was now 
 eighteen years of age, and was resolved to 
 be his own master. Mortimer's power was 
 so great, how^ever, that the king was obliged 
 to proceed against him with as much cau- 
 tion as if he had been a subject plotting 
 against his sovereign. He was admitted, 
 at the head of an armed band, by the gov- 
 ernor of Nottingham Castle, where Morti- 
 mer was staying, and entered that fortress 
 by a secret passage. Bursting into the 
 chamber of the minister, he seized him in 
 the presence of the queen and sent him to 
 prison. Edward at once sunnnoned a par- 
 liament, which condemned Mortimer to 
 death, and he was hanged at Tyburn in 
 November, 1230. Queen Isabella was de- 
 tained in honorable captivity at Castle 
 Rising for the remainder of her life. By a 
 series of wise and vigorous measures Ed- 
 ward restored the power of the crown and 
 the supremacy of the law in the kingdom. 
 Upon the death of Charles IV. of France 
 in 1328, Edward III., whose mother was 
 the sister of Charles and the daughter of 
 Philip the Fair, claimed the regency of that 
 kingdom. His claim was disallowed, and 
 the regency was conferred upon Philip, 
 Count of Valois, who, two months later, 
 became king as Philip VI. Edward's 
 claim to the French crown was not ad- 
 vanced, as, though he was the nearest rela- 
 tive of Charles IV., he was excluded by the 
 Salic law, which forbade the succession of 
 the female branch to the throne. Edward 
 suffered his claim to remain in abeyance, 
 and even consented to do homage to Philip 
 VI. in 1329 for his duchy of Guienne. For 
 six years events at home demanded his at- 
 tention. The death of Robert Bruce was 
 followed in Scotland by a period of great 
 disorder. The English party failing to re- 
 ceive the share of power and importance to 
 which they believed themselves entitled, 
 conceived the design of making Edward 
 Balliol, the son of that John who had been 
 crowned King of Scotland, king in the place 
 of David, the young son and successor of 
 Robert Bruce. They sought the assistance 
 of Edward III. That king, though unwill- 
 ing to assist them openly, nevertheless 
 secretly encouraged them, and they col- 
 lected an army and marched into Scotland. 
 Balliol by a series of successes overthrew 
 the national party, compelled the young 
 King David to take refuge in France, and 
 seated himself upon the Scottish throne, 
 1332. He was everywhere regarded as a 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VII. 837 
 
 usurper, and a sudden revolution burst out 
 in 1333, and drove him into England. 
 Balliol now asked Edward's aid in regain- 
 ing the Scottish throne, and promised to 
 become his vassal in case of success. Ed- 
 ward, who had always longed to recover 
 Scotland, accepted his offer, and entering 
 that country at the head of a strong army, 
 defeated the Scots in a pitched battle at 
 Halidown Hill, and replaced Balliol on 
 
 ship of their regent, Sir Andrew Murray, 
 they gave such trouble to Balliol that the 
 English king was obliged to return and 
 crush them. Unable to meet Edward in 
 the low country, they retreated into the 
 highlands, and there kept alive their hatred 
 to the usurper and his English master. 
 
 The assistance which Philip VI. of France 
 had rendered the Scots in their resistance 
 of him had deeply offended Edward, and 
 
 THE BLACK PRINCE. 
 
 the throne. Balliol did the English king 
 homage for his crown, many of the Scottish 
 nobility swore fealty to Edward, and the 
 whole of southeastern Scotland, from Edin- 
 burgh to the border, was ceded by Balliol 
 to Edward, and declared forever annexed 
 to the kingdom of England. The hatred 
 of the Scots for Balliol now revived the 
 party of David Bruce, who were encouraged 
 and aided by France. Under the leader- 
 
 he gave a cordial reception to Count Robert 
 of Artois, the bitter enemy of Philip, who 
 fled to England in 1333. Philip endeav- 
 ored to compel Edward to send him away, 
 and at the same time himself committed 
 many aggressions upon Edward's duchy of 
 Guienne. In 1336 the French king brought 
 matters to a crisis by an insolent demand 
 that Edward should surrender the Count 
 of Artois on pain of confiscation of his 
 
838 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 duchy of Gulenne. Edward at once began 
 to prepare for war, and acting on the ad- 
 vice of the Flemings, revived his claim to 
 the French crown, and assumed the title of 
 King of France. In 1339 he sailed to 
 Flanders, and began what is known as the 
 " Hundred Years' War," so called because, 
 though there was no actual fighting during 
 the whole of this period, there was no per- 
 manent peace between England and France 
 for a century. The events of this campaign 
 have been related in the French history of 
 this century. The war was at first indeci- 
 sive, but when Edward, abandoning the 
 Flemish alliance, renewed his efforts alone, 
 he won signal successes. His fleet defeated 
 and destroyed the French navy in the great 
 battle of Sluys (or Helvoetsluys), June 
 24th, 1440 ; and at Crecy he won a decisive 
 victory over a superior force of Frenchmen, 
 August 26th, 1346. The victory of Crecy 
 was followed by the surrender of Calais, 
 after a siege of over eleven months, 1347. 
 Edward wisely settled the town with a 
 colony of English, and for more than two 
 centuries it remained in possession of Eng- 
 land. A truce of ten months followed the 
 surrender of Calais. Hostilities were not 
 renewed, as before the expiration of the 
 truce both England and France were 
 scourged by the terrible plague known as 
 the black death. It is said that more than 
 one-half of the inhabitants of England died 
 from this plague. 
 
 The Ssots took advantage of the war 
 between England and France to recall 
 their king, David Bruce, and form an alli- 
 ance with France. David being urged by 
 the French king to attempt the invasion of 
 England, crossed the border with an army 
 of 60,000 men, and ravaged the country as 
 far as Durham. Queen Philippa, with 
 great energy, collected an army of 12,000 
 men, and placed it under the orders of 
 Lord Percy, who inflicted a decisive defeat 
 upon the Scottish army at Neville's Cross, 
 and took King David prisoner. The Scot- 
 tish king was confined in the Tower of 
 London. 
 
 The war with France was renewed in 
 1355. The events of this struggle Avill be 
 found related in the French history of this 
 century. The decisive battle was fought at 
 Poitiers, in the county of Poitou. There 
 the Prince of Wales, known as the Black 
 Prince, either from the color of his armor 
 or the dread with which he had inspired 
 the French, with a handful of English and 
 
 Gascon troops, defeated the French army, 
 60,000 strong, and took King John of 
 France prisoner. In May, 1360, a treaty 
 was concluded at Bretigny, by which King 
 John was allowed to ransom himself Ed- 
 ward resigned his pretensions to the French 
 crown, but kept his duchy of Guienne, be- 
 sides Calais and some other possessions, not 
 as a vassal, but as an independent prince. 
 We have already related the expedition of 
 the Black Prince to Spain in aid of Pedro 
 the Cruel, and its consequences. The 
 struggle which deprived England of all 
 Aquitairie save Bordeaux and Bayonne is 
 related in the same place — the history of 
 France during this century, Edward, worn 
 out Avith the struggle, obtained a truce in 
 1375 for two 5-ears. 
 
 Edward III. was now an old man, 
 scarcely able to administer the government, 
 and the Black Prince, the heir to the 
 throne, was slowly dying. The government 
 fell into the hands of John, Duke of Lan- 
 caster, called from his birth-]:)]ace John of 
 Ghent, or Gaunt. Queen Philippa wns dead, 
 and the king's favorite, Alice Ferrers, made 
 use of the royal favor for unworthy purposes. 
 Altogether affairs Avere in a most deplorable 
 state. The public funds Avere squandered, 
 and the men who Avere appointed to office 
 by the Duke of Lancaster proved unworthy 
 of trust. The best men in the kingdom 
 now resolved to make an cff)rt to letter 
 matters. The occasion Avas in some re- 
 spects favorable. There AA-as peace with 
 France in consequence of the truce ; and 
 the Scottish difficulty had been grently im- 
 proved by the release of King David Bruce 
 for a large ransom. In 1376 P;irliiiment 
 met, and, supported by the Black Prince, 
 set to Avork to reform the state. The com- 
 mons impeached, or at;cused before the 
 house of lords, several of the corrupt of- 
 ficials appointed by the Duke of Lancaster, 
 and Alice Ferrers had her opportunities 
 for interfering Avilh the admin isti'ation of 
 justice stopped by a threat of banishment. 
 This parliament is known as " the Good," 
 and furnishes the first instance of the use 
 by the commons of their poAver of im- 
 peaching the ministers of the crown. 
 
 On the 8th of June, 1376, the Black 
 Prince died amid the grief of all Englnud. 
 He Avas buried in Canterbury Cathedrnl. 
 His death left John of Gaunt in full jjos- 
 session of the government, and the work of 
 the "Good Parliament" Avas swept away by 
 its successor Avhich the duke summoned to 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VH. 839 
 
 confirm his power. On the 21st of June, 
 1377, Edward III. died at Shene, literally 
 alone, deserted by all his attendants, and 
 ministered to only by a faithful priest. 
 
 Edward was one of tiie greatest of the 
 English kings. He was a tried and proved 
 soldier, and excelled in all the military 
 virtues. He made the English name 
 glorious by his victories over tlie French 
 and the Scotch, and his fume was worthily 
 upheld by his gallant son, the Black Prince. 
 In spite of this, it must be confessed that 
 his foreign wars were neither founded in 
 justice, rror devoted to any useful purpose, 
 and were cruel in a marked degree. As 
 King of England, however, he proved him- 
 self worthy to rule a great people. By the 
 vigor and prudence of his administration, 
 he compelled all classes to acknowledge the 
 supremacy of the law, and during his reign 
 there was peace and tranquillity at home. 
 By his affability and generosiry, and his 
 earnest desire for the good of all his sub- 
 jects, he attached both nobles and commons 
 to his rule, and gained their hearty support 
 in all his enterprises. He enlarged and 
 improved Windsor Castle, and founded the 
 order of the Garter. In 1352 parliament 
 passed the statute of treasons, which clearly 
 defined the crime of high treason. In this 
 reign the independence of England was 
 firmly maintained against the aggressions 
 of the pope, and. in 1366, when Pope Urban 
 V. demanded the tribute promised by King 
 John, which had been in arrears for thirty- 
 three years, the demand was absolutely re- 
 fused, and the pope found himself unable to 
 enforce it. In 1331 Edward laid the foun- 
 dation of one of England's greatest indus- 
 tries by settling colonies of Flemish weavers 
 in Norfolk, Sussex, and Essex. They in- 
 troduced the manufacture of the finest 
 woollen cloths. The wool of England was 
 at that time the finest in Europe and the 
 chief article of expoi't from the kingdom. 
 The people, fearing that the establishment 
 of home manufactures v/ould destroy their 
 trade, treated the Flemings with such hos- 
 tility that Edward was put to considerable 
 trouble to protect them. 
 
 Edward III. was succeeded by his grand- 
 son Richard, the son of the Black Prince, 
 a child of eleven years. Richard II. 
 reigned twenty-two years — a period full of 
 trouble and misfortune. He began his 
 reign with great promise. The yoke of 
 slavery pressed harder upon the English 
 than upon any people in Europe, and men 
 
 were now beginning to think and to long 
 for freedom. Four years after Richard 
 became king, the peasants of Essex, Kent, 
 and the neighboring counties took arm3 to 
 resist the imposition of a tax of ihree groats 
 upon every {)2rson above fifteen years old. 
 Tliey marched to London 100,000 strong, 
 committing many outrages on the way. 
 They wei'e led by men of their own rank, 
 known as Jack Straw, Wat Tyler, Hob 
 Carter, and Tom Miller. Entering London, 
 they demolished Newgate prison and re- 
 leased the prisoners, burnt the palace of the 
 Savoy, the residence of the Dukj of Lan- 
 caster, and the Temple. The majority of 
 the insurgents withdrew from the ciLy the 
 next day, but the Kentish men, under t-icir 
 leader, Wat Tyler, remained in arms. Tliey 
 seized the Tower of London and put to 
 death six persons whom they f )und th^re, 
 among whom was the Archbisho]> of Can- 
 terbury. The next day the king and 
 Tyler accidentally encountered each otlier 
 in Smithfield. A parley ensued, during 
 Avhich Tyler behaved with such insolence 
 that Walworth, the Mayor of London, 
 stabbed him. Tyler's followers raised their 
 bows to avenge their leader, but Richard, 
 riding fearlessly up to them, exclaimed 
 good-humoredly : " What is the meaning of 
 this disorder, my good people? Are you 
 angry that you have lost your leader? I 
 am your king; I will bo your bafn-." 
 The insurgents were conquered by (Ii j biave 
 words of the young king, who L-d tlieni 
 to the fields at Islington, whiLher a 
 large body of troops hastened f)r tlie pro- 
 tection of the king. The rebels at once 
 fell upon their knees and asked pardon, and 
 Richard peaceably dismissed them to ih-ir 
 homes with the same charters ho had 
 granted to their fellows. A f)rmidable 
 force quickly rallied to the king's support 
 in all parts of the kingdom, and the insur- 
 rection was put down. A f)rtniglit later 
 the king revoked the charters he had 
 granted, which were indeed illegal, as they 
 lacked the consent of parliament, and many 
 of the leaders of the insurrection were tried 
 and executed. ' 
 
 The hopes which the decisive conduct of 
 Richard during the insurrection had raised 
 were soon dispelled. He was fond of shows 
 and pageants, and was wasteful and dissi- 
 pated. He gAVQ himself over to the in- 
 fluence of favorites, who were hated as bit- 
 terly as Gaveston and the Spensers had 
 been in the time of his great-graudfaiher. 
 
840 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 He attempted to conquer Scotland, but his 
 invasion of that country, though conducted 
 with great cruelty, accomplished nothing. 
 The subjection in which the king was held 
 by his uncles, particularly by the youngest 
 and ablest, the Duke of Gloucester, was 
 very distasteful to him, and he endeavored 
 to throw it off. In 1387 the Duke of 
 Gloucester and his party took up arms and 
 compelled the king to submit to them and 
 banish his friends or send them to the block. 
 The king, however, soon got the upper 
 
 was unpopular with the English, who were 
 bitterly opposed to peace with France. 
 The opposition of the Duke of Gloucester 
 to the truce with France induced the king 
 to free himself from the danger with which 
 the ambition of that noble threatened him. 
 Gloucester was seized, hurried to Calais, 
 and confined in the castle of that place. 
 The Governor of Calais soon after reported 
 that the duke had died suddenly of apo- 
 plexy, but it was generally believed that 
 he had been put to death by the king's 
 
 JUllN W YCLIFFE. 
 
 hand and Gloucester was compelled to 
 yield. For nine years Richard conducted 
 the government himself, and it must be 
 confessed that he ruled well. He married 
 the Princess Anne of Bohemia, who greatly 
 endeared herself to her husband and to the 
 English people. She died in 1394, and in 
 1396 Richard contracted a marriage with 
 the Princess Isabella, the daughter of 
 Charles VI. of France, then only eight 
 years old. Richard desired to secure a 
 long truce from the vexatious and exhaust- 
 ing war with France; but the marriage 
 
 order. Gloucester's adherents were terri- 
 fied into submission by this bold stroke, 
 and no one dared to oppose the will of 
 Richard. 
 
 Among the nobles w'ho had offended the 
 king by supporting Gloucester in 1387 
 were the Duke of Norfolk and Henry of 
 Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford, son of John 
 of Gaunt. In 1398, these nobles being 
 about to decide a quarrel by a combat, 
 Richard forbade the encounter, and ban- 
 ished Hereford for ten years and Norfolk 
 for life. John of Gaunt died soon after his 
 
FEOM ACCESSION OF ED WARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VU. 841 
 
 Bou's exile, and his estates, whicli should 
 have passed to Hereford, now Duke of 
 Lancaster, were seized by the king. Here- 
 ford, deeply incensed by the king's tyranni- 
 cal act, vowed vengeance against him. 
 Taking advantage of Richard's absence on 
 an expedition to Ireland, he landed in 
 England in July, 1399, at the head of the 
 exiles ot Gloucester's party and a few men- 
 at-arms, and raised the standard of revolt. 
 Being joined by the Percies of Northumber- 
 land, he soon found himself at the head of 
 60,000 men, and the Duke of York, who 
 had been left as regent by Richard, came 
 over to him. When Richard received in- 
 formation of Lancaster's presence in Eng- 
 land, the duke was master of the entire 
 kingdom. After lingering irresolute in 
 Ireland, he crossed over to Wales, but was 
 rapidly deserted by his troops. Earl Percy 
 induced him to leave Conway Castle, where 
 he had taken refuge, and then betrayed 
 him to Henry of Lancaster, who conducted 
 him to London, and compelled him to make 
 a formal abdication of his crown. The 
 next day he was depose.d on the ground of 
 misgovernment, and the Duke of Lancaster 
 was formally acknowledged King of Eng- 
 land as Henry IV., September 30th, 1399. 
 
 In the reign of Richard II. the effort to 
 maintain the independence of England 
 against the aggressions of the papacy was 
 continued with firmness. A powerful blow 
 was struck in defence of the liberties of the 
 kingdom in 1393, by the passage of the 
 Statute of Prcemunire, "which enacted that 
 whoever should procure from Rome or else- 
 where, excommunications, bulls, or other 
 things against the king and his realm, 
 should be put out of the king's protection, 
 and all his lands and goods forfeited." 
 
 During the latter jiart of this century a 
 powerful eflTect was produced in England 
 by the teachings of John WyclifFe, a learned 
 priest and a professor in the University of 
 Oxford. He Avas deeply versed in the 
 Scriptures, and in all the ecclesiastical 
 knowledge of the day, and in the reign of 
 Edward III. he began to preach that the 
 Scriptures did not teach the supremacy of 
 the pope and many of the doctrines of the 
 Roman Church, and won the favor of the 
 court by his eloquent defence of the inde- 
 pendence of England against the claims of 
 the pope. He translated the Bible into the 
 English language, and completed the task 
 in 1380. His translation was eagerly re- 
 ceived by the English people, and Queen 
 
 Anne, the first wife of Richard IL, became 
 a diligent reader of the Bible and a convert 
 to many of WyclifFe's views. Wycliflfe 
 supported his doctrines by his writings, and 
 these found their way into Bohemia, where 
 they induced John Huss to attempt to re- 
 form the church in Germany. The work 
 of Huss was cut short, but it was taken up 
 by Martin Luther in the sixteenth century 
 aud carried to a successful close. In Eng- 
 land the principles taught by Wyclifie 
 never died out. His followers were called 
 Lollards. They and their converts kept 
 alive his teachings until finally they pro- 
 duced the English Reformation, so that 
 Wycliflfe has been not inaptly called " the 
 Morning Star of the Reformation." He 
 had a hard fight with the partisans of the 
 pope in England, who endeavored to silence 
 him and suppress his translation of the 
 Bible ; but he held his own to the last, and 
 died peacefully at his rectory of Lutter- 
 worth in 1384. 
 
 Henry IV., though elected King of Eng- 
 land by parliament, was not content to rest 
 his claim upon the choice of the people, but 
 sought to strengthen it by asserting that he 
 held the throne by right of his birth, being 
 the son of John of Gaunt, and the grand- 
 son of Edward III. According to the rule 
 of hereditary succession, there was one 
 much nearer to the throne than Henry him- 
 self. This was the young Earl of March, 
 Edmund Mortimer, who was lineally de- 
 scended from the Duke of Clarence, John 
 of Gaunt's elder brother, and who had been 
 declared in parliament heir to the crown. 
 The earl was a child of seven years, and 
 Plenry sought to avoid a conflict with his 
 claims by keeping him an honorable pris- 
 oner at Windsor Castle. Richard II. was 
 detained by the advice of the lords in cap- 
 tivity for the rest of his life, and the place 
 of his confinement was kept secret. About 
 six months after his overthrow, his dead 
 body was brought from Pontefract Castle 
 to London, and after being publicly shown 
 at St. Paul's, was buried at Langley. It 
 was generally believed that he had been put 
 to death. One story current at the time 
 was that he was slain by Sir Piers Exton 
 and seven other murderers ; another, that 
 he had been starved to death. Some of 
 Henry's enemies asserted that Richard was 
 not dead, but was in Scotland, and that the 
 body displayed at St. Paul's was that of 
 another person. 
 
 The very first parliament that assembled 
 
842 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 under Henry gave evidence of the unsettled 
 condition of the kingdom. The house of 
 lords broke up in a furious quarrel, and 
 the discontented nobles attem])ted to seize 
 tlie king's person at Windsor. Henry with- 
 dr3\v to London, where he raised a force of 
 ciLizins, and put down the outbreak. The 
 E iris of Kent and Sali.sbury, and some of 
 tiie other leaders of the movement, lost 
 Lhjir heals for their share in it. In Gas- 
 cony there was an effort to throw off the 
 authority of Henry, but it was suppressed. 
 The most serious of all these uprisings 
 wa-j that of the Welsh, led by Oweu Glen- 
 dower, who was descended from the ancient 
 princes of Wales. Tiie Welsh had been 
 
 ALNWICK CASTLE, THE HUME UF 'i^^E TEKCIES 
 
 much attaclied to Richard II., and resented 
 his dep )sition. In one of his first forays 
 into England, Gleudower captured Sir Ed- 
 ward Mortiiner, tlie uncle of the young Earl 
 of March, and carried him a prisoner into 
 Wales. As Henry both dreaded and hated 
 th3 whole liouse of March, he allowed Sir 
 Edward Mortimer to remain in captivity, 
 and refused to parmit Mortimer's kins- 
 man, the Earl of Northumberland, to treat 
 with Gleudower for his ransom. He thus 
 gave great offanoe to the fimily of the 
 Percies, who wer(^ ills most powerful friends. 
 Meanwhile the Welsh harried the English 
 border at will, defeating the royal forces 
 sent against them. 
 
 The next year a Scottish army of 12,000 
 
 men, under the Earl of Douglas, invaded 
 England. The Earl of Northumberland 
 and his son. Sir Henry Percy, better known 
 as "Hotspur," from his daring deeds, took 
 the field against the Scots and defeated 
 them at Hon:iildon Hill, on the 14th of Sep- 
 tember, 1402, taking Earl Douglas and 
 many of the principal nobles of Scotland 
 prisoners. The Percies demanded that the 
 king should reimburse them for the ex- 
 penses of this war, but Henry was not able 
 to do so, and thus gave a fresh offence to 
 this powerful family. The Percies had 
 helped him to gain his crown, but he had 
 fully repaid them by the favors he had be- 
 stowed upon them since his accession to the 
 throne. This refusal 
 added to the irritation 
 caused by the pro- 
 hibition to ransom Sir 
 Edward Mortimer, 
 who was Hotspur's 
 brother-in-law, a n d 
 roused the discontent 
 of the Percies into 
 open rebellion. Earl 
 Percy released his 
 Scottish prisoners, 
 made an alliance with 
 the Earl of Douglas, 
 and joined his forces 
 to those of Owen 
 Glendower. Being 
 detained by sickness, 
 the Earl of Northum- 
 berland intrusted the 
 command of his troops 
 to his son. Sir Henry 
 Percy. The rebellion 
 was joined by the Earl 
 of Worcester, North- 
 umberland's brother-in-law, and the rebels 
 openly avowed their purpose to restore 
 Richard II. to the throne, if alive; or 
 if that monarch was indeed dead, they 
 intended to make the Earl of March 
 king. Henry had collected a small army 
 with which he intended invading Scot- 
 land, when he was startled by the news 
 of the rebellion of the Percies. He had 
 not expected such a step on their part, but 
 he was not disconcerted by it. Appreciating 
 the importance of swift and decisive move- 
 ments in civil wars, he marched at once 
 against the rebels, and defeated them in the 
 bloody battle of Hateley Field, near Shrews- 
 bury, July 28d, 1403. Hotspur was among 
 the slain. The Earl of Worcester was cap- 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF EDWARD J. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VIL 843 
 
 tured and was beheaded for his treason. 
 Northumberland's sickness had prevented 
 his presence, and he escaped punishment by 
 solemnly declaring that his son had dis- 
 obeyed his orders in taking up arms against 
 the king. Two years later he was again in 
 rebellion against Henry, in league with the 
 Earl of Nottingham, the Duke of Nor- 
 folk, and some other northern nobles. 
 They were obliged to submit, however, and 
 Northumberland escaped to Scotland; only 
 to lose his life, a year or two later, in a third 
 unsuccessful attempt against Henry. Henry 
 succeeded in putting down the rebellion of 
 the Welsh, and also reduced Scotland to a 
 position of dependence upon England by 
 seizing the heir to the Scottish crown on 
 his voyage to France. Though still in the 
 prime of life, Heniy's health now began to 
 fail him, and he died at Westminster on the 
 20Lh of March, 1413, in the forty-sixth 
 ye.ir of his age and the thirteenth of his reign. 
 Daring this reign severe measures were 
 put in force to root out the doctrines of the 
 Lollards, which had taken a deep hold upon 
 the English people. The Archbishop of 
 Canterbury had given Henry valuable as- 
 sistance in his efforts to secure the crown, 
 and the king in his turn aided the Romish 
 party with all his power to destroy the fol- 
 lowers of Wycliffe. In 1401 a law was en- 
 acted by parliament ordering that all per- 
 sons convicted by their bishop of holding 
 heretical opinions, and who should refuse 
 to abjure the same, should be burned to 
 death. Under this wicked law, AVilliam 
 S:iwtre3,th3 first Protestant martyr of Eng- 
 land, was burnt on the 12th of February, 
 1401. Other martyrs followed. The com- 
 mons, however, were not as subservient to 
 the priests as the lords ; for when it was 
 found that the clergy were determined to 
 resist the payment of their share of the 
 taxes of the kingdom, notwithstanding their 
 vast wealth, the commons took the side, of 
 the Lollards for the purpose of checking 
 the power of the priests, and demanded of 
 the king a mitigation of the law of burn- 
 ing, and advised him to seize the wealth of 
 the church and employ it as a perpetual 
 fuud to serve the exigencies of the state. 
 They even went to the extent of framing a 
 bill for this purpose. Henry not only re- 
 fused to mitigate the law against the Lol- 
 lards, but to show the commons that he was 
 in earnest, burnt a poor tailor named John 
 Badbee for holding Wycliffe's doctrines. 
 These barbarous measures, so far from de- 
 
 stroying the principles of the i-eformer.s, 
 merely served to spread them. 
 
 Henry V., who became kuig at the death 
 of his father, is said to have been a wild 
 and lawless youth ; but upon mounting the 
 throne he abandoned his old habits, and 
 soon became noted for his correct lile. He 
 began his reign by releasing the Earl of 
 March from captivity, and restoring the 
 lands of the Percies to the son of Hot^^pur. 
 He also had the body of Richard II. re- 
 moved from Langley, and buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 The Lollards had increased so rapidly in 
 numbers and strength, that they now con- 
 stituted quite a formidable party. The 
 principal man among them was Sir John 
 Oldcastle, called Lord Cobham. Soon after 
 the opening of this reign, Arundel, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, determined to strike 
 a blow at the Lollards. The high chr.r- 
 acter of Loi'd Cobham, and his zeal for the 
 new sect, pointed him out to the archbiehop 
 as the proper victim of ecclesiastical tyr- 
 anny, whose death would strike terror to 
 the whole party and teach them that they 
 must expect no mercy from the present ad- 
 ministration. Lord Cobham had greatly 
 distinguished himself as a soldier, jind was 
 honored with the personal friendship of the 
 king, and before proceeding against him 
 Arundel applied to Henry for peiniission 
 to indict him. Plenry at first shiank from 
 the plot against his old friend, but upon 
 questioning Lord Cobham found him so 
 firm in his belief of the doctrines he held, 
 that he became angry with him and aban- 
 doned him to the vengeance of the church. 
 Cobham was tried for heresy and sent to 
 the Tower, from which he escaped. The 
 government entertained, or professed to en- 
 tex'tain fears of a Lollard rising, and dieadtd 
 to see Lord Cobham, who was a tried sol- 
 dier, at the head vi' the movement. A 
 price was set on his head. He concealed 
 himself for several years, but was Ciijjtured 
 at last, and hanged at London as a tinitor, 
 after which his body was burned as a lieretic. 
 The priesthood, in order to justify their se- 
 vere treatment of him, diligently propa- 
 gated the belief that he had intended to over- 
 throw the government. This cliarge of 
 treason brought the reformers into dis-credit, 
 and did much to retard their increase. 
 
 Henry IV. on his death-beil had charged 
 his son not to let the English remain long 
 at peace, as foreign wars alone could pre- 
 vent internal discontents. The natural dis- 
 
844 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 position of Henry V. inclined him to fol- 
 low this advice, and he soon had an oppor- 
 tunity of doing so. Taking advantage of 
 the confusion prevailing in France in con- 
 sequence of the insanity of Charles VI., 
 and the quarrels between the factions of the 
 Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, Henry, 
 in 1415, renewed the claim of the English 
 sovereigns to the crown of France, and de- 
 manded the acknowledgment of it by the 
 French. He also demanded the hand of 
 Charles' daughter, the Princess Catharine, 
 in marriage. His demand being refused, 
 war ensued as we have seen. For the de- 
 tails of this struggle the reader is referred 
 to the French history of this period. Henry 
 captured Harfleur in September, and de- 
 feated a superior French army at Agincourt 
 on the 25th of October, 1415. In July, 
 1417, he invaded Fi'ance a second time, 
 and overran a large part of Normandy 
 while the French were divided with their 
 quarrels. In January, 1419, he captured 
 Rouen, and established his court there. In 
 May, 1420, the infamous Isabella of Ba- 
 varia, Queen of France, and the Duke of 
 Burgundy, who had the idiot king in their 
 power, made a treaty with Henry at Troyes, 
 by which they betrayed the French king- 
 dom, as has been related. Henry V. was 
 acknowledged as regent, and after the death 
 of Charles VI. was to succeed to the French 
 crown, which was to remain forever united 
 with that of England. He also married 
 the Princess Catharine on the 2d of June 
 of the same year. The Dauphin Charles, 
 the eldest son of Charles VI., refused to 
 consent to this arrangement, and headed 
 the French party against the English. 
 Henry was master of nearly all of France 
 north of the Loire, while the dauphin's 
 strength lay south of that stream. Henry 
 did not long survive his success. He died 
 at Vincennes on the 31st of August, 1422. 
 His body was conveyed to England with 
 great pomp, and buried in Westminster 
 Abbey, Queen Catharine afterwards made 
 a second marriage with a Welsh gentleman, 
 named Owen Tudor, and from them were 
 descended the sovereigns of the house of 
 Tudor, who ruled England later on in the 
 century. 
 
 In the reign of Henry V. the foundation 
 of the royal navy was laid. Until now the 
 English sovereigns had formed their fleets 
 by contributions of ships furnished by the 
 Cinque Ports and the other maritime towns, 
 and by impressing vessels from their sub- 
 
 jects. Henry built ships of his own, a 
 practice which was continued by his suc- 
 cessors until England possessed a fleet 
 owned and controlled by the crown ex- 
 clusively. 
 
 Henry VI. was left, by the death of his 
 father. King of England, and at the death 
 of Charles VI., two months later, he was 
 proclaimed King of France. He was an 
 infant in the arms at the time, and the 
 French kingdom was ruled for him by his 
 uncle John, Duke of Bedford. We have 
 already related in its proper place the his- 
 tory of the expulsion of the English from 
 France and the recovery of that kingdom 
 by Charles VII. By the close of 1453 the 
 English retained nothing in France but 
 Calais. Thus closed the hundred years' 
 war, which had cost so much blood and 
 treasure. 
 
 During the minority of the king there 
 was a continuous quarrel in England for 
 the regency, between Henry's uncle Hum- 
 phrey, Duke of Gloucester, and Cardinal 
 Beaufort. In 1445 the king married Mar- 
 garet of Anjou, the daughter of Ren^ of 
 Anjou, titular King of Sicily. Anjou and 
 Maine were relinquished to him in conse- 
 quence of this marriage to the great [dis- 
 satisfaction of the English. Henry was a 
 man of weak intellect and of gentle and 
 amiable disposition, and his wife and her 
 favorite counsellor, William de la Pole, 
 Duke of Suffolk, became the real rulers of 
 the kingdom, Suffolk, who was hated by 
 the nation, had advised the king's marriage 
 and the cession of Anjou and Maine to 
 Rene, and was popularly believed to have 
 caused the death of the Duke of Gloucester, 
 who was murdered in 1447. The losses of 
 the English in France drew upon him a 
 storm of popular fury, to satisfy which the 
 king, in 1450, banished him from the king- 
 dom for five years. He was overtaken in 
 the English Channel by an English ship 
 employed by his enemies, and his head was 
 struck off" and his body thrown into the 
 sea. No investigation of the murder was 
 ever made. 
 
 The death of Suffolk was followed by 
 several insurrections in various parts of 
 England, which were suppressed. One of 
 these was formidable enough to deserve 
 special mention. Twenty thousand of the 
 men of Kent, led by an Irishman named 
 John or Jack Cade, who took the more 
 dignified name of John Mortimer, intend- 
 ing, as is supposed, to pass himself off" as a 
 
FBOM ACCESSION OF EDWARD I. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VII. 845 
 
 son of that Sir John Mortimer who had 
 been sentenced to death by parliament and 
 executed in the beginning of this reign 
 without any trial or evidence, merely upon 
 an indictment of high treason given in 
 against him. Sir John had been very pop- 
 ular in Kent, and his name gave Cade his 
 principal strength. The insurgents marched 
 to London and encamped on Blackheath, 
 having defeated on the way a force under 
 Sir Humphrey Stafford which attempted to 
 disperse them. From Blackheath the in- 
 surgents sent a statement of their griev- 
 ances to the king. The principal of these 
 were the improper administration of the 
 government, the favor shown by the king 
 to his evil counsellors, the hardships im- 
 posed upon the people by the statute of 
 laborers, the extortions of the collectors of 
 taxes, and the interference of the nobles in 
 the county elections. These were reason- 
 able demands, and the council, appreciating 
 this, removed the king to Kenilvvorth Cas- 
 tle, after which Cade entered Loudon. 
 Getting Lord Say, and Seal, the treasurer, 
 and Say's son-in-law, Cromer, the slieriff of 
 Kent, into his power, Cade had them be- 
 headed at Cheapside for their extortions. 
 Cade's followers now plundered some 
 houses in disobedience of his orders, and 
 the citizens rose against them, and with the 
 aid of some soldiers from the Tower de- 
 fended London bridge against them. 
 After a six hours' fight, the council con- 
 sented to grant the demands of the insur- 
 gents, the greater number of Avhom dis- 
 persed on a promise of pardon for their 
 rebellion. Cade fled, and was pursued and 
 killed by a gentleman of Kent named 
 Iden. Many of his followers were exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 The loss of the French possessions of the 
 English compelled the English nobles to 
 confine their ambitious schemes to their 
 own country, and they Avcre soon involved 
 in a contest among themselves for the su- 
 premacy. The rival factions were divided 
 between the adherents of the house of York 
 and thosa of the house of Lancaster. The 
 chief of the latter house was Edmund 
 Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, the re])resenta- 
 tive of the illegitimate branch of the house 
 of Lancaster. In spite of the belief that he 
 aspired to the throne, Somerset's influence 
 was all powerful at court, but he was dis- 
 liked liy the people, as he was regarded as 
 responsible for the loss of Normandy. The 
 head of the other faction was Richard Plan- 
 
 tagenet, Duke of York, who had com- 
 manded with credit both in France and 
 Ireland, and was well liked by the people. 
 He inherited the claims of the house of 
 Clarence to the crown. In 1454, the king 
 having become unfit for governing, Richard 
 was appointed Protector of the kingdom 
 by the parliament. Within a year, how- 
 ever, Henry resumed the government and 
 the influence of Somerset was once more 
 paramount. The Duke of York then took 
 up arms against his rival, and defeated and 
 slew him in the battle of St. Albans, May 
 23d, 1455. A nominal peace was arranged, 
 but in 1459 the war began again. The 
 Yorkist party won a great victory over 
 their rivals at Northampton on the 10th 
 of July, 1460. King Henry was captured, 
 and Queen Margaret and her son fled to 
 Scotland. In the autumn, at the meeting 
 of parliament, the Duke of York claimed 
 the crown. A compromise was arranged in 
 this way : Henry was to reign until his 
 death, and Richard was to succeed him, to 
 the exclusion of Henry's only son, Edward. 
 The wars between the rival houses of York 
 and Lancaster are known as the " Wars of 
 the Roses " for the reason that the badge 
 of the house of York was a white rose, and 
 that of the house of Lancaster a red one. 
 
 The Lancasterian party did not accept 
 the compromise agreed upon in parliament. 
 Many of the great nobles rallied to the 
 support of the young Prince Edward, and 
 the Duke of York was defeated at Wake- 
 field a little later. The duke was killed in 
 the action, and his head, ornamented with 
 a paper crown, was placed over the gate of 
 the city of York. His son, the Earl of 
 Rutland, was captured and murdered in 
 cold blood by Lord Clifford. Edward, the 
 eldest son of Richard, was now Duke of 
 York. He at once took up the cause of 
 his house, defeated the royal forces at 
 Mortimer's Cross, and followed up his vic- 
 tory by a renewal of the bloody executions 
 begun by the rival party. Queen Marga- 
 ret won a victory over the Yorkist force in 
 the second battle of St. Albans, and rescued 
 the king from them. She failed to improve 
 her advantage, however, and the Duke of 
 York marched boldly into London, where 
 he was declared king by the people and 
 a large assemblage of nobles, prelates and 
 magistrates, March 3d, 1461. 
 
 Edward IV. was twenty years old, and 
 was considered the most accomplished and 
 the handsomest man of his day. He could 
 
846 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 be amiable and cordial -when he desired to 
 gain populariLV ; but his true character Avas 
 licentious and cruel. He marched at once 
 against the army of Henry and Margaret, 
 and defeated it at ToAvtown, Henry fled 
 Avith his family to Scotland, For three 
 years a sort of desultory warfare went on 
 between the rival factions, Edward winning 
 two more victories over his enemies in the 
 battles of Hedgley Moor and Hexham. 
 King Henry lay concealed in England for 
 more than a year after the battle of Hex- 
 ham, but was finally betrayed and im- 
 prisoned in the Tower. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 1464 Ed- 
 ward made public his marriage with Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of Sir Richard Wydeville, 
 or Woodeville, and the widow of Sir John 
 Gray. Edward, who was deeply in love 
 with his wife, showered honors and riches 
 upon her kindred with a profusion that 
 aroused the anger of the old nobility. The 
 powerful Earl of Warwick and his relatives 
 took serious offence at the king's course, and 
 being joined by others, and especially the 
 king's brother, the Duke of Clarence, who 
 married Warwick's daughter, began a series 
 of insurrections for the purpose of driving 
 the Wydevilles from court. In 1470 
 Warwick and Clarence were obliged to fly 
 the country to escape the vengeance of Ed- 
 ward. They went to France, where War- 
 wick met his old enemy, Queen Margaret. 
 He now formed an alliance with her by 
 marrying his daughter Anne to Edward, 
 Margaret's son. They returned to England 
 in the course of a few months, proclaimed 
 King Henry, and gained such advantages 
 that Edward, in his turn, was forced to fly. 
 He took refuge with his brother-in-law, 
 Charles the Bold of Burgundy. He came 
 back in March, 1471, with a force of 2,000 
 men, and was joined by his brother, the 
 Dukeof Clarence, who abandoned the Lan- 
 casterian party. The forces of the Earl of 
 Warwick were defeated, and he and his 
 brother, the Marquis of Montacute, were 
 slain, in the battle of Barnet, on the 14th 
 of April. Queen Margaret, supported by 
 a small body of French troops, landed at 
 Weymouth on the same day. Edward at 
 once marched against her and defeated her 
 at Tewkesbury on the 4th of May. The 
 queen and her son were taken prisoners. 
 Prince Edward was brought before his con- 
 queror, who asked him how he dared to 
 invade his dominions. The high-spirited 
 youth replied that he came to claim his 
 
 just inheritance. Edward, insensible to 
 pity, struck him on the face with his gaunt- 
 let, and the king's brothers and attendants 
 despatched the unhappy youth with their 
 daggers. Henry VI., who had been im- 
 prisoned in the Tower, died a few days after 
 the battle of Tewkesbury. Queen Mar- 
 garet w^as detained a prisoner in the Tower 
 for five years, and was then ransomed by 
 Louis XI. of France, and died in her 
 county of Anjou. The leading Lancasterian 
 nobles were executed as traitors. Anne 
 Neville, the Avidow of the murdered Prince 
 Edward, married Richard, Duke of Glouces- 
 ter, the youngest brother of King Edward, 
 who afterwards became Richard III. 
 
 Having established his power at home, 
 Edward prepared to punish Louis XI. of 
 France for having assisted Queen Margaret 
 in her last efibrt to recover the kingdom. 
 Parliament granted him a considerable 
 sum for this purpose, and he obtained more 
 money from wealthy citizens of London, 
 who feared to refuse his request. These 
 loans were termed " benevolences." He 
 equipped an army in 1475, and reviving 
 the English pretensions to the crown of 
 France, invaded that country. As has 
 been related, his ally, the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, failed to join him, and the superior 
 craft of Louis XI. soon brought the war to 
 a close by the treaty of Pequigny. Louis 
 agreed to pay an annual pension to Ed- 
 ward, and betrothed the Dauphin Charles 
 to the English king's eldest daugliter. 
 The failure of Edward to accomplish more- 
 was a sore disappointment to the English 
 people. 
 
 Edward had never forgiven the Duke of 
 Clarence for his assistance of Warwick, 
 and that prince noAV had the misfortune to 
 gain the enmity of the queen and the Duke 
 of Gloucester. A powerful ^ combination 
 was formed against him, and he was 
 charged by the king with treason, and sen- 
 tenced to death. He was committed to the- 
 Tower, where it is said he was drowned in 
 a butt of Malmsey wine. Louis XL, in the 
 treaty of Arras (December 23d, 1482), 
 offered a mortal insult to the English king 
 by setting aside the engagement of the 
 dauphin to Edward's daughter, and be- 
 trothing his son to Anne, the daughter of 
 the Emperor Maximilian. Edward pre- 
 pared to avenge this insult by a fresh inva- 
 sion of France, but died in the midst of his 
 preparations, on the 9th of April, 1483. 
 He left five daughters, and two sons — Ed- 
 
sfil 
 
 jaillilliii 
 
848 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ward, Prince of Wales, thirteen years old, 
 and Richard, Duke of York, ten years old. 
 
 Edward V- reigned from the 9th of 
 April to the 22d of June, 1483. A.t the 
 time of his father's death he was residing 
 at Ludlow Castle, surrounded by his 
 mother's kinsmen and friends. He at once 
 set out for London, and on the way he and 
 his attendants were seized by his uncle 
 Richard, Duke of Gloucester. The queen 
 fled Avith her other children to Westminster 
 for sanctuary; Edward V. was lodged in 
 the Tower, then a j)alace as well as a 
 prison ; and Gloucester was proclaimed 
 Protector of the kingdom. Gloucester re- 
 moved the little Duke of York from the 
 sanctuary at Westminster to the Tower, 
 and caused the chiefs of the Wydeville 
 party to be beheaded. He then claimed 
 the crown as his rightful property on the 
 ground that his nepliews were illegitimate 
 by reason of a marriage of Edward IV., 
 contracted before his union with Queen 
 Elizabeth. In order to strengthen his 
 absurd claim, Gloucester did not hesitate 
 to insult his own mother, who was still 
 alive, by declaring that he alone, of all her 
 sons, was legitimate. He caused his 
 nephews, the young sons of Edward IV., to 
 be secretly murdered in the Tower, and had 
 himself and his wife crowned king and 
 queen at Westminster on the 6th of July, 
 1483, and to please the people of the north 
 country had the ceremony repeated at 
 York. 
 
 The disaffected nobles lost no time in 
 beginning their ])lots for the overthrow of 
 Richard III. The head of this party was 
 an exile in Brittany at the time. He was 
 Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the grand- 
 son of Owen Tudor and Catharine, the 
 widow of Henry V. On his mother's side 
 he was descended from John of Gaunt, and 
 was the nearest heir to the throne on the 
 Lancaster side. The leader of the party in 
 England was the Duke of Buckingham. 
 His plot was soon discovered by Richard, 
 who defeated Buckingham and put him to 
 death. Executions of the other leaders 
 followed rapidly. The tyranny of Richard 
 soon drove the nobles into rebellion against 
 him again. They invited the Earl of Rich- 
 mond to come over to England and claim 
 the crown, Richmond, on his part, promis- 
 ing to end the quarrel between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster by marrying Eliza- 
 beth, the daughter of Edward IV. Rich- 
 mond landed at Milford Haven on the 7th 
 
 of August, 1485, and with an inferior army 
 defeated Richard at Bosworth on the 22d 
 of that month. Richard fought with great 
 gallantry, and died, sword in hand, in the 
 jDresence of his rival, whom he strove to 
 reach. Richmond was proclaimed king on 
 the field of battle. 
 
 During the reign of Edward IV. the art 
 of printing was introduced into England 
 by William Caxton, who had learned it on 
 the continent of Europe. He was en- 
 couraged by the king and court, and a 
 large number of works were issued Ironi his 
 press. 
 
 Henry VII. was formally crowned at 
 Westminster, and was married to Elizabeth 
 of York, the daughter of Edward IV., on, 
 the 18th of January, 1486. His hatred of 
 the house of York was so great that he was 
 very much averse to this marriage, and is 
 said to have treated his wife with coldness 
 in consequence of this feeling. The king 
 seized the young Earl of Warwick, the son 
 of the Duke of Clarence, and imprisoned 
 him in the Tower, and by his harsh treat- 
 ment of the Yorkist party drove them into 
 an insurrection before he had been king a 
 year, but the outbreak was speedily quelled. 
 The next year a young man, who declared 
 himself the Earl of Warwick, and who 
 claimed to have escaped from the Tower, 
 was furnished with troops by Margaret of 
 Burgundy, the widow of Charles the Bold, 
 and sister of Edward IV., for the purpose 
 of claiming the crown. He was joined by 
 the Earl of Lincoln and Lord Level, and 
 Avas crowned king in Ireland, Avhere the 
 house of York had always been liked. His 
 appearance in England aroused no enthusi- 
 asm among the Yorkists, and Henry easily 
 defeated him at Stoke-upon-Trent, August 
 16th, 1487. The Earl of Lincoln and 
 most of tlie Yorkist leaders fell, Lord 
 Lovel fled, and the pretended Earl of War- 
 wick, being captured, confessed that he was 
 the son of an Oxford carpenter. Henry 
 spared his life and made him a scullion in 
 his kitchen. 
 
 Henry Avas prudent and cautious in his 
 character, and very fond of money. In 
 1487 war broke out in France for the pos- 
 session of the duchy of Brittany. Under 
 the pretence of aiding the young Duchess 
 Anne, Henry obtained liberal supplies Irora 
 the parlian)ent, and extorted large sums 
 from the merchants as "benevolences." 
 In 1492 he invaded France, besieged Bou- 
 logne for a fcAV days, and then returned to 
 
FB03f ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH 849 
 
 England, having been bought off by Charles 
 VIII. for the sum of one hundred and 
 forty -nine thousand pounds. Thus the 
 shrewd king managed to fill his coffers at 
 the expense of both nations. 
 
 A new pretender to the crown now ap- 
 peared. He claimed to be Richard Plan- 
 tageuet, Duke of York, the second son of 
 King Edward IV. He appears to have 
 been one Perkin Warbeck, the son of a 
 renegade Jew of Tournay, and was induced 
 by the Duchess of Burgundy to personate 
 her nephew. On the outbreak of the war 
 with England, Warbeck was invited by 
 Charles VIII. to Paris, and handsomely 
 entertained there. He sent him away on 
 the conclusion of peace with Henry, and 
 Warbeck went to the court of the Duchess 
 of Burgundy, who received him as her 
 nephew. Here he opened negotiations 
 with some of the English nobility. These 
 were detected by Henry, and a number of 
 executions followed in England. Among 
 these was Sir William Stanley, who had 
 saved Henry's life at Bosworth Field. As 
 Stanley was one of the richest gentlemen in 
 England, it was believed that Henry had 
 put him to death in order to confiscate 
 his wealth to the crown. In 1496 Warbeck 
 passed over to Scotland, where he was 
 warmly received by King James IV., who 
 gave him his beautiful kinswoman, Catha- 
 rine Gordon, in marriage. The next year 
 he landed in Cornwall, where he was joined 
 by many of the people. On the approach 
 of the royal army Warbeck abandoned his 
 followers and took sanctuary, but surren- 
 dered upon being assured that his life 
 should be spared. Lady Catharine Gordon, 
 the wife of Perkin, fell into the hands of 
 Henry, who treated her with kindness, 
 and assigned her a place at the court of 
 the queen. Warbeck was confined in the 
 Tower, where his restless plots for securing 
 his liberty caused him to incur the anger 
 of the king, and he was hanged at Tyburn. 
 He had managed to draw the Earl of War- 
 wick into his plots, and Henry, who had 
 been long watching for an opportunity to 
 destroy Warwick, availed himself of this, 
 and had him executed, A. d. 1499. 
 
 In 1501 Arthur, Prince of Wales, the 
 eldest son of Henry VII., was married to 
 Catharine of Aragon, the daughter of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella. The prince survived 
 this union but five months, and Henry VII., 
 unwilling to part with the rich dowry of 
 the princess, obtained a dispensation from 
 54 
 
 the pope which enabled him to marry the 
 young widow to his second son, Henry, who 
 was now the heir to the crown. Henry 
 was much younger than his bride, and was 
 as much opposed to the match as a boy of 
 twelve could be, but was forced into it bv 
 his father. In 1503 the Princess Margaret, 
 the eldest daughter of Henry VII., wo? 
 married to James IV. of Scotland. Both 
 of these marriages were productive of the 
 most important consequences. 
 
 Henry had always been mean and grasp- 
 ing, but during the latter part of his reigu 
 his exactions caused him to be cordially 
 hated by his people. He wrung money 
 from his subjects by a multitude of unlawful 
 devices. His chief instruments in these ex- 
 tortions were two lawyers, named Richard 
 Empson and Edmund Dudley, who searched 
 out long-forgotten laws to enable him to 
 impose unjust fines and penalties, and 
 showed him how to use the courts of justice 
 to carry out his most iniquitous schemes. 
 This state of aflairs ended only with the 
 king's death, which took place on the 21st 
 of April, at the new palace of Richmond. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII, TO 
 THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH THE REF- 
 ORMATION. 
 
 Henry VIII. King — Punishes Empson and Dudley 
 — War with France — Battle of the Spurs — Defeat 
 of James IV. of Scotland at Flooden — Henry- 
 Visits Francis I. of France — The Field of the 
 Cloth of Gold— Henry becomes the Ally of the 
 Emperor Charles V. — Cardinal Wolsey — The Em- 
 peror Deceives him — Henry's Scruples as to his 
 Marriage with Catharine — Becomes Enamored of 
 Anne Boleyn — Applies to the Pope for a Divorce 
 — Trial of Queen Catharine— Fall of Wolsey — 
 Henry is Compelled to Favor the Reformers — 
 Cranmer — His Advice to the King — Henry Sub- 
 mits the Question of his Marriage to the Univer- 
 sities — Cromwell made Prime Minister — The 
 King Marries Anne Boleyn — Is Excommunicated 
 — The Nun of Kent — Execution of Sir Thomas 
 More — Henry's Connection with the Reformation 
 — He Orders the Bible to be Translated into Eng- 
 lish—Execution of Queen Anne — Henry Marries 
 Jane Seymour — Birth of Edward VI. — Reconcili- 
 ation of the King and the Princess ^lary — The Pil- 
 grimage of Grace — Henry Sujipresses the Monas- 
 teries — Seizes the Treasures of the Shrines — Rage 
 of the Pope — The Six Articles — Henry Marries 
 Anne of Cleves — Puts her Away — Fall of Crom- 
 well — The King JIarries Catharine Howard — 
 Sends her to the Block — Reactionary Measures — 
 Henry JIarries Catharine Parr — Protects Cranmer 
 — War with Scotland — Death of Henry — Wales 
 Incorporated with England — Edward Vt. King — 
 Somerset Regent — Progress of the Reformation — 
 Rapacity of Somerset — His Fall — Northumber- 
 land Regent — Persuades the King to Alter the 
 
850 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Succession— Death of Edward VI.— Northumber- 
 land Proclaims Lady Jane Grey Queea — The 
 People Support the Princess Mary — Lady Jane 
 Grey made a Prisoner — Mary Ascends the Throne 
 — Execution of Northumberland — Wyatt's Rebel- 
 lion — Execution of Lady Jane Grey — Mary Mar- 
 ries Philip of Spain— His Unpopularity— The 
 Roman Catholic Religion Restored— Persecution 
 of the Protestants — The Martyrs — Cranmer 
 Burned— Philip goes Back to Spain — Loss of 
 Calais— Death of Mary— Elizabeth Proclaimed 
 Queen— The Work of the Reformation Resumed 
 —The Puritans- Character of Elizabeth— Peace 
 with France— Mary of Scotland— A Dangerous 
 Rival to Elizabeth— The French Driven from 
 Scotland— Mary Returns to Scotland— Marries 
 Darnley— Murder of Darnley— Civil War in Scot- 
 land—Mary takes Refuge in England— Is Made a 
 Prisoner— Plots of the Catholics— Massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew— Elizabeth Aids the Protestants of 
 the Continent — Babbington's Conspiracy — Execu- 
 tion of Mary — Tlie Spanish Armada — Its Defeat 
 and Destruction— The Earl of Essex— His Rebel- 
 lion and Execution — Death of Elizabeth. 
 
 EXRY VIII. was eighteen years old 
 at the death of his father. He was 
 handsome, carefully educated, and 
 highly accomplished, and was of a 
 frauk and hearty disposition. He 
 was impatient and high-tempered 
 also, but it was hoped that these faults 
 would disappear with time. As he grew 
 older, however, his nature became fiercer 
 and more tyrannical. He began his reign 
 by punishing Empson and Dudley for their 
 iniquities during the last reign, but in order 
 to show his regard for the letter of the law, 
 had them convicted of high treason, a crime 
 of which they were innocent, and they were 
 executed. 
 
 Soon after he began his reign, Henry, 
 without any reasonable cause or motive, in- 
 volved himself in the quarrels of the states 
 of continental Europe, and plunged Eng- 
 land into a series of costly and unprofitable 
 foreign wars. He became a party to the 
 League of Cambray, but took no active part 
 in the war against Venice. In 1512 he 
 gent an unsuccessful expedition against 
 France, in aid of Ferdinand of Spain, who 
 managed to reap all the benefits of the en- 
 terprise. In 1513, in alliance with the 
 emperor-elect, Maximilian I., the pope and 
 the Swiss, he renewed his attempts against 
 France. Landing at Calais with a force 
 of 20,000 men, he advanced to Terouenne, 
 and formed the siege of that place, and on 
 the 16th of August defeated the French 
 army at Gui negate, which engagement is 
 known as the second Battle of the Spurs, 
 from the ignominious flight of the French 
 cavalry. Terouenne at once capitulated, 
 
 and Tournay surrendered soon after. The 
 Scots, the allies of the French, took advan- 
 tage of this war to invade England, led by 
 their chivalrous sovereign, James IV. They 
 were decisively defeated by Thomas How- 
 ard, Earl of Surrey, in the battle of Flooden, 
 fought on the 9th of September. James 
 and the flower of the Scottish nobility fell 
 on this bloody field, and Scotland was re- 
 duced to such a critical condition that it 
 could not have resisted Henry had he made 
 a determined efibrt against it. He acted 
 with generosity, however, and granted the 
 request of his sister. Queen Margaret, for 
 peace, and spared the helpless kingdom. 
 Peace was made with France in 1514, 
 Henry having become convinced of the folly 
 of the war in which he was engaged. Louis 
 XII. married Henry's sister, the Princess 
 Mary. Three months later the French 
 king died, and his widow gave her hand to 
 Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Suffolk 
 was a favorite of Henry, and was readily 
 forgiven for this marriage, which botli par- 
 ties had thought it politic to contract without 
 Henry's consent. 
 
 Francis I. was now King of France, and 
 Charles V. was Emperor of Germany and 
 King of Spain. Both monarchs were anxious 
 for the English alliance. Charles visited 
 England and conferred with Henry at 
 Dover. The English king then passed over 
 to France to meet Francis, in June, 1520. 
 He was magnificently entertained by the 
 French monarch between Guines and 
 Ardres. The splendor displayed was so 
 great that the place of meeting was called 
 " The Field of the Cloth of Gold." Nothing 
 came of these interviews, and at the end of 
 a fortnight Henry went back to England 
 rather piqued than pleased at the splendors 
 of the French, which outshone his own. 
 He visited the Emperor Charles at Grave- 
 lines on his return, and induced him to 
 spend some days with him at Calais. The 
 emperor completely won over both the king 
 and his minister, Cardinal Wolsey, and in 
 1522 Henry, acting upon the advice of 
 Wolsey, embraced the side of Charles, and 
 declared war against France. The cap- 
 tivity of Francis, and the unmistakable 
 ambition of the emperor, opened the eyes 
 of Henry to his true interests, and in 1525 
 he made peace with France, and signed a 
 treaty of neutrality and defensive alliance 
 with that kingdom. He bound himself to 
 use every efibrt to obtain the liberation of 
 
FEOM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 851 
 
 Francis, but exacted that that liberation 
 should never be purchased by the surrender 
 of any of the French territory. 
 
 During the greater portion of this time 
 the policy of Henry had been to a great 
 degree shaped by the influence of his ])rime 
 minister, Cardinal Wolsey. Thomas Wol- 
 sey was the son of a butcher at Ipswich, 
 
 delaying his departure so long. He told 
 the king that he had already been to Brus- 
 sels, and had successfully executed his 
 majesty's commands. Henry was aston- 
 ished, but added : " On second thoughts, I 
 found that somewhat was omitted in your 
 orders, and have sent a messenger after 
 you with fuller instructions." " I met the 
 
 HENKY VIII. 
 
 but having obtained a learned education, 
 \vm\ been appointed chaplain to Henry 
 VII., who conceived a high respect for his 
 abilities. On one occasion the king sent 
 him on a secret mission to the Emperor 
 Maximilian, who w^as then at Brussels. 
 Three days later Wolsey ejitered the pres- 
 ence of the king, who reproved him lor 
 
 messenger," replied Wolsey, " on my return ; 
 but, as I had reflected on that omission, I 
 ventured, of myself, to execute what I knew 
 must be your majesty's intentions." This 
 incident strikingly illustrates the character 
 of the man. The death of Henry prevented 
 his immediate advancement, but he soon 
 managed to gain the confidence and friend- 
 
852 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ship of Henry VIII. He devoted himself 
 to promoting the pleasures of the king, and 
 introduced business in the intervals of 
 amusement, and insinuated those maxims 
 of conduct which he was desirous his master 
 should adopt. Henry made him Arch- 
 bishop of York, and bestowed many other 
 ecclesiastical offices upon him. He secured 
 his appointment as cardinal, and soon after 
 Wolsey was appointed papal legate at the 
 king's request. His influence over Henry 
 was supreme, and he administered the state 
 very much as he saw fit, finding it easy to 
 win over the king to all his measures. He 
 affected the utmost pomp and splendor in 
 his manner of living, and was haughty and 
 imperious in his treatment of the most 
 powerful nobles. Only to the king was he 
 submissive and obedient. He managed to 
 gather into his hands the ecclesiastical as 
 
 LAMBETH PALACE. 
 
 well as the civil power, being both legate 
 and minister. The law of the laud was set 
 at defiance by the establishment of a lega- 
 tine court. AYolsey even cherished the 
 hope of succeeding to the Holy See at the 
 death of Pope Leo, and his ambition was 
 artfully flattered by the Emperor Charles 
 v., who induced him to believe that he 
 would exert himself in his favor. Thus the 
 haughty cardinal was making himself ob- 
 noxious to the whole kingdom except the 
 sovereign and his own immediate following. 
 Wolsey was generally regarded as the 
 author of the arbitrary measures by which 
 the king endeavored in 1525 to extort 
 money from his subjects, and which came 
 near resulting in a general insurrection. 
 Although the cardinal was simply carrying 
 out the king's instructions, he became more 
 bitterly hated than ever, while Henry, 
 strange to say, became popular by reason 
 
 of his relinquishment of his design — a 
 measure which he could not avoid. In 
 1523 Pope Leo X. died and was suc- 
 ceeded by Adrian VI., the tutor of the 
 Emperor Charles. Wolsey was indignant 
 at the failure of the emperor to comply 
 with his promises in his behalf, but dissem- 
 bled his resentment, as Adrian's great age 
 and infirmities made it evident that he 
 could not long remain upon the throne. 
 Adrian died in 1523, and Clement VII. 
 became his successor. Wolsey now saw 
 that the emperor had never been sincere in 
 his promises to him, and from this time the 
 policy of Euglaud underwent a change. 
 The disappointment of the ambitious j^relato 
 drove him to promote the true interests of 
 his country by seeking to check the power 
 of Spain. At home he was all powerful. 
 His nomination as legate was confirmed by 
 both Adrian and Clem- 
 ent, and he held in his 
 hands the whole of the 
 jjapal power in England, 
 which he used to suit 
 his own purjDoses. 
 
 Events now began to 
 take a course most un- 
 favorable to him. Henry 
 VIII. had been betrothed 
 when a boy of twelve to 
 Catharine of Aragon, his 
 brother's widow. He had 
 at first been bitterly op- 
 posed to this union, but 
 had afterwards under- 
 gone a change of senti- 
 ment with regard to the princess, and had 
 married her in the first year of his reign. 
 The general sentiment of the people was 
 opposed to a marriage between persons so 
 closely connected, and after the king's 
 accession. Archbishop Warham, the pri- 
 mate, and some other members of the privy 
 council, had openly declared against this 
 marriage. When Henry sought to arrange 
 a marriage between his daughter INIary and 
 Charles of Spain, the states of Castile had 
 opposed the marriage on the ground of 
 Mary's illegitimacy ; and when negotiations 
 were afterwards opened with France for the 
 purpose of betrothing Mary to Francis, or 
 to the Duke of Orleans, the French ambas- 
 sador revived this objection. These and 
 other things had served to call Henry's 
 attention often to the question of the legal- 
 ity of his marriage with Catharine, and to 
 raise doubts in his miud concerning it; but 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIIL TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 853 
 
 as long as his wife suited his inclination he 
 paid no attention to them. The queen, 
 however, was older than her husband by 
 six years, and though a woman of blame- 
 less character and deportment and of many 
 virtues, had become personally unacceptable 
 to him by reason of her failure to give him 
 an heir, and by becoming diseased. All 
 her children, save the Princess Mary, had 
 died in early infancy. Henry now began 
 to be troubled with serious doubts concern- 
 ing the legality of his marriage, notwith- 
 standing it had been celebrated under a 
 dispensation from the pope. He seems to 
 have been sincere in these doubts. His 
 being without an heir he regarded as a ful- 
 filment of the curse pronounced in the 
 Mosaic law against him who espouses his 
 brother's widow. The Princess Mary was 
 his only child, and her claim might be con- 
 tested by the King of Scotland at his death 
 on the ground of her illegitimacy, and the 
 kingdom once more plunged into civil war. 
 Thus public as w-ell as personal considera- 
 tions induced the king to regard his mar- 
 riage with regret. He applied to the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury for advice, and 
 the primate and all the bishops in the 
 kingdom, save Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, 
 declared under their hands and seals that 
 they deemed the king's marriage unlawful. 
 Wolsoy also sustained the king's scruples. 
 
 So far Henry, Avho had ceased all but the 
 most formal intercourse with the queen, 
 was doubtless sincere. His scruples were 
 now quickened by a violent passion which 
 he conceived for Anne Boleyn, a young and 
 beautiful lady of noble birth, whom he had 
 met among the attendants of the queen. 
 Finding her virtue equal to her beauty, 
 Henry determined to make her his wife, and 
 applied to Pope Clement VII. for a divorce. 
 The pope was personally favorable to 
 Henry, and would willingly have granted 
 his request, but he feared to offend the 
 Emperor Charles V., who was the nephew 
 of Catharine, and who openly threatened 
 Clement with his vengeance if he granted 
 Henry's request. In this dilemma the 
 pope hesitated, and kept Henry waiting for 
 five years. He at last sent Cardinal Cam- 
 peggio to England, Avho, with Wolsey, 
 formed a court for the trial of the king's 
 marriage. Catharine, who had never 
 ceased to appeal to her nephew the emperor 
 for protection, appeared before this court 
 with the king, and throwing herself on her 
 knees before Henry, addressed to him a 
 
 touching and passionate appeal not to 
 brand her with the crime of incest and her 
 child with illegitimacy, and implored him 
 to remember the fidelity with which she had 
 observed her marriage vows for twenty 
 years. She then made a solemn appeal to 
 the pope, and left the court and refused to 
 enter it again. The trial was spun out for 
 several months, and was conducted chiefly 
 by Campeggio, who, on the 23d of July, 
 1529, suddenly adjourned it until October. 
 A few days later orders came from Rome 
 transferring the trial to that city. It was 
 evident now to Henry that the pope was 
 trifling with him, and that he was ready to 
 sacrifice him to please the Emperor Charles. 
 
 The king now turned furiously upon 
 Wolsey, who was in no way responsible for 
 the pope's conduct. It was the king's 
 habit to make his ministers responsible for 
 the success of the matters intrusted to them. 
 He proceeded with caution, however. First 
 Wolsey, who had long dreaded such an 
 event as the result of a failure of the trial, 
 was deprived of the great seal, which was 
 conferred upon Sir Thomas More. The 
 cardinal was then ordered to leave London, 
 and his palace of York Place, afterwards 
 Whitehall, was seized by the king, who also 
 confiscated his wealth. Wolsey retired to 
 his country seat near Hampton Court, and 
 was left in possession of his sees of York 
 and AVinchester. In his prosperity he had 
 been followed by crowds who waited upon 
 his favor. Now, with the exception of 
 Thomas Cromwell, he was utterly deserted. 
 His enemies, chief among whom was Anne 
 Boleyn, who attributed to him the failure 
 of her hopes, now sought to complete his 
 ruin, and in 1530, the year after his fall, he 
 was indicted for high treason — a crime of 
 which he was certainly innocent — and was 
 arrested by the Earl of Northumberland in 
 his see of York. On the way to London 
 he Avas seized with a fatal sickness, and 
 died at Leicester Abbey. His last words 
 were addressed to the constable of the 
 Tower, who had him in custody : " Had I 
 but served God as diligently as I have 
 served the king, he would not have given 
 me over in my gray hairs." 
 
 The fall of Wolsey was not the only im- 
 portant consequence of the failure of the 
 pope to comply with Henry's desire for a 
 divorce. We have seen that since the days 
 of Wycliffe the reformed doctrines had been 
 silently gathering strength in England. 
 In this reign the number of those holding 
 
854 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 these doctrines increased rapidly. The 
 Reformation in Germany, and above all 
 the accompanying religious movements in 
 Switzerland and France, had affected Eng- 
 land profoundly. Henry VIII. had in- 
 deed, in the earlier years of his reign, 
 written a book to refute the doctrines of 
 Martin Luther, and had been rewarded by 
 the pope with the title of Defender of the 
 Faith, but the reformers had multiplied so 
 rapidly that they now constituted a strong 
 party. The resentment which the king 
 cherished towards the pope induced him to 
 lean more and more favorably towards the 
 reformers, as a means of humbling the 
 pontiff and destroying his power in Eng- 
 land, and he conceived the idea of making 
 the English Church independent of Rome. 
 Not that he wished to destroy the faith of 
 Rome, for in all things Henry was still a 
 good Catholic ; but now that he was re- 
 solved to have done with the pope he could 
 not help jjlaying into the hands of the 
 reformers. It should not be forgotten that 
 Henry was in no sense responsible for the 
 English Reformation. He used that great 
 movement to serve his own selfish purposes, 
 and sought to prevent it from attaining its 
 legitimate results. He miscalculated both 
 his ability and the force of the movement. 
 
 Dr. Thomas Crauraer, a fellow of Jesus 
 College in Cambridge, having casually re- 
 marked to two of the king's ministers that 
 Henry should submit the question of the 
 legality of his marriage to the universities 
 of Europe, because if they confirmed the 
 king's view the pope would find it difficult 
 to refuse Henry's petition, backed by the 
 opinions of the most learned men of the 
 world. Henry swore vehemently that 
 Cranmer had the right sow by the ear, and 
 not only acted upon his suggestion, but 
 took Cranmer into favor. The question 
 was submitted to the various universities of 
 Europe, which decided in the king's favor, 
 and, thus fortified, Henry renewed his re- 
 quest to the pope. Clement, still in fear of 
 the emperor, declined to take any definite 
 action, and cited Henry to appear at Rome. 
 
 "Wolsey's power had passed to Sir Thomas 
 Cromwell, who had served the cardinal 
 with such fidelity that Henry had taken 
 him into his confidence, and had made him 
 secretary of state. Henry chose him be- 
 cause of his abilities and his bold, decisive 
 character, for he wanted such an ally in his 
 contest with the pope. Perceiving clearly 
 thnt nothing was to be hoped for from the 
 
 pontiff, Cromwell advised the king to de- 
 clare himself the head of the church in his 
 own dominions, and Henry promptly acted 
 upon this advice. The bishops and higher 
 clei-gy prepared to resist, but the king put 
 a most formidable agency in operation 
 against them. Nearly all of them had by 
 their submission to the legatine court vio- 
 lated the statute of Proemunire, and had 
 thus rendered themselves liable to its pen- 
 alties. Henry determined to use this 
 statute against them, and the clergy, who 
 knew that it was nseless to oppose reason or 
 argument to the arbitrary will of the king, 
 made their peace with him by paying a fine 
 of £118,840, and acknowledging that the 
 king Avas the " pi'otector and supreme head 
 of the church and clergy of England." 
 This acknowledgment they qualified by th,'^ 
 clause "in so far as is permitted by the law.-; 
 of Christ." By this measure Henry struck 
 a decisive blow at the connection between 
 the English Church and Rome, and laid 
 the foundation of its complete independence 
 of that power. He next proceeded to put 
 a stop to the payment of the large sums 
 which were annually drawn from England 
 by the jwntiff, and a statute was passed by 
 parliament which forbade all apjx-als to 
 the pope or to any person outside the realm. 
 These measures induced the chancellor. Sir 
 Thomas More, one of the best of English- 
 men, and a devoted Catholic, to resign his 
 office. Henry received his resignation with 
 regret, as he sincerely esteemed him, but 
 went on wnth his efforts. Having carried 
 his other points, he now treated his mar- 
 riage with Catharine as invalid, and married 
 Anne Boleyn. A daughter was born of 
 this union, who subsequently became Queen 
 Elizabeth. Catharine, who steadfastly re- 
 fused to forego her title of queen, or to 
 acknowdedge the annulment of her mar- 
 riage, died in 1536. 
 
 When the news of the king's marriage 
 with Anne reached Rome, the pope was 
 urged by the cardinals favorable to the em- 
 peror to proceed to extreme measures 
 against Henry, but he contented himself 
 with confirming the validity of the marriage 
 with Catharine, and pronounced that with 
 Anne null and void. He threatened 
 Henry with excommunication if matters 
 were not restored to their original footing. 
 A little later an effort of Francis I. to me- 
 diate between Henry and the pope having 
 failed, Clement proceeded to more extreme 
 measures against Henry. Parliament now 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 855 
 
 made it treason to deny that the king was 
 " the supreme head on earth of the Church 
 of England." A number of Catholics re- 
 fused to acknowledge this supremacy, 
 among whom were Sir Thomas More and 
 Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, Neither 
 Avould they recognize the exclusion of the 
 Princess Mary from the succession. More 
 and Fisher were sent to the Tower. A little 
 later an insurrection was attempted by the 
 Catholics in consequence of some alleged 
 prophecies of a nun of Kent. This out- 
 break was quelled and the imposture ex- 
 posed. The king, being determined to 
 sti'ike a decisive blow at tlie Romish party, 
 now caused Fisher and More to be con- 
 demned and executed for treason, A. D. 
 1535. Fisher had been made a cardinal 
 by the pope during his imprisonment, and 
 when the news of his execution reached 
 Rome, Pope Paul III. excommunicated 
 Henry, declared him deprived of his 
 crown, and laid the kingdom under an in- 
 terdict. 
 
 Thus far the king had been compelled 
 by his own necessities in the struggle with 
 Rome to move forward with the reformers. 
 He was greatly indebted to the Reformation 
 for the success of his movements, but the 
 Reformation owed him little or nothing. 
 Cranraer and Cromwell, though they had 
 not yet openly departed from the ancient 
 doctrines, endeavored steadily to lead the 
 king into measures favorable to the re- 
 formers, while the Duke of Norfolk and 
 the other leaders of the Catholic party en- 
 deavored to encourage his devotion to the 
 Catholic faith, and to prevent a separation 
 of the English Church from Rome in points 
 of doctrine. They Avere working, however, 
 against a force which was more potent than 
 they believed. The Bible had been made 
 accessible to the English, and was doing its 
 work rapidly and decisively among them. 
 In 1526 a translation of the Scriptures 
 into the English language was made by 
 William Tyndale, and was published in the 
 Low Countries. Its circulation was forbidden 
 in England under heavy penalties, but the 
 demand for it was great, and it was read in 
 spite of the severe laws against it. Evi- 
 dences were multiplied that the English 
 were beginning to lose their belief in the 
 cardinal doctrine of the Roman Catholic 
 faith — that of transubstantiation, and that 
 the doctrine of justification by faith was be- 
 coming stronger. Several martyrs were 
 found, who sealed their opposition to the 
 
 former and their fidelity to the latter with 
 their blood. Henry punished with an un- 
 sparing hand both those who maintained 
 the pope's supremacy against his own, and 
 those who denied the doctrines of the Ro- 
 man Church. He still retained his early 
 detestation of Luther and his principles. 
 The English reformers, however, were pass- 
 ing beyond the point reached by Luther, 
 and were placing the doctrines of their 
 church far in advance of his. Cranmer, 
 sensible of the influence of the Scriptures 
 upon their readers, procured, in 1536, a res- 
 olution from both houses of convocation 
 requesting the king to cause the Scriptures 
 to be translated by learned men appointed 
 by him, and given to the people. He was 
 warmly supported by Queen Anne and 
 Cromwell, and the result was that the king 
 sanctioned the translation of the entire 
 Bible made by Miles Coverdale, and 
 printed, it is supposed, at Zurich in Switzer- 
 land. Pie ordered that the whole Bible, 
 both in Latin and in English, should be 
 placed in the choir of every parish church, 
 and that all men should be exhorted to read 
 it. This was an immense gain for the re- 
 formers, A. D. 1536. At the advice of 
 Cranmer, the king now resolved to suppress 
 the monasteries, which had become not 
 only the centi'esof a gross corruption and a 
 baneful idleness, but of unremitting opposi- 
 tion and hostility to the crown, lie j^ro- 
 ceeded carefully, however. In 1536 the 
 lesser monasteries were suppressed, but it 
 was not until 1538 that the greater estab- 
 lishments were closed. 
 
 The reformers now suffered a severe loss. 
 The queen, Anne Boleyn, who was inclined 
 to their doctrines and exerted her influence 
 with the king in their behalf, fell into dis- 
 favor. Henry's passion for her having 
 cooled, he became indiiferent to her. Her 
 enemies — the whole Catholic party — ex- 
 erted themselves to widen the bi'each. be- 
 tween the king and herself, and in this they 
 succeeded. The king was induced to be- 
 lieve that his consort was unfaithful to him, 
 and she was arrested and consigned to the 
 Tower. She was tried by a jury of peers, 
 and upon the most worthless evidence was 
 sentenced to death, and was ))eheadcd on 
 the Tower green. " The innocence of this 
 unfortunate queen," says Hume, "cannot 
 reasonably be called in question. Henry 
 himself, in the violence of iiis rage, knew 
 not whom to accuse as her lover, and 
 though he imputed guilt to her brother and 
 
856 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 four persons more, he was able to bring 
 proof against none of them." Henry was 
 tired of his wife, and anxious to remove 
 her as she stood in the way of his gratifica- 
 tion of a new passion. On the very day 
 after her execution, he married Jane Sey- 
 mour, the daughter of a Wiltshire knight. 
 The next year she bore him a son, who was 
 named Edward, but she died a few days 
 later, 1537. The execution of Anne Boleyn 
 was made the occasion of a reconciliation 
 between the king and his elder daughter, 
 the Princess Mary. He required her to 
 acknowledge his supremacy, and to admit 
 the illegality of her mother's marriage. 
 She was twenty years old, and a woman of 
 spirit, and these were hard terms. She 
 knew her father's character too well to re- 
 sist, however, and was aware that her own 
 safety depended upon her acquiescence. 
 She therefore wrote him a letter admitting 
 his claims, and was received into favor. 
 
 The suppression of the monasteries threw 
 a large sum into the hands of the king, as 
 they Avere possessed of great wealth. The 
 people of the northern counties, who were 
 still attached to the old religion, broke out 
 into rebellion. One hundred thousand 
 men took up arms, and set out from York- 
 shire for Loudon, to compel Henry to re- 
 store the Romish faith and the papal su- 
 premacy in England. The king was 
 obliged to take the field against them, and 
 the insurrection was with difficulty sup- 
 pressed. Several of the great abbots and 
 nobles were put to death for their part in 
 these troubles. The revolt received the sin- 
 gular name of " the Pilgrimage of Grace." 
 Henry derived from the acquisition of the 
 wealth of the monasteries yearly revenues 
 amounting to over £130,000. He set apart 
 a sum not exceeding £8,000 for the estab- 
 lishment of a number of new bishoprics. 
 He gambled away a large part of the rest, 
 and gave the remainder to his favorites. 
 Henry next proceeded to destroy the rich 
 shrines which had so long been the objects 
 of adoration. The treasures attached to 
 them were enormous. The gold from the 
 shrine of Becket, who was known as St. 
 Thomas of Canterbury, filled two chests 
 which were a load for eight strong men. 
 Henry not only stripped Becket's shrine, 
 but proceeded to uncanonize him, declaring 
 that he was no saint, but had died as a 
 rebel and a traitor. These acts aroused the 
 pope (Paul III.) to more energetic meas- 
 ures. Henry was excommunicated and 
 
 deprived of his crown, the kingdom was 
 laid under an interdict, and his subjects 
 were absolved from their allegiance to 
 him. The pope called upon the people 
 and nobles of England to take up arms 
 against the king, who was declared in- 
 famous, and all the princes of Christendom 
 were commanded, in virtue of the obedience 
 they owed to the apostolic see, to make war 
 upon him, and to seize such of his subjects 
 as they could lay hands on, and hold them 
 as slaves. In England the efibrts of the 
 pope produced no eflfect. The reformers 
 were too strong, the power of the king was 
 too great, and the exposures of fraud and 
 corruption on the part of the Romish 
 Church, which had accompanied the sup- 
 pression of the monasteries, had dis- 
 gusted the English people too thoroughly 
 to allow the Catholic party to hope for a 
 successful rebellion ; and England was too 
 formidable for any foreign power to wish to 
 go to war with her on her own soil. More- 
 over the spiritual weapons of the pope had 
 lost their force in the eyes of Christendom. 
 Cardinal Reginald Pole, a grandson of 
 George, Duke of Clarence, and a kinsman 
 of Henry, was residing abroad at the time. 
 He did his best to stir up the foreign 
 princes to a war with England, but without 
 result. His elder brother. Lord Montague, 
 and his agedmother, Margaret, Countess of 
 Salisbury, the last of the direct line of the 
 Plantagenets, and some others, being de- 
 tected in treasonable correspondence with 
 him, were sent to the block. 
 
 Although he had gone to such extremes 
 as we have related, Henry was still sin- 
 cerely attached to the Catholic faith. In 
 1539 he joined hands with the Catholic 
 party, and the "six articles," which sub- 
 stantially imposed the Catholic faith upon 
 the nation , were adopted. This was a direct 
 blow to the reformers, and Henry exerted 
 all his despotic power to compel the ac- 
 ceptance of the articles. He could never 
 tolerate any claim of his subjects to think 
 for themselves in religious matters, but 
 sought to compel them to accept his views. 
 Several persons were sent to the stake for 
 rejecting the articles. The parliament now 
 made a complete surrender of the rights 
 and liberties of the nation by giving to the 
 king's proclamations the force of laws. 
 Henry now strikingly manifested the incon- 
 sistency of his character by giving every 
 householder leave to have the new transla- 
 tion of the Bible in his family. 
 
FBOM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 85T 
 
 The reformers were now to suffer another 
 severe loss. Henry was anxious to marry- 
 again, and, through the influence of Crom- 
 well, his choice fell upon Anne, daughter 
 of the Duke of Cleves, a Protestant princess 
 of Germany. The marriage took place 
 early in 1540. When the new queen arrived 
 in England Henry found her stupid and 
 unattractive. The king in disgust sought 
 and found a pretext for annulling his mar- 
 riage with her, and she consented to accept 
 a handsome pension in lieu of the royal 
 dignity, and remained in England until her 
 death. Henry soon became enamored of 
 Catharine Howard, a niece of the Duke of 
 Norfolk, the leader of the Catholic party. 
 He had never forgiven Cromwell for his 
 blunder in procuring such an unacceptable 
 bride for him as Anne of Cleves, and Nor- 
 folk and the Catholic leaders resolved to 
 make this resentment and the king's pas- 
 sion for Catharine Howard the occasion of 
 destroying Cromwell. That minister was 
 cordially hated by the whole Catholic party 
 for his prominent part in the destruction 
 of the monasteries, which had won him the 
 name of " the Hammer of the Monks." 
 Henry lent himself willingly to this scheme, 
 and Cromwell was arrested and beheaded 
 on the 28th of July, 1540, on a charge of 
 high treason, and without being allowed a 
 hearing in his own defence. His only crime 
 was the too hearty zeal with which he had 
 supported the tyranny of Henry. After 
 Cromwell's death Henry hastened his mar- 
 riage with Catharine Howard. This mar- 
 riage brought to him a portion of the 
 punishment his iniquitous course respecting 
 his wives deserved. A little more than a 
 year after her marriage the queen was found 
 to be a notoriously dissolute woman, and 
 was beheaded on the 12th of February, 
 1542. Several of her paramours were also 
 executed. 
 
 The death of Cromwell and the marriage 
 with Catharine Howard restored the Catho- 
 lics to power. They did not dare to pro- 
 ceed in the course they had marked out as 
 Romanists, for their influence with the king 
 would have perished with such an avowal, 
 so they craftily maintained their influence 
 over him as believers in transubstantiation. 
 The six articles were rigorously enforced, 
 and in 1543 the general permission to read 
 the Bible was revoked. Only the higher 
 classes, or merchants, who were house- 
 holders, might read it, but it was forbidden 
 to the common people. In the same year 
 
 the king married Catharine Parr, the widow 
 of Lord Latimer, a woman of ability and 
 great discretion, who managed to retain her 
 influence over him until his death. She 
 was known to be favorably inclined to the 
 reformers, and Gardinei', Bishop of Win- 
 chester, and the Catholic party energetically 
 sought to destroy her. They did succeed 
 in putting to death Anne Askew, one of 
 her attendants, and sought by the cruellest 
 torture to wring from her some confession 
 damaging to the queen, but without success. 
 Enraged by their defeat, they turned upon 
 Cranmer, and representing to Henry that 
 the primate and his learned men were de- 
 stroying the kingdom with heresy, asked 
 his commitment to the Tower. Henry 
 thoroughly esteemed, and was sincerely 
 attached to, Cranmer. He allowed Gardi- 
 ner and his colleagues to proceed far enough 
 to show the archbishop who were his enemies, 
 and who his friends, and then sternly for- 
 bade them to raise a hand against the 
 primate, whom he declared to be faithful 
 and true. From this time the queen and 
 the primate were safe from the attacks of 
 the Romanists. 
 
 For some time past Henry had been try- 
 ing to draw the Scottish kingdom into 
 closer relations with England, but James 
 V. of Scotland, who was a Romanist, had 
 no wish for the alliance of his uncle, whom 
 he regarded as the great enemy of his 
 church. In 1542 Henry, greatly vexed at 
 his failure, declared war against Scotland, 
 James, hoping to anticipate him, sent a 
 force of 10,000 men over the border. These 
 troops were put to a shameful flight by a 
 body of 500 English at Solway Moss. 
 James died of shame and grief at this 
 humiliation, leaving his crown to his infant 
 daughter, Mary Stuart. Henry, who ear- 
 nestly desired a union of the two kingdoms, 
 negotiated a marriage between Mary and 
 his son Edward. The Queen of Scotland 
 and the regent, the Earl of Arran, being 
 Catholics, determined to disregard this 
 treaty. Henry attempted to enforce it by 
 sending an army into Scotland under the 
 Earl of Hertford, the brother of Queen 
 Jane Seymour. The country was ravaged, 
 and Edinburgh was sacked and burned. 
 This war led to one with France, in which 
 Henry acted as the ally of the Emperor 
 Charles. In 1544 Henry passed over to 
 France, and captured Boulogne after a 
 short siege. The next year peace was made 
 with France and Scotland, and it was agreed 
 
858 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that Boulogne should be restored to the 
 French at the end of eight years in con- 
 sideration of the payment of a sum of 
 money. 
 
 In his later years Henry became very 
 corpulent, and towards the last was very 
 infirm. His health continued to fail, and 
 he made his will, settling the succession, in 
 case of the failure of heirs to his son Ed- 
 ward, upon his daughter Mary and her 
 heirs, then upon his daughter Elizabeth 
 and her heirs. On the lULh of January, 
 
 paid great attention to the navy, and sue 
 ceeded in bringing it to a high state of 
 efficiency. 
 
 Henry was succeeded by his young son 
 Edward VI., a child of ten years. The 
 Earl ol Hertford, the brother of Queen 
 Jane Seymour, Avas declared protector of 
 the kingdom, and was created Duke of 
 Somerset. He was a man of great rapacity 
 and ambition, but was much beloved by the 
 common people. He began his administra- 
 tion by endeavoring to compel the Scots to 
 
 BATTLE OP -PINKIE. 
 
 1547, he caused the Earl of Surrey, the son 
 of the Duke of Norfolk, to be executed for 
 high treason. On the 28th of January, 
 in the same year, Henry died, after a reign 
 of nearly thirty-eight years, and in the fifty- 
 sixth year of his age. 
 
 In 1536 Wales was incorporated with 
 England, and the laws and privileges of 
 England were extended over that country. 
 In 1542 Ireland, in which the English 
 authority had been strengthened, was raised 
 to the dignity of a kingdom. Henry VIII. 
 
 execute the treaty of marriage between 
 Edward VI. and Mary Stuart, and made 
 a savage invasion of Scotland for that pur- 
 pose. He defeated the Scots at Pinkie in 
 1547, and though he did not succeed in 
 securing the fulfilment of the treaty won 
 considerable credit at home by his course. 
 The next year the Scots settled the matter 
 by sending their young queen to France, 
 and marrying her to the Dauphin Francis, 
 the son of Henry II. 
 
 Edward had been trained in thq reformed' 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VI 11. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 859 
 
 doctrines, and Somerset was favorable to the 
 same belief". The first parliament repealed 
 the six articles, and Henry's tyrannical 
 laws concerning treason. The political 
 leaders during this reign, anxious to obtain 
 the wealth of the church, committed many 
 outrages upon the Catholic clergy. The 
 direction of the doctrinal part of the refor- 
 mation lay chiefly in the hands of Cran- 
 mer, who was assisted by Bishops Latimer 
 and Ridley. The character of the primate 
 inclined him to mildness, and the work 
 went on with moderation. The churches 
 were stripped of their crucifixes, images, 
 and paintings, and a simpler service in the 
 English language was substituted for the 
 celebration of the mass. The Book of 
 Common Prayer was compiled by Arch- 
 bishop Craumer, who took 
 the old Latin service as _^ 
 
 the groundwork of the 
 book. The first prayer 
 book was published in 
 1549, but in 1552 many 
 changes were made in it 
 to suit the views of the 
 more advanced reformers. 
 The complete success of 
 the reformers betrayed 
 them into serious indis- 
 cretions, and it needed the 
 severe trials of the next 
 reign to remove these 
 evils and purify their 
 work. 
 
 Somerset's ambition and 
 rapacity soon raised up 
 enemies for him at home. 
 The first of these was his 
 brother Thomas, Lord 
 Seymour of Sudley, High Admiral of 
 England, who was even more ambitious 
 and unprincipled than the protector. He 
 had married Catharine Parr, the widow of 
 Henry VIII. , and aimed at taking his 
 brother's place as protector. Somerset had 
 him attainted for high treason, and he was 
 executed without being allowed a hearing 
 in his own defence on the 20th of March, 
 1549. The spoliation and seizure of the 
 abbey lands and other church property 
 which disgraced the early part of this reign 
 was stopped by the influence of Craumer, 
 but not until Somerset had amassed a large 
 fortune from the plunder. The Romanists 
 in the west took up arms to compel the 
 restoration of the mass and the plundered 
 lands, but the insurrection was quelled. 
 
 As Somerset was believed to sympathize 
 with the rebels in many things, his enemies 
 succeeded in securing his removal from the 
 protectorate, and the administration of the 
 state passed into the hands of his great rival, 
 the Duke of Northumberland. In 1552 
 Somerset was charged with conspiring 
 against Northumberland and the other 
 gi'eat lords of the council, and was be- 
 headed. His death caused universal sorrow 
 among the common people. 
 
 Northumberland's administration was 
 even worse than that of Somerset, and he 
 was disliked by the people. His reign did 
 not last long. In 1553 Edward VI., who 
 was a youth of remarkable promise and of 
 great sweetness of character, fell seriously 
 ill. Northumberland, who had espoused 
 
 OLD SOMERSET HOUSE. 
 
 the Protestant cause, knew that the acces- 
 sion of Mary would restore the Romish 
 faith aud system, and persuaded the dying 
 king to alter the succession. By this act, 
 which was unlawful, as it had not received 
 the sanction of parliament, Edward ex- 
 cluded his sisters from the succession, and 
 bestowed the crown upon his cousin. Lady 
 Jane Grey, daughter of the Duke of Suf- 
 folk, and granddaughter of Mary Tudor 
 and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suff;)lk. 
 The king's motive was the security of the 
 reformed religion. That of Northumber- 
 land was more selfish. He had just married 
 his fourth son, Lord Guilford Dudley, to 
 Lady Jane, and he hoped to secure him the 
 crown by this irregular transfer of it. Ed- 
 ward died at Greenwich on the 6th of July, 
 
860 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 1553. It was commonly believed that 
 Northumberland had hastened his end by 
 poison. I 
 
 Northumberland had intpnded to keep 
 the king's death secret until he could secure 
 the arrest of Mary and Elizabeth, but the 
 former received warning from faithful 
 friends and escaped into Norfolk. North- 
 umberland then proclaimed Lady Jane 
 Grey queen on the 10th of July, to her 
 great regret and against her remonstrances. 
 She was prevailed upon by her husband 
 and father-in-law to submit to their will, 
 but the people refused to acknowledge her 
 
 QUEEN MARY. 
 
 title, and rallied around Mary, who was 
 universally regarded as the rightful heir. 
 Mary was proclaimed amid the rejoicings 
 of the people, and her triumph was secured 
 almost without opposition. On the 19th 
 of July she entered London. Northumber- 
 land was seized, tried and beheaded, and 
 died declaring himself a Catholic. Jane 
 and her husband were arrested and impris- 
 oned in the tower. Reuard, the Spanish 
 ambassador, to whose evil counsels much 
 of the misery of this reign was due, advised 
 the queen to put them to death at once, but 
 as yet she declined to do so. 
 
 Mary, Avho was a Catholic, began her 
 
 reign with a solemn promise to make no 
 change in the religion established by her 
 brother. She then proceeded to violate this 
 pledge. The rapacity of Somerset and 
 Northumberland had brought the reformed 
 religion into discredit with a large part of 
 the nation, and there were not wanting 
 many who were willing to see the old faith 
 restored. Mary soon satisfied them. She 
 restored the Catholic faith and worship, 
 made Gardiner chancellor, and caused many 
 of the leading reformers to fly the kingdom. 
 Cranmer, who had favored Lady Jane 
 Grey, was arrested, thrown into prison, and 
 sentenced to death for high treason. The 
 queen reserved him for a still more terrible 
 fate. The Princess Elizabeth, who was a 
 Protestant, was ordered to embrace the 
 Catholic faith, and during the whole reign 
 was in serious danger of her life. She was 
 kept a prisoner, but escaped the queen's ven- 
 geance by dissembling her real sentiments, 
 
 Mary now expressed her determination 
 to bestow her hand upon Philip of Spain, 
 the son of the Emperor Charles V., the 
 most bigoted prince of Europe. The 
 match was unpopular with every class of 
 the English people ; all feared that it would 
 result in the loss of the freedom of the 
 country, which Philip would seek to make 
 a mere province of Spain — a most reason- 
 able fear. In order to prevent the mar- 
 riage, Sir Thomas Wyatt raised a body of 
 Kentish men and marched to London to 
 seize the queen. He was defeated and 
 made a prisoner. The rebels had intended 
 to proclaim Lady Jane Grey queen in the 
 event of their success, and Mary, in order 
 to prevent a recurrence of the trouble, 
 caused both Lady Jane and her husband, 
 Guilford Dudley, to be beheaded on the 
 12th of February, 1554. Wyatt and the 
 Duke of Suffolk, and many others con- 
 cerned in the insurrection were also put to 
 death". The Pi'incess Elizabeth and Cour- 
 tenay. Earl of Devon, great-grandson of 
 Edward IV., were suspected of aspiring to 
 the throne, and were committed to the 
 Tower. The Spanish ambassador earnestly 
 sought to induce Mary to put her sister to 
 death, but as there was no evidence to con- 
 vict her of treason, Mary did not dare to 
 venture upon so extreme a measure, and 
 merely placed her for a time in confinement 
 at Woodstock. 
 
 In July, 1554, Philip of Spain came over 
 to England, and was married to the queen. 
 It was agreed by parliament that he should 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 861 
 
 be called King of England during the life 
 of Mary, but that body stoutly refused to 
 allow him to be crowned, or to succeed the 
 queen in the event of her death without 
 heirs. The whole nation was distrustful of 
 Philip, whose cold and haughty manners 
 increased his unpopularity, and the cruelty 
 with which the queen had removed those 
 whom she considered her enemies had 
 caused her to become universally hated 
 throughout the kingdom. Philip's ruling 
 
 Cardinal Reginald Pole was sent to Eng- 
 land as the pope's legate to complete the 
 work of restoring the Catholic faith. On 
 the 30th of November, 1554, both houses 
 of parliament met at Whitehall, and kneel- 
 ing before the legate received from him for 
 the whole realm absolution for the national 
 sins of heresy and schism. Mary, more 
 zealous than her subjects, restored to the 
 church such of the confiscated ecclesiastical 
 property as remained in the possession of 
 
 EXECUTION OF LADY JANE GEEY. 
 
 passion was ambition, and Mary soon per- 
 ceived that the best way to retain his affec- 
 tion was to help him to become master of 
 England. Had not parliament, in spite of 
 its submissiveness in other respects, been so 
 resolute to maintain the independence of 
 the kingdom, the evils of this reign would 
 have been increased by the sacrifice of 
 England to the queen's fondness for her 
 husband. 
 
 The marriage was followed by a recon- 
 conciliatiou of the kingdom with Rome. 
 
 the crown, but it was found impossible to 
 recover the property that had passed into 
 other hands. The ecclesiastical legislation 
 of Henry VIH. was repealed, and the laws 
 against the Lollards were revived. 
 
 Mary was determined that her people 
 should be forced to conform to the Catholic 
 faith, and severe measures were put in force 
 against those who refused to do so. The ex- 
 ecution of these measures was intrusted to the 
 clergy. Gardiner, the chancellor, was quite 
 prominent in these severities, but he soon 
 
862 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 became disgusted with the horrid task, and 
 resigned it to Bonner, the brutal Bishop of 
 London. The persecution began in 1555 
 with the martyrdom of John Rogers, who 
 was burned at Smithfield for denying the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation. Other 
 martyrs were found rapidly by the perse- 
 cuting agents of the queen and the church. 
 Between the execution of Rogers and the 
 close of the reign, a period of three years, 
 277 persons were burned alive for heresy, 
 namely, five bishops, twenty-one clergymen, 
 eight lay gentlemen, eighty-four tradesmen, 
 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 
 fifty-five women, and four children. "The 
 crime for which almost all the Protestants 
 were condemned," says Hume, " was their 
 refusal to acknowledge the real presence. 
 . . . The persons condemned to these pun- 
 ishments were not convicted of teaching or 
 dogmatizing, contrary to the established re- 
 ligion ; they were seized merely on sus- 
 picion, and articles being offered them to 
 subscribe, they were, immediately, upon 
 their refusal condemned to the flames. . . . 
 Each martyrdom was equivalent to a hun- 
 dred sermons against popery ; and men 
 either avoided such horrid spectacles, or re- 
 turned from them full of a violent though 
 secret indignation against the persecutors." 
 Many of the worst practices of the Spanish 
 Inquisition were introduced into England, 
 to the indignation and disgust of the na- 
 tion. 
 
 The principal martyrs were, in the order 
 named, John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester ; 
 Bishops Latimer and Ridley, who were 
 burned together, and Edward Cranraer, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. The martyr- 
 dom of Cranmer was the most injurious to 
 the Church of Rome of any that took place 
 during this reign. Thousands had wit- 
 nessed the patient heroism with which he 
 suffered at the stake, and the whole land 
 mourned the good archbishop. So much 
 popular sympathy was shown to the martyrs 
 that the queen issued a proclamation for- 
 bidding her subjects to approach, speak to, 
 or comfort heretics on their way to execu- 
 tion. This command was utterly disre- 
 garded. The English people, to whom such 
 cruelties were foreign, deeply resented them. 
 Each case of persecution made fresh con- 
 verts for the Reformation. The queen was 
 given the name of " Bloody Mary," to ex- 
 press the detestation her people bore her, 
 and Philip was hated to an even greater 
 degree. 
 
 The marriage of the queen was unhappy. 
 She was a small, haggard, sickly woman, 
 eleven years older than her husband. The 
 marriage had been one of policy on his 
 part, and though his wife was passionately 
 attached to, and extremely jealous of him, 
 Philip did not trouble himself to return 
 her affection. He soon became tired of her, 
 and gladly went back to Spain when re- 
 called by his father's abdication. He re- 
 turned to England in 1556 for a short time, 
 to secure the alliance of that country in his 
 war with France. He told the queen that 
 if she refused his demand, he would never 
 set foot in England again, and the poor 
 woman, half mad with the fear of losing 
 her husband, wrung a considerable sum of 
 money from her subjects in the most aibi- 
 trary manner, and sent a force of 10,000 
 men to the aid of Philip. War was de- 
 clared against France, but the only result 
 of this struggle as far as England was con- 
 cerned was the loss of Calais, which was 
 captured by the Duke of Guise in January, 
 1558. In actual fact England could well 
 afford to lose the town, but it had been 
 made a point of honor to hold it for centu- 
 ries, and its loss was a severe blow to the 
 pride of the nation. 
 
 In spite of her crimes it is impossible to 
 withhold our pity from Mary. She was 
 hated and cursed by her people with a bit- 
 terness which words have no power to ex- 
 press. She was aware of this, and the 
 knowledge caused her no little sufl^ering. 
 Her husband, tired of her, remained on the 
 continent, and paid no heed to the piteous 
 letters she constantly addressed to him. 
 She supposed herself pregnant, when in 
 reality the symptoms which she thus inter- 
 preted were but the signs of an incurable 
 disease. Her people were not slow to give 
 her evidences of their hatred of her. Li- 
 bels and lampoons, ribald ballads upon her 
 supposed pregnancy were dropped by un- 
 known hands where she could not fail to 
 find them. As she read them she would 
 give way to bursts of despairing fury, and 
 then go to her chamber to weep her heart 
 out in the bitterness of her sorrow. There 
 she would sit for hours on the floor, her 
 knees drawn up to her face. Then rou.^ing 
 herself, she would wander restlessly about 
 the corridors of the palace, or write to her 
 husband those sorrowful, tear-blotted let- 
 ters with which she vainly tried to move 
 his heart of adamant. At last, on the 17th 
 of November, 1558, Mary died. Her death 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIIL TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 
 
 was followed within twenty-four hours by 
 that of Cardinal Pole. The news was 
 greeted in all parts of England with dem- 
 onstrations of joy. The death of Mary 
 ended the power of Rome in England. 
 Mary having died without heirs, her sis- 
 
 863 
 
 they had been left by Edward VI. The 
 supremacy of the crown was restored by 
 act of parliament, though the sovereign 
 discontinued the title of "Head of the 
 Church." The bishops of Mary's reign, 
 with a few exceptions, refused to take the 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 ter Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII. 
 and Anne Boleyn, was proclaimed queen, 
 bhe was attached to the faith of the Refor- 
 mation, and began her reign by reversincr 
 tlie acts of Mary with regard to church 
 matters, and restored the doctrines and 
 worship of the church to the form in which 
 
 oath of supremacy, and were deprived of 
 their sees. Elizabeth recalled the bishops 
 Avho had fled to the continent to escape 
 Mary's wratli, and new consecrations were 
 made by these to fill the vacant sees. Dr. 
 Matthew Parker, a man eminent for his 
 learning and piety, was made Archbishop 
 
864 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of Canterbury. Some alterations were made 
 in the second prayer-book of Edward VI., 
 and it was ordered to be used in the church. 
 Parliament passed a new act of uniformity, 
 and imposed a fine upon all who absented 
 themselves from church. Many Roman 
 Catholics, unable to submit to this law, fled 
 the kingdom, and from the continent kept 
 Elizabeth in danger by their plots through- 
 out her reign. 
 
 Another class of Christians also found 
 the queen's determination to make all her 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH SETTING OUT FOR LONDON 
 
 subjects conform to the established church 
 a source of trouble. These were the extreme 
 Pi-otestants or "Puritans," as they were 
 called from their desire for a simpler and 
 purer form of worship — that is, one farther 
 removed from the Roman Catholic forms. 
 These persons had no wish to leave the 
 Church of England, but strove to establish 
 their ideas in its doctrines and ritual. 
 Some of the more advanced objected to the 
 government of bishops. Finding it impos- 
 sible to carry out their wishes, they began 
 to withdraw from the church and hold 
 
 meetings of their own, and towards the 
 close of the reign openly separated from 
 the church, as a distinct sect, and were 
 known as Independents. A " Court of High 
 Commission" was appointed by Elizabeth 
 to enforce the act of uniformity. The non- 
 conformists were punished by fines and im- 
 prisonment, but they held on to their doc- 
 trines. 
 
 In spite of this division, however, the 
 English Protestants presented an unbroken 
 front to Rome and to their foreign enemies. 
 The Puritans never wavered in their 
 loyalty to Elizabeth, but gave her 
 their unflinching support in the great 
 trials to which the religious and polit- 
 ical enmity of Rome and Spain sub- 
 jected the kingdom. As the greatest 
 of the Protestant sovereigns, Elizabeth 
 became the hope of the reformers in 
 all parts of Eui-ope. She was not 
 able to help them to the extent of 
 her power, for she was always sur- 
 rounded by dangers and difficulties 
 which compelled her to act with the 
 greatest caution. Still the assistance 
 she gave to the reformers in France, 
 the Netherlands and Scotland, was of 
 great service to them, and the moral 
 weight of her alliance was of the 
 highest importance to them. 
 
 Elizabeth was twenty-six years old 
 when she came to the throne, and it 
 was hoj)ed by her subjects that she 
 would marry and give them a sover- 
 eign of her own blood to succeed her. 
 Philip of Spain offered her his hand 
 on condition of her renunciation of 
 the reformed faith, but she declined 
 the alliance of a man who had per- 
 secuted her in her days of helpless- 
 ness. Several eligible matches were 
 proposed to her during her reign, 
 but she refused them all, preferring 
 to continue her estate of maidenhood, 
 and perhaps wisely, as this resolve left her 
 more independent and freer to carry out 
 her vigorous policy. In Avhatever light we 
 view her character, we are compelled to 
 acknowledge her as a great sovereign. She 
 possessed in a high degree the qualities of 
 vigor of mind, energy, constancy, penetra- 
 tion, vigilance, magnanimity, and tact. A 
 daughter of Henry VIII., she was imperious 
 and high-tempered, but she was a more 
 faithful friend than her father, and had her 
 weaker qualities under the firm control of 
 her vigorous and sagacious mind. She in- 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 865 
 
 herited the faults of her sex, and was vain 
 of her beauty, jealous of those women 
 whom she deemed her rivals, and fond of 
 admiration. But though she had lovers 
 and favorites, she never yielded her honor 
 to her passion, or allowed them to cause her 
 to sacrifice the public interests to her ten- 
 derness. She was not tolerant, but she 
 kept the religious differences of her people 
 within bounds by her strong personal in- 
 fluence over them. Although a woman, 
 she maintained her country's renown at the 
 highest point, and made her friendship to 
 be courted and her enmity dreaded by the 
 most powerful sovereigns of Europe. She 
 showed a rare discernment in the selection 
 of her ministers, and rarely failed to choose 
 the most fitting instruments for the execu- 
 tion of her will. She supported them with 
 unvarying constancy, but she remained 
 their mistress, and it was her firm hand 
 that guided England safely through the 
 .dangers which encompassed her reign. 
 Her chief minister was Sir William Cecil, 
 afterwards Lord Burleigh, whom she made 
 lord high treasurer. He was a states- 
 man of great ability and integrity, and 
 served the queen with remarkable fidelity. 
 To his wise counsels much of the success of 
 her reign is to be attributed. 
 
 One of the first acts of Elizabeth's reign 
 was to make peace with France. Calais 
 was left in the hands of the French. This 
 peace, however, did not produce a return 
 of good feeling between the two kingdoms. 
 Mary Stuart, the young Queen of Scotland, 
 who had been married to Francis, the 
 Daujihin of France and sou of Henry II., 
 was, next to Elizabeth, the nearest relative 
 of Henry VIII., and the true heir to the 
 crown in the event of Elizabeth's death. 
 Those who regarded the marriage of Henry 
 and Anne Boleyn as unlawful, and Eliza- 
 beth as an illegitimate child, and therefore 
 incapable of succeeding to the throne, of 
 necessity regarded Mary Stuart as the true 
 heir of Mary Tudor. Henry II. adopted 
 this view, which at the accession of his son 
 would unite the crowns of France, Scotland, 
 and England, if it should prevail, and 
 sought to induce the pope to excommuni- 
 cate Elizabeth and turn her Catholic sub- 
 jects against her. By his command Francis 
 and Mary assumed the arms and titles of 
 King and Queen of England. Elizabeth 
 remonstrated through her ambassador, but 
 could obtain no satisfaction. After the 
 accession of Francis II. to the French 
 
 55 
 
 throne, the Guises pushed matters to greater 
 extremities, and Elizabeth was naturally 
 driven to regard Mary and her husband as 
 her most dangerous enemies. 
 
 Scotland had been for some time in a 
 most disordered state. The reformers, who 
 now comprised the great bulk of the nation, 
 had obliged the queen regent, Mary's 
 mother, to grant their demands, which in- 
 cluded entire toleration in matters of re- 
 ligion, and the discouragement of the 
 French influence, which had grown too 
 great for the safety of the independence of 
 the kingdom. Margaret, however, in 
 league with the French court, set herself to 
 work to bring Scotland into more complete 
 subjection to France, after which it was in- 
 tended to rid the former kingdom of heresy. 
 Troops were sent over from France, and the 
 danger became so evident that the Scottish 
 reformers appealed to Elizabeth for aid. 
 That queen, perceiving the extent of the 
 danger to England of the success of the 
 French schemes, responded to this appeal 
 at once, and sent a fleet into the Frith of 
 Forth and an army across the border, 
 which compelled the French forces in 
 Scotland to capitulate. A treaty was con- 
 cluded between England and France, by 
 which the French troops were withdrawn 
 from Scotland ; the French sovereigns 
 agreed to cease to bear the arms and titles 
 of the English sovereign ; and Scottish 
 affairs were settled by the exclusion of for- 
 eigners from office in that kingdom. This 
 vigorous action on the part of Elizabeth 
 raised her credit to a high degree abroad. 
 The Scottish reformers assembled a parlia- 
 ment and established their faith throughout 
 Scotland, and continued their alliance with 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 The death of Francis II. put an end to 
 the danger of a war with France on account 
 of Mary's pretensions to the English crown ; 
 but that queen, acting upon the advice of 
 her uncle, the Duke of Guise, would not 
 formally surrender those claims. More- 
 over, she had not yet, as Queen of Scotland, 
 given her assent to the treaty of Edinburgh, 
 the terms of which we have just stated. 
 The ill treatment which Mary received 
 after the death of her husband, from Cath- 
 arine de' Medici, made her anxious to leave 
 France and return to Scotland. She there- 
 fore asked permission of Elizabeth to pass 
 through England on her way home, but 
 Elizabeth made her consent conditional 
 upon the ratification of the treaty. Appre- 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 867 
 
 ciatiug the danger of the presence in Scot- 
 land of Mary, whose title to the English 
 crown was regarded by the Catholic party 
 as preferable to her own, Elizabeth sta- 
 tioned a fleet in the channel to intercept 
 her. Mary succeeded, however, in eluding 
 this force in a fog, and reached Scotland in 
 safety. The Scotch reformers were not in- 
 clined to regard her with favor. She was 
 a Catholic, and the kingdom was now too 
 thoroughly Protestant for her position to be 
 pleasant. The unhappy queen was treated 
 by the Scottish leaders, with John Knox at 
 their head, with a severity and brutality 
 from which her sex, if not her rank, should 
 have shielded her. She found herself, 
 without the power to enforce her will, in 
 the midst of a people bitterly hostile to her. 
 Her situation was most uncomfortable, and 
 her lack of prudence soon made it worse. 
 Finding that her position in Scotland could 
 not be maintained without the friendship 
 of England, Mary endeavored to open a 
 friendly correspondence with Elizabeth, 
 but her course was so impolitic as to con- 
 vince Elizabeth that the Scottish queen 
 still harbored her designs upon her crown. 
 Still, a nominal reconciliation Avas effected 
 l)etween them, and they appeared to be the 
 best of friends, all the while distrusting and 
 disliking each other in the most womanly 
 fashion. Elizabeth professed to be anxious 
 for Mary to marry one of the great nobles 
 of England, but really intended that she 
 should remain a widow. She was much 
 annoyed, therefore, Avhen Mary, in 1564, 
 married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, son 
 of the Earl of Lennox. Darnley was a 
 worthless, trifling person, and soon dis- 
 gusted his wife with his ingratitude and 
 jealousy. He conceived a violent hatred 
 for an Italian secretary of the queen, named 
 David Rizzio, whom he charged with being 
 Mary's lover. His fury having led him to 
 extreme measures, he conducted several of 
 his friends to the palace of Holyrood, and 
 surprised Rizzio as he sat at supper with 
 the queen, and the unfortunate Italian was 
 stabbed at Mary's feet. He was dragged 
 out of the room and quickly despatched. 
 Mary, conquering her agitation, vowed 
 vengeance upon the murderers, among 
 whom was her husband. The next year 
 (1567) Darnley was murdered, and the 
 Queen of Scots, who was believed to have 
 brought about his death, soon after married 
 the Earl of Bothwell. Bothwell was re- 
 garded as one of the murderers of Darnley, 
 
 and the marriage gave great offence to the 
 Scottish people. The nobles took up arms 
 against the queen. Bothwell fled the king- 
 dom, and Mary was taken prisoner and 
 confined in Loch levin Castle. She was 
 compelled to resign the crown to James 
 VI., her infant son by Darnley. In 1568 
 she escaped from her confinement and ral- 
 lied her partisans. Her brother, the Earl 
 of Murray, who had been made regent for 
 his nephew, marched against her, and de- 
 feated her at Langside. She then escaped 
 into England, and threw herself upon the 
 protection of Elizabeth, May 16th, 1658. 
 Elizabeth, however, detained her as a state 
 prisoner, and kept her in confinement for 
 upwards of nineteen years. She was in- 
 duced to take this step by the advice of her 
 minister Cecil, who pointed out to her the 
 danger of allowing Mary, who was unable 
 to remain in Scotland, to pass over to 
 France, as she desired, where she would be 
 the centre of every Catholic plot against 
 England. Her coufineraent, however, did 
 not avert the danger which Cecil dreaded. 
 Mary became an object of compassion be- 
 cause of her unlawful detention, and numer- 
 ous conspiracies were formed by the Cath- 
 olics, each of which had for its objects the 
 release of Mary, the overthrow of Eliza- 
 beth, and the elevation of Mary to the 
 English throne. These malcontents invari- 
 ably looked to Spain for aid. The Duke 
 of Norfolk, the head of the Catholic party 
 in England, hoped to become the husband 
 of Mary, and through her King of Eng- 
 land. His conspiracies to effect this cost 
 him his liberty in 1569 and his head in 
 1572. In 1569 the Earls of Northumber- 
 land and Westmoreland got up a Catholic 
 rebellion in the north of England, which 
 was speedily crushed with great severity. 
 In 1570 Pope Pius V. issued a bull declar- 
 ing the English people absolved from their 
 allegiance to Elizabeth. English priests, 
 educated at the Catholic seminaries of 
 France, and members of the Jesuit order, 
 came into the kingdom in such numbers, 
 and were so constantly engaged in plots 
 against the queen, that it was generally be- 
 lieved that they were sent to England for 
 no other purpose than to promote treason. 
 Many of these were tortured for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining information as to the 
 designs of the Catholic party, and were put 
 to death. Torture was contrary to the 
 English law, but it had been used so freely 
 under the Tudors that Elizabeth merely 
 
868 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 pursued the policy of her family in adopt- 
 ing it. 
 
 The queeu retaliated the annoyances 
 caused her by the seminary priests by allow- 
 ing the Huguenots to enlist men in England, 
 by loaning money to the Queen of Navarre, 
 and by employing her influence with the 
 German princes in behalf of the French 
 Protestants. The terrible massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew filled England with horror 
 and alarm. Elizabeth made no secret 
 of her indignation and disgust, feelings 
 which she shared with her people. This 
 terrible affair and the cruelties of Philip 
 II. in the Low Countries, convinced the 
 queen and her ministers that the Catholics 
 of the continent had combined for a bloody 
 extirpation of Protestantism. The Catholic 
 party in England was strong and active, 
 and it was not certain whether it would not 
 with the assistance of France and Spain 
 turn against Elizabeth, and repeat in Eng- 
 land the horrors enacted upon the conti- 
 nent. As the head and protectress of the 
 reformed faith, Elizabeth was the constant 
 object of the fury of the Catholics, and her 
 situation was always full of danger. It was 
 necessary for the queen to act with great 
 prudence, and she therefore deemed it best 
 not to sever her intercourse with the French 
 court. Yet she accorded to the French 
 ambassador, a man of honor and humanity, 
 a reception which left him in no doubt of 
 her real sentiments respecting the massacre. 
 In January, 1578, an alliance was formed 
 between England and the United Prov- 
 inces of the Netherlands, which had 
 established their independence of Spain 
 after a long and heroic struggle. The 
 troubles wliich followed the death of the 
 Prince of Orange, and the efforts of the 
 Spaniards to regain possession of the Neth- 
 erlands, induced the provinces in 1585 to 
 offer the sovereignty of their country to 
 Elizabeth. Elizabeth deemed it most pru- 
 dent to decline this offer, but as she was 
 resolved to prevent the subjugation of the 
 provinces by Philip, she agreed to assist 
 them with troops and money. She sent an 
 expedition to their aid under the Earl of 
 Leicester, her favorite. Leicester failed to 
 accomplish anything, but the expedition is 
 memorable for the death of Sir Philip 
 Sidney, who was mortally wounded in an 
 action before Zutphen. He was one of the 
 most perfect characters of history, a model 
 of manly virtue, and possessed of many rare 
 gifts of mind. So far there was no war of 
 
 importance between Spain and England, 
 but hostilities were kept up by Sir 
 Francis Drake and other English sailors, 
 who attacked the Sjmnish possessions in 
 America, and captured Spanish ships at 
 sea. 
 
 In 1585 parliament had passed a law for 
 the punishment of persons plotting against 
 the sovereign for the purpose of securing 
 the crown. Mary was the first victim of 
 this law. Of the numerous plots formed for 
 her release and elevation to the English 
 throne, the last was organized by Anthony 
 Babbington, an English Catholic gentleman 
 of means, John Savage, and John Ballard, 
 priests of the English seminary at Rheims, 
 and some others. It was intended to assas- 
 sinate Elizabeth, and release the Queen of 
 Scots at the same moment. The Spanish 
 ambassador at Paris had promised to aid 
 the conspirators with his master's troops, 
 and it was believed that these, with the co- 
 operation of the English Catholics, would 
 be sufficient to seat Mary on the throne of 
 her rival. Mary entered cordially into the 
 plot. The conspiracy was detected, how- 
 ever, by the vigilance of Elizabeth's minis- 
 ter, Walshingham, and the parties to it 
 were seized and executed. Mary was tried 
 by a commission provided for by the law 
 of 1585, and being found guilty of compli- 
 city in the plot, was sentenced to death. 
 She was executed at Fotheringhay Castle 
 on the 8th of February, 1587. It was a 
 severe remedy, but it was inevitable. If 
 Elizabeth was to hold the throne in peace, 
 if the Catholic powers of Europe were to 
 be deprived of an always available pretext 
 for interfering with the tranquillity of Eng- 
 land, Mary's death was necessary. James 
 VI. of Scotland had vainly endeavored to 
 save his mother's life. He resented her 
 death, but, though the Catholics urged him 
 to take up arms to avenge her, he remained 
 on friendly terms with Elizabeth. Philip 
 II. of Spain, though he remained quiet, was 
 secretly preparing to strike a terrible blow 
 at England. Hearing this, Elizabeth sent 
 Sir Francis Drake in 1587 to operate 
 against the Spanish coast. Drake attacked 
 the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Cadiz, 
 and destroyed it. Meanwhile Philip con- 
 tinued his preparations secretly, but with 
 celerity. A powerful fleet, the most formid- 
 able that had yet been assembled by a single 
 sovereign, was collected at Lisbon, and 
 equipped with every appliance necessary 
 for the success of the enterprise. A strong 
 
|]|i[|||mil|i|miim!i 
 
FBOM ACCESSION OF HENBY VIIL TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 869 
 
 force of seamen and troops manned the 
 ships, and an army of 30,000 men was as- 
 sembled on the Flemish coast of the chan- 
 nel. The command of the armada was 
 bestowed upon the Duke of Medina Sidonia, 
 while the Prince of Parma was given charge 
 of the army. The expedition having been 
 blessed by Pope Bixtiis V., was looked upon 
 as a holy war, and the flower of Spain en- 
 gaged in it with a zeal equalled only by the 
 crusaders' enthusiasm. The Spanish fleet 
 was so formidable that its success was re- 
 garded as a foregone conclusion, and hence 
 it received the name of the " Invincible 
 Armada." England was to be conquered 
 and made a Spanish province, the Romish 
 religion was to be restored ; and, that there 
 might be no difiiculty in establishing the 
 inquisition at once in Eugland, chains and 
 instruments of torture formed a part of the 
 equipment of the armada. The Spanish 
 king, unable to prevent his preparations 
 from being known, pretended that he meant 
 this formidable force for service in the In- 
 dies ; but the English were well satisfied 
 that its destination was their own shores, 
 and preparations were made to meet it. 
 The niggardness of the queen prevented 
 them from being as complete as the danger 
 demanded, but still the means were col- 
 lected which gave the English a reasonable 
 hope of defeating their enemy in a fair 
 fight. The royal navy, consisting of only 
 twenty-eight sail, was reinforced by about 
 one hundred vessels furnished by the cities 
 and the nobility and gentry of the king- 
 dom. The command of the fleet was con- 
 ferred upon Lord Howard of Effingham, 
 and under him were Drake, Raleigh, Haw- 
 kins, Frobisher, and other noted sailors. 
 Two armies were collected. One was sta- 
 tioned at Tilbury on the lower Thames, 
 under the Earl of Leicester. The other 
 was charged with the protection of the 
 queen. Philip had expected the English 
 Catholics to join him ; but they answered 
 manfully to the call of the queen, and sus- 
 tained her as zealously as the most devoted 
 Protestant. England presented a solid 
 front against the foreign foe. 
 
 The armada sailed from Lisbon in July, 
 1588, amid the most extravagant enthu- 
 siasm. On the 19th of that month Lord 
 Howard was informed that it was off" the 
 coast of Cornwall, standing in for the 
 channel. It numbered about one hundred 
 and fifty ships of a large size, a number of 
 which were huge three-deckers. Howard 
 
 at once sailed out of Plymouth harbor with 
 about seventy ships, and hung upon the 
 rear of the Spaniards. His vessels were all 
 inferior in size and strength to those of the 
 armada, but they were better managed. He 
 was joined daily by reinforcements until 
 his fleet numbered one hundred and forty 
 sail. As the armada advanced up the 
 channel, Howard seized every occasion to 
 attack it and cut off" the straggling vessels, 
 and each fresh trial added to the confidence 
 of the English. On the 27th of July, the 
 Spanish fleet anchored in Calais Roads, to 
 await the arrival of the Prince of Parma, 
 who was hourly expected. On the night 
 of the 28th Lord Howard, in order to force 
 the enemy to put to sea, fired eight of his 
 ships, and set them drifting among the 
 Spanish vessels, which cut their cables, and 
 stood out to sea in haste and in great dis- 
 order. The next morning the English made a 
 determined attack upon the armada and 
 defeated it, destroying twelve ships and 
 disabling a number of others. Disheartened 
 by his reverses, the Spanish admiral re- 
 solved to abandon the attempt and return 
 home. Had not the English run out of 
 powder — the queen's stinginess denying 
 them a proper supply — the Spanish fleet 
 would have been destroyed. As it was, the 
 huge ships of the armada were compelled 
 by the English, who hung upon their rear, 
 to take the northward passage home. After 
 passing the Orkneys, the Spaniards were 
 overtaken by a fearful tempest, and the 
 greater number of their vessels went ashore 
 on the rocky coasts of Scotland and Ireland, 
 Only fifty-four vessels, and these terribly 
 crippled, reached Spain. The Spanish 
 kingdom was filled with mourning for the 
 loss of its bravest and noblest warriors and 
 gentlemen. When Medina Sidonia pre- 
 sented himself before his sovereign, he was 
 received with these words : " We cannot 
 blame you for what has happened : we can- 
 not struggle against the will of God." 
 
 Amid the rejoicings with which the Eng- 
 lish greeted the defeat of the armada, the 
 Earl of Leicester, the queen's favorite, died. 
 His death enabled a new favorite to rise to 
 power. This was Robert Devereux, Earl 
 of Essex. He was handsome and brilliant, 
 a man of gallantry and imperious will, and 
 had served with distinction at the taking 
 of Cadiz by Drake. He soon acquired 
 such an influence over Elizabeth that in 
 1599 he was made Lord Lieutenant of 
 Ireland, and sent over to that country to 
 
«70 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 quell the dangerous rebellion of the Earl 
 of Tyrone. He was not fitted for such an 
 important command, however, and matters 
 did not prosper under him. Elizabeth was 
 greatly dissatisfied with his conduct, and 
 severely censured it. Essex upon hearing 
 of this imagined that his enemies at home 
 were seeking to ruin him, and at once left 
 his post and returned to England to justify 
 himself with the queen. Elizabeth pun- 
 ished him by removing him from his gov- 
 ernment and appointing his successor at 
 once. She then proceeded to treat Essex 
 with great severity, and inflicted upon him 
 so many humiliations that the earl lost pa- 
 tience. Believing that the queen had been 
 led into this treatment of him by her ad- 
 visers, who were his enemies, he attemptetl 
 to excite a revolt among the people of Lon- 
 don, for the purpose of removing them by 
 force. The efl^ort failed. Essex was ar- 
 rested, convicted of treason, and beheaded 
 in 1601. The queen consented to his death 
 with extreme reluctance. Lord Mountjoy, 
 the successor of Essex in Ireland, brought 
 the war against Tyrone to a successful 
 close, although the rebels received consider- 
 able aid from Spain. Soon after the sub- 
 mission of Tyrone, Elizabeth fell into a 
 profound melancholy, from which she never 
 rallied. Her grief for the Earl of Essex is 
 said to have hastened her death, which 
 took place at Richmond on the 24th of 
 March, 1603. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE KEIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 
 
 James YI. of Scotland Becomes King of England as 
 James I. — His Character — Discards Presbyterian- 
 ism for Episcopacy — His Views as to the Royal Au- 
 thority — Imprisonment of Sir Walter Raleigh — 
 James Refuses the Demands of the Puritans — 
 Translation of the Bible — Contest between the 
 King and the House of Commons — Hostility of 
 the Catholics to James — The Gunpowder Plot — 
 The King's Favorites — James Refuses to Aid his 
 Son-in-Law, the Elector Palatine — His Infatua- 
 tion for Spain — Execution of Raleigh — Failure 
 of the King's Contemptible Policy — The Duke of 
 Buckingham— Tyranny of the King— Sir Edward 
 Coke — Quarrels of the King with Parliament — 
 Troubles in Ireland — Settlement of Virginia and 
 Massachusetts — Death of the King— Charles I. — 
 His Character — Marries Henrietta Maria of 
 France — Imprudence of the Queen's Religious 
 Attendants— Charles Quarrels with Parliament- 
 Forced Loans— War with France — Failure of the 
 Attempt to Relieve Rochelle— The Petition of 
 Right — Murder of Buckingham — Tonnage and 
 Poundage— The King Tries to Govern Without a 
 Parliament — Strafford and Laud— Strafford in Ire- 
 land—Arbitrary Measures of the King — Ship- 
 Mouey— John Hampden Resists the Tax — Efforts 
 
 of the King to Force a Liturgy on the Scots — The 
 Solemn League and Covenant — Rebellion of the 
 Scots — Meeting of the Long Parliament — Execu- 
 tion of Strafford — The King Violates the Privi- 
 leges of the House of Commons — Firmness of the 
 Commons — Flight pi the King — Commencement 
 of the Civil War — The Committee of Public 
 Safety — Battle of Edgehill— Hesitation of Charles 
 — Death of Hampden — Alliance of the Parliament 
 with the Scots— Oliver Cromwell — Battles of Mar- 
 ston Moor and Naseby — Surrender of the King to 
 the Scots, who Deliver him to the Parliament — 
 The King's Person Seized by the Army — Escape 
 and Recapture of Charles — Battle of Preston — 
 Trial of the Kiug — His Execution. 
 
 Y the terms of the will of Henry VIII. 
 the crown of England should have 
 passed from Elizabeth to the de- 
 scendants of the Princess Mary, the 
 wife of Charles Brandon, Duke of 
 Suffolk. The nearest heir to the 
 throne, however, was James VI. of Scotland, 
 the son of Mary Stuart and her second hus- 
 band, Lord Darnley. Robert Cecil, Eliza- 
 beth's chief minister, declared that, with her 
 dying breath, Elizabeth had named the 
 Scottish king as her successor, and he was 
 accepted without question by the nation. 
 After the coronation of the new king, who 
 took the title of James I., an act of Parlia- 
 ment Avas passed declaring his the only 
 rightful claim to the throne. He was natu- 
 rally inclined to the doctrine of the " divine 
 right" of kings, and now that he had suc- 
 ceeded to the English crown in virtue of 
 his birth, it became his interest to insist 
 upon this right, and he did it to the ut- 
 most. " No sovereign," says Professor 
 Green, in his admirable History of the 
 English People, " could have jarred against 
 the conception of an English ruler which 
 had grown up under the Tudors more 
 utterly than James I. His big head, 
 his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, 
 his ricketty legs, his goggle eyes, stood 
 out in as grotesque a contrast with all 
 that men recalled of Henry or Elizabeth as 
 his gabble and rodomontade, his want of 
 personal dignity, his course buffoonery, his 
 drunkenness, his pedantry, his contemptible 
 cowardice. Under this ridiculous exterior, 
 however, lay a man of much natural 
 ability, a ripe scholar, with a considerable 
 fund of shrewdness, of mother wit, and 
 ready repartee. His canny humor lights 
 up the political and theological questions of 
 the time with quaint incisive phrases, with 
 puns and epigrams, and touches of irony, 
 which still retain their savor. . . . But his 
 shrewdness and learning only left him, in 
 the phrase of Henry IV., ' the wisest fool 
 
THE EEIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 
 
 871 
 
 iu Christendom.' . . . He clung to two 
 theories which contained within them the 
 seeds of a death-struggle between his people 
 and the crown. The first was that of a 
 divine right of kings. Even before his ac- 
 cession to the English throne, he had for- 
 mulated the theory of an absolute royalty 
 in his work on ' The True Law of Free 
 Monarchy;' and announced that 'although 
 a good king will frame his actions to be ac- 
 cording to law, yet he is not bound thereto, 
 but of his own good will and for example- 
 giving to his subjects.' . . . An ' absolute 
 king,' or an 'absolute monarchy' meant 
 with the Tudor statesmen who used the 
 phrase, a sovereign or rule complete in 
 themselves, and independent of all foreign 
 or papal interference. James chose to re- 
 gard the words as implying the monarch's 
 freedom from all control by law, or from 
 responsibility to anything but his own 
 royal will. The king's blunder, however, 
 became a system of government, a doctrine 
 which bishops preached from the pulpit, 
 and for which brave men laid their heads 
 on the "block." James had been brought 
 up a Presbyterian, and the Puritans hoped 
 much from his accession to the throne, and 
 from the loud professions of attachment he 
 had made to their doctrines while simply 
 King of Scotland. He had scarcely set 
 foot in England, however, before he aban- 
 doned all his former principles, and, adopt- 
 ing as his maxim the expression, "No 
 bishop, no king," threw himself into the 
 arms of the Episcopal party, and denounced 
 the men of his former laith as schismatics 
 and rebels, and declared his intention to 
 force them to conform to the Church of 
 England, or to drive them out of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 One of the first, as well as one of the 
 wisest, acts of James was to enter into a 
 treaty with Henry IV. of France, by which 
 the two sovereigns bound themselves to 
 give secret aid to the struggling Dutch re- 
 public, and to support each other if attacked 
 by Spain on account of this assistance. 
 
 In tiie first year of this reign Sir Walter 
 Raleigh was condemned to death on a 
 charge of conspiring to raise Lady Arabella 
 Stuart, James' first cousin, to the throne. 
 He was reprieved, and was imprisoned in 
 the Tower, where he j)assed thirteen years. 
 James, conscious that the sentence of death 
 was unjust, did not dare to execute it uj)on 
 the most illustrious Englishman of his day, 
 and so kept him a prisoner. Raleigh etn- 
 
 ployed his imprisonment in philosophical 
 studies and in the composition of his " His- 
 tory of the AVorld." Lady Arabella Stuart 
 was not molested, as she had no share in 
 the alleged plot. Eight years later she 
 gave offence to the king by marrying Wil- 
 liam Seymour, who, as a descendant of the 
 Duchess of Suffolk, had also pretensions to 
 the throne. She was imprisoned in the 
 Tower, where she became insane and died. 
 
 Upon his entrance into the kingdom 
 James had been met by petitions from the 
 leading Puritans to reform the abuses which 
 they pointed out in the church. In 1604 a 
 conference was held at Hampton Court be- 
 tween the bishops and the most eminent 
 Puritans. The latter demanded the aboli- 
 tion of the episcopate as the chief abuse 
 against which they complained. James 
 consented to some slight alterations in the 
 prayer-book, and ordered a new translation 
 of the Bible to be made. This translation 
 was made by the most learned men in the 
 kingdom, and was completed and ordered 
 to be used in the churches in 1611. It is 
 still the "authorized version" of English- 
 speaking Protestants. The king utterly 
 refused the demands of the Puritans for a 
 reform iu church matters, and silenced their 
 speakers with insults and coarse buffoonery. 
 He announced his intention to compel them 
 to conform to the established church, and 
 made a great parade of his learning and 
 wit. 
 
 In like manner the king claimed absolute 
 control over the liberties of his people. In 
 1604 a controversy arose between him and 
 the house of commons respecting the 
 claim of that body of the sole right to 
 judge of the elections of its members. The 
 king insisted ujwn his right to command 
 the commons to accept his decision, but the 
 house maintained its privileges. A more 
 serious misunderstanding was obviated by 
 a compromise, Avhich the king himself sug- 
 gested as the best way out of the difficulty. 
 
 The union of the Scottish and English 
 kingdoms under one sovereign put an end 
 to their ancient hostility. James warmly 
 advocated the adoption of measures which 
 shouhl make this union more perfect. As 
 yet the two kingdoms were separate, and 
 each managed its internal affairs in its own 
 way. The English parliament declined to 
 carry out the policy of the king, as it at- 
 tributed it to his partiality to and desire to 
 benefit his ancient subjects. 
 
 Tl)e Roman C'atholics had expected to 
 
872 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 be treated with coDsiderable indulgence by 
 the son of" Mary Stuart; but they were 
 soon undeceived, and found James a more 
 inveterate enemy than Elizabeth had been. 
 Their anger was very great, and a fearful 
 vengeance was resolved upon. A Roman 
 Catholic gentleman, Robert Catesby by 
 name, conceived the idea of blowing up the 
 parliament house on the 5th of November, 
 1605, the day on which the king was to 
 open the session. By this means, he argued, 
 they would rid themselves of the king, the 
 heir apparent, the Protestant lords and 
 
 of religion required that the innocent 
 should here be sacrificed with the guilty." 
 A cellar under the house of lords was hired, 
 and barrels of gunpowder were stored in 
 it. The task of firing the train was con- 
 fided to Guy or Guido Fawkes, a soldier of 
 fortune, who was brought over from Spain 
 for the purpose. The matter was kept a 
 profound secret, and everything was gotten 
 in readiness. At the last moment Lord 
 Mounteagle, a Romanist, but not a party 
 to the plot, was warned by an anonymous 
 letter to remain away from parliament. 
 
 Modert ^'^ ^rlp^r^ 
 WiTZter '^ 
 
 Thomas Guido Robert 
 Percy Fawkes Coles by 
 
 Bates 
 
 THE GUNPOWDER CONSPIKATOll.S— FKOJI AX ENGRAVING OF THE TIME. 
 
 commons, and place matters in a state 
 •which would enable them to seize the gov- 
 ernment and restore the Catholic religion 
 in England. This villanous plot was en- 
 tered into by a number of Catholic gentle- 
 men. " It is remarkable," says Hume, 
 " that no one of these pious devotees ever 
 entertained the least compunction with 
 regard to the cruel massacre which they 
 projected of whatever was great and emi- 
 nent in the nation. Some of them only 
 were startled by the reflection that, of ne- 
 cessity, many Catholics must be present, as 
 spectators or attendants upon the king, or 
 as having seats in the house of peers ; but 
 Tesmond, a Jesuit, and Garnet, superior 
 of that order in England, removed these 
 scruples and showed them how the interests 
 
 He showed this letter to Robert Cecil, Earl 
 of Salisbury, and an examination of the 
 parliament house was made on the eve of 
 the 5th of November. The gunpowder 
 was discovered, and Fawkes was arrested 
 in the cellar where it was stored. The 
 news of the discovery of the " Gunpowder 
 Treason " spread rapidly, and the parties to 
 the plot took flight. They were either 
 captured or killed. All the prisoners, in- 
 cluding Fawkes, were executed. The whole 
 nation joined in a thanksgiving for the dis- 
 covery of the conspiracy, and the hatred 
 of the English for the Roman religion was 
 intensified by the very means which Catesby 
 had hoped would secure the triumph of his 
 faith. More stringent laws against the 
 Catholics were enacted, and a new oath of 
 
THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 
 
 873 
 
 allegiance was required of them, renounc- 
 ing, in the most unqualified terms, the 
 Catholic doctrine that princes excommuni- 
 cated by the pope might be deposed or 
 murdered by their subjects or others. Some 
 of the Romanists took the oath ; others, at 
 the bidding of Pope Paul IV., refused it. 
 
 Though James claimed absolute power 
 for himself, he surrendered himself entirely 
 to the control of his favorites, who ruled 
 him in all things. During the life of the 
 Earl of Salisbury that nobleman managed 
 to retain his influence over the king, but 
 upon his death Robert Carr, a Scot, who 
 had been created Earl of Somerset, became 
 the royal favorite. The king's foreign pol- 
 icy did not please his people. His daughter 
 Elizabeth married Frederick V., Elector 
 Palatine, and it was supposed that the king 
 would at least give his moral support to the 
 Protestant cause in Europe. James, how- 
 ever, had no intention of doing so. His 
 sympathies were entirely with Spain and 
 the house of Austria and against the men 
 of his own faith. The English nation hated 
 Spain with an intense hatred, and after the 
 death of Cecil the king deliberately set him- 
 self against this feeling. He began to cul- 
 tivate intimate relations with Spain, and 
 commenced negotiations for the marriage 
 of his son to a Spanish princess. The 
 patriot party were urgent in their demands 
 that the king should declare war against 
 Spain, and so relieve the German Protes- 
 tants of her hostility, but he treated this 
 demand with contempt, and became more 
 intimate with Spain, England's worst enemy. 
 In the hope of inducing Spain to declare 
 war against England an expedition was pre- 
 pared against her colony of Guiana, and 
 Sir Walter Raleigh was released and allowed 
 to lead it for the purpose of finding a gold 
 mine of which he knew. James suflfered 
 the expedition to sail, and gave the Span- 
 iards warning of it. They defeated Raleigh's 
 attempt to land in Guiana, and when he, 
 on his return voyage, attempted to seize 
 the Spanish treasure ships, in the hope of 
 compelling Spain to declare war, that power, 
 sure of the contemptible King of England, 
 contented herself with demanding the exe- 
 cution of Raleigh. He was put to death 
 immediately upon his return home in 1618, 
 not upon any fresh charge, but upon his old 
 sentence, and was universally regarded as a 
 martyr to the vengeance of Spain. The 
 people and court vainly appealed to the 
 king to strike a blow in behalf of Protes- 
 
 tantism on the continent. Although the 
 interests of his religion and the welfare of 
 his own children demanded his interference, 
 he steadfastly refused to attempt to keep 
 Spain from engaging in the fight. He be- 
 lieved that the friendship of the Spanish 
 king for himself would induce him at his 
 request to abandon his designs upon the 
 Palatinate. He was undeceived at length, 
 when the Spanish army entered and reduced 
 the dominions of his son-in-law, the Elector 
 Palatine, after the expulsion of that prince 
 from Prague. The burst of fury which 
 broke forth from the English nation fright- 
 ened the king, who was for the moment 
 angry at having been so easily dupe d by 
 Spain, and he not only permitted a national 
 subscription to provide funds to enable the 
 Elector Palatine to raise an army for his 
 defence, but summoned a parliament, and 
 opened it with a speech which induced the 
 nation to hope that he would act as a king 
 at last. He did procure a cessation of hos- 
 tilities for a single summer by threatening 
 Spain with war if she continued her attack 
 upon the Palatinate, but upon the conquest 
 of the upper Palatinate by the forces of the 
 Catholic league, James returned to his old 
 intimacy with the Spanish king, and left 
 the interests of his son-in-law to take care 
 of themselves as best they could. Through- 
 out the whole of the war he held aloof from 
 the continental Protestants, and gave to 
 Spain the benefit of his friendship, influenced 
 by his eagerness to secure a Spanish bride 
 for his son. Philip IV. was willing that 
 this marriage should take place, but was 
 determined to take advantage of the eager- 
 ness of James and make him pay dearly 
 for the alliance, The Spanish match was 
 utterly distasteful to the nation, but James 
 persisted in it. In 1623 Prince Charles, 
 the heir to the crown, in company with the 
 Duke of Buckingham, who was now the 
 royal favorite, made a journey to Madrid, 
 where the prince was warmly received, and 
 was presented to his affianced bride, the 
 Infanta Maria. A treaty was negotiated 
 for the marriage, but in a few months it was, 
 to the joy of all England, broken off", and 
 the Sjiauish marriage became an impos- 
 sibility. 
 
 James was no less unpopular in his 
 domestic than in his foreign policy. Upon 
 the fall of the Earl of Somerset, George 
 Villiers succeeded to the royal favor. He 
 was rapidly advanced by the king to the 
 dignity of Duke of Buckingham. He was 
 
874 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 a reckless and unprincipled adventurer, 
 and shaped a large part of the policy of 
 this reign. James was always in trouble 
 with his parliaments, as he was always striv- 
 ing for absolute power, while they sought 
 to secure their freedom from his control. 
 The king was anxious to govern without 
 parliaments, and attempted to obviate the 
 necessity for raising supplies through them 
 
 chief justice, a man of many faults, but 
 who could not lend himself to the king's 
 scheme of trampling the laws of the king- 
 dom under his feet. Coke was at once dis- 
 missed from the council, and upon his con- 
 tinued adherence to his resolution was 
 deprived of his office of chief justice, in 
 1615. This act of the king was regarded 
 with horror and resentment bv all classes 
 
 ..^itV^^^V.: 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 by levying of his own authority duties upon 
 the commerce of the country. This illegal 
 levy of customs was resisted by the people, 
 and the courts sustained the popular senti- 
 ment by their decisions. The enraged king 
 sent for the judges and abused them into 
 promising submission to his will. One man 
 alone declared he Avould decide the cases 
 which carae before him as a just judge 
 should. This was Sir Edward Coke, the 
 
 of the people as an announcement of his 
 intention to tamper with the course of 
 justice. 
 
 In the same year James attempted to 
 raise money by the sale of peerages; and 
 he increased the number of lay peers nearly 
 one hundred per. cent, in the course of his 
 reign by this shameful sale of titles. He 
 could not dispense with the services of par- 
 liaments, however, and was obliged to sum- 
 
THE BEIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 
 
 875 
 
 mon them as often as he tried to do without 
 them. In 1614 he broke out into a fury 
 against the parliament of that year, and 
 dissolved it before it had passed a single 
 act. After this he attempted to supply 
 himself with money by the practice of 
 " benevolences." In 1621 he was com- 
 pelled to summon a parliament, which 
 showed more independence and determina- 
 tion than its predecessors in attacking abuses 
 and corruption. It boldly put in force a 
 privilege which had long fallen into disuse, 
 and impeached the lord chancellor, Francis 
 Bacon, one of the greatest philosophers of 
 England. He was charged with accepting 
 bribes and with other corrupt 
 practices, and was dismissed 
 from his office with ignominy. 
 Left to himself James Avould 
 have stopped the impeachment 
 of Bacon as an attack upon 
 the crown itself, but the chan- 
 cellor had incurred the hostil- 
 ity of Buckingham, who per- 
 suaded the king to leave him 
 to his fate. The house of com- 
 mons then appealed to the 
 king to aid the German Protes- 
 tants, and to secure a Protes- 
 tant bride for the heir to the 
 throne. This interference wdth 
 foreign affairs so enraged the 
 king that he dissolved the 
 house, aiter having first in- 
 sulted it. He had overshot 
 his mark, however, and " for 
 England the victory of free- 
 dom was practically won. . . . 
 A power had at last risen up 
 in the commons with which 
 the monarchy was henceforth 
 to reckon. In spite of the 
 king's petulant outbreaks, 
 parliament had asserted and enforced its 
 exclusive right to the control of taxation. 
 It had suppressed monopolies. It had 
 reformed abuses in the courts of law. It 
 had revived the right of impeaching and 
 removing fi-om office even the highest min- 
 isters of the crown. It had asserted its 
 privileges of free discussion on all questions 
 connected with the welfare of the realm. 
 It had claimed to deal Avith the question of 
 religion. It had even declared its will on 
 the sacred ' mystery ' of foreign politics." 
 
 A few years after James' accession to the 
 throne, the Earl of Tyrone, and the Earl 
 
 of the north of Ireland, were accused of 
 engaging in a conspiracy to throw off the 
 English rule. They sought safety in flight, 
 and were attainted of treason and outlawed. 
 In 1608 O'Dogherty, a chieftain of con- 
 siderable influence, rebelled, and his pos- 
 sessions were declared forfeited. These 
 unsuccessful plots caused the greater part 
 of Ulster to be forfeited to the crown. The 
 king thereupon disposed of the lands of this 
 part of Ireland to Scotch and English set- 
 tlers, who improved it to such an extent that 
 it soon became the most flourishing region 
 in Ireland. Similar plantations were also 
 made in Leinster, with the same success. 
 
 SHAKESPEARE 
 
 IN THE CHUKCH 
 AVON. 
 
 AT STEATFOKD-ON- 
 
 But in spite of the material improvement 
 of the country a deep injury was inflicted 
 upon Ireland. The native proprietors were 
 driven from their homes in many cases to 
 make room for the settlers, and a sense of 
 injustice was implanted in the Irish heart, 
 which Great Britain has ever since carefully 
 cultivated. 
 
 In the reign of James I., as we shall see, 
 the colonies of Virginia and Massachu-setts, 
 in America, were founded, and the settle- 
 ment of the western hemisphere by the 
 English was definitely begun. 
 
 In 1616 "William Shakespeare, the great- 
 of Tyrconuel, the most powerful chieftains est of English poets, died. To this reign 
 
876 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 also belong the writings of Lord Bacon, 
 which must ever rank among the master- 
 pieces of English literature. 
 
 On the 27th of March, 1625, King 
 James died of the ague, and was succeeded 
 by his second and only surviving son, 
 Charles I. 
 
 Much was hoped by the English from 
 this change of sovereigns, for Charles I. 
 was very popular with all classes of his 
 people. He was a strikingly handsome 
 man, with a body of middle stature, of great 
 natural vigor, and finely proportioned. He 
 was gracious and dignified iu his bearing, 
 and "of a sweet but melancholy aspect." 
 He excelled in horsemanship and manly 
 sports, and possessed many of the qualities 
 of an excellent sovereign. Unfortunately 
 for him, he had imbibed his father's ideas 
 of absolute power, and he came to the 
 throne with the firm resolve of making him- 
 self master of his people. He regarded 
 himself as superior to the laws of his king- 
 dom, and considered every attempt of the 
 commons to limit his authority within the 
 bounds of the constitution as downright 
 treason against him. Coming to the throne 
 with such ideas of his rights at the most 
 critical period of his country's history, he 
 was not likely to prove a trauquiltizer or a 
 reformer of the evils from which England 
 had suffered for so long. 
 
 A few weeks after his accession to the 
 throne Charles married the Princess Hen- 
 rietta Maria, the daughter of Henry IV. 
 of France, to whom he had been betrothed 
 during the latter part of his father's reign. 
 The union was distasteful to the English, 
 as the new queen was a Roman Catholic. 
 She was accompanied to England by a 
 retinue of priests of her own faith, and 
 these instead of confining themselves to 
 their religious duties undertook to interfere 
 with the affairs of the court to such an ex- 
 tent, that quarrels soon became innumer- 
 able. They induced the queen to make a 
 pilgrimage in their company to Tyburn, 
 the place where the lowest criminals were 
 hanged, and where some Roman Catholics 
 had been executed in the reign of Henry 
 VIII. This proceeding aroused such in- 
 dignation throughout the nation that the 
 French attendants of the queen were sent 
 back to their own country. An apology 
 was submitted by the French court for their 
 conduct, and the queen was allowed to have 
 twelve priests and a bishop of the Romish 
 Church attached to her household. 
 
 The quarrel between the king and the 
 parliament began with his reign. Charles 
 had but one use for a parliament — to raise 
 money. Parliament desired a reform of 
 abuses, and the removal of the favorite 
 Buckingham. Two parliaments were dis- 
 solved by the king within a year — one in 
 1625 and the other 1626 — as they refused to 
 grant supplies until their demands were 
 complied with. Charles then attempted to 
 raise money by arbitrary exactions, and to 
 do without a parliament. Writs were is- 
 sued by the king empowering certain spe- 
 cified officials to compel the people to loan 
 money to the king, and these forced loans 
 were levied in such a manner as to make 
 the aggregate equal to four usual subsidies 
 by parliament. The officers were also em- 
 powered, in case of the refusal of these 
 loans by the people, to require of them a 
 declaration under oath of the names of all 
 persons who had encouraged the persons so 
 refusing to persist in their refusal. The 
 principles of liberty were trampled xinder 
 foot by the king. The country immediately 
 took the alarm, and the spirit of disaffec- 
 tion towards the crown became general. 
 
 In the midst of these difficulties, Charles, 
 in 1627, suddenly, and to the surprise of 
 the whole nation, declared war against 
 France, in behalf of the Huguenots. Re- 
 ligious sympathy was the nominal cause of 
 this war, but all the authorities of the time 
 agree in ascribing it to the influence of the 
 Duke of Buckingham, who had conceived 
 a mad passion for the Queen of France, 
 which had been detected and exposed to 
 ridicule by Richelieu. In order to be 
 avenged upon the cardinal, Buckingham 
 had embroiled his country in a war with 
 France. A fleet was despatched in 1627, 
 under Buckingham, to the assistance of 
 Rochelle, but as we have already seen, the 
 incompetency of the duke caused the ex- 
 pedition to fail. Other efforts were made 
 to relieve Rochelle, but without success. 
 
 To make the matter worse, the army was 
 discontented ; the people were largely dis- 
 affected ; and the treasury was bankrupt. 
 The king was not willing to risk any more 
 forced loans, and in 1627, to his great mor- 
 tification, was obliged to summon a parlia- 
 ment. This body granted him five sub- 
 sidies, and obtained his assent to their 
 Petition of Right, which was presented by 
 both houses of parliament in 1628, and 
 which embodied some of the most impor- 
 tant principles of liberty. The recent ille- 
 
THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 
 
 gal practices, such as the levying of arbi- 
 trary taxes, unlawful arrests and imprison- 
 ments, the enforced quartering of soldiers 
 upon the people, and the exercise of martial 
 law, were condemned, and the king agreed 
 to discontinue them. The commons, em- 
 boldened by this victory, denounced the 
 Duke of Buckingham as the author of the 
 national calamities, and demanded his re- 
 moval from office. The king paid no at- 
 tention to this demand, but a little later 
 Buckingham Avas assassinated at Ports- 
 
 877 
 
 years no parliament met in England. The 
 king had not yet determined to abolish the 
 legislative branch of the government ; for 
 the present he only meant to rule without 
 it, and to put down all resistance to his ar- 
 bitrary power. The leaders of the patriol 
 party in the last parliament were arrested 
 and sent to the Tower, where one of them, 
 Sir John Eliot, died, "the first martyr of 
 English liberty." 
 
 Charles was now resolved to govern with- 
 out parliaments, and called to his assistance 
 
 OLD PARLIAMENT HOUSE — DUBININ. 
 
 mouth by one John Felton, who supposed 
 he would be doing his country service by 
 removing the favorite. 
 
 Though he had given his assent to the 
 Petition of Eight, Charles soon violated its 
 conditions, by levying of his own authority 
 certain duties called "tonnage and pound- 
 age." The indignant commons declared 
 that whoever should pay these unlawful 
 taxes should be considered an enemy to the 
 liberties of England. Charles thereupon 
 dissolved the parliament, and for eleven 
 
 two ministers eminently qualified to assist 
 him in his tyranny. One of these was 
 Thomas, Viscount Wentworth, whom he af- 
 terwards created Earl of Stafford ; the other 
 was William Laud, Bishop of London, af- 
 terwards made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 In order to give his attention more entirely 
 to his own kingdom, Charles made a hasty 
 peace with Spain and France, and aban- 
 doned all interference with the affairs of 
 the continent. Wentworth and Laud set 
 to work with great vigor to make the king 
 
878 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 absolute. Charles on his part believed in 
 good faith that his absolute power formed 
 a part of the English constitution, and that 
 the resistance of the people was unlawful. 
 Wentworth and Laud were better informed, 
 and had no such excuse for their tyranny. 
 To Wentworth was committed the task of 
 putting down opposition in civil matters. 
 He was made president of the council of 
 the north, a tribunal established by Henry 
 VIII. upon the suppression of the insur- 
 
 JOHN HAMPDEN. 
 
 rection of 1536. He was given almost ab- 
 solute power over the northern counties, 
 and soon brought them into submission to 
 the royal authority, and piled up a moun- 
 tain of grievances for the day of reckon- 
 ing. In 1631 he was sent to govern Ire- 
 land as lord deputy, and ruled that coun- 
 try with the same despotic authority he had 
 exercised in England. He was more of a 
 statesman than the king, and saw clearly 
 the approach of the great conflict between 
 
 the crown and the people, which was to de- 
 cide the future of England ; and he en- 
 deavored to make Ireland a stronghold 
 from which the king could successfully con- 
 duct his efforts against English freedom. 
 He had no private ends to serve. He was 
 sincerely devoted to the king, and labored 
 for him. He sought by a stern and rigid 
 administration of justice to attach Ireland 
 firmly to the royal authority, and to teach 
 it to look to the king as the source from 
 which it derived all 
 its rights and good for- 
 tune. He aimed to 
 prevent a reconcilia- 
 tion between the Cath- 
 olics and the Protes- 
 tants, in order to make 
 both parties depend- 
 ent upon the crown. 
 In this he was suc- 
 cessful, and laid the 
 foundation for a whole 
 system of evils for the 
 unhappy country. 
 He reduced Ireland 
 to perfect submission 
 to the royal will as 
 expressed by himself, 
 and held the lives, the 
 liberties, and the for- 
 tunes of the Irish peo- 
 ple entirely at his 
 pleasure. 
 
 To Laud was given 
 the task of compel- 
 ling the submission of 
 the Puritans to the 
 authority of the estab- 
 lished church. The 
 Puritans now com- 
 prised a very large 
 part of the nation, and 
 embraced in their 
 numbers many of the 
 best and most eminent 
 men, and many of 
 the most learned and 
 useful of the clergy, of the kingdom. Laud 
 directed the whole pow'er of the govern- 
 ment to crushing this party. Liberty of 
 conscience or belief meant treason in his 
 estimation, and must be put down. The 
 star chamber, a court composed of mem- 
 bers of the king's council, M'hich in the pre- 
 vious reigns had earned an infamous noto- 
 riety for its tyranny, was put to work to 
 compel submission. The court of high 
 commission was also employed for the same 
 
THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES 1. 
 
 S79 
 
 purpose. The tyranny of these courts was 
 carried to an unheard of extent. Fines 
 and imprisonments of an excessive nature 
 were levied upon all who refused con- 
 formity, and from these the courts passed 
 to other shameful and cruel punishments. 
 The only result of this persecution was to 
 increase the detestation with which the king 
 and his ministers were regarded, and to in- 
 crease the number of the Puritans, who 
 were looked upon as martyrs to the cause 
 of popular libei'ty. 
 
 Among the devices to which the king re- 
 sorted to raise money was the levying, in 
 1637, of a tax known as "ship-money," so 
 called because it was said to be levied for 
 the support of the fleet. Such a tax had in 
 former days been occasionally, in time of 
 war, imposed upon the seaboard counties; 
 it was now exacted from the entire king- 
 dom. John Hampden, a country gentle- 
 man from Buckinghamshire, and one of 
 the noblest of English patriots, refused to 
 pay the tax. The courts were invoked to 
 compel him to do so, and being under the 
 royal influence decided against him. The 
 arguments by which this decision was sup- 
 ported were more injurious to Charles than 
 a defeat would have been, and Hampden 
 at once took his place among the leaders of 
 the patriot party. 
 
 In 1637 the king, under the baleful in- 
 fluence of Ax'chbishop Laud, attempted to 
 compel the Scotch to accept a liturgy sim- 
 ilar to that of England. Since the close 
 of Queen Mai'y's reign, Scotland had been 
 at peace under the rule of Presbyterianism, 
 to which it was devotedly attached. The 
 effort of Charles was stoutly resisted by the 
 Scotch, and as the king persisted, the north- 
 ern kingdom rose in rebellion against him. 
 In 1638 a "Solemn League and Covenant" 
 was signed in the churchyard of the Gray- 
 Friars at Edinburgh, by the greater part 
 of the nobles and gentry of Scotland, for 
 the defence of their religion and freedom. 
 Charles took the field in 1639, but was un- 
 able to accomplish anything against the 
 insurgents, and being entirely out of money, 
 concluded a peace with them. He was 
 forced to this step, for Scotland was thor- 
 oughly aroused, the royal army was disaf- 
 fected, and there was a deep sympathy with 
 the rebels in England. The Earl of Straf- 
 ford, who had returned fi'om Ireland, urged 
 the king to supply himself with money by 
 levying taxes at will ; but Charles, who was 
 not yet prepared to go to such lengths, de- 
 
 clined to take his advice. He was greatly 
 alarmed by the state of England, which 
 was in almost open revolt, and in 1640 once 
 more summoned the two houses of parlia- 
 ment to meet at Westminster. This body 
 is known as "The Long Parliament." 
 
 One of the first acts of parliament was 
 to impeach Strafford and Laud of treason. 
 They were committed to the Tower, and 
 Strafford was brought to trial for his out- 
 rages upon the liberties of the people. In 
 a liitle while the commons changed their 
 form of proceeding against him, and passed 
 a bill of attainder, to which the king gave 
 his assent with tears. Charles' tears were 
 not unnatural. He had sustained Strafl^ord 
 in every act of which he was accused, and 
 he now deserted him, while at the same 
 time he was prepared to cling to the arbi- 
 trary course which had given rise to all the 
 trouble. StraflTord was beheaded on the 
 12th of May, 1641, and met his fate with 
 dauntless courage. His death was greeted 
 with public rejoicings throughout England. 
 Parliament then proceeded to abolish the 
 courts of the star chamber, the high com- 
 mission, and the council of the north; it 
 declared the levy of ship money to have 
 been illegal, and passed an act to secure 
 the continuance of its existence by provid- 
 ing that it should not be dissolved without 
 its own consent. 
 
 There was now a brief lull in the strug- 
 gle ; but the king was sore from having 
 been compelled to make these concessions 
 to the commons ; and the people, on their 
 part, watched and distrusted the king. In 
 the autumn of 1641 the Iris-h Catholics rose 
 in rebellion in Ulster, and massacred the 
 Protestants of that province. The insur- 
 rection was generally regarded, in the ex- 
 cited condition of public sentiment, as the 
 work of the king. Indirectly it was, as it 
 was the legitimate fruit of Strafford's bar- 
 barous policy. It soon became general 
 throughout Ireland. The determination 
 of the commons to secure the liberties of the 
 kingdom greatly incensed Charles, and led 
 him into an act of violence which proved 
 his ruin. Attended by an armed guard, he 
 went to the house of commons to seize the 
 persons of Hampden, Pym, and three other 
 leaders of the popular party, all of whom 
 were members of the house. The house, 
 indignant at this invasion of its privileges, 
 and at the determination of the king to 
 violate one of the fundamental laws of the 
 kingdom, w^hich provided that no subject 
 
880 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 could be arrested by the sovereign in per- 
 son, secured tlie safety of the five members 
 by ordering their withdrawal. To the 
 questions of the king the commons refused 
 to reply, and maintained a dignified silence 
 until Speaker Leuthal told the king, in 
 reply to his question as to where the five 
 members were, that he had neither eyes 
 nor tongue to see or say anything save what 
 he was commanded by the house. 
 
 This bold act of the king brought mat- 
 ters to a crisis. The five members took 
 refuge in London, which rose in arms for 
 their defence, and six days later Charles 
 escaped from Loudon, and sent the Earl of 
 Newcastle to the northern counties to raise 
 an army, as he now meant to conquer the 
 parliament by force. Proceeding to Hull, 
 one of the strongest towns in the kingdom, 
 Charles demanded admittance, but the 
 gates were shut in his face by Sir John 
 Hotham, the governor, whose action w^as 
 sustained by parliament. War was now 
 inevitable ; men began to choose their sides ; 
 the whole kingdom took up arms ; and on 
 the 22d of August, 1642, Charles set up his 
 standard at Nottingham and called on his 
 subjects to join him. 
 
 A committee of public safety, composed 
 of Pym, Hampden, and Hollis, was organ- 
 ized by parliament, and an army of 20,000 
 men was assembled at Northampton under 
 the Earl of Essex. Charles had but a small 
 f )rce, and Essex by a bold movement might 
 easily have ended the wtir by a single bat- 
 tle. His hesitation, however, enabled the 
 king to increase his array and to assume 
 the offensive. An indecisive battle was 
 fought at Edgehill on the 23d of October, 
 but the advantages remained Avith the 
 king, as Essex, distrustful of his army, 
 withdrew to Warrick. Prince Rupert, the 
 king's nephew, the son of the Elector Pala- 
 tine and the Princess Elizabeth, urged an 
 immediate march upon London, which 
 must have fallen before a vigorous attack ; 
 but Charles remained at Oxford, as he was 
 ill provided with artillery and ammunition, 
 the great arsenals of the kingdom being in 
 the hands of the parliamentary forces. 
 Prince Rupert improved the delay by cap- 
 turing Reading and Brentford. The queen, 
 who had been sent to Holland for safety, 
 sold her own jewels and those of the crown, 
 and purchased supplies of artillery and 
 ammunition, with which she reached Eng- 
 land in February, 1643, after a narrow 
 escape from capture by the parliamentary 
 
 fleet. In June of the same year John 
 Hampden was killed in a skirmish with 
 Rupert at Chalgrove. The death of Hamp- 
 den was followed by a series of successes 
 which appeared to place the king on the 
 high road to a triumph, and when the 
 strong city of Bristol was surrendered to 
 Prince Rupert, it seemed that the cause of 
 the people was doomed. The war now be- 
 gan to develop great bitterness between the 
 opposing parties. The adherents of the 
 king were called Cavaliers; those of the 
 parliament Roundheads, from their habit 
 of wearing their hair short. 
 
 The firmness of the parliamentary leaders 
 alone saved their cause. They entered into 
 an alliance with the Scots, who in the eax*Iy 
 part of 1644 sent an army to their assist- 
 ance. Chai'les, on his part, made a truce 
 with the Catholic rebels in Ireland, in order 
 to bring over the royal forces employed iu 
 that kingdom for service in England. He 
 summoned such members of tiie peers and 
 commons as adhered to his cause to meet at 
 Oxford, where they assembled. The par- 
 liament at Westminster was divided upon 
 religious questions, which now entered 
 largely into the policy of the war. Until 
 now parliament had been controlled by the 
 Presbyterians, who had a regular system of 
 church government by councils of minis- 
 ters and elders. Now the Independents, 
 who were most numerous in the army, be- 
 gan to absorb the power. They held that 
 each church or congregation had the right 
 to conduct its own aliairs without the in- 
 terference or control of any other body. 
 To this party belonged the more vigorous 
 and competent leaders of the parliamentary 
 party. Prominent among these was Oliver 
 Cromwell, a gentleman of Huntingdonshire. 
 He had raised among the Puritan free- 
 holders of his county a regiment of horse, 
 which he called the Ironsides, and which 
 under his command won fame during the 
 war. 
 
 In the spring of 1643 the parliament was 
 strong enough to resume the offensive, and 
 on the 1st of July a decisive battle was 
 fought between the two armies at Marston 
 Moor, which was fatal to the royalist cause 
 at the north. The royal army was almost 
 annihilated ; York surrendered to the par- 
 liament ; and Rupert was forced to retreat 
 with a mere handful of men. Cromwell's 
 men greatly distinguished themselves in 
 this battle, and the Independents now ob- 
 tained the entire coutrol in the reorganiza- 
 
THE EEIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 
 
 881 
 
 tion of the army. Essex was replaced by 
 Sir Thomas Fairfax, who had served at 
 Marston Moor, and Cromwell was made 
 second in command. The cause of the king 
 failed rapidly, and that of the parliament 
 gained in proportion. On the 14th of 
 June, 1645, the king was again decisively 
 defeated at Naseby, and his last hope of 
 success was destroyed. He kept up the 
 struggle until the following spring, how- 
 ever, when in sheer despair he surrendered 
 himself to the Scottish army before Newark. 
 The Scots, unwilling to keep him, trans- 
 ferred him to the parliament, by which he 
 was kept a state prisoner at Holmby House, 
 near Northampton. 
 
 In the meantime parliament had set to 
 work to destroy Episcopacy in England. 
 The Presbyterian system was established 
 throughout the kingdom, except in Middle- 
 sex and Lancashire, where the Indepen- 
 dents were supreme, and the use of the 
 church liturgy was forbidden even in pri- 
 vate families. The ministers who refused 
 to accept the new order of affairs were 
 driven from their parishes. On the 10th 
 of January, 1645, Archbishop Laud, Avho 
 had long been a prisoner in the Tower, and 
 had been recently condemned for high 
 treason, was beheaded. The time for this 
 deed had passed by, and it was now simply 
 an act of useless vengeance. It was clear 
 that the parliament was rapidly falling into 
 the error of the bishops and the established 
 church. The lands belonging to the bish- 
 ops and the crown were sold for the benefit 
 of the state, and the conquered Cavaliers 
 were subjected to heavy fines. 
 
 The army consisted mainly of Indepen- 
 dents, and was not willing to submit to the 
 enforced rule of the Presbyterians. In 
 order to deprive the latter of the advantage 
 which the possession of the king's person 
 gave them, the leaders of the army resolved 
 to seize the king. This was accomplished 
 by a troop under Cornet Joyce, of Fairfax's 
 guard, and the king was conveyed to the 
 army in June, 1647. The army was now 
 no longer the servant, but the rival of par- 
 liament. Chai'les endeavored to take ad- 
 vantage of this rivalry to play oflfoue party 
 against the other, but without success. The 
 more ultra leaders of the army desired the 
 death of the king, and indulged in such 
 threats against him that in November, 
 1648, Charles fled from Hampton Court, 
 where he had been lodged, and having no 
 place to go, took refuge with Colonel Ham- 
 
 mond, Governor of the Isle of Wight, by 
 whom he was placed in confinement at 
 Carrisbrooke Castle. Shortly afterwards 
 he made an unsuccessful efibrt to escape 
 from his prison. The army was indignant 
 at the treachery with which Charles had 
 conducted his negotiations with it. 
 
 It had been Charles' intention to head 
 a new civil war for the recovery of his 
 crown ; but his imprisonment prevented the 
 execution of this plan. His adherents were 
 not disheartened, however, and risings in 
 his behalf took place in Wales and in 
 various sections of England in 1648. In 
 the same year a Scottish army composed of 
 royalists and moderate Presbyterians, led 
 by the Duke of Hamilton, invaded Eng- 
 land to compel the king's release. The 
 English and Welsh risings were put down 
 by Fairfax, and the Scottish army was 
 routed at Preston by Cromwell on the 18th 
 of August. 
 
 The danger of a civil war being averted, 
 the parliament and the army proceeded to 
 settle their diflftculties. The former was 
 willing to trust the king again, and 
 sought to make a treaty Avith him, in which 
 it imposed very hard terms upon him. The 
 army had no faith in the king ; it believed 
 he would violate any promise he might 
 make as soon as he could safely do so. The 
 leaders resolved to establish their authority 
 over parliament before that body could 
 arrange matters with Charles. Fairfax at 
 once marched upon London, and a regiment 
 under Colonel Pride entei-ed the house of 
 commons and expelled one hundred and 
 forty of the members from their seats. 
 This bold act, known as "Pride's Purge," 
 left the parliament in the hands of the In- 
 dependents. Vigorous measures were pro- 
 posed against the king. It was ordered by 
 the "purged" house of commons that he 
 should be brought to trial for treason 
 against the parliament, and as the peers re- 
 fused to concur in this order, the commons 
 resolved that the supreme authority was 
 vested in them, and expelled the lords 
 from parliament. A " high court of justice"' 
 was organized for the trial of the king. Of 
 this court John Bradshaw was president ; 
 Cromwell and his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, 
 were among its members. 
 
 On the 29th of January, 1649, Charles, 
 who had been lodged in St. James' Palace, 
 was brought before the high court in West- 
 minster Hall. He bore himself with dig- 
 nitv and firmness, and refused to ackuowl- 
 
882 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 edge the authority of the court. He was 
 condemned and sentenced to death as " a 
 tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy 
 to the good people of the nation." He 
 resigned himself to his fate, and spent his 
 last days in preparing for it, under the 
 ministry of Dr. Juxon, Bishop of London. 
 On the 30th of January, 1649, he was be- 
 headed in front of the palace of AVhitehall, 
 in the presence of an immense and sympa- 
 thizing multitude. By his own party he 
 was regarded as a martyr, and is still so 
 Styled by the Church of England. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO THE 
 ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 
 
 Charles II. Proclaimed King in Ireland — The Mar- 
 quis of Ormond — Cromwell Subdues Ireland — • 
 Charles II. is Accepted by the Scots as King — 
 Battle of Dunbar — Escape of Charles — Scotland 
 Compelled to Submit — War with Holland — 
 Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament and 
 Seizes the Government — Is Made Lord Protector 
 — The Commonwealth — Cromwell's Vigorous 
 Rule— His Death — Richard Cromwell — General 
 Monlc Becomes Master of England — Restores 
 Charles II. — Arrival of the King — First Measures 
 of Charles — Lord Clarendon — The Plague in 
 London — The Great Fire — Contemptible Charac- 
 ter of the King — His Weak Reign — The Rye- 
 House Plot — Death of Charles— James II. King 
 — His Eftbrts to Restore the Roman Catholic Re- 
 ligion — Opposition of the Nation to him — Birth 
 of the Prince of Wales — The Revolution — Land- 
 ing of the Prince of Orange — Flight of James- 
 William and Mary Ascend the Throne — The 
 Jacobites — Rebellion of the Irish — Battle of the 
 Boyne — Ireland Subdued — Death of Queen Mary 
 — William III. — Events of his Reign — His Death 
 — Queen Anne— Marlborough — His Character- 
 Becomes the Real Ruler of England — His Vic- 
 tories — Capture of Gibraltar — Union of England 
 and Scotland — Fall of Marlborough — The Jacob- 
 ite Plots — Death of Queen Anne — George I. King 
 — The Whigs in Power — Impeachment of the 
 Ministers — The Riot Act — The Pretender — He 
 Attempts to Seize the Throne — Is Defeated — 
 — Growth of the Power of the House of Commons 
 —The South Sea Scheme— Sir Robert Wal- 
 pole — Prosperity of England — Death of the 
 King — George II. — Walpole Continued in 
 Power — Death of Queen Caroline — War with 
 Spain — Walpole Retires from the Ministry 
 — William Pitt — Battles of Dettingen and Fonte- 
 noye — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — Failure of the 
 Efforts of the Young Pretender — Battle of Cul- 
 loden — The Seven Years' War — England Sustains 
 Frederick the Great — William Pitt Prime Min- 
 ister — His Character — The Methodists. 
 
 (3^^^HE execution of the king — an act 
 unparalleled in history — aroused 
 a feeling of horror throughout 
 Europe. It was not altogether 
 acceptable to the English people, 
 large numbers of whom con- 
 demned it as unwise and unjust. The 
 
 power of the parliament, which was now in 
 the hands of the Independents, silenced all 
 opposition. The parliament, which con- 
 sisted of the incomplete house of commons 
 only, appointed a council of state to conduct 
 the government. England was declared to 
 be a commonwealth, and was to be governed 
 without king or nobles. This arrangement 
 did not suit all parties, and a faction in the 
 army, known as " Levellers," because they 
 held that all men should be " levelled " to 
 an equality in rank and property, broke 
 out into an open mutiny, which was sternly 
 quelled by Cromwell. 
 
 Charles II., the son of the beheaded 
 king, was proclaimed in Scotland and Ire- 
 land. He was an exile abroad at this 
 time. His chief hope of success lay in the 
 Marquis of Ormond, the Lord Lieutenant 
 of Ireland, who was a royalist, and was de- 
 voted to his cause. Ormond gathered about 
 him an army composed of men of every 
 faith who were willing to support the king. 
 CromAvell, now a lieutenant-general, was 
 appointed by the English government to 
 put down the outbreak. Cromwell arrived 
 in Ireland in 1649, and in nine mouths had 
 so thoroughly subdued the country that he 
 was able to delegate the work to his son-in- 
 law, Ireton, for completion, as his presence 
 was needed at home. His measures were 
 cruel, but effective, and the spirit of 
 the Irish was broken. After defeat- 
 ing the last armed force in the field, 
 Cromwell sailed to England. Under the 
 rule of the commonwealth, all the con- 
 quered and discontented Irish chiefs and 
 their followers, who desired to do so, were 
 allowed to leave the country and take ser- 
 vice with foreign princes. Large numbers 
 of the conquered people were shipped to the 
 Barbadoes ; and many of the landholders 
 who had taken arms against the parliament 
 were removed to lands assigned them in 
 Connaughtand Clare, and parliamentary sol- 
 diers and many other English settlers were 
 established in Munster, Leinster, and Ul- 
 ster. Ireland was completely conquered, 
 and England obtained a firmer hold upon 
 it than it had ever had before. 
 
 Defeated in his hopes of retaining Ireland 
 Charles opened negotiations with the Scots, 
 and was accepted by them on conditions 
 utterly distasteful to him. He entered 
 Scotland, and was proclaimed king in 1650. 
 Cromwell marched against the Scotch 
 forces towards the close of the summer, and 
 on the 3d of September defeated the Scottish. 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 883 
 
 army under Leslie at Dunbar. He then 
 proceeded to overrun Scotland, but the 
 next year, while he was thus engaged, 
 Charles with the Scottish army eluded him, 
 crossed the border, and marched into Eng- 
 land. Cromwell hastened after him, and 
 overtook him at Worcester, where he in- 
 
 was offered for the capture of the prince 
 himself. After a series of romantic adven- 
 tures, Charles succeeded in escaping to 
 France. General George Monk, one of 
 Cromwell's lieutenants, continued the war 
 in Scotland, and reduced that country to 
 submission to England. 
 
 OLIVER CKOMWELL. 
 
 flicted a decisive defeat upon him on the 
 3d of September, 1651, the anniversary of 
 the victory of Dunbar. The cause of 
 Charles was now hopeless ; his adherents 
 were proclaimed rebels and traitors by par- 
 liament, and a reward of a thousand pounds 
 
 In 1652 a quarrel with the Dutch con- 
 cerning the fisheries of the Scottish coast 
 brought on a war between England and 
 Holland. It was fought at sea. In No- 
 vember the English fleet, under Admiral 
 Blake, was defeated by the Dutch, under 
 
884 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Admiral Von Tromp, off the Naze. Blake 
 lost many of his ships, and took refuge in 
 the Thames, while Vou Trorap cruised up 
 and down the channel with a broom at his 
 mast-head in token of his determination to 
 sweep the English from the seas. In Feb- 
 ruary, 1653, a battle which lasted four 
 days was fought between these commanders, 
 but was indecisive. In June and July, 
 however, Von Tromp was defeated in two 
 great battles ; in the first by Blake, and in 
 the last by General Monk, in which engage- 
 ment the Dutch admiral was slain. These 
 victories virtually ended the war, but peace 
 was not made until 1654. 
 
 In the meantime the quarrel between the 
 army and the parliament had broken out 
 anew. The latter, which had come to be 
 known as " the Rump," as it was but the 
 remnant of the house of commons, was 
 neither feared nor respected, and Cromwell 
 resolved to put an end to the controversy 
 which was distracting the country. On the 
 20th of April, 1653, he entered the house, 
 and after bitterly reproaching the members, 
 called in a company of soldiers, and drove 
 them out at the point of the bayonet, and 
 locked up the hall. He thus made it 
 known that he meant to be in name, as he 
 was in actual fact, master of England. He 
 desired to restore the old constitution and 
 make himself king, but though his troops 
 were devoted to him, and willing to sup- 
 port him as the head of the state, they hated 
 the very name of king. He therefore 
 simply appointed a council, and summoned 
 a parliament of his own nomination. This 
 assembly met in 1653, and is known as 
 " the Little Parliament." The royalists 
 termed it "Praise God Barebone's Parlia- 
 ment," from one of its members who bore 
 that singular name. At the end of a few 
 months, the majority of the members sur- 
 rendered their powers to Cromwell, who, on 
 the 16th of December, 1653, took the title 
 of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
 Tiiis act arrayed against the protector 
 not only the royalists but the republicans 
 also, who regarded him as a new tyrant 
 and the destroyer of the commonwealth. 
 Cromwell began his reign with the intention 
 of exercising his power within the limits of 
 the laws of the laud, but circumstances 
 forced him to depart from this plan, and to 
 inaugurate a sterner and stronger rule. 
 The first parliament, summoned by him 
 in September, 1654, questioned his author- 
 
 ity, and was dissolved in January, 1655. 
 This body also reversed his acts for the tol- 
 eration of all creeds, and refusing to grant 
 him any supplies, left him at its dissolution 
 without funds for the service of the state. 
 The agents of Charles II., who was an exile 
 in the Low Countries, took advantage of 
 these dissensions to stir up plots in England 
 against the protector. At the same time a 
 republican conspiracy was detected. The 
 republicans Avere treated with leniency, but 
 the royalists were executed or sold into 
 slavery in the West Indies. Many other 
 schemes were formed for Cromwell's assas- 
 sination, but were detected by his vigilance, 
 and came to nothing. Their only result 
 was to drive him into more arbitrary meas- 
 ures. England was divided into eleven 
 military districts, each of which was placed 
 under the rule of a major-general of ultra 
 republican sentiments. A contribution of 
 one-tenth, for the use of the state, was levied 
 upon rich and disaffected royalists. A 
 second parliament was assembled in March, 
 1656, and this body proposed that Cromwell 
 should take the title of king. Finding a 
 large part of the army still averse to a re- 
 vival of the monarchy, Cromwell wisely 
 declined the crown. An effort was made 
 to revive the house of lords, but the com- 
 mons were so hostile to it that on the 4th of 
 February, 1658, Cromwell dissolved the par- 
 liament. In this parliament representatives 
 from Scotland and Ireland sat with those of 
 England. Scotland was held by an Eng- 
 lish army of 10,000 men, under General 
 Monk. 
 
 The domestic policy of the protector re- 
 stored order and quiet in England. His for- 
 eign policy was in keeping with his deter- 
 mined character, and raised England once 
 more to the position she had lost at the death 
 of Elizabeth as one of the leading states of 
 Europe and the protectress of Protestant- 
 ism. The English fleet under Admiral 
 Blake compelled the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany and the pirates of the African coast 
 to make reparation for their outrages upon 
 English commerce. France, Spain, and 
 Holland sought the English alliance, and 
 the protector, true to his policy, threw his 
 weight in behalf of France and against 
 Spain. In 1655 the Spanish possessions in 
 the West Indies were attacked, and the 
 island of Jamaica captured. In 1657 Blake 
 attacked the Spanish treasure-ships in the 
 harbor of Santa Cruz in Teneriffe, and 
 burned them after a desperate fight. He 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 885 
 
 was mortally wounded, and died within 
 sight of England on his return. Cromwell 
 exerted his influence actively in behalf of 
 the Protestants of the continent, and inter- 
 fered to put a stop to the persecution of the 
 Vaudois of Piedmont by the Duke of Savoy. 
 In 1658, in aliiance with France, he helped 
 to wrest Dunkirk from Spain. The town 
 was ceded to the English by France in 
 accordance with the terms of the treaty. 
 
 In the midst of these successes, the health 
 of Cromwell began to fail, and on the 3d 
 
 ment of a nation in such troublesome times. 
 He was of a gentle and indolent nature, 
 and lacked the firmness which had enabled 
 his father to hold the discordant elements 
 of the nation in check with a grasp of iron. 
 Though he had no enemies, the army re- 
 fused to obey a civilian, and after eight 
 months of hesitation the discontented of- 
 ficers recalled the Rump parliament to 
 power. Richard at once resigned his office 
 of protector, and retired to private life. 
 His example was followed by his brother 
 
 THE ENGLISH FLEET RECEIVING CHAKLES II. IN HOLLAND, 
 
 of September, 1658, the anniversary of the 
 battles of Dunbar and Worcester, he died 
 of the ague. In him England lost one of 
 her greatest rulers. He was a general of 
 the first order, and a statesman of consum- 
 mate ability. If he was ambitious, he used 
 his power for the good of his country, and 
 placed her in the proudest position she had 
 ever occupied in the family of nations. 
 
 With his dying breath Cromwell ap- 
 pointed his sou Richard as his successor. 
 He was quietly acknowledged by parlia- 
 ment, but he was unsuited to the govern- 
 
 Henry, who, during the life of their father, 
 had governed Ireland with ability. 
 
 The quarrel between the Rump and the 
 array broke out immediately upon the re- 
 turn of the former to power. A few months 
 later parliament was driven out of existence 
 by General John Lambert, who was anx- 
 ious to be a second Oliver Cromwell. Gen- 
 eral Monk, the commander of the English 
 army in Scotland, at once marched against 
 Lambert, whose forces deserted him, and 
 passed over to the more popular Monk. 
 The fleet also declared for parliament, and 
 
886 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 entered the Thames, and on the 3d of Feb- 
 ruary, 1660, Monk entered Loudon in tri- 
 umph. He was absolute master of Eng- 
 land now, and for several days remained 
 silent as to his intentions, but at length, to 
 the great joy of the nation, declared for a 
 free parliament. The old parliament at 
 once assembled, and after issuing writs for 
 a general election, proclaimed its own dis- 
 solution on the 16th of March. Thus 
 ended the famous long parliament, which, 
 having been twice expelled and twice re- 
 stored, had had an existence of twenty 
 years. 
 
 CHARLES II. 
 
 The new parliament, which was termed 
 the Convention, as it was not summoned by 
 the king, met on the 25th of April, the 
 house of lords resuming its rightful place 
 in it. Monk had been for some time in 
 correspondence with Charles, who issued 
 his famous declaration of Breda, in which 
 he promised a general pardon for all past 
 offences to all save " only such persons as 
 shall hereafter be excepted by parliament," 
 and freedom of conscience. On the 8th of 
 May Charles was proclaimed king without 
 a-ny effort being made to impose conditions 
 
 upon him. The fleet was sent to Holland 
 to convey him to England, and on the 29th 
 of May he made his entry into London. 
 
 Charles XL was good-tempered, easy- 
 going, and of good manners, but he had 
 little heart and no principles. If he had 
 any religion, he was a Roman Catholic, but 
 he cared little for such matters, and made 
 amusement the chief object of his existence. 
 lie began his reign by ignoring the com- 
 monwealth and dating all his acts in the 
 twelfth year of his reign. The bones of 
 Cromwell, of Ireton, his son-in-law, and of 
 Bradshaw, the president of the court which 
 sentenced Charles I., were dragged from 
 their tombs in Westminster Abbey, and 
 hanged at Tyburn. All the judges of the 
 late king were excepted from the amnesty, 
 as were five other persons. Twenty-nine 
 persons in all were tried for treason ; of 
 these ten were executed, the remainder im- 
 prisoned for life. The king's promise of 
 religious toleration was soon broken. The 
 " Solemn League and Covenant" was burned 
 by the hangman, and over 2,000 non-con- 
 formist clergymen were ejected from their 
 parishes. A separate parliament was granted 
 to Scotland, which sentenced the Marquis 
 of Argyle, the greatest of the leaders of the 
 Covenanters, to death as a traitor. How 
 far Charles would have carried his revenge 
 it is impossible to say, had he not been 
 checked by the firmness of his great minis- 
 ter, Lord Clarendon, his most faithful com- 
 panion in exile, who insisted U2)on the exe- 
 cution in good faith of the acts of amnesty 
 and indemnity. Charles was well satisfied 
 to adopt a more lenient and less trouble- 
 some course. Later on the royal govern- 
 ment exerted all its power to compel the 
 adoption of the doctrines and practices of 
 the Church of England by the people. 
 Charles, in order to screen the Roman 
 Catholics, to whom he was kindly disposed, 
 would have allowed liberty to the non- 
 conformists also, but the church party com- 
 pelled him to sanction their acts. All per- 
 sons not of the established faith were shut 
 out from all public employments and hon- 
 ors. All persons holding ofiice were obliged 
 to take an oath of allegiance, acknowledg- 
 ing the king's supremacy and denying the 
 Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantia- 
 tion. In consequence of this law, the king's 
 brother, James, Duke of York, who was s 
 Catholic, was obliged, in 1673, to resign his 
 office of lord high admiral. 
 
 In 1662 Charles married Catharine of 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 887 
 
 squandered the supplies voted by parlia- 
 ment for the campaign, upon the revels of 
 his court. The fleet was laid up unrepaired, 
 and the sailors, left without pay, mutinied. 
 In 1667 the Dutch fleet entered the Med- 
 way, burned some vessels at Chatham, and 
 blockaded the Thames. The nation, in an 
 agony of shame, awoke from its dream of 
 loyalty, and began to sigh for a return of 
 the proud days of Cromwell. Peace was 
 made with Holland soon afterward. 
 
 The Earl of Clarendon, the king's chief 
 adviser, was disliked by the monarch and 
 the people, but for different reasons. The 
 former found him a determined opponent 
 to his plan of making England subservient 
 to France and of re-establishing the Roman 
 Catholic religion ; the latter hated him for 
 
 Braganza, the daughter of the King of 
 
 Portugal, and received as her dowry the 
 
 fortress of Tangier in Africa and the island 
 
 of Bombay in India. Tangier was of no 
 
 practical use, and was soon abandoned, and 
 
 Bombay was made over to the East India 
 
 Company. In the same year Charles, who 
 
 was always in want of money, sold Dunkirk 
 
 to Louis XIV. of France, to the great in- 
 dignation of the English people. 
 
 In the summer of 1665 the plague broke 
 
 out in London, and in six months swept 
 
 away over 100,000 people. The next year, 
 
 on the 2d of September, 1666, a destructive 
 
 fire swept over Loudon and raged for three 
 
 days, destroying the city from the Tower 
 
 to the Temple and Smithfield. Among the 
 
 l)uildings destroyed was old St. Paul's, 
 
 which was after- 
 wards replaced :^=: 
 
 by the j^i'esent 
 
 splendid cathe- 
 dral, the work of 
 
 Sir Christopher 
 
 Wrenn. 
 
 Charles began 
 
 hisreign amid the 
 
 devoted loyalty 
 
 of his subjects, 
 
 who were sick of 
 
 war and confu- 
 sion. He soon 
 
 disgusted them 
 
 by his profligacy. 
 
 His immoralities 
 
 were open and 
 
 shameless, and 
 
 his court the most 
 
 dissolute ever 
 
 known in England. Its chief dignitaries | his venality and pride. Charles resolved 
 
 were bis profligate favorites and his mis- j to sacrifice him to the wrath of the people 
 
 tresses. To support this shameful luxury, at the close of the Dutch war, and deprived 
 
 the king became the regular pensioner of him of his chancellorship. Clarendon Avas 
 
 Louis XIV., and sold to him his own honor { thereupon impeached by the commons ; he 
 
 and his country's interests. j fled to the continent and passed the re- 
 
 in the midst of the general depression ! mainder of his life in exile. The advisers 
 
 OLD LONDON BRIDGE. 
 
 caused by the plague and the fire England 
 became involved in a war with Holland, 
 growing out of the commercial rivalry be- 
 tween the two nations and the king's desire 
 to be revenged upon the Dutch for their 
 insults to him in his exile. Several naval 
 battles were fought, one of which, the battle 
 of the Downs, was contested for four days. 
 Louis XIV. at first aided the Dutch, as we 
 have seen, but soon entered into a secret 
 treaty with England and deserted his former 
 allies. Charles neglected the war, and 
 
 of the king now induced him to enter into 
 the combination known as the Triple 
 Alliance, consisting of England, Holland, 
 and Sweden, for the purpose of checking 
 the ambitious designs of Louis XlV. 
 Charles, as has been related, had no heart 
 in this alliance, and on the 22d of May, 
 1670, signed the secret treaty of Dover 
 with Louis XIV., by which he again sold 
 himself to France. He was to receive a 
 yearly pension, was to declare himself a 
 Roman Catholic as soon as was prudent. 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and was to join Louis in the war against 
 Holland. In case of resistance on the part 
 of the English people to the scheme for 
 restoring the Romish religion, Louis agreed 
 to aid Charles with an army. In accord- 
 ance with this agreement Charles abandoned 
 his allies, and in 1672 joined Louis in his 
 war against the Dutch. The English gained 
 little credit in this war, and parliament, in- 
 dignant at this degrading alliance, forced 
 the king to withdraw from it and make 
 peace with Holland in February, 1674. 
 
 Charles II. was childless, and the heir to 
 the throne was the Duke of York, a Roman 
 Catholic. The greater part of the nation 
 regarded the prospect of his accession with 
 serious apprehension, and a strong party 
 was formed which had for its object the ex- 
 clusion of the duke from the throne on 
 account of his religion. To this party the 
 name of whig, which had been applied to 
 the Presbyterian insurgents of Scotland, 
 was given. The supporters of the duke on 
 the other hand were called tories, a name 
 given to the Roman Catholic outlaws of 
 Ireland. As the king had no legitimate 
 children, the whigs were anxious to secure 
 the crown for the eldest of his illegitimate 
 sons, the Duke of Monmouth, who was the 
 idol of the nation, which believed him to be 
 the king's son by a secret marriage. The 
 efforts to exclude the Duke of York from 
 the throne greatly angered Charles, who, 
 during the last four years of his reign, re- 
 fused to summon a parliament. The whigs 
 in many places resorted to plots of insur- 
 rection, which were detected. One of these, 
 organized by the most desperate of the oppo- 
 sition, was known as the Rye-House Plot, 
 and had for its object the assassination of 
 Charles and his brother. It was betrayed, 
 and several executions followed. Among 
 the victims w^ere Lord William Russell and 
 Algernon Sidney, two of the best men of 
 the day. It is now believed that they were 
 innocent of the charges for Avhich they 
 suffered. Monmouth having been concerned 
 in the whig plots, was obliged to go abroad, 
 and in a short while the Duke of York was 
 reinstated in his post of lord high admiral. 
 Charles was soon after seized with an epi- 
 leptic attack, and after lingering a few days, 
 died on the 6th of February, 1685. In his 
 last moments he Avas attended by a Roman 
 Catholic priest. He was sincerely mourned 
 by his people, for, in spite of his contempti- 
 ble character, he never lost his personal 
 popularity. 
 
 The Duke of York at once ascended the 
 throne as James 11. He was in reality 
 allowed to assume the crown on sufferance, 
 as the majority of the English people were 
 opposed to him in religious matters, and 
 feared that he would seek to change the 
 existing order of things. Still, as he was 
 believed to be a man of honor, the nation 
 acquiesced in his rule, hoping that he would 
 observe the oath he had taken to defend the 
 Church of England, and respect the laws. 
 When it was known, a little later, that the 
 king had gone in royal state to attend mass, 
 there was a feeling of general alarm through- 
 out the kingdom. Other evidences were 
 soon given that the king set small weight 
 ujDon his promises. 
 
 Almost immediately after James' ac- 
 cession, the attention of the king and the 
 nation was drawn off to a movement which 
 the former might have turned to his advan- 
 tage had he been a wiser man. In the 
 early summer of 1685 the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth, accompanied by a number of whig 
 gentlemen who had been with him in exile, 
 landed in Dorsetshire in arms. On the 
 20th of June, at Taunton, Monmouth de- 
 clared himself king. He was joined by a 
 number of whig nobles and by many of the 
 ])easantry and townspeople of the western 
 counties. The royal forces were immedi- 
 ately despatched against him, and on the 
 6th of July he was defeated at Sedgemoor. 
 Two days later Monmouth w'as captured, 
 and was beheaded on the 15th of July, 
 under an act of attainder passed by parlia- 
 ment shortly after his landing. His fol- 
 lowers were treated with remorseless cruelty. 
 The chief instrument of the king in punish- 
 ing them was the infamous Chief Justice 
 Jeffreys, whose courts, from which a pris- 
 oner rarely escaped with his life or property, 
 were known as the " Bloody Assizes." This 
 wretch sold pardons in such quantities that 
 he soon became rich, and his bloody zeal 
 was rewarded by the king with the chan- 
 cellorship. 
 
 The ease with which Monmouth's rebel- 
 lion had been crushed, and the determina- 
 tion manifested by the English people to 
 sustain the king, induced James to think 
 himself strong enough to enforce the policy 
 he had determined upon at the outset of his 
 reign. He was anxious to secure the repeal 
 of the habeas corpus act, which had been 
 passed in the previous reign, and to raise a 
 large standing army. In order to make 
 this force more subservient to his w-ill, he 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 889 
 
 wished the laws against the holding of 
 offices by Roman Catholics to be repealed. 
 The parliament contained a large tory ma- 
 jority, but in spite of this, it refused to 
 pass the bills for the enforcement of the 
 king's policy, and was prorogued by him. 
 The most prudent of the English Catholics, 
 and even Pope Innocent XI. himself, 
 warned James to refrain from violence and 
 to govern his kingdom in accordance with 
 its laws for the present ; but he was deaf to 
 their advice. He dismissed all his minis- 
 ters who opposed his schemes, and would 
 employ only those who were willing to lend 
 themselves to his tyranny. Consequently 
 the most upright men of his own party 
 stood aloof from him. In order to make 
 Ireland a sure refuge for him in case of 
 trouble in England, the king appointed 
 Richard Talbot, Earl of Tyrconnel, to the 
 government of that country. He was the 
 determined foe of the Protestant settlers, 
 and filled every office in the island with 
 Catholics. 
 
 Among the most resolute opponents of 
 the king's tyranny was the English Church. 
 James, who had given himself up to the 
 guidance of a Jesuit priest named Petre, 
 now resolved to compel the submission of 
 that great body to his Avill. An ecclesias- 
 tical commission, presided over by Jeffreys, 
 a fit tool for such work, was set up, and 
 charged with the task of governing the 
 church, or, in other words, of compelling it 
 to submit to the king's plan for its destruc- 
 tion. The king had forbidden the clergy 
 to preach against popery ; a clergyman in 
 the diocese of London had violated this 
 command ; and Bishop Compton was or- 
 dered to proceed against him. The bishop 
 refused, and the power of the commission 
 was invoked. The acts of this body drove 
 the clergy into almost open rebellion against 
 the king. James then tried to force the 
 universities to accept Catholic officers, in 
 the hope of converting them into schools 
 for the dissemination of that faith. Cam- 
 bridge escaped lightly, but at Oxford a de- 
 termined struggle ensued, in which the 
 king succeeded in forcing a Catholic pres- 
 ident upon Magdalen College, the fellows 
 of which were dismissed for their opposition 
 to him. Seeing that the whole English 
 Church was arrayed against him, James 
 began to court the support of the dissenters. 
 In order to conciliate them, and at the same 
 time to serve his own faith, he published in 
 April, 1687, a " Declaration of Indulgence," 
 
 abolishing all religious tests and the laws 
 against non-conformity. The laws against 
 which this blow was aimed were iniquitous 
 enough, and should never have disgraced 
 the statute-book ; but James was a consti- 
 tutional king, aud had no power to annul 
 them. That right was reserved to parlia- 
 ment. His efibrt to conciliate the dis- 
 senters failed. All classes of Protestants 
 saw through his scheme, and laughed at his 
 pretence of serving them. 
 
 In 1688 the king published a second 
 declaration of indulgence, which he ordered 
 should be read in all the churches. Wil- 
 liam Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 aud six bishops of his archdiocese, presented 
 a petition to the king against this order. 
 Jaraes received the ])etition in great anger, 
 aud sent the "Seven Bishops " to the Tower, 
 on a charge of seditious libel. They were 
 tried by the Court of King's Bench, and 
 were triumphantly acquitted. The news 
 was received in all parts of England with 
 rejoicings, and James was thus given ample 
 cause to see how firmly his people were 
 united against him. 
 
 In the midst of these stirring events, on 
 the 10th of June, 1688, was born the Prince 
 of Wales, James Francis Edward, the son 
 of James by his second wife, Mary of Mo- 
 dena. James and his partisans were greatly 
 elated, but the event really hastened his 
 ruin. Until now the people had endured 
 the tyranny of the king in the hope that 
 all would be made right upon the accession 
 of the Princess Mary of Orange, the king's 
 eldest daughter, and the heir apparent to 
 the crown. The birth of a prince destroyed 
 these hopes, and brought matters to a crisis. 
 Some there were Avho did not hesitate to 
 declare that the Prince of Wales was not 
 the king's sou. The leading whig nobles, 
 however, took a more decisive step, and on, 
 the 30th of June, the very day of the bish- 
 ops' acquittal, sent a secret invitation to 
 William and Mary to come over from Hol- 
 land aud claim the crown, promising to 
 support them with all their power. The 
 invitation was accepted, and the Prince of 
 Orange set to work with energy to prepare 
 for the invasion of England. James was 
 not convinced of his danger till the prince 
 was ready to sail, though he was warned 
 of it by Louis XIV., who bad detected 
 William's design. Then he attempted to 
 undo his work by abolishing the ecclesias- 
 tical commission and making other conces- 
 sions. It \v:i.s ton late for conciliation, liou- 
 
THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 890 
 
 ever. The fate of the Stuart dynasty was 
 
 Oil "the 5th of November, 1688, William 
 of Orauge landed at Torbay. He was well 
 received by the people, and in several days 
 was joined by a number of the leading 
 men of the kingdom, among them Lord 
 Churchill, afterwards the great Duke of 
 
 stream. It was afterwards recovered. Such 
 peers as were in London at once assumed 
 the government and sent to request the 
 presence of the Prince of Orange, who 
 took upon himself the task of administer- 
 ing the kingdom. A convention of the 
 estates of the realm was sfimruoned, which 
 met on the 22d of January, 1689. The 
 
 -^ V'^V/^ 
 
 WILLIAM III. 
 
 Marlborough. James retreated before the 
 advancing and rapidly increasing forces of 
 the prince, and his daughter Anne, who 
 was a Protestant, joined the party of her 
 brother-in-law. Utterly disheartened, the 
 king fled from Whitehall on the 11th of 
 December, and as he crossed the Thames 
 in a boat threw the great .=op.1 into the 
 
 flight of James was recognii:ed as an abdi- 
 cation of the throne ; and the convention 
 having secured the "religion, laws, and lib- 
 erties °of England by a Declaration of 
 Right, offered the crown in joint sover- 
 eio-nty to William and Mary on the 13th 
 ot° February. This formal offer was ac- 
 cented, and the sovereigns began their reign 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 891 
 
 on this day. Thus was completed the 
 "English Revolution," which saved that 
 kingdom to Protestantism and lil)erty. The 
 sovereignty of Ireland went with that of 
 England, and a few months later the estates 
 of Scotland proclaimed William and Mary 
 king and queen of that country. 
 
 There remained a large party in Eng- 
 land who regarded the accession of Wil- 
 liam and Mary as unlawful. These were 
 called Jacobites, and were destined to give 
 the new sovereigns considerable trouble. 
 
 of France, who had warmly espoused the for- 
 tunes of Jaines, as "the cause of legitimacy" 
 against the right of a nation to self-govern- 
 ment, furnished James with an army and 
 money, and officers for his Irish troops. 
 James reached Ireland in March, 1689, and 
 summoned a parliament. The Irish rallied 
 round him with enthusiasm, hoping that if 
 they could restore his fortunes, they could 
 exact his consent to their independence as 
 the price of their services. The whole 
 island, except Enniskillcn and London- 
 
 LONDONDEUKY, IRELAND. 
 
 About four hundred of the'clergy, includ- 
 ing five of the " Seven Bishops," had scru- 
 ples respecting the rightfulness of the de- 
 position of James, and refused to swear 
 allegiance to William and Mary. They 
 were known as non-jurors. 
 
 Irehxnd stoutly refused to acknowledge 
 the new sovereigns, and the Earl of Tyr- 
 connel invited James to come over, and 
 called on the people to support him. The 
 whole Irish race rose in arms in defence of 
 their Catholic sovereign, and Louis XIV. 
 
 derry, which were gallantly held by the 
 English, supported him. Londonderry was 
 besieged by James' forces, but held out 
 until aid was received from England. Eu- 
 niskillen beat back the force sent against it. 
 In the summer of 1690 William, who 
 had joined the general league of the con- 
 tinental powers against Louis XIV., went 
 over to Ireland to conduct the war in person. 
 The departure of the king from England 
 was seizeil upon by the French to make aq 
 attack upon that couutrv in concert with 
 
892 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the Jacobites. The English fleet under 
 Lord Herbert, Earl of Torrington, was 
 badly beaten by the French fleet, off'Beachy 
 Head, on the 30th of June, as has been 
 related. It was believed that Lord Her- 
 bert was secretly a partisan of James. The 
 French Admiral Tourville hovered upon 
 the English coast for some time, waiting for 
 the Jacobites to rise and co-operate with 
 him, but as they did not take any such ac- 
 tion, he finally withdrew, after sacking the 
 unprotected town of Teignmouth. 
 
 Dublin, from which he hastened to Kinsale 
 and took ship for France. At the approach 
 of the English army Dublin threw open its 
 gates to King William. The Irish bitterly 
 cursed the cowardice of the fugitive King 
 James, but gallantly continued the struggle 
 under their accomplished leader, Patrick 
 Sarsfield. William's presence being needed 
 in England, the conduct of the war was left 
 to the Dutch General Ginkell, who defeated 
 the Irish and French forces at Aghrira on 
 the 12th of July, 1691. In this battle the 
 
 THE ENGLISH DESTilOY THE EKKNCH FLEET IN THE BAY OF LA HOGUE. 
 
 The defeat off" Beachy Head was more 
 than atoned for by the successes of King 
 William in Ireland. Immediately upon 
 landing in Ireland the king marched rapidly 
 to the south, and on the 30th of June ar- 
 rived in front of the army of James, which 
 was posted strongly behind the Boyne. 
 On the morning of the 1st of July Wil- 
 liam forced a passage of the stream at the 
 head of his troops, and inflicted a decisive 
 defeat upon the Irish army. James made 
 no efl^ort to rally his forces, but fled to 
 
 French commander St. Ruth was killed. 
 The last stand of the Irish was made at 
 Limerick, which was captured by Ginkell 
 in October, 1691. Sarsfield, its heroic de- 
 fender, and as many of the Irish as chose 
 to go with him, were allowed to pass over 
 to France and enter the service of that 
 country. The triumph of the English was 
 complete, and severe laws were enacted 
 which held Ireland in such absolute sub- 
 jection, that she ceased to be a cause of 
 apprehension to England until the begin- 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 
 
 893 
 
 niug of the French revolution in the next 
 century. 
 
 The efforts of William were now engaged 
 in the struggle on the continent between 
 the Grand Alliance and Louis XIV., the 
 events of which have been related in the 
 French history of this period. During his 
 absence on the continent the French fleet 
 
 sion. The war was brought to a close by 
 the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697. 
 
 Previous to this William III. had become 
 sole sovereign of England by the death of 
 Queen Mary on the 28th of December, 
 1694. A large part of the king's popu- 
 larity in England had been due to the 
 queen, and after her death the commons 
 
 QUEEN ANNE. 
 
 attempted another descent upon the Eng- 
 lish coast, and was defeated by Admiral 
 Russell in the Channel. The French were 
 then driven into the Bay of La Hogue, 
 where their ships were burned by the Eng- 
 lish, as has been related, a. d. 1692. This 
 victory was the death-blow to the hopes of 
 James XL, and saved England from inva- 
 
 and the king soon became involved in :•, 
 quarrel, in which the former indulged th& 
 national dislike of foreigners by subjecting 
 the king to many mortifications, which he 
 bore with firmness and dignity. The com- 
 mons insisted upon the disbanding of the 
 greater part of the army, and obliged Wil- 
 liam to send away his favorite Dutch guards 
 
894 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and all his foreign troops. The king had 
 bestowed large grants of land in Ireland 
 upon his personal friends. These grants 
 the commons compelled him to annul, and 
 turn over all forfeited Irish lands to the 
 government for the use of the state. The 
 war with France, for which the whole na- 
 tion blamed the king, and which greatly 
 increased his iinpopulai'ity, had .caused 
 heavy losses to England, and in a fit of 
 
 and the crown of Great Britain passed, ac- 
 cording to the settlement made by the 
 declaration and bill of rights, to his sister- 
 in-law, the Princess Anne of Denmark, the 
 daughter of James II. and the wife of 
 Prince George of Denmark. 
 
 Prince George, the husband of Queen 
 Anne, was an insignificant person, without 
 ability of any kind. From her girlhood 
 the queen had been thoroughly under the 
 
 GIBr.ALIAE. 
 
 economy, parliament reduced the army and 
 navy to a peace footing, and so tied the 
 hands of the king at the very moment that 
 the interests of England required him to 
 be strong and independent. 
 
 The union of England with France in the 
 effort to dismember the Spanish dominions, 
 and the events of the war of the Spanish 
 succession, have been related. The war 
 had scarcely begun when William III. 
 died, on the 8th of March, 1702, from the 
 effects of a fall from his horse. He was 
 fifty-one years old, and had ruled England 
 nearly fourteen years. 
 
 William left no children by Queen Mary, 
 
 influence of the beautiful and imperious 
 Sarah Jennings, who had married John 
 Churchill, a man who had been raised to 
 the peerage by James II., and whom Wil- 
 liam III., in spite of his personal dislike of 
 him, had created Earl of Marlborough. 
 Through his wife's influence Marlborough 
 gained the favor of the Princess Anne, and 
 William III., when dying, pointed him out 
 to her as the one best qualified to lead the 
 armies of England in the great struggle 
 which had begun upon the continent. 
 Marlborough was in many respects one of 
 the greatest statesmen, and was unquestion- 
 ably the ablest general England ever pro- 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 895 
 
 duced. He was a singularly handsome 
 man, and was gifted with a serenity of 
 temper which few things could ruffle. His 
 courage was unshaken, his nature ardent 
 and venturesome, but held in check by a 
 cool, clear judgment, which personal feelings 
 never influenced. His capacity for endur- 
 ing fatigue was extraordinary, and he was 
 sometimes known to pass fifteen hours on 
 horseback. His manners were perfect, and 
 his courtesy to every one formed a striking 
 trait of his character. In his deepest vex- 
 ations he was calm and serene. He was 
 passionately attached to his wife, and his 
 love for her was the only strong feeling of 
 his otherwise purely intellectual nature. 
 In all things else he was absolutely without 
 feeling, hating no one, loving none, and 
 regretting nothing. "The passions which 
 stirred the men around him, whether noble 
 or ignoble, were to him simply elements in 
 an intellectual problem which had to be 
 solved by patience." He was insensible to 
 the finer sentiments of our nature, and, 
 though a man of real greatness, loved 
 money sir 'ply for money's sake, and stained 
 his great fame by his avarice and peculation. 
 
 Under the influence of the Earl of Marl- 
 borough, Queen Anne announced immedi- 
 ately upon her accession that it was her 
 intention to continue the foreign policy of 
 her predecessor. Marll)orough, who had 
 reached the ripe age of fifty -two, was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the English 
 army in Flanders. He at once entered 
 upon his duties, and by the force of his 
 b/illiant genius attained an ascendency in 
 the councils of the allies which made him 
 the real director of the war. Though an 
 old man, he exhibited a daring and au- 
 dacity in his plans and movements which 
 astounded both his allies and his adversa- 
 ries, and compelled victory. The career 
 which he now began was one of unbroken 
 good fortune, for, as Voltaire truly declares, 
 he never laid siege to a fortress but to cap- 
 ture it, or fought a battle but to win it. 
 The events of the war of the Spanish suc- 
 cession have been related, and we shall 
 refer to them only incidentally in this por- 
 tion of our narrative. 
 
 By his first successes IMarlborough drove 
 the French from the lower Rhine and 
 freed Holland from the danger of invasion. 
 For these services he was created a duke. 
 By his great victory over the French and 
 Bavarians at Blenheim he firmly estab- 
 lished his commanding influence at home 
 
 and abroad, and was rewarded by the gift 
 of the royal manor of Woodstock, where 
 was subsequently erected the palace of 
 Blenheim. 
 
 Though absent on the continent, Marl- 
 borough was the leading spirit of the gov- 
 ernment of England, and his influence 
 shaped the domestic as well as the foreign 
 policy of Queen Anne. In politics he was 
 a tory, and the war in which he was en- 
 gaged was entirely a " whig war." He 
 exerted all his influence to draw his party 
 into a support of the war, but with only 
 partial success. His march into Germany 
 caused the tories to regard him with in- 
 tense bitterness, and had he failed his 
 political ruin would have been inevitable. 
 His victory at Blenheim for a time silenced 
 the opposition to him, but from this moment 
 he began to drift steadily towards the 
 whigs, the only party which really suj)- 
 ported his policy. By a skilful coalition 
 of the moderate tories with the whigs he 
 managed to defeat the intrigues of the 
 peace party, and his brilliant victory of 
 Raraillies, on the 23d of May, 1706, which 
 destroyed the French army under Marshal 
 Villeroi and freed Flanders from the 
 French, strengthened his power. In the 
 same year England gained another great 
 advantage by the capture of Gibraltar by 
 Admiral Rooke. This famous fortress has 
 ever since remained in possession of Great 
 Britain. The Earl of Peterborough, a 
 brilliant but erratic genius, rapidly overran 
 Spain for the allies, but left the peninsula 
 in disgust when he found the allies unwill- 
 ing to act in accordance with his advice. 
 
 For a long time the policy of uniting 
 England and Scotland in one kingdom had 
 been seriously considered by the leading 
 statesmen of Great Britain, but the project 
 was long delayed by religious differences 
 and commercial jealousies. In 1706 the 
 measure was revived and was carried forward 
 with such success that, in 1707, an act of 
 union was passed providing for the union 
 of England and Scotland, under the name 
 of the Kingdom of Great Britain. It was 
 agreed that the succession to the British 
 crown should be regulated by the provisions 
 of the English act of settlement, which, in 
 default of heirs to Queen Anne, gave the 
 crown to the Princess Sophia, Electress of 
 Hanover (the daughter of Queen Elizabeth 
 of Bohemia and the granddaughter of 
 James I.) and her heirs, being Protestants. 
 No changes were made in the church or 
 
896 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 laws of Scotland, but all rights of trade 
 were made common to the two countries, a 
 uniform system of coinage was adopted, 
 and a single parliament was to represent 
 the united kingdom, for which purpose 
 forty-five Scotch members were added to 
 the English House of Commons, and six- 
 teen representative Scotch peers to the 
 English House of Lords. The union was 
 at first opposed in Scotland, and threats 
 of violent resistance were plentiful ; but the 
 good sense of the Scottish people finally 
 prevailed, and by the close of the year 
 1708 the union was generally acquiesced 
 in as the best policy for both countries. 
 Such indeed it has proved. To Scotland 
 
 govern England by holdiug the balance of 
 power between the rival political parties. 
 The victory of Ramillies made him strong 
 enough to compel the queen, in spite of her 
 hatred of the whigs, to admit Lord Sun- 
 derland, their most ultra leader, to office. 
 The tories every day became more opposed 
 to the war, and Marlborough was obliged 
 to rely upon the whigs for support. They 
 made him pay a dear price for their as- 
 sistance. They were the only party who 
 supported the war to which the duke was 
 pledged, and he was powerless, as he could 
 not command the aid of the tories, to 
 oppose their measures. Not only was the 
 tory party opposed to him, but the tory 
 
 ARUNDEL CASTLE. 
 
 the union with England has been of the 
 greatest advantage. It " opened up new 
 avenues of wealth which the energy of its 
 people turned to wonderful account. The 
 farms of Lothian have become models of 
 agricultural skill. A fishing town on the 
 Clyde has grown into the rich and populous 
 Glasgow. Peace and culture have changed 
 the wild clansmen of the highlands into 
 herdsmen and farmers. Nor was the change 
 followed by any loss of national spirit. 
 The world has hardly seen a mightier and 
 more rapid development of national energy 
 than that of Scotland after the union." 
 It was the wise policy of Marlborough to 
 
 principles of the queen caused her to lose 
 faith in the great duke. She bitterly re- 
 sented the appointment of Lord Sunderland 
 to office, which Marlborough had wrung 
 from her by threatening to resign his com- 
 mand. The whigs were determined to 
 drive the moderate tories from office, and 
 Marlborough, powerless to oppose them, 
 was obliged, against his judgment, to com- 
 ply with their demands. This compliance 
 increased the hatred of the queen towards 
 the duke, and the haughty temper of the 
 Duchess of Marlborough won for her the 
 dislike of her former friend. The whigs 
 were now supreme at home. 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 897 
 
 In 1708 the brilliant victory won by 
 Marlborough at Oudeuarde, and the other 
 successes of the allies, induced Louis XIV. 
 to offer terms of peace, as has been related. 
 Marlborough, believing that all that Eng- 
 land could justly desire was safe, was anx- 
 ious for peace, but the English ministry 
 and the allies, in spite of his counsels, 
 haughtily demanded of Louis terms which 
 he could not grant without a shameful 
 sacrifice of his honor, and the war went on. 
 The bloody battle of Malplaquet, though a 
 victory for Marlborough, was purchased by 
 the loss of 24,000 men, and the French 
 army was able to conduct its retreat in 
 good order. The enemies of Marlborough 
 eagerly seized upon this " deluge of blood" 
 as a means of rendering him unpopular at 
 home. A flood of pamphlets and other 
 publications was let loose against him ; he 
 was abused, ridiculed, accused of prolong- 
 ing the war for his own gratification and 
 profit, and even his courage was called in 
 question. These efforts were successful, 
 and the people were led to regard the 
 greatest of living Englishmen as his coun- 
 try's worst enemy. His brilliant services 
 went for nothing with the fickle populace ; 
 they were regarded as the evidences of a 
 criminal ambition. 
 
 In 1709 Dr. Sacheverel, a clergyman of 
 the established church, preached a sermon 
 at St. Paul's before the lord mayor, in 
 which he declaimed with great boldness the 
 tory doctrine that nothing could justify a 
 subject in resisting his sovereign. The 
 whigs felt this as a slur upon their con- 
 duct in dethroning James 11, and setting 
 up William and Mary. In spite of the 
 warnings of Mai'lborough, who told them 
 such a course Avould be their ruin, the 
 whig ministers caused the offending divine 
 to be impeached. He was condemned by 
 the house of lords, but his sentence was so 
 light that it was a practical acquittal. The 
 feelings aroused by this trial exhibited in a 
 striking light the popular hatred of the 
 whigs and of the war. 
 
 Emboldened by this change of public 
 opinion, the queen, in the autumn of 1710, 
 dismissed her whig ministry and appointed 
 a tory ministry, with Robert Harley, Earl 
 of Oxford, and Henry St. John, Viscount 
 Boliugbroke, at its head. These were re- 
 solved upon the ruin of Marlborough, who, 
 feeling assured that he could not expect 
 any support at home, did not dare to un- 
 dertake any decisive enterprise. A little 
 
 later a tory house of commons was re- 
 turned, and the ministers felt strong enough 
 to destroy the duke. The Duchess of 
 Marlborough was dismissed from court, the 
 duke was removed from his command, and 
 called home to answer to charges of pecula- 
 tion, and was condemned by a vote of the 
 house of commons, which was controlled by 
 his enemies. He at once left England. 
 
 The removal of Marlborough put an end 
 to the opposition to the withdrawal of Eng- 
 land from the war. The determination of 
 England to make peace with France in- 
 duced the allies to adopt a similar course, 
 and on the 11th of April, 1713, the peace 
 of Utrecht was signed. By this treaty 
 England gained Nova Scotia and the island 
 of St. Christopher, and was confirmed in her 
 possession of Gibraltar and Minorca. Louis 
 XIV. recognized Queen Anne, guaranteed 
 the succession of the house of Hanover, and 
 agreed to expel the pretender from his 
 dominions. 
 
 The Jacobites, as the adherents of the 
 pretender were called, had hoped that 
 Bolingbroke would bring about the succes- 
 sion of the son of James I., and this was 
 indeed his intention could he have induced 
 him to turn Protestant. The pretender re- 
 fused to change his faith, however, and 
 Bolingbroke did not dare to attempt to 
 force a Roman Catholic upon the nation. 
 The remainder of the reign was passed in a 
 struggle between the whigs and tories. On 
 the 1st of August, 1714, Queen Anne 
 died of apoplexy. 
 
 The death of the Princess Sophia made 
 her son, the Elector George Louis of Han- 
 over, the heir to the British crown by the 
 terms of the act of succession. He was at 
 once proclaimed by the government. It 
 was believed that the Jacobites would seek 
 to oppose his accession by force, but Queen 
 Anne's death took them by surprise, and 
 found them unprepared to offer any resist- 
 ance. George made no haste to take pos- 
 session of his new kingdom, and it was six 
 weeks after Queen Anne's death before he 
 and his eldest son landed at Greenwich. 
 He was well received, but he was utterly 
 destitute of the qualities calculated to 
 arouse the loyalty of such a people as the 
 English. He could not speak the English 
 language, aud was obliged to learn by rote 
 a few words in which to reply to the ad- 
 dresses of his new subjects. He was fifty- 
 four years of age, small of stature, awkward 
 in manner, and insignificant in appearance. 
 
898 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 His private life was scandalous, and when 
 he came to England he left his wife behind 
 him, a prisoner in one of his castles in Ger- 
 many. He was honest and well intentioned 
 in his course towards his new subjects, but 
 he could never learn to be an Englishman. 
 He preferred his native country to Eng- 
 land as a residence, and so caused constant 
 annoyance and embarrassment to his minis- 
 ters. The nation returned his dislike with 
 great cordiality, and tolerated him only 
 because he was a constitutional sovereign, 
 and made no effort to interfere with their 
 liberties, and because he was the only 
 Protestant heir to the crown. 
 
 GEOEGE I. 
 
 The king began his reign by excluding 
 the tories from the government. A new 
 ministry was formed, composed almost ex- 
 clusively of whigs. The king took no 
 part in the government of his kingdom, 
 leaving it entirely in the hands of his min- 
 isters. The ministers of the latter part of 
 Queen Anne's reign had disgusted the 
 nation with their plots for the restoration 
 of the Stuarts, and had made the name of 
 tory odious to the greater part of the Eng- 
 lish people. The restoration of the Stuarts 
 meant simply the undoing of the work of 
 the revolution, the repudiation of the 
 
 national debt, and the re-establishment by 
 force of Roman Catholicism. The whigs 
 were pledged to sustain the results of the 
 revolution, and, whatever their faults, 
 could not be suspected of disloyalty to the 
 system they had established. The confi- 
 dence of the nation was not misplaced, for 
 the plots of the tory leaders, Harley and 
 Bolingbroke, had left the whigs the sole 
 representatives, not only of the principles 
 of the revolution, but of constitutional 
 liberty and religious freedom. The first 
 house of commons assembled under this 
 reign contained less than fifty tory mem- 
 bers, and their Jacobite sympathies were so 
 well understood that they had no 
 influence in the government. Lord 
 Townshend was appointed by the 
 king secretary of state, and his 
 brother-in-law. Sir Robert Walpole, 
 became successively paymaster of the 
 forces, chancellor of the exchequer, 
 and first lord of the treasury. 
 
 One of the first acts of the new 
 parliament was to impeach Boling- 
 broke, Oxford, and Ormond upon 
 charges of misconduct in the man- 
 agement of the peace negotiations 
 and of intriguing with the pretender. 
 Bolingbroke, at the outset of these 
 eflforts, fled to France, and was fol- 
 lowed by Ormond. The Earl of Ox- 
 ford remained at home to face his 
 enemies, and was sent to the Tower, 
 but was acquitted and released two 
 years later. Acts of attainder were 
 passed against Bolingbroke and 
 Ormond. The tories viewed these 
 measures with great dissatisfaction, 
 and riots broke out in various parts 
 of the kingdom in consequence of this 
 feeling. So numerous and serious 
 did these disturbances become that 
 parliament passed the riot act, by 
 which it was made a felony for members of 
 an unlawful assembly to refuse to disperse 
 on command of a magistrate. 
 
 James Stuart, or the Pretender, as he was 
 generally called, was residing in France, 
 and was encouraged by these disturbances 
 to hope that an effort on his part to regain 
 his father's throne would be successful. 
 Bolingbroke knew the English- people bet- 
 ter, and urged him not to make the attempt, 
 as it could only end in failure ; but the 
 pretender was as insensible to reason as his 
 father had been, and ordered the Earl of 
 Mar, the leader of his party in Scotland, to 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 899 
 
 set up the standard of revolt in that coun- 
 try. Mar oDeyed him, and on the 6th of 
 September, 1715, the standard of the pre- 
 tender was raised in the highlands. Mar 
 believed that his movement would be fol- 
 lowed by a Jacobite rising in the west of 
 England, but he was soon undeceived. A 
 few north country Englishmen joined him, 
 but the vigorous measures of the govern- 
 
 practically a victory for the king, as it 
 stopped the progress of the rebels. On the 
 same day the north country English Jaco- 
 bites were defeated at Preston, and the in- 
 surrection was practically quelled. Towards 
 the close of the year the pretender himself 
 arrived in Scotland, but he found matters 
 in such a hopeless state that he returned at 
 once to France, taking with him the Earl 
 
 CARLISLE BRIDGE AND SACK.VXLL1. ,slUi:t:T, DLJJLIN. 
 
 any 
 The 
 
 ment prevented him from receiving 
 material assistance from England, 
 leading Jacobites were arrested, and the 
 party was deprived of its leaders. Mar was 
 incompetent and cowardly. He advanced 
 into the low country, and was joined at 
 Perth by 6,000 highlanders. On the 6th 
 of November he was met at Sheriff-Muir by 
 the royal forces under the Duke of Argyle. 
 The result was a drawn battle, which was 
 
 of Mar, and leaving the rest of his par- 
 tisans to their fate. The insurrection was a 
 complete failure. The Earl of Derwent- 
 water. Viscount Kenmure, and thirty other 
 persons, all taken in arms, were put to 
 death for their share in the rebellion. 
 
 In 1717 another and a different effort 
 in favor of the pretender was made. Charles 
 XII., King of Sweden, coveted the duchies 
 of Bremen and Verden, which George I. 
 
900 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 had purchased from Denmark and added 
 to the electorate of Hanover. He under- 
 took, by way of revenge for his loss of the 
 duchies, to invade Scotland in connection 
 with a Jacobite rising in that country. 
 The conspiracy was promptly detected and 
 crushed, and the contemplated invasion by 
 Sweden was abandoned. 
 
 In 1716 Townshend and Walpole with- 
 drew from the ministry, which passed un- 
 der the control of Lord Stanhope. The 
 house of commons had now become the 
 ruling power of the kingdom, and in order 
 to establish a proper basis for its influence, 
 the parliament in 1716 passed a law making 
 seven years the longest period for which a 
 parliament could sit. The whigs were now 
 pledged to a policy of peace in their deal- 
 ings with foreign affairs, and by a faithful 
 adherence to the treaty of Utrecht managed 
 to carry out their pledges. England was 
 growing rapidly in wealth and prosperity, 
 and the sudden increase of her commerce 
 was arousing a desire for speculative ven- 
 tures among the people which boded no 
 good to the nation. The most famous man- 
 ifestation of this feeling was the speculation 
 known as the South Sea Scheme. A com- 
 pany was organized under the name of the 
 Soxith Sea Company, which possessed a 
 monopoly of trade to the Spanish colonies 
 of South America. It engaged with the 
 government to buy up certain annuities 
 which had been granted during the reign 
 of William and Mary, and in this way to 
 reduce the national debt. The annuitants 
 were to receive, in place of their claims 
 upon the government, shares of the stock 
 of the South Sea Company. The scheme 
 became immensely popular ; the value of 
 the shares of the company increased ten- 
 fold. Walpole, a practical financier, 
 warned the ministry and the country of the 
 fictitious nature of the scheme, but to no 
 purpose. The whole country went mad 
 until 1720, when the South Sea bubl)le, 
 and other kindred schemes that had sprung 
 up in consequence of its success, exploded. 
 A panic followed, and thousands of families 
 were involved in the general ruin. The 
 estates of the directors of the company were 
 confiscated by parliament for the benefit 
 of the sufferers, but the punishment was 
 denounced by the infuriated people as too 
 mild. 
 
 The explosion of the South Sea scheme 
 drove the ministry of Lord Stanhope from 
 power. In this emergency the king sum- 
 
 moned Walpole to the direction of affairs. 
 Walpole was the ablest financier of the 
 day, and his prescient warnings against the 
 unhappy speculation had won him the con- 
 fidence of the country. His administration 
 is the longest in English history since the 
 Revolution, and lasted twenty-one years. 
 His policy was to discourage political activ- 
 ity, and to hold aloof from all continental 
 questions that might draw England into a 
 war with any of her neighbors. He de- 
 voted all his great abilities to the advance- 
 ment of the material prosperity of England, 
 and at the same time maintained her in- 
 fluence and honor abroad by his skill and 
 firmness in negotiation. His measures were 
 generally acceptable to the nation, and were 
 followed by the happiest results, which the 
 king in 1724 thus summed up : " Peace 
 with all powers abroad; at home perfect 
 tranquillity, plenty, and an uninterrupted 
 enjoyment of all civil and religious rights." 
 " Population was growing fast ; that of 
 Manchester and Birmingham doubled in 
 thirty years. The rise of manufactures was 
 accompanied by a sudden increase of com- 
 merce, which was due mainly to the rapid 
 development of the colonies. Liverpool, 
 which owes its creation to the new trade 
 with the west, sprang up from a little coun- 
 try town to the third port in the kingdom. 
 With peace and security, the value of land, 
 and with it the rental of every country 
 gentleman, tripled ; while the introduction 
 of winter roots, of artificial grasses, of the 
 system of rotation of crops, changed the 
 whole character of agriculture, and spread 
 wealth through the farming classes. The 
 wealth around him never made Walpole 
 swerve from a rigid economy, from the 
 steady reduction of the debt, or the diminu- 
 tion of fiscal duties. Even before the death 
 of George the First the public burdens 
 were reduced by twenty millions. But he 
 had the sense to see that the wisest course 
 a statesman can take in presence of a great 
 increase in national industry and national 
 wealth is to look quietly on and let it alone." 
 Walpole did not rely upon the force of his 
 genius for the success of his measures. 
 While he was personally an honest man, he 
 introduced into the management of English 
 politics a general and most discreditable 
 system of corruption. Parliament had its 
 price, and it was regularly bought by Sir 
 Robert Walpole whenever he deemed such 
 a course necessary to the success of his 
 plans. 
 
FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE HI. 901 
 
 On the 10th of June, 1727, George I. 
 was seized with an attack of apoplexy, and 
 died in his carriage on the road to Osna- 
 briick. He was succeeded by his son, 
 George Augustus, Prince of Wales, with 
 whom he was on notoriously bad terms at 
 the time, and who took the title of George II. 
 
 The new king was, like his father, a 
 German by birth and in feeling. He was 
 attached to his native dominions, and 
 cared little for England. This partiality 
 led him to consider the interests of Hano- 
 ver rather than those of Great Britain, 
 and induced him to interfere in continental 
 politics, when he would have done better 
 to let them alone. He was disliked by the 
 English people. He was a dull, plodding 
 man, very methodical, stubborn, passionate 
 and stingy, but fond of war, and of unques- 
 tioned courage. He could speak English 
 fluently, and in this respect possessed an 
 advantage over his father. He was de- 
 voted to his wife. Queen Caroline, a Bran- 
 denburg princess, but, in spite of this, his 
 private character was notoriously bad. 
 
 The king had hated his father and his 
 father's friends, and greatly disliked Sir 
 Robert Walpole. He was, however, en- 
 tirely influenced by his clever wife. Queen 
 Caroline, and she was resolved that Wal- 
 pole should continue to direct the policy of 
 the government. Strong in the favor of 
 the queen, Walpole remained in jDOwer for 
 ten years longer, during which time he 
 exerted himself to keep England at peace. 
 He had little to do at home for a while, for 
 the Jacobites made no effort against the 
 government, and the dissenters, who de- 
 manded the repeal of the test and corpora- 
 tion acts, were pacified by the passage each 
 year of an act of indemnity for any 
 breaches of these penal statutes. The most 
 important measure of this period was an 
 act of parliament requiring that all pro- 
 ceedings in courts of justice should be con- 
 ducted in the English language. 
 
 Among the most unpopular taxes in the 
 kingdom were the excise duties. In 1733 
 Walpole proposed to extend these duties, 
 but his scheme aroused a bitter and deter- 
 mined opposition by the tories and the 
 " patriots," as the discontented whigs were 
 styled. These parties managed to make 
 this opposition amount almost to a revolt. 
 Riots were frequent, and Queen Caroline 
 urged the minister to put down the resist- 
 ance by force. Walpole was confident 
 that his measures would result in benefit to 
 
 the nation, but with rare self-command 
 w'ithdrew the bill. " I will not be the 
 minister," he said, " to enforce taxes at the 
 expense of blood." 
 
 The king and the queen were both anx- 
 ious to take part in the war of the Polish 
 succession, but Walpole's firmness kept 
 England clear of this struggle, and in 1736 
 England and Holland were able, by their 
 joint intervention, to secure peace. 
 
 In 1737 Queen Caroline died, and the 
 power of Walpole began to decline. The 
 Prince of Wales, who hated his father, 
 openly supported the " patriots," who were 
 the declared enemies of the prime minister. 
 England was tired of the long peace it had 
 enjoyed, and the mercantile class was de- 
 termined to push its contraband trade with 
 the Spanish South American colonies. 
 The treaty of Utrecht had limited this trade 
 to the traffic in negro slaves and the annual 
 visit of a single ship, but a large and steady 
 smuggling trade with these colonies had 
 been in existence for a number of years. 
 Philip V. was very hostile to this trade, 
 and after his accession Spain redoubled her 
 efforts to put a stop to it. The Englishmen 
 who were captured while engaged in it 
 were sevei'ely punished by imprisonment, or 
 the loss of a nose or ear, and upon return- 
 ing home filled England with their stories 
 of the cruelties inflicted upon them. They 
 were regarded by their own people as mar- 
 tyrs for the freedom of commerce. The 
 stories of these men roused the English na- 
 tion to a fury which Walpole vainly en- 
 deavored to control. He was anxious that 
 the states of western Europe should be at 
 peace and in harmony at the death of the 
 Emperor Charles VI., w'hich was "close at 
 hand ; but he was unable to contend against 
 the national instinct that sooner or later a 
 war with Spain was inevitable, and that it 
 had better come at once. This time Wal- 
 pole's statesmanship was at fault, and the 
 national instinct was right. The family com- 
 pact between Spain and France, to which we 
 have referred elsewhere, had for its object 
 the destruction of England's maritime su- 
 premacy, and both kingdoms were watch- 
 ing for a pretext to attack their rival. 
 England, though ignorant of this compact 
 at the time, anticipated it, and in 1739 
 Walpole was forced, greatly against his in- 
 clination, to consent to the rupture, and war 
 was declared against Spain. The war was 
 not, on the whole, either successful or profit- 
 able. Admiral^Vernon captured Porto 
 
902 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Bello in the West Indies with his squadron 
 of six ships, but this \Yas the only substan- 
 tial success of the war. A fleet was de- 
 spatched under Commodore Anson to attack 
 the Spanish settlements on the coast of 
 Chili and Peru. It suffered frightful hard- 
 ships, and was decimated by scurvy. Out 
 of the entire fleet the flag-ship was the only 
 vessel that returned home. Walpole's re- 
 luctance to engage in the war had made 
 him very unpopular, and his enemies took 
 advantage of this feeling to hold him re- 
 sponsible for the ill success of the struggle. 
 For some time Walpole held his ground 
 with determination, but early in 1742 he 
 was able to command in parliament a bare 
 majority of three in support of his measures, 
 and resigned his office. He was at once 
 created Earl of Orford by the king, who 
 continued to consult him upon matters of 
 state in preference to the new ministry, and 
 took his seat in the house of peers. He 
 devoted himself to restoring the unity of 
 the whig party and breaking up the oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 In the meantime the general European 
 war, which Walpole had long foreseen, had 
 broken out and had involved England in 
 it. In 1741 the Emperor Charles VI. died. 
 We have related elsewhere his efforts to 
 secure his dominions to his daughter Maria 
 Theresa by a pragmatic sanction, and the 
 origin and events of the war of the Austrian 
 succession. It is not necessary to repeat 
 them here. England took sides with Aus- 
 tria, and blockaded Cadiz with one fleet, 
 while she sent another to Naples, and by 
 threatening to bombard the city compelled 
 Don Carlos to conclude a treaty of neutral- 
 ity. By means of liberal subsidies she suc- 
 ceeded in withdrawing the King of Sar- 
 dinia from his alliance with France. These 
 results were mainly achieved during the 
 ministry of Sir Robert Walpole, who aimed 
 only at the preservation of the house of 
 Austria. His successors in office, led by the 
 new premier, Lord Cartaret, went further, 
 and proposed as their object the ruin of the 
 house of Bourbon. 
 
 The policy of the new ministry met with 
 a determined opposition, especially the em- 
 ployment of Hanoverian and Hessian 
 troops by the King of England. William 
 Pitt, the ablest leader and most gifted 
 orator of the patriots, declared in the house 
 of commons : " It is now too apparent that 
 this powerful, this great, this mighty nation 
 is considered only as a province to a despica- 
 
 ble electorate." In the summer of 1743 
 George II. joined his army in Germany, 
 and after being forced back from the Main 
 by the Duke de Noailles, won a victory 
 over the French at Dettingen on the 27th 
 of June. The victory was the barest escape 
 from a defeat, and was due to the stubborn 
 courage of the English troops. Its results 
 were surprising. The French evacuated 
 Germany, and the English and Austrian 
 armies advanced to the Rhine. In the 
 battle of Dettingen King George displayed 
 great courage. In the battle of Fontenoy, 
 fought on the 31st of May, 1745, the army 
 of the Duke of Cumberland, composed of 
 English, Dutch and Hanoverians, was de- 
 feated by the French under Marshal Saxe. 
 The splendid courage and discipline of the 
 English troops were never more gloriously 
 displayed than upon this memorable field. 
 The plan of Maria Theresa for the dismem- 
 berment of Prussia was coldly received by 
 England. Even Lord Cartaret was startled 
 by it. England, as we shall see, was 
 threatened by a Catholic pretender, and 
 could not for a moment entertain the idea 
 of destroying the leading Protestant power 
 of the continent. The more moderate 
 members of the whig party were resolved 
 to withdraw from the war, and make an 
 accommodation with Frederick the Great. 
 In pursuance of this j^olicy Lord Cartaret 
 was forced to resign in 1744, and Henry 
 Pelham, the brother of the Duke of New- 
 castle, became the head of the ministry and 
 the director of the policy of the government. 
 Under his guidance England concluded 
 with Prussia a treaty known as the Conven- 
 tion of Hanover, and in August, 1745, 
 withdrew from the war as far as her partici- 
 pation in German affairs was concerned. 
 In 1748 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle closed 
 the struggle. England made great sacri- 
 fices during this war, but, as has been 
 stated in our account of the treaty, its sub- 
 stantial results were monopolized by Prus- 
 sia and the empire. 
 
 Early in the war France attempted to 
 weaken England by inciting a civil war in 
 that country. Charles Edward Stuart, the 
 grandson of James II., called the Young 
 Pretender and the Young Chevalier, to 
 distinguish him from his father, the Old 
 Pretender, was invited by the French gov- 
 ernment to return to France, and an inva- 
 sion of England by a French force, in his 
 favor, was agreed upon. A fleet was 
 despatched for this purpose in 1744, but 
 
FBOM THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. TO ACCESSION OF GEORGE lU. 903 
 
 was scattered by a storm, after which the 
 enterprise was abandoned. In 1745, how- 
 ever, the pretender embarked with seven 
 followers in a small vessel, and landing first 
 on one of the Hebrides islands, made his 
 way to the highlands, where he set up his 
 standard, and was joined by about fifteen 
 hundred men. With these he set out for 
 Edinburgh, his force increasing as he went. 
 
 the lowlands held aloof from his movement, 
 and Charles could with difiiculty persuade v 
 his troops to follow him southward. They ' 
 at last consented to do so, and the army of 
 the pretender crossed the border and pushed 
 forward rapidly towards London, By the 
 4th of December it was at Derby. The 
 march lay through the counties in which 
 Jacobitism was supposed to be the control- 
 
 CATHEDKAL OP ST. PAUL— LONDON. 
 
 He entered Edinburgh in triumph, and 
 proclaimed his i^ther king, as James VIII. 
 of Scotland. A force of 2,000 English 
 troops advanced against him, but was de- 
 feated at Preston Pans on the 21st of Sep- 
 tember. This victory greatly elated the 
 followers of the pretender, and his army 
 was rapidly increased to about double its 
 size at the time of the battle. While at 
 Edinburgh some small supplies of arms 
 and money were received from France. 
 Charles Edward now found himself at the 
 head of 6,000 highlanders. The people of 
 
 liiTg influence, but only a single man of 
 property or influence joined Charles Ed- 
 ward, and scarcely two liuudred men of the 
 lower class entered his army. Even Man- 
 chester, the very stronghold of Jacobitism, 
 gave him only two thousand pounds in 
 money, but no men. The policy of Wal- 
 pole, which had made the nation rich and 
 prosperous, had won England for the 
 house of Hanover, and Jacobitism existed 
 only as a matter of tradition, and as a 
 means of expressing political opposition to 
 the government. The officers of the pre- 
 
904 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tender's army were thoroughly alarmed, 
 and refused to continue their advance, and 
 urged him to retreat into Scotland. He 
 consented unwillingly, and fell back on 
 Glasgow. Having managed to increase 
 his array to 9,000 men, he marched against 
 the English army under General Hawley, 
 which had followed his retreat. A battle 
 was fought at Falkirk on the 23d of Janu- 
 ary, 1746, and the English were defeated 
 by the wild charge of the highlanders. The 
 victory was fatal to the pretender. His 
 troops dispersed to the mountains with their 
 booty, and he was obliged to fall back to 
 the north before the Duke of Cumberland, 
 the king's favorite son. On the 16th of 
 April Cumberland defeated the insurgent 
 army, with great slaughter, at Culloden 
 Moor, near Inverness. The wounded high- 
 landers were put to death on the field by 
 the English ; and Cumberland proceeded 
 to follow up his victory by reducing the 
 highlands to submission in the most bar- 
 barous manner. His cruelties gained for 
 him the name of " The Butcher." 
 
 For their share in this insurrection the 
 Earl of Kilmarnock, Lords Balmerino and 
 Lovat, Charles Radcliffe (brother of the 
 Earl of Derwentwater, who had lost his life 
 in behalf of the old pretender), and nearly 
 eighty other persons were put to death. 
 The pretender wandered about the high- 
 lands in disguise, hunted by the royal 
 troops, for five months, and after many re- 
 markable adventures escaped in a French 
 vessel. By the terms of the treaty of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle he was forbidden to reside in 
 France, and the remainder of his life was 
 spent in wandering over Europe, trying to 
 raise men and money for another invasion. 
 He at length became a confirmed drunkard. 
 He died on the 30th of January, 1788, 
 leaving no legitimate children. His younger 
 brother, Henry Benedict, who was created 
 Cardinal of York, died in 1807, and with 
 him ended the house of Stuart. 
 
 The continent of North America was at 
 this time divided between England and 
 France. The encroachments of France 
 upon the region claimed by England in- 
 volved the two countries in a controversy, 
 which, as we shall see elsewhere, resulted in 
 a war for the possession of the Ohio valley. 
 The war began in America and at sea some 
 years before England and France came to 
 blows in Europe. It opened with a series 
 of disasters for the English, the most 
 serious of which was the capture of the 
 
 island of Minorca by the French in 1756. 
 Admiral Byng was despatched from Gibral- 
 tar to the relief of the garrison, but re- 
 turned after a partial and indecisive en- 
 counter with the French fleet. He was 
 court-martialed the next year, and was 
 shot in the presence of the fleet, for his 
 failure to relieve the garrison. England 
 now made an alliance with her natural ally, 
 Frederick the Great of Prussia, and thus 
 secured the safety of her Hanoverian pos- 
 sessions. The events of the Seven Years' 
 War, which now ensued between England 
 and Prussia on the one hand, and the 
 European coalition on the other, need not 
 be repeated here, as we have related them 
 elsewhere. In 1757 the Duke of Cumber- 
 land, who had assumed the command of the 
 English and Hanoverian forces, was com- 
 pelled, as has been related, to conclude the 
 shameful convention of Kloster-Seven, by 
 which he agreed to disband his forces, and 
 relinquished Hanover and Brunswick to the 
 French. Thus far England had reaped 
 only disaster by her share in the war. A 
 feeling of the deepest despondency settled 
 upon the nation, which believed itself de- 
 generate. This feeling was well expressed 
 in the passionate exclamation of despair 
 which these reverses wrung from the cold- 
 hearted Lord Chesterfield : " We are no 
 longer a nation." 
 
 The reverses of the war forced the king 
 to dismiss the Duke of Newcastle, and 
 appoint as prime minister the famous 
 William Pitt. Pitt was the son of a 
 wealthy governor of Madras, and had been 
 in parliament since 1734. He was the first 
 great statesman that had controlled English 
 affairs since the fall of Walpole. In No- 
 vember, 1756, he was made secretary of 
 state, but the early expeditions of the war 
 being unsuccessful, was forced to resign 
 four months later, and the Duke of New- 
 castle was recalled. In July, 1757, how- 
 ever, the king found it necessary to reap- 
 point Pitt to the direction of the foreign 
 policy of the government. A compromise 
 was easily effected between Pitt and the 
 Duke of Newcastle, by which Pitt obtained 
 the control of the foreign policy of the 
 kingdom, which was all he cared for, and 
 left to the duke the task of managing the 
 home politics, a task in which the latter had 
 no rival. Pitt came into office with the 
 determination to replace the power of Eng' 
 land on its ancient footing. " I want to 
 I call England," he said, " out of that ener- 
 
905 
 
906 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 vate state in which 20,000 men from France 
 can shake her." His policy was vigorous, 
 and soon brought success with it. Fred- 
 erick the Great recognized in him a kiudred 
 spirit. " England has been a long time in 
 labor," said the Prussian king, " but she has 
 at last brought forth a man." Pitt had 
 this advantage over his contemporaries in 
 England : he knew he was honest, and he 
 believed in the truth of the principles he 
 advocated. His strong, earnest nature, his 
 scorn of the corruption which surrounded 
 him, and which he disdained to engage in 
 or profit by, excited the surprise and ill 
 will of his contemporaries, who were both 
 insincere and corrupt. He was too proud 
 a man to stoop to their level, and his pride 
 was of the kind that keeps a man in the 
 path of right. His matchless eloquence 
 ^ave him a control over the house of com- 
 mons such as no other minister had ever 
 enjoyed, and the unflinching courage with 
 which he denounced the shams and hypoc- 
 risy of the period won him the confidence 
 and afiection of the English people, who 
 named him the " Great Commoner." He 
 did not seek popularity; it came to him as 
 the result of his great services. At the 
 height of his popularity he stood alone, 
 with scarcely half a dozen personal fol- 
 lowers. It was a corrupt age, and Pitt 
 ■was a pure as well as a great man. He 
 never lost sight of the fact that he was 
 the leader of the English people, and he 
 never betrayed the confidence they reposed 
 in him. 
 
 Pitt began his career by giving to Fred- 
 erick the Great a firm and hearty support. 
 The result was a rapid and substantial 
 change of fortune. The convention of 
 Kloster-Seven was repudiated, and Fred- 
 erick, sure of the assistance of England, 
 aroused himself to extraordinary exertions, 
 and won the victories of Rossbach and 
 Leuthen. His exhausted treasury was rap- 
 idly refilled by the subsidies of England. In 
 November, 1759, Admiral Hawke defeated 
 the French fleet in a great battle off the coast 
 of Brittany, and in September of the same 
 year General Wolfe captured Quebec, and 
 Canada passed into the hands of England, 
 in which it has since remained. This was 
 the most important result of the war, though 
 its magnitude was scarcely realized even by 
 Pitt himself By winning ISorth America 
 for the English race Pitt changed the his- 
 tory of the world. His support of Prussia 
 enabled that kingdom to preserve her inde- 
 
 pendence, and so paved the way for the 
 German empire of the next century. 
 
 Early in the reign of George II. began 
 the remarkable religious movement known 
 as Methodism. Its originators were two 
 clergymen of the Church of England, John 
 Wesley and George Whitefield, and its 
 objects were to reform the corruption ex- 
 isting at the time in the English Church 
 and in general society, and to substitute for 
 these national evils a purer and more ear- 
 nest Christian spirit. From this move- 
 ment, which struggled along painfully in 
 the face of persecution and opposition 
 during the century, sprang the great reli- 
 gious body known in England as the Wes- 
 leyans, and in this country as the Methodist 
 Church. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FKOM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Deatli of George II. — George III. King — His Char- 
 acter — His Marriage — Resignation of Pitt— Eng- 
 land Abandons Frederick the Great — War with 
 Spain — Efforts of the King to Monopolize all the 
 Powers of the State — Character of the House of 
 Commons — The Freedom of the Press Secured — 
 The American Revolution — England Loses her 
 Colonies — War with Europe — Heroism of the 
 English People — Battle of Cape St. Vincent — 
 England Recognizes the Independence of the 
 United States— End of the War— William Pitt 
 the Younger becomes Prime Minister — Success 
 of his Policy — Rapid Growth of England in Pros- 
 perity — Insanity of the King — The French Rev- 
 olution — War with the French Republic — Defeat 
 of the Spanish Fleet off Cape St. Vincent — The 
 Dutch Fleet Destroyed— Battle of the Nile— The 
 English in India — History of their Conquest of 
 India — England Supreme in the Mediterranean — 
 Attack on Copenhagen — The Peace of Amiens — 
 Renewal of the War — Pitt Recalled — Battle of 
 Cape Trafalgar — Death of Lord Nelson — Battle 
 of Austerlitz — Death of Pitt — Fox Prime Minis- 
 ter — The Orders in Council— The Berlin and 
 Milan Decrees^ — Abolition of the Slave Trade — 
 Progress of the War with France — The Peninsular 
 War — Victories of Lord Wellington — Madness of 
 George III. — The Prince of Wales made Regent 
 — Battle of Waterloo — Condition of England at 
 the Close of the War — Death of the King — Union 
 of Ireland with Great Britain — George IV. — 
 Harsh Treatment of Queen Caroline — England 
 Abandons the Holy Alliance— Intervenes in Be- 
 half of Greece — Ministry of the Duke of Wel- 
 lington — The Catholic Emancipation — Daniel 
 O'Connell— Death of George IV.— William IV. 
 King— Passage of the Reform Bill— Abolition of 
 Slavery— Other Reform Measures — The First 
 Railroad— Death of William IV.— The Princess 
 Victoria becomes Queen — Separation of England 
 and Hanover — Marriage of the Queen— The Quad- 
 ruple Alliance— The Repeal of the Corn Laws 
 —The Chartists— The Crimean War— The Pal- 
 merston Ministry— The Reform Bill of 1867— The 
 Gladstone Ministry— The Appeal to the Country 
 
FR03I THE REIGN OF GEORGE HI. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 907 
 
 — Disraeli Premier— Affairs in India— The War 
 ■with China— The Indian Mutiny— India Made 
 Subject to the British Crown — The Abyssinian 
 ■VYar — Settlement and Growth of Australia — The 
 Ashantee AVar — Capture of Coomassie — The 
 Famine in India — Visit of the Prince of Wales 
 to India— Queen Victoria Proclaimed Empress 
 of India. 
 
 3N the 25th of October, 1760, George 
 II. died suddenly of heart disease 
 at Kensington. His eldest son, 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales, hav- 
 ing died nine years before, he was 
 succeeded by his grandson, George 
 Frederick William, Prince of Wales, who 
 took the title of George III. 
 
 The new king was the first sovereign for 
 several reigns who had been born on Eng- 
 lish soil. He had received a passable edu- 
 cation, was a man of pleasing address and 
 
 of good inten- 
 tions. He 
 came to the 
 throne with 
 the determi- 
 nation to rule 
 his kingdom, 
 and he was 
 more respon- 
 sible for the 
 policy of his 
 reign than 
 any sovereign 
 of his house 
 had been be- 
 fore him. He 
 was a man of 
 good morals, and of naturally small mind, 
 with no capacity for using greater minds 
 than his own for the accomplishment of his 
 designs. He hated and was jealous of the 
 great men of his kingdom, and was resolved 
 that no measures but those of his own con- 
 ception or adoption should be put in force 
 while he held the throne. He wished to 
 govern his kingdom in actual fact, as well 
 as in name, and to be free from the dicta- 
 tion of political parties. In the pursuit of 
 his ends, which were always clearly defined, 
 though often most unwise, he was as stub- 
 born as a man could be. The utter failure 
 of the Jacobite cause had left the tory 
 party free to take an active part in English 
 politics once more, and they now came for- 
 ward to the support of the king with the 
 same zeal they had manifested in behalf 
 of the Stuarts. They constituted a "King's 
 Party," which George III. was able to 
 strengthen by a judicious bestowal of the 
 
 GEOKGE III. 
 
 patronage still left in his hands. About a 
 year after his accession to the throne, 
 George married the Princess Charlotte of 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
 
 The king was anxious to bring the war 
 to a close. The chief obstacle to the peace 
 at any price policy of the crown was Wil- 
 liam Pitt, the prime minister. Pitt would 
 not consent to desert Prussia, although that 
 step would bring about an immediate set- 
 tlement with France. Having learned of 
 the conclusion of a new family compact 
 between France and Spain, he proposed in 
 1761 to declare war against the latter 
 power. His colleagues shrank from such 
 a measure, and the king opposed it with 
 such firmness that Pitt resigned his office. 
 The king then drove the Duke of New- 
 castle from office by a series of studied in- 
 sults, and placed at the head of the min- 
 istry the Marquis of Bute, a man of no 
 ability, but who was perfectly prepared to 
 carry out the king's will, which was simply 
 to withdraw England from the war at any 
 sacrifice of the national honor. In the 
 spring of 1762 England withdrew her sub- 
 sidies from Prussia, and Frederick was left 
 to save himself as he could. His own res- 
 olution and the sudden change in the policy 
 of Russia at the death of the Empress 
 Elizabeth were all that enabled him to end 
 the war with credit to himself and without 
 the loss of territory. Three weeks after 
 the fall of Pitt his policy was vindicated 
 by the declaration of war against England 
 by Spain. Cuba and the Philippines were 
 quickly captured by a British fleet, and the 
 war was brought to a close by the treaty of 
 Paris in September, 1763. By this treaty 
 Great Britain retained Canada and Nova 
 Scotia. France renounced her right to es- 
 tablish military settlements in India. Great 
 Britain regained Minorca and obtained 
 Florida from Spain. 
 
 The king's anxiety for peace abroad was 
 caused by his desire to give his undivided 
 attention to the task of bringing the home 
 affairs of his kingdom under his own con- 
 trol. He proposed to accomplish this to a 
 great degree through the house of commons. 
 That body had long since ceased to repre- 
 sent the English people. It was made 
 up principally of the representatives of 
 boroughs which were controlled by the 
 great nobles, who returned whom they 
 pleased, and some of which like Old Sa- 
 rum had long ceased to exist. The Eng- 
 lish people were so far deprived of the 
 
908 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 power of choosing representatives to par- 
 liament that out of 8,000,000 English- 
 men, only 160,000 possessed the right of 
 suffrage. Seats in the house of commons 
 were openly bought and sold, the will of 
 the owner of the borough always deciding 
 the election. Great towns like Manchester 
 or Birmingham had no representatives at 
 all in the commons. The king exerted 
 himself to increase his party in the house 
 
 ances which continued through the early 
 years of George III. The public indigna- 
 tion rose so high, that Lord Bute, who was 
 its chief object, was obliged, in 1763, to re- 
 sign his office. The king, greatly against 
 his will, appealed to Pitt to form a new 
 ministry, but the latter would consent only 
 upon terms which the king would not sub- 
 mit to. The Marquis of Rockingham was 
 therefore intrusted with the formation of a 
 
 THE CITY AND HARBOR OF LA VALETTA, MALTA. 
 
 of commons by purchasing seats for his 
 supporters. The royal pevenue was also 
 used to buy votes in the house. " Under 
 Bute's ministry an office was opened at the 
 treasury for the bribery of members, and 
 £25,000 are said to have been spent in a 
 single day." 
 
 In the face of such corruption, conducted 
 upon a scale unparalleled in English his- 
 tory, the nation found itself helpless. Its 
 indignation was expressed in a constant dis- 
 content, and in numerous public disturb- 
 
 new ministry. One of the first acts of the 
 controlling clique of this ministry was to 
 quarrel with the press, which had under- 
 taken to champion the cause of the greatly 
 wronged people of England. The press had 
 become the recognized court of appeal from 
 the decisions of the corrupt house of com- 
 mons, and ventured to criticise the acts of 
 that body and of the crown with a vigor 
 which incensed both the king and parlia- 
 ment. It was the press which drove Lord 
 Bute from the ministry. John Wilkes, the 
 
FROM THE BEIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 909 
 
 editor of the North Briton, in 1763, de- 
 nounced the peace of Pai'is with great bit- 
 terness, and attacked one of the ministers 
 by name, Wilkes was a man of contempti- 
 ble character, and but for the mistake of 
 the ministers would have died in obscurity. 
 The government caused him to be arrested, 
 and tried for libel. Wilkes was discharged 
 by the Court of Common Pleas, and ob- 
 tained damages against the government for 
 its arbitrary treatment of him. His cause 
 was espoused by the majority of the English 
 people, who regarded their liberties as 
 violated in his person, and the result of the 
 proceedings against him established the 
 right of the press to discuss political affairs. 
 In spite of this display of popular sentiment, 
 the government unwisely continued its per- 
 secution of Wilkes. He was dismissed 
 from parliament, of which he was a member, 
 and compelled to fly from England. His 
 partisans re-elected him to parliament from 
 the county of Middlesex, but he was refused 
 a seat, though returned three times. The 
 government attempted to extend its rigors 
 to the press of th-e whole country, and 
 roused such a storm of opposition that it 
 was forced to abandon its illegal position. 
 Six years later the government undertook 
 to prosecute the publisher of the " Letters 
 of Junius," but the prosecution failed, and 
 from that day the freedom of the press was 
 secure in England. 
 
 The same recklessness which had led the 
 government into its attempt to muzzle the 
 press now induced it to undertake to ex- 
 tend its arbitrary power over its American 
 colonies. The king claimed the right to 
 levy a tax upon the colonies for the purpose 
 of assisting in defraying the expense of 
 their protection. The colonies, on their 
 part, denied this right. This dispute gave 
 rise to a quarrel which resulted in a war 
 between Great Britain and her colonies, 
 and in the successful establishment of their 
 independence by the latter, under the name 
 of the United States of America. We shall 
 relate the causes and events of this war in 
 the American history of this period. In 
 1778 France, which had long sought an 
 opportunity to be revenged upon England 
 for the loss of Canada, made an alliance 
 witli the United States, and assisted them 
 with men and money. In 1779 Spain 
 joined France against Great Britain, and 
 laid siege to Gibraltar, which for three 
 years and seven months was gallantly de- 
 fended by General Eliott against the com- 
 
 bined forces of France and Spain. In 1780, 
 finding that Holland was about to assist 
 the Americans, England declared war 
 against her. Russia, Denmark, and Sweden 
 joined in an armed neutrality to compel 
 England to abandon her claim to the right 
 to search neutral vessels at sea in time of 
 war. The whole world was now united 
 against England, but she held her own at 
 sea. Never in all her history was the heroic 
 determination of her people to uphold the 
 national honor more strikingly manifested. 
 Even Ireland turned against England. A 
 force of 80,000 armed Protestant volunteers 
 had been raised in Ireland for the defence 
 of that island. These now demanded an 
 independent parliament, and threatened to 
 enforce their demand with arms. It seemed 
 that England would be driven into a dis- 
 honorable peace, as, indeed, she would have 
 been had she not been rescued from her 
 humiliating position by the victories of her 
 navy. Admiral Sir George Rodney in 
 1782 encountered the Spanish fleet off* Cape 
 St. Vincent, and annihilated it. Only four 
 of its vessels escaped into Cadiz harbor. He 
 then sailed to the West Indies, where, on 
 the 12th of April, 1782, he destroyed the 
 French fleet under Count de Grasse. In 
 September the French and Spanish fleets 
 were defeated off" Gibraltar, and the war 
 was brought to a close. In November the 
 treaties of Paris and Versailles were signed. 
 England yielded nothing to France ; but 
 restored Minorca and Florida to Spain, and 
 acknowledged without reserve the independ- 
 ence of the United States. Canada, the 
 Hudson's Bay country. Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, and Newfoundland were still 
 retained by England. 
 
 In March, 1782, the ministry of Lord 
 North, which had conducted the war, was 
 driven from power, and was succeeded by 
 a whig ministry under the Marquis of 
 Rockingham, by whom the war was brought 
 to a close. With this ministry there arose 
 a new power in the house of commons in 
 the person of William Pitt, the younger, 
 the son of the Earl of Chatham. He soon' 
 took rank as one of the leaders of the w higs, 
 sharing this distinction with Charles James 
 Fox. He was a man of gigantic ability, 
 and by far the first statesman of England 
 in his day. He was his father's inferior as 
 an orator, but his superior in many other 
 qualities, especially in his power of self- 
 command, his immense capacity for busi- 
 ness, and his untiring industry. At the 
 
910 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 age of twenty-five, A. d. 1783, he became 
 prime minister, and even the king yielded 
 to his sway. He was supreme in England 
 as no minister had ever been before him. 
 He was incorruptible, too proud to accept 
 a bribe, and honestly sought the welfare of 
 his country. He chose for himself the post 
 of first lord of the treasury, and exerted his 
 great genius to advance the material wealth 
 and industry of England. His measures 
 were successful, and under his rule England 
 began that wonderful march of prosperity 
 
 the borough system, but his bill for this 
 purpose was defeated by parliament, which 
 was too deeply wedded to its system to 
 abandon it. His financial measures were 
 eminently successful. He put a stop to 
 smuggling by lowering and finally remov- 
 ing the duties, and so wise were his measures 
 that the revenue increased with each suc- 
 cessive removal of taxes. Credit was re- 
 stored, and in two years there was a surplus 
 of a million of pounds in the treasury. Pitt 
 exerted himself to do justice to Ireland,. 
 
 BATTLE OF CAPE ST. VINCENT. 
 
 which has made her the chief manufactur- 
 ing and commercial nation of the world. 
 Canals were constructed between the promi- 
 nent points of the kingdom, and England 
 was covered with a network of splendid 
 highways. The mining of coal was greatly 
 increased, and that article became one of 
 the principal exports of the kingdom. The 
 manufacture of cotton, linen, and woollen 
 goods advanced with wonderful rapidity. 
 Large tracts of country were drained or 
 cleared of wood, and added to the area of 
 cultivated land. Pitt endeavored to abolish 
 
 which had been wretchedly misgoverned 
 since the battle of the Boyne; and gave his- 
 hearty support to Wilberforce in his efforts 
 to put a stop to the African slave trade. 
 Both efforts were defeated ; the former 
 through the jealous dislike of the Manches- 
 ter merchants and the Protestant faction in 
 the Irish parliament ; the latter through 
 the hostility of the Liverpool slave mer^- 
 chants. 
 
 Pitt was left comparatively free to carry 
 out his measures, for the king had been 
 hovering for many years on the verge of 
 
FROM THE BEION OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 911 
 
 insanity, and in 1788 became totally insane. 
 He recovered his reason at a later period, 
 but had frequent attacks of insanity, which 
 rendered him dependent upon his ministers. 
 In 1789 the Revolution began in France. 
 England watched the events of that great 
 contest with a deep interest, but without 
 
 republicans. Upon the receipt of the news 
 of the execution of Louis XVI., the French 
 envoy in London was ordered to quit Eng- 
 land within eight days. On the 1st of 
 February, 1793, the convention declared 
 war against England. A British fleet was 
 sent to Toulon to enable the royalists to 
 
 
 LORD NELSON. 
 
 seeking to interfere, as Pitt was anxious to 
 leave the French to manage their own 
 affairs in peace. The horrors Avhich oc- 
 curred in France aroused a feeling of deep 
 indignation in England, and the upper and 
 middle classes were outspoken in their de- 
 nunciations of the excesses of the French 
 
 hold that city, but was forced to withdraw, 
 as has been related. On the 1st of June, 
 1794, Admiral Earl Howe inflicted a severe 
 defeat upon the French fleet in the channel. 
 The land operations of the English have 
 been related elsewhere. They were for the 
 most part failures. Some of the allies of 
 
912 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Great Britain having withdrawn from the 
 struggle, Pitt earnestly sought to make 
 peace with France, but without success. The 
 people were greatly discontented with the 
 expenses of the war, which were increasing 
 the public debt at a fearful rate, though the 
 war itself was popular. Pitt had earnestly 
 desired to avoid a war with France, as 
 opposed to the best interests of England, 
 but had not been able to resist the over- 
 whelming desire of the aristocracy to punish 
 the French republicans. The results of the 
 
 hopes. On the 14th of February, 1797, 
 Sir John Jervis, with fifteen ships of the 
 line, defeated a Spanish fleet of twenty-five 
 ships of the line off" Cape St. Vincent. On 
 this occasion Commodore Horatio Nelson 
 boarded and captured two of the enemy's 
 ships. A little later, the English channel 
 fleet, being ordered to put to sea, mutinied. 
 The grievances of the sailors were enough 
 to drive them to this act. The sailors de- 
 manded that an increase of pay should be 
 secured to them by act of parliament, and 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 struggle justified his views. The repeated 
 failures of the English threw the govern- 
 ment and the nation into a fever of alarm, 
 and even Pitt gave his consent to a series 
 of harsh and arbitrary measures by which 
 the government hoped to put down the 
 popular discontent. The expenses of the 
 war were felt on all sides, and in February, 
 1797, the Bank of England suspended 
 specie payments. 
 
 A change for the better in the fortunes 
 of the war now roused the English to new 
 
 that they should receive a full pardon for 
 their mutiny. Their demands were com- 
 plied with, and on the 17th of May the 
 fleet put to sea. On the 11th of October 
 the sailors atoned for their mutiny by their 
 gallant conduct in a great naval battle 
 fought ofi" Camperdown, between the Eng- 
 lish fleet, under Admiral Duncan, and the 
 Dutch fleet, under Admiral Van Winter. 
 The Dutch fleet was almost annihilated, 
 after a most obstinate struggle. On the 1st 
 of August, 1798, Admiral Nelson, the 
 
FBOM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 913 
 
 greatest sailor of England, destroyed the 
 French fleet in the great battle of the Nile, 
 as has been related elsewhere. In the same 
 year a small English force under Sir Sid- 
 ney Smith held the town of Acre, in Syria, 
 against the determined efforts of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte to capture it. 
 
 During the last two centuries England 
 had been building up an empire in the 
 East. On the 31st of December, 1600, a 
 charter of privileges was granted by parlia- 
 ment to a company of English merchants 
 
 three presidencies were organized, viz. : 
 Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The prin- 
 cipal of these was Calcutta, which was pre- 
 sented to the company by Auruugzebe. It 
 was then a petty village, but under the 
 rule of the East India Company grew to be 
 a splendid city, and ultimately became the 
 capital of the British possessions in India. 
 The success of the English encouraged the 
 French to attempt to obtain a footing in 
 India, and they were able to establish two 
 presidencies — Pondicherry and the Isle of 
 
 THE CITY OF BENARES, IXDIA. 
 
 trading to the East Indies, and known as 
 the East India Company. It obtained val- 
 uable privileges from the native sovereigns 
 of India, and succeeded in building up an 
 enormous and highly profitable trade be- 
 tween that country and England. For a 
 century it confined itself to legitimate acts 
 of commerce, and was satisfied to obtain 
 merely sites for its forts and warehouses, 
 which it defended against the hostile Mah- 
 rattas by small bodies of troops. By the 
 close of the seventeenth century the terri- 
 tory of the company had grown so that 
 58 
 
 France. The Dutch also had two posts on 
 the mainland of India, and had exclusive 
 possession of the better part of Ceylon, and 
 of the Spice Islands, Java, Celebes, Sumatra, 
 and Malacca. They had also an agricul- 
 tural colony at the Cape of Good Hope, in 
 Africa, the possession of which was highly 
 important to the retention of their posses- 
 sions in India. By degrees the English 
 managed to absorb the Indian possessions 
 of the Dutch and the Portuguese, and were 
 thus left with France as their only Euro- 
 pean rival in the East. 
 
914 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Having grown strong and great, the 
 East India Company became ambitious of 
 extending its dominions, and began to take 
 part in the quarrels of the Mogul empire. 
 The ruling race of this empire was Moham- 
 medan ; but the mass of the people held 
 fast the ancient Hindu faith. This differ- 
 ence was the cause of unending troubles 
 between the native chiefs, who sought the 
 alliance of the English and French, who 
 thus became involved in the Indian quar- 
 rels on opposite sides. Both parties were 
 anxious to turn these alliances to their ad- 
 vantage, and the French conceived the 
 idea of conquering India by means of na- 
 tive troops under Eux'opean officers. These 
 were called Sipahis, or Sepoys. The system 
 was subsequently adopted by the English. 
 Both parties were forced to employ these 
 
 SURAJAH DOWLAH. 
 
 troops, as it was impossible to traYisport to 
 India, or maintain there, a sufficient force 
 of Europeans. For a considerable period 
 the hostility between the English and 
 French in India exhibited itself in many 
 petty acts, but it was not until the outbreak 
 of the Seven Years' War in Europe that it 
 assumed the character of a struggle for the 
 sole possession of India. In 1746 the Gov- 
 ernor of the Isle of France captured Madras ; 
 and Dupleix, the Governor of Fondicherry, 
 captured the city of Areot from the Prince 
 of the Deccan, who was one of the native 
 allies of the English. So rapid was the 
 success of the French that it seemed they 
 were about to become supreme masters of 
 the peninsula. The tide of the English 
 reverses was checked by the exertions of 
 Hobert Clive, a young officer in the service 
 
 of the company. He had come out to India 
 as a clerk in one of the company's ware- 
 houses, but had believed himself worthy of 
 better things. He was without military 
 training, but he proved himself in his sub- 
 sequent career not only a general of the 
 highest merit, but a great statesman. AVith 
 a force of 500 men he recaptured Arcot 
 from the French, and held it against an 
 army of 10,000 natives until relieved by the 
 Mahrattas. For his gallant conduct he 
 was rewarded with a lieutenant-colonel's 
 commission. With a handful of recruits 
 Clive kept the French at bay, and neutral- 
 ized every eflTort of Dupleix to recover his 
 losses, defeating him and his Indian allies 
 in two engagements. 
 
 In 1757 Surajah Dowlah, the native 
 Viceroy of Bengal, took Calcutta, and 
 crowded 150 of his English prisoners into 
 a terrible dungeon known as the "Black 
 Hole." All but twenty-three died of suffo- 
 cation in a single night. As soon as he 
 heard the news Clive sailed from Madras 
 with 1,000 Englishmen and 2,000 Sepoys. 
 He retook Calcutta, carried Hooghly by 
 storm, and on the 23d of June, 1757, de- 
 feated the army of Surajah Dowlah, con- 
 sisting of 50,000 foot and 14,000 horse, in 
 the decisive battle of Plassey. This victory 
 completely broke the power of the native 
 prince and established that of the English. 
 So lasting were its effects that Clive is gen- 
 erally regarded as the founder of the Brit- 
 ish empire in India. The French dominion 
 fell to pieces rapidly, and Bengal passed 
 entirely into the hands of the English. In 
 1760 Colonel Coote defeated Lally, the 
 French Governor of Fondicherry, and this 
 victory established the British supremacy 
 over southern India. The East India Com- 
 pany placed a sovereign of its own choice 
 upon the throne of Bengal, and in 1765 
 Lord Clive was appointed Viceroy of India 
 by the King of England. His policy was 
 to confirm the English power in India at 
 any cost, and, though his reign was marked 
 by tyranny and oppression, it was a vast 
 improvement upon that of the native 
 princes, and was on the whole beneficial to 
 India. 
 
 In 1773 the East India Company was re. 
 organized, and Warren Hastings was ap- 
 pointed Governor-General of India. He 
 continued the policy of Clive. During his 
 rule Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore, the 
 most determined enemy of the English, was 
 reduced to submission. Clive and Hastings 
 
915 
 
916 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 were both charged with misgovern ment by 
 their enemies in India and England, and 
 were tried before parliament, but were ac- 
 quitted in view of their great and brilliant 
 services. 
 
 In 1784 William Pitt procured the pas- 
 sage of an act of parliament changing the 
 mode of governing India. Until then the 
 company had had exclusive control of In- 
 dian affairs. A board of control, appointed 
 by Great Britain, Avas now established, and 
 charged with the government of India, in 
 order that Indian affairs mi^ht be brought 
 
 HYDEK ALL 
 
 more directly under the management of the 
 British parliament. Under the new system 
 a more liberal and humane policy towards 
 the natives began to prevail in the Indian 
 government. Tippoo Saib, who succeeded 
 to his father's crown of Mysore, and to his 
 hatred of the English, kept up the war 
 against them for a long time. The French, 
 who hoped to recover their footing in India, 
 lent him their aid. Lord Cornwallis, who 
 became governor-general in 1786, waged 
 a successful war against him ; and in 1792 
 the sultan was forced to beg for peace, and 
 
 to give up two of liis sons as hostages. In 
 1799 he renewed the war with the English, 
 and was killed in the defence of Seringapa- 
 tam, his capital. During the latter years 
 of the eighteenth century, under the gover- 
 norships of the Marquis of Wellesley and 
 the Marquis of Hastings, the English pos- 
 sessions in India were considerably ex- 
 tended and the English power strengtheued. 
 The return of Napoleon from Egypt to 
 France enabled England to complete the 
 work of expelling the French from the 
 East. On the 21st of March, 1801, after 
 the death of Kleber, Sir 
 Ralph Abercrombie inflict- 
 ed a crushing defeat upon 
 the French before Alexan- 
 dria and compelled them to 
 evacuate Egypt. By this 
 success England secured her 
 possessions in India, and 
 prevented Turkey from be- 
 coming a dependency of 
 France. Malta had already 
 been wrested from the 
 French, and England was 
 now supreme in the Mediter- 
 ranean. Her danger was 
 = very great, however. The 
 Z treaty of Luneville had left 
 her alone in the struggle with 
 France, and a league of the 
 northern powers, with Rus- 
 sia at its head, was deter- 
 mined to compel her to 
 abandon her claim to the 
 right to seize neutral vessels 
 carrying contraband of war. 
 In April, 1801, England 
 struck a terrible blow at 
 this coalition. A British 
 fleet attacked Copenhagen, 
 and after a desperate strug- 
 gle silenced the Danish 
 forts and captured the 
 larger part of the Danish fleet. Denmark 
 was forced to withdraw from the northern 
 coalition, and the league was soon broken 
 up by the death of the Czar of Russia. All 
 parties were now anxious for a cessation of 
 hostilities, aiid in March, 1802, the peace 
 of Amiens was concluded. By this treaty 
 France agreed to withdraw from Italy and 
 leave the newly established republics of 
 that country to work out their own destiny. 
 England, on her part, agreed to give up all 
 her conquests except Ceylon, and to restore 
 Malta to the Knights of St. John. This 
 
FB03I THE REIGN OF GEOBOE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 917 
 
 treaty was not satisfactory to England, and 
 would not have been made under the Pitt 
 cabinet ; but that great minister had with- 
 drawn from the government in February, 
 1801, and had been succeeded by Mr. Ad- 
 diugton, the speaker of the house of com- 
 mons, a very dull man. No one believed 
 it possible for the peace to be of long con- 
 tinuance, and as we have seen in our ac- 
 count of the French history of this period, 
 to which the reader is referred for the 
 causes of the struggle, war broke out again 
 in May, 1803. 
 
 greatly broken in health, and the obstinacy 
 of the king prevented him from receiving 
 the co-operation of Fox, Lord Grenville, 
 Wyndham, or Dundas, whom he was more 
 than anxious to include in his cabinet. 
 Still he addressed himself to the task before 
 him with his old courage. In 1805 Napo- 
 leou, who had in the meantime become 
 Emperor of the French, determined to be- 
 gin the invasion of England, and conceived 
 a skilful plan for dividing the British fleet 
 and concentrating the entire French navy 
 in the channel. Bv his alliance with Spain 
 
 BATTLE OF CAPE TKAFALGAE. 
 
 Kapoleon seized Hanover and collected 
 a large army and a fleet of transports and 
 boats at Boulogne for the invasion of Eng- 
 land. The British government prepared 
 to meet the threatened invasion, and at the 
 same time sought to organize a new coali- 
 tion against France on the continent. 
 Nearly 400,000 volunteers enrolled them- 
 selves for the defence of England. In 1804 
 the Addington ministry resigned, and the 
 peril of the country forced the king to 
 recall William Pitt to power. He was 
 
 he had obtained the services of the Spanish 
 fleet, and with this powerful armament he 
 felt sure of protecting the passage of the 
 channel by his army. The French fleet, 
 under Admiral Villeneuve, sailed from 
 Toulon, and effected a junction with the 
 Spanish fleet at Corunna. Villeneuve 
 then sailed to the westward, as if going to 
 the West Indies, followed by the English 
 fleet under Lord Nelson. Then suddenly 
 putting about, he eluded the English and 
 sailed for Brest, intending to unite with the 
 
918 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 French squadron at that port and crush 
 the English channel fleet. Nelson, upon 
 the disappearance of the French, returned 
 to the coast of Spain and encountered the 
 combined French and Spanish fleets off 
 Cape Trafalgar, on the 21st of October, 
 1805. He at once attacked them, signal- 
 ling to the fleet his memorable order of the 
 day, "England expects every man to do 
 his duty." At the moment of victory 
 
 Russian array in the East. Breaking up 
 his camp at Boulogne, he moved his army 
 swiftly across France into Germany, and 
 entered upon the memorable campaign of 
 Ulm and Austerlitz, the events of which 
 have been related in the French history of 
 this period. The shock of Austerlitz was 
 fatal to Pitt, who had long been failing in 
 health. He died on the 23d of January, 
 1806, at the early age of forty-seven, a vic- 
 
 EUINS OF AN ANCIENT INDIAN TEMPLE. 
 
 he was shot down by a rifleman, and 
 died soon after. The sacrifice of Eng- 
 land's greatest sailor was not in vain ; 
 the French and Spanish fleets were annihi- 
 lated. 
 
 Before this great victory had rendered 
 the execution of his attempt upon England 
 impossible, Napoleon had been forced to 
 abandon his plan of invasion by the forma- 
 tion of the coalition of Austria, Russia, and 
 England, and the gathering of the Austro- 
 
 tim to his extraordinary labors. His loss 
 was felt to be irreparable. 
 
 The policy of Pitt, to save Europe from 
 the ambition of France, was vigorously car- 
 ried out by Mr. Fox, his successor. All 
 internal questions were subordinated to this 
 great end, and for a while all parties united 
 in supporting the government in its efforts 
 to accomplish it. In September, 1806,, 
 Fox followed Pitt to the grave, and on the 
 14th of October the decisive victorv of 
 
FROM THE BEION OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 91^ 
 
 Jena laid Prussia and all north Germany 
 at Napoleon's feet. This might have been 
 prevented had England been prompt to 
 assist Prussia in her unequal struggle with 
 France. 
 
 England now ventured upon a step 
 which was to draw upon her the condemna- 
 tion of the world. The Granville ministry, 
 which succeeded the cabinet of Fox, de- 
 clared the whole coast of Europe occupied 
 by France and her allies, from Dantzic to 
 Trieste, to be in a state of blockade. It 
 was not possible for even " the mistress of 
 the seas" to maintain such a gigantic 
 blockade. Napoleon retaliated by an act 
 equally indefensible. He issued decrees 
 excluding all British commerce from the 
 continent of Europe, hoping that this ex- 
 clusion would involve British manufactures 
 in ruin and so end the war. These decrees, 
 dated from Berlin and Mihin, ordered that 
 all British exports should be seized wher- 
 ever found, and that this seizure and con- 
 fiscation should extend to all neutral ves- 
 sels that had touched at British ports. In 
 this way he hoped to strip England of her 
 carrying trade, which would then pass into 
 the hands of neutrals. To prevent this, 
 orders in council were issued by the Eng- 
 lish government in January, 1807, requir- 
 ing neutral vessels bound for any port of 
 Europe subject to the blockade to touch 
 first at some British port, under penalty of 
 seizure. These decrees and orders in coun- 
 cil were simply so many outrages upon the 
 rights of neutral nations, and were destined 
 to involve England ere long in a new war. 
 
 In February, 1807, the Grenville minis- 
 try procured the abolition of the slave 
 trade by act of parliament, and England 
 ceased to take part in that infamous traffic. 
 This great work was accomplished in the 
 face of a fierce opposition from the tory 
 party and the merchants of Liverpool, the 
 latter of whom were unwilling to give up 
 the profits connected with the trade in 
 human flesh and blood. Encouraged by 
 this success, the ministers endeavored to 
 remove the civil disabilities of Roman 
 Catholic citizens, but upon the first intima- 
 tion of their scheme were dismissed by the 
 king. 
 
 A new ministry was formed under the 
 Duke of Portland. Its leading spirit was 
 the young foreign secretary, George Can- 
 ning, an able and devoted disciple of Pitt. 
 He came into office at a critical time. 
 Napoleon, after the conquest of Prussia, 
 
 had marched into Poland, and though 
 checked by his reverse at Eyleau, had won 
 the decisive victory of Friedland, by which 
 Russia was forced to consent to the treaty 
 of Tilsit. The Emperor Alexander now 
 began to court the friendship of Napoleon 
 in the hope of obtaining the assistance of 
 France in the conquest of Turkey. Russia 
 closed her ports to British commerce, and 
 compelled Sweden to do likewise, and to 
 renounce the English alliance. Russia and 
 Sweden hoped to add Denmark to their 
 league, and so obtain the services of the 
 Danish fleet in their effort to destroy the 
 maritime sui^remacy of England. Canning 
 prevented the success of this scheme by 
 secretly equipping a fleet in the summer of 
 1807, and despatching it to Copenhagen 
 with a demand for the surrender of the 
 Danish fleet into the hands of England, 
 which power guaranteed its safe return at 
 the close of the war. Denmark returned a 
 spirited refusal to this demand, and Copen- 
 hagen was subjected to a terrible bombard- 
 ment and forced to surrender. The whole 
 Danish fleet, with an immense quantity of 
 naval stores, was carried into English ports. 
 In spite of England's success at sea, how- 
 ever. Napoleon was supreme on the land, 
 and carried out his designs on the continent 
 without hindrance. He held Prussia down 
 by force ; changed Holland into a monarchy, 
 and bestowed its crown upon his brother 
 Louis ; erected the electorates of Hanover 
 and Hesse Cassel into the kingdom of West- 
 phalia, which he gave to his brother Jerome ; 
 made his brother Joseph King of Naples,, 
 and annexed the remainder of Italy, even 
 including Rome, to the French empire. 
 Emboldened by this success, he now sought, 
 as we have seen, to make himself master of 
 the Spanish peninsula, and in his attempt 
 to execute this design met his first great 
 check. Spain was soon overrun, and Por 
 tugal would have shared its fate had not 
 Great Britain come to her assistance with a 
 small but excellent army under Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley and Sir John Moore. The events 
 of the peninsular war have been related in 
 our history of Napoleon's campaigns, and 
 we shall not repeat them here. After the 
 death of Sir John Moore the chief command 
 of the British forces in the peninsula passed 
 to Sir Arthur Wellesley, whose able conduct 
 of the war soon showed him to be one of the 
 first soldiers of modern times. The French 
 were driven out of Portugal, but Moore's 
 unhappy fate gave them an additional 
 
920 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 advantage in Spain. "While Napoleon was 
 occupied with his struggle against Austria, 
 Wei lesley successfully held his own against 
 the French in Spain, and won for himself a 
 peerage as Lord Wellington. 
 
 In July, 1809, a force of 40,000 English 
 soldiers was sent to capture Antwerp, but 
 the expedition failed, fully half of the Eng- 
 lish troops perishing in the marshes of Wal- 
 cheren. This disaster brought about the 
 fall of the Portland ministry. It was suc- 
 ceeded by a new cabinet under the guidance 
 of Spencer Perceval, a man of no ability, 
 but who, with his colleagues, was resolved 
 to continue the war. The struggle in the 
 peninsula was prosecuted with vigor, and 
 if the English won their way slowly, they 
 advanced steadily, as we have seen, toward 
 the French frontier. The necessities and dis- 
 asters of the Russian campaign greatly weak- 
 ened the French army in Spain, and simpli- 
 fied the task of Lord Wellington accordingly. 
 During the greater part of 1811 Wellington 
 remained comparatively inactive, as the 
 unsettled state of affairs at home prevented 
 him from receiving the vigorous support he 
 needed. In 1813 he drove the French out 
 of Spain, and crossed the Pyrenees after 
 them. On the 10th of April, 1814, he 
 fought the battle of Toulouse with Marshal 
 Soult, and brought the war to a close. 
 
 In the meantime George III. had been 
 seized with a return of his insanity in the 
 early part of 1811, and the Prince of Wales 
 had been declared regent by act of parlia- 
 ment. The prince regent was strongly in- 
 clined to the whig party, and Avas anxious 
 to replace the Perceval cabinet with a min- 
 istry of that party. In March, 1812, Mr. 
 Perceval was assassinated by a lunatic 
 named Bellingham, and the prince regent 
 sought to recall the whigs to power. He 
 was defeated in this attempt, and the old 
 ministry, with Lord Liverpool at its head, 
 was restored to office. 
 
 During the latter part of the European 
 war England had been drawn into another 
 struggle. The decrees of Napoleon and 
 the orders in council of Great Britain had 
 nearly ruined the commerce of America, 
 and, after vainly endeavoring to obtain a 
 revocation of them, the United States, on 
 the 3d of June, 1812, declared war against 
 Great Britain. We shall relate the events 
 of this war in the American history of this 
 century. It was closed in December, 1814. 
 
 The return of Napoleon from Elba in- 
 duced the allies to make extraordinary 
 
 efforts for his destruction. An English 
 army was sent to the frontier of the Nether- 
 lands to unite with the Prussian army under 
 Marshal Blucher, which was advancing 
 on the lower Rhine, and England furnished 
 a subsidy of eleven millions of pounds to 
 defray the cost of the war. As we have 
 seen, the decisive blow was struck by the 
 English under the Duke of Wellington, to 
 whose exertions and skill the overthrow of 
 Napoleon at Waterloo was due. In the 
 final settlement of the affairs of Europe 
 England played a prominent part — an in- 
 fluence to which the great sacrifices and 
 tremendous efforts she had made to defeat 
 Napoleon fully entitled her. The conquests 
 which she retained at the end of the war 
 were the Cape of Good Hope ; the Dutch 
 possessions in Ceylon ; Berbice and the 
 other Dutch settlements in Guiana ; the 
 islands of Mauritius and the Seychelles, 
 which were captured from the French ; the 
 islands of Malta and Heligoland, the latter 
 of which had been wrested from Denmark, 
 and some West India islands which had 
 been taken from France and Spain. 
 
 The peace of 1815 lefl Great Britain 
 feverish and exhausted. The national debt 
 had increased to about $4,000,000,000, and 
 the heavy taxation to which the country 
 had been subjected had produced general 
 distress. The long years of strife that had 
 ensued since the accession of Napoleon to 
 power had impoverished the continent also, 
 and had destroyed the market for English 
 manufactures. An excess of production in 
 the last years of the war had crowded the 
 English manufactories with unsalable goods, 
 and had put a stop to the demand for skilled 
 labor. A series of bad harvests produced 
 great scarcity, and this evil was greatly 
 increased by the selfish legislation of the 
 landowners in parliament, who procured the 
 passage of an act prohibiting the importa- 
 tion of foreign corn until wheat had reached 
 famine prices. The sudden return of the 
 large body of men employed in the army 
 and navy to the pursuits of peace added 
 greatly to the existing troubles, which in 
 1816 reached their highest point. The 
 Luddites, a society of workingraen oi'ganized 
 in 1812 to resist the introduction of ma- 
 chinery into the mills, now broke out into 
 a series of outrages and riots which gave 
 the government great trouble. In the 
 midst of these dissensions George III., old, 
 blind, and insane, died at Windsor Castle 
 on the 29th of January, 1820. 
 
FROM THE BEION OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 921 
 
 One of the chief events of the reign of 
 George III. was the union of Ireland with 
 Great Britain, the relation of which we have 
 deferred until now in order not to interrupt 
 
 of Irish affairs was controlled by a selfish 
 clique, who oppressed the remainder of the 
 people so grievously that the country sank 
 rapidly into poverty. Pitt made vain en- 
 
 THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. 
 
 the history of other events. In 1782 Ire- 
 land obtained the independence of its par- 
 liament. It thus ceased to be dependent 
 upon Great Britain, though remaining sub- 
 ject to the same king. The administration 
 
 deavors to break down this clique and do 
 justice to Ireland, but was defeated. At 
 length an association of "United Irishmen" 
 took up the wrongs of the country, opened 
 a correspondence with France, and finally 
 
922 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 rose in insurrection in 1796 and 1797, being 
 goaded to this step by the lawless cruelty 
 of the Orange yeomanry and the English 
 
 1st of January, 1801, Ireland was formally 
 united to Great Britain. From this time 
 the Irish parliament was discontinued, and 
 
 CHARGE OF THE ENGLISH CAVALRY AT WATERLOO. 
 
 troops. Several expeditions were sent to 
 their assistance from France, as we have 
 already seen. They were finally defeated ; 
 the insurrection was put down, and on the 
 
 the Irish representatives were sent to the 
 British parliament. 
 
 Upon the death of George III., his son, 
 the prince regent, ascended the throne as 
 
FROM THE BEIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 923 
 
 George IV. He was exceedingly unpop- 
 ular, and, as he had been at the head of the 
 government for the last ten j^ears, his acces- 
 sion to the crown gave no hope of a change 
 of affairs. Within a month after his acces- 
 sion a plot was discovei-ed by the police, 
 known as the Cato street conspiracy, 
 which had been formed by a number 
 of desperate men, with Arthur Thistle- 
 
 into parliament by the ministry to divorce 
 and degrade Queen Caroline on charges of 
 misconduct. The queen was as popular 
 with the people as her husband was odious 
 to them, and their bitter resentment of the 
 attack upon her forced the house of lords 
 to abandon the bill. The king, less sensi- 
 tive to public opinion, resolved to oppose 
 her coronation as his wife, and in this step 
 
 VIEW IN CALCUTTA. 
 
 wood at their head, for the assassina- 
 tion of the whole ministry. Thistle- 
 wood and four of his accomplices were 
 hanged. 
 
 George IV., when still Prince of Wales, 
 had been induced by his father to marry 
 his cousin Caroline, Princess of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbiittel. The marriage took place in 
 1795. The prince soon separated from his 
 wife, and charged her with infidelity to 
 him. His first act after becoming king 
 was to renew this charge in the most public 
 manner, and to cause a bill to be brought 
 
 was supported by the privy council. The 
 queen was equally determined to maintain 
 her rights, and on the morning of the day 
 appointed for the coronation presented her- 
 self at the doors of Westminster Abbey, 
 but was refused admission. This humilia- 
 tion was fatal to her ; she was taken ill, and 
 died August 7th, 1821. 
 
 In 1822 Lord Castlereagh, who had be- 
 come Marquis of Londonderry, and who 
 had for some time directed the foreign 
 policy of Great Britain, committed suicide, 
 and his place was filled by Mr, Canning. 
 
924 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Under this able leader England pursued a 
 more independent course than had marked 
 her policy since the downfall of Napoleon. 
 His first act was to withdraw the support 
 of England from the Holy Alliance, and to 
 assert the principle of the right of each 
 nation to manage its affairs without foreign 
 interference. In accordance with this doc- 
 trine Canning aided Portugal in 1826 to 
 resist the aggressions of Spain, and recog- 
 nized the independence of the Spanish 
 American republics. At home he inaugu- 
 rated a liberal policy, which afterwards re- 
 sulted in the repeal of the corn laws and 
 the emancipation of the Roman Catholics. 
 His last ofiicial act was his intervention in 
 
 Lord Goderich, which had succeeded Can- 
 ning's cabinet. It was forced to resign in 
 1828, and was succeeded by a purely tory 
 ministry under the Duke of Wellington. 
 
 The new ministry reaped the honor of 
 inaugurating an important measure of re- 
 form which was the outgrowth of the work 
 begun by Pitt and Canning, Until the 
 reign of George III. the Roman Catholic 
 subjects of Great Britain had remained 
 liable to penal laws of such severity that 
 the government was never willing to exe- 
 cute them. In that reign many of these 
 restrictions were removed from such Ro- 
 manists as would take an oath prescribed 
 for them, and finally all grades of the 
 
 HINDOO TEMPLE AT KEMISERAM. 
 
 the affairs of Turkey in behalf of the 
 Greeks. A treaty was signed for this pur- 
 pose by Great Britain, France, and Russia. 
 Canning hoped that this formidable alli- 
 ance would induce Turkey to desist from 
 the cruelties she had been practising upon 
 the helpless Greeks, and that the revolt 
 would be quieted without further bloodshed. 
 His hope was not realized. After his death 
 in 1827 the Egyptian fleet was ordered by 
 Turkey to devastate the Morea and carry 
 off" the inhabitants as slaves. This fleet 
 was encountered on this mission by the 
 allied English, French and Russian fleet, 
 under Admiral Codriugton, in the bay of 
 Navarino, on the 20th of October, 1827, 
 and was utterly annihilated. This blow at 
 Turkey was not popular with the English 
 people, and was fatal to the ministry of 
 
 military and naval service were thrown 
 open to them. They were still excluded 
 from both houses of parliament and from 
 certain civil offices and privileges by the 
 oath of supremacy and the declarations re- 
 quired of them against the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, the sacrifice of the mass, and 
 the invocation of the saints. Pitt, as we 
 have seen, attempted to remove these dis- 
 abilities, but the king firmly refused to 
 allow the question to be opened. Can- 
 ning attempted to secure the same object, 
 but died, too soon. The accession of the 
 ministry of the Duke of Wellington greatly 
 dampened the hopes of the Catholics ; but 
 they were soon revived by the sudden dis- 
 play of strength by the Irish Catholics, who 
 elected Daniel O'Connell, a popular politi- 
 cian, to a seat in parliament. O'Connell 
 
926 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was sustained by the entire Catholic popu- 
 lation of Ireland, and demanded the re- 
 moval of the disabilities of his coreligionists, 
 threatening civil war as the alternative. 
 The danger was very great, and the Duke 
 of Wellington brought in a bill which he 
 declared was the only means of averting 
 civil war, and which admitted Romanists 
 to parliament and to all civil and military 
 offices under the crown, save those of 
 regent, lord chancellor in England and 
 Ireland, lord lieutenant of Ireland, and 
 some others. The bill passed both houses 
 of parliament, and received the royal assent 
 on the 13th of April, 1829. In 1828 an- 
 other reform was accomplished in favor of 
 the Protestant dissenters by the repeal of 
 the laws requiring all persons taking office 
 to receive the holy communion according 
 to the forms of the established church. 
 
 On the 26th of June, 1830, George IV., 
 ■who had passed the last years of his life in 
 seclusion at Windsor Castle, died. His 
 only child, the Princess Charlotte, being 
 dead, he was succeeded by his brother Wil- 
 liam Henry, Duke of Clarence, who be- 
 came king as William IV. He had passed 
 his early life in the navy, and was totally 
 without political experience. He came to 
 the throne at a time of great trouble. The 
 popular discontent was very deep, and ex- 
 pressed itself in the burning of farm-ricks 
 and the breaking of machinery. On all 
 sides there was a demand for parliamentary 
 reform. The French revolution of 1830, 
 which drove Charles X. from the throne, 
 gave great encouragement to the friends 
 of reform in England. The king was per- 
 sonally in favor of the movement, but the 
 Duke of Wellington refused all concession. 
 The duke's refusal drove him from office, 
 and a whig ministry — the first in twenty 
 years — under Earl Grey, came into power. 
 There was great need of reform. New 
 towns, some of them among the wealthiest 
 and most powerful in the kingdom, had 
 sprung up, but were without representation 
 in parliament ; while the ancient but ex- 
 tinct boroughs, some of which contained 
 but a mere handful of inhabitants, returned 
 members to the house of commons. Such 
 boroughs were generally the pro2:)erty of 
 some large landowner, who controlled the 
 elections to suit himself, and sold his influ- 
 ence openly. Most of the small towns 
 were controlled by a clique, which could be 
 bought and sold. William Pitt had several 
 times attempted to reform these evils, but 
 
 without success. The aristocratic opposi- 
 tion to him was too strong to be overcome. 
 In 1816 the cheap publications of William 
 Cobbett, which advocated a total reform of 
 this system of abuses, revived the cry for 
 parliamentary reform, and the demand for 
 it had steadily increased in strength until 
 it had now become too powerful to be re- 
 sisted. On the 1st of March Lord John 
 Russell, of Earl Grey's cabinet, brought in a 
 bill for parliamentary reform which de- 
 prived fifty-six decayed boroughs of repre- 
 sentation, and gave the 143 members they 
 returned to counties or large towns which 
 as yet had no representatives in parliament, 
 established a £10 household qualification 
 for voters in boroughs, and extended the 
 county franchise to leaseholders, copy- 
 holders, and tenant occupiers of premises 
 of certain values. The Jaill was defeated 
 by the opposition, and the ministers ap- 
 pealed to the country. Parliament was dis- 
 solved, and a new election ordered. A new 
 house of commons was returned, over- 
 whelmingly in favor of the reform bill. 
 This house passed the measure and sent it 
 up to the house of lords, by which it was 
 rejected. The excitement which followed 
 this rejection was general and intense 
 throughout the country. Riots and incen- 
 diary fires occurred at Derby, Nottingham, 
 and Bristol in the autumn of 1831. A 
 third reform bill was introduced by the 
 ministry and was passed by the house of 
 commons. The lords, warned by the dis- 
 turbed state of the country, Avithdrew their 
 opposition, and the measure became a law 
 on the 7th of June, 1832. 
 
 The reform parliament — the object of so 
 many holies and fears — met on the 29th of 
 January, 1833. It passed several impor- 
 tant acts, but its violence — especially that of 
 the great Irish agitator, O'Connell — went 
 far to justify the fears of its enemies and 
 produce a feeling of reaction in the coun- 
 try. Even the king went over to the tories, 
 dismissed the ministry, and placed Sir 
 Robert Peel at the head of a new cabinet 
 in November, 1834. The general election 
 in the following spring restored the whigs 
 to power, with Lord Melbourne as chief of 
 the new ministry. 
 
 Although the slave trade had been abol- 
 ished by Great Britain, slavery existed in 
 the colonies until 1833. In August of that 
 year the "Act for the Abolition of Slavery " 
 throughout the British dominions was 
 passed. The government paid to the 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF OEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT^ TIME. 
 
 927 
 
 owners of the slaves thus liberated the sum 
 of $100,000,000 as compeusation for the 
 loss of their property. In the same year 
 the commercial monopoly of the East India 
 Company was abolished, and the trade of 
 that country thrown open to the whole 
 British nation. A new poor law was en- 
 acted in 1834 to 
 check the growing 
 evils of pauperism. 
 
 In 1835 the muni- 
 cipal corporations 
 act was passed. This 
 measure restored to 
 the towns the rights 
 of self-government, 
 of which they were 
 deprived in the four- 
 teenth century. In 
 1836 a law was passed 
 making marriage a 
 civil contract, and 
 thus removing one 
 of the principal 
 grievances of the 
 dissenters. In 1834 
 provision was made 
 for education by a 
 small annual grant 
 for the erection of 
 schools. In 1839 
 this beginning was 
 supplemented by the 
 appointment of a 
 committee of the 
 privy council for ed- 
 ucational purposes, 
 and the regular in- 
 crease of the grants 
 for this purpose. 
 These measures were 
 the work of the whig 
 party. 
 
 In the autumn of 
 1830 the Liverpool 
 and Manchester rail- 
 way was opened by 
 its projector, George * 
 Stephenson. This was 
 the beginning of the great railway system 
 of Great Britain. The new system of trans- 
 portation, being found successful, was 
 rapidly adopted in various parts of the 
 kingdom, and proved a powerful aid in the 
 development of the trade and wealth of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 On the 20th of June, 1837, William IV. 
 died at Windsor Castle. His only children. 
 
 two daughters by his wife Adelaide, Prin- 
 cess of Saxe-Meiningen, had both died in 
 infancy. His crown of Hanover passed to 
 the next male heir, Ernest Augustus, Duke 
 of Cumberland, the fifth son of George III., 
 and thus became forever separated from 
 that of England. William was succeeded 
 
 PAGODA OF CHILLENBAUM— INDIA. 
 
 on the throne of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 in default of male heirs, by his niece, the 
 Princess Alexandriiia Victoria, the only 
 child of his brother Edward, Duke of Kent, 
 the present reigning sovereign. 
 
 Queen Victoria was but eighteen years 
 old at the time of her accession to the 
 throne, but was popular with all classes of 
 her subjects. On the 10th of February 
 
928 
 
 ' THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 1840, the queen married her cousin, Albert, 
 Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a man of 
 many virtues, and of ability and rare good 
 sense, qualities which won him the aifection 
 and confidence of the English people, and 
 enabled him to retain these feelings 
 throughout his life. 
 
 The whig ministry continued to lose 
 favor after the queen's accession, and in 
 1841 the general elections returned an over- 
 whelming majority of the tory party, which 
 now took the name " conservative." Two 
 measures had largely contributed to the 
 downfall of the whigs — the " Quadruple 
 Alliance," which we have related in the 
 French history of this century, and which 
 led to the bombardment of Acre and the 
 expulsion of the Egyptian forces from 
 Syria in 1840 ; and a war with China in 
 1839, growing out of the refusal of that 
 country to allow opium to be smuggled into 
 its dominions. The course of aSairs in 
 India was also greatly injurious to the 
 whigs. In 1839 Cabul was occupied by the 
 English, and in 1841 a general revolt of the 
 Affghan people ensued, and a British army 
 was annihilated in the Khyber Pass. The 
 triumph of the conservatives brought about 
 the downfall of the whig ministry, and a 
 tory cabinet, with Sir Robert Peel at its 
 head, succeeded it. 
 
 Peel set to work vigorously to remedy 
 the evils which encompassed the country. 
 Order was restored to the finances by the 
 repeal of a number of iniquitous taxes and 
 the establishment of an income tax. Ire- 
 land had been for some years on the verge 
 of rebellion in consequence of the agitation 
 of O'Connell, who demanded the repeal of 
 the union. Stringent coercive acts had 
 been found the only means of preventing 
 an outbreak. The Peel ministry now pro- 
 ceeded to deal with the author of the agita- 
 tion. O'Connell was arrested, tried and 
 convicted upon a charge of sedition, and 
 was imprisoned. He was released upon an 
 appeal to the house of lords, but his con- 
 viction was fatal to his influence, which 
 waned from this time. The war with 
 China was brought to a close by a treaty 
 which opened some of the ports of that 
 country to the t^ade of the world. An ex- 
 pedition under General Pollock avenged 
 the reverses in India by the capture of the 
 capital of Cabul in 1842. 
 
 The conservative ministry found them- 
 selves called upon to face a most difiicult 
 and dangerous question. We have related 
 
 the selfish imposition of prohibitory duties 
 by the English landowners upon foreign 
 grain in 1815. These restrictions had con- 
 tinued until the time we are now consider- 
 ing, and were sustained by a considerable 
 party, which declared that English agricul- 
 ture ought to be protected and the English 
 people forced to depend upon their own 
 country for breadstuffs by maintaining 
 these high duties. The majority of the 
 nation, however, Avas in favor of free trade, 
 and asserted that the operation of the corn 
 laws was to give the landowners an unjust 
 monopoly of the bread of the people and to 
 set an artificial limit to the wealth and 
 population of the country. In 1839 an 
 association known as the Anti- Corn-Law 
 League was formed, and devoted itself to 
 the task of spreading its principles by 
 speeches and various publications. The 
 association succeeded in gradually enlight- 
 ening the English mind as to the eiFect of 
 protective laws. Sir Robert Peel, who had 
 entered office pledged to continue the pro- 
 tective system, became convinced of its in^ 
 expediency. In 1846 the failure of the 
 potato crop in Ireland threatened that 
 country with a terrible famine ; and at the 
 same time the harvest in England failed. 
 This emergency compelled the triumph of 
 the free trade cause, and Sir Robert Peel 
 was forced to introduce bills abolishing or 
 reducing to a nominal figure the duties on 
 foreign corn, cattle, and other articles of 
 food. The bills were passed, but the re- 
 sentment of the conservatives was bitter, 
 and drove Peel from office. He was suc- 
 ceeded by a whig ministry, under Lord 
 John Russell, which continued in office until 
 1852. The complete operation of the free 
 trade measures was not secured until 1849. 
 The credit of the victory is due to Richard 
 Cobden, the leader of the free trade party, 
 and one of the wisest political economist^ 
 England has ever produced. 
 
 The agitation which convulsed conti- 
 nental Europe in 1848 affected England 
 also, though in a milder form. The chart- 
 ists — a party which took its name from its 
 endeavors to secure the adoption of the 
 " People's Charter," the document in which 
 they embodied their demands — kept the 
 kingdom in a state of uncertainty from 
 1839 to 1848. This party consisted chiefly 
 of workingmen, who hoped to better their 
 condition by means of a reform of the 
 political system. They demanded universal 
 suffrage, vote by ballot, annual jaarliaments. 
 
FEOM THE BEIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 929 
 
 the division of the country into equal elec- 
 toral districts, the abolition of the property 
 qualification of members, and the payment 
 of members of parliament for their services. 
 Encouraged by the Revolution in France, 
 they made a demonstration of their strength 
 on the 10th of April, 1848, in London, for 
 the purpose of offering a petition embodying 
 their " Charter " to parliament. Prepara- 
 tions were made by the government to pre- 
 vent an outbreak, and the atFair passed off 
 quietly. From this time the chartists dis- 
 appeared from English politics. Since 
 
 under Lord Derby. In 1853, however, a 
 union of the whigs and free traders ousted 
 the tories, and the whig ministry of Lord 
 Aberdeen succeeded to the direction of the 
 government. The designs of Russia upon 
 Turkey now induced England to take a de- 
 cisive stand against the former power. An 
 alliance was effected with France for this 
 purpose in 1854, and was followed by the 
 Crimean war, the causes, events, and re- 
 sults of which we have related in the French 
 history of this period. The sufferings of 
 the English army through the neglect of 
 
 THE EEDAN AFTER ITS CAPTTTRE BY THE ENGLISH. 
 
 then, however, parliament has abolished 
 the property qualification, granted a suf- 
 frage which is almost universal, and estab- 
 lished the vote by ballot — three of the 
 principal reforms demanded by the chai't- 
 ists. In Ireland Smith O'Brien and a few 
 others attempted to bring on a revolution 
 in 1848, but the movement was easily sup- 
 pressed. 
 
 In 1852 the conservatives returned to 
 power, and the ministry of Lord John Rus- 
 sell was replaced by a conservative ministry 
 
 59 
 
 the government in the winter of 1854-55 
 aroused a storm of indignation at home, 
 which drove the Aberdeen ministry from 
 power early in 1855, A new ministry was 
 formed under Lord Palraerston, and de- 
 voted itself with energy to the prosecution 
 of the war. 
 
 In 1858 a conspiracy to assassinate the 
 Emperor Napoleon III. came near succeed- 
 ing, and as it was believed to have origi- 
 nated among the foreign refugees in Eng- 
 land, Lord Palmerston introduced a bill 
 
930 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 into parliament for the alteration of the law 
 respecting conspiracies, with a view to 
 enable the government to prevent the repe- 
 tition of such plots. The excited language 
 of the French army and press induced the 
 belief that the bill had been j^resented by 
 the government in compliance with the de- 
 mands of France, and it was rejected by the 
 house of commons. Lord Palmerston's 
 credit suffered considerably in consequence 
 of this belief. It seemed for a while that 
 the amicable relations of the two countries 
 would give place to war, and a force of vol- 
 
 and he refrained from interfering with this 
 happy state of affairs. His foreign policy 
 consisted in keeping England neutral in the 
 war between France and Italy and Aus- 
 tria in 1859; the civil war in America in 
 1861 ; the Polish insurrection in 1863 ; the 
 war between France and Mexico in 1864 ; 
 and the attack of Prussia upon Denmark in 
 1864. This policy of non-interference cost 
 England some of her prestige, and in the 
 case of the civil war in America was not 
 fairly adhered to. A number of confed- 
 erate cruisers, built, equipped, and manned 
 
 THE THAMES EMBANKMENT— LONDON. 
 
 unteers, 150,000 strong, was raised in Eng- 
 land. The common sense of both nations 
 came to the rescue, however, and the danger 
 was averted. The excitement caused the 
 fall of the Palmerston ministry, and Lord 
 Derby again became prime minister for a 
 few months. The elections of 1859 restored 
 Lord Palmerston to power, however, and 
 he continued at the head of the government 
 from this time until his death in 1865. His 
 internal policy was one of inaction. Eng- 
 land was prosperous in a marked degree, 
 and was increasing in wealth every year, 
 
 in British ports, were suffered to go to sea,, 
 and nearly swept the American commerce 
 from the seas. The United States were 
 thus given a valid cause of irritation against 
 Great Britain. The American war caused 
 great distress in Lancashire by interrupting 
 the supply of cotton. 
 
 Lord Palmerston's death in 1865 placed 
 Lord John Russell at the head of the min- 
 istry. He continued his predecessor's 
 neutral policy, and took no part in the war 
 between Prussia and Austria in 1866. 
 Lord Russell did not imitate his prede- 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 931 
 
 cesser in his internal policy, however. In 
 1866 he introduced a bill for the further 
 reform of parliament. The measure was 
 defeated by the house of commons, and he 
 resigned his office. Lord Derby succeeded 
 him, and in 1867 found himself obliged to 
 introduce a reform bill far more sweeping 
 in its provisions than Lord Russell's unfor- 
 tunate measure. The bill was passed in 
 August, 1867. It extended the borough 
 franchise to all rate-payers and lodgers 
 occupying rooms to the annual value of 
 £10. The county franchise was reduced to 
 
 ment of the result, and a liberal ministry, 
 with Mr. Gladstone at its head, came into 
 power. 
 
 The new government addressed itself 
 with vigor to some of the most difficult 
 questions of the day. An effort was made 
 to remove the chronic discontent of Ireland 
 by the disestablishment and disendowment 
 of the Protestant Church in 1869. This 
 measure put an end to the compulsory pay- 
 ment by the Irish of taxes for the support 
 of a church with which the vast majority 
 of them had no sympathy. In 1870 a land 
 
 BRITISH ARMY CROSSING THE SUTLEJ. 
 
 £12. Thirty-three members were with- 
 drawn from the English boroughs, and of 
 these twenty-five were distributed among 
 the English counties ; the rest were assigned 
 to Scotland and Ireland. This measure 
 added large numbers of workingmen to the 
 voting class, and when the elections of 1868 
 were held, a liberal parliament was returned 
 by overwhelming majorities. Mr. Disraeli, 
 who had succeeded Lord Derby as premier, 
 withdrew from office upon the anuounce- 
 
 bill was passed, which established a sort of 
 tenant-right in all parts of Ireland. la 
 1868 the non-conformists were relieved of 
 the compulsory payment of church rates ; 
 and in 1871 still further justice was done 
 them by the abolition of all religious tests 
 for admission to offices or degrees in the 
 universities. The army and navy were 
 subjected to important reforms, and in the 
 former the system of promotion by purchase 
 was abolished. In 1871 a bill was passed 
 
932 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 by parliament establishing school-boards in 
 every district, and levying local rates for 
 their support. In 1871 a radical step 
 towards parliamentary reform was taken in 
 the passage of an act establishing the prac- 
 tice of voting by the ballot. The magnitude 
 and extent of Mr. Gladstone's reforms, 
 however, alarmed the country, and in 1874 
 a bill introduced by him for the organiza- 
 tion of university education in Ireland was 
 defeated. The ministers appealed to the 
 country, and Avere answered by the election 
 of a strongly conservative parliament. Mr. 
 Gladstone and his colleagues thereupon re- 
 signed their offices, and were succeeded by 
 a conservative ministry, with Mr. Disraeli 
 as premier. 
 
 The power of Great Britain in India cou- 
 
 th e QUEEN OF OTJDE. 
 
 tinned to increase through the early part of 
 the century. In 1815 the whole of Ceylon 
 was brought under English rule, and in 
 1819 an English colony was founded at 
 Singapore, near the southern extremity of 
 the Malay peninsula, and became one of 
 the principal markets of the India trade. 
 In 1833 the charter of the East India 
 Company expired. The company w'as given 
 by the British parliament the government 
 of Hindustan for twenty years, but its 
 monopoly of the Eastern trade was not 
 renewed ; and the commerce of India was 
 made free to all the subjects of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 One of the principal results of the estab- 
 lishment of the colony at Singapore was the 
 sudden development of the opium trade 
 with China. The Chinese government had 
 previously tolerated this traffic, but now, 
 
 becoming alarmed by the fearful evils 
 which the use of opium was fastening upon 
 the Chinese nation, endeavored to put a 
 stop to it. An imperial edict prohibited 
 the importation of opium, but the traffic 
 was carried on by the English and Chinese 
 merchants in defiance of the law. The 
 trade was very profitable, and the conni- 
 vance of the officials could be purchased by 
 large bribes. The imperial government 
 then ordered the British merchants to be 
 blockaded in their warehouses at Canton 
 until they surrendered all the opium in 
 their possession, amounting in value, it is 
 said, to ten millions of dollars. The British 
 government resented this attempt of China 
 to protect her people at the expense of Eng- 
 lish profits, and a war of two years ensued. 
 Canton was taken by the English, but was 
 ransomed for six millions of dollars, and 
 several other places were bombarded. The 
 Chinese were at length compelled to make 
 peace, and a treaty was signed at Nankin 
 in August, 1842, by which the island of 
 Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and 
 the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoo, Ning- 
 po, and Shanghai were thrown open to the 
 trade of the world, and were made the of- 
 ficial residences of European consuls. 
 China was also compelled to pay to Great 
 Britain an indemnity of $21,000,000. 
 
 In 1838 Great Britain became involved 
 in a war with the AflTghans, for the purpose 
 of restoring to his throne Shah Sujah, the 
 ruler of Cabul, who had been deposed by 
 his people. He proved himself such an 
 execrable tyrant that he was murdered by 
 his subjects. A general revolt of the Aff- 
 ghans followed in 1842, and the British 
 array, forced to retreat from Cabul, was cut 
 off almost to a man in the Khyber moun- 
 tain pass. An expedition under General 
 Pollock avenged this disaster, and captured 
 Cabul in 1842. The war, howevei*, greatly 
 encouraged the natives in their efforts 
 against the English, and in 1843 a war with 
 the Ameers of Scinde broke out. It re- 
 sulted in the conquest of that country by 
 Sir Charles Napier, in 1843, who was ap- 
 pointed Governor of Scinde, and who ruled 
 his province with firmness and success. In 
 1845 and in 1848 there was war between 
 the British and the Sikhs of the Punjaub. 
 On the 21st of February, 1849, Lord Gough 
 won the decisive victory of Goojerat, and 
 this was followed by the close of the war, 
 and the annexation of the Punjaub to the 
 British dominions. A little later Sir Henry 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 933 
 
 Lawrence was appointed to the government 
 of the Punjaub, which, since the days of 
 Alexander the Great, had been the scene 
 of constant rapine and strife. His rule was 
 so just and kind that the Sikhs were com- 
 pletely won over to the English authority. 
 In five years' time order was restored, and 
 prosperity returned to the long distracted 
 country. The warlike chiefs submitted 
 willingly to the English rule, and sent their 
 sons to the Euglish schools to fit them for 
 
 the most despicable of the native tyrants, 
 and whose cruelties had driven his people 
 almost to desperation, had been repeatedly 
 threatened by the British authorities with 
 the loss of his throne for the violation of 
 his treaties with them and his treatment of 
 his subjects. These threats had no effect, 
 and in 1856 he was removed from his 
 throne, and his kingdom was added to the 
 British dominions. 
 
 The dominion, of Great Britain in India 
 
 STORMING OF DELHI. 
 
 positions under the new government. So 
 firmly was the English power established 
 by the wisdom and justice of Lawrence that 
 during the terrible scenes of 1857 the Sikhs 
 remained faithful to Great Britain, and the 
 Punjaub formed the very stronghold of the 
 English power. It is not too much to say 
 that had this section proved unfaithful, the 
 English empire in India would have been 
 overthrown. 
 
 The King of Oude, who was one of 
 
 extended over hundreds of millions of 
 people, and had been won and was main- 
 tained by a mere handful of British troops. 
 The great mass of the troops employed by 
 the English were natives, and were known 
 as Sepoys. They were generally contented, 
 and obeyed their English officers with read- 
 iness and confidence. In 1856 a supply of 
 Enfield rifles was received for them from 
 England. The cartridges of these rifles 
 were supposed to contain beef-tallow, and 
 
934 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 as the use of this article, which is sacred 
 to the Hindus, is forbidden to any devout 
 native, several regiments objected to using 
 the cartridges, and their wishes were re- 
 spected by the government, which sup- 
 pressed the cartridges. The discontent did 
 not subside, however, but continued to 
 spread, and early in 1857 a formidable mu- 
 tiny broke out among the native troops in 
 Bengal, Oude, and the province of Delhi. 
 Wherever they had the power, the insur- 
 gents massacred all the English they could 
 lay hands on, sparing neither age nor sex. 
 The middle and lower classes of the pop- 
 ulation joined the insurgents, but the chiefs 
 and large landholders as a rule remained 
 faithful to the government. The insurgents 
 established their capital at Delhi, and pro- 
 claimed its nominal king Emperor of Hin- 
 dustan. Cawnpore was besieged by the 
 Sepoys, and surrendered after a siege of 
 200 "days. The promise of safety made to 
 the garrison was violated, and they were 
 treacherously massacred. Delhi was taken 
 by the English in September, 1857, and the 
 insurgents severely punished. Its emperor 
 was transported to Burmah, and his two 
 sons were put to death. The English made 
 heroic efforts to re-establish their authority, 
 and defeated the greatly superior forces of 
 the Sepoys over and over again. Cawn- 
 pore was taken by General Havelock, who 
 then united his small army with that of Sir 
 James Ou tram, and together they succeeded 
 in relieving the besieged garrison of Luck- 
 now, the capital of Oude, which had held 
 out heroically against an overwhelming 
 force of Sepoys. In this siege Sir Henry 
 Lawrence was killed. The insurgents did 
 not abandon their attempt upon Lucknow 
 after the arrival of Havelock and Outram, 
 but held on until March, 1858, nearly five 
 months after the first investment, when the 
 arrival of an English army under Sir Colin 
 Campbell forced them to retreat after a se- 
 vere defeat. The relief of Lucknow vir- 
 tually ended the war. The fighting con- 
 tinued through the summer of 1858, but 
 the insurrection was crushed, and its leaders 
 were put to death, or punished with great 
 severity. The British power was firmly re- 
 established throughout India,and no further 
 outbreak has occurred since this triumph. 
 
 Ou the 2d of August, 1858, parliament 
 passed an act transferring the government 
 of India from the East India Company to 
 the British crown. This change has been 
 followed by excellent results. The govern- 
 
 ment is administered by a viceroy or gov- 
 ernor-general, appointed by the queen. 
 His official residence is at Calcutta. Eng- 
 lish influence is becoming stronger and the 
 civilization of the West is becoming more 
 general every year in India. The upper 
 classes are being educated, and common 
 schools are established for the instruction 
 of the lower orders. Railways, telegraphs, 
 newspapers, and the other appliances of 
 civilization are rapidly changing the char- 
 acter and increasing the prosperity of this 
 ancient land. 
 
 In 1856, and again in 1860, England be- 
 came involved in a war with China. In 
 the latter year the contest was waged in 
 alliance with France. The English and 
 French forces captured Pekin, and de- 
 stroyed the magnificent palace of the em- 
 peror. In 1867 a successful expedition was 
 undertaken by Great Britain, under the 
 command of Sir Robert Napier, for the re- 
 lease of some English captives held in 
 prison by King Theodore of Abyssinia. 
 
 In addition to her possessions in India, 
 Great Britain during the present century 
 has built up a flourishing empire in the 
 southern Pacific. It is larger in extent, and 
 may yet be of greater importance than 
 India. The vast island of Australia, which 
 really merits the title of a continent, was 
 made known to Europeans in the early part 
 of the seventeenth century by the Dutch. 
 In 1788 Great Britain resolved to make it 
 a penal colony for the transportation of her 
 criminal population, and a colony of 1,000 
 convicts was sent out to Sydney in the 
 eastern part of the island. This colony 
 was subjected to severe hardships at first, 
 but succeeded in establishing itself. The 
 convicts were then set to work to clear the 
 wilderness, to construct roads, bridges, and 
 other needed public works. They were 
 joined by others from time to time, and the 
 work was carried on with vigor and success, 
 and the difficulties in the way of free set- 
 tlers greatly simplified. In 1810 Governor 
 Macquarie was appointed to the control of 
 affairs. He remained in office for eleven 
 years, and exerted all his powers to reform 
 the convicts. Under his wise and humane 
 rule the colony prospered, many of the con- 
 victs embraced the opportunity held out to 
 them, amended their lives, and became 
 useful citizens ; some of them rising to po- 
 sitions of trust in the colony. For the next 
 thirty years following 1811, free settlers 
 flocked to Australia in great numbers, and 
 
FE03I THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 935 
 
 new towns were founded. The practice of 
 transporting convicts to Australia and to 
 Van Dieman's Laud was discontinued. 
 Wool became the great staple of the colony, 
 and was exported in large quantities. The 
 original colony of New South Wales was 
 divided : the northern part was named 
 Queensland, the southeru Victoria. At a 
 later period west Australia was organized 
 as a distinct government. 
 
 In 1851 gold was discovered in the south- 
 eastern provinces of Australia, and imme- 
 
 Wales, is also a flourishing city. The pop- 
 ulation of the country is increasing rapidly, 
 and railroads, telegraphs, and other institu- 
 tions of the West are adding to the wealth 
 and prosperity of Australia, which must 
 eventually become the seat of a great Eng- 
 lish-speaking nation. Australia and Tas- 
 mania, formerly called Van Dieman's Land, 
 are connected with London by a submarine 
 telegraphic cable. 
 
 Tasmania is also a thriving colony. In 
 New Zealand, the three islands of which 
 
 ENGLISH TROOPS ON THE MARCH IN INDIA. 
 
 diately all kinds of industry were aban- 
 doned for a search for the precious metal. 
 This delirium was followed by a period of 
 sharp distress, and the ordinary avocations 
 of the community were resumed. The 
 country took a new start, and has grown 
 with remarkable rapidity ever since. Mel- 
 bourne, the capital of Victoria, and the 
 largest city in Australia, contains a popula- 
 tion of about 200,000, and is a handsome 
 and flourishing city. It was founded in 
 1837. Sydney, the old capital of New South 
 
 comprise an area larger than Great Britain 
 and Ireland, eight prosperous English col- 
 onies have been established, and the people 
 are being gradually won to Christianity 
 and civilization. The majority of the na- 
 tives can read and write, and newspapers 
 are published in the Maori language. 
 
 In 1873 a quarrel broke out between the 
 English and the King of Ashantee, in 
 western Africa, with respect to a stipend 
 formerly allowed by the Dutch to the king. 
 England had been formally in possession 
 
936 
 
FROM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 937 
 
 of the Gold Coast and the old Dutch col- 
 onies since 1872, when she acquired tliem 
 by treaty with the Dutch. Tlie colonial 
 authorities now demanded that the King of 
 Ashantee should wilhdi'aw his wariiors 
 from their territory, but so far from com- 
 plying with this demand, the sable poten- 
 
 erable resistance, and lost many of his men 
 in consequence of the unhealthiness of the 
 country, but steadily drove the natives be- 
 fore him. About the 1st of February he 
 defeated the Ashantee forces in a pitched 
 battle in the neighborhood of Coomassie, 
 their capital, and ou the 5th entered Coo- 
 
 albert EDWAKD, PKINCE OF WALES. 
 
 tate proceeded to levy war upon the Eng- 
 lish possessions. Late in 1873 the British 
 government despatched a force under 
 Sir Garnett Wolseley to the Gold Coast. 
 He arrived on the coast about the close of 
 the year, and at once advanced into the 
 Ashantee territory. He met with consid- 
 
 raassie and received the submission of the 
 king, who agreed to enter into a treaty bind- 
 ing himself to respect the English possessions. 
 This success broke the Ashantee power for 
 the time, and gave peace and protection to 
 the English settlements in western Africa. 
 During the years 1873, 1874, 1875, and 
 
938 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 1876, a terrible famine visited a large por- 
 tion of India, causing great suffering and 
 loss of life. Tiie vice-regal government 
 made great efforts to relieve the distress, 
 but it Avas so wide-spread and overwhelm- 
 ing, that the exertions to check it were 
 only partially successful. 
 
 In 1875 the Prince of Wales made a 
 visit to India, and was everywhere received 
 Avith great cordiality and imposing demon- 
 strations. 
 
 On the 2d of May, 1876, Queen Victoria 
 was formally proclaimed, in addition to her 
 other titles, Empress of India. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SCOTL^INT). 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH 
 OF ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 Geographical Position of Scotland— Natural Di- 
 visions—The Earliest Inhabitants— Invasion of 
 the Romans— The Walls— Invasion of the Angles 
 — Settlement of the Scots— Introduction of Chris- 
 tianity—St. Colomba— Reign of Kenneth I.— His 
 Successors— Macbeth — Reign of Malcolm Can- 
 more— Does Homage to William I. of England — 
 Reign of Edgar— The Danish Raids— Alexander 
 I.— His Able Reign—David I. King— Takes Part- 
 in the English Civil Wars— Battle of the Standard 
 —Wise Measures of David— William the Lion — 
 The Long Reign— Re-establishes the Independ- 
 ence of Scotland— Alexander II. — Relations with 
 England— Alexander III. — Edward I. Demands 
 Homage of the Scottish King— Death of Alex- 
 ander — Progress of Scotland — Margaret, the 
 Maiden of Norway— Her Death — John Balliol 
 King — He Does Homage to Edward I. of Eng- 
 land for his Crown — English Interference in 
 Scottish Affivirs— War with England — Edward 
 Subdues Scotland — John Deposed— Scotland Held 
 by the English — Revolt of William Wallace— 
 His Successes — Battle of Stirling— Wallace Made 
 Guardian of Scotland— Battle of Falkirk— Death 
 of Wallace — Robert Bruce — Stabs John Comyn — 
 Raises the Standard of Revolt — Is Crowned King 
 of Scotland — His Struggles — Bruce and the Spider 
 — Battle of Bannockburn — The Independence of 
 Scotland Re-established— The Treaty of North- 
 ampton — Acts of the Scottish Parliament — Rise 
 of the Third Estate— Death of King Robert. 
 
 SCOTLAND comprises the northern 
 part of the island of Great Britain. 
 Its greatest length, from north to 
 south, is about 280 miles, and its 
 greatest breadth, from east to west, 
 about 170 miles. The Friths of 
 Forth and Clyde reduce the width of the 
 country to such a narrow neck as to make 
 the northern part of Scotland almost a 
 separate island. The northern peninsula, 
 thus formed, is divided by a range of moun- 
 tains into highlands and lowlands, the 
 western part being almost entirely highland 
 
 and the eastern lowland. The country 
 south of the Friths of Forth and Clyde is 
 lowland. The lowlands are fertile and well 
 watered, but the highlands are made up of 
 lakes, moors, and barren hills, and consti- 
 tute a sterile and difficult region in which 
 agriculture is almost impossible, and which 
 affords but scanty pasturage. The western 
 coast is cut up into a multitude of small 
 islands, " and the coast line is constantly 
 broken by steep, jagged promontories jutting 
 out seaward, or cut by long lochs, up which 
 the sea runs far into the land between hills 
 rising almost as bare and straight as walls 
 on either side." These differences between 
 the eastern and western parts of the country 
 exercised a marked influence upon the 
 inhabitants. The people of the lowlands 
 were always peaceable and industrious, 
 readily engaged in trade, and at an early 
 day founded thriving towns. The high- 
 landers, on the contrary, having no induce- 
 ment to engage in industrial pursuits, were 
 a fierce, hardy people, and lived mainly by 
 pillaging the lands of the more thrifty 
 lowlanders. 
 
 The country was known to the Romans, 
 who called it Caledonia. They never suc- 
 ceeded in making it a part of their empire, 
 and, as we have seen, built a Avail across 
 the neck between the Friths of Forth and 
 Solway to keep the northern barbarians 
 from invading their dominions in southern 
 Britain. At this time the country was 
 occupied by a number of Celtic tribes, the 
 principal of which were the Picts and Scots. 
 The latter had originally settled in Ireland, 
 from which they had crossed over to the 
 western coast of Britain. They finally gave 
 their name to the entire country north of 
 tlie Solway. The Picts and Scots were an 
 exceedingly brave and hardy race; their 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TI3IES TO THE DEATH OF ROBERT BRUCE. 939 
 
 religion was druidical ; they practised po- 
 lygamy, and 'were Avarlike in their habits. 
 Their arms were short spears, daggers and 
 shields ; their habitations ^vere wretched 
 huts, and they disdained the use of clothes. 
 In A. D. 80, the Romans having become 
 masters of southern Britain, Julius Agri- 
 cola led an army into Caledonia, but, though 
 he defeated the Picts in a great battle at 
 the foot of the highlands, the resistance 
 Avhich he encountered was so fierce that he 
 abandoned the idea of conquest, and re- 
 treated south of the Friths of Forth and 
 Clyde. Across the isthmus between the 
 
 commander. They pressed so heavily upon 
 the legions that the Emperor Severus, 
 though old and infirm, came to Britain, 
 and assumed the personal command of his 
 army. He invaded Caledonia, and cut his 
 way to the northern extremity of the island. 
 He lost a large part of his army, but accom- 
 plished nothing. He repaired and strength- 
 ened the wall of Hadrian, and gave up all 
 the country north of it to the l)arbarians. 
 The Picts continued their efforts, and about 
 A. T>. 368 broke through the second wall, 
 and advanced as far south as London. 
 They were routed by Theodosius, the father 
 
 h,(.KiM': IN TUK HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 two he built a line of forts joined by a ram- 
 part of earth, the Avhole woi'k being about 
 thirty miles in length. In A. i). 120 the 
 Emperor Hadrian built a second rampart 
 across the isthmus between the Tyne and 
 the Solway, and abandoned the entire dis- 
 trict between this rampart and Agricola's 
 wall to the Picts. About A. d. 140 Lollius 
 Urbicus, a general of the Emperor Anton- 
 inus Pius, recovered this abandoned dis- 
 trict, and repaired the works of Agricola. 
 The Picts stubbornly resisted this advance 
 of the Roman boundary, and towards the 
 close of the century burst through the 
 Roman defences and killed the Roman 
 
 of the emperor of the same name, and were 
 driven back into the highlands. Theodo- 
 sius recovered the district betw^een the two 
 Roman walls, erected iC into a Roman prov- 
 ince, and named it Valentia, in honor of 
 Valentinian, the reigning emperor. This 
 region was occupied by five tribes, who 
 adopted in a large degree the civilization 
 and customs of the Romans. The with- 
 drawal of the Roman troops at the period 
 of the fall of the empire left Valentia ex- 
 posed to the fury of the Picts, who harassed 
 the region without cessation. 
 
 In the sixth century the eastern coast of 
 Valentia was settled by the Angles, Avho 
 
940 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 drove the Britons, or Welshmen, as they 
 called them, back to the hills on the west 
 side of the island. Valentia was then 
 divided into two kingdoms. The first of 
 these, the English kingdom of Northumber- 
 land, comprised the entire eastern portion 
 of Valentia, from the Frith of Forth to the 
 river Tyne. The western side was taken 
 up by the Welsh or British kingdom of 
 Strathclyde, and extended from the Frith 
 of Clyde to the river Dee on the south. 
 
 While the English were settling Valentia, 
 the migration of the Scots from Ireland to 
 the west coast of Scotland was steadily pro- 
 ceeding. The exact date of the commence- 
 ment of this migration is unknown, but it 
 is certain that early in the sixth century 
 the Scots settled in large numbers in Cale- 
 donia. They were led by Fergus MacErc, 
 and Lorn, of the family of the Dalriads. 
 They settled in what is now Argyle, and 
 there founded the kingdom of Dalriada. 
 
 Ireland had been converted to Christian- 
 ity before this, and the new-comers were 
 Christians, and brought their faith with 
 them. Shortly after the formation of the 
 kingdom of Dalriada, Columba, Abbot of 
 Durrow, in Ireland, who had been driven 
 from his country, arrived in Scotland with 
 twelve monks. He was welcomed by Conal, 
 King of Dalriada, who gave him the island 
 of lona, which lies west of the island of 
 Mull. There Columba and his companions 
 established themselves, and, after erecting 
 a church and a few simple dwellings, began 
 a series of missionary labors among the 
 native tribes of Caledonia. Their principal 
 work was the conversion of the Picts, Avhich 
 was effected chiefly by Columba himself, 
 lona became one of the primitive strong- 
 holds of the Christian faith. A school of 
 theology was established there, in which 
 the word of God Avas studied, and from 
 which missionaries, full of zeal, were sent 
 out to Britain and to the continent. These 
 zealous preachers penetrated into the Low 
 Countries, into Gaul, Switzerland, Germany, 
 and even into Italy. "The free church of 
 the Scots and Britons," says D'Aubign^, 
 " did more for the conversion of central 
 Europe than the half-enslaved Church of 
 Rome." " The sages of lona," says the 
 same writer, " knew nothing of transubstan- 
 tiation, or of the withdrawal of the cup in 
 the Lord's supper, or of auricular confes- 
 sion, or of prayers for the dead, or tapers, 
 or incense; they celebrated Easter on a 
 different day from Rome ; synodal assem- 
 
 blies regulated the affairs of the church, 
 and the papal supremacy was unknown." 
 In the seventh century the English of 
 Northumberland were converted to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 Oswald, Kingof Northumberland, is said 
 to have extended his conquests beyond the 
 friths, and his son O.swin is believed to 
 have made the Picts and Scots pay him 
 tribute. Li the next reign the English 
 were routed, their king slain, and the Picts 
 and Scots regained their freedom. In A. D. 
 843 Kenneth JNIacAlpiu, King of tho Scots, 
 extended his rule over the English north 
 of the wall of Hadrian. He was also King 
 of the Picts, and from this time the Picts 
 and Scots appear as one people. 
 
 Kenneth was succeeded in turn by his 
 brother Donald and his son Constantine. 
 Their reigns were passed in constant con- 
 flicts with the Northmen, who ravaged the 
 coasts of Scotland. Several of the Norse 
 chiefs or Vikings founded settlements in 
 Ireland, from which they led their expedi- 
 tions against the shores of Great Britain. 
 Others settled in the Orkneys and the 
 Hebrides, and proved very troublesome to 
 Scotland. One of these chieftains, named 
 Cyric or Grig, seized the Scottish throne, 
 and reigned tor eighteen years. 
 
 Constantine II., the great-grandson of 
 Kenneth, came to the Scottish throne in 
 A. D. 900, and reigned until 943. He 
 placed his kingdom under the protection 
 of Edward the Elder, King of England, but 
 soon repented of his submission, and in 937, 
 together with the Welsh of Strathclyde, 
 joined the Danes in an effort to recover 
 Northumberland, from which they had 
 been driven by Athelstane. The effort was 
 unsuccessful, and the allies were defeated in 
 the bloody battle of Brunanburh. In A. d. 
 943 Constantine resigned his crown, and 
 became a monk in the monastery of St. 
 Andrews. 
 
 Constantine was succeeded by his relative 
 Malcolm I. The English king granted to 
 Malcolm the kingdom of Strathclyde as a 
 territorial fief, to be held on condition of 
 his doing military service by land and sea 
 whenever required by the King of England. 
 Malcolm died in 954. Six kings followed 
 him in the order named. They were In- 
 duff — in whose reign Edinburgh, which had 
 been founded by Edwin of Northumberland, 
 passed into the hands of the Scots — Duff, 
 Colin, Kenneth II., Constantine III., and 
 Kenneth III. Their reigns were unevent- 
 
FE03f THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF ROBERT BRUCE. 941 
 
 ful, and were passed in wars with the Welsh 
 or wiih their own rebellious subjects, and 
 all died in battle. The line of Kenneth 
 MacAlpin ended with Malcolm II., the 
 grandson of Malcolm I. In 1018 he wrested 
 Lothian from the Earl of Northumberland, 
 and made it a part of his kingdom. In 1031 
 Malcolm acknowledged Canute, King of 
 England, Denmark, and Norway as his 
 suzerain. In 1034: Malcolm died, leaving 
 his crown to his grandson, Duncan. It is 
 said that in order to secure i\\e succession 
 of Duncan, Malcolm caused the grandson 
 of Kenneth III., the true heir to the throne, 
 to be murdered. 
 
 Gruach, the sister of the murdered prince, 
 was the wife of Macbeth, the Thane or Earl 
 of Moray, one of the most powerful of the 
 Scottish chiefs. Some of the northern 
 chiefs having rebelled, Duncan marched 
 against ihem. Macbeth, who bitterly re- 
 sented the murder of his brother-in-law, 
 seized the occasion offered by the presence 
 of the king in his province, attacked him, 
 and defeated him in a battle, and subse- 
 quently slew him, A. D. 1040. Macbeth 
 then seized the throne, and held it for sev- 
 enteen years. He governed Scotland with 
 a firm hand and with great wisdom, and his 
 reign was a period of great national pros- 
 perity, lie and his queen were liberal 
 friends of the poor, and sent alms to the 
 poor at Rome. The peace of the kingdom 
 was broken by Crinan, Abbot of Dunkeld, 
 the father of Duncan, who succeeded in in- 
 ducing Siward,Earl of Northumberland, to 
 take up the cause of Malcolm and Donald, 
 the sons of Duncan. Macbeth was driven 
 from his throne, but recovered it immedi- 
 ately after the withdrawal of Siward. Some 
 years afterward Siward again invaded 
 Scotland in behalf of the sons of Duncan, 
 and a struggle of four years ensued, which 
 was ended by the defeat and death of Mac- 
 beth, in the battle of Luraphanan, in Aber- 
 deen, A. D. 1057. 
 
 Malcolm, surnamed Canmore, or " the 
 great head," now mounted the throne of 
 Scotland. During this reign England was 
 conquered by William of Normandy. Large 
 numbers of Englishmen, who refused to 
 yield to the conqueror, took refuge at the 
 court of Scotland, where they were kindly 
 received by ]\Ialcolm. Among these were 
 Edgar Atheling, his mother, and his two 
 sisters, Margaret and Christina. Immedi- 
 ately after the conquest Malcolm had sent 
 in his nominal homage to William. He 
 
 now espoused the cause of Edgar Atheling, 
 who was the heir of the West Saxon kings, 
 and made a bloody raid into the districts 
 of Cleveland and Durham. Soon after this 
 he married Margaret, the sister of Edgar. 
 In 1072 William invaded Scotland with s 
 fleet and army to punish Malcolm for his 
 raid into Enghmd. He advanced to Aber- 
 nethy on the Tay, where Malcolm met him, 
 and did homage to him as his vassal, and 
 placed his son Duncan (the child of his first 
 wife) in William's hands as a hostage for 
 his good conduct. A few years later, Wil- 
 liam being absent in Normandy, Malcolm 
 made a new raid into England, and harried 
 it as far as the Tyne, Robert, William's 
 eldest son, marched towards the Scottish 
 border to avenge this invasion, but the 
 matter was settled by negotiation between 
 Malcolm and himself. In 1092, in the 
 reign of Wiliam Rufus, Malcolm again in- 
 vaded England. The English king there- 
 upon advanced into Lothian, and Malcolm 
 averted his anger by renewing his homage 
 to him. William failed to perform his part 
 of the agreement, and Malcolm in 1093 in- 
 vaded England once more at the head of a 
 powerful army. He was defeated and slain 
 in a battle on the banks of the Alne, and 
 his army driven back in confusion. His 
 son Edward, who had been recognized as 
 the heir to the crown, also perished in this 
 battle. When the news of the disaster 
 reached Scotland, Queen Margaret died of 
 grief. She had used her influence over her 
 husband to reform many abuses in the 
 kingdom, and had introduced a greater 
 degree of refinement and civilization into 
 the country than the Scots had ever known 
 before. 
 
 Donald Bane, the brother of Malcolm, 
 was elected by the Scottish chiefs to the 
 vacant throne. Duncan, the eldest son of 
 Malcolm, who had been kept as a hostage 
 in England, induced the English king to 
 assist him with an army to recover the 
 throne of his father, which he promised to 
 hold as a vassal of the crown of England. 
 With this assistance he drove Donald from 
 the throne and reigned for a few months. 
 Donald, aided by Edmund, the eldest sur- 
 viving son of Malcolm by his marriage with 
 Margaret, renewed the struggle, defeated 
 Duncan, and put him to death, and exiled 
 the other members of the family. Donald 
 then reigned for three years, at the end of 
 which time he was defeated by Edgar 
 Atheling at the head of an English army. 
 
942 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The Atheling placed his nephew Edgar 
 upon the throne, and put out Donaki's 
 eyes, and threw him into prison. Edmund 
 took refuge in an English monastery, where 
 he died. 
 
 Edgar, the son of Malcolm and Mar- 
 garet, carried on the reforms begun by his 
 mother, and during his reign the civiliza- 
 tion of«the Saxons was generally adopted by 
 the people of the southern part of Scotland, 
 and the old Celtic customs disappeared. 
 This revolution in the manners and cus- 
 toms of the people of the south widely sep- 
 arated them from the true Scots of the 
 north, who from this time came to be re- 
 garded as the natural enemies of law and 
 order, and the perpetual disturbers of the 
 peace aud prosperity of the kingdom. 
 
 Edgar reigned from A. D. 1097 to 1107. 
 In the early part of this reign Magnus 
 Barefoot, King of Norway, seized the Ork- 
 neys and the Scandinavian earldom on the 
 mainland, and placed his son Sigurd over 
 them. He then made a descent upon the 
 Hebrides, and ravaged them. At his death 
 the islands reverted to their former owners. 
 The Lords of the Isles, as these chieftains 
 were called, from this time had a conven- 
 ient way of declaring themselves vassals 
 of Norway whenever they -wished to evade 
 their obligations to their own sovereigns. 
 Friendly relations were cultivated with 
 England during the reign of Edgar, and 
 his sister Edith was married to Henry I., 
 the youngest son of William the Conqueror. 
 She took the Norman name of Matilda, and 
 was greatly beloved by her husband and 
 the English people. On his death-bed 
 •Edgar separated Strathclyde from the rest 
 of the Scottish kingdom, and bestowed it 
 upon his brother David. 
 
 Edgar was succeeded by his brother 
 Alexander I., who came to the throne in 
 A. D. 1107. He was a man of great energy 
 and strong, unyielding will. His efforts to 
 govern his unruly subjects involved him in 
 constant trouble with them. In the early 
 part of his reign a formidable insurrection 
 was begun by the men of Merne and Moray. 
 Alexander promptly marched against the 
 rebels and defeated them in a battle on the 
 northern shore of the Moray Frith. He 
 took a bloody vengeance upon the rebels, 
 and to commemorate his victory founded 
 the Abbey of Scone. Alexander vigorously 
 maintained the independence of the Scottish 
 Church against the Archbishop of York, 
 who claimed the whole country as his eccle- 
 
 siastical province. He refused to permit 
 any appeal to the pope, and would not for 
 a moment listen to the claim of the English 
 prelate to authority in Scotland. Alexan- 
 der died in 1124, and, as he left no children, 
 was succeeded by his brother David, Thus 
 Strathclyde once more became a part of the 
 Scottish kingdom. 
 
 In the first part of the reign of David I., 
 a rebellion broke out in Moray. It was 
 suppressed by the king with the aid of some 
 Norman knights whom he had gathered 
 about him when Prince of Strathclyde, 
 Moray was declared forfeited, and was 
 divided among the Norman knights. 
 
 David took part in the civil war in Eng- 
 land between Matilda and Stephen, in be- 
 half of the former, who was his niece. He 
 was obliged by Stephen to withdraw from 
 the contest. He would not break his oath, 
 of fealty to Matilda, but evaded it by in- 
 vesting his son Henry with the Honor of 
 Huntingdon, an English barony which he 
 had previously held. Carlisle and Doncas- 
 ter were also conferred upon Henry by the 
 English king. Henry went to London with 
 Stephen, and at his court took precedence 
 of the English barons. Jealous of this 
 honor to a foreign prince, the barons left 
 the court in a body. David resented this 
 insult by recalling his son to Scotland, and 
 prepared to invade England. In 1138 his 
 army ravaged the northern counties, but a 
 little later he sustained a severe defeat at 
 the hands of the English in the battle of 
 the Standard near Northallerton. Peace 
 was made the next year at Durham. 
 David's son Henry was invested with the 
 earldom of Northumberland, in England. 
 Two years later, 1141, David again took up 
 arms in behalf of Matilda, and narrowly 
 escaped capture when her forces were de- 
 feated in the battle of Winchester. 
 
 David was one of Scotland's greatest, as 
 well as one of her best kings. He labored 
 to promote the welfare of his people at 
 home, and abroad firmly upheld the honor 
 and renown of his kingdom. He steadily 
 promoted the civilization of the country, 
 introduced many foreign manners and cus- 
 toms, and induced a large number of Nor- 
 man barons to settle in Scotland, and gave 
 them lands. He was a warm friend to the 
 commons, and promoted the growth of the 
 towns, upon Avhich he bestowed many im- 
 portant privileges. He was always accessi- 
 ble to the poorest of his subjects, and would 
 listen to their complaints with patience, and 
 
FR03f THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF ROBERT BRUCE. 943 
 
 promptly redressed their grievances. He 
 founded a number of abbeys and the bish- 
 oprics of Dunblane, Brechin, Aberdeen, 
 Ross, Caithness, and Glasgow ; and made 
 many important reforms in the government 
 of the church. During his reign the coun- 
 try made great progress in civilization, 
 wealth, and fertility. His last years were 
 clouded by the deatli of his only son Prince 
 Henry, who was greatly beloved by the 
 nation. David died in 1153, after a reign 
 of twenty-nine years. 
 
 Malcolm IV., the eldest son of Prince 
 Henry, succeeded his grandfather. He was 
 not quite twelve years old at the time, but 
 the principle of hereditary succession had 
 made such progress in Scotland, that his 
 accession was generally acquiesced in. 
 When he was nineteen years old a rebellion 
 broke out in Galloway, but was put down, 
 and that district was reduced to direct 
 dependence on the Scottish crown. A few 
 years later the Lord of Argyle rose in re- 
 volt against the king. He was slain by 
 treachery, and his possessions were added 
 to the royal dominions. On the other hand, 
 Malcolm was obliged by Henry II. to re- 
 linquish the sovereignty of the northern 
 counties of England, which had been held 
 by David. He was then invested Avith the 
 Honor of Huntingdon, as a fief of the Eng- 
 lish crown. 
 
 William, surnaraed the Lion, came to the 
 throne at the death of his brother Malcolm, 
 in 1165. His reign is the longest in Scot- 
 tish history, and lasted until 1214, a period 
 of nearly fifty years. At the outset of his 
 reign he demanded of Henry II. of Eng- 
 land, the earldom of Northumberland, 
 which his father had held and his brother 
 had lost. Henry refused to grant it, and 
 William invaded England while Henry 
 was absent in France, and overran a large 
 part of the northern counties. Rashly ex- 
 posing himself, he was captured Avith several 
 of his principal nobles near Alnwick Castle 
 in the summer of 1174, and was sent as a 
 prisoner to the Castle of Falaise in Nor- 
 mandy. At the close of the year William 
 regained his liberty by agreeing to hold his 
 ci'own as the vassal of the King of England, 
 and requiring his nobles and clergy to do 
 homage to Heniy. The principal strong- 
 holds of Scotland were garrisoned with 
 English troops, and William and his nobles 
 and clergy did homage to Henry at York 
 as their feudal lord. This degrading treaty 
 continued in force until the death of Henrv 
 
 II. in 1189. His successor, Richard I., 
 being in want of money, released William 
 from his obligations and restored the Scot- 
 tish castles upon the payment of the sum 
 of 10,000 marks. He refused, however, to 
 bestow upon William the earldom of 
 Northumberland. Upon the accession of 
 John to the English crown, William did 
 him such homage as the Scottish kings had 
 formerly paid the King of England for 
 their fiefs in that country. The two kings 
 thoroughly distrusted each other, and for 
 several years of his reign William was 
 obliged to keep a considerable force on the 
 border to protect Berwick, the largest trad- 
 ing town of Scotland, from the efforts of 
 John to ruin its commerce. 
 
 In 1176 the Archbishop of Yoi-k once 
 more claimed Scotland as a part of his prov- 
 ince. The Scottish clergy appealed to the 
 pope, and Clement III., in 1188, confirmed 
 their claim of independence, and declared 
 Scotland subject in religious matters only 
 to the Holy See. During William's cap- 
 tivity a formidable revolt broke out in 
 Galloway, but was put down by William's 
 nephew Roland, who was confirmed in pos- 
 session of the district. In 1214 William 
 died at Stirling. 
 
 Alexander II., the only son of William, 
 now became King of Scotland. He took 
 part in the war between the English barons 
 and King John, fighting on the side of the 
 barons, in the hope of regaining Northum- 
 berland. He received the homage of the 
 northern barons, and joining his forces with 
 theirs, marched to Dover to welcome and 
 do homage to Prince Louis of France, who 
 had been invited by the barons to come 
 over and take the English crown. The 
 death of John and the acceptance of his son 
 Henry III. by the English put an end to 
 the struggle. In 1217 Alexander did 
 homage to Henry, and was invested with 
 the Honor of Huntingdon. In 1221 the 
 Scottish king married the Princess Joanna, 
 the sister of Henry of England. This mar- 
 riage was followed by a peace of nearly a 
 century with England. Alexander agreed 
 to exchange his claim to the earldom of 
 Northumberland for a grant of the lands 
 of Penrith and Tynedale. So cordial were 
 the relations between the two kings that 
 when Henry went to France he left the 
 border under the protection of Alexander. 
 In 1222 the two kings appointed a joint 
 commission to determine the border between 
 England and Scotland. Their labors re- 
 
944 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 suited in fixing the line which still divides 
 the two countries. A wide district on 
 either side was left as a neutral ground. 
 Alexander died in 1249, while engaged in 
 an expedition against the Western Isles. 
 
 Alexander III. was but eight years old 
 when he succeeded his father. He was 
 solenanly crowned at Scone, and on Christ- 
 mas day, 1251, was married at York to the 
 Princess Margaret, the daughter of Henry 
 III. On this occasion he did homage to 
 Henry for the lands he held in England. 
 Henry demanded that he should do homage 
 for Scotland also, but Alexander evaded 
 this, by declaring that in a matter of such 
 grave moment he must first consult the 
 lords of Scotland. In 1278 Alexander 
 went to Westminster to do homage to Ed- 
 ward I., the new king of England. Ed- 
 ward renewed the claim of his father to the 
 homage of Scotland, but Alexander refused 
 to acknowledge it. For the time Edward 
 forebore to enforce his claim. In 1262, 
 Hakon, King of Norway, attacked the 
 Orkneys and Hebrides with a powerful 
 fleet, and then crossed to the western coast 
 of Scotland, along which he committed 
 great ravages. The Northmen gained no 
 permanent advantage in this expedition, 
 but in 1281 Margaret, the oldest daughter 
 of the Scottish king, was married to Eric, 
 the heir to the crown of Norway. She died 
 two years later, leaving a daughter named 
 Margaret. A few months later Alexander, 
 the only son of the Scottish king, died, and 
 the infant Margaret became the heir to the 
 crown of Scotland. In 1286 Alexander 
 III. was killed by a fall from his horse. 
 
 The death of Alexander closed what 
 may be termed the second period of Scot- 
 tish history. " It had begun with the de- 
 thronement of Donald Bane, the last Celtic 
 king, nearly two hundred years before, and 
 during that time the boundary of Scotland 
 had been extended by the annexation of 
 Argyle and of the Isles, while the two de- 
 pendencies of Lothian and Galloway had 
 been more closely drawn to her, though 
 they still remained separate and distinct. 
 Throughout this period the influence of 
 England, though peaceable, had been 
 stronger than it was ever to be again. 
 English laws and English customs had been 
 brought in, and had, in many cases, taken 
 the place of the old Celtic usages. The 
 Celtic Maers had been removed to make 
 way for the sheriffs of the crown. But, as 
 Scotland was not divided like England into 
 
 shires, the sheriffs were not, as in England, 
 the reeves of the already existing shires, 
 but officers who were placed by tlie king 
 over certain districts. These districts or 
 sheriffUoms became the counties of later 
 times. Feudalism after the Norman model, 
 with all its burthensome exactions and op- 
 pressions, had been brought in and had 
 taken firmer root in Scotland than it ever 
 did in England. The native chiefs had 
 been displaced by foreign nobles, so that 
 a purely Norman baronage held the 
 lands, whether peopled by a Celtic or a 
 Saxon peasantry. In some cases the new 
 owners founded families afterwards known 
 under Celtic names; for, while the Celts 
 gave their own names to the lands on which 
 they settled, the Normans took the names 
 of the lands conferred upon them and bore 
 them as their own. Tlie long peace with 
 England, which had lasted unbroken for 
 nearly a century, had been marked by great 
 social progress. The large proportion of 
 land that was now under the plough proves 
 that during this untroubled time husbandry 
 must have thriven, roads and bridges were 
 many and in good repair, and the trading 
 towns had made great advances in riches 
 and power. Hitherto no one town had dis- 
 tinctly taken its place as the capital. St. 
 John's Town, or Perth, had, from its con- 
 nection with Scone, some claim to the first 
 place, but the king held his court or his 
 assize indifferently at any of the royal 
 burghs. These burghs were of great im- 
 portance in the state, and, as the burgesses 
 of the royal burghs were all vassals hold- 
 ing direct from the crown, they acted in 
 some sort as a check on the growing power 
 of the nobles. The burghers had the right 
 of governing themselves by their own laws, 
 and were divided into two groups. Those 
 north of the Scots' Water, or Frith of Forth, 
 were bound together by a league like the 
 great continental Hansa, and known by the 
 same name; while those in Lothian, repre- 
 sented by the four principal among them — 
 Roxburgh, Stirling, Edinburgh, and Ber- 
 wick — held their 'court of the four burghs,' 
 which is still represented by the 'conven- 
 tion of royal burghs' which meets once a 
 year in Edinburgh. Nor were the Scottish 
 towns of this period in any way behind the 
 cities of the continent. Berwick, the richest 
 and the greatest, was said by a writer of the 
 time to rival London. Inverness had a 
 great reputation for shipbuilding. A ship 
 which was built there called forth the envy 
 
FIi03I THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF ROBERT BRUCE. 945 
 
 and wonder of the French nobles of that 
 time. But this happy state of affairs was 
 brought to an end by the death of the king, 
 and the long years of war and misery that 
 followed went far to sweep away all traces 
 of the high state of civilization and pros- 
 perity that had been reached by the country 
 in this, the golden age of Scottish history." 
 
 Within the mouth following the death 
 of Alexander III., the estates of Scotland 
 met at Scone, and appointed a council of 
 six regents to govern the kingdom for Mar- 
 garet, the Maiden of Norway, who was then 
 but three years old, and who had succeeded 
 to her grandfather's crown. Robert Bruce, 
 a Norman baron, whose ancestors had set- 
 tled in Annandale in the twelfth century, 
 attempted to seize the crown by force. He 
 was the son of Isabella, the second daughter 
 of David, Earl of Huntingdon, the brother 
 of William the Lion. He appealed to Ed- 
 ward I. of England, as liege lord of Scot- 
 land, to sustain his claim. The estates op- 
 posed him, and a treaty was negotiated 
 with Edward for the marriage of Margaret 
 with the son and heir of the English king. 
 It was stipulated that Scotland should re- 
 main a distinct and separate kingdom, and 
 that her independence should be respected 
 by England after the union of the two 
 crowns by the proposed marriage. The ar- 
 rangement was broken off by the death of 
 Margaret, in 1290, when on her way to 
 Scotland. 
 
 With Margaret the direct line of Wil- 
 liam the Lion ended. Several claimants 
 of the crown now appeared, who based their 
 claims upon their descent from David, Earl 
 of Huntingdon. The principal of these 
 were Robert Bruce and John Balliol, the 
 grandson of David's daughter Mai'garet. 
 Both appealed to Edward I. of England, 
 to decide the matter. Edward decided in 
 favor of Balliol, who towards the close of 
 the year 1292 was crowned King of Scot- 
 land, as John I., at Scone. As the price 
 of his decision Edward required John to 
 do homage to him for his crown. It was 
 the ardent wish of the English king to unite 
 the whole of Britain under the rule of Eng- 
 land. He had just added Wales to his 
 kingdom, and he determined to rule Scot- 
 land by making John his vassal. 
 
 Immediately after his coronation, John 
 summoned the estates to meet at Scone. 
 This assembly was now termed for the first 
 time a parliament. John was a weak and 
 incompetent ruler, and was generally re- 
 60 
 
 garded by his people as a mere tool of the 
 English king. Roger Bartholomew, a bur- 
 gess of Berwick, being dissatisfied with an 
 unfavorable decision of one of the Scottish 
 courts, appealed to King Edward, who or- 
 dered a hearing of his case before a council 
 at Newcastle. This was a direct violation 
 of Edward's treaty with Scotland, but he 
 compelled John to submit to it. A few 
 months later Macduff, the grand uncle of 
 the Earl of Fife, appealed to Edward from 
 a decision of the estates concerning the 
 lands of the houses of Bruce and Douglas. 
 Edward summoned John to appear before 
 the English parliament, but even the sub- 
 missive king revolted from so abject a sur- 
 render of his country's liberties. He was 
 therevipon declared a contumacious vassal, 
 and AYas ordered by Edward to surrender 
 into his hands three of his principal for- 
 tresses until he should give satisfaction. 
 John's reply to this was the formation of 
 an alliance with the Kings of Norway and 
 France against England. In this measure 
 he was heartily supported by the nobles 
 and people of Scotland. From this time 
 until the Reformation France could always 
 count upon Scotland as a faithful ally. 
 Immediately upon the conclusion of the 
 alliance, the Scottish army crossed the 
 border and ravaged the northern counties 
 of England. 
 
 Edward had now the pretext for the sub- 
 jugation of Scotland for which he had been 
 so long watching, and he at once availed 
 himself of it. He immediately marched 
 northward with a large army, and laid siege 
 to Berwick, which he captured in spite of 
 the determined resistance of the citizens. 
 He took a stern vengeance upon the people 
 of Berwick, and reduced the city to the 
 rank of an ordinary market town, A. D. 
 1294. He then advanced to Dunbar, de- 
 feated the Scottish army near that place, 
 and took the Castle of Dunbar. Continuing 
 his march to Edinburgh he established his 
 head-quarters at Holyrood, and laid siege 
 to the castle, which he captured. He seized 
 the crown jewels of Scotland, which were 
 kept in Edinburgh castle, and then pressed 
 on to Stirling and Perth, both of which 
 places fell into his hands. He took the 
 Stone of Destiny from Scone and sent it to 
 Westminster Abbey, where it is still kept. 
 All the old kings of Scotland had been 
 crowned on this stone, and the Scots uni- 
 versally believed that the stone was in some 
 mysterious way linked with the destiny of 
 
946 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 their country. They therefore regai'ded its 
 capture as a national misfortune. Edward 
 advanced as far north as Elgin, and in 129G 
 returned to Berwick. Scotland was com- 
 pletely subdued. John was deprived of 
 ins crown, and sent as a prisoner to Eng- 
 land. He was subsequently permitted to 
 retire to his estate in Picardy, in France, 
 where he died in 1315. The Scottish no- 
 bles were compelled to swear fealty to Ed- 
 ward, who treated Scotland as a fief forfeited 
 by the treason of the vassal who had held 
 it. All the castles were garrisoned with 
 English troops ; the Scots were not per- 
 mitted to hold any office of importance, and 
 were treated with great severity ; and Scot- 
 land was administered by English officials 
 as an integral part of the English kingdom. 
 The Earl of Warrenne and Surrey was ap- 
 pointed guardian of Scotland, and gov- 
 erned it in the name of King Edward. The 
 highlanders, who had not been directly 
 molested by Edward, paid no attention to 
 the change in the government, and the 
 Norman nobles quietly accepted it. The 
 tyranny of the English, however, soon 
 drove a portion of the Scottish nation into 
 resistance. 
 
 William Wallace, a gentleman of Clydes- 
 dale, having sufFei'ed a grievous injury at 
 the hands of an English officer, killed him. 
 He escaped to the woods, and called upon 
 his countrymen to aid him in freeing Scot- 
 land from foreign rule, A. D. 1297. " He 
 was endowed with gigantic force of body, 
 with heroic courage of mind, with disinter- 
 ested magnanimity, with inci'edible patience, 
 and ability to bear hunger, fatigue, and all 
 the severities of the seasons." By degrees 
 he collected about him a band of devoted 
 followers, and soon found himself able to 
 attempt the work to which he had devoted 
 his life. He surprised and cut to pieces 
 the English garrison at Lanark, and slew 
 Haselrig, the newly appointed sheriff of 
 Ayr. This success was followed by several 
 others, and, his forces growing stronger, he 
 attacked Scone, in which Ormesby, the 
 justiciary to whom Warrenne had deputed 
 the government, was holding his court. 
 Ormesby escaped, but many prisoners and 
 much booty fell into Wallace's hands. He 
 next attacked Glasgow, and compelled 
 Anthony Beck, the Bishop of Durham, to 
 take flight to England. All the English 
 officials, save those in the fortified places, 
 now abandoned their posts and fled into 
 their own country. Wallace, whose suc- 
 
 cesses had aroused the spirit of Scotland 
 once more, was now joined by Lord William 
 Douglas and Robert Bruce, Earl of Car- 
 rick, and soon found himself at the head of 
 a considerable force. The nobles, however, 
 looked coldly upon the movement, and 
 when, in the summer of 1297, an English 
 army under Lord Percy advanced into 
 Scotland, they renewed their allegiance to 
 Edward. Believing that the outbreak was 
 over. Lord Percy soon withdrew his forces 
 into England. Wallace immediately took 
 the field again, and was joined by large 
 numbers of lowlanders. By a series of 
 rapid movements he soon made himself 
 master of the fortresses north of the Tay. 
 Earl Warrenne assembled an army of 40,000 
 men, and advanced against him. On the 
 11th of September, 1297, he attacked Wal- 
 lace in the plain of Stirling, and was utterly 
 routed. Among the slain was Cressingham, 
 the English treasurer of Scotland, who 
 had made himself odious to the Scots by 
 his rapacity. They flayed his dead body, 
 and made saddles and girths of his skin. 
 Warrenne retreated into England, and 
 Wallace, following him, ravaged the north- 
 ern counties with great cruelty, and returned 
 to Scotland laden with plunder. All the 
 strongholds south of the Forth passed into 
 the hands of the Scots, and AVallace was 
 made guardian of the kingdom. 
 
 Edward had been absent in Flanders 
 during this campaign. He now returned 
 to England, and assembling an army of 
 nearly 100,000 men, marched into Scot- 
 land. He attacked the Scottish army under 
 Wallace at Falkirk (1298), and inflicted a 
 decisive defeat upon it. Wallace resigned 
 the guardianship of the kingdom, and Ed- 
 ward returned to Carlisle. Though he 
 held the southern lowlands, the northern 
 lowlands maintained their resistance until 
 1303, when they too were compelled to sub- 
 mit to England. Edward granted an 
 amnesty to all the Scottish leaders with the 
 exception of Wallace, who \vas required to 
 submit unconditionally to the clemency of 
 the king. Since the battle of Falkirk 
 Wallace had been absent on the continent. 
 He now returned to Scotland, and was soon 
 after betrayed into the hands of the Eng- 
 lish by Sir John Menteith, his trusted 
 friend. He was sent to London, and was 
 executed as a traitor. The Scots have always 
 honored him as a martyr to the cause of his 
 country, and to this day his memory is cher- 
 ished as the greatest of the Scottish heroes. 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF ROBERT BRUCE. 947 
 
 The English were now supreme in Scot- 
 land. The kingdom was governed by a 
 lieutenant of the King of England, aided 
 by a council of barons and bishops. It was 
 given a representation often deputies in the 
 English parliament, and English officials 
 were appointed in every department of the 
 government. Edward endeavored by just 
 treatment of the Scots to win their favor, 
 but he could not succeed in suppressing the 
 natural longings of the nation for independ- 
 ence. 
 
 The discontents of the Scots soon brought 
 on another revolt. Robert Bruce, Earl of 
 
 who was despatched by Sir Roger Kirkpat- 
 rick, one of Bruce's followers. By this act, 
 which combined murder and sacrilege, 
 Bruce drew upon himself the vengeance of 
 Edward and of the church. It made him 
 the legitimate heir to the throne, however, 
 and so won for him the sympathy and sup- 
 port of his countrymen, who were very im- 
 patient under the English yoke. Bruce at 
 once advanced his claims to the throne, and 
 on the 27th of March, 1306, was solemnly 
 crowned King of Scotland at Scone. 
 
 Edward prepared to crush this new out- 
 break with vigor. Aymer de Valence was 
 
 LOCH LOMOND. 
 
 Carrick, who had been concerned in Wal- 
 lace's wars, had been pardoned by Edward 
 and received into favor by him. He meant 
 to renew the eftbrt to regain the freedom 
 of his country, and his plotting for that 
 l^urpose being discovered by Edward, he 
 was obliged to fly from the English court. 
 He hastened to Dumfries, where he had an 
 interview in the Grey Friars Church with 
 John Comyn of Badenoch, called the Red 
 Comyu, who was, next to Balliol and his 
 sons, the heir to the Scottish throne. What 
 passed between them is unknown, but the 
 interview ended in Bruce's stabbing Comyu, 
 
 made Governor of Scotland. Bruce was 
 declared a traitor and was excommunicated 
 by a special bull from the pope, and all 
 who had aided him were punished with 
 great severity as fast as they fell into the 
 hands of the English. Nigel Bruce, the 
 brother of Robert; Christopher Setou, his 
 brother-in-law, and three other nobles were 
 executed. The shedding of the blood of 
 these men did much to alienate the Scottish 
 nobility from England, and to induce them 
 to make common cause with the people. 
 Edward assembled a powerful army and 
 marched northward. He died at Burgh- 
 
948 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 on-theSands, on the 30th of July, 1306, 
 and with his dying breath enjoined his son 
 and successor to prosecute the war with 
 vigor. Edward II., however, soon aban- 
 doned the struggle, and Scotland was given 
 several years more in which to prepare for 
 the decisive contest with her old enemy. 
 
 King Robert was not acknowledged by 
 the entire Scottish nation, and for several 
 years his prospects were so desperate that 
 he was a wanderer and an outlaw. During 
 this time he maintained an irregular war- 
 fare with the English, in which he greatly 
 increased his reputation for good general- 
 ship and personal daring. His chief ene- 
 mies were the Earl of Buchan and Mac- 
 dougal of Lorn, who had been won over to 
 the English interests. At length Bruce 
 was forced to take refuge in the island of 
 Rachrin, off the north coast of Ireland. 
 According to the tradition, he had almost 
 decided to give up the struggle in Scotland 
 and to join the crusade. As he lay in bed 
 one morning in the hut in which he had 
 taken shelter, he saw a spider vainly at- 
 tempting to throw its w'eb across from beam 
 to beam in the roof above him. Six times 
 the insect made the effort and failed. " Six 
 times," said Bruce to himself, " have I 
 failed in my efforts against the English." 
 He watched with renewed interest to see if 
 the spider would repeat the attempt. " If 
 it does," he said, " I will take it as an en- 
 couragement to try again." To his delight, 
 the spider made another effort and was suc- 
 cessful. Greatly encouraged, Bruce Avent 
 back to Scotland, and joining some of his 
 followers in the isle of Arrau, passed over to 
 the mainland. His force was small, and he 
 had to encounter many perils. He bore 
 his trials manfully, and infused his patience 
 and hopefulness into his followers, whose 
 numbers increased slowly, and at last he 
 defeated his old enemy, the Earl of Buchan, 
 in a battle near Inverary. He followed up 
 this success by ravaging the lands of 
 Buchan with fire and sword. His cause 
 gained ground steadily, and soon the Scot- 
 tish clergy acknowledged him as their 
 king, thus virtually relieving him, of the 
 ban of excommunication. This was a great 
 gain for him. One by one the Scottish 
 strongholds fell into his hands, until at last 
 only Stirling remained to the English. It 
 was so hard pressed that the governor 
 agreed to surrender it if not relieved by the 
 Feast of St. John the Baptist, 1314. Ed- 
 ward II. assembled au array of 100,000 
 
 men, and marched rapidly to the relief of 
 Stirling. He was routed by the Scottish 
 army under Bruce, at Bannockburn, within 
 sight of Stirling, on the 24th of June, 1314. 
 The English fled into their own country, 
 and Edward never drew rein until he 
 reached Dunbar, from which he took ship 
 for Berwick. 
 
 During this period Lord James Douglas, 
 the son of the Douglas who had sustained. 
 Wallace, won so many successes over the 
 English that his name became a terror to 
 them. He was called the " Black Douglas," 
 from his swarthy skin and black hair. 
 
 The battle of Bannockburn undid all the 
 work of Edward I., and established the in- 
 dependence of Scotland. England refused 
 to acknowledge this independence, and the 
 struggle went on, causing great suflcring to 
 the borders of both kingdoms. England 
 was also attacked in her dependency of Ire- 
 land, as we have seen. Edward Bruce, the 
 brother of King Robert, invaded that 
 island, and with the aid of Robert won for 
 himself the crown of Ireland. Robert was 
 obliged to return to Scotland, and soon 
 afterwards Edward was defeated and slain. 
 Meanwhile the war on the English border 
 went on. The Scots won back Berwick, 
 and held it against all the eflbrts of the 
 English to retake it. In 1328 the long 
 struggle Avas brought to a close by the 
 treaty of Northampton, between Robert I. 
 of Scotland and Edward II. of England. 
 Edward acknowledged the independence 
 of Scotland and bound himself to respect it, 
 and the two kings pledged themselves to be 
 faithful allies and to refrain from stirring 
 up trouble among their respective subjects. 
 Edward's sister Joan was betrothed to 
 Robert's infant son. By this treaty all the 
 former submissions to England were done 
 away with, and Lothian and Strathclyde 
 became entirely independent of England 
 and integral parts of Scotland. The strug- 
 gle for independence produced another 
 happy effect. It knit together in one com- 
 pact people all the hitherto divided elements 
 of the Scottish nation. Another result, not 
 so fortunate, was the deep-rooted hatred of 
 England and everything English that had 
 grown up among all classes of the Scottish 
 people. This feeling drove the Scots into 
 an alliance with France, which shaped the 
 future destiny of their country. King 
 Robert entered into a treaty with France 
 by which he bound himself to invade Eng- 
 land whenever France should declare war 
 
FBOM DAVID II. TO JAMES VI. 
 
 949 
 
 against that conntry. In 1318 the Scottish 
 parliament settled the succession to the 
 crown : first, on the direct male heirs, in 
 the order of seniority ; next on the dii-ect 
 female heirs ; and, in the event of the fail- 
 ure of both of these, on the next of kin. 
 This parliament also forbade the holders 
 of Scottish estates residing in England from 
 carrying the produce or revenues of those 
 lands out of the kingdom. This was done 
 to compel the landholders of Scotland to 
 be Scotch alone. The parliament of 1326 
 admitted representatives from the burghs, 
 and acknowledged the Third Estate as an 
 essential part of the Scottish parliament. 
 Robert died at Cardross in 1329, leaving 
 one son. He was greatly mourned by the 
 Scots. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM DAVID II. TO JAMES VI. 
 
 David II. King — The Regency — Revolt of tlie 
 Nobles — Edward Balliol Made King — Robert the 
 Steward Drives out the English — David Regains 
 the Throne — Invades England — Is Defeated and 
 Captured — His Release and Death — Robert II. — 
 The Stuarts— War with England— Battle of Otter- 
 burn — Robert III. — Anarchy in Scotland — ^James 
 I. Proclaimed King — Regency of the Duke of 
 Albany — James Released by the English — Mounts 
 the Throne — His Vigorous Measures — Attempts 
 to Break the Power of the Highlanders — Murder 
 of the King — Reforms of this Reign— James II.— 
 Fall of the Black Douglases — James Takes Part 
 in the English Civil Wars — James III. — His Ef- 
 forts to Curb the Power of the Nobles — The Af- 
 fair of the Bridge of Lauder — Murder of the King 
 — James IV. — Efforts to Strengthen the Authority 
 of the Crown — Relations with England — Conquers 
 the Lord of the Isles— War with England — Battle 
 of Flooden — Death of James — Advance of Civili- 
 zation in Scotland — James V. — The Regency — 
 Feuds Between the Nobles — The " Erection of the 
 King " — Fall of the Red Douglases — James Puts 
 Down the Borderers — The Reformation Begun — ■ 
 Death of James — Mary Proclaimed Queen — The 
 Earl of Arran Regent — War with England — The 
 Queen Sent to France — The English Driven from 
 Scotland — Spread of the Reformation — Murder of 
 Cardinal Beaton — The Queen-JIother Becomes 
 Regent^The French Influence Obnoxious to the 
 Scots — Rapid Increase of the Power of the Re- 
 formers — The First Covenant — The Lords of the 
 Congregation — They Demand of the Regent a 
 Reform in iMatters of Religion — Treacherous Con- 
 duct of the Regent— Religious Riots— The Regent 
 Deposed— England Aids tiie Reformers— Treaty 
 of Edinburgh— Death of the Regent — The Roman 
 Catholic Religion Overthrown — Presbyterianism 
 Established — Return of Queen Mary — John Kno.x 
 —His Treatment of the Queen— Arrogance of the 
 Reformed Clergy— Revolt of the Earl of Huntly 
 — The Queen Marries Darnley— Murder of Rizzio 
 — Birth of James VI. — Bothwell Secures the 
 Queen's Favor — Murder of Darnley — Marriage 
 of the Queen to Bothwell— Civil War— The Queen 
 a Prisoner — Abdicates her Throne. 
 
 AVID II. was but eight years old at 
 the time of his father's death. He 
 was crowned at Scone, and was 
 also anointed. The latter cere- 
 mony had never before been per- 
 formed in Scotland, as it was 
 regarded as the exclusive right of indepen- 
 dent sovereigns. The kingdom was gov- 
 erned by Lord Randolph as regent. In 
 the early part of his reign the English 
 barons who had been dispossessed of their 
 estates in Scotland by the law of the last 
 reign, which we have mentioned, invaded 
 Scotland with the avowed purpose of making 
 Edward, the son of John Balliol, king. At 
 this juncture Randolph, the regent, died. 
 He was succeeded by Donald, Earl of Mar, 
 who, like Randolph, was a nephew of Robert 
 Bruce. The invaders landed on the coast 
 of Fife, and defeated the Scottish army 
 under the regent, who was killed. The 
 victors then occupied Perth, and on the 
 24th of September, 1332, crowned Edward 
 Balliol king at Scone. Edward acknowl- 
 edged himself the vassal of the King of 
 England. The Scots, irritated by this in- 
 vasion of their country, made war on the 
 English border counties, and so gave Ed- 
 ward III. a pretext for invading Scotland. 
 In the spring of 1333 he laid siege to Ber- 
 wick. The regent, Archibald Douglas, 
 marched to relieve it, but was defeated at 
 Halidon Hill, and Berwick was obliged to 
 capitulate. Edward Balliol ceded the 
 town to the English, and surrendered to 
 them all the fortified places south of the 
 Forth. The war was continued along the 
 border for three years with varying success. 
 At length, Edward III. being occupied 
 with his contest with France, the national 
 party of Scotland, under Robert, the high 
 steward of the kingdom, who became regent 
 in 1338, won back the fortresses, and in 
 1341 drove Edward Balliol out of the 
 country. David and his wife, Joan of 
 England, who had been sent to France to 
 insure their safety, were at once brought 
 back to Scotland, and the king assumed 
 the government of his kingdom. A truce 
 was entered into with England, and a 
 period of five years of peace ensued, broken 
 only by raids along the border. In 1346 
 Edward III. being engaged in the siege of 
 Calais, David broke the truce in the interest 
 of France, and invaded England. He was 
 defeated and made prisoner in the battle 
 of Neville's Cross. He remained a captive 
 for eleven years, during which time Scot- 
 
950 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 land was governed by the former regent, 
 Robert the Steward. The Scots retook Ber- 
 wick, but lost it again. Edward, upon his 
 return from France, advanced into Scot- 
 land as far as the Forth, but the Scots re- 
 tired before liim, devastating their country 
 as they retreated. In 1347 David was re- 
 leased on payment of a ransom of 100,000 
 marks. The remainder of his reign was 
 
 land having expired, Robert renewed the 
 war. The King of France sent a force of 
 2,000 men, and arms and money, to his 
 Scottish ally. Ricliard II. invaded Scot- 
 land, but the principal damage he inflicted 
 was the destruction of Melrose Abbey. The 
 Scots and French in the meantime rav- 
 aged the northern counties of England 
 with fire and sword. Upon Ivichard'd 
 
 '&^ 
 
 PALACE OF IIOLYKOOly. 
 
 uneventful. He died in 1370, and left no 
 children. 
 
 Robert the Steward, the son of David's 
 sister, now mounted the thi'oue as Robert 
 II. The office of steward was hereditary, 
 and had descended from Walter Fitz- 
 Alan, upon whom David I. had bestowed 
 it. From it the family took the name of 
 Stewart or Stuart, by which it is known in 
 Scottish history. Robert's accession was 
 undisputed. In 1385, the truce with Eng- 
 
 withdrawal from Scotland, the French re- 
 turned to their own country. A few years 
 later war broke out again upon the border. 
 In this contest the Earl of Douglas was 
 slain in the hard-fought battle of Otterburn, 
 in August, 1388. The next year peace was 
 made between England and Scotland, and 
 in 1390 Robert died. 
 
 Robert was succeeded by his eldest son, 
 John, Avho ascended the throne as Robert 
 III. He was weak in both body and mind, 
 
FBOM DAVID II. TO JAMES VI. 
 
 951 
 
 revival by 
 
 and the government of the kingdom fell 
 into the hands of his brothers, Robert, Duke 
 of Albany, and Alexander, Earl of Bu- 
 chan. Albany was the real ruler. The 
 country was in a state of anarchy, and law- 
 less violence prevailed in every part of it. 
 The nobles and chieftains fought out their 
 quarrels, some of their conflicts assuming 
 the proportions of battles, and robbed and 
 malti-eated the peasants and burghers. A 
 border war broke out with England in 
 1400 in consequence of tho 
 Henry IV. of the English 
 claim to the crown of Scot- 
 laud. Peace was made a 
 year or two later. In 1405 
 the English captured James, 
 Earl of Carrick, the eldest 
 son of King Robert, and 
 the heir to the throne of 
 Scotland, while on his way 
 to France. Though taken 
 in a time of peace, he was 
 held as a prisoner. lu 1406 
 Robert died. 
 
 The Regent Albany at 
 once proclaimed James I. 
 King of Scotland, though 
 he was still in captivity, and 
 administered the govern- 
 ment in his name. Peace 
 was nominally maintained 
 with England, but the border 
 war went on, and many of 
 the frontier fortresses were 
 recovered by the Scots. 
 Jedburgh was retaken, and 
 was destroyed as the best 
 means of preventing its oc- 
 cupation by the English in 
 future invasions. la 1411 
 the highlauders, led by Don- 
 ald, Lord of the Isles, burst 
 into the lowlands north of 
 the Forth with the intentioa 
 of ravaging it. They were defeated by the 
 lowlanders, under Alexander Stewart, Earl 
 of Mar, at Harlow, in Aberdeenshire, on 
 the 24th of July, and Scotland was thus 
 delivered from a terrible danger. The 
 Duke of Albany died in 1419, and was 
 succeeded in the regency and in his duke- 
 dom by his son. The country was so full 
 of anarchy, however, that the power of the 
 regent was chiefly nominal. The true 
 remedy for the disorders was the placing 
 of the king on his throne. His release was 
 
 nobles, and in 1424 he returned to Scot- 
 land. The Scots were required to pay to 
 England the sum of forty thousand pounds, 
 to defray the cost of his maintenance and 
 education during his eighteen years of 
 captivity. 
 
 James I. had married during his cap- 
 tivity Joan, the daughter of the Earl of 
 Somerset, and she came with him to Scot- 
 land. James Avas aware that the Regent 
 Albany and his supporters had endeavored 
 to pievent his release, as they were un- 
 
 JAMES I 
 
 secured by Douglas and some of the other 
 
 OKDEKS THE ARKEST OF THE DUKE OF ALBANT. 
 
 willing to relinquish the government, but 
 he let eight months pass by without showing 
 any sign of displeasure. He then arrested 
 Albany, his two sons, and twenty-six other 
 noblemen during the session of the parlia- 
 ment at Perth. Albany and his sons were 
 tried before a jury of twenty-one peers, pre- 
 sided over by the king. They were ibund 
 guilty of treason, and were executed at Stir- 
 ling. James then summoned the chiefs of 
 the highland clans and the Western Isles to 
 a parliament at Inverness in 1427. They 
 were arrested immediately upon their ar- 
 
952 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 rival, and were thrown into prison. Three 
 of them were hauged at once, and several 
 others at a later date. Others were kept 
 in prison, and a mere handful only allowed 
 to return to their estates. James had 
 hoped to strike terror to these barbarous 
 chiefs by his stern measures, but failed to 
 accomplish his object. Alexander, Lord 
 of the Isles, was one of those who were suf- 
 fered to return home. He immediately 
 rallied his followers, and marching to In- 
 verness, destroyed the town. James has- 
 tened northward, and defeated him in 
 Lochaber. Alexander surrendered uncon- 
 ditionally to the king, and was confined in 
 Tantalion Castle. His kinsman, Donald 
 Balloch, raised the clans in arms and de- 
 feated the royal forces. James thereupon 
 assembled a powerful army and marched 
 into the highlands, determined to crush the 
 power of the clans once and forever. Seeing 
 that the king was too strong for them, the 
 chiefs submitted and did homage to him. 
 James next proceeded to deprive some of 
 the most powerful and dangerous nobles of 
 their lands, and to bestow them upon others. 
 This drew upon him the vengeance of the 
 nobles ; a conspiracy was formed against 
 him, and he was treacherously murdered as 
 he was keeping Christmas in the Monastery 
 of the Black Friars at Perth, 1436. 
 
 The reign of James I. is one of the most 
 noted in Scottish history. Many laws were 
 enacted by his parliaments for the advance- 
 ment of the best interests of the people. 
 The king caused a collection of the statutes 
 of the kingdom to be made, in which he 
 set aside all laws that were obsolete and re- 
 tained only those that were then in force. 
 He established a definite standard of 
 weights and measures, and caused the coin- 
 age of the kingdom to be regulated upon a 
 scale which made it equal in weight and 
 fineness to the money of England. He 
 created the office of treasurer ; caused the 
 acts of parliament to be published in the 
 language of the people; and instituted 
 schools of archery in order that the Scottish 
 bowmen might be as well trained as those 
 of England. He was a well-educated man 
 himself and was a patron of learning. He 
 was also a poet. Some of his poems still 
 exist, and show him to have been possessed 
 of real genius. 
 
 James II. was but eight years old at the 
 time of his father's murder. He was pro- 
 claimed king, and a struggle ensued for the 
 wardship of his person between the queen- 
 
 mother, William Crichton, the Chancellor, 
 and Governor of Edinburgh Castle, and 
 Archibald Livingstone, Governor of Stir- 
 ling Castle. It was ended by the with- 
 drawal of the queen-mother, and an agree- 
 ment between Crichton and Livingstone to 
 share between them the power which the 
 possession of the king's person brought 
 with it. 
 
 The most powerful noble of Scotland at 
 this time was Archibald, Earl of Douglas. 
 He held Galloway, Annandale, and other 
 estates in Scotland, and the duchy of Tour- 
 aine in France. He had been made lieu- 
 tenant-governor of the kingdom, and could 
 easily have gotten all the power into his 
 hands had he tried to do so. He died in 
 1439, and was succeeded in his possessions 
 by his son William, a youth of seventeen. 
 The new earl maintained an almost royal 
 state, and was accused of many acts of 
 violence and oppression. The king's guar- 
 dians determined to get rid of him, and 
 invited Douglas and his brother David to 
 visit James at Edinburgh. Upon their 
 arrival there, they were seized, and after a 
 mock trial were beheaded in the castle yard. 
 The estates of the Douglas family were 
 divided, a part going with the title to 
 James, the grand-uncle of William and 
 David, the male heir, while Galloway was 
 given to their sister Margaret. At the 
 death of Earl James his son William mar- 
 ried his cousin Margaret of Galloway, and 
 thus reunited the estates. Earl William 
 then repaired to court, where he managed 
 to get most of the power of the government 
 into his hands. He openly defied the king's 
 commands, and as he could put in the field 
 a force of 5,000 of his own retainei's, the 
 king did not dare to punish him. Upon 
 one occasion when James ordered him to 
 release a prisoner whom he unlawfully held, 
 Douglas had the man beheaded and then 
 sent word to the king that he could have 
 the body. 
 
 • When James II. assumed the govern- 
 ment, upon coming of age, he did so with 
 the determination to get rid of Douglas. 
 He invited the earl to Stirling and received 
 him cordially. He then urged Douglas to 
 break ofl?*his "bonds," or alliances with the 
 highland chiefs, which threatened the power 
 of the crown. Douglas refused, and James 
 stabbed him. The wounded earl fell, and 
 was despatched with a pole-axe by Sir 
 Patrick Gray, one of the king's attendants. 
 James Douglas, the brother and heir of the 
 
FROM DAVID IL TO JAMES VI. 
 
 953 
 
 murdered earl, threw off his allegiance to 
 the king, and took up arnns against him. 
 He was joined by the Earls of Ross and 
 Crawford. Too weak to defeat the rebels 
 in the field, James undertook to break up 
 their union by diplomacy. He succeeded 
 so well that he not only defeated Douglas 
 in the battle of Arkiuholm in 1454, but 
 compelled him to take refuge in England. 
 An act of forfeiture was passed against him, 
 and Galloway and certain other estates of 
 the banished earl were declared the inalien- 
 able possessions of the crown. The better 
 part of the remainder of the Douglas estates 
 was conferred upon the Earl of Angus, the 
 head of the Red Douglases, a rival branch 
 of the family. Some of the former posses- 
 sions of the Black Douglases were bestowed 
 upon Sir James Hamilton. These vigorous 
 measures not only humbled the proud house 
 of Douglas, but firmly established the power 
 of the king. James took part in the civil 
 ■wars of England on the side of Henry VI., 
 and endeavored to take advantage of the 
 occasion to win back the towns in Scotland 
 still held by the English. He laid siege to 
 Roxburgh, and while directing the opera- 
 tions was killed by the bursting of a cannon, 
 A. D. 1460. After his death Roxburgh was 
 taken and destroyed. This was the first 
 siege in which the Scots used artillery. 
 
 James III. was but eight years old at the 
 death of his father. For six years the 
 Bishop of St. Andrews governed the king- 
 dom as regent. At his death Lord Boyd 
 got possession of the king's person and the 
 regency. In 1469 James was married to 
 Margaret, daughter of King Christian of 
 Norway. As security for her dowry the 
 Orkney and Shetland Isles were placed by 
 Norway in the keeping of Scotland. As 
 the dowry was never paid, the islands re- 
 mained in the possession of the Scots and 
 became a part of the kingdom. James now 
 turned upon the Boyds, and punished their 
 seizure of his person by the execution of the 
 younger son of the regent and the confisca- 
 tion of the family estates, which were now 
 declared the inalienable possessions of the 
 crown. Lord Boyd and his oldest son, the 
 Earl of Arran, escaped to England. The 
 Duke of Albany, the king's brother, being 
 suspected of plotting against James, was 
 arrested and imprisoned in Edinburgh Cas- 
 tle. He escaped to France, irom which he 
 passed to England. Edward IV. agreed 
 to help him to dethrone James, and the 
 Douglases and the Lords of the Isles pledged 
 
 him their support. James declared war 
 against England, placed himself at the head 
 of a large army, and advanced as far as the 
 Lauder, There the nobles, under the lea- 
 dership of the Earl of Angus, determined 
 to rid themselves of certain favorites of the 
 king, who had become obnoxious to them. 
 They seized them, and in spite of the en- 
 treaties of the king hanged them over Lau- 
 der bridge. This put a stop to the expedi- 
 tion, and the nobles returned to Edinburgh, 
 with the king virtually a prisoner in their 
 hands, A. D. 1482. The Duke of Albany 
 returned to Scotland soon after this, and 
 procured the release of his brother. For a 
 short while he and the king lived together 
 amicably, but at length Albany went back 
 to England. Before his departure from 
 Scotland he gave proof of his treasonable 
 purposes by placing Dunbar Castle in the 
 hands of the English. The unpopularity 
 of the king continued to increase, and a 
 conspiracy against him was formed by the 
 southern nobles, who took the field with a 
 large army and proclaimed James, the 
 Prince of Scotland, king in the place of 
 his father. The king was defeated in the 
 battle of Sauchieburn, and fled from the 
 field. He was thrown from his horse dur- 
 ing his flight, and was carried to a mill on 
 the Bannock Burn, where he was murdered 
 by some unknown person, A. D. 1488. 
 
 The death of James III. threw the gov- 
 ernment into the hands of the rebellious 
 nobles, and the Prince of Scotland became 
 king as James IV. He was sixteen years 
 old at the time, and for the next three or 
 four years the kingdom was governed for 
 him by the successful nobles. When he 
 came of age and assumed the government, 
 he soon showed himself an able and vigor- 
 ous sovereign. He maintained a splendid 
 court, and promoted the civilization of his 
 country. His constant effort was to curb 
 the power of the nobles and the highland 
 chiefs, and to increase the authority of the 
 crown. This drew upon him the animosity 
 of some of the nobles, and schemes were set 
 on foot for his capture. Henry VII. of 
 England, being prevented by the state of 
 affairs in his kingdom from making open 
 war upon Scotland, secretly encouraged the 
 plots against the king. James, upon dis- 
 covering this, retaliated by espousing the 
 cause of Perkin Warbeck, whom he re- 
 ceived at his court as Richard, Duke of 
 York, the son of King Edward. He gave 
 Warbeck his kinswoman, Lady Catharine 
 
954 
 
 TILE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Gordon, as a wife, and invaded England in 
 his behalf. He got tired of him at last, 
 and sent him off to Ireland, and iu 1497 
 renewed the truce with Henry. In 1502 
 James married Margaret, the eldest daugh- 
 ter of Henry VII. As a means of curbing 
 the power of the highlanders and the island 
 chiefs James placed royal garrisons in the 
 castles and fortresses of that region and 
 built others. He was not able to carry 
 this plan as far as he wished, and so re- 
 sorted to the policy of using the feuds of 
 the chieftains as a means of destroying them. 
 The Earl of Huutly, the head of the house 
 of Gordon, was made Sheriff of Inverness, 
 Ross, and Caithness, and as a condition of 
 this appointment the king required him to 
 build and maintain a castle at Inverness. 
 The Earl of Argyle, the head of the Camp- 
 bells, was given the task of keeping order 
 in the west. The king also endeavored to 
 divide the islands into sheriffdoms, and to 
 compel the highlanders to submit to the 
 same laws as the lowlanders. The clans 
 rallied under Donald Dhu, an illegitimate 
 descendant of the last Lord of the Isles, to 
 resist these measures, A three years' strug- 
 gle with the king ensued, but in the end 
 Donald was taken prisoner and brought to 
 Edinburgh. His Lordship of the Isles was 
 taken from him, and iiis dominions were 
 confiscated to the crown, 1504. 
 
 In 1513 James unwisely renewed the old 
 alliance between Scotland and France, and 
 declared war against Henry VHI. He 
 entered England at the head of a splendid 
 army, but committed so many blunders 
 that he entirely destroyed his prospect of 
 success. On the 9th of September, 1513, 
 he was defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Flooden. Tiie flower of the Scottish no- 
 bility fell with him, and the whole kingdom 
 was plunged into mourning. James IV. 
 was one of the most popular of the Scottish 
 kings, and his reign was one of the most 
 prosperous the country had ever known. 
 Trade grew rapidly, and the exports of 
 Scotland to foreign countries were greatly 
 increased. In this reign the doctrines of 
 the Reformation were introduced into Scot- 
 land. The clergy attempted to root them 
 out by persecutions, but as usual without 
 success. The art of printing was also brouglit 
 into the kingdom, and the first press was 
 set up by Walter Chapman, under the 
 patronage of the king. 
 
 James V. was an infant of two years 
 when his father's death made him king. 
 
 The news of the disaster at Flooden threw 
 Scotland into the profoundost grief and. 
 alarm. Edinburgh was fortified with a 
 wall, and preparations were made to resist 
 the advance of the English. They were 
 not needed, however, as Henry VIII. 
 generously declined to press his advantage 
 against his widowed sister, and, his own 
 kingdom being safe, disbanded his army. 
 The Scottisli parliament met at Perth and 
 appointed Queen Margaret regent, but 
 witliin the year she married the Earl of 
 Angus, and the parliament made John, 
 Duke of Albany, high a<liniral of France 
 and nephew of James III. of Scotland, 
 regent in her place. Peace was made with 
 England. Albany was very unpopular at 
 first because of the great number of French- 
 men whom lie brought with him. The 
 queen mother at first refused to give up the 
 young king to him, but was besieged in 
 Stirling Castle and compelled to yield. 
 The Hamiltons, at whose head was the 
 Earl of Arran, and the Douglases, whose 
 chief was the Earl of Angus, kept up a 
 constant warfare against each other, to the 
 great detriment of the country. The Regent 
 Albany, with the help of the French, put a 
 stop to this strife. He seized Angus and 
 sent him to France, from which country he 
 soon escaped to England and joined his 
 wife, who had fled to that country. Lord 
 Home and his brother, two of (he most 
 l)0werful of the Douglas faction, were 
 seized and beheaded after a mock trial. 
 About a year after his appointment as 
 regent the Duke of Albany went back to 
 France, and left a Frenchman, named 
 Anthony de la Bastie, as his representative 
 in Scotland. He also placed tiie fortresses 
 in charge of French garrisons. This in- 
 creased the Scotch hatred of the French to 
 a still greater degree. Anthony de la 
 Bastie was killed by the Homes in revenge 
 for the death of Lord Home. The feud 
 between the Hamiltons and the Douglases 
 now broke out more violently than ever, 
 and the rival factions fought thinr battles 
 in the very streets of Edinburgh. The 
 Douglases were in the main successful, and 
 the Earl of Angus drove the Hamiltons 
 from Edinburgh and held the city with an 
 armed force. Five years passed away, and 
 Albany still remained in France. By 
 threatenings and entreaties the Scottish 
 parliament at length induced him to return 
 to his post, A. D. 1520. 
 
 In 1522 Henry VIIL of England began 
 
FR03I DAVID II. TO JAMES VI 
 
 955 
 
 to interlbre in the affairs of Scotland, and 
 dsmanded that Albany should be dismissed 
 from the rc^gcncy and the alliance with 
 France broken off. The estates refused 
 this demand and prv^pared for war. A 
 desultory warfare followed along the bor- 
 der. I:i 1524 Albany, who had greatly 
 disgusted the nation with his mismauagc- 
 raent, abandoned the regency and sailed ibr 
 France. 
 
 Upon Albany's departure from Scotland 
 Henry VIII. endeavored to make the Scots 
 break off the French connection. His 
 strongest ally was his sister Margaret, the 
 queen mother. Cardinal Beaton, Archbishop 
 of St. Andrews, was the head of the French 
 party in Scothind, and exerted himself 
 to check the designs of Henry. The Eng- 
 lisli influence was the stronger for the time, 
 however, and in accordance with Henry's 
 advice James V., now twelve years old, as- 
 sumed the government in his own name, 
 August, 1524. This act was called the 
 "erection of the king." The capture of 
 Francis I. at Pavia awakened great sym- 
 pathy in Scotland, and turned the current 
 of popular feeling once more in favor of 
 France. In 152G the king, who was four- 
 teen years old, chose as his guardians the 
 Earls of Errol, Argyle and Animus. Angus 
 was the first to enter upon his duties, but 
 at tlic end of his term refused to give up 
 the king's person, and for two years held 
 him in his power, antl tyrannized over him 
 in a manner that won him James' cordial 
 hatred. In 1528 James escaped by night 
 from Falkland, and rode, disguised as a 
 groom, to Stirling Castle. He at once set 
 to work to crush the Douglases, and suc- 
 ceeded so well that Angus was obliged to 
 fly to England. He was deprived of his 
 possessions, and the ruin of his branch of 
 the Douglas family was complete. The 
 king next turned his attention to the bor- 
 derers, who had become nearly as lawless 
 and as troublesome as the high landers. He 
 punished them severely, and hanged John 
 Armstrong, their most noted leader, as a 
 common thief It was the steady policy 
 of James V. to break the power of the 
 nobles and increase the authority of the 
 crown. He made inijiortant reforms in the 
 administration of justice, and in every way 
 protected and befriended his people against 
 the violence and extortions of the nobles. 
 This won him their enthusiastic devotion, 
 and gained for him the affectionate title of 
 "kino: of the commons." He was a faith- 
 
 ful follower of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 but during his reign Protestantism made 
 great progress in Scotland, though cruelly 
 persecuted by the primate, Cardinal Beaton. 
 In 1542 Scotland became involved in a war 
 with England, and an army was sent to in- 
 vade that country. It reached the border, 
 but was there surprised and shamefully 
 routed by the English at Sol way Moss, on 
 the Gth of December. The news was 
 brought to King James at Caerlaverock 
 Castle, and at the same time he was told 
 that a daughter had been born to him. 
 The failure of a male heir and the shameful 
 defeat of his army proved too much for the 
 king, and on the 14th of December, 1542, 
 he died of grief and disappointment. 
 
 James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, was 
 chosen regent for the infant Queen Mary, 
 who was left in the care of her mother, 
 Mary of Lorraine, the second wife of James 
 V. All Scotland was greatly depressed by 
 the disaster at Solway Moss, and Henry 
 VIII. took advantage of this despondency 
 to compel the Scots to enter into a treaty 
 for the marriage of the young Queen Mary 
 to his son Edward, Prince of Wales. In 
 this way he hoped to unite the crowns of 
 England and Scotland. When the Scots 
 recovered from their depression the estates 
 repudiated the treaty, and on the 1st of 
 May, 1544, Ilenry declared war agamst 
 Scotland. The Earl of Hertford, the com- 
 mander of the English army, made a 
 savage raid into Scotland, but, though he 
 sacked and burned Leith, and set fire to 
 Edinburgh, he was defeated and driven 
 across the border. The next year Hertford 
 returned and ravaged the southern part of 
 Scotland with fearful cruelty. Between 
 two and three hundred villages, and a 
 number of towns, churches and manors 
 were burned by the English. Hertford 
 effected no permanent conquest, however, 
 and withdrew into his own country. In 
 1547 Hertford, now Duke of Somerset, and 
 Protector of England during the minority 
 of Edward IV., invaded Scotland a third 
 time, and defeated the Scottish army at 
 Pinkie on the 10th of September, 1547. 
 Somerset then returned to England, taking 
 the bulk of his army with him, but, as the 
 southern fortresses were all in the hands of 
 the English, the regent deemed it best to 
 send the young Queen of Scotland to 
 France, that she might be out of the reach 
 of the English. By extraordinary exertions 
 and with the aid of a French force of 6,000 
 
956 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 men the regent succeeded in driving out 
 the English, and in 1550 peace was made 
 between Scotland and England. 
 
 During all this time the principles of the 
 Reformation had been taking deep root and 
 spreading rapidly in Scotland. The perse- 
 cutions with which the Romish clergy 
 sought to check the change greatly exas- 
 perated the Scots and added numerous con- 
 verts to the reformers. When Henry VIII. 
 of England suppressed the monasteries and 
 confiscated their revenues, a large party in 
 Scotland applauded his course, and advo- 
 cated the adoption of the same measures in 
 that country. In 1545 George Wishart was 
 burned for preaching the reformed doc- 
 trines. The chief mover in this and the 
 other persecutions of the time was the 
 primate, Cardinal Beaton. Sixteen of 
 Wishart's followers obtained admission to 
 the Castle of St. Andrew's, Beaton's strong- 
 hold, and murdered him in revenge for the 
 death of their teacher. They held the 
 castle for fourteen months against the 
 efforts of the regent to retake it, but were 
 compelled at length to submit, and were 
 sent to the French galleys. One of their 
 number was John Knox, afterwards the 
 great leader of the Scottish Reformation. 
 The regent made his brother John Arch- 
 bishop of St. Andrews in the place of the 
 murdered Beaton. 
 
 In 1554 the Earl of Arran, being created 
 Duke of Chatelheraut by the French king, 
 resigned the regency and went to France. 
 Mary of Lorraine, the mother of the young 
 queen, succeeded him as regent, and a little 
 later secured the marriage of her daughter 
 with the Dauphin Francis, the heir to the 
 crown of France. In 1559 Francis became 
 King of France, and, by virtue of his mar- 
 riage, King of Scotland. Frenchmen were 
 placed by the regent in many of the offices 
 of the kingdom, and were put in charge of 
 the fortresses. Their airs of superiority 
 soon drew upon them the cordial detesta- 
 tion of the Scots, who were impatient to 
 see them out of the country. 
 
 The Reformation had made great progress 
 in Scotland since the reign of James V. 
 The bloody persecutions of the English 
 Protestants by Queen Mary of England 
 caused many of them to fly the kingdom 
 and take refuge in Scotland. They were 
 kindly received by the Scottish people, who 
 sympathized warmly with their sufferings 
 and came to abhor the church that had 
 caused so much misery. The growing zeal 
 
 of the Scots for Protestantism overcame 
 the national hatred which they had felt 
 for the English but a few years before ; 
 and it may be safely asserted that the 
 cruelties of Mary struck a death-blow to 
 Romanism in Scotland as well as in her own 
 kingdom. The movement took a different 
 form in Scotland, and instead of following 
 in the steps of the English reformers, the 
 Scots formed the worship and government 
 of their reformed church upon the standard 
 of the French Calvinists. The Romish 
 clergy in Scotland, like their bretliren in 
 other lands, had lost their influence over 
 the common people by their dissolute mode 
 of life and their irreligion, and had dis- 
 gusted the nation by their rapacity and 
 their gross abuse of their spiritual powers. 
 Many of the nobles were sincerely in sym- 
 pathy with the reformers, and many others 
 sided with them because of their hope of 
 obtaining some of the fertile and well-tilled 
 lands of the Romish Church at its downfall. 
 The strength of the reformers grew si- 
 lently but rapidly, and they soon became a 
 powerful party. In 1557 they bound them- 
 selves by a bond or covenant, to stand by 
 each other in procuring the downfall of the 
 Roman Catholic Church in Scotland, and 
 to exert all their powers in spreading the 
 reformed faith and worship. This docu- 
 ment, which was signed by the principal 
 reformers, is known as the "First Cov- 
 enant." It renounced the authority of the 
 pope, and enjoined upon the reformed the 
 use of the English Bible and the prayei-- 
 book of Edward VI. The nobles who 
 signed the covenant were from that time 
 known as the "Lords of the Congregation." 
 In 1558 Walter Mill, an aged priest of pure 
 life, was burned as a heretic at St. Andrews. 
 This cruel act roused a storm of indignation 
 in Scotland, and the lords of the congre- 
 gation demanded of the regent a reforma- 
 tion of religion according to the principles 
 set forth in their covenant. The regent, 
 who was the daughter of the Duke of 
 Guise, the mortal foe of the French Prot- 
 estants, answered by summoning some of 
 the reformed preachers to appear before 
 the privy council. They prepared to obey 
 her summons, and a strong body of their 
 followers assembled at Perth to accompany 
 and protect them. Alarmed by this display 
 of strength, the regent entreated the re- 
 formers to disperse, and promised to with- 
 draw her summons. So far from doing this, 
 however, she outlawed the preachers for not 
 
FROM DAVID II. TO JAMES VI. 
 
 957 
 
 appearing before the council. Angered by 
 this breach of faith, the i-eformers attacked 
 the churches and religious houses in Perth 
 on the 11th of May, 1559, and sacked 
 them. Similar outbreaks took place iu 
 other towns. The lords of the congrega- 
 tion assembled their followers at Perth, and 
 prepared for war. The regent marched 
 against them with a force of French troops, 
 but a conflict was prevented by negotiation. 
 It was agreed that all the questions at issue 
 between the government and the reformers 
 should be settled by the Scottish parlia- 
 ment, and that in the meantime both par- 
 ties should disarm, and that the French 
 garrison should be withdrawn from Perth. 
 With the duplicity characteristic of her 
 family, the regent withdrew the French 
 from Perth, but at once occupied it with a 
 garrison of Scottish troops hired with 
 French money. The reformers immedi- 
 ately took up arms again and occupied St. 
 Andrews and Edinburgh. They declared 
 the regent deposed, but proclaimed their 
 loyalty to the king and queen. They were 
 Dot sti'ong enough to maintain their position, 
 however, and were obliged to look to Eliz- 
 abeth, who was now Queen of England, for 
 support. Elizabeth, however, would not 
 treat with the Scottish reformers at first, but 
 in 1560 entered into a treaty with them at 
 Berwick, by which she agreed to assist them 
 with her troops against the French who 
 were sent to help the regent to maintain 
 her authority. An English contingent was 
 promptly sent to the aid of the reformers, 
 and several encounters took place between 
 the allies and the regent's French forces. 
 Before the close of the year the French 
 were recalled to their own country, and the 
 regent was forced to enter into the treaty 
 of Edinburgh, which stipulated that iu fu- 
 ture no foreigners should be employed by 
 the government without the consent of the 
 estates. That body agreed, on behalf of 
 the King and Queen of Scotland, to ac- 
 knowledge Elizabeth as lawful Queen of 
 England, and to relinquish all pretensions 
 to her crown, 1560. 
 
 Soon after the conclusion of the treaty 
 of Edinburgh the regent died. The estates 
 then formally abjured the authority of the 
 pope, forbade the saying of mass, or being 
 present at it, under severe penalties, and 
 declared the Geneva confession of faith the 
 standard of the Church of Scotland. There 
 was still a strong Catholic party iu Scot- 
 laud, and the old faith could not be entirely 
 
 destroyed by act of parliament. It died 
 out by degrees, and in the course of a long 
 series of future years. 
 
 Francis II. being dead, hi«i widow, Mary 
 Stuart, Queen of Scotland, determined to 
 return to her own country. Eluding the 
 vigilance of the English cruisers sent to 
 intercept hei', she landed at Leith on the 
 19th of August, 1561. She was received 
 with rejoicings by all classes of her sub- 
 jects, who were freed by the death of Fran- 
 cis of their fear that Scotland would be 
 made a province of France. Mary was in 
 her nineteenth year, and was iu the bloom 
 of her youth and beauty. She was highly 
 accomplished, and her manners were grace- 
 ful and captivating. She had been edu- 
 cated abroad, and she was a Scotswoman 
 only iu name and blood. In all things else 
 she was French, and a stranger to her 
 country and people. She was in no way 
 fitted to rule so turbulent a nation at such 
 a critical period, and being a zealous Ro- 
 manist was the natural antagonist of the 
 great movement that was sweeping over 
 Scotland. Her first measures were calcu- 
 lated to reassure her people. She bestowed 
 her confidence entirely upon the leaders of 
 the reformed party, who she saw were alone 
 capable of supporting her government, 
 and issued a proclamation enjoining all 
 of her subjects to conform to the established 
 religion. For herself, however, she adhered 
 to her own faith, and with difficulty ob- 
 tained permission to have mass celebrated 
 in her private chapel. This gave great of- 
 fence to the reformed preachers, who could 
 not " be reconciled to a person polluted with 
 so great an abomination." John Knox 
 and his colleagues undertook to remonstrate 
 with the queen, and finding her firm in her 
 religious views, broke out into coarse and 
 brutal insults even in her presence. "The 
 ringleader in these insults on the queen," 
 says Hume, "was John Knox, who pos- 
 sessed an uncontrolled authority in the 
 church, and even in the civil affairs of the 
 nation, and who triumphed in the con- 
 tumelious usage of his sovereign. His 
 usual appellation of the queen was Jezebel ; 
 and though she endeavored, by the most 
 gracious condescension, to win his favor, all 
 her insinuations could make no impression 
 on his obdurate heart. Mary, whose age, 
 condition, and education invited her to lib- 
 erty and cheerfulness, was curbed in all 
 amusements by the absurd severity of those 
 reformers; and she found every moment 
 
958 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 reason to regret her leaving that country 
 from whose manners she had in her early 
 youth received her first impressions." 
 
 The reformed ministers were not a whit 
 behind the deposed Romish clergy in tlieir 
 notions of ecclesiastical authority. They 
 claimed that the confiscated church-lauds 
 belonged of right to them, and asserted 
 their right to dictate to the nation in public 
 as well as in private matters. They drew 
 up a "First Book of Discipline" for the 
 
 JOHN KNOX PKEACHING TO QUEEN MAKY, 
 
 guidance of the church, and required its 
 adoption. The nobles firmly refused to 
 admit these claims or to accept as law the 
 book of discipline. The lauds had been 
 generally distributed, and the privy council 
 refused to interfere with the settlement. 
 Of what was left, one-third was taken to 
 pay the salaries of the clergy, while the 
 rest went, under certain conditions, to the 
 crown. 
 
 The Roman Catholics were still strong 
 in the north. Their leader was the Earl 
 
 of Huntly, who refused to obey the laws 
 concerning the new religion. He was at- 
 tacked and defeated by the royal i'urccs,. 
 and was slain, in 1562. His son was bo- 
 headed at Aberdeen, and the power of the 
 Gordons, as well as of the Catholics, was 
 broken. 
 
 All parties Avere anxious for the queen to 
 marry. Various matches were suggested to 
 her, but she settled the matter by bestowing 
 her hand upon her cousin, Henry Stewart, 
 Lord Darnley, the son of the Earl 
 of Lennox and Margaret Douglas, 
 July 29, 1565. Dandcy was created 
 Earl of Ross and Duke of Albany. 
 The Earl of Murray, the illegitimate 
 brother of the queen, took up arms 
 to oppose the marriage, and was 
 joined by some of the other nobles. 
 They were defeated and compelled to 
 take refuge in England. Darnley 
 proved weak and contemptible, and 
 Mary soon grew tired of him. Like 
 her father and grandfather, she had 
 a weakness for making favorites, and 
 as little discretion in the choice of 
 them. She now took into favor her 
 secretary, David Rizzio, an Italian, 
 whose rare accomplishments in 
 music enabled him to maintain his 
 mfluence with her. He rendered 
 himself obnoxious to the nobles by 
 promoting the severities with which 
 the queen treated the banished lords. 
 They determined to get rid of him, 
 and won Darnley over to their side 
 by arousing his jealousy of the 
 Italian. The plot was quickly ma- 
 tured. One evening as Mary was 
 sitting at supper in Holyrood, Darn- 
 ley and the conspirators, who had 
 secured the gates of the palace, burst 
 into the room, and in spite of the ef- 
 forts of the queen to save him, dragged 
 Rizzio into an outer room and killed 
 him, March 9, 1566. When informed 
 of his fate, Mary dissembled her feelings, 
 and though determined upon revenge, ap- 
 peared to be reconciled to her husband and 
 promised to pardon the banished lords. 
 They appeared before her the next day, and 
 she received Murray with aflfection. She 
 was resolved to secure a greater degree of 
 freedom, however, and the next night fled 
 with Darnley to Dunbar. The Earl of 
 Bothwell rapidly assembled a foi'ce for her 
 protection, and before the end of the month 
 she was enabled to return to Edinburgh, 
 
FItOM DAVID II. TO JAMES VL 
 
 959 
 
 She at onco ciicd the murderers of Rizzio 
 to appear and answer for llicir crime. They 
 failed to do so, and were outhxwed. Ou Iho 
 19lh of Juno the queen was delivered of a 
 son in the Castle of Edinburgh, 
 
 Rizzio was succeeded in the queen's favor 
 by the Earl of Bothwell, who had rendered 
 her such good service by his prompt sup- 
 port of her at Dunbar, He was made 
 lord high admiral and warden of the 
 
 Bothwell had committed the murder, and 
 that Mary was privy to it. She gave color 
 to this suspicion by failing to make any ef- 
 fort to discover the murderer, and by al- 
 lowing Bothwell to browbeat the father of 
 Darnley and frighten him from his efforts 
 to bring the suspected parties, of whom 
 Bothwell was one, to trial. Worse than 
 all, on the 15th of May, 1567, the queen 
 was married to Bothwell, who procured a 
 
 MAKY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 
 
 borders, and was given the estates of Mel- 
 rose and Haddington. Darnley was hated 
 by his wife for his share in the murder of 
 Rizzio, and by the nobles for his desertion 
 of them after that event. He fell ill of the 
 small-pox, and was removed to a house 
 called the Kirk-o' Field, in the suburbs of 
 Edinburgh, On the night of the 9th of 
 February, 1567, this house was blown up 
 by gunpowder, and Darnley was killed. It 
 was the general belief at the time that 
 
 divorce from his wife in order to enter intO' 
 this union. The nobles sternly resented the 
 queen's conduct, and took up arms against 
 her. She was compelled to surrender to 
 them on the 15th of June, 1567. Bothwell 
 escaped to Denmark, where he died in 1577. 
 The queen was carried back to Edinburgh 
 as a prisoner, and was received by the peo- 
 ple with the most insulting demonstrations, 
 A little later she was sent to Lochleven 
 Castle, and a few days afterwards a number 
 
960 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of letters were produced by her enemies 
 purporting to have beeu written by her to 
 Bothwell. These letters, if geuuine, prove 
 her to have been an accomplice in the 
 murder of Darnley ; but their genuineness 
 has beeu seriously called in question. They 
 were accepted as authentic at the time, and 
 the queen was compelled to sign an abdica- 
 tion of her crown in favor of her infant 
 son James, 1567. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO 
 THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 
 
 James VI. Crowned King — Murray Regent — Escape 
 of Queen Mary — Battle of Lang.side — Flight of 
 Mary to England — Her Captivity there — Her 
 Party in Scotland — Murtlerof Murray — The Earl 
 of Lennox made Regent — Surrender of Dumbarton 
 Castle — Death of Lennox — The Earl of Mar Re- 
 gent — Is Succeeded by Morton— James Assumes 
 the Government — Fall of Morton — The Ruthven 
 Lords — The King a Prisoner — He Escapes— Exe- 
 cution of Mary — Conduct of James — Marriage of 
 the King to Anne of Denmark — Episcopacy Abol- 
 ished — Submission of the Earl of Huntly — Trou- 
 bles of James with the Reformed Ministers — 
 James Becomes King of England — The Union of 
 the Crowns — James Becomes an Episcopalian — 
 Episcopacy Re-established in Scotland — The Bish- 
 ops — The Five Articles — Charles I. — His At- 
 tempts Against the Liberties of the Scottish 
 Church — Visits Scotland— Archbishop Laud — At- 
 tempt to Use the Liturgy — Riots — The Solemn 
 League and Covenant — Charles Summons an 
 Assembly — It Deposes the Bishops — The King 
 Defied — Montrose Subdues the North for the 
 Covenant — Pacification of Berwick — The War 
 Breaks Out Again — Success of the Scots — The 
 King Yields to the Nation — The Civil War in 
 England — The Scots Side with the Parliament — 
 Montrose Espouses the King's Cause — His Suc- 
 cesses — Charles Surrenders to the Scottish Army 
 — He is Sold to the English Parliament — Efforts 
 in his Behalf — The Westminster Confession 
 Adopted by the Scots — Execution of the King — 
 Charles II. Proclaimed in Scotland — Cromwell 
 Conquers Scotland — The Restoration — Efforts to 
 Re-establish Episcopacy — Persecution of the Cov- 
 enanters — Murder of Archbishop Sharp — Claver- 
 house — Battle of Bothwell Bridge — James VII. 
 King — The Persecution Becomes More Severe — 
 The Scottish Martyrs — The Indulgences — Over- 
 throw of James — William and Mary — Presbyter- 
 ianism Re-established in Scotland— The Jacobites 
 — Revolt of Dundee — Battle of Killiecrankie — 
 Death of Dundee — Massacre of Glencoe — Queen 
 Anne — Union of Scotland with England. 
 
 AMES VI. was crowned and an- 
 ointed at Stirling. His sponsor, 
 the Earl of Morton, took an oath 
 in his behalf to uphold the re- 
 formed church and root out its 
 enemies. The Earl of Murray was 
 recalled from France, to which country he 
 had fled at the death of Darnley, and was 
 
 made regent for his nephew, at the request 
 of Queen Mary. A large party of nobles, 
 led by the Hamiltons, refused to support 
 the new government, and opened negotia- 
 tions with the captive queen. A few 
 months later Mary escaped from Lochleven 
 Castle and fled to Hamilton, where she was 
 enthusiastically received by the discontented 
 nobles, who renewed their allegiance to her. 
 She at once sent a demand t^ Murray to 
 resign the regency and submit to her as his 
 sovereign. Murray replied by collecting 
 an army to defend the authority of King 
 James. A battle was fought at Langside, 
 on the 13lh of May, 1568, and Mary's 
 forces were defeated. The queen rode with 
 all speed for the border, and entering Eng- 
 land, threw herself upon the generosity of 
 Elizabeth. The English queen, however, 
 as we have seen, kept her a prisoner. The 
 reasons for this treatment of Mary, and the 
 events of her captivity, have been related 
 in the Hidory of England, to which the 
 reader is referred. 
 
 The captivity of Mary did not destroy 
 her party in Scotland. Her chief support- 
 ers were the Hamiltons and the Earl of 
 Huntly. The Duke of Chatelherault, one 
 of the Hamiltons, was, in case James should 
 die before his mother, the next heir to the 
 crown after Mary. The queen's party 
 hated Murray, and the Hamiltons resolved 
 upon his death. On the 23d of February, 
 1570, Murray was shot and killed by James 
 Hamilton, of Bothwelhaugh, as he was 
 riding through that town on his way from 
 Stirling to Edinburgh. His death was a 
 great blow to Scotland, for he had ruled 
 the country firmly and well. The people 
 gratefully remembered him as the " Good 
 Regent." 
 
 For a while the kingdom was without a 
 ruler, and anarchy prevailed. A border 
 war with England broke out, and the 
 southern counties were wasted as far as the 
 Clyde. At length the Earl of Lennox, the 
 grandfather of the young king, was chosen 
 regent. His selection was opposed by a 
 large part of the people, as he was regarded 
 as too much of an Englishman to be mind- 
 ful of the true welfare of Scotland, and a 
 civil war ensued. Grange, who had been 
 placed in charge of Edinburgh Castle by 
 Murray, declared for the queen, whose 
 party also held Dumbarton Castle, the 
 strongest fortress in Scotland. On the 2d 
 of April, 1571, Crawford of Jordanhill, an 
 officer of the regent, surprised and took 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 9G1 
 
 Dumbartou Castle with a handful of men. 
 In September, 1571, the regent summoned 
 a parliament to meet at Stirling, where the 
 king was residing. On the 4th of September 
 a body of 400 of the queen's troops from 
 Edinburgh Castle made a dash into Stirling 
 and captured the regent. He was immedi- 
 ately rescued, but was mortally wounded in 
 the struggle, and died a few hours later. 
 
 The Earl of Mar, Governor of Stirling, 
 now became regent. He 
 attempted to take Edin- 
 burgh Castle, but with- 
 out success, and on the 
 1st of August, 1572, a 
 truce of two months was 
 agreed upon. M u c h 
 blood had been shed 
 during the war, and 
 neither party had ac- 
 complished a n y t h i n g 
 decisive. During this 
 truce the queen's party 
 received a severe blow 
 in the general horror 
 excited in Scotland by 
 the news of the massa- 
 cre of St. Bartholomew, 
 in France. The Earl 
 of Mar died in Novem- 
 ber, 1572, and on the 
 24th of that month the 
 Earl of Morton was 
 made regent. On the 
 same day John Knox, 
 the great leader of the 
 Scottish Reformation, 
 died. With all his 
 faults, Knox was a 
 great man, and his most 
 conspicuous quality was 
 his fearlessness in speak- 
 ing what he believed to 
 be the truth. 
 
 At the opening of 
 1573 the war began 
 again. In August Edin- 
 burgh Castle surrendered to the regent, who 
 stained his victory by hanging Grange, its 
 brave defender. Morton's power was greatly 
 strengthened by this success, but he made 
 enemies of some of the most powerful 
 nobles by compelling them to restore the 
 crown property which they had seized. 
 The young king, under the influence of his \ 
 favorite, Esme Stewart, Lord of Aubigny, | 
 the nephew of the late Regent Lennox, i 
 also turned against Morton. At len";th 1 
 
 61 
 
 James Stewart of Ochiltree, another favor- 
 ite, accused INIorton before the council of 
 having been concerned in the murder of 
 Darnley, and upon this charge he was con- 
 demned and beheaded at Edinburgh. James 
 now took the government into his own 
 hands, but was ruled in his turn by his 
 favorites — Ochiltree, whom he made Earl 
 of Arran, and Aubigny, whom he made 
 Duke of Lennox and Governor of Dum- 
 
 Junx iv.Nux. 
 
 barton Castle. The favor which these men 
 enjoyed aroused the jealousy of the older 
 nobles, who, under the leadership of the 
 Earl of Gowrie, seized the person of the 
 king and held him a prisoner in the Castle 
 of Ruthven. They made him banish Len- 
 nox from the country, and administered 
 the government in his name. He was also 
 forced to declare that he acted in these 
 measures of his own free will and without 
 restraint. James remained in the power of 
 
962 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the Ruthven lords nearly a year, but at 
 length escaped to St. Andrews, where his 
 partisans rallied to his aid in such numbers 
 that the Ruthven lords were obliged to 
 yield. James acted with moderation at 
 first, but at length the Earl of Arran, who 
 had returned to power, caused the arrest 
 and execution of the Earl of Gowrie on a 
 charge of plotting against the king. Some- 
 what later Arran himself was accused of 
 provoking an affray on the border, in which 
 Lord Russell, an Englishman, was slain, 
 and was ordered to withdraw from court. 
 The nobles, who were jealous of him, now 
 appeared at Stirling, where the king was 
 residing, with a force of 8,000 men, and 
 compelled James to summon a parliament, 
 which restored to Gowrie's children the 
 lands and honors forfeited by his treason, 
 deprived the Earl of Arran of all his 
 possessions and dignities, and made an alli- 
 ance with England, 1585. 
 
 On the 8th of February, 1587, Queen 
 Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, 
 in England, by order of Elizabeth, as has 
 been related. James made a slight show 
 of grief and anger, but allowed the death of 
 his mother to pass by without any further 
 resentment. In 1589 James was married 
 to Anne, daughter of Frederick II. of Den- 
 mark. The new queen received the Orkney 
 and Shetland isles as her dowry. 
 
 The sailing of the Spanish armada for 
 the invasion of England, in 1588, caused 
 great alarm in Scotland, and measures were 
 taken to prevent the re-establishment of 
 the Romish faith in that country in the 
 event of the conquest of England by the 
 Spaniards. The covenant was renewed, 
 and was signed by the nobles and gentry 
 throughout the kingdom. In 1592, while 
 still under the influence of the feelings ex- 
 cited by the armada, the Scottish parlia- 
 ment passed an act abolishing episcopacy in 
 Scotland, and substituting for it the Pres- 
 byterian form of church government. The 
 church was to be ruled in future by pres- 
 byteries and synods, over which was a gen- 
 eral assembly, composed of ministers and 
 lay elders from the several presbyteries. 
 This assembly was to meet once a year at 
 Edinburgh, and was to be presided over by 
 the king or his commissioner. In the same 
 year a plot of the Catholic nobles was de- 
 tected. They proposed to invite the King 
 of Spain to re-establish the Catholic faith 
 in Scotland, and promised to aid him with 
 all their resources. The Marquis of Ar- 
 
 gyle was ordered to make war in the king's 
 name upon the Earl of Huntly, oue of the 
 leaders of the conspiracy. A warfare of 
 several years followed, and in 1597 Huntly 
 and Errol, the two most prominent leaders, 
 made their peace by publicly abjuring Ro- 
 manism, and embracing the reformed 
 faith. 
 
 James had considerable trouble with the 
 reformed ministers, wiio arrogantly claimed 
 the right to dictate even to the king. This 
 contest brought on a severe riot iu Edin- 
 burgh, which compelled the king to fly to 
 Linlithgow. He then threatened to re- 
 move the courts of justice from Edinburgh, 
 and thus brought the people of that city to 
 their senses. They submitted, and the 
 court returned to the capital. The min- 
 isters who had caused the trouble fled into 
 England. 
 
 On the 24th of March, 1603, Queen 
 Elizabeth of England died, and James VI. 
 of Scotland was declared her successor. 
 He at once set out for England, and on the 
 6th of May, 1603, made his formal entry 
 into London. The change from the poor 
 and weak kingdom of Scotland to rich and 
 powerful England was great indeed, and 
 might have turned a stronger head thaa 
 James'. It also freed him from his de- 
 pendence upon the turbulent Scotch peers, 
 and enabled him to govern them with a 
 firmer hand, since he could command the 
 resources of England to assist him in main- 
 taining his authority iu Scotland. The 
 union of the two crowns brought peace to 
 the border, which had for centuries been 
 torn by the most savage warfare. The 
 border laws on each side were repealed, and 
 it was agreed that all subjects of either 
 country born after the union should be citi- 
 zens of the other as well, and have the right 
 to inherit and hold property in either. A 
 lord high commissioner was made the king's 
 representative in Scotland. In all things 
 else the two countries were independent of 
 each other, and each had its own parliament. 
 
 In Scotland James had been a very good 
 Presbyterian, but he was no sooner seated 
 on the English throne than he became a 
 zealous Episcopalian, and from this time 
 the great aim of his life was to bring the 
 Church of Scotland into conformity with 
 that of England. In 1606 he obtained the 
 passage of a law by the estates re-establish- 
 ing episcopacy in the Scottish Church. It 
 was enacted that no measures in church 
 government should be valid without the 
 
FBOM ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 963 
 
 consent of the bishops, and the powers of 
 the general assembly were very much cur- 
 tailed, though its existence was continued. 
 A bishop was thereupon consecrated in 
 London for each of the sees of Glasgow, 
 Brechin, and Galloway. These measures 
 aroused great discontent in Scotland; the 
 bishops were coldly received, and found it 
 difficult to collect the revenues assigned 
 them. The king's measures for enforcing 
 law and order in the highlands were more 
 successful. The chiefs who could not show 
 written titles were deprived of their lands, 
 and colonies of lowlanders were settled 
 upon them. The chiefs who were per- 
 mitted to retain their lands wex-e required 
 to give sureties for the good order of their 
 clans, to rent their lands at fixed rates in 
 money, and to send their children to school 
 in the lowlands. By these measures the 
 danger of united action by the clans was 
 largely removed, and the royal authority 
 strengthened. James paid only one visit 
 to Scotland after his accession to the Eng- 
 lish crown, and on this occasion the general 
 assembly at Perth passed the " Five Arti- 
 cles," which permitted the private admin- 
 istration of the sacraments, and required 
 all persons to kneel in receiving the holy 
 communion, to bring their children to the 
 bishops for confirmation, and to observe the 
 five great festivals of the Christian Church 
 as holidays. The Presbyterians of Scotland 
 were greatly incensed by the measures, and 
 universally disregarded them. On the 
 27th of March, 1625, King James died in 
 England. 
 
 Charles I. succeeded his father as King 
 of England and Scotland. As we have 
 seen, his ideas of the royal prerogative were 
 even more extravagant than those of his 
 father. He came to the throne firmly re- 
 solved to carry out his father's plan of 
 making the Scottish Church conform to the 
 English standard, and at once issued a 
 proclamation reclaiming all the former 
 church lands which were in the hands of 
 laymen, whether they had received them 
 from the crown or not. The holders pro- 
 tested against this unjust course of the 
 king, and at length a compromise was ef- 
 fected, by which they agreed to give up a 
 part of their lands, and the king consented 
 to make good their title to the rest. 
 
 In 1633 Charles visited Scotland, and 
 was crowned with imposing ceremonies in 
 the Abbey Church of Holyrood. The 
 clergy on this occasion wore the vestments 
 
 of the Church of England, and by so doing 
 gave great ofience to the Scots. Charles 
 increased this ill feeling by issuing an order 
 to the Scottish clergy to wear surplices, and 
 commanding the Scottish bishops to wear 
 rochets and sleeves instead of the Geneva 
 cloak as formerly. A change was made in 
 the manner of choosing the lords of the ar- 
 ticles, or the committee which directed 
 the legislation of the estates, which threw 
 the choice entirely into the hands of the 
 bishops. This was done at the direct in- 
 stance of the king, and a remonstrance was 
 addressed to him by the members of the es- 
 tates opposed to the measure. He treated 
 the remonstrance as a political offence, and 
 threw Lord Balmerinoch, who presented 
 it, into prison. He subsequently liber- 
 ated him, but the Scots generally regarded 
 this act as the result of feai", and not as a 
 mark of the king's good will toward them. 
 In 1637 Charles brought the discontents of 
 the Scots to a head. He caused a book of 
 canons to be prepared for the government 
 of the Scottish Church, and on his own au- 
 thority, and without the ratification of it by 
 the estates, commanded the Scots to use it 
 in place of their Book of Discipline. A 
 little later a liturgy was prepared by Laud, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Scottish 
 clergy were commanded by the king to use 
 it in the churches instead of the Book of 
 Common Order, which was then in general 
 use. On the 16th of July, 1637, the Dean 
 of Edinburgh attempted to use the liturgy 
 in St. Giles' Church. A riot at once en- 
 sued, and the Dean and Bishop of Edin- 
 burgh were driven from tlie church. Fur- 
 ther riots followed this one. The king 
 issued a proclamation calling upon the 
 people to disperse to their homes, and re- 
 fused to listen to the petitions which poured 
 in upon him from all parts of Scotland. 
 His stubbornness increased the popular 
 discontent, and the bishops and other 
 members of the privy council were 
 mobbed in Edinburgh. At length a 
 committee, consisting of four members 
 from each class, nobles, lesser barons, 
 clergy, and burgesses, known as "The 
 Tables," was formed to represent the people 
 in their contest with the government. They 
 proved more troublesome than the mob, 
 and forcing their way into the council 
 chamber insisted on discussing their griev- 
 ances there, and demanded the removal of 
 the bishops. The king met the action of 
 the tables with a threatening proclamation, 
 
964 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and that body at once renewed the cove- 
 nant, which this time contained a provision 
 for the overthrow of the bishojis. The 
 former covenants had been signed by the 
 notables only ; this one was signed by all 
 classes of the people, rich and poor, noble 
 and peasant, and in all parts of the king- 
 dom. Hence the national party received 
 the name of Covenanters, 1638. Later in 
 the year Charles sent the Marquess of Ham- 
 ilton to Scotland as his commissioner, with 
 full power to settle the troubles. The Cov- 
 enanters demanded the abolition of the high 
 court of commission, the canons, and the 
 liturgy, and the summoning of a free as- 
 sembly and a free parliament. In accoi'dance 
 with his instructions, Hamilton evaded an 
 answer to these demands, seeking to give 
 the king time to assemble his forces and 
 compel obedience. Suddenly the king 
 promised to grant the demands of the 
 Scots, and an assembly was summoned. It 
 met at Glasgow on the 21st of November, 
 1638, and was presided over by Hamilton 
 as royal commissioner. A few days later 
 an attempt was made to bring the bishops 
 to trial. Hamilton at once withdrew, and 
 ordered the assembly to disperse. They 
 refused to obey, and went on with the trials 
 of the bishops, all of whom were deposed, 
 and eight of them excommunicated. The 
 canons and liturgy were abolished, and all 
 the acts of assemblies since 1606 were re- 
 pealed. 
 
 The north of Scotland was ruled by the 
 Earl of Huntly as the king's lieutenant. 
 The covenant had not been received there, 
 and the tables resolved to compel its ac- 
 ceptance. A strong army, composed largely 
 of veterans who had seen service on the 
 continent in the Thirty Years' War, was 
 raised and placed under the command of 
 the Earl of Montrose, who, in a brief and 
 brilliant campaign, subdued the north, and 
 established the authority of the Covenant- 
 ers. Another army under General Leslie 
 was sent to the southern border to meet the 
 force which the king was bringing north to 
 subdue Scotland. Leslie took an admirable 
 position commanding the line of march of 
 the royal army, and the king, seeing that 
 defeat was certain in case he attacked the 
 Scottish general, consented to treat with 
 him. It was agreed that the questions at 
 issue between Charles and his Scottish sub- 
 jects should be referred to a free assembly 
 for settlement, and that in the meantime 
 both armies should be disbanded and the 
 
 fortresses restored to the king, June 9th, 
 
 1639. This treaty, known as the " Pacifi- 
 cation of Berwick," also closed Montrose's 
 campaign in the north. 
 
 An assembly was summoned, and met at 
 Edinburgh. It ratified all that the Glas- 
 gow assembly had done. The estates met 
 on the 2d of June, 1640, and confirmed the 
 acts of the assemblies, and ordered every 
 one to sign the covenant on pain of severe 
 punishment. The king adjourned the es- 
 tates, but they met again in spite of him, 
 and appealed to France for aid. Upon 
 hearing of this Charles sent Lord Loudon, 
 one of the Scotch commissioners, to the 
 Tower, and prepared to invade Scotland. 
 His arbitrary treatment of his own subjects, 
 however, had aroused a strong sympathy in 
 England for the Scots, who, it was seen, were 
 fighting the cause of freedom against arbi- 
 trary power. Charles had much difiiculty 
 in raising an army, and when gotten to- 
 gether it was mutinous and discontented. 
 The Scots, on the other hand, raised a 
 strong force, and on the 20th of August, 
 
 1640, entered England. They captured 
 Durham, Tynemouth, and Shields without 
 striking a blow, and the Scottish army at 
 home obtained possession of the Castles of 
 Edinburgh and Dumbarton. Charles once 
 more consented to treat, and the treaty of 
 Ripon was concluded. All the Scottish 
 demands were granted, the armies were dis- 
 banded, and the war seemed to be over. 
 The king visited Edinburgh, and the estates 
 were summoned. He made no effort to 
 interfere with their action, and confirmed 
 their right to meet once in three years, 
 1641. 
 
 The next year the civil war in England 
 began. The English parliament adopted 
 the solemn league and covenant, and so in- 
 duced the Scots to embrace the side of the 
 parliament. A fine army was sent into 
 England under Leslie, now Earl of Leven, 
 and his nephew, David Leslie. This force 
 crossed the border on the 19th of January, 
 1644. A portion was detached to lay siege 
 to Newcastle, which was carried by storm 
 on the 19th of October. The main body 
 advanced into Yorkshire, joined the parlia- 
 mentary army, and took part in the battle 
 of Marston Moor, July 2d, 1644. The next 
 important service of the Scottish army was 
 the siege of Newark. During the progress 
 of the siege, Charles, disheartened by his 
 reverses, fled from Oxford, where he was 
 besieged by the parliamentary forces, and 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 966 
 
 proceeding to the Scotch camp before New- 
 ark, placed himself under the protection of 
 the Scottish forces, May 5th, 1646. He 
 was treated witli respect, but was held as a 
 prisoner. Newark surrendered a few days 
 later, and the Scots withdrew to Newcastle 
 until they could arrange the terms upon 
 which the king should be surrendered to 
 the English parliament. 
 
 In the meantime the Earl of Montrose, 
 
 army when orders arrived from the king, 
 who had thrown himself upon the protec- 
 tion of the Scottish army in England, to 
 lay down his arms. Montrose obeyed and 
 left Scotland. 
 
 The Scots made many efforts to induce 
 Chai'les to turn Presbyterian and accept 
 the solemn league and covenant. Had he 
 done so, they would have protected him, 
 but as he refused to change his faith, they 
 
 VIEW OF EDINBURGH, 
 
 who had abandoned the Covenanters for the 
 cause of the king, had raised the royal 
 standard in the highlands, and had won 
 hack nearly the whole north for the king. 
 David Leslie was sent against him, and 
 Montrose being weakened by the departure 
 of his highlanders to their homes, was de- 
 feated at Philiphaugh, September 15th, 
 1645. He retreated to the highlands, and 
 was engaged in the effort to raise a new 
 
 surrendered him to the English parliament, 
 and returned to Scotland on the payment 
 of £400,000 arrears of pay due them, Jan- 
 uary 30th, 1647. " Great pains were taken 
 by the Scots (and the English complied 
 with their pretended delicacy) to make 
 this estimation and payment of arrears 
 appear a quite different transaction from 
 that for the delivery of the king's person, 
 but common sense requires that they shoiild 
 
966 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 be regarded as one and the same. Thus 
 the Scottish nation incurred the reproach 
 of betraying their prince for money." 
 
 Some months later, during his captivity 
 at Carisbrooke Castle, Charles made a 
 treaty with the moderate party of Scotland, 
 in which he agreed, if they would assist him 
 to recover his throne, to sign the covenant 
 and establish the Presbyterian Church in 
 England. The committee of the estates, 
 which administered the government of 
 Scotland, sent an army into England under 
 the Duke of Hamilton to carry out this 
 agreement. This force Avas defeated by 
 Cromwell at Preston, and was pursued to 
 Uttoxeter, where it was forced to surrender, 
 August 20th, 1648. Cromwell then invaded 
 Scotland, overthrew the moderate party, 
 and placed the government in the hands of 
 the extreme Presbyterians. 
 
 In June, 1643, an assembly of divines 
 met at Westminster to settle the religious 
 matters of the kingdom. Several months 
 later they adopted the solemn league and 
 covenant. When their confession of faith 
 was promulgated, it was adopted by the 
 Scots in place of their books of discipline 
 and common order. 
 
 On the 30th of January, 1649, Charles I. 
 was beheaded at London. The Scots at 
 once proclaimed Charles II. King of Great 
 Britain, France, and Ireland, Negotiations 
 were opened with him ; but in the mean- 
 time, Montrose returned to Scotland and 
 attempted to raise the north for the king. 
 He was defeated, brought to Edinburgh, 
 and hanged without a trial. The Scots 
 continued their negotiations with Charles 
 II. He agreed to sign the covenant, be a 
 good Presbyterian, and submit to the guid- 
 ance of the assembly. The Scots then 
 called him to take his place at their head, 
 and he landed and signed the covenant in 
 July, 1650. Cromwell, as soon as informed 
 of these events, marched towards Scotland. 
 The Scots rallied to the defence of Charles, 
 but Leslie, their commander, was outgener- 
 alled by Cromwell, and was defeated at 
 Dunbar on the 3d of September. 
 
 Charles, in the meantime, had found his 
 Scottish kingdom very distasteful to him. 
 A close watch was maintained over him, 
 and the doctrines of the covenant were 
 forced upon him to a degree that made 
 them hateful to him. He escaped from 
 Dunfermline where he was residing, in the 
 hope of joining the northern nobles, but 
 was captured, brought back, and solemnly 
 
 crowned at Scone. A Scottish army now 
 advanced into England, taking the king 
 with it, Cromwell, who was in Scotland at 
 the time, hastened after it, and routed it at 
 Worcester (September 3d, 1651) on the 
 anniversary of his victory at Dunbar, 
 Charles was obliged to fly, and at length 
 succeeded in reaching the continent, A 
 force under General Monk was left in Scot- 
 land by Cromwell, and reduced the country 
 to submission, 
 
 Cromwell, upon becoming Lord Protector 
 of England, Scotland, and Ireland, united 
 Scotland and England in one government. 
 It was settled that Scotland should be rep- 
 resented in the English parliament by 
 thirty members, and free trade was estab- 
 lished between the two countries. Seven 
 judges, four of whom were English, were 
 l^laced over the courts, and a line of forts 
 strongly garrisoned was maintained through- 
 out the country for the preservation of or- 
 der. Scotland was treated as a conquered 
 province. 
 
 The restoration of Charles II, to the 
 English throne undid the work of the pro- 
 tector. The Scots rejoiced greatly over the 
 return of the king, as they hoped he would 
 uphold the covenant, which he had signed. 
 They were soon undeceived. In 1660 the 
 privilege of free trade with England was 
 taken from Scotland, and somewhat later 
 episcopacy was re-established. New bishops 
 were consecrated, and James Sharp was 
 made Archbishop of St, Andrews and 
 primate of Scotland. The government of 
 Scotland was intrusted to a privy council, 
 and a body of troops, called the life-guard, 
 was enlisted to maintain the authority of 
 the council. The Earl of Argyle and 
 James Guthrie, a noted divine and a leader 
 of the extreme Covenanters, were seized and 
 put to death, 1661, In 1662 an act was 
 passed requiring all persons holding office 
 to subscribe a declaration that the covenant 
 was an illegal oath, and therefore not bind- 
 ing. All ministers were required to be re- 
 instated in their livings by a bishop. Those 
 who refused were ordered to give up their 
 churches and remove from their parishes 
 with their families. Three hundred and 
 fifty ministers resigned, and were followed 
 by their congregations into the fields, where 
 they held religious services. Severe laws 
 were enacted to compel the ministers to 
 discontinue their preaching, and to force 
 the people to attend their parish churches. 
 The court of high commission was revived, 
 
FEOM ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 967 
 
 and a cruel warfare was begun upon all 
 persons who refused to conform to the 
 •standard of the Church of England. The 
 open air meetings, which were called con- 
 venticles by the Episcopalians, were at- 
 tacked by the royal troops, and the Cove- 
 nanters were hunted through the country 
 and cruelly tortured or executed when cap- 
 tured. Neither age nor sex were spared. 
 These cruelties led to several uprisings of 
 the people, one of the most formidable of 
 which was crushed in the battle of Pent- 
 land in 1666. Archbishop Sharp was 
 generally regarded as the originator and 
 promoter of this persecution, which entirely 
 failed to shake the firmness of the Covenant- 
 ers. On the 3d of May, 1679, Sharp was 
 waylaid and murdered near St. Andrews, 
 and the murderers escaped. 
 
 The persecutions continued throughout 
 the reign of Charles II. The Covenanters' 
 chief stronghold was the hill country be- 
 tween Lanark and Ayr. There they held 
 their principal meetings, to which they 
 came armed. They were attacked there in 
 May, 1679, by the royal troops under John 
 Graham of Claverhouse, and succeeded in 
 inflicting a defeat upon their enemies. 
 Charles now sent an army of 15,000 men 
 against them, under the Duke of Mon- 
 mouth. Monmouth defeated the army of 
 the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge in 
 June, 1679, and took 1,200 prisoners. The 
 majority of these were shipped to the 
 colonies. 
 
 Charles II. died on the 6th of February, 
 1685. James II. of England and VII. of 
 Scotland, who succeeded him, was, as we 
 have seen, the enemy of Protestantism, and 
 was a bitter opponent of its Presbyterian 
 form. Under him the persecution of the 
 Covenanters became fiercer and more active. 
 An act was passed giving the soldiers au- 
 thority to put to death at once all persons 
 who refused to take the oath of abjuration ; 
 that is, an oath repudiating all sympathy 
 with the declarations issued by the Cove- 
 nanters in opposition to the royal authority. 
 Many persons were put to death for their 
 refusal to take this oath, among them two 
 women — Margaret Maclauchlan and Mar- 
 garet Wilson — who were tied to stakes in 
 the Solway Frith and drowned by the 
 rising tide. The royal troops treated the 
 Covenanters with the most shocking bru- 
 tality, while the latter, on their part, ex- 
 hibited the most heroic courage and firm- 
 ness in their trials. Early in the reign of 
 
 James an act was passed making atten- 
 dance upon a conventicle a crime punish- 
 able with death. In 1685 the Marquess of 
 Argyle landed in Scotland and attempted 
 an insurrection, which was intended to be 
 simultaneous with that of the Duke of 
 Monmouth in England, and had for its 
 object the overthrow of James and the ele- 
 vation of Monmouth to the throne. The 
 movement was badly managed, and Argyle's 
 army dispersed without striking a blow. 
 He was taken while trying to escape from 
 the country, and was put to death with great 
 indignity. The country of Argyle was 
 wasted with fii*e and sword by the royal 
 troops, and many members of his clan were 
 transported to the plantations after having 
 been first cruelly mutilated. 
 
 The efforts of James to introduce the 
 Roman Catholic religion into England now 
 alarmed the Scottish privy council, which 
 had until this time given him a hearty 
 support in his cruelties. The council now 
 refused to follow the king any farther, and 
 the Duke of Queensberry, the royal com- 
 missioner, was removed, and his place was 
 filled with the Earl of Perth, a Roman 
 Catholic. James next endeavored to in- 
 duce the estates to pass a bill removing the 
 penalties against the Roman Catholics, but 
 leaving those against the Covenanters in 
 full force. The estates refused to do this, 
 and even the bishops opposed it. The king 
 was then compelled to grant toleration to 
 all creeds in order to secure it for the 
 Catholics. He issued several indulgences, 
 the most important of which was that of 
 1688, which granted toleration to every 
 sect, to the Quakers as well as to the Cove- 
 nanters. This measure came too late, how- 
 ever. The intentions of the king were 
 understood, and his attack upon the liberties 
 of the English Church had arrayed the 
 English people against him. They invited 
 his son-in-law, William, Prince of Orange, 
 to come over and claim the crown. The 
 deposition and flight of James and the ac- 
 cession of William and Mary to the throne 
 have been related, and need not be re- 
 peated here. 
 
 The fall of James was a great gain for 
 Scotland. A convention was summoned at 
 Edinburgh, in which the deposition of 
 James was formally declared. The crown 
 of Scotland was offered to William and 
 Mary, who were publicly proclaimed King 
 and Queen of Scotland. Three commis- 
 sioners were sent to Loudon, and the coro- 
 
968 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 nation oath was administered to William 
 by the Marquess of Argyle. The king, in 
 taking the oath, declared that there should 
 be no religious persecutions during his 
 reign. 
 
 Immediately upon the fall of James the 
 Episcopal Church in Scotland was over- 
 thrown. The people, who had suffered so 
 much at its hands, rose against it on Christ- 
 mas day, 1688, and made a general attack 
 upon the curates or rectors of parishes in 
 the western lowlands. About two hundred 
 curates, with their families, were driven 
 from their homes with insult and abuse. 
 William issued a proclamation ordering the 
 rioters to disperse, but had no meaus of en- 
 forcing his command, as he had no troops 
 north of the Tweed, and the rioting con- 
 tinued. The Scotch bishops adhered to the 
 cause of James, and William was not dis- 
 posed to take any steps for their protection. 
 In June, 1690, the Presbyterian Church 
 was formally re-established in Scotland by 
 act of parliament. 
 
 Though Scotland had so readily accepted 
 William and Mary, there was still a large 
 party in the country which regarded them 
 as usurpers, and remained faithful to the 
 cause of King James. They were known 
 as the Jacobites. When the convention 
 met at Edinburgh the castle was held by 
 the Duke of Gordon for James, who could 
 have laid the city in ashes had he chosen 
 to open fire upon it. The Jacobites found 
 themselves too weak to attempt an out- 
 break, however, and determined to leave 
 the city and hold a rival convention at 
 Stirling. Before they could do this, Claver- 
 house, now Viscount Dundee, the brutal 
 commander of James' troops during the 
 persecutions, escaped from the city. The 
 alarm was given and all the other Jacobite 
 leaders were arrested by the government. 
 Dundee withdrew to his estates in the 
 highlands, where he carried on a corre- 
 spondence W'ith the exiled king. Certain 
 letters written to him by James fell into 
 the hands of the government, and an order 
 was issued for Dundee's an-est. Dundee 
 at once summoned the clans to rise in arms 
 for King James, and began a formidable 
 revolt, 1689. On the 27th of July he de- 
 feated the royal forces at Killiecrankie, 
 but purchased his victory with his life. 
 Deprived of their able leader, the high- 
 landers became demoralized and thought 
 more of plunder than of following up their 
 success. In August they attacked Dun- 
 
 keld, which was held by the Cameronian 
 regiment, and were defeated. Soon after 
 this the Duke of Gordon was compelled to 
 surrender Edinburgh Castle. In the spring 
 of 1690 the highlanders Avere again de- 
 feated and scattered in the strath of the 
 Spey, and with this defeat the revolt came 
 to an end. The highland chiefs were still 
 discontented, however, and it was clear that 
 they were only awaiting another leader to 
 rise in rebellion again. After repeated 
 efforts to win them over, a royal proclama- 
 tion was issued offering a pardon to all the 
 rebels who would take the oath of allegiance 
 to King William before or on the 31st of 
 December, 1691. All who failed to take 
 the oath by that day Avere to be treated as 
 rebels and traitors. To enforce its threat 
 the government assembled a strong body 
 of ti'oops in the highlands. 
 
 All the clans came in before the ap- 
 pointed day except Maclan, chief of a 
 tribe of MacDonalds, who lived in Glen- 
 coe, a mountain valley in western Argyle- 
 shire. On the 31st of December, the last 
 day of grace, Maclan and his principal 
 clansmen appeared at Fort William to 
 take the oath. To their surprise and alarm 
 they found no one there who had authority 
 to administer them. There was no magis- 
 trate nearer than Inverary, and Colonel 
 Hill, the commandant of Fort William, 
 directed them to repair to that place. The 
 country was mountainous and the ground 
 was covered with snow, so that Maclan 
 and his companions did not reach Inverary 
 until the 6th of January, 1692. Sir Colin 
 Campbell, the Sheriff of Argyleshire, after 
 many entreaties, consented, in consideration 
 of the effort they had made, to receive 
 their oaths. A return was made to the 
 Scottish government of the facts in the 
 case. Sir John Dalrymple, William's 
 secretary for Ireland, was the mortal enemy 
 of the MacDonalds, and resolved to make 
 Maclan's negligence the occasion of 
 destroying him and his whole clan. He 
 concealed from the king the facts of the 
 case, and obtained an order for the military 
 execution of the chief and his clan. A 
 company of soldiers, under Campbell of 
 Glenlyon, was sent to Glencoe, and arrived 
 at the lonely mountain glen on the 1st of 
 February, 1692. They professed to come 
 as friends, and were cordially received and 
 entertained. After enjoying the hospitality 
 of the clan for a fortnight, they turned upon 
 their hosts before day on the morning of 
 
FROM ACCESSION OF JAMES VI. TO THE UNION WITH ENGLAND. 969 
 
 by the English establishment. The Scot- 
 tish parliament was abolished, and Scot- 
 laud was to be represented in the English 
 parliament by sixteen representative peers 
 chosen from the whole body of peers, and 
 forty-five representatives of the commons. 
 The united parliament was to be thenceforth 
 called the Parliament of Great Britain. 
 Free trade was established between the two 
 countries, and the same privileges of trade. 
 
 the 14th, and massacred all the inhabitants 
 of the valley, save a few who escaped, 
 sparing neither age nor sex. The cattle 
 were driven away and the houses burned. 
 It was one of the most brutal and unpro- 
 voked massacres on record. It is said that 
 AVilliain did not read or understand the 
 warrant when he signed it. Whether this 
 be so or not, it is certain that he took no 
 steps to punish the authors of the outrage, 
 and that when, four years later, the guilt 
 of the Master of Stair was made plain to 
 him, he did not call him to account for his 
 crime, which constitutes the foulest blot on 
 his reign. 
 
 Queen Mary died in 1690. William III. 
 reigned twelve years as sole monarch, and 
 died on the 8th of March, 1702. 
 
 Anne, the daughter of James II. of Eng- 
 land, succeeded William on the throne, and 
 was promptly proclaimed Queen of Scot- 
 laud. The English j^arliament had passed 
 an act of settlement providing that, in the 
 event of the death of Queen Anne without 
 heirs, the crown should pass to Sophia, 
 Electress of Hanover, and her descendants. 
 The Scottish estates refused to take a sim- 
 ilar step, and passed an act of security 
 which provided that the same person should 
 not succeed to the crowns of England and 
 Scotland unless, during the reign of Queen 
 Anne, measures should betaken to secure the 
 honor and independence of Scotland against 
 English influence. The estates reserved 
 the right to declare war against England 
 at any time. Many things now occurred 
 to establish an unfriendly feeling between 
 the two countries, and there was danger of 
 a rupture of the relations that had existed 
 between them since the accession of James 
 VI. to the English throne. 
 
 It was plain that the only way to remedy 
 these evils was to bring the two kingdoms 
 under one government. Commissioners 
 were therefore appointed by both countries, 
 and the result of their deliberations was the 
 conclusion of a treaty of union, by which 
 the succession to both crowns was settled 
 upon the heirs of the Electress Sophia, 
 being Protestants. The independence of 
 the National Church of Scotland was se- 
 cured, and protected agaiust interference 
 
 VALLEY OF GLENCOE. 
 
 the right to hold property, and the same 
 political rights and immunities were guar- 
 anteed to the citizens of both countries. 
 The same coins, weights, and measures were 
 to be used throughout the island. These 
 measures being arranged, the First Parlia- 
 ment of Great Britain met on the 23d of 
 October, 1707. 
 
 The subsequent history of Scotland is 
 related in the history of England, to whicli 
 the reader is referred. 
 
970 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE S^H^CEISTS. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 FROM MOHAMMED TO THE TURKISH DO- 
 MINION, 
 
 Birth of Mohammed— His Early Life— His Medita- 
 tions — His Marriage — Proclaims Himself a 
 Prophet— Character of his Revelation— Hostility 
 to him— His First Converts— Flies from Mecca- 
 Medina Embraces his Cause— His Conquests- 
 Death of the Prophet— Successors of Mohammed 
 — Omar— Conquest of Syria and Palestine— Persia 
 and Western Asia Overrun— The Saracens At- 
 tack Constantinople— Conquest of Egypt— North- 
 ern Africa Subdued — The Mohammedan Conquest 
 of Spain— Efforts to Conquer Southern Europe- 
 Defeat of the Saracens at Tours— Division of the 
 Khalifate— Growth of Mohammedan Sects— Har- 
 oun al Raschid— His Brilliant Reign- State of 
 Knowledge among the Saracens — Crete Con- 
 quered — Naval Warfare of the Saracens— Scien- 
 tific Progress— Decline of the Khalifate of Bag- 
 dad— Rise of the Turks— Weakness of the Khalif 
 — Reign of Malek Shah— His Empire — Zingis 
 Khan— The Tartar Dominion— Kublai Khan- 
 Russia Conquered by the Tartars — Rise of the 
 Turkish Empire. 
 
 EYOND the limits of the Roman 
 empire, amid the sands of the Ara- 
 bian deserts, there was born in the 
 city of Mecca, a. d. 569, a child 
 who was destined to change the 
 entire current of Eastern history 
 — Mohammed, Of the princely house of 
 the Koreish tribe, Mohammed was from his 
 birth a conspicuous personage. He was 
 left an orphan at an early age, and, his 
 father's estate being dissipated by its di- 
 vision among a numerous family of rela- 
 tives, he was left almost in poverty. He 
 was reared by his uncle, Abu Taleb, and 
 educated according to the forms and tra- 
 ditions of his race. His family had long 
 been the keepers or guardians of the tem- 
 ple at Mecca, which contained the Caaba, 
 the stone believed by the Arabs to have 
 covered the tomb of Abraham. By his 
 uncle he was initiated in the science of war 
 and the mysteries of commerce ; but he was 
 poor, and at an early age entered upon the 
 effort to earn his bread by his own labor. 
 His only property consisted of five camels, 
 and with these he followed the caravans 
 across the desert, visiting various parts of 
 the Arabian peninsula, and the principal 
 places in Syria and Palestine. Though he 
 
 could neither read nor write, these journeys 
 developed his natural abilities and added 
 to his store of information, by bringing 
 him into contact with the representatives 
 of all the nations of Asia and many of those 
 of Europe who frequented the Eastern fairs 
 in pursuit of gain. Gifted with a rare po- 
 etic temperament, and lifted by his native 
 genius far above his fellows, Mohammed 
 soon began to meditate upon the great ques- 
 tions of life, and especially upon those per- 
 taining to the relations of man to his Maker. 
 In his lonely watches in the desert, and in 
 his meditations in a cave to which he was 
 wont to retire for reflection, visions suc- 
 ceeded his meditations, and he began to 
 work out the scheme which he afterwards 
 proclaimed to the world with such won- 
 derful success. In his twenty-fifth year he 
 entered the service of Cadijah, a wealthy 
 and noble widow of Mecca, who, appreci- 
 ating his superior gifts, bestowed upon him 
 her hand and fortune. This alliance re- 
 stored him to the station in life to which 
 he was born, and gave him leisure in which 
 to perfect his system. For fifteen years he 
 contented himself with a private career, 
 neither seeking nor attracting notoriety. 
 
 Mohammed was forty years old when he 
 assumed the ofiice of a prophet and teacher. 
 He taught that though both the Jewish 
 and the Christian religions were of Divine 
 origin, yet God had given to him a clearer 
 and more perfect revelation. His creed 
 is briefly set forth in the customary for- 
 mula of his followers: "There is but one 
 God, and Mohammed is the Prophet of 
 God." He claimed to have received from 
 the angel Gabriel the revelations which he 
 at various times made known to his fol- 
 lowers. This collection is termed the Koran. 
 According to the prophet, a copy of the 
 Koran, bound in silk and precious stones, 
 was brought by Gabriel to the lowest 
 heaven, and revealed to him by chapters 
 and verses. These fragments were produced 
 at the discretion of Mohammed. "Each 
 revelation is suited to the emergencies of 
 his policy or passions; and all contradic- 
 tion is removed by the saving maxim that 
 any text of scripture is abrogated or modi- 
 
FROM MOHAMMED TO THE TURKISH DOMINION. 
 
 971 
 
 fied by any subsequent passage." These 
 revelations were diligently recorded by the 
 disciples of the prophet on palm leaves and 
 shoulder-bones of mutton, and were thrown 
 into a chest in charge of one of his wives. 
 At his death they were collected, transcribed 
 and published by command of his successor, 
 Abubeker. 
 
 At the time of the appearance of the 
 prophet, Arabia was given over to the 
 grossest idolatry, and there can be no ques- 
 tion that as regards his own country Mo- 
 hammed was a reformer and a benefactor. 
 He put an end to the idolatry of the Arabs, 
 and lifted them up to a higher level of 
 morality and religion. He organized their 
 hostile tribes into one nation, and gave to 
 them better laws and customs than they 
 had possessed before. 
 
 Mohammed began his work by convert- 
 ing his wife Cadijah, his servant Zeid, his 
 pupil and cousin Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, 
 and his friend Abubeker, those who, as 
 Gibbon well remarks, " were most convers- 
 ant with his infirmities as a man." Three 
 years were spent in the conversion of four- 
 teen proselytes. In the fourth year the 
 teacher assumed the prophetic office, and 
 for the next ten years Mohammed slowly 
 and painfully spread his religion within the 
 walls of Mecca, opposed at every step by 
 the idolaters who clung tenaciously to their 
 idols. The Koreishites bitterly resented 
 his claims, and it required all the power of 
 his uncle, Abu Taleb, who had not em- 
 braced his faith, to protect him. He was 
 obliged to withdraw to various places of 
 strength in the town and in the neighboring 
 country. The death of Abu Taleb deprived 
 him of his protector, and left him at the 
 mercy of his enemies. At the same time, 
 Cadijah dying, he lost his most faithful 
 friend and counsellor. The enemies of the 
 prophet, led by Abu Sophian, the chief of 
 the branch of Oramiyah, who had succeeded 
 to the principality of the republic of Mecca, 
 laid a plot to kill him. Warned of this, 
 Mohammed, accompanied by his friend 
 Abubeker, fled from Mecca to Medina, 
 where he had already many converts. This 
 event, known as the Hegira, or " the Fl ighf ," 
 occurred on the 19th of April, a. d. 622, 
 and is the era from which the Mohammed- 
 ans still reckon their lunar year of 354 
 days. 
 
 Medina received the prophet, and em- 
 braced the faith of Islam, sixteen days after 
 his flight from Mecca. In the next seven 
 
 years he reduced all Arabia to obedience 
 to him, and the wild tribes having once ac- 
 cepted his doctrine, rallied to his support 
 with enthusiasm. Everywhere the new doc- 
 trine was spread by means of the sword, 
 the religious zeal of the Arabs being in- 
 creased and sustained by their splendid 
 courage. " The sword," says the Koran, 
 " is the key of heaven and of hell. A drop 
 of blood shed in the cause of God, a night 
 spent in arms, is of more avail than two 
 months of fasting and prayer. Whoever 
 fails in battle, his sins are forgiven." 
 
 Mohammed assured his followers that no 
 man can die until the moment appointed 
 him by fate. At that moment, whether in 
 his peaceful home or on the field of battle, 
 he will fall dead. Until the arrival of this 
 appointed time he is safe in the fiercest 
 battle. Such a doctrine made the warriors 
 of the desert utterly reckless of life, and 
 irresistible as compared with the other 
 nations of the East. 
 
 Having conquered Arabia, Mohammed 
 turned his eyes to other lands. The regions 
 which lay open to him were the dominions 
 of Persia and the Roman empire, the former 
 of which was in the last stages of decay, and 
 the latter tottering to its fall. In A. D. 
 630 he made his first attempt against thft 
 empire by invading the territory of Pales- 
 tine east of the Jordan. His army was 
 commanded by Zeid. A battle was fought 
 with the Christians at Muta, near Damas- 
 cus. Zeid was slain, but Khaled, the 
 " Sword of God," a brave and skilful leader, 
 succeeded in repulsing the Roman army 
 and in effecting a safe retreat. 
 
 Mohammed died in A. D. 632 at Medina, 
 and was buried there. He failed to name 
 his successor, and for a time it seemed as if 
 his empire would be rent by the contentions 
 of the claimants of his throne. The trouble 
 was averted by the example of Omar, who, 
 renouncing his own pretensions, acknowl- 
 edged the mild and venerable Abubeker as 
 the successor of the prophet. Abubeker 
 died in 634, and bequeathed his throne to 
 Omar, who mounted it as Khalif, or " suc- 
 cessor." He reigned ten years, and falling 
 before the hand of an assassin, was suc- 
 ceeded by Othman, who died in A. D. 656. 
 The khalifate then passed to Ali, the cousin 
 of the prophet, and the husband of his fav- 
 orite daughter Fatima. 
 
 In the meantime the march of conquest 
 had been resumed by the successors of the 
 prophet, and carried forward steadily. They 
 
972 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 held it to be their duty to spread their faith 
 everywhere, or, in other words, to conquer 
 the world. Men were required either to 
 accept the Koran and its teachings, to pur- 
 chase the right to exercise their own reli- 
 gion by the payment of tribute, or to defend 
 themselves if they could with arras. The 
 khalifs were the spiritual as well as the 
 temporal rulers of their dominions, and ex- 
 ercised their authority with unshrinking 
 firmness. In the reign of Abubeker, Syria 
 and Palestine were invaded by an army 
 under Abu Obeidab, one of the companions 
 of Mohammed. The soul of the expedition, 
 however, was the valiant Khaled. Bosrah 
 was taken, and the Christians were defeated 
 in two great battles — one at Aiznadin in 
 southei-n Palestine, July 30th, A. D. 634, 
 and the other on the banks of the Yerrauk, 
 near the Lake of Tiberias, August 22d, A. D. 
 634. Damascus was taken in the following 
 January, and this was followed by the cap- 
 ture of Heliopolis or Baalbec. Jerusalem 
 surrendered to the Khalif Omar in person 
 in 637. In the next two years all of Syria 
 and Palestine passed under the rule of the 
 khalif 
 
 In A. D. 632 the Saracens invaded the 
 Persian dominions, which were then ruled 
 by Yezdegerd, the grandson of Chosroes. 
 The fate of the kingdom was decided by the 
 battle of Cadesia on the banks of the Tigris, 
 A. D. 636. Assyria at once submitted, and 
 the victory of the khalif was signalized by 
 the founding of the city of Bassora, which 
 was planted upon the western bank of the 
 united channel of the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris, midway between the junction and 
 the mouth of three famous streams. The 
 provinces of the Persian empire were suc- 
 cessively reduced, and by the year 651 the 
 Saracens extended their boundary to the 
 Oxus, beyond which lay the dominions of 
 the Turks. In the last years of the seventh 
 century and the first ten years of the next 
 this barrier was passed, and the Moham- 
 medan possessions advanced to the Indus in 
 one direction and the Jaxartes and the 
 Caspian Sea in another. 
 
 Having overrun western Asia, the Sara- 
 cens advanced to the Bosphorus, and in 
 A. D. 668 laid siege to Constantinople itself. 
 Their assaults were repulsed by the valor 
 of the defenders, and the terrible agent 
 known as Greek-fire rendered their attack 
 hopeless. The Greek-fire was a compound 
 of naphtha or liquid bitumen (a light, tena- 
 cious and highly inflammable oil, which 
 
 springs from the earth and catches fire as 
 soon as it comes in contact with the air), 
 sulphur, and tar. "Water was powerless to 
 quench this flame, but on the contrary in- 
 creased its fury. Sand and vinegar alone 
 had any eflfect upon it. It was poured over 
 the walls upon the heads of storming par- 
 ties, launched in red-hot balls of stone and 
 iron, or shot in arrows or javelins twisted 
 round with flax and tow which had been 
 steeped in the inflammable oil. At sea it 
 was used in fire-ships, or blown through 
 long tubes of copper from the prows of gal- 
 leys. The Greeks carefully preserved the 
 secret of its composition for over four centu- 
 ries. The Mohammedans established their 
 camp about eighty miles from Constantino'^ 
 pie, and for six years more renewed their 
 attacks upon the city each summer, with 
 the same result. At length, in A. D. 675, 
 they abandoned the attempt in despair. 
 
 From Palestine the armies of the khalif 
 spread into Egypt under the command of 
 Amrou. Pelusium was taken after a siege 
 of thirty days, in A. d. 639. The people of 
 Egypt offered scarcely any resistance to the 
 conquerors, and two years sufficed for the 
 reduction of that country. Alexandria 
 surrendered in A. d. 641. It should be re- 
 membered that Syria and Egypt "were the 
 provinces in which Greek and Roman 
 civilization had never thoroughly taken 
 root, where the mass of the people still kept 
 their old languages, and where men were 
 always falling away into forms of belief 
 which were counted heretical according to 
 the faith both of the old and new Rome. 
 In these provinces, therefore, men may well 
 have deemed that they had little to lose by 
 a change of rulers. It followed then that, 
 though the Saracens had to fight several 
 hard battles against the Roman armies in 
 Syria, yet they met with no general resist- 
 ance of the whole people, and in Egypt they 
 met with no resistance at all. The great 
 cities of Antioch and Alexandria, as well 
 as Jerusalem, were thus lost to the empire. 
 But in the lands on this side of Mount 
 Taurus, where the influence of Greek cul- 
 ture and Roman law was more deep and 
 abiding, the Saracens never gained any 
 lasting footing." 
 
 Egypt being conquered, the khalif pre- 
 pared to extend his dominion over Africa. 
 Abdallah, the foster-brother of the Khalif 
 Othmau, was intrusted with the task, but 
 the work of conquest was really performed 
 by his successors. It was begun in a. d. 
 
FROM MOHAMMED TO THE TURKISH DOMINION. 
 
 97S 
 
 647, but was not completed till a. d. 709. 
 Between a. d. 692 and 698 the Greeks were 
 finally expelled from Africa. Carthage 
 was destroyed by fire, and its site lay deso- 
 late for more than two centuries. By A. D. 
 709 the Moors or Berbers were entirely sub- 
 dued. They adopted both the language 
 and the name as well as the religion of the 
 Arab conquerors. From the Indus to the 
 Atlantic the rule of the Koran was supreme. 
 
 noble, commanding the important fortress 
 of Ceuta, on the African shore of the Straits 
 of Gibraltar, having been infamously 
 wronged by the Visigothic King Roderic 
 of Spain, betrayed his post into the hands 
 of the Saracens, and led their army into 
 the heart of Spain, a. d. 710. They rav- 
 aged Andalusia, and the next spring a more 
 powerful army of Arabs crossed over from 
 Africa, this time to conquer the entire 
 
 DERVISHES AT PRAYER. 
 
 Having overrun the northern shore of 
 Africa and extended their power along the 
 Mediterranean from Isthmus of Suez to 
 the Taurus range in Asia, the Saracens be- 
 gan to cast longing eyes across the sea to 
 the shores of southern Europe, the wealth 
 and beauty of which were so many tempta- 
 tions to them. They were enabled sooner 
 than they had expected to carry out their 
 wishes in part. Count Julian, a Spanish 
 
 country. The decisive battle of the war 
 was fought near Cadiz. The Visigoths 
 were utterly defeated ; their kingdom was 
 destroyed ; King Roderic was drowned in 
 the Gaudalette ; and in three years after the 
 first invasion the Mohammedans wez-e mas- 
 ters of the entire peninsula, except the 
 mountain region of Asturias, to which a 
 small body of Goths retired with their 
 prince, Pelayo. They held their last 
 
974 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 stronghold successfully against the con- 
 querors, and thus laid the foundations of 
 the modern kingdom of Spain. 
 
 The Mohammedans established their 
 capital at Cordova and set up a kingdom 
 in Spain, which was at first governed by 
 viceroys, but finally became independent, 
 and which continued for nearly eight cen- 
 turies. Large numbers of their country- 
 men crossed over from Syria and Arabia 
 and settled in the conquered country, so 
 that ere long Spain was as thonjughly 
 Arab as the opposite shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. Not satisfied with these successes, 
 other bodies of Arabs crossed the Pyrenees 
 and reduced the southern part of Gaul, 
 known as the province of Septimania. The 
 Moslem frontier now touched that of the 
 Merovingian kings ; for though the southern 
 part of Gaul had never been thoroughly 
 subdued by the Franks, they claimed it as 
 a part of their dominions. The Mohamme- 
 dans fixed their head-quarters at Narbonne, 
 and with their cavalry ravaged the coun- 
 try as far as Lyons and Besangon. 
 
 The khalif now determined to make a 
 serious eftbrt to extend his power over the 
 whole of the south of Europe. France, 
 Germany, and Italy were to be conquered, 
 and then his victorious hosts were to de- 
 scend the Danube to its mouth, overwhelm 
 the Greek empire, and thus surround the 
 Mediterranean with a mighty Moslem em- 
 pire. For this enterjn-ise a powerful army 
 was collected in Spain from that country, 
 from Syria, Egypt, Arabia, and the African 
 shore, and placed under the command of 
 Abderrahman, the most gifted and experi- 
 enced general of the Saracens. The danger 
 was well understood by the Frankish 
 leader, Charles Martel, the most famous 
 Christian warrior of the day, and he gath- 
 ered to his standard not only his brave 
 Franks, but all the Teutonic tribes as far 
 to the north as the North Sea. Not since 
 the defeat of Attila had such immense 
 armies been seen in Gaul, and upon the 
 issue of the present struggle hung an inter- 
 est as momentous as that which had been 
 settled upon the plain of Chalons — the de- 
 cision of the question whether Europe was 
 to be Christian or Mohammedan. The two 
 armies encountered each other near Tours, 
 in the heart of France, and for seven days 
 confronted each other without either side 
 venturing to bring on a general engagement. 
 On the eighth day the Saracens made a 
 fierce assault, and the battle, thus joined. 
 
 continued all day. It was renewed the 
 next morning with equal fury, and at length 
 the Arabs were beaten back. Abderrah- 
 man was slain, and the remnants of his 
 army sought safety in flight. The victory 
 thus gained by Charles and his German 
 warriors was one of the most decisive in 
 history. It put an end to the efforts of the 
 Saracens to conquer southern Europe, A. d. 
 732. They clung to their province of Sep- 
 timania for twenty-three years longer, but 
 in A. D. Ibb were driven across the Pyrenees 
 by Pepin, the son of Charles. They never 
 regained a footing in Gaul. In Spain their 
 kingdom continued to flourish. 
 
 At the other end of the Mediterranean 
 the advance of the followers of the prophet 
 was stayed by the Taurus range. In A. D. 
 717 Constantinople was besieged by a pow- 
 erful Moslem army, and for thirteen months 
 was bravely defended by the Emperor Leo 
 III. The Arabs were finally defeated and 
 compelled to withdraw with heavy loss. 
 
 The Mohammedan empire now extended 
 from western India and the Turkish lands 
 beyond the Oxus to the Atlantic, including 
 the Spanish peninsula in Europe, and 
 throughout this immense region the will of 
 a single khalif was law. Before long, how- 
 ever, the harmony which had enabled it to 
 win such remarkable successes was disturbed 
 by dissensions. The house of Omraiyah, 
 which for ninety years had held the throne, 
 was compelled to give place to the Abbas- 
 sides, descendants of the uncle of the 
 prophet. In A. D. 755 Sp)ain I'evolted in 
 favor of Abderrahman, the last of the Om- 
 miades, and the Saracen empire was divided 
 never to be reunited. One khalif reigned 
 in Damascus, from which he transferred his 
 capital to Bagdad, and another at Cordova 
 in Spain. Each khalif claimed to be the 
 true successor of Mohammed, and de- 
 nounced the pretensions of his rival. 
 " Meanwhile in the East the Turkish tribes 
 were pressing into the Saracenic empire 
 very much in the same way in which the 
 Teutonic tribes had pressed into the empire 
 of Rome. The governors of the different 
 provinces gradually made themselves inde- 
 pendent, and various dynasties, chiefly 
 Turkish, arose, whose obedience to the 
 khalif at Bagdad became quite nominal. 
 Various sects also arose among the Moham- 
 medans, just as they arose among the 
 Christians, and each sect looked on the 
 others as heretics. But those who gave 
 themselves out as the orthodox followers 
 
FBOM MOHAMMED TO THE TURKISH DOMINION. 
 
 975 
 
 of Mohammed always looked up to the 
 khalif at Bagdad. So the khalifs may be 
 looked upon as keeping something like the 
 power of a pope after they had lost that of 
 an emperor." 
 
 At the opening of the ninth century there 
 were two rival khalifates among tlie Sara- 
 cens as well as two rival empires among 
 the Christians. Each Christian power was 
 at enmity with the Mohammedan power 
 which adjoined it, and on friendly terms 
 with the distant Mohammedan power. " The 
 
 professed at most a nominal allegiance to 
 the khalif either at Bagdad or at Cordova. 
 And some of these powers went on conquer- 
 ing at the expense of the Christians. In 
 the course of the ninth century independent 
 Saracen powers arose in the great Mediter- 
 ranean islands of Sicily and Crete, which 
 had up to that time belonged to the eastern 
 empire. In Spain itself the Saracens never 
 conquered quite the whole of the country, 
 as the Christians always maintained their 
 independence in the mountains of the north, 
 
 BAGDAD. 
 
 Khalifs of Cordova were the natural ene- 
 mies of the western empire, and the Khalifs 
 of Bagdad were the natural enemies of the 
 eastern empire. But there was commonly 
 peace and friendship between the western 
 empire and the eastern khalifate, and be- 
 tween the eastern empire and the western 
 khalifate. And, just as the two empires 
 not only parted asunder from one another, 
 but each split up into various kingdoms, so 
 the two khalifates gradually split up also. 
 Many Mohammedan powers arose, which 
 
 whence they gradually won the whole penin- 
 sula back again. In the ninth century, 
 then, the four great powers of the civilized 
 world were the two Christian empires and 
 the two Mohammedan khalifates." 
 
 The most illustrious of the Khalifs of 
 Bagdad was Haroun al Raschid, or Haroun 
 the Just, the fourth of the new dynasty, 
 who reigned from A. d. 781 to 805. He was 
 renowned for the splendor of his court, by 
 the care with which he sought to adminis- 
 ter justice among his people, and the pro- 
 
976 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tection and encouragement which he af- 
 forded to science and learning. He was a 
 great warrior also, and ravaged the terri- 
 tory of the eastern empire repeatedly, and 
 with a cruelty which must detract in no 
 small degree from the glory of his surname 
 of " the Just." He sought the alliance of 
 Charlemagne upon the revival of the western 
 empire, and sent him many presents, among 
 them the first clock seen in Europe. He is 
 familiar to the most childish readers as the 
 perpetual hero of the "Arabian Nights." 
 
 Almamon, the son and successor of 
 Haroun, was an equally munificent friend 
 of learning and learned men. Scholars of 
 all nationalities were welcomed at his 
 court. "In the plains of Sinaar and a 
 second time in those of Cufa, his mathema- 
 ticians accurately measured a degree of the 
 great circle of the earth, and determined at 
 24,000 miles the entire circumference of our 
 globe," thus marking a degree of mathe- 
 matical knowledge not previously attained. 
 During this reign the island of Crete was 
 conquered by the Saracens, A. D. 823. It 
 was held by them for more than a century, 
 and during this period was their principal 
 market for the sale of the captives taken 
 by them from the various countries border- 
 ing the Mediterranean. Their principal 
 fortress in the island was called Chandak, 
 from which is derived its modern name 
 of Candia. In A. D. 827 Sicily was attacked 
 by the Saracens of Africa. The largest 
 and western part of the island was gradu- 
 ally overrun, and the splendid harbor of 
 Palermo was made the principal naval 
 station for the piratical squadrons of the 
 infidels. Syracuse preserved its independ- 
 ence for half a century, but was at length 
 captured in a. d. 878. The entire island 
 now passed under Moslem rule, and the 
 religion and language of the Greeks gave 
 place to that of Islam. The Arabian 
 squadrons, issuing from the Sicilian ports, 
 ravaged the Italian coast and captured and 
 pillaged 150 towns in Calabria and Cam- 
 pania. Rome itself was attacked, and its 
 shrines beyond the walls were plundered. 
 The vigilance and energy of Pope Leo IV. 
 enabled the city to offer a resolute resist- 
 ance, and brought about an alliance of the 
 maritime states of Gaeta, Naples and 
 Amalfi against the Saracens. In A. D. 849 
 the allied fleet defeated the Saracen fleet 
 off the port of Ostia, and immediately after 
 the battle the Arabian galleys were dashed 
 ashore and destroyed by a. yiolent tempest. 
 
 Still the Saracens obtained a firm footing 
 in southern Italy, and had the eastern and 
 western khalifates been united, Italy must 
 have fallen before their arms. 
 
 Dissensions and quarrels began to weaken 
 the power of the khalifs for extending their 
 domain, and compelled them to devote all 
 their energies to the task of maintaining 
 their authority in the regions already sub- 
 ject to them, and this weakness allowed 
 Europe to work out its destiny without 
 serious molestation from them. 
 
 This century marks the beginning of a 
 brilliant intellectual period among the 
 Moslems. Not that learning was generally 
 diffused among them, but that their achieve- 
 ments in science and literature were in 
 marked contrast with what was being ac- 
 complished in Christendom. Libraries and 
 colleges were established in all the Moham- 
 medan cities, from Samarcand to Cordova. 
 The works of the Greek philosophers were 
 translated into Arabic, " and some treatises, 
 now lost in the original, have been recov- 
 ered in the versions of the East, which pos- 
 sessed and studied the writings of Aristotle 
 and Plato, of Euclid and Apollonius, of 
 Ptolemy, Hippocrates and Galen." The 
 Arabians excelled in mathematical studies, 
 and cultivated with brilliant success the 
 science of astronomy. " The costly instru- 
 ments of observation were supplied by the 
 Khalif Almamon, and the land of the 
 Chaldseans still afforded the same spacious 
 level, the same unclouded horizon. From 
 the reign of the Abbassides to that of the 
 grandchildren of Tamarlane, the stars, 
 without the aid of glasses, were diligently 
 observed; and the astronomical tables of 
 Bagdad, Spain, and Samarcand correct 
 some minute errors, without daring to re- 
 nounce the hypothesis of Ptolemy, without 
 advancing a step towards the discovery of 
 the solar system. In the eastern courts the 
 truths of science could be recommended 
 only by ignorance and folly, and the 
 astronomer would have been disregarded 
 had he not debased his wisdom or honesty 
 by the vain predictions of astrology. But 
 in the science of medicine the Arabians 
 have been deservedly applauded. The 
 names of Mesna and Geber, of Razis and 
 Avicenna are ranked with the Grecian 
 masters; in the city of Bagdad 860 physi- 
 cians were licensed to exercise their lucra- 
 tive profession ; in Spain the life of the 
 Catholic princes was intrusted to the skill 
 of the Saracens, and the school of Salerno,. 
 
FItOM MOHAMMED TO THE TURKISH DOMINION. 
 
 977 
 
 their legitimate offspring, revived in Italy 
 aud Europe the precepts of the healing art. 
 The science of chemistry owes its origin and 
 improvement to the industry of the Sara- 
 cens. They first invented and named the 
 alembic for the purposes of distillation, 
 analyzed the substances of the three king- 
 doms of nature, tried the distinction and 
 affinities of alkalis and acids, and converted 
 the poisonous minerals into soft and salu- 
 tary medicines. But the most eager search 
 of Arabian chemistry was the transmutation 
 of metals and the elixir of immortal 
 health ; the reason aud the fortunes of 
 
 future years in ridding the peninsula of 
 Moslem rule. 
 
 The eleventh century witnessed the de- 
 cline and overthrow of the Saracen power 
 in the East by a hardier and more warlike 
 race. The division of the eastern khalifate 
 in the tenth century by the erection of an 
 independent khalifate in Egypt, which we 
 have related in the history of that country, 
 struck a death-blow to its political power. 
 The Khalifs of Bagdad, finding their own 
 people enervated by a long course of wealth 
 and luxury, were obliged to recruit their 
 armies from the more vigorous tribes of 
 
 CASTLE ON THE BOSPHORITS, 
 
 thousands were evaporated in the crucibles 
 of alchymy, and the consummation of the 
 great work was promoted by the worthy 
 aid of mystery, fable and superstition." 
 
 The tenth century was the culminating 
 period of the power and greatness of the 
 khalifate of Cordova, which grew stronger 
 as the western empire grew weaker. The 
 reign of Abderrahman III., A. D. 912-961, 
 was perhaps the period of its greatest 
 splendor. The Christian kingdom in the 
 mountains of Asturias managed, however, 
 to maintain its independence, and to ac- 
 quire strength for the part it was to play in 
 
 62 
 
 Tartars which roamed over the steppes of 
 northern Asia. These barbarian mercena- 
 ries proving stronger than their masters, 
 soon established their power over them, as 
 was the case with the praetorians of Rome. 
 In the meantime Persia was conquered by 
 the Turks under their Sultan Togrul Beg, 
 a great prince of the house of Seljuk, and 
 the original Mohammedan masters of Per- 
 sia were driven into India, which they 
 brought under the rule of the prophet. 
 
 At this time the Khalif of Bagdad had 
 been reduced to the position of a mere 
 petty prince ; for although he was highly 
 
978 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 reverenced as Ihe successor of the prophet, 
 liis sacred character did not save him Ircm 
 the aggressions of the neighboring tribe?, or 
 the tyranny of his own troops. In A. D. 1055 
 he asked aid of Togrul Beg against his ene- 
 mies. The sultan at once came to his 
 relief, and was rewarded "vvith the temporal 
 power of the khalif, who retained only the 
 possession of Bagdad and the exercise of 
 his spiritual functions as the successor of 
 Mohammed. This act and his own victo- 
 ries made the Turkish sultan the master of 
 all western Asia, and the acknowledged 
 leader of the race of Islam. 
 
 The nephew and successor of Togrul Beg 
 was Alp Arslan (a. d. 1063-1072). He 
 was a great conqueror, and annexed Ar- 
 menia and Georgia to his empire. He 
 pushed his conquests steadily into the prov- 
 inces of the Roman empire, and in 1071 
 inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Roman 
 Emperor Romanus, and took him prisoner. 
 This victory enabled him to extend his 
 d<miinions to the Hellespont. His son, 
 Malek Shall, who came to the throne in 
 1072, was the greatest prince of his age. 
 He was a bold and energetic leader, and 
 extended his empire over India to the 
 borders of China. "From the Chinese 
 frontier he stretched his immediate juris- 
 diction or feudatory sway to the west and 
 south as far as the mountains of Georgia, 
 the neighborhood of Constantinople, the 
 holy city of Jerusalem, and the spicy 
 groves of Arabia Felix." His empire was 
 thus more extensive than that of either 
 Cyrus or the earlier khalifs, and yet he is 
 said to have traversed it no less than twelve 
 times during his reign. Under him the 
 glory and brilliancy of the Mohammedans 
 were temporarily revived, but at his death 
 the greatness and unity of the Turkish 
 empire came to an end. His throne was 
 disputed by his brother and his four sons, 
 and after a series of civil wars the empire 
 was divided into the kingdoms of Persia, 
 Kerman, Syria, and Roum. Of these last 
 three, the first " commanded an extensive, 
 though obscure dominion on the shores of 
 the Indian Ocean ; the second expelled the 
 Arabian princes of Aleppo and Damascus." 
 The third, the kingdom of Roum, in- 
 cluded all Asia Minor, with Nice for its 
 capital. 
 
 The most important of the conquests of 
 the Turks, as regarded its results, was that 
 of Jerusalem, which we shall consider in 
 our account of the crusades. 
 
 Early in the thirteenth century Europe 
 narrowly escaped an invasion whith might 
 have bieu as disastrous as that of Aiiila. 
 A Scythian advcniuier nimicd Zingis Kl.an, 
 who reigned Irom A. D. 12C6 to 1227, es- 
 tablished his rule over Lis native tribe in 
 the plains of northern Asia, and growing 
 sirongcr as time went on, extended Lis 
 authority southward, and finally burst into 
 eastern Asia at the head of a vast force of 
 Moguls, e)r Tartars, r.s they are ccmmonly 
 known in Europe. The five northern picv- 
 iuccs of China, including the joyal cily of 
 Pckin, were overiun by Zir.gis, and an- 
 nexed to the Mogul cm{;ire. He next ecn- 
 quercdthe Carizmian empire, which reached 
 from the Persian Gulf to the borders etf 
 India and Turkestan, laid waste a large 
 part of it, and then returned to his own 
 country, where he died in 1227. His grand- 
 son, Kublai Khan, completed the conquest 
 of the Chinese empire, and ah'o added Eur- 
 mah, Cochin China, and Tcnquin to his 
 dominions. He was a great ruler. Marco 
 Polo, the Venetian traveller and merchant, 
 who was liberally entertained at his court, 
 has left an interesting account of him. He 
 received an embassy from the pope, and 
 allowed Christian missionaries to settle in 
 China. 
 
 Octal, the son of Zingis, having resolved 
 to reduce Europe to sulmiission, selected an 
 army of 750,000 men, and placed it under 
 the command of his nephew, Baton, for this 
 purpose. Overrunning Turkestan, the Mo- 
 guls marched into Russia, which country 
 was torn by internal dissensions, and offered 
 itself a ready prey to them. They overran 
 the whole country from Livonia to the 
 Black Sea, and both Moscow and Kiev, the 
 modern and the ancient capitals, were de- 
 stroyed, "a temporary ruin, less fatal than 
 the deep, and perhaps indelible, mark 
 which a servitude of two liundred years has 
 imprinted on thecharacter of the Russians." 
 The conquest of Russia was permanent, and 
 that country, which had bid fair to grow 
 in power and civilization, was thrown back 
 into semi-barbarism. From Russia the 
 Moguls passed through Poland, scourging 
 it fearfully as they went, and reached the 
 borders of Germany, destroying the cities 
 of Lublin and Cracow on their mareh. As 
 they reached the German border they were' 
 met by the forces of the Duke of Silesia,'' 
 the King of Poland, and the grand-master' 
 of the Teutonic knights. A fierce battle was 
 fought at Liegnitz, in which the Moguls 
 
GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL CRUSADES. 
 
 9r9 
 
 were victorious. Tiieir losses were so 
 serious, however, that they abandoned the 
 idea of conquering Germany, and turned 
 southward into Hungary, a. d. 1241. They 
 defeated King Bela IV. and overran and 
 depopulated the whole country north of the 
 Danube. Of all the cities and fortresses 
 of Hungary three alone survived this fear- 
 ful invasion. From Hungary Baton in- 
 vaded and wasted successively the adjacent 
 kingdoms of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, 
 and then marched back to the Volga, where 
 the death of Octai had made his presence 
 necessary, A. D. 1245. His own victories 
 and those of his lieutenants made Kublai 
 
 Khan monarch of the most extensive em- 
 pire the world has ever seen — a dominion 
 stretching from the Baltic to the borders 
 of Asia, and embracing nearly the whole of 
 the continent of Asia. After the death of 
 Kublai this vast empire began to fall to 
 pieces, and was divided among his lieuten- 
 ants. In the fourteenth century this de- 
 cline allowed the growth of a power almost 
 as formidable — that of the Ottoman Turks. 
 The eflfort of the Moguls to pass from 
 Asia into Africa was defeated by the gal- 
 lantry of the Mamelukes, who beat back 
 the invading army, and compelled it to 
 withdraw toward the Euphrates. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE CUXJS^DES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 General Belief in the Approaching End of the World 
 — Religious Awakening of tiie People — Results of 
 this Feeling — Pilgrimages to the Holy Land — 
 Profanation of tiie Holy Sepulchre by the Khalif 
 Hakem — Capture of Jerusalem by the Turks^ 
 Outrages upon the Christians — indignation of 
 Europe — Peter the Hermit — Preaches the Crusade 
 — Enthusiasm of the People — The First Crusade 
 — ^Adventures of the Crusaders — Walter the Pen- 
 niless — Godfrey of Bouillon — The Crusaders at 
 Constantinople — They Enter Asia — Quarrels of 
 the Leaders — Tancred — Capture of Antioch^Je- 
 rusalem Taken — The Latin Kingdom — Godfrey 
 ^lade King — The Hospitallers and Templars — 
 The Second Crusade — Its Disastrous Termination 
 — Saladin Master of Egy])t and Syria — Defeats 
 the Christians^Jerusalem Taken — Fall of the 
 Latin Kingdom — The Third Crusade — Richard 
 Cu3ur de Lion — The Fourth Crusade — It Fails in 
 its Object— The Children's Crusade— The Fifth 
 Crusade — Frederick II. — The Sixth and Seventh 
 Crusades — Louis IX. of France — Is Made Prisoner 
 — His Release — The Eighth Crusade — Fall of 
 Acre — The Institution of Chivalry — Its Effects. 
 
 T the opening of the eleventh cen- 
 tury a singular superstition per- 
 vaded the Christian world, and 
 plunged it into the most profound 
 excitement. It was universally 
 believed from a misinterpretation 
 of a passage in the Book of Revelations 
 (chap. XX. 1-7) that the end of the world 
 was close at hand. The utmost terror pre- 
 vailed in all countries. The churches were 
 
 thronged with penitents, and as they were 
 too small to contain these vast crowds, the 
 old edifices were enlarged and new ones 
 built. Wealth and privileges of all kinds 
 were showered upon the church, and es- 
 pecially upon the religious orders, in the 
 hope of purchasing pardon for past sins 
 and favor in the next world. The clergy 
 skilfully availed themselves of this state of 
 feeling, and the remaining years of the cen- 
 tury saw Europe covered with magnificent 
 and commodious churches and abbeys, 
 begun during or immediately after this 
 great season of terror. "When the first day 
 of the thousand and first year of our Lord 
 dawned bright and clear to show the world 
 its error, men began to breathe freely, and 
 to form plans once more for the future. 
 The upheaving of Christendom had been 
 too profound for the deep feelings it had 
 aroused to subside suddenly, and men's en- 
 ergies sought new channels. The architec- 
 tural revival which set in was wonderful, 
 but it was not the only result of this state 
 of affairs. "It seemed that the chance of 
 continued endurance, vouchsafed to man- 
 kind by the rising of the sun on the first 
 morning of the eleventh century, gave an 
 impulse to long pent up thoughts in all the 
 directions of inquiry." Men began to ex- 
 change the old unquestioning belief of the 
 past for habits of thought and investiga- 
 tion, and the human mind, thus awakened, 
 entered upon that progress which has pro- 
 
980 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 duced the civilization of to-day. True, the 
 progress was slow and confined to only a 
 few, but it was a beginning. 
 
 Pilgrimages to the Holy Land had long 
 been a prominent part of the religion of 
 the Roman Church, and these were now re- 
 sorted to with redoubled vigor. Crowds of 
 pilgrims from all parts of Europe endured 
 hardships and fatigue with ardor in order 
 to kneel and pray at the sites made holy 
 by the events of the earthly life of the Lord 
 Jesus. The capture of Jerusalem and the 
 destruction and profanation of the Holy 
 Sepulchre by Hakem, the mad Khalif of 
 Egypt, in the early part of the century, 
 sent a thrill of indignation throughout 
 Europe, and gave rise to the idea of the de- 
 liverance of the holy city from Mohamme- 
 dan rule. In 1076 Jerusalem was captured 
 by the Seljukian Turks. The Saracenic 
 khalifs had treated the holy places with 
 respect, and had protected and encouraged 
 the pilgrims, as the visits of these strangers 
 were productive of a lucrative trade to the 
 Mohammedans. The Turks inaugurated 
 a new and more short-sighted policy. They 
 wantonly profaned the holy places, and in- 
 sulted and persecuted the clergy and the 
 pilgrims, who filled all Europe with the 
 story of their sufferiugs. Gregory VII. 
 conceived the plan of uniting Christendom 
 against the infidels, and driving them out 
 of Palestine, but he was too much engaged 
 in his struggle with Henry IV. of Germany 
 to give much time or thought to this plan. 
 In the meantime the sufierings of the Chris- 
 tians in Jerusalem grew greater every year, 
 but in spite of this the number of pilgrims 
 increased. 
 
 In 1094 a poor monk of Amiens, called 
 Peter the Hermit, a man of sincere piety 
 and visionary temperament, went on a pil- 
 grimage to Jerusalem, where his indigna- 
 tion was aroused by the sight of the suflfer- 
 ings of his brethren at the hands of the in- 
 fidels. He returned with letters from the 
 Greek Patriarch of Jerusalem to Pope Ur- 
 ban II., appealing to him and to the whole 
 Christian world to come and deliver them 
 and the Holy Sepulchre from their oppres- 
 sors. The pope, supported by Boemond, 
 Prince of Taranto, the son of Robert Guis- 
 cord, gave a favorable answer to the appeal 
 of the patriarch. He saw in the proposed 
 holy w^ar an opportunity of establishing his 
 authority over that of his rival, Pope Clem; 
 eut II., who had been set up by the Ger- 
 man emperor ; while Boemond was anxious 
 
 to win power and wealth for himself and 
 his followers by the conquest of Palestine. 
 Peter the Hermit was encouraged to preach 
 the crusade or holy war throughout France 
 and Italy, and he went from town to town, 
 telling with fiery eloquence the story of the 
 profanation of the Sepulchre of Christ and 
 the wrongs of the eastern Christians. The 
 subject was formally presented by the pope 
 to the Councils of Piacenza and Clermont, 
 and was enforced by the representations of 
 a legate sent by the Greek Emperor Alexis 
 to urge the princes of Europe to arm for 
 the defence of the last bulwark of Chris- 
 tianity in Asia. But what moved the 
 Council of Clermont most profoundly was 
 the thrilling appeal of Peter the Hermit, 
 which brought even the pope to his feet in 
 an earnest indorsement of it. The vast 
 crowd, worked up to the highest state of 
 enthusiasm, answered the pope with a tre- 
 mendous shout of "God wills it! God wills 
 it ! " a phrase which by the direction of the 
 pontiff became the crusader's battle-cry. 
 The holy war was then solemnly proclaimed 
 by the council, and preparations for it were 
 begun. 
 
 Thousands of every rank and age in all 
 parts of Europe took the vow to fight for 
 the Holy Sepulchre, and bound the red 
 cross to their shoulders as a token of their 
 pledge. Private quarrels were almost for- 
 gotten, and noble and commoner exerted 
 himself to rescue the tomb of Christ from 
 the infidel. Even monks laid aside their 
 rosaries and took up arms. Nobles sold or 
 mortgaged their castles and lands to pro- 
 vide the funds for equipping themselves 
 and their retainers and defraying their 
 share of the cost of the war. Serfs were 
 set free on condition of taking the cross, 
 and even robbers and pirates abandoned 
 their infamous calling and joined the holy 
 war in the hope of expiating their crimes 
 by their services in Palestine. The Jew'S, 
 who were regarded as the natural enemies 
 of the Christians, fared badly everyw^here 
 during this excitement. In the cities on 
 the Rhine they were ruthlessly attacked 
 and massacred, and the Emperor Henry 
 IV. was obliged to take them under his spe- 
 cial protection, to secure them " the poor 
 right to live." 
 
 The number of those who assumed the 
 cross is placed by the historians of the 
 times at 6,000,000 of men, women, and 
 children. All were impatient to set out,, 
 and on the 15th of August, 1096, a body 
 
981 
 
982 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED UiSTOBY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of 60,000 set out from the borders of 
 France, led by a brave but improvident 
 soldier, named Walter the Peuuiiess. A 
 little later Peter the Hermit with 40,000 
 more, and still later 200,000 more, without 
 any definite leader, set out on the same 
 journey. They were without competent 
 commanders or guides, with no discipline, 
 food, or supplies of any kind. They ex- 
 pected all tljeir wants to be supplied in a 
 miraculous manner from Heaven, and when 
 they bitterly realized their error, attempted 
 to live upon the countries they traversed, 
 and so drew upon themselves the hostility 
 of the natives, who fell upon them, har- 
 assed their march, and slew large numbers 
 of them. Their crimes and outrages raised 
 up enemies on all sides, and but a mere 
 handful of the immense host that had set 
 out managed to pass the borders of Hun- 
 gary, and reach Constantinople. Still they 
 were sufficiently numerous to cause the Em- 
 peror Alexis no little anxiety. He received 
 them kindly, but exerted himself to hasten 
 them on their journey. They repaid his 
 kindness by committing many outrages in 
 and around Constantinople, but at last he 
 liad the satisfaction of seeing them all safe 
 beyond the Bosphorus. Ignorant of the 
 route to Palestine, they plunged recklessly 
 into Asia Minor, and were annihilated on 
 the plains of Nice by the Turkish sultan. 
 For years a pyramid of their bones marked 
 the scene of their destruction. 
 
 The true army of the crusaders did not 
 begin its march until the autumn of 1096. 
 It was divided into four columns for the 
 sake of better subsistence. The first army, 
 led by Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower 
 Lorraine, consisted of the chivalry of his 
 own duchy and of northeastern France. It 
 marched through Germany, Hungary, and 
 Bulgana, to Constantinople. Raymond, 
 Count of Toulouse, the most powerful prince 
 of southern France, led the second army 
 through Lorabardy to the head of the Adri- 
 atic, and thence through Dalmalia and 
 Slavonia to Constantinople. The third 
 army, under Boemond, crossed the Adriatic 
 and marched thence to Constantinople. 
 The fourth army, under Hugh of Verman- 
 dois, brother of the French king; Robert 
 of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror; 
 Robert of Flanders, and Stephen of Blois 
 and Chartres, marched through Italy, re- 
 ceiving the pope's blessing on the way. 
 They neglected to secure the means of trans- 
 portation, and reached Constantinople in a 
 
 greatly demoralized condition, nine months 
 after the appointed time. 
 
 The arrival of such powerful armies at 
 Constantinople astonished and alarmed the 
 Emperor Alexis, who had not expected 
 such an answer to his appeal for aid. He 
 skilfully prevented the union of any tw'o 
 of the confederate armies before Constanti- 
 nople, and hastened them over the Bos- 
 phorus into Bithynia, where, in the spring 
 of 1097, they were assembled to the number 
 of 100,000 fighting men and a vast number 
 of pilgrims and camp followers. Their 
 first ojjeration was the siege and capture of 
 Nice, the capital of the Turkish kingdom 
 of Roum, which fell on the 20th of June, 
 1097. The Emperor Alexis adroitly claimed 
 and secured thia city as a possession of the 
 empire. Marching into Plirygia, they de- 
 feated the Turks on the 4th of July, near 
 Dorylseum. Tancred and Baldwin, the 
 brother of Godfrey, were sent forward with, 
 the cavalry. Tancred captured Tarsus, 
 and Baldwin, coming up later, wished to 
 plunder it in violation of the pledge the 
 former had made the inhabitants. A quar- 
 rel ensued between the two leaders, and 
 Tancred being sustained by the other chief- 
 tains, Baldwin, in disgust, drew off his fol- 
 lowers, and went to the assistance of the 
 Greek tyrant of Edessa, Avho had been suf- 
 fered to reign as a tributary of the Turks. 
 He adopted Baldwin as his son, but the 
 latter was no sooner admitted into the city 
 than he put his adoptive father to death 
 and seized the throne for himself. Baldwin 
 conquered and annexed portions of Armenia 
 and Mesopotamia, and thus erected the first 
 Christian kingdom in Asia. 
 
 The next success of the crusaders was the 
 capture of Antioch, which was taken after 
 a siege of seven months. The citadel still 
 held out, but it was forced to surrender, 
 and a powerful Turkish army which had 
 advanced to the relief of Antioch was 
 routed on the 28th of June, 1098. The 
 Khalif of Egypt took advantage of the de- 
 feat of the Turks to make himself master 
 of Jerusalem and Palestine. He attempted 
 to open friendly negotiations with the 
 crusaders, but was answered sternly that 
 they knew no difference between the Turk 
 and the Saracen. Any Mohammedan 
 claiming the sovereignty of Jerusalem was 
 their foe. 
 
 In the summer of 1099 the crusading 
 army arrived before Jerusalem, having 
 occupied northern and central Palestine on 
 
GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL CRUSADES. 
 
 983 
 
 the march. As they came in sight of tlic 
 holy city they burst iuto " tears of joy and 
 penitence," and siiouts of cnthusiasnu Of 
 all tlic vast hosts — nearly 900,000 in num- 
 ber — that had left their homes in Europe, 
 only 40,000 remained. The rest had fallen 
 in battle or had died of the effects of 
 wounds, disease, and dissipation. Jerusa- 
 lem was cani.d by assault on the 15tli of 
 July, after a siege of forty days. Seventy 
 lihousand Moslems were put to the sword, 
 and in ihe enclosure of the Mosque of Omar 
 (the ancient Temple area) the knights rode 
 in blood to their horses' knees. The mas- 
 sacre continued lor seven days. Then, re- 
 membering that they were pilgrims, the 
 crusaders washed the blood fi'om their 
 hands and went bareheaded aud barefoot to 
 pray at the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Eight days after 
 the capture of the 
 city the crusaders 
 chose Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, the best 
 and wisest of their 
 leaders, to be King 
 of Jerusalem. God- 
 frey refused to wear 
 a golden diadem in 
 the city where the 
 Saviour had been 
 crowned av i t h 
 thorns, and took the 
 modest title of De- 
 fender and Baron 
 of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre. A code of 
 laws, called the As- 
 sise of Jerusalem, 
 
 was prepared by the most competent of the 
 crusaders, and made the law of the king- 
 dom. A few weeks later the Sultan of 
 Egypt, Avho was marching to the relief of 
 Jerusalem, was utterly routed by the Chris- 
 tian army under Godfrey, at Askelon. 
 This victory established the Christian king- 
 dom for the time, and the greater number 
 of the crusaders, deeming their vow accom- 
 plished in the recovery of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre, went back to Europe, leaving Godfrey 
 with only 300 knights and 2,000 foot 
 soldiers for the defence of Palestine. The 
 position of Godfrey was one of danger as 
 well as of honor. His kingdom consisted 
 only of Jerusalem, Jaflfli, and some twenty 
 villages and towns of the surrounding coun- 
 try, and the Saracens still held some im- 
 pregnable castles iu this region. 
 
 The kingdom which the crusaders set up 
 in Palestine was a singular establishment. 
 It was French in language, laws, and cus- 
 toms. Godfrey died in A. D. 1200, one 
 year after his coronation, aud was succeeded 
 by his brother Baldwin, who was his in- 
 ferior in every respect. By successive con- 
 quests the borders of the Latin kingdom 
 were extended eastward to the Euphrates 
 and southward to the Egyptian frontier. 
 The kingdom was divided into four great 
 feudal baronies, namely, Tripoli, Galilee, 
 Csesarea, and Nazareth, and Jaffii and As- 
 calou. Of all their Syrian conquests the 
 Mohammedans retained only Ems, Hamath, 
 Damascus, and Aleppo. 
 
 Tiie situation of the Christian kingdom 
 in the midst of the vast hosts of Mohamme- 
 dans which peopled the Eastern world, was 
 
 ' -rScf^ 
 
 JERUSALEM AND ITS VALLEYS. 
 
 at all times one of danger. The entire 
 armed force of the realm never exceeded 
 11,000 men. Fortunately there sprang up 
 in Jerusalem two military orders wTiich 
 constituted themselves the bulwark of the 
 kingdom and filled Europe with the fame 
 of their deeds. In 1121 the monks of St. 
 John, who had until now devoted them- 
 selves to the offices of religion and the care 
 of the sick, added to their vows another 
 which bound them to the defence of the 
 Holy Sepulchre. They took the name of 
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, and 
 were generally known as " Knights Hos- 
 pitallers." Nobles and princes came from 
 all parts of Europe to Jerusalem to enroll 
 themselves in the ra-nks of the order, and in 
 a short space of time some 28,000 farms 
 aud manors were bestowed upon them in 
 
984 
 
 THE ILLVSTBATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 various parts of Europe, which enabled 
 them to support a regular force of cavalry 
 and infantry for the defence of the Holy 
 Land. The other order was that of the 
 Templars, or Knights of the Temple, so 
 called from their being assigned as quar- 
 ters a building in the Temple enclosure. 
 They began in a very humble way, but so 
 distinguished themselves by their splendid 
 courage that recruits flocked to them from 
 the noblest houses of Europe, and they in- 
 creased rapidly in numbers and in wealth. 
 Valuable possessions were bestowed upon 
 them in every country in Europe, and they 
 soon became the most powerful military 
 order in Christendom. The devotion of 
 their poorer days died out with the pros- 
 perity of both the Hospitallers and the 
 Templars. They became corrupt; "the 
 world was scandalized by the pride, avarice, 
 and corruption of these Christian soldiers ; 
 their claims of immunity and jurisdiction 
 disturbed the harmony of the church and 
 state ; and the public peace was endangered 
 by their jealous emulation. But in their 
 most dissolute period the Knights of the 
 Hospital and the Temple maintained their 
 fearless and fanatic character; they ne- 
 glected to live, but they were prepared to 
 die, in the service of Christ." 
 
 Towards the middle of the century the 
 Turks began to recover from the weakness 
 which had divided them, and to regain the 
 ground they had lost. In 1146 they took 
 Edessa after a siege of twenty-five days, 
 and recovered from the Latins all their 
 conquests beyond the Euphrates. The 
 eastern frontier of Palestine was thus ex- 
 posed to the attacks of the Mohammedans, 
 and grave fears were entertained in Europe 
 for the safety of the Latin kingdom. The 
 cause of the Christians in Palestine was 
 eloquently urged in Europe by St. Bernard, 
 Abbot of Clairvaux, and he succeeded in 
 inducing the Emperor Conrad III., Louis 
 VII. of France, and the Kings of Poland 
 and Bohemia to take up arms for the de- 
 fence of the Holy Land. All ranks and 
 classes assumed the cross with enthusiasm, 
 and vast numbers left their homes to join 
 the Second Crusade. Over half a million 
 fighting men, besides a vast number of 
 camp-followers, women and children, monks, 
 etc., composed the army which set out from 
 Europe for Palestine. 
 
 The Emperor Manuel Comnenus, who 
 now occupied the Byzantine throne, viewed 
 with alarm the approach of this vast host. 
 
 " It was secretly, and perhaps tacitly re- 
 solved by the prince and people to destroy, 
 or at least to discourage, the pilgrims by 
 every species of injury and oppression. The 
 Western monarchs had stipulated for a safe 
 passage and a fair market in the country 
 of their Christian brethren ; but every en- 
 gagement was violated by treachery and 
 injustice. Instead of an hospitable recep- 
 tion, the gates of the cities, both in Europe 
 and Asia, were closely barred against the 
 crusaders ; the scanty pittance of food was 
 let down in baskets from the walls; the 
 bread was poisoned by a mixture of chalk 
 and other noxious ingredients. In every 
 step of their march they were stopped or 
 misled ; the governors had private orders 
 to fortify the passes and break down the 
 bridges against them ; the stragglers were 
 pillaged and murdered ; the soldiers and 
 horses were pierced in the woods by arrows 
 from an invisible hand ; the sick were 
 burnt in their beds ; and the dead bodies 
 were hung on gibbets along the highways. 
 These injuries exasperated the champions 
 of the cross, who were not endowed with 
 evangelical patience; and the Byzantine 
 princes, who had provoked the unequal 
 conflict, promoted the embarkation and 
 march of these formidable guests. The 
 Germans crossed over the Bosphorus first, 
 and, without waiting for the French, Con- 
 rad, with half the German forces, took the 
 road to Iconium, whilst the other half, 
 under the command of Bishop Otto of 
 Freysingen, chose the route of Ephesus. 
 The emperor was treacherously misled by 
 the Greek guides into the mountains of 
 Cappadocia, which were occupied by the 
 Turks ; and, being hemmed in on every 
 side, was compelled to a disastrous retreat, 
 in which he lost the greater part of his 
 troops. The division under Otto met with 
 an almost similar fate." 
 
 Louis of France, warned by the fate of 
 the Germans, took the route by way of 
 Philadelphia and Smyrna. Scarcity of 
 provisions compelled him to diverge to 
 Ephesus, where the Emperor Conrad, who 
 had accompanied him, left him and went 
 back to Constantinople. There he borrowed 
 some Greek vessels and made the pilgrim- 
 age to Palestine by sea. Louis continued 
 his march, and gained a victory over the 
 Turks at the crossing of the Meander, but, 
 a little later, was surprised and defeated by 
 the Turks in a narrow mountain pass be- 
 tween Phrygia and Pisidia. With great 
 
GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL CRUSADES. 
 
 985 
 
 difficulty he secured his retreat to the 
 friendly seaport of Satalia. There only 
 vessels enough for the king and his knights 
 could be obtained, and in these they sailed 
 for Palestine, leaving the " plebeian crowd 
 of infantry to perish at the foot of the Pam- 
 phylian hills." Louis and Conrad met at 
 Jerusalem. Uniting the wreck of their 
 armies with the Christian forces in Syria, 
 they made a fruitless attempt to capture 
 Damascus. Failing to accomplish anyth'na;, 
 
 Khalif of Bagdad. Noureddin appointed 
 Saladin, a powerful young emir, and the 
 nephew of the conqueror of Egypt, as his 
 lieutenant in that country. Saladin by his 
 brilliant qualities attached the army to his 
 person, and was contemplating a revolt 
 against the sultan when the death of Nou- 
 reddin freed him from his allegiance, and 
 enabled him to make himself Sultan of 
 Egypt and Syria. Having established his 
 authoritv ovpr these cnintries he attacked 
 
 CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE — JERUSALEM. 
 
 the two monarchs returned to Europe, and 
 thus ended the Second Crusade, 
 
 The Latin kingdom in Palestine owed its 
 long continued existence to the enmity 
 which existed between the Turks and the 
 Saracens during this period. A new state 
 of affairs followed the failure of the Second 
 Crusade. In a. d. 1171 the Fatimite Kha- 
 lif of Egypt was dethroned by the Lieuten- 
 ant of Noureddin, the Turkish Sultan of 
 Dan).iscus, who was subject to tho Abbassid 
 
 the Christian kingdom in Palestine in 1187. 
 He defeated the Christian army in a bloody 
 battle of two days near the Lake of Tibe- 
 rias. Guy of Lusiguan, the last Christian 
 King of Jerusalem, was taken prisoner, to- 
 gether with the Grand-master of the Temp- 
 lars, and many of the noblest of the Chris- 
 tian knights, 230 of whom suffered martyr- 
 dom rather than deny their faith. Tiberias, 
 Acre, Jaffa, Caisarea, and many other towns 
 fell into Saladin's hands in consequence of 
 
986 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 this victory. T3're held out, but Jerusalem 
 was sunvudered after a prolonged aud des- 
 perate defeuce, Tlie Latins and the Fran ks 
 were expelled from the Holy City, and the 
 Mosque of Omar, which had been converted 
 into a Christian church, was again conse- 
 crated to one God and his prophet Mo- 
 hammed. 
 
 The news of the capture of Jerusalem 
 fell like a thunderbolt ujdou Europe. The 
 sovereigns of Germany, France, England, 
 and Sicily, with the flower of the chivalry 
 of those countries, assumed the cross. The 
 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa was the 
 first to set out for Palestine. Warned by 
 Ihe fate of Conrad, he avoided Constantino- 
 ple, and crossing the Hellespont marched 
 direct into Iconium. He captured the city 
 of the same name, the capital of that king- 
 dom, but was drowned in the Cydnus, and 
 after encountering the greatest hardships 
 and privations only one-tenth of his army 
 reached Acre to take part in the siege. The 
 Bufferings of the Germans here were so great 
 that some soldiers from Bremen and Lubec 
 organized a field-hospital and devoted them- 
 selves to nursing their unfortunate comrades. 
 The Duke of Suabia organized them into a 
 new order which took the name of Teutonic 
 Knights. They combined the benevolent 
 duties of the Hospitallers and the military 
 vows of the Templars, and devoted them- 
 selves to the relief of the sick and the de- 
 fence of the holy places. In course of time 
 the Teutonic Knights became one of the 
 leading military orders of Europe. 
 
 The siege of Acre, which was important 
 as the most convenient of the fortified sea- 
 ports of Palestine for communication with 
 Europe, was the first enterprise attempted 
 by the Christians. In spite of the immense 
 force engaged, the siege lagged until the ar- 
 rival of Richard I. of England and Philip 
 Augustus of France with their armies. 
 Kichard infused new life into the siege, and 
 in July, 1191, Acre was taken by storm. 
 The Duke of Austria planted his banner by 
 the side of those of France and England on 
 the wall of the captured city, but Richard 
 removed it with his own hand, and pitched 
 it into the ditch. Leopold, the Austrian 
 duke, bitterly resented this insult, and sub- 
 sequently avenged it by capturing the 
 English king on his return home through 
 Austria, and throwing him into prison. 
 Richard's exploits raised him to the proud 
 rank of the hero of the war, but won him 
 the enmity of the other princes. Philip of 
 
 France, jealous of the superior fame of his 
 English rival, abandoned the crusade, and 
 returned home, first swearing a solemn oath 
 not to seek to injure Richaid during the 
 absence of the latter in Palestine. He left 
 a large portion of his army in Palestine 
 under the Duke of Burgundy, subject to the 
 command of the King of England. The 
 violation of his oath by Philip and his 
 course in persuading John to seize the 
 throne of England have been related. 
 News of this reached Richard in Palestine. 
 He was engaged in the task of refortifying 
 Jaffa, Ascalon, and Gaza, and he renuiiucd 
 to complete the work, engaging in it with 
 his own hands like a common soldier. The 
 task completed, the Christian army ad- 
 vanced towards Jerusalem and encamped 
 within sight of the Holy City, \\liich was 
 defended by Saladin with a strong force. 
 The Duke of Burgundy, either from pru- 
 dence or from treachery, refused to join in 
 the attack which Richard ordered, and the 
 king was obliged to withdraw to the coast, 
 after bitterly denouncing the cowardice of 
 his allies. Conrad of Montfcrrat was chosen 
 King of Jerusalem, and Richard bestowed 
 Cyprus upon Guy of Lusignan to indemnify 
 him for the loss of his empty title. The 
 English king had captured that island from 
 the Greek emperor en his way to Palestine. 
 Conrad died before he could be crowned, 
 and Count Henry of Champagne succeeded 
 to his barren honors. Alter relieving Jafla, 
 which had almost fallen into the hands of 
 Saladin, Richard, finding it impossible to 
 accomplish anything with such lukewarm 
 allies, concluded a truce of three years and 
 eight months with Saladin, and set out on 
 his return to England, A. d. 1192. On his 
 way he was captured by the Did^e of Aus- 
 tria. The events of his captivity and re- 
 lease have been related. 
 
 During the captivity of Richard in Ger- 
 many Saladin died in Palestine, A. D. 1193. 
 His three sons became the Sultans of Alep- 
 po, Damascus, and Egypt, but the greater 
 part of his Syrian dominions passed into the 
 hands of his brother Saphadin. The Ger- 
 man princes and bishops undertook an 
 expedition against him in 1197, and in- 
 flicted a severe defeat upon him between 
 Tyre and Sidon, liberating many cities and 
 freeing 9,000 Christian captives. News of 
 the emperor's death arrived immediately 
 after this victory, and the Germans at once 
 returned to Europe. Saphadin, taking ad- 
 vantage of their withdrawal, recaptured 
 
GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL CRUSADES. 
 
 987 
 
 Jaffa and put the entire population to the 
 sword. 
 
 In A. D. 1200 Pope Innocent III. pro- 
 claimed a Fourth Crusade, and levied a tax 
 upon all Ciiristeudoni for the expenses of 
 the war. Those who could not join the 
 array of the cross were allowed to purchase 
 exemption by the payment of money, and 
 large sums poured into the ti'casury of St. 
 Peter. A council of the French barons 
 was held at Soissons to make arrangements 
 for the war, and it was decided to proceed 
 to Syria by sea. To procure the necessary 
 shipping a treaty was made with the repub- 
 lic of Venice, the crusaders agreeing to pay 
 a liberal sum for the services of the Vene- 
 tian fleet, and to share with the republic 
 the prizes taken during the war. Shortly 
 after Easter, A. d. 1202, the crusaders as- 
 sembled at Venice, and being unable to 
 raise the full sum required by the republic 
 for the services of the fleet, the doge agreed 
 to allow them more time on condition of 
 their conquering Zara, a town on the Dal- 
 matian coast, which had revolted from 
 Venice and gone over to the King of Hun- 
 gary. This they accomplished, as has been 
 related. AVhile wintering at Zara they 
 were appealed to by the young Greek 
 Prince Alexis Angelus, the son of the do- 
 posed Emperor of Constantiuoplo, to aid 
 him in regaining his throne. Alexis ])rom- 
 ised in return for this assistance to defray 
 the greater part of the expenses of the cru- 
 sade and to assist them with his army. 
 The pope forbade this departure from the 
 objects of the expedition, but the crusaders 
 resolved to assist Alexis. They sailed to 
 Constantinople and captured that city. 
 Thus the Fourth Crusade degenerated into 
 the Latin conquest of Constantinople and 
 the erection of a Latin empire on the ruins 
 of the old Greek state. The events of this 
 undertaking have been related elsewhere, 
 and we need not repeat them here. The 
 success of the Latins alarmed Saphadin, 
 and he sought and obtained a six years' 
 truce. 
 
 In 1211 a singular expedition set out for 
 Palestine from the borders of Germany. 
 It consisted of about 90,000 children, led 
 by a child. These little ones had been in- 
 duced to believe that the warriors of Chris- 
 tendom had failed to possess the Holy 
 Land because of their sins, and that this 
 success was reserved for the weak and inno- 
 cent. They reached Genoa, and there 
 found their progress barred by the sea, of 
 
 which they had never heard. Some took 
 shipping and were captured by Moorish 
 coi'sairs ; others wandered about Italy and 
 perished of fatigue and hunger; but few, 
 if any, ever regained their homes or trod 
 the sands of Palestine. 
 
 in 1216 Innocent III. proclaimed a Fifth 
 Crusade. The Christians were led by 
 Amlrev/ II. oi' Hungary, and his army was 
 made up of knights and nien-at-anns from 
 all parts ef Europe. He accomplished noth- 
 ing, and a second army, mainly of Ger- 
 mans, set out. Instead of proceeding to 
 Palestine the crusaders sailed to Egypt, 
 where they captured Damietta, but tlieir 
 affairs were so badly managed that the 
 Sultan of Egypt was able to compel their 
 surrender. The sultan supplied food to the 
 starving rcnuiants of the Christian army 
 and allowed them to march into Syria. 
 
 In 1227 the Emperor Frederick II., who 
 liad b.-en cxcomniuuicated by the pope for 
 his delay in joining the crusade, proceeded 
 to Syria. He was unable to accomplish 
 anything by force of arms in consequence 
 of the hostility of the papal party. He in- 
 duced the Sultan of Egypt to cede the city 
 of Jerusalem and several other towus to 
 the Christians. The incidents of Frede- 
 rick's stay in Palestine have been related. 
 Upon his return to Europe the Mohamme- 
 dans broke the truce, and all that Fred- 
 erick had gained was swept away. 
 
 A Sixtli Crusade was proclaimed by the 
 pope in 1234. The purpose of the pontiff 
 w-as ill reality to fill his coffers with the 
 commutaiion money of Christendom rather 
 than to help the Syrian Christians, and 
 when the English Richard, Earl of Corn- 
 wall and many nobles of that country took 
 the cross and set out for Palestine, the pope 
 endeavored to stop them. The English 
 were joined in Palestine by a French army 
 under the King of Navarre. The crusad- 
 ers merely by a display of force compelled 
 the Sultan of Egypt to restore to them the 
 greater part of Palestine. They rebuilt the 
 walls of Jerusalem and reconsecrated the 
 churches. A few years later Palestine was 
 overwhelmed by (he Tartar hordes of Kho- 
 rasmia. Jerusalem was captured and most 
 of its inhabitants were put to the sword. 
 The Templars and Hospitallers were de- 
 feated, their grand-masters slain, and these 
 orders in the East reduced to a mere 
 handful. 
 
 The Seventh Crusade was led by Louis 
 IX. of France. He was accompanied by 
 
988 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 his three brothers, the Counts of Anjou, 
 Artois, and Poitiers, and the chivalry of 
 France. He sailed to Cyprus, where he 
 passed the winter, and in the spring of 
 1249 proceeded to Egypt, where he re- 
 ceived the surrender of Damietta. In the 
 march to Cairo he was defeated in the 
 battle of Mansourah and forced to begin a 
 disastrous retreat, which resulted in his sur- 
 render, together with all his nobles and 
 20,000 men-at-arms. The sultan agreed to 
 release him upon the payment of a million 
 of golden bezants, but was so impressed by 
 the nobleness of the character of Louis that 
 he voluntarily remitted 200,000 bezants. 
 The liberty of the king was purchased 
 by the surrender of Damietta, and a 
 truce for ten years was concluded between 
 Louis and the sultan. Louis then pro- 
 ceeded to Palestine, where he remained four 
 years longer, seeking to introduce a sys- 
 tem of good government in that country, 
 but refraining from attempting to visit 
 Jerusalem, since he could not conquer it. 
 The death of his mother, the queen regent, 
 recalled him to France in 1253. After his 
 departure the rival Christian merchants, 
 and especially the military orders, broke 
 out into fierce quarrels with each other. 
 A desperate battle was fought between the 
 Hospitallers and the Templars, and scarcely 
 a member of the latter order was left alive. 
 This shameful strife was brought to a close 
 by an invasion of Palestine and Syria by 
 the Mamelukes. Jaffa and the principal 
 towns w'ere captured, Antioch was forced 
 to surrender, and 100,000 of its inhabitants 
 were made prisoners. 
 
 The news of the fall of Antioch induced 
 Louis IX. of France, Prince Edward of 
 England, and the powerful English Earls 
 of Pembroke and Warwick to embark in 
 an Eighth Crusade. Louis, for some strange 
 reason, turned aside from Palestine and at- 
 tacked Tunis, in Africa. His brother 
 Charles of Anjou, now King of Sicily, was 
 no doubt the true author of this movement, 
 as he wished to recover northern Africa, 
 which had formerly been tributary to the 
 Neapolitan kingdom. Carthage Avas cap- 
 tured and plundered, but a plague broke 
 out in the French camp, and carried off 
 many of the crusaders, among them the 
 good King Louis and one of his sons, Au- 
 gust, 1270. Prince Edward of England 
 reached Palestine the next spring, and 
 gathered around him all the Latin forces. 
 Nazareth was taken, and, after a victory 
 
 over the Turks, a truce for ten years was 
 negotiated with the Sultan of Egypt. The 
 death of Henry III. of England in Novem- 
 ber, 1272, obliged Edward to return home. 
 
 The outrages of the Christians upon the 
 Mohammedans brought the truce to a 
 sudden ending, and the sultan took the 
 field with a powerful army, resolved to 
 utterly destroy the Latin power in the 
 East. One after another of the Christian 
 strongholds were captured, and the rem- 
 nants of the Latins were shut up in the 
 city of Acre, which during this period be- 
 came one of the most infamous spots upon 
 the globe, and the cause of Christendom 
 Avas shamed by the crimes of its defenders. 
 In 1291 Khalil, Sultan of Egypt, attacked 
 the town with an army of 200,000 men, 
 and after a desperate defence of thirty-three 
 days carried it by storm, and death or 
 slavery -was the lot of 60,000 Christians. 
 Only a mere handful of the defenders, who 
 succeeded in gaining the vessels in the 
 harbor, escaped to Cyprus. The loss of 
 Acre was followed by that of the whole of 
 Palestine, which passed entirely into the 
 hands of the Turks. " By the command of 
 the sultan the churches and fortifications 
 of the Latin cities were demolished; a 
 motive of avarice or fear still opened the 
 Holy Sepulchre to some devout and defence- 
 less pilgrims; and a mournful and solitary 
 silence prevailed along the coast which had 
 so long resounded with the world's debate." 
 
 Thus closed the effort which had for so 
 long enlisted some of the noblest spirits 
 and caused a liberal expenditure of the 
 blood and wealth of Christendom. Natur- 
 ally such a movement could not be without 
 lasting effects upon Europe, effects which 
 give to the crusades their chief importance 
 in history. First of all these I'esults was 
 that of the union of so many nations in one 
 cause. The races of Europe came to know 
 each other better, and a spirit of friendly 
 intercourse, an interchange of noble senti- 
 ments and liberal ideas was inaugurated 
 among them. This in itself was worth all 
 the cost of these holy wars. 
 
 The necessity of keeping up constant 
 communication with the Christians in 
 Syria and Palestine resulted in the growth 
 of a regular and extensive commerce be- 
 tween Europe and Asia. China, India, and 
 Persia were brought into commercial inter- 
 course with the western world, and articles 
 of oriental luxury poured into Europe, 
 creating new wants, and enlarging the 
 
GENERAL HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL CRUSADES. 
 
 989 
 
 channels of trade. Merchants from the far 
 East visited the cities of Europe, and Eu- 
 ropean travellers and merchants brought 
 back valuable narratives of the wonders of 
 the ancient world. The arts and the lan- 
 guages of Asia were introduced into Eu- 
 rope, and exercised a marked effect upon 
 the literature and civilization of that con- 
 tinent. 
 
 Chivalry, though older than the cru- 
 sades, received its most powerful f^timulus 
 from these wars. It was the legitimate 
 result of feudalism, but the crusades ex- 
 panded and developed it, aud invested it 
 with a splendor which it could scarcely 
 have attained in the West. It had for its 
 object the training of the warrior in the 
 exercises and duties of his profession, and 
 the implanting in him of those noble senti- 
 ments and lofty aspirations which were to 
 lift him up above the vulgar level of a mere 
 slayer of men. Its leading principles were 
 the honoring of valor, and the reverence aud 
 protection of woman. 
 
 Youths destined for the profession of 
 arms — and in this class we must include all 
 the nobility aud gentry of Europe — were 
 trained under the eye of their feudal lord 
 or some veteran warrior. From seven to 
 fourteen years of age the youth was termed 
 a page. His duties were principally to 
 attend upon the ladies of the mansion. In 
 their society he was taught obedience, cour- 
 tesy, and the reverence due to the female 
 sex. He was also instructed in music, 
 chess, religion, and the use of the sword and 
 lighter weapons. Love was impressed upon 
 him as both a duty and a privilege, aud he 
 Avas from the first encouraged to select 
 some fair lady as the object of his devotion, 
 whose charms he celebrated, and for whose 
 defence he was taught that it was a privi- 
 lege to lay down life itself. "The love of 
 God and the ladies," says Hullam, "was 
 enjoined as a single duty. He who was 
 faithful and true to his mistress was held 
 sure of salvation, in the theology of the 
 castle." 
 
 When he had attained the age of four- 
 teen, the page became an esquire, or squire, 
 and from the society of the ladies was 
 transferred to that of the knights aud men- 
 at-arms. His duty was to attend upon his 
 lord, whom he was usually allowed to 
 select. He waited upon him in the castle 
 and camp, cleaned his armor, took care of 
 his weapons, put on his armor and released 
 him from it, and went into battle by his 
 
 side to provide him with fresh weapons in 
 case of need, and to aid him by his per- 
 sonal efforts when hard pressed. He con- 
 tinued in this position until he was twenty- 
 one, when, if he merited the honor or had 
 won it by gallantry on the field, he was 
 advanced to the grade of knight. 
 
 The ceremonial of the investiture of the 
 candidate with the order of knighthood was 
 elaborate and imposing. The candidate 
 was required to fast for a day and to c6n- 
 fess his sins, after which he received abso- 
 lution. He then passed the night in prayer 
 and watching before the altar of some 
 church, before which the arms he was to 
 assume the next day were placed. This 
 was called the " Vigil of Arms." The next 
 morning, having bathed and clothed him- 
 self in new robes, over which was placed 
 the coat of mail, he repaired to the church, 
 where he was examined as to his fitness for 
 the dignity to which he aspired. If ad- 
 judged worthy, he received the sacrament. 
 He then swore on the gospels to be brave, 
 loyal, good, just, generous, and courteous; 
 that he would defend the church, the clergy, 
 and the ladies, and redress the wrongs of 
 the widow and orphan, the weak and the 
 defenceless. Then the baldric, a white 
 leather belt, worked with gold, was slung 
 around him, the golden spurs were buckled 
 upon his feet, and the prince or lord who 
 was to confer the honor took the candi- 
 date's own sword and struck him sharply 
 with the flat side over the back, and hailed 
 him by his new- title of "Sir Knight." 
 Any one who had received the knighthood 
 had the right to conier it upon a worthy 
 candidate, aud it was often conferred upon 
 the field of battle to reward some brave 
 deed. 
 
 The knights delighted in manly sports 
 and daring deeds. Their favorite amuse^ 
 ment was the tournament, or trial of arms. 
 Tournaments were held in honor of some 
 great victory, royal marriage, or other 
 public event, but were not confined to these 
 occasions. They were engaged in by all 
 knights on terms of equality, and were gov- 
 erned by strict rules designed to secure fair 
 play betAvcen the combatants. The knights 
 fought Avith blunted weapons, but hard 
 blows were given, and many serious in- 
 juries received. The victor knight Avas 
 greeted Avith the praise of the spectators, 
 and Avas entitled to croAvn his lady love 
 "Queen of Love and Beauty." 
 
 Historians differ as to the effects of the 
 
990 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 institution of cliivalry upou tlie times, but 
 it seems certain that it did more tlian 
 anything else to rob war of its brutality, 
 for, whatever its faults, it set up a noble 
 standard for the emulation of its votaries. 
 The tru3 knight was not only bravo, but 
 failhfui, tender, courteous, generous, and 
 religious. Men were taught lo help, and 
 not to crush the weak and oppressed, and 
 woman was elevated to her proper place in 
 the social scale by the reverence and dc- 
 votiou with which the steru, hard-fisted war- 
 
 rior was taught to regard her. Chivalry 
 did not keep its followers altogether Irom 
 gi-eat and terrible faults, but it made them 
 better than they would have been without 
 its spirit, and at least kept them con- 
 stantly iu mind of their duty to God and 
 man. 
 
 The institution of chivalry died out with 
 feudalism. The changes in the mode of 
 warfare wrought by the introduction of gun- 
 powder made the knight out of place, aa:\ 
 put an end to his existence. 
 
 book: :x::xiv. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TITE TURKISH 
 
 EMRIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE 
 TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Death of Kublai Khan— Ortliogrui ICstablishes the 
 Empire of tlie Ottoman TiirKs — liitliyiiia Con- 
 quered by the Turks — Orclian Aids tlie Greelc 
 Emperor Canteeuzene — The Turks Gain a Foot- 
 hold in Europe— They Take Possession of Thrace 
 — -Amiirath I. — Makes Adriaaople liis Ca|)ital — 
 The Janizaries --B.ijazet I. Assutnes tiie Title of 
 Sultan — Attempts tiie Conquest of Hungary — Be- 
 sieges Constautino})le — 'I'amerlane— His Con- 
 quests—Defeats Bajazet— His Empire — Moham- 
 med I. Beeoines Sultan —Mohammed II. Cap- 
 tures Constantinople— Makes it the Capital of tlie 
 Eini)ire — Conquers Greece — Selim I. — His Con- 
 quests — Solyrnan I. Takes Belgrade — Capture of 
 Kliodes — Wars with Venice— Battle of Lejjauto — 
 Destruction of the Turkish Naval Power iu the 
 Mediterranean —Wars with the German Em- 
 perors — Vienna Be-;iege 1— It is Relieved by .lohn 
 Sobieski — Peace of Carlowiiz — Azov Ceiled to 
 llussia— It is Regained —The Peace of Passarowitz 
 — Wars with Russia — Catharine the Great — Rus- 
 sia Gains the Crimea— Successful Revolt t)fServia 
 — Decline of Turkey — The Greek Revolution — 
 Greek Independence Secured— Revolt of Egypt — 
 Its Settlement— The Crimean War — The Cretan 
 Revolt— Th; Sultan Visits Paris and London — 
 Abrogation of the Treaty of Paris -Revolt in Her- 
 zegovina — Turkey Insolvent — Abdul Hamid II. 
 — The Herzegovinian War— Efforts of the Eu- 
 ropean Powers to Secure Peace and Reform — The 
 Bulgarian Massacres — Servia and Montenegro 
 Declare War against Turkey— Intervention of 
 Russia— The Conference— The Turkish Constitu- 
 tion—Failure of the Conference— Obstinacy of 
 Turkey— Peace with Servia — The Protocol- 
 Turkey Rejects it. 
 
 ^^^HE vast empire of Kublai Khan 
 .GTT ended with his life. Amoug the 
 many chiefs who rose to power 
 upon its ruins was Orthogrul, a 
 Turkish leader. His son Othman 
 completed the work begun by his 
 father, and, having conquered a portion of 
 
 Nicomedia, established his capital at 
 Prusa, and laid the ibundaiions of the em- 
 pire of the Ottoman Turks, who take their 
 name from him. His sou Orchan, taking 
 advantage of the struggle between the elder 
 and younger Andronicus, conquered Bi- 
 thynia and advanced his dominions to the 
 Ilellespont. When the Emperor Cantacu- 
 zene embarked in his struggle for the 
 I h rone, he asked the assistance of the 
 Turks and even gave his daughter in mar- 
 riage to Orchan. Solyman, the son of 
 Orchan, was sent over to Europe at the 
 head of 10,000 horse to aid Cautacuzene in 
 his last quarrel with John Palseologus, and 
 the Turks were thus giveu a foothold in 
 Europe which they never relinquished. 
 The Chersonesus was quietly but rapidly 
 filled with a Turkish colony, and the for- 
 tresses of Thrace passed into the hands of 
 the Turks, who refused to surrender them 
 to the Byzantine court, A. D. 1353. 
 
 Amurath I., the son of Orchan and 
 brother of Solyman, came to the throne iu 
 1360. He conquered all of Thrace and made 
 Adrianople the capital of his kingdom. 
 His dominions extended to within a short 
 distance of Constantinople. He might 
 have captured the capital of the Greek 
 empire, but he deemed it best to delay this 
 conquest for a while. He turned his arms 
 against the Bulgarians, the Servians, Bos- 
 nians, and Albanians, the Slavonian nations 
 inhabiting the region between the Danube 
 and the Adriatic, and subdued them. 
 From the multitude of his Christian cap- 
 tives Amurath selected the strongest and 
 most beautiful youths, and had them 
 
FBOM FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 991 
 
 trained for his service. They became 
 known as janizaries, and being reared from 
 early childhood in the Mohammedan reli- 
 gion and treated with great favor by the 
 sultan, they became his most devoted sub- 
 jects. They also constituted the flower of 
 tlie Turkish army, and were regarded as 
 the most formidable troops in the world. 
 Aniurath was mortally wounded in battle 
 in 1389. He was succeeded by his son 
 Bajazct I., called " Ilderim," or "Light- 
 ning." He secured uninterrupted com- 
 munication between his dominions in 
 Europe and Asia by stationing a fleet of 
 galleys at Gallipoli. With these he was 
 able to command the Hellespont and inter- 
 cept the expeditions sent from western 
 Europs to the relief of Constantinople. 
 The predecessors of Bajazet had been con- 
 tent with the title of emir, but he assumed 
 that of sultan. He filled Europe with 
 terror, and made a strenuous efibrt to con- 
 quer Hungary. All western Europe sent 
 assistance to Hungary, whose cause was 
 that of Christendom, but Bajazet inflicted 
 a severe defeat at Nicopolis, in 1396, upon 
 a confederated army of 100,000 Christians 
 led by Siegmond, King of Hungary. 
 Bajazet invariably treated the Greek em- 
 perors as his vassals. He enclosed their 
 empire, which consisted of but little more 
 than Constantinople and its suburbs, on all 
 .sides with his extensive dominions, and the 
 capture of the city was simply a question 
 of time. He took advantage of the death 
 of John Palseologus and the accession of 
 Manuel to claim the city as his own, and 
 his demand being refused, besieged Con- 
 stantinople. The city would speedily have 
 fallen into his hands had he not been sud- 
 denly summoned to Asia to meet the ad- 
 vance of a new and formidable enemy, and 
 Constantinople was spared for a while 
 longer. 
 
 This new enemy was a Turkish chieftain 
 named Timour, or Tamerlane. His ances- 
 tors had done service to the Mogul Khans, 
 and at an early age he had risen to a high 
 rank in the service of their successors. At 
 the age of thirty-four (a. d. 1370) he be- 
 came Emir of Zagatai and the East, but 
 this did not content him. He coveted the 
 sovereignty of the world, and by the force 
 of his genius became in the next thirty 
 years the ruler of the greater part of the 
 Mogul empire. Between 1370 and 1400 he 
 conquered and annexed to his dominions 
 Persia, Georgia, Tartary and India. At 
 
 the close of the century, although sixty- 
 three years old, he descended Irom the 
 Georgian hills and marched to conquer 
 Syria and Egypt. It was the news of his 
 approach that summoned Sultan Bajazet 
 from the siege of Constantinople to take 
 the field against the most formidable ad- 
 versary the Ottoman Turks had yet en- 
 countered. 
 
 The eflbrt of Bajazet I. to check the vic- 
 torious march of Timour proved in vain. 
 The latter took Aleppo and Damascus in 
 Syria and reduced them to ashes. He 
 turned aside from the invasion of Palestine 
 and overran the provinces of Armenia and 
 Anatolia. Bajazet endeavored to compel 
 him to raise the siege of Angora in the 
 latter country, but was defeated in a great 
 battle near that city, and made a prisoner, 
 July 28th, 1402. Timour was now master 
 of all the vast region from the Irtish and 
 the Volga to the Persian Gulf, and from 
 the Ganges to Damascus and the Archi- 
 pelago. Only the lack of vessels prevented 
 him from carrying his conquests beyond 
 the Hellespont. He ruled this immense 
 empire with firmness and ability, and 
 " might boast that, at his accession to the 
 throne, Asia was the prey of anarchy and 
 rapine, whilst under his prosperous mon- 
 archy a child, fearless and unhurt, might 
 carry a purse of gold from the east to the 
 west. Such was his confidence of merit 
 that from this reformation he derived an 
 excuse for his victories and a title to uni- 
 versal dominion. But the remedy was far 
 more pernicious than the disease ; and 
 whole nations were crushed under the foot- 
 steps of the reformer. , The ground which 
 had been occupied by flourishing cities was 
 often marked by his abominable trophies, 
 by columns or pyramids of human heads." 
 Timour died in 1405, while preparing for 
 the conquest of China, and his empire was 
 soon broken up among his descendants. 
 
 The capture of Sultan Bajazet was fol- 
 lowed in the Turkish dominions by a fierce 
 civil war among his five sons, which lasted 
 from 1403 to 1413. At the end of this 
 time order was restored by Mohammed I., 
 who was recognized as universal sultan. 
 The eight years of his reign were peaceful, 
 and were spent in consolidating his power 
 in his dominions and in re-establishing the 
 reign of law which had been overthrown 
 by the civil war. His son Amurath II. 
 succeeded him in 1421. The next year 
 Amurath renewed the attack upon Con- 
 
992 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 stantinople, but after a siege of two months 
 abandoned the attempt. He was a man of 
 singular moderation and justice for one of 
 his race, and preferred the repose of private 
 life to the cares of empire. Resigning the 
 sceptre to his son he retired to Magnesia. 
 The invasion of the Hungarians drew him 
 from his retirement, and his son relinquished 
 the crown to him. The Christians were 
 finally routed in the great battle of Varna 
 (1444), and Amurath again resigned the 
 crown to his son, Mohammed II. A few 
 years later a formidable rebellion of the 
 
 janizaries obliged the sultan once more to 
 resume the government, as his son was too 
 young and inexperienced to control the 
 army. He remained on the throne until 
 his death in 1451. 
 
 Mohammed II. was twenty-one years old 
 at the death of his father. He had been 
 educated with the utmost care, and is said 
 to have spoken in addition to his native 
 tongue the Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Greek 
 and Latin languages. Yet in spite of this 
 training he was a cruel, brutal, and lustful 
 tyrant. From the opening of his reign he 
 
 was resolved upon the capture of Constan- 
 tinople. In 1452 he began to fortify the 
 Bosphorus to prevent the passage of Euro- 
 pean fleets to the assistance of the Greek 
 capital, and in the spring of 1453 advanced 
 to Constantinople, invested the city, and 
 captured it after a siege of fifty-three days. 
 The Greek emperor defended his capital 
 gallantly, but the Turkish force was over- 
 whelming. Constantinople was made the 
 capital of the Turkish empire, but the 
 Greeks were treated with fairness by the 
 conqueror, and were encouraged to remain 
 in the city. Mohammed now sought to 
 follow up his victory by the conquest of 
 Hungary. He advanced to Belgiade and 
 laid siege to that important fortress, but 
 was defeated and driven back by the Re- 
 gent John Huniades in 1456. These efforts 
 were repeated during the remainder of Mo- 
 hammed's reign, but without success. The 
 sultan now turned his arms against the re- 
 maining Greek states. The Morea was con- 
 quered and annexed in 1460, and the next 
 year Trebizond surrendered to him. In 
 1481 a Turkish force was despatched across 
 the Adriatic, and Otrauto on the Italian 
 coast was stormed and sacked. Having 
 secured this important footing in Italy, Mo- 
 hammed prepared to follow it up by the 
 conquest of the entire peninsula, but amid 
 the general alarm which his movements 
 occasioned throughout Europe, he died. 
 He was succeeded by his sou Bajazet II. 
 He was not a conqueror like his father, and 
 under him the Mohammedan dominion fell 
 ofif instead of advancing. 
 
 The reign of Bajazet II. witnessed a de- 
 cline of the Turkish power. In 1501 their 
 empire was weakened by the establishment 
 of the modern kingdom of Persia under 
 Shah Ismail, the founder of the dynasty 
 of the Sophis. The cause of this division 
 was the adoption by the people of Persia 
 of the doctrines of the Shiah sect of Mo- 
 hammedans. In 1512 Bajazet's reign was 
 cut short by his enforced abdication in 
 favor of his son Selim I., one of the greatest 
 as well as one of the cruellest of the sul- 
 tans. He made frequent wars upon the 
 new kingdom of Persia, and made himself 
 master of Kurdistan and Mesopotamia. 
 He next conquered Syria and Egypt and 
 annexed them to the Ottoman empire. He 
 compelled the last of the Abbasside Kha- 
 lifs to surrender to them the sacred title, 
 which the Ottoman sultans have since 
 borne. He died iu 1520, and was succeeded 
 
FB03I FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 993 
 
 by his son Solyman l,,who proved himself 
 a much abler sovereigu than his father. 
 He was the greatest of the sultans. 
 
 In the first year of his reign Solyman, 
 who was determined to add Hungary and 
 western Europe to his empire, invaded the 
 former country, and captured Belgrade and 
 a number of important fortresses. He suc- 
 ceeded in conquering and annexing to his 
 dominions the southern part of the king- 
 dom and the Temesvar and Banat. In 
 1521 he captured the island of Rhodes 
 from the Knights of St. John, who had 
 held it since the crusades. The knights 
 retired from Rhodes to the island of Malta, 
 which was bestowed upon them by the Em- 
 peror Charles V. They fortified its prin- 
 cipal port, and in 1565 successfully resisted 
 a determined eflbrt of Solyman to capture 
 their stronghold. 
 
 In 1535 Solyman's admiral, Khaireddin, 
 called Barbarossa, captured Tunis for him, 
 but it was retaken by the Emperor Charles 
 v., who inflicted a severe punishment upon 
 the Turks in Africa, and restored Tunis to 
 its rightful sovereign. In spite of this de- 
 feat, however, the fleet of Barbarossa swept 
 the Mediterranean, and ravaged the coasts 
 of Spain, Italy, and France at pleasure. 
 Thousands of captives were torn from 
 their homes and sent to slavery in Africa. 
 In spite of these outrages, Francis I., of 
 France, in order to defeat the schemes of 
 the Emperor Charles, made an alliance 
 with the Turks. During this period Soly- 
 man conquered the islands of the Greek 
 Archipelago, and sent a squadron into the 
 Red Sea to oppose the Portuguese in India. 
 The Venetians lost heavily by these con- 
 quests in the Archipelago, where they had 
 extensive possessions. In 1542-3 the Turk- 
 ish fleet in alliance with the French rav- 
 aged the southern coast of Italy. Reggio 
 was burned, numerous captives were taken, 
 and Rome was threatened. The Turkish 
 fleet then sailed for Marseilles, where Bar- 
 barossa found a ready market for the cap- 
 tives he had taken on the Calabrian coast. 
 Toulon was assigned to the Turks for their 
 winter quarters. An unsuccessful attempt 
 was made upon Nice by the combined 
 French and Turkish fleets during the same 
 year. A few years later the Turks quar- 
 relled with their Christian allies, and seized 
 a number of French nobles, whom they 
 held for ransom. During the whole of the 
 century the Turkish corsairs kept the coasts 
 of Europe in danger, and during the life 
 63 
 
 of Solyman the European states were never 
 free from the dread of a general invasion 
 of the infidels. In 1566 Solyman died. 
 
 Selim II. succeeded his father. He 
 began his reign by making a truce for 
 twelve years with the Emperor Maximilian 
 II. He was a weak and profligate prince, 
 and secured the allegiance of the janizaries 
 by distributing large sums of money among 
 them. He then made war without success 
 against Persia. In 1570 he sent a fleet and 
 an ai'my of 50,000 men to conquer Cyprus, 
 which for nearly a century had been a de- 
 pendency of the Venetian republic. The 
 next year saw him in possession of the entire 
 island. Pope Pius V. now organized a 
 holy league, consisting of himself, the King 
 of Spain, and the republic of Venice, for 
 the expulsion of the Turks from the Med- 
 iterranean. A fleet of 800 vessels, com- 
 manded by Don John of Austria, half- 
 brother of Philip of Spain, was assembled, 
 and despatched against the Mohammedans. 
 The Turkish fleet, superior in strength to 
 that of the Christians, was discovered in 
 the harbor of Lepanto, the ancient Nau- 
 pactus. Don John at once attacked it, and 
 gained over it one of the most memorable 
 naval victories on record. The Turks lost 
 224 ships and 30,000 men, and their su- 
 premacy in the Mediterranean was utterly 
 destroyed. They never recovered from this 
 blow, and from this battle ceased to be a 
 terror to Europe. Their empire steadily 
 declined from this time. If the Christians 
 had followed up their victory with vigor, 
 they might have wrested Greece from the 
 porte. They were divided by quarrels, 
 however, and the next year the Turks were 
 able to put another fleet afloat. The Ven- 
 etians now made a separate peace with the 
 sultan, and surrendered all their claims to 
 Cyprus. In 1572 Selim died. 
 
 The immediate successors of Selim were 
 sunk in pleasure, and made no eflbrts to 
 extend their dominions. In 1594 Moldavia, 
 Wallachia, and Transylvania revolted from 
 Amurath III., and made an alliance with 
 the emperor. Amurath in great alarm sent 
 to Damascus for the holy standard, which 
 he supposed would bring him victory. He 
 died in 1595, and was succeeded by his son 
 Mohammed III., who secured his succession 
 by murdering his nineteen brothers. Dur- 
 ing this year the Austrian army under 
 Count Mansfeld defeated the Turks in a 
 series of battles. In 1596 Mohammed took 
 the field in person, and in a three days' 
 
994 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 battle at Keresztes inflicted a terrible de- 
 feat upon the Christians, who lost 50,000 
 men and 100 pieces of cannon. The war 
 lasted until January, 1607, but the Turks 
 neglected to reap the advantages of their 
 great victory, and gained nothing of per- 
 manent value by the struggle. 
 
 The peace of Sitvatorok in 1607, which 
 closed the war between the Turks and the 
 empire, showed a great abatement in the 
 pretensions of the Turks, whose power now 
 
 up to this time by the Venetians; the war 
 for the possession of this island terminated 
 in 1669 in its conquest by the Turks, who 
 held undisputed possession of it for neai-iy 
 two hundred years. 
 
 In 1649 Mohammed IV. came to the 
 throne. In 1663 a new war was begun 
 with Austria. It was closed by the treaty 
 of Vasvar, in August, 1664. The Turks 
 w^ere allowed to retain all their conquests in 
 Hungary, and were paid the sum of 200,000 
 
 began to decline. In 1618 Mohammed III. 
 was succeeded by his son, Othman II., who 
 attempted the conquest of Poland. His 
 disastrous failure so enraged the janizaries 
 that they murdered him at the close of the 
 war, A. D. 1622. He was only eighteen 
 years old at the time of his death. His 
 uncle, Mustapha, an imbecile, was taken 
 from a dungeon and seated on the throne, 
 but was removed within a year to make way 
 for Amurath IV., the younger brother of 
 Othman. In 1645 the sultan attempted 
 the conquest of Crete, which had been held 
 
 florins by the emperor. In 1683, the truce 
 of Vasvar having neai-ly expired, Moham- 
 med sent an army under Kara Mustapha, 
 the grand vizier, to the assistance of the 
 revolted Hungarians. Vienna was be- 
 sieged, but was relieved by the armies of 
 King John Sobieski and the Duke of Lor- 
 raine. The Turks were defeated and driven 
 out of Austria and Hungary. The Duke 
 of Lorraine continued the war with great 
 energy, and in three years regained all 
 Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia for 
 the empire. The long line of defeats which 
 
FEOM FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 995 
 
 befell the Turkish arms produced a revolt in 
 Coustantiuople in 1687. The sultan was 
 thrown into prison, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Solyman II. This prince was 
 succeeded in 1696 by Mustapha II. The 
 war with Austria and Poland went on with 
 varying success until 1699. In 1684 the 
 Venetians had joined the emperor against 
 the Turks, and had conquered the whole of 
 Peloponnesus. In this war the beautiful 
 temple of the Parthenon, at Athens, which 
 had been converted by the Christian em- 
 
 After the treaty of Carlowitz the sultan 
 hesitated for three years before coming to 
 an agreement with Russia, as he was by no 
 means anxious to admit that power to a 
 footing on the Black Sea. The capture of 
 Azov by the Russians made it impossible 
 for him to prevent their presence on the 
 Black Sea, and in July, 1702, he reluc- 
 tantly submitted to the inevitable, and 
 ceded Azov and a strip of eighty miles of 
 coast to Russia. Peter the Great set to 
 work at once to strengthen Azov, and 
 
 VIEW OF SCUTARI. 
 
 perors into a church, and by the Turks into 
 a powder-magazine, was blown to atoms by 
 the explosion of the powder stored in it. 
 In 1699 the war was concluded by the 
 peace of Carlowitz. By this treaty Turkey 
 ceded to Austria nearly all the territory 
 she had held in Hungary, Transylvania, 
 Sclavonia, and part of Croatia. Venice re- 
 ceived the Peloponnesus, several fortresses 
 in Diilmatia, and the islands of St. Maura 
 and iEgina. Poland obtained the Ukraine, 
 Podolia, and Kameniek. 
 
 made it one of the strongest fortresses in 
 Europe. 
 
 The power of Turkey steadily declined 
 during this century. The cessation of the 
 tribute of Christian children, by which the 
 janizaries had been recruited, deprived the 
 sultan of his best and most devoted servants. 
 The Turkish armies no longer enjoyed the 
 guidance of great leaders and competent 
 officers. The subject nations began to 
 gi'ow stronger as Turkey grew weaker, and 
 it was plain to all thoughtful observers 
 
996 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that they would uot remain in subjection 
 much longer. 
 
 The desire of Russia to obtain the north- 
 ern shore of the Black Sea, and ultimately 
 to wrest their European territory from the 
 Turks, made frequent wars a necessity for 
 Turkey, which from this time was com- 
 pelled to maintain her existence by the 
 sword. When Charles XII. was in Turkey, 
 Peter the Great suddenly invaded the 
 Turkish territory, as we have related in the 
 Russian history, and came near being 
 ruined. He was glad to make a treaty by 
 which he surrendered Azov, in order to be 
 able to withdraw into his own dominions 
 without further loss, A. D. 1711. 
 
 Immediately after the peace of Utrecht, 
 the sultan, Achmet III., declared war in 
 1715 against the Venetians, and overran 
 the Morea. The emperor, Charles VI., in 
 order to enforce the terms of the peace of 
 Carlowitz, declared war against the Turks. 
 His commander. Prince Eugene, routed the 
 Turkish army at Peterwardin, and laid 
 siege to Belgrade. A Turkish army ap- 
 proaching to the relief of that fortress was 
 defeated by Eugene, and Belgrade was 
 forced to surrender, a. d. 1717. The war 
 was closed by the peace of Passarowitz, in 
 1718. The Turks surrendered Belgrade 
 and the Bannat of Temisvar to the em- 
 peror, but retained the Morea. 
 
 A new war broke out between Russia 
 and Turkey in 1736, and continued until 
 1739, Austria taking part in it as the ally 
 of Russia after 1737, At the close of the 
 war Belgrade, Sebatch, and Austrian Ser- 
 via were ceded to Turkey ; but Russia, who 
 had regained Azov, held on to that place. 
 By this treaty — known as the peace of Bel- 
 grade — Russia agreed not to keep any fleet 
 in the Black Sea. At the outset of the war 
 Mahmoud I., who succeeded to the Turkish 
 throne in 1730, died, and Mustapha III. 
 became sultan in A. d. 1737. 
 
 In 1769, during the reigns of Mustapha 
 III. of Turkey and Catharine II. of Russia, 
 the affairs of Poland involved Turkey in a 
 war with Russia. The war began in the 
 spring of 1769, and the Russian forces were 
 defeated and driven beyond the Dneister. 
 In 1770 a Russian fleet sailed from the 
 Baltic to the Mediterranean, and entered 
 the Archipelago. The Turkish fleet was 
 defeated at Epidaurus, and again at Scio, 
 and was burned in the harbor of Smyrna. 
 The Greeks of the Morea rose at the call 
 of Russia, which power intended establish- 
 
 ing an independent Greek kingdom as an 
 offset to Turkey, but as soon as the Russian 
 forces were withdrawn, a Turkish army of 
 30,000 men entered the Morea, defeated the 
 Greeks in the battle of Modon, and pun- 
 ished their defection with fearful cruelties. 
 In the meantime the Turks had recovered 
 Moldavia and Wallachia, but Prince Ro- 
 manzoff' took command of the Russian 
 forces in 1770, defeated the Turkish army 
 in a great battle near the mouth of the 
 Pruth, and reconquered Wallachia and 
 Moldavia. To add to the .troubles of 
 Turkey, Egypt and Syria rose in insurrec- 
 tion against her. The war went on with 
 varying success, but to the general disad- 
 vantage of Turkey, until July, 1774, when 
 the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji brought 
 it to a close. The terms of this treaty have 
 been stated in the Russian history of this 
 period. Mustapha III. died in 1774, and 
 was succeeded by his younger brother, 
 Abdul Ahmed. He reigned until 1789, 
 when he was succeeded by his nephew, 
 Selim III., the son of Mustapha, whose 
 reign lasted through the century. 
 
 In 1787 a new war broke out between 
 Turkey and Russia. Its events are related 
 in our account of Russia, to which the 
 reader is referred, Turkey was defeated 
 almost invariably in this war ; her fleets 
 were destroyed and her fortresses taken. 
 The war was closed by the peace of Jassy, 
 in January, 1792. Russia had already be- 
 come mistress of the Crimea, and by this 
 treaty the Dneister was made the boundary 
 between the two empires. The territory 
 thus won by Russia was lost to Turkey for- 
 ever. The remainder of the century was 
 productive of no event of importance in 
 Turkish history, apart from the invasion 
 of Egypt and Syria by the French under 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, which we have al- 
 ready related. 
 
 The Turkish power was at a very low 
 ebb at the opening of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, and many of the subject nations, both 
 Christian and Mohammedan, sought to 
 throw off" the yoke of the sultan and estab- 
 lish their independence. In 1806 Servia 
 revolted under the leadership of Czerni 
 George. It was conquered in 1813, but 
 again revolted in 1815, under Milosh Obren- 
 owitz. Montenegro also rebelled, and until 
 the Crimean war these provinces enjoyed a 
 state of quasi independence. Egypt was 
 also strongly disaffected. In 1809 a war 
 broke out with Russia, which resulted in a 
 
FROM FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 997 
 
 ftirther loss of Turkish territory. It was 
 closed by the treaty of Bucharest, by which 
 the sultan ceded to Russia Bessarabia, 
 Ismail, and Kilia, oue-third of Moldavia, 
 and the fortresses of Chotzira and Bender. 
 
 In 1807 Selini III. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Mahmoud II., under whom the 
 Turkish power continued to decline. The 
 population of the Turkish empire in Europe 
 was about 14,000,000, of whom scarcely 
 2,000,000 were Turks. The remainder 
 were Christians, consisting principally of 
 the four distinct races inhabiting European 
 Turkey, viz. : the Sclavonians, occupying 
 Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and 
 Montenegro ; the Roumanians, occupying 
 Moldavia and Wallachia ; the Albanians, 
 dwelling in ancient Epirus ; and the Greeks. 
 
 of the Greek inhabitants of the capital en- 
 sued. The war went on through the year 
 1821, the patriot forces winning several im- 
 portant successes, among which was the 
 capture of the Turkish capital of the Morea. 
 In January, 1822, a national congress met 
 at Epidaurus, proclaimed the independence 
 of Greece, and adopted a provisional con- 
 stitution. Alexander Mavrocordatos was 
 chosen president. In the spring of the 
 same year the Turks made a descent upon 
 Scio, massacred 40,000 of the inhabitants, 
 and carried away thousands to the slave 
 markets of Smyrna and Constantinople. 
 In 1823 the admiration and sympathy of 
 all Europe was aroused by the heroic death 
 of Marco Bozzaris, who, with a small band 
 of Suliote patriots, attacked the Turkish 
 
 SERAGLIO POINT — CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 The Greeks had never willingly accepted 
 the rule of Turkey, and some portions of 
 them had never submitted to the porte, but 
 had maintained a wild, brigandish exist- 
 ence in their mountains. Though the 
 Greeks were attached to Russia by the 
 strong ties of a common religion, that 
 power refused to do anything for their free- 
 dom, and Alexander I. met their appeal for 
 aid against their Turkish oppressors with 
 the cold command : " Let the Greek rebels 
 obey their lawful sovereign." 
 
 In spite of this discouragement the 
 Greeks determined to throw off the Turkish 
 yoke, and in March, 1821, the first blow 
 was struck. The people of the peninsula 
 and the islands rose in a general revolt. 
 When the news of the revolution was re- 
 ceived at Constantinople a general massacre 
 
 camp and fell in the arms of victory. The 
 European governments looked coldly upon 
 the gallant struggle, but the people remem- 
 bered the glories of ancient Greece, and 
 supplies of money, arms, and men were 
 sent to the patriots. Foremost among those 
 who devoted their fortunes and talents to 
 the freedom of Greece was Lord Byron. 
 He died at Missolonghi in April, 1824, be- 
 fore he could accomplish much for the 
 cause he had adopted. 
 
 Unable to conquer Greece, the sultan 
 summoned Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy of 
 Egypt, who enjoyed a state of actual inde- 
 pendence, to complete the task. This 
 vigorous leader spread terror and desola- 
 tion throughout Hellas. Missolonghi waa 
 taken after a heroic defence, and Athens 
 was captured in 1825. The Egyptian forces 
 
998 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 had orders to make a desolation of Greece, 
 and to carry oft' the people into slavery. 
 
 Alexander I. of Russia fortunately died 
 at this juncture, and the Czar Nicholas, 
 his successor, adopted a different policy. 
 Moved either by his sympathy with his co- 
 religionists or by his anxiety to weaken 
 Turkey, he resolved to intervene in behalf 
 of the Greeks, and was joined by France 
 and England, who were anxious to impose 
 a check upon the Egyptian viceroy. These 
 powers sent a strong combined fleet to the 
 Mediterranean. On the 20th of October, 
 1827, this fleet, under the command of the 
 English Admiral Codrington, accidentally 
 encountered the Turkish and Egyptian 
 fleet in the Bay of Navarino. A battle 
 ensued, which resulted in the destruction 
 of the Mohammedan fleet. 
 
 This success i*evived the hopes of the 
 Greeks, and the next year Russia declared 
 war against Turkey ; and the sultan, in 
 order to save his Danubian provinces, was 
 obliged to sign the treaty of Adrianople, by 
 which he acknowledged the independence 
 of Greece. 
 
 Mehemet All was given the sovereignty 
 of Crete by the sultan for his services in the 
 Greek revolution. Not satisfied with this 
 acquisition, he sent his son Ibrahim Pasha, 
 an able commander, in 1831, to conquer 
 Syria. That country was overrun by the 
 Egyptian forces, who also advanced towards 
 Asia Minor. Their progress was at length 
 stayed by the intervention of Russia, Eng- 
 land, and France, whose forces defeated 
 Ibrahim at Nisibis on the Euphrates. A 
 few days after this battle Sultan Mahraoud 
 died. France was anxious that Mehemet 
 Ali should succeed him, but England and 
 Russia drove him out of Acre and Syria, 
 and secured the Turkish throne for Abdul 
 Medjid, the young son of Mahmoud. In 
 1840 the treaty of London was signed. 
 Crete and Syria were restored to the porte, 
 and Mehemet Ali was limited to Egypt. 
 For many years after this Sir Stratford 
 Canning, afterwards Lord Stratford de 
 Redcliffe, the English ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople, controlled the counsels of the 
 porte. By the treaty of London Egypt 
 became to a certain extent an independent 
 state, though owning a nominal allegiance 
 to the sultan. 
 
 In 1851 began the troubles which re- 
 sulted in the Crimean war, which we have 
 related elsewhere. The treaty of Paris, in 
 1856, which brought this war to a close. 
 
 admitted Turkey to the European system 
 of states, and guaranteed the integrity of 
 her dominions. Servia was given a native 
 prince, and was placed under the protection 
 of the great powers, though she retained a 
 nominal allegiance to the sultan. Moldavia 
 and Wallachia, a few years later, were 
 erected into a similarly independent state 
 under the name of Roumania. 
 
 In 1861 Abdul Medjid died, and was 
 succeeded by Abdul Aziz. In 1868 a for- 
 midable insurrection broke out in the 
 island of Crete or Candia. It aroused 
 great sympathy among the European peo- 
 ple, and came near producing a war between 
 Greece and Turkey, but was quelled during 
 the following year by the Turks. 
 
 Mehemet Ali was succeeded as Viceroy 
 of Egypt by his son Ibrahim Pasha, under 
 whose vigorous rule Egypt made great 
 progress. He died in 1848, and Abbas 
 Pasha became viceroy, and was in his turn 
 succeeded by Ismail Pasha, the reigning 
 khedive. 
 
 In 1867 the Sultan Abdul Aziz visited 
 Paris and London and the principal cities 
 of Europe. This, was the first time a Turkish 
 sovereign ever made a peaceful journey 
 beyond the limits of his own empire. 
 
 The result of the war between France 
 and Germany, in 1870-71, affected Turkey 
 in a most important respect. The treaty 
 of Paris, which closed the Crimean war, 
 placed a restriction upon the aggressive 
 power of Russia by neutralizing the Black 
 Sea. The reverses of France in her contest 
 with Germany so weakened her that she 
 was unable to sustain England in upholding 
 the treaty of Paris. Russia promptly took 
 advantage of this to demand of the powers 
 a modification of those articles of the treaty 
 which prevented her from fortifying her 
 ports or maintaining an armed fleet in the 
 Black Sea. England warmly opposed the 
 demand, but France was in no condition to 
 do so, and Germany and the Austro-Hun- 
 garian monarchy gave their moral support 
 to the Russian demand, and avowed their 
 intention not to co-operate with England in 
 any armed resistance to it. The result was 
 that a conference of the representatives of 
 the powers was held in London, and on the 
 13th of February, 1871, a treaty was signed 
 by them abrogating the articles of the 
 treaty of Paris as to the navigation of the 
 Black Sea and the right of Russia to fortify 
 her ports. The protection afforded to Turkey 
 by the great jDOwers was thus taken from her. 
 
FROM FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 999 
 
 In 1873 the sultan's authority over 
 Egypt was further weakened by the con- 
 cessions which made the khedive almost an 
 independent sovereign, and which we have 
 related in the history of Egypt. 
 
 In the summer of 1875 an insurrection 
 broke out in Herzegovina. The misrule 
 and oppression of the Turkish government 
 had come to be insupportable, and the in- 
 habitants rose in rebellion and repulsed the 
 attacks of the Turkish troops. Servia, 
 Bosnia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria were 
 profoundly excited by these events, and 
 were open in their sympathy with their 
 struggling Christian brethren in Herzego- 
 vina. Substantial aid was also rendered by 
 the people of those countries, the govern- 
 ments of which for a time remained neutral. 
 
 In October, 1875, Turkey failed to meet 
 the interest on her national debt, the prin- 
 cipal of which amounted to over $900,000- 
 000. A decree was issued by the porta 
 promising speedy payment of half the in- 
 terest and making provision for the pay- 
 ment of the other half The promise was 
 not fulfilled, and in July, 1876, the porte 
 was compelled to declare its insolvency by 
 stating that all payments on account of the 
 national debt must cease until the close of 
 the war with its revolted provinces. As 
 nearly every dollar of this debt was due to 
 citizens of western Europe, principally Eng- 
 lish subjects, the failure of the Turks to 
 meet their obligations greatly weakened the 
 friendship which, up to this time, the Eng- 
 lish people had felt for them. 
 
 On the 30th of May, 1876, the Sultan 
 Abdul Aziz, to whose mismanagement many 
 of the troubles of the country were due, was 
 forcibly deposed, and placed in confinement 
 in one of the palaces at Constantinople. On 
 the 4th of June he was found dead in his 
 chamber, having committed suicide. 
 
 Murad (or Arauratli) V., the son of Ab- 
 dul Medjid, was proclaimed sultan in the 
 place of his uncle. His reign was a brief 
 one. He proved so hopelessly imbecile 
 that, on the 31st of August, 1876, he was 
 in his turn deposed, and was succeeded by 
 his brother Abdul Hamid II. 
 
 In the meantime the war with Herze- 
 govina had been carried on. In October, 
 1875, the sultan declared that the taxes 
 Avhich had been one cause of the revolt, 
 should be lowered from their excessive rate 
 to ten per cent., that arrears of taxes should 
 be abandoned, and that the Christians 
 should be granted a representation in the 
 
 state councils. The Christians had learned 
 from long experience to distrust these prom- 
 ises, and the war went on. In October, 
 1875, some Christians who had come back 
 to their homes from Dalmatia were massa- 
 cred by the Turks, and the struggle became 
 more bitter in consequence of this act. 
 Servia and Montenegro secretly gave aid 
 to the rebels, and the Prince of Servia de- 
 clared in a speech to the national assembly 
 that it was impossible for Servia to be in- 
 different to the fate of the Herzegovines. 
 
 It was feared by the European powers 
 that the troubles in Turkey might be the 
 means of embroiling other countries in the 
 
 ABDUL AZIZ. 
 
 wai', and near the close of the year 1875, 
 Germany, Austria, and Russia made a com- 
 bined efl^ort to secure peace. Austria, whose 
 territory adjoined the Turkish dominions, 
 was especially fearful that the revolt would 
 extend across her border and involve her 
 Sclavonic possessions. A joint note was 
 drawn up in the name of the three powers 
 by Count Andrassy, the Austrian prime 
 minister. Tliis note proposed to the sultan 
 to grant certain reforms to his Christian 
 subjects. These were the establishment of 
 complete religious liberty ; the abolition of 
 the system of farming out the taxes ; the 
 application of the revenue arising from in- 
 direct taxation in Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 to the general purposes of the Ottoman 
 government, and the employment of the 
 
1000 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 results of the direct taxation in the improve- 
 ment and government of those provinces. 
 The porte accepted all the reforms but the 
 disposition of the taxes, at the same time 
 promising to set aside a certain sum from 
 the national treasury for the local wants 
 of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The insur- 
 gents were not willing to trust the pledges 
 of the porte, however, and the war went on. 
 On the 30th of March, 1876, an armistice 
 was concluded, and an effort was made by 
 an agent of the Austrian government to 
 effect a settlement. The terms demanded 
 by the insurgents were so extravagant, how- 
 ever, that Austria refused to consider them. 
 
 The Andrassy note having failed, a note 
 was drawn up at Berlin on the 11th of May, 
 1876, by the prime ministers of Germany, 
 Austria, and Russia, and forwarded to Con- 
 stantinople. It stated peremptorily that as 
 the sultan had given the powers a pledge to 
 execute the reforms proposed by them, he 
 had also given them a moral right to insist 
 that he should fulfil his promise. The note 
 then demanded an armistice of two months, 
 and closed with a threat that if the sultan 
 failed to comply with the demands of the 
 powers, they might find it necessary to com- 
 pel him to do so. The note substantially 
 supported the demands of the Christians of 
 Herzegovina with respect to taxation and 
 the restoration of their property, etc. France 
 and Italy agreed to support the note, but 
 England declined to do so. 
 
 The war had gone on in the meantime, 
 and Bulgaria had become to some extent 
 involved in it. Early in May the Turkish 
 ofiicials in Bulgaria determined to put a 
 stop to the troubles in that province by the 
 wholesale extermination of the Bulgarian 
 Christians. A systematic plan was ar- 
 ranged for this purpose, and at the ap- 
 pointed time the Christians were attacked 
 in their villages by the Turks. Many hun- 
 dreds were massacred in cold blood, in- 
 cluding people of all ages and both sexes ; 
 women were outraged, property carried off 
 or destroyed, and villages burned. The 
 news of the massacre sont a thrill of horror 
 and indignation throughout Europe, and 
 the Turks were denounced in unmeasured 
 terms. In England, which country had 
 until now given its moral support to Tur- 
 key, the outburst of indignation was intense, 
 and the popular feeling was so outspoken 
 that the government was compelled to pause 
 in its support of the sultan and act more in 
 sympathy with the other European powers. 
 
 An immediate result of the massacres was 
 the active participation of Servia in the 
 war. In July, 1876, both Servia and Mon- 
 tenegro declared war against Turkey. The 
 Servian army attempted to invade Bulgaria, 
 but was so unsuccessful in its efforts that 
 on the 24th of August Prince Milan ac- 
 cepted the offer of England to mediate be- 
 tween him and the sultan. Montenegro 
 had been generally successful in her efforts, 
 but, in view of the action of Servia, con- 
 sented to treat for peace. On the 1st of 
 September England proposed an armistice 
 of a month between the belligerents. The 
 sultan refused to grant this, but declared 
 himself willing to make peace on condition 
 that Prince Milan should come to Constan- 
 tinople and do homage to him, that Turkish 
 garrisons should be placed in four of the 
 Servian fortresses, that Servia should pay 
 an indemnity, and that the porte should be 
 allowed to construct and work a railroad 
 through Servian territory. The powers re- 
 fused to allow these terms to be discussed. 
 Great Britain now proposed as a basis of 
 negotiation that Bosnia and Bulgaria should 
 be given local self-govei'nment without being^ 
 freed from their dependence upon the porte. 
 Prince Milan refused to accept this proposal,, 
 and the war was resumed. The Turkish 
 armies now prepared to invade the territory 
 of Servia, but were checked by the inter- 
 position of Russia. 
 
 Up to this time the action of the Russian 
 government had been entirely conservative,, 
 being confined to its participation in the 
 preparation of the diplomatic notes ad- 
 dressed to Turkey. Now large numbers of 
 Russian officers and soldiers entered the 
 Servian army with the consent and approval 
 of the czar. They enabled the Servians to 
 hold out against the Turks until the 31st 
 of October, when the fortified city of Alex- 
 inatz was captured by the latter. This, 
 success placed Servia practically at the 
 mercy of Turkey. In the meantime orders 
 had been sent to the Russian ambassador 
 at London to inform the British govern- 
 ment that it was the opinion of the czar 
 that force should be used to stop the war 
 and put an end to Turkish misrule. Lord 
 Derby stated that England was prepared 
 to unite with Russia in bringing about an 
 armistice of not less than a month, but 
 would not support an armed intervention 
 in Turkish affairs. At this juncture Turkey,, 
 to the surprise of all the powers, suddenly 
 offered an armistice for six months, and an- 
 
FROM FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1001 
 
 nounced a scheme of reform for the whole 
 empire. England, Austria, and France 
 favored the armistice, but Russia declared 
 that she could not ask Servia to accept so 
 long a truce since the principality could not 
 keep its army on a war footing for so long 
 a time ; and this view of the case was sup- 
 ported by Italy. Russia demanded a truce 
 of four or six weeks. The Turkish forces 
 were pressing the siege of Alexinatz with 
 energy, and it was apparent that that place 
 could not hold out much longer. General 
 Ignatieff, the Russian ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople, was therefore ordered to de- 
 mand of the porte an acceptance within 
 forty-eight hours of the armistice proposed 
 by Russia. The demand was made on the 
 31st of October, and on the same day Alex- 
 inatz was captured by the Turks. The 
 Russian demand was granted by the porte, 
 and the armistice was proclaimed. 
 
 Although determined to support Servia 
 against Turkey, Russia was anxious to 
 maintain friendly relations with the other 
 European powers. On the 2d of November 
 Lord Adolphus Loftus, the English ambas- 
 sador, had an interview with the czar at 
 Livadia. The czar " pledged his sacred 
 word and honor" that he had no intention 
 of acquiring Constantinople, and that if 
 necessity compelled him to occupy a por- 
 tion of Bulgaria it would only be provision- 
 ally, and until the safety of the Christian 
 population was assured. These assurances 
 gave great satisfaction to the English gov- 
 ernment, which now assumed the initiative 
 in proposing a general conference of the 
 representatives of the great powers of 
 Europe to meet at Constantinople. On 
 the 4th of November the Marquis of 
 Salisbury was appointed the English 
 representative. The proposal was ac- 
 cepted, but all the powers did not send 
 special representatives. Germany, Russia, 
 and Italy considered their ambassadors at 
 Constantinople sufficient ; but Austria and 
 France followed the example of England, 
 and sent special representatives to assist 
 their resident ambassadors. 
 
 Before the conference assembled the 
 Earl of Beaconsfield (Disraeli), the English 
 premier, delivered a speech sharply criti- 
 cising the Russian attitude, and closed it 
 with significant words: " While the policy 
 of England is peace, no country is so well 
 prepared for war." The next day, Novem- 
 ber 9th, the czar, in an address to the nobles 
 and communal council of Moscow, said : " I 
 
 hope this conference will bring peace ; 
 should this, however, not be achieved, and 
 should I see that we cannot attain such 
 guarantees as are necessary for carrying 
 out what we have a right to demand of the 
 porte, I am firmly determined to act inde- 
 pendently." These words were generally 
 regarded as a reply to Lord Beaconsfield's 
 threat, and caused considerable excitement 
 in Europe, as they implied a possibility of 
 war between Russia and England. 
 
 Lord Salisbury reached Constantinople 
 on the 5th of December. On his journey 
 from London he had visited Paris, Berlin, 
 
 MARBLE STAIRCASE IN THE SULTAN'S PALACE 
 AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 Vienna, and Rome, and had ascertained 
 the views of those governments with respect 
 to the Eastern question. Immediately upon 
 reaching Constantinople he entered inta 
 communication with the porte and with the 
 foreign ambassadors and representatives. 
 He was encouraged by this intercourse to 
 believe that the conference would result in 
 a satisfactory settlement of the troubles. 
 Turkey seemed willing to accept a fair 
 proposition of settlement, and the Russian 
 ambassador was especially cordial in co- 
 operating with Lord Salisbury. 
 
 "On December 11th the representatives 
 of the six great powers of Europe met in a 
 
1002 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 salon of the palace of the Russian embassy 
 for a preliminary consultation, and on the 
 following day the preliminary conference 
 was formally opened with the exclusion of 
 the Turkish representatives. The prelimi- 
 nary conference came to an end on Decem- 
 ber 21st, and General Ignatieif, in inform- 
 ing the porte of the fact, invited it to send 
 its representatives to the definite conference, 
 which was to begin its sessions on December 
 23d. The result of the preliminary confer- 
 ence had been that the powers had agreed 
 • to restore the stains quo in Servia and Mon- 
 tenegro ; but, to prevent needless quarrels 
 in future, Lesser Zvoruik was to be annexed 
 to Servia. Montenegro was also to receive 
 an addition to its territory by the corners 
 
 conference, the western vilayet encroaching 
 upon territory which originally belonged to 
 the Hellenic tribe." 
 
 Before the conference assembled, a very 
 decided change took place in the policy of 
 Turkey. On the 22d of December Midhat 
 Pasha was made grand vizier. The true 
 meaning of this appointment was that 
 Turkey had resolved to take her afiairs into 
 her own hands and to refuse to submit to 
 the dictation of the European powers. On 
 the 23d the Porte proclaimed the new 
 constitution of the Turkish empire, which 
 had been prepared by Midhat Pasha. 
 This constitution entirely revolutionized 
 the Turkish government. It provided for 
 a parliament elected by the people, and 
 
 PALACE OF THE SULTAN— CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 of Herzegovina protruding into Montenegro 
 at Trebigue and Nicsic, and a strip of land 
 connecting it Avith the coast, with a port. 
 A detailed plan had also been proposed to 
 secure the political autonomy of Bulgaria, 
 which was, however, so disadvantageous to 
 the porte that the latter considered itself 
 forced to reject the proposition. A weak 
 point of the conference appeared, even be- 
 fore the preliminary conference had met. 
 This was that it intended to consider the 
 condition of the Slavic Christians only, 
 while the other Christians and the Jews, 
 were not taken into consideration at all. 
 This fact aroused great commotion among 
 the Greek subjects of Turkey. They were 
 particularly opposed to the creation of the 
 two vilayets of Bulgaria, as proposed by the 
 
 made the sultan a constitutional instead of 
 an arbitrary sovereign. The government 
 was to be administered by ministers respon- 
 sible to parliament, which body was to 
 enact the laws necessary for the pacification 
 and government of the empire. " The sub- 
 jects of the empire are called, without dis- 
 tinction, Ottomans. Individual liberty is 
 inviolable, and is guaranteed by the laws. 
 Islamisra is the religion of the state, but the 
 free exercise of all recognized creeds is 
 guaranteed, and the religious privileges of 
 the communities are maintained. No pro- 
 vision investing the institutions of the state 
 with a theocratic character exists in the 
 constitution. The constitution establishes 
 liberty of the press, the right of petition to 
 both chambers for all Ottomans, liberty of 
 
FROM FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1003 
 
 porte maintained that further deliberation 
 was unnecessary, since the constitution was 
 a suflScient answer to the powers. Never- 
 theless the sessions were continued, but 
 without accomplishing anything. The con- 
 ference demanded that the reforms in the 
 Turkish empire should be executed by an 
 international commission, having at its 
 command a special military force, composed 
 partly of Europeans and partly of Turks, 
 but Turkey refused to accept the demand, 
 and it was abandoned. Though Turkey 
 was willing to pledge herself for the execu- 
 tion of the reforms, she steadily refused 
 every material guarantee for the execution 
 of this pledge suggested to her. The con- 
 
 education, and the equality of all Ottomans 
 before the law. They enjoy the same rights 
 and have the same duties towards the 
 country. Ottoman subjects, without dis- 
 tinction of religion, are admitted to the ser- 
 vice of the state. Taxation will be equally 
 distributed ; property is guaranteed, and 
 the domicile is declared inviolable. No 
 person can be taken from the jurisdiction 
 of his natural judges. . . . Public func- 
 tionaries will be appointed in conformity 
 with the conditions fixed by law, and can- 
 not be dismissed without legal and sufficient 
 cause. They are not discharged from re- 
 sponsibility by any orders contrary to law 
 which they may receive from a superior. . . . 
 Judges are irremovable. The sittings of 
 the tribunals are public. The advocates 
 appearing for defendants are free. Sen- 
 tences may be published. No interference 
 can be permitted in the administration of 
 justice. The jurisdiction of the tribunals 
 will be exactly defined. Any exceptional 
 tribunals or commissions are prohibited. . . . 
 No tax can be established or levied except 
 by virtue of a law. The budget will be 
 voted at the commencement of each ses- 
 sion, and for a period of one year only. 
 The final settlement of the budget for the 
 preceding year will be submitted to the 
 chamber of deputies in the form of a bill. 
 , . . The provincial administration is based 
 upon the broadest system of decentraliza- 
 tion. The councils general, which are elec- 
 tive, will deliberate upon and control the 
 affairs of the province. Every canton will 
 have a council, elected by each of the dif- 
 ferent communities, for the management of 
 its own affairs. The communes will be ad- 
 ministered by elective municipal councils. 
 Primary education is obligatory. The in- 
 terpretation of the laws belongs, according 
 to their nature, to the court of cassation, the 
 council of state, and the senate. The con- 
 stitution can only be modified on the initia- 
 tion of the ministry, or of either of the 
 two chambers, and by a vote of both cham- 
 bers, passed by a majority of two-thirds. 
 Such modification must also be sanctioned 
 by the sultan." 
 
 The conference met on the 23d of De- 
 cember, the very day of the promulgation 
 of the constitution. On the 28th of De- 
 cember it was resolved to extend the ar- 
 mistice to March 1st, 1877. The procla- 
 mation of the constitution seemed to cut 
 the entire ground from under the feet of 
 the conference. The representative of the 
 
 TURKISH LADY. 
 
 ference then reduced its demands to insist- 
 ing that the Governors of Bosnia and Bul- 
 garia should be appointed with the consent 
 of the powers, and that the powers should 
 be allowed to form an international com- 
 mission, which should, however, have no 
 military means of executing its decrees. 
 On the 18th of January, 1877, the porte 
 firmly rejected these demands, and the con- 
 ference came to an inglorious end. 
 
 During the sessions of the conference 
 Roumania became alarmed at the terms of 
 the constitution, the first article of which 
 declared that the Ottoman empire, includ- 
 ing the privileged provinces, forms an in- 
 divisible unity from which no portion can 
 ever, on any ground, be detached, while the 
 seventh article gives to the sultan the right 
 
1004 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of investiture of tiie rulers of the privi- 
 leged provinces. On the 5th of January, 
 1877, the Roumanian senate passed a reso- 
 lution declaring that the rights of the prin- 
 cipality should remain intact, and calling 
 upon the government to maintain them in 
 a manner worthy of the state. The excite- 
 ment in Roumania was so great that in a 
 few days the porte officially declared that 
 the constitution was purely internal, and 
 did not affect the rights of a principality 
 which were guaranteed by international 
 treaties. 
 
 The obstinacy of Turkey in refusing the 
 demands of the powers lost her the few 
 friends she had left in Europe. The cause 
 of this obstinacy was the Vizier Midhat 
 Pasha, who, losing sight of the fact that 
 the Turkish empire owed its existence in 
 Europe entirely to the mutual jealousy of 
 the great powers, haughtily refused to allow 
 any interference with its affairs. His im- 
 perious will soon rendered him obnoxious 
 to the sultan, who grew restless under the 
 control of the man who had already de- 
 posed two sultans within a year, and who 
 would not hesitate to depose another should 
 it suit his purposes. Accordingly on the 5th 
 of February, 1877, Midhat Pasha was re- 
 moved from his office of vizier and ordered 
 to quit Constantinople. He was succeeded 
 by Edhem Pasha, who had served as one 
 of the members of the conference, and who 
 had distinguished himself by his bitter 
 opposition to all the proposals of the foreign 
 representatives. 
 
 Edhem Pasha at once devoted himself to 
 the task of making peace with the rebel- 
 lious principalities. He opened negotia- 
 tions with Servia, and by the last of Febru- 
 ary concluded a treaty of peace with that 
 principality. By the terms of the treaty 
 the Servians were to retain their fortresses, 
 were to salute the Turkish flag, and were 
 to prevent armed bands from crossing the 
 frontier. The Turkish troops, on their 
 part, were to evacuate the positions held on 
 Servian territory. The treaty was ratified 
 on the 3d of March, and a week later the 
 Turkish forces withdrew from Servia, re- 
 linquishing Alexinatz and Saitschar to the 
 Servians. 
 
 Negotiations had been opened with Mon- 
 tenegro at the same time that those with Ser- 
 via were begun, but they proved more pro- 
 tracted and troublesome. Prince Nicholas 
 at first demanded that the negotiations 
 should be conducted at Vienna, but the 
 
 porte refused this, and the prince sent a 
 delegation to Constantinople. The armis- 
 tice was extended to the 13th of April. 
 The Montenegrin demands were, briefly, 
 the cession of Nicsics, which had been be- 
 sieged by their forces for several months, 
 the cession of a seaport, and such a rectifi- 
 cation of their frontier as would increase 
 their territory about one-half its present 
 extent. As the Montenegrins held actual 
 possession of most of the territory demanded 
 by them, they had the advantage of the 
 porte. The latter refused to grant any ex- 
 tension of territory, and towards the close 
 of March Prince Nicholas instructed his 
 representatives to abate their demands 
 somewhat, but to insist upon the cession of 
 Nicsics. On the 10th of April the Turkish 
 parliament, to which the matter was re- 
 ferred, rejected the demands of Montene- 
 gro, and the next day the rej^resentatives 
 of that principality were informed of this 
 decision, and were told that the armistice 
 would not be renewed. Two days later 
 the Montenegrin delegates set out for home, 
 going by way of Odessa, in order to have 
 an interview with the czar and the Russian 
 commander. 
 
 Russia had by this time fully determined 
 to take part in the war, but being as yet 
 unprepared, endeavored by skilful diplo- 
 macy to gain time. On the 31st of January 
 Prince Gortschakoff addressed to the Rus- 
 sian representatives at the courts of the 
 powers concerned in the treaty of Paris a 
 circular, in which he related the diploma- 
 tic efforts that had been made to secure the 
 pacification of Turkey, and stated that the 
 czar, before determining upon a course for 
 the future, wished to know what course 
 would be determined upon by the other 
 powers. On the 9th of March Turkey met 
 this circular by one of her own addressed 
 to the guaranteeing powers, stating that 
 "the reforms proposed by the conference 
 and accepted by the imperial government 
 are already being applied." On the 19th 
 of March the Turkish parliament was 
 formally opened with imposing ceremonies 
 and renewed promises of reform. The 
 great powers, however, were suspicious of 
 Turkey's promises, and were determined to 
 demand further guarantees. Accordingly 
 the Russian, French, German, Austrian 
 and Italian ambassadors at Loudon held 
 several conferences with Lord Derby, the 
 British foreign minister, the result of which 
 was the signing, on the 31st of March, of a prp- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 1005 
 
 tocol by them, in behalf of their respective 
 governments. This document declared that 
 " the powers propose to watch carefully, by 
 means of their representatives at Constanti- 
 nople and their local agents, the manner in 
 which the promises of the Ottoman govern- 
 ment are carried into effect ; " and in case 
 these promises were not faithfully carried 
 out, the powers reserved the right of com- 
 mon action "to secure the well-being of the 
 Christian population and the interests of 
 the general peace." Before signing this 
 document Count Schouvaloff, the Kussian 
 ambassador, made a declaration to the 
 effect that if the porte showed itself ready 
 to disarm, it should send a special envoy to 
 St. Petersburg to treat for a mutual dis- 
 armament. Lord Derby, on behalf of 
 Great Britain, declared that if a reciprocal 
 disarmament and peace did not result, the 
 protocol was to be regarded as null and 
 void. The answer of the porte to the pro- 
 
 tocol was a defiant circular addressed to its 
 representatives abroad, in which, while it 
 did not entirely reject the protocol, it 
 warmly resented the threat of foreign in- 
 tervention in the internal affairs of Turkey, 
 repelled Count Schouvaloff's suggestion of 
 intervention, and declined to send a special 
 envoy to St. Petersburg. The circular was 
 dated the 10th of April. When the 
 Turkish ambassador in London delivered 
 this circular to Lord Derby on the 12th of 
 April, the British foreign minister ex- 
 pressed to him his deep regret at the course 
 Turkey had seen fit to pursue, and said he 
 could not see what further steps England 
 could take to avert the war, which now 
 seemed inevitable. 
 
 Every effort for peace having failed 
 through the obstinacy of the porte, Russia 
 declared war against Turkey on the 24th 
 of April, 1877. The history of this war is 
 given in Book XXV. 
 
 book: xiixi^sT^. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE 
 GBEAT. 
 
 Geographical Position of Russia — Early History 
 Uncertain — The Slavs — Novgorod and Kiev 
 Founded — Rurik Founds the Russian Empire — 
 Successors of Rurik — Oleg — His Great Reign — 
 Igor— Olga Embraces Christianity— Reign of 
 Sviatoslaf— A'^ladimir I. — His Character — Chris- 
 tianization of Russia — Eflbrts of Vladimir in be- 
 half of Civilization — His Death — Usurpation of 
 Sviatopolk — Reign of Yaroslav — Translation of 
 the Bible into the Russian Language — The First 
 Code of Laws— Death of Yaroslav — Decline of the 
 Russian Power — The Petty States — Reign of An- 
 drew of Suzdal — Moscow Founded — Conquest of 
 Russia by the Tartars — The Tartar Supremacy — 
 Humiliation of the Grand Princes of Russia — 
 Alexander Nevski — Ivan I. — His Excellent Reign 
 — Dimitri II. Refuses to Pay Tribute to the Tar- 
 tars — His Wars with them — Vassili III. — Ivan 
 the Great — Decline of Novgorod — Ivan Marries a 
 Greek Princess— Assumes the Title of Autocrat — 
 Rapid Recovery of the Russian Empire — Reign 
 of Vassili V. — Ivan the Terrible— His Childhood 
 — His Tyrannical Reign— The Strslitz- Conquests 
 of Ivan — Madness of Ivan — A Reign of Terror — 
 Successors of Ivan — Boris Godunof— The False 
 Dimitri — His Success and Fall — The Shuiski — 
 Vassili VI. — Another False Dimitri— The Polish 
 Supremacy — A Period of Anarchy— Michael Ro- 
 manoff Chosen Czar of Russia — His Excellent 
 Reign — Alexis — The Cossack^; of the Don become 
 Subject to Russia — Reign of Feodor III. 
 
 USSIA comprises the largest con- 
 nected empire in the world, and 
 occupies a part of both Europe 
 and Asia. It extends from lati- 
 tude 38° 20' to about latitude 
 77° 30' N., and from longitude 
 17° 38' E. to about 170° W. Its northern 
 boundary is the Arctic Ocean, its eastern 
 the Pacific, its southern the Chinese empire, 
 Independent Turkestan, Persia, Turkey in 
 Asia, and the Black Sea, and its south- 
 western and western Rou mania, Austria, 
 Prussia, the Baltic Sea and Sweden. Its 
 greatest length from west to east is about 
 6,000 miles; its greatest breadth, from 
 north to south, about 2,300 miles. It em- 
 braces an area of 8,391,832 square miles, 
 and contains a population of 86,596,014 
 souls. Its surface comprises one-sixth of 
 the firm land of the globe. 
 
 The early history of Russia is very un- 
 certain. European Russia was known to 
 the Greeks and Romans, whose writers say 
 that it was inhabited by the Scythians and 
 Sarraatians. The Greeks entered into com- 
 mercial relations with the most southern 
 tribes between the Dneiper and the Don, 
 and established colonies among; them. 
 
1006 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 During the migrations of nations in the 
 fourth and fifth centuries, the character of 
 the inhabitants of Russia was repeatedly 
 changed. Hordes of Goths, Alans, Huns, 
 Avars, and Bulgarians swept over the 
 country, leaving traces here and there of 
 their movements, but making no permanent 
 settlements. At last appeared the Slavs, 
 destined to accomplish what their predeces- 
 sors had failed to do. They are regarded by 
 the best writers as identical with the Sar- 
 matians, and are believed to have spread 
 themselves as far northward as the upper 
 
 absolutely nothing of it. At the end of 
 this period Novgorod emerges from the 
 gloom as the capital of a great and power- 
 ful principality. It had become so power- 
 ful that it was a common saying among its 
 neighbors, " Who can dare to oppose God 
 and Novgorod the Great ? " " Its com- 
 merce," says Kelly, " extended to Persia 
 and even to India, and from Constantinople 
 to Vineta, a very commercial city on the 
 mouth of the Oder. The nations around it 
 were its tributaries, from Lithuania to the 
 ITral mountains, and from Bielo Ozero and 
 
 FINLANDER'S HUT. 
 
 Volga. They found scattered Finnish 
 tribes dwelling in this region, and forced 
 them farther north toward Finland and the 
 Arctic Ocean. Some of the Finnish tribes 
 remained in their old homes and became 
 amalgamated with the conquerors. To 
 this union is due many of the physical 
 characteristics of the Russians of the present 
 day. 
 
 The Slavs founded the cities of Novgorod 
 and Kiev, each of which became the capital 
 of an independent Slavic principality. For 
 the next one hundred years Russian history 
 is shrouded in total darkness ; we know 
 
 the Lake of Rostof to the White Sea." The 
 most active commerce of Novgorod was 
 carried on through the Baltic, which at 
 that time was held by the Russian Varan- 
 gians, a race of Scandinavian warriors. 
 These fierce warriors demanded tribute as 
 the price of the safety of this commerce, 
 and being refused, attacked Novgorod and 
 rendered it tributary. Some years later 
 the Novgoroclians recovered their independ- 
 ence, but did not retain it long. Internal 
 dissension broke out among the leaders of 
 the state, and caused so much confusion and 
 loss that in A. d. 862 the Novgorodians in- 
 
FEOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 1007 
 
 vited Kurik, Sinaf, and Truvor, three against foreign aggression. The brothers 
 Varangian brothers, to rule over them, accepted the invitation, and established 
 
 KURIK, FOUNDEK OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The old Russian chronicle states that the i themselves on the three principal frontiers 
 brothers were invited to serve as auxiliaries I of the republic— Rurik at Old Ladoga, 
 of the Novgorodian republic for its defence I near the Volkhof ; Sinaf at Bielo Ozero, 
 
1008 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 then situated on the northern bank of the 
 lake of the same name ; and Truvor at 
 Izborsk, near Pleskof. These positions 
 enabled the Varangian princes to secure the 
 republic against attacks from without, and 
 also to extend their power over it, as they 
 held the chief outlets of its foreign trade. 
 In a short while Novgorod was called upon 
 to choose between the loss of its commerce 
 and submission to the Varangian princes. 
 It chose the latter, and in A. D. 864 Rurik 
 took peaceable possession of it and estab- 
 lished his authority over its territories. His 
 two brothers having died without issue, 
 there was no one to dispute his rule. He 
 assumed the title of grand prince, gave to 
 the country the name of Russia, from the 
 tribe to which he belonged, and bestowed 
 its cities and towns upon his companions in 
 arras. He is therefore justly regarded as 
 the founder of the Russian empire. He 
 reigned fifteen years in Novgorod, and died 
 in 879. 
 
 Igor, the sou of Rurik, was a child of 
 four years. The founder therefore left his 
 crown to his cousin Oleg, whom he consti- 
 tuted the guardian of his son. It was a 
 wise choice, for Oleg proved himself a great 
 prince and a great conqueror. He was also 
 faithful to his trust ; for while he held the 
 crown during his life, he was careful to 
 secure the succession of his ward. Under 
 Oleg the Russian dominions were largely 
 increased. In 882 he captured Smolensk, 
 and a little later, by a bold stratagem, 
 made himself master of the city of Kiev, 
 which he made one of the capitals of his 
 dominions. Kiev had been converted to 
 Christianity before this, and Oleg wisely 
 tolerated and protected the new religion, 
 though himself a pagan. He next con- 
 quered the region between Kiev and Nov- 
 gorod, and so united his two capitals ; and 
 subdued the Khazars, a people of Turanian 
 descent, who, in the seventh and eighth 
 centuries, had established a powerful king- 
 dom between the Dneiper and the Caspian. 
 He then drove the Magyai's out of the bor- 
 ders of Russia into the country now held 
 by them, and established his authority 
 firmly in the lands he had subdued. It 
 had always been his wish to extend his 
 empire at the expense of the Greek Emperor 
 of Constantinople. When he had settled 
 the affairs of his own dominions, he de- 
 scended the Dneiper to the Black Sea, and 
 attacked Constantinople at the head of 
 80,000 men and 900 galleys. He fixed his 
 
 shield on the gate of that city as a trophy, 
 and compelled the Greek emperor to enter 
 into an ignominious treaty and pay an 
 enormous ransom. He then returned to 
 Kiev laden with booty, a. d. 911. Karam- 
 sin says that Oleg " is to be regarded as the 
 founder of the empire's greatness, for to 
 him it owes its finest and richest provinces. 
 Rurik's sway extended from Esthonia, the 
 Slav sources, and the Volkhof, to Bielo 
 Ozero, the mouth of the Oka, and the city 
 of Rostof. Oleg subjugated all the coun- 
 tries from Smolensk to the Sula, the Dneis- 
 ter, and probably to the Carpathian moun- 
 tains." Oleg died in 913, having reigned 
 thirty-three years. 
 
 Igor, the son of Rurik, succeeded his 
 cousin Oleg. He was thirty-eight years 
 old, and proved himself an able ruler. At 
 the outset of his reign the Drevlians, en- 
 couraged by the death of Oleg, rose in 
 revolt against Russia. They were subdued 
 by Igor, who also conquered the Petche- 
 negs, who lived on the coasts of the Black 
 Sea, from the Danube to the mouths of the 
 Dnieper. In 941 he undertook an expedi- 
 tion against Constantinople, but was driven 
 back with the loss of two-thirds of his 
 force. Instead of being disheartened by 
 this reverse, he prepared to avenge it, and 
 in 944 set out on a second expedition 
 against the Greek capital. His march 
 was stayed at the mouth of the Danube by 
 offers from the Greek emperor to pay him 
 the same tribute that Oleg had received. 
 Igor accepted the offer, and the next year 
 concluded a treaty Avith the emperor, which 
 was similar to that imposed upon that 
 prince by Oleg. 
 
 Igor was now an old man, and was anx- 
 ious to pass the balance of his days in 
 peace, but the insatiable cupidity of his 
 companions in arms forced him into new 
 wars. One of these was with the Drevlians, 
 whom he plundered unmercifully. They 
 surprised him one day near Korosten, and 
 massacred him and the whole of his guard, 
 A. D. 945. 
 
 Sviatoslaf, the only son of Igor, and the 
 first prince who bore a Russian name, was 
 very young at the time of his father's 
 death, and the government of Russia passed 
 into the hands of Olga, Igor's widow, as 
 regent. She took a terrible vengeance upon 
 the Drevlians for the murder of her hus- 
 band, but in other respects her rule was as 
 wise as it was firm. 
 
 Although the rest of Russia had re- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE ORE AT 
 
 1009 
 
 mained pagan, Kiev, as we have said, had 
 been converted to Christianity, and the 
 Christians had been protected in their civil 
 and religious privileges. Olga now became 
 a convert to the faith of Christ, and in 955 
 went to Constantinople, and was baptized 
 by the patriarch with great pomp, receiving 
 the Greek name of Helena. Her example 
 was followed by few of her subjects. She 
 earnestly entreated her son to be baptized, 
 but he replied : " Would you have me be a 
 laughing-stock to my friends ? " He sternly 
 refused baptism, though he offered no op- 
 position to those who wished to embrace the 
 new faith, for which he openly expressed 
 his contempt. Sviatoslaf won new victories 
 over the Khazars, and from this time they 
 appear no more in Russian history. He 
 also subdued the Petchenegs and Bulgar- 
 ians, and extended his empire to the Sea 
 of Azov. In 970 he divided his dominions 
 among his three sous, giving Kiev to Yaro- 
 polk I., the country of the Drevlians to 
 Oleg, and Novgorod to Vladimir. A little 
 later he undertook a new war against the 
 Bulgarians, and rapidly overran their 
 country. The Greek emperor, alarmed at 
 the proximity of the Russians to Constan- 
 tinople, summoned the grand prince to 
 evacuate his conquests. The demand was 
 refused and war ensued. The Russians 
 were defeated in every encounter, and were 
 obliged to sue for peace. They withdrew 
 from Bulgaria and set out for Kiev. On 
 the way, while passing through the coun- 
 try of the Petchenegs, Sviatoslaf was 
 waylaid by a force of those people and 
 slain near the cataracts of the Dnieper, 
 A. D. 972. 
 
 The death of Sviatoslaf was followed by 
 a war between his three sons. Oleg was 
 slain, and Vladimir fled across the sea to 
 the Varangians. The whole empire was 
 thus reunited under Yaropolk I. Vladimir, 
 however, never abandoned his design of 
 recovering his lost power, and in 980, after 
 an absence of two years, returned with a 
 force of Varangian adventurers, conquered 
 Novgorod and Kiev, put his brother to 
 death, and thus became the ruler of all 
 Russia. 
 
 Vladimir I. well deserved his surname of 
 " the Great," for with all his faults he was 
 one of Russia's greatest monarchs. His 
 first efforts were directed to getting rid of 
 his Varangian warriors, who had begun to 
 prove troublesome, and to consolidating his 
 authority in his empire. In both under- 
 64 
 
 takings he was successful. At his accession 
 he was a pagan, and displayed great zeal in 
 behalf of his gods. His religion was of a 
 very lax kind, however. He had six wives, 
 who bore him twelve sons, among whom he 
 afterwards divided his empire, and main- 
 tained in several of his cities establishments 
 of concubines, amountiug in all to eight 
 hundred. No woman in his kingdom was 
 safe from his violence. 
 
 Notwithstanding this defect Vladimir 
 was both a warrior and a statesman. He 
 conquered Red Russia and Lithuania, and 
 made Livonia tributary. Having com- 
 pleted his conquests he determined to show 
 his gratitude to his gods by offering to them 
 a human sacrifice, and for this purpose set 
 apart the prisoners taken in the war. He 
 was persuaded by his courtiers, however, 
 that the gods would be better pleased by 
 the sacrifice of one of his own subjects, and 
 accordingly selected a young Varangian, 
 the son of a Christian, and brought up in 
 that faith. The fiither refused to deliver up 
 his son, and the people, enraged at what 
 they regarded as an insult to both their 
 religion and their prince, fell upon both 
 father and son and murdered them. The 
 Russian Church has canonized both as its 
 only martyrs. 
 
 Vladimir's fame as a conqueror had by 
 this time spread into the surrounding coun- 
 tries, and efforts were made by the four 
 great religious bodies of the world to secure 
 his conversion to the faith which they sev- 
 erally professed. " The conquering religion 
 of Mohammed was recommended to him by 
 the eastern Bulgarians ; the description of 
 its paradise and its lovely houris fired his 
 voluptuous imagination ; but he could not 
 overcome his repugnance to circumcision 
 and the interdiction of wine. ' Wine,' he 
 said, ' is the delight of the Russians ; we 
 cannot do without it.' Catholicism, offered 
 to him by the Germans, he disliked, be- 
 cause of its pope, an earthly deity, which 
 appeared to him a monstrous thing ; and 
 Judaism, because it had no country, and he 
 thought it neither rational to take advice 
 from wanderers under the ban of heaven 
 nor desirable to share their punishment." 
 The Greek religion which Olga had pro- 
 fessed had been expounded to him by a 
 learned man from Constantinople, and after 
 due deliberation he embraced it and was 
 baptized. He at once overthrew the idols 
 and closed their temples. His people 
 quickly followed his example. " If it be 
 
1010 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 not good to be baptized," they said, " the 
 prince and the boyars would never submit 
 to it.' Thus was Christianity established 
 in Russia, a. d. 988. Vladimir during the 
 remainder of his reign founded churches, 
 schools, and new towns, and gave himself 
 with energy to the task of civilizing and 
 Christianizing his people. During the 
 latter years of his reign he waged several 
 wars with the Petchenegs, in which he was 
 successful. The close of his life was embit- 
 tered by domestic ti'oubles. He had di- 
 vided his empire between his twelve sons, 
 who soon became involved in a fratricidal 
 war. His son Yaroslaf, to whom he had 
 given Novgorod, refused to pay the tribute 
 due him as his vassal, and applied to the 
 Varangians for aid against his father. Vlad- 
 imir, now an old man, took the field against 
 his unnatural sou, but died of grief at being 
 obliged to do so, A. D. 1015. 
 
 " This rough-hewn colossus," says Kelly, 
 **had great qualities ; if he was not always 
 able to repress his turbulent neighbors, he 
 generally frustrated their incursions. He 
 caused deserts to be cleared by colonies es- 
 tablished for that purpose ; he built towns, 
 and while he was rendering his country 
 more flourishing, he thought it his duty to 
 provide for its embellishment, and invited 
 from Greece architects and workmen emi- 
 nent for their skill. By their means he 
 raised convenient and substantial churches, 
 palaces, and other buildings. The young 
 nobles were brought up in seminaries en- 
 dowed by the prince, to which his bounty 
 had attracted able masters from Greece. 
 Parents saw with horror these strokes aimed 
 at ignorance, and the honors that were 
 paid to foreign services. It was necessary 
 to use violence in taking their children to 
 place them in the new establishments, where 
 they were to be taught reading aud writing, 
 unholy arts, identified with sorcery. Vlad- 
 imir, who waded through the blood of his 
 brother to the throne of Kiev, received 
 from his nation the surname of the Great, 
 was advanced to the rank of a saint, and is 
 recognized by the Russian Church as co- 
 equal luith the apostles." 
 
 The war between the sons of Vladimir, 
 which had been begun during his life, was 
 continued after his death. The result of it 
 was that Sviatopolk, the son of Vladimir's 
 brother Yaropolk I., who had been adopted 
 by Vladimir as his own sou, seized the 
 throne after murdering three of his brothers. 
 Yaroslav, another brother, made an alliance 
 
 with the emperor, Henry II., of Germany, 
 against Sviatopolk, and the father-in-law 
 of the latter, Boleslas, King of Poland. 
 This war was ended in 1019 by a three 
 days' battle, in which Yaroslav and his ally 
 were successful. Sviatopolk fled to Poland, 
 but died on the journey. 
 
 Yaroslav was now sole ruler of the em- 
 pire. He destroyed the Petchenegs in a 
 vigorous campaign, and made his power to 
 be dreaded by Finland, Livonia, Lithuania, 
 aud Bulgaria. In 1026 he became involved 
 in a war with his brother Mstislav, Prince 
 of Tmutarakan, and was defeated. This 
 prince had, in 1016, conquered the Crimean 
 remnant of the ancient kingdom of the 
 Khazars, and in 1022 had subdued the 
 Circassians. He treated liis brother with 
 generosity, and left him half of his empire. 
 After the death of Mstislav, in 1036, Yaro- 
 slav once more became sole ruler of the 
 empire. Having secured his authority, he 
 entered upon the work to which he owes 
 his truest fame. He was a warm friend of 
 education, and caused many Greek works 
 to be translated into the Russian language ; 
 he built schools and churches, increased 
 the number of towns, and caused many 
 waste tracts to be settled with colonies. He 
 caused the Holy Scriptures to be translated 
 into the Russian language, and with his 
 own hand transcribed several copies of 
 them. He also kept the Russian Church 
 entirely independent of the Greek estab- 
 lishment at Constantinople, and appointed 
 its bishops without reference to the Greek 
 patriarch. His three daughters married 
 the Kings of Norway, Hungary, and France ; 
 his sons married Greek, German, and Eng- 
 lish princesses ; and his sister was Queen of 
 Poland. By these alliances Russia was 
 brought into more intimate relations with 
 Europe. 
 
 The greatest work of Yaroslav's reign 
 was the preparation of the Busskaya Pravda, 
 the first Russian code of laws. It was a 
 rude, and in many respects a barbarous 
 code, but it was an effort to establish the 
 reign of justice in the empire, and afford to 
 the weak protection against the strong. It 
 recognized the right of private vengeance, 
 but confined it to the relations of the man 
 who had been slain. If no avengers came 
 forward, the murderer could atone his crime 
 by paying to the state a fixed price, which 
 was regulated by the code according to the 
 position of his victim. Judges were ap- 
 pointed and circuits assigned them ; and 
 
FBOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE ORE AT. 
 
 1011 
 
 trial by a jury of twelve respectable persons 
 was secured. 
 
 A few days before his death, in 1054, 
 Yaroslav divided his empire among his 
 four sons, on the condition that the younger 
 ones should obey their eldest brother, Izas- 
 lav, to whom he gave Novgorod and Kiev. 
 This arrangement did not prove satisfac- 
 tory. The younger sons rejected the con- 
 trol of their brother, and civil war ensued. 
 The result was that the Russian empire was 
 divided into a number of principalities, 
 which were united in a sort of confederacy, 
 but which were constantly quarrelling and 
 fighting with each other. During this 
 period of confusion the Poles, Lithuanians, 
 Danes, and Teutonic Knights took possession 
 of large portions of western Russia. In 1114 
 Vladimir II. succeeded to the throne of Kiev 
 and Novgorod. He was a great and wise 
 prince, and under him Russia made consider- 
 able advances. He died in 1125, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Mstislav, his eldest son, who 
 reigned but six years. At his death Russia 
 fell back into anarchy, and by the middle 
 of the twelfth century the Grand Princi- 
 pality had dwindled into little more than 
 the city of Kiev. In 1155 Igor of Suzdal 
 obtained the ascendency, and for a time it 
 seemed that he would reunite Russia under 
 one government. His principality of Suz- 
 dal embraced the present governments of 
 Yaroslav, Kostroma, Vladimir, Moscow, 
 and a part of Novgorod, Tvei-, Nijni Nov- 
 gorod, Tula, and Kaluga, or nearly the 
 whole of central Russia. In 1147 he 
 founded the city of Moscow, and bestowed 
 upon it important privileges. He made 
 Kiev his capital, and under him it ad- 
 vanced rapidly in wealth and prosperity. 
 He died in 1157, and immediately the 
 struggle between the various princes was 
 renewed. 
 
 Andrew, the son of Igor, at first took no 
 part in this struggle, but withdrew into his 
 principality of Suzdal, and established his 
 capital at Vladimir. He devoted himself 
 with energy to civilizing and advancing his 
 dominions. He greatly improved Moscow, 
 founded a number of other cities, which he 
 peopled with the Bulgarians of the Volga, 
 and fairly established the civilization of 
 central Russia. In 1168 he undertook the 
 capture of Novgorod, but was repulsed. He 
 then marched against Kiev and carried it 
 by storm. He plundex-ed it, and compelled 
 it to acknowledge the supremacy of Vladi- 
 mir. In 1169 he sent an army under his 
 
 son against Novgorod, which was now at 
 the height of its power, having been but 
 recently admitted into the Hanseatic league. 
 Though the attack was repulsed, Novgorod 
 was compelled to acknowledge the suprem- 
 acy of Vladimir. Andrew's chief aim was 
 to destroy the multitude of petty princes 
 which existed in Russia, and consolidate 
 the whole power of the empire in the hands 
 of the grand prince. These combined 
 against him, and defeated his armies and 
 put a stop to his attempts at consolidation. 
 At last, in A. D. 1174, he Avas assassinated 
 by his subjects. His successor suffered the 
 vast domain of Suzdal to be broken up into 
 petty principalities, and the next grand 
 prince relinquished all claim to the homage 
 of the petty princes. 
 
 The internal strife which divided and 
 weakened Russia rendered her an easy prey 
 to a foreign foe. The Tartar hordes under 
 Ziugis Khan, which had overrun Hungary 
 and Poland, burst into Russia in 1221, de- 
 feated the combined forces of the Russian 
 princes in the bloody battle of Kalka, rav- 
 aged all of southern Russia, and withdrew 
 into Asia. Immediately upon their with- 
 drawal the internecine war broke out again 
 in Russia, and this time it was accompanied 
 by famine and pestilence. In 1230 the 
 plague scourged Smolensk and Novgorod. 
 30,000 men died in the former city, and 
 42,000 in the latter. 
 
 In 1237 the Tartars returned, this time 
 under Baton, grandson of Ziugis, and chief 
 of the Golden Horde. Russia was rapidly 
 overrun, and from the present city of 
 Kasan to Vladimir the Tartars laid the 
 country waste. Having conquered the 
 country the Tartars proceeded to establish 
 themselves in it. They founded Sarai and 
 Kasan, and compelled the Russian princes 
 to pay them tribute. " They themselves 
 collected the tribute of each district ; they 
 received the homage and the appeals of 
 every prince ; and when they committed 
 the fault of establishing a grand prince, 
 they allowed several rivals to lay claim to 
 this paramount sway, made them wait their 
 decision, and sometimes retained them at 
 their horde for two whole years. At the 
 same time they prevented the settling of 
 any order of succession. In a word they 
 made themselves lords paramount ; for, at 
 the outset, they adopted the plan of not 
 permitting any prince, great or small, to 
 assume the government of his states before 
 he had journeyed to the great horde to 
 
1012 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 solicit the investiture. The effect of these 
 journeys, to accomplish which a year was 
 barely sufficient, was to leave the princi- 
 palities without Russian chiefs, and under 
 
 to deal ; to ruin the competitors by the 
 customary presents ; and lastly, as accusers 
 of the princes were never wanting among 
 their kinsfolk and rivals, to make them 
 
 A TARTAR CHIEF AND HIS WIFE. 
 
 the authority of the Tartar baskaks (or I dread the terrible vengeance of the khans, 
 governors) ; to prove the supremacy of the in case of their having to reproach them- 
 grand khans ; to make known to these selves with so much as a sigh for independ- 
 Mongols with what kind of men they had | ence. Several princes were summoned to 
 
FE03r THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 1013 
 
 the great horde, tried, and executed. But 
 these Tartars, who thus cruelly punished 
 the insubordination of the Russian princes, 
 joined with them in their foreign wars. 
 They even served them in their civil wars ; 
 and this was the manner in which they did 
 so : a Russian prince journeyed to the horde 
 to impeach the grand prince, in whose 
 place he prayed to be substituted ; and he 
 returned with a Tartar army, which per- 
 mitted him to reign over ashes and blood." 
 
 During the period of the Tartar suprem- 
 acy, Alexander Nevski came to the throne 
 of Novgorod. He was a great statesman 
 and warrior, and won many victories over 
 his European enemies, the Teutonic Knights 
 and the Lithuanians, and recovered the 
 Neva from the Swedes, from which success 
 his surname is derived. He secured the 
 good-will of the Tartars, and later on was 
 granted the principalities of Kiev and 
 Vladimir by the khan, who had deprived 
 the native princes of their thrones. He 
 died suddenly in 1262, poisoned, it is be- 
 lieved, by order of the khan, who had begun 
 to suspect him of aiming at independence. 
 
 Ivan I., surnamed Kalita (or the Purse), 
 became Prince of Moscow in 1328. He 
 united the principality of Tver with Mos- 
 cow, adorned his capital with many new 
 churches, and in 1339 commenced the re- 
 construction of the Kremlin. He induced 
 the primate of the Russian Church to re- 
 move from Vladimir and establish his resi- 
 dence at Moscow, and by means of his great 
 wealth purchased the protection and favor 
 of the Tartars. He was a statesman of the 
 Machiavellian order, and his tortuous policy 
 resulted in the establishment of his author- 
 ity over the Russian princes, whom he held 
 down with a firm hand, aided by his influ- 
 ence with their Tartar masters. He gained 
 for Russia a tranquillity to which she had 
 long been a stranger, and which enabled 
 her to revive and increase her commercial 
 prosperity, and to acquire the means for 
 future resistance to her barbarian oppres- 
 sors. He died in 1340, and was able to 
 leave to his son Simeon the means of pur- 
 chasing his throne from the horde, thus 
 securing the direct succession. 
 
 Simeon carried out his father's policy 
 with vigor, and died after a reign of twelve 
 years in 1353. He was succeeded by his 
 brother Ivan II., who was also obliged to 
 purchase the sanction of the horde to his 
 accession. The regular order of succession 
 thus maintained was a great gain to Rus- 
 
 sia, which enjoyed fifty years of repose and 
 prosperity in consequence of it. The throne 
 of the grand prince became the rallying 
 point of the Russians, and its strength and 
 stability inspired them with a patriotism 
 and boldness which clearly pointed to an 
 early effort to regain the freedom of their 
 country. 
 
 In 1359 Dimitri II., the son of Ivan II., 
 came to the throne. His first act was to 
 establish the natural order of succession to 
 the crown from father to son. The boj-^rs^ 
 who had recognized the advantages which 
 this mode of succession held out to them,, 
 readily agreed to it. Dimitri then estab- 
 lished his power over the minor princes of 
 Russia, whom he made his vassals. Mos- 
 cow became the capital of Russia in a truer 
 sense than it had ever been, and " it was 
 obvious that the only protecting power was 
 at Moscow ; to have recourse to its support 
 was a matter of necessity. The petty princes 
 could obtain it only by the sacrifice of 
 their independence ; and thus all of them 
 became vassals to the Grand Prince Dimi- 
 tri." From 1362 to 1380 the dissensions 
 of the Tartars, who had now split up into 
 several hordes, enabled him to carry out his 
 plans without interruption from them. He 
 was also enabled to beat back the Lithu- 
 anians, who three times besieged Moscow and 
 threatened to put an end to his reign. 
 
 These enemies being driven oflT, and his 
 power at home being secure, Dimitri felt 
 himself strong enough to throw off* the Tar- 
 tar yoke. In 1378 he refused the custom- 
 ary tribute to the khan and put to death 
 the ambassador sent to demand it. The 
 khan burst into a storm of rage when he 
 heard of the murder of his representative, 
 and summoned his hitherto invincible war- 
 riors to aid him in the conquest and de- 
 struction of Moscow. 
 
 The danger which now threatened Russia 
 was very great, and united all the princes 
 under Dimitri for their common defence. 
 In 1380 the khan advanced into Russia at 
 the head of all his warriors. He encoun- 
 tered the grand prince and his army on the 
 banks of the Don, and was routed with 
 terrible slaughter. This memorable achieve- 
 ment won for Dimitri his surname of 
 Donskoi. One hundred thousand Tartars 
 are said to have perished in this battle. In 
 1382 the Tartars returned, and took and 
 burned Vladimir and Moscow^ in the latter 
 of which they put 24,000 persons to the 
 sword. Dimitri was obliged to purchase 
 
1014 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 peace by heavy sacrifices. His defeat had 
 been caused by the defection of the Russian 
 princes, and he now proceeded to take ven- 
 geance upon them and to reduce them once 
 more to the position of his vassals. His 
 last years were spent in consolidating his 
 power in his dominions. He died in 1389. 
 
 Vassili, or Basil III., succeeded his father 
 as Grand Prince of Moscow. He treated 
 his dependent princes with severity, but by 
 timely submission and presents gained the 
 good-will of the khan, who bestowed upon 
 him the principalities of Suzdal, Tcher- 
 nigof and Nijni Novgorod, which were from 
 this time inalienably united with Moscow. 
 He endeavored to render Novgorod the 
 great tributary to Moscow, but without 
 success. He died in 1425, leaving to his 
 son the most powerful and compact state in 
 Russia. In his reigu money was first coined 
 in Russia. 
 
 Vassili IV., the son of Vassili III., came 
 to the throne at the age of five years. His 
 uncle Igor (or Yury), taking advantage of 
 the youth of the grand prince, usurped the 
 throne. Vassili appealed to the horde and 
 the usurper was ordered to relinquish the 
 throne. Igor raised an army, took Moscow 
 by surprise, and banished Vassili to a dis- 
 tant part of the principality. At the mo- 
 ment of his victory, however, the usurper 
 found himself abandoned. The entire pop- 
 ulation of Moscow followed their young 
 prince into his banishment, and Igor was 
 left literally alone with his troops in the 
 city. Struck with dismay he " descended 
 from his solitary throne, and restored it to 
 the legitimate heir." Vassili IV. greatly 
 increased the dominions of Moscow by in- 
 corporating Halicz, Mozhaisk and Borousk 
 with his principality. During this reign 
 the metropolitan Isidore of Kiev took part 
 in the general council of Florence in 1439, 
 and subscribed to the act of union of the 
 Greek and Latin Churches. Vassili disap- 
 proved of this act, and threw Isidore into 
 prison, from which he escaped, after some 
 years, into Italy. Vassili became involved 
 in a war with the Tartars, who deprived 
 him of his throne, but subsequently restored 
 it to him. Somewhat later he was made 
 l^risoner by his cousin, the son of Igor, or 
 Yury, who put out his eyes and seized his 
 throne. The nobles rallied to the support 
 of their blind prince, however, and the 
 usurper was overthrown and poisoned. Vas- 
 sili was restored to his throne. He died in 
 1462. 
 
 Ivan III., called " the Great," succeeded 
 his father. He was twenty-two years old 
 and reigned forty-three years. The two 
 great objects of his life were to render his 
 country free from foreign influence, and to 
 make himself the autocrat of his own do- 
 minions. He was successful in both these 
 efforts. In 1469 he conquered the Khan 
 of Kazan and made him tributary, and in 
 the next ten years conquered and annexed 
 to his principality the republics of Novgo- 
 rod, Perm and Pskov. This conquest was 
 fatal to Novgorod. Its commerce declined, 
 and its prosperity vanished. Before its 
 conquest it is said to have contained a 
 population of 400,000 souls. It is now a 
 second-rate town of the Russian empire. 
 Ivan then declared to the Tartar envoys 
 that Russia would no longer pay tribute to 
 the khans. A fresh war with the Tartars 
 was the result, but Ivan successfully re- 
 pulsed them, and from this time the grand 
 prince ceased to be a tributary of the khan. 
 Tver and several other Russian principali- 
 ties were next subdued and added to the 
 Muscovite dominions. Ivan also con- 
 quered parts of Siberia in 1499, but in a 
 war with the Livonians and their allies, the 
 Teutonic Knights, was totally defeated and 
 compelled to make peace, a. d. 1501. Con- 
 stantinople having fallen into the hands of 
 the Turks, Ivan was anxious to constitute 
 himself the successor of the Greek em- 
 perors, and in order to accomplish this 
 married the Princess Sophia, the heiress of 
 the imperial house of Byzantium. His first 
 wife had died some years previous to this. 
 Immediately upon his second marriage 
 Ivan adopted as his escutcheon the double- 
 headed eagle of the Byzantine emperors. 
 
 Ivan was a master of statecraft, and 
 some of his most important successes were 
 won as much by the exercise of this talent 
 as by force of arms. In his internal ad- 
 ministration he was a stern despot. He 
 broke the power of the petty princes and 
 the nobles, and sent them to the block at 
 his pleasure. He was the first to assume 
 the title of "Autocrat of all the Russias," 
 which his successors have since borne. He 
 made many important reforms, improved 
 the laws, regulated the public taxes, and 
 changed for the better the manners of the 
 clergy. His true heir was Dimitri, the 
 child of his eldest son by his first wife, but 
 he arbitrarily thrust him aside, and finally 
 threw him into prison. He then consti- 
 tuted his son by his second wife, Sophia, 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE GREAT 
 
 1015 
 
 his heir. When remonstrated with for | And he threw the remonstrants into prison, 
 thus changing the succession, he exclaimed [i He died in 1505 at the age of sixty-seven, 
 
 IVAN THE GREAT. 
 
 Sternly, "Am I not, then, at liberty to act 
 as I please ? I will give Russia to whom I 
 think proper, and I command you to obey." 
 
 leaving to his successor a stronger and more 
 compact empire than any of His predeces- 
 sors had ever ruled. 
 
1016 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Vassili v., the son of Sophia, succeeded 
 to his father's throne. He carried out the 
 policy of Ivan with firmness and success, 
 and in 1510 added Pskov to his dominions, 
 thus extinguishing the last of the semi- 
 independent principalities of Russia. The 
 Tartars of Kazan having proved refractory, 
 were utterly routed in lo24, and again in 
 
 a child when his father died. His mother, 
 Helena, contrary to the Russian custom, 
 made herself regent, and for four years held 
 her position, putting down all opposition 
 to her with despotic cruelty. In 1537 she 
 was poisoned, and the regency was seized 
 by the Shuiski, a powerful boyar family, 
 the chief of which was the president of the 
 
 A COSSACK. 
 
 1530, and were made tributary to Russia. 
 Vassili conducted wars against the Lithua- 
 nians and Poles, but without accomplishing 
 anything of importance. He died in 1533, 
 after a reign of twenty-eight years, leaving 
 the empire further enlarged and consoli- 
 dated by his skilful management. 
 
 Ivan IV., called " the Terrible," was but 
 
 supreme council of boyars. This family 
 had received many humiliations and much 
 bad treatment at the hands of the grand 
 princes. They now avenged themselves by 
 heaping all manner of indignities upon the 
 youthful Ivan, whose life was passed in a 
 state of constant terror. They plundered 
 the treasury and robbed the people, and the 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 1017 
 
 insolent regent was seen to throw himself 
 on the bed of the young czar and rudely 
 thrust his feet in the lap of the sovereign 
 of Russia. The Shuiski punished all op- 
 position to their power with remorseless 
 cruelty, and Ivan saw his friends dragged 
 from his presence and put to death with 
 horrible tortures in spite of his entreaties 
 in their behalf. In 1543, when the czar 
 was fourteen years old, the Shuiski were 
 overthrown by the Glinski, another boyar 
 family, who seized the regency and pursued 
 the same course of cruelty and despotism 
 that had marked the reign of their rivals. 
 They differed from them only in this : they 
 thrust the czar forward as the cover for all 
 their acts, and robbed and killed and tor- 
 tured in his name. They diligently taught 
 the czar that his nobles were his natural 
 foes instead of the chief supporters of his 
 throne, and that he could maintain his power 
 only by the sternest and cruellest exer- 
 cise of it. They applauded and encouraged 
 the development of his naturally cruel in- 
 stincts, and praised him " when he amused 
 himself with tormenting wild animals, and 
 throwing down tame ones from the summit 
 of his })alace ; when, in his disorderly ram.- 
 bles, he dashed old people to the ground, 
 and trampled under the feet of his horses 
 the women and children of Moscow." Four- 
 teen years of Ivan's life — from the age of 
 three to seventeen years — were passed amid 
 these terrible scenes, and he was kept 
 so constantly in dread and agitation that 
 his mind, naturally strong, became warped. 
 He learned to love cruelty and to think 
 that his only safety lay in tormenting his 
 people. 
 
 The rule of the Glinski lasted but three 
 years. In 1547 the people of Moscow, 
 driven to despair, rose against them, mas- 
 sacred them and fired the town. In the 
 midst of the terrible scenes which ensued, 
 a monk named Sylvester entered the palace 
 bearing in his hands the gospels. In stern 
 tones he declared to the czar that the out- 
 break was but the just vengeance of heaven 
 for the crimes that had been committed in 
 his name, and exhorted him to heed the 
 warning and rule his people justly. Ivan 
 was appalled by the awful words of the 
 monk, and promised to do better. Alexis 
 Adashef, a leading noble, joined his enti-ea- 
 ties to the warnings of Sylvester, and a 
 great change was effected. 
 
 Ivan submitted himself to Sylvester and 
 Adashef, and to the latter confided the gov- 
 
 ernment of the empire. For the next thir- 
 teen years Russia enjoyed the blessings of 
 internal peace and good government. Order 
 was quickly restored in the government, 
 and justice was impartially administered; 
 a standing army called the Strclitz was or- 
 ganized, and regularity was once more re- 
 stored in the military service. The ruler of 
 Kazan had made himself independent dur- 
 ing the minority of Ivan. In 1552 the czar 
 led a powerful army against Kazan and 
 conquered it, breaking tlie power of the 
 Tartars of this region beyond all hope of 
 recovery. In 1553 a commercial road was 
 opened to Archangel on the White Sea, 
 then the only port of Russia. In 1554 
 Astrakhan was captured and the frontier 
 of the empire advanced to the Caspian Sea. 
 Fortresses were erected along the frontier 
 to hold the Tartars in check. The Don 
 Cossacks were united with the empire in 
 1570, and in 1581-82 Yermak, a Cossack 
 freebooter, conquered Siberia for the czar. 
 Ivan did much to promote the commerce 
 of his country, concluded commercial trea- 
 ties with England, induced many Germans 
 and Englishmen to settle in his empire, and 
 in 1569 set up a printing office in Moscow. 
 He conducted frequent wars with Sweden 
 and Poland with varying success, and made 
 an unsuccessful attempt to drive the Teu- 
 tonic Knights out of Livonia. In 1582 he 
 was obliged to conclude the war by surren- 
 dering Livonia to Sweden. 
 
 In 1560 Alexis Adashef died, and soon 
 after the Czarina Anastasia, to whom Ivan 
 was much attached, died also. About the 
 same time Ivan himself was seized with a 
 terrible illness, which came near proving 
 fatal. Recovering his health he gave symp- 
 toms of insanity, which became a settled 
 characteristic of his nature. He was from 
 this time gloomy and suspicious. He would 
 break out in frightful rages in which he 
 did not hesitate to strike down with his own 
 hand any one, of whatever station, who 
 chanced to offend him. He was constantly v 
 tormented with fears of a revolt of his boy- 
 ars, and surrounded himself with a picked 
 force of troops, to make way for which he 
 ruthlessly drove out the inhabitants of the 
 streets adjoining his jjalace. He delighted 
 in inflicting suffering upon his people, whose 
 abject submission to his tyranny is one of 
 the most remarkable spectacles in history. 
 In Novgorod, which he hated for its free 
 spirit, he put 60,000 men to death in 1570. 
 " He butchered with his own hand a throng 
 
1018 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the unfortunate inhabitants, whom he 
 heaped together in a vast enclosure ; and 
 when, at last, his strength failed to second 
 his fury, he gave up the remainder to his 
 select guard, to his slaves, to his dogs, and 
 to the opened ice of the Volkliof, in which 
 for more than a month those hapless beings 
 were daily engulfed by hundreds. Then, 
 declaring that his justice was satisfied, he 
 retired; seriously recommending himself 
 
 ions, till they rotted and dropped in pieces 
 upon them. Elsewhere husbands, or chil- 
 dren, were fastened dead to the places which 
 they had occupied at the domestic table, 
 and their wives, or mothers, were compelled 
 to sit, for days, opposite to the dear and 
 lifeless remains." The mad czar compelled 
 sons to kill their fathers, and brothers to 
 destroy each other ; he threw his prisoners 
 of war into boiling cauldrons, or spitted 
 
 THE KKEMLIN— MOSCOW. 
 
 to the prayers of the survivors, who took 
 special care not to neglect obedience to the 
 orders of their terrestrial deity." In Tver 
 and Pskov similar cruelties were enacted. 
 In Moscow 500 of the most illustrious 
 nobles were tortured and put to death. 
 "Neither were women spared any more 
 than men ; Ivan ordered them to be hanged 
 at their own doors ; and he prohibited their 
 husbands from going out or in without 
 passing under the corpses of their compan- 
 
 them upon lances and roasted them at slow 
 fires which he himself stirred up. The 
 whole empire was filled with terror and 
 bloodshed. At length a number of the 
 most faithful boyars, headed by the eldest 
 son of the czar, dared to present an humble 
 supplication for mercy. Ivan was seized 
 with fury, and with a single blow of his 
 iron-bound staff laid his son dead at his 
 feet. His remorse for this mad deed was 
 great, and hastened his death, which oc- 
 
FR03r THE EARLIEST TIMES TO PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 1019 
 
 curred in 1584. lu spite of his madness 
 and tyranny he did more for the greatness 
 of Russia than any of his predecessors. 
 His conquests made Russia an empire strong 
 in territory and resources. As yet, how- 
 ever, she took no part in European affairs, 
 being cut off from the other nations of that 
 continent by the Poles and Swedes, who 
 held the country west of Russia and the 
 shores of the Baltic. On the south the 
 Tartars of the Crimea lay between Russia 
 
 haunt the churches and ring the bells. He 
 was in no sense fit to be a sovereign, and 
 his father, aware of his infirmity, had left 
 him under the care of a council of boyars. 
 The leading spirit of this council was Boris 
 Godunof, a man of Tartar descent, and the 
 brother-in-law of Feodor. Boris soon made 
 himself master of the supreme power of 
 the state, and administered the government 
 according to his own will. The weak Fe- 
 odor was but as clay in his hands, and he 
 
 A RUSSIAN VILLAGE. 
 
 and the Black Sea. Her only ports were 
 upon the Caspian and the White Seas. The 
 port of Archangel, founded in this reign, 
 was the point from which the commerce of 
 the empire with England and the other 
 countries of Europe was conducted at this 
 time. 
 
 Feodor I., the second son of Ivan, was 
 twenty-seven years old when he came to the 
 throne at his father's death. He was weak 
 and sickly, and his greatest delight was to 
 
 caused Dimitri, the other son of Ivan, who 
 was but a child, to be banished to an estate 
 left him by his father, where he was subse- 
 quently murdered by order of Boris. Boris 
 spared no pains to win the favor of the 
 people of Moscow, as he aspired to the 
 throne itself at the death of Feodor, and 
 his great abilities enabled him lo carry out 
 his designs with success. In 1591 the Khan 
 of the Crimea invaded Russia and advanced 
 upon IMoscow, which was unprotected by 
 
1020 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 fortifications. The people were in despair, 
 but Boris, with extraordinary energy, caused 
 a line of fortifications to be thrown up 
 around the city, and manned it with a 
 strong force of infantry and artillery. The 
 assault of the Tartars was repulsed, and 
 their army began a disastrous retreat to 
 their own country. In 1598 Feodor I. 
 died, and with him ended the line of 
 Rurik, which had held the throne for 736 
 years. 
 
 Boris Godunof was now called to the 
 throne by the nobles and people, and after 
 a feigned hesitation complied with their 
 •wishes. The chief event of his reign was 
 the establishment of serfdom, but on the 
 whole his rule was beneficial to Russia. 
 He caused the laws to be impartially ad- 
 ministered, encouraged the arts and trades, 
 induced many intelligent foreigners to settle 
 in his dominions, and iu other ways pro- 
 moted the civilization of his empire. He 
 treated the boyars with gi-eat severity, and 
 so alienated them from him. The estab- 
 lishment of serfdom was bitterly resented 
 by the peasants, and a bloody outbreak oc- 
 curred, which was with difficulty suppressed. 
 In 1601 a terrible famine bi'oke out in 
 Russia and continued for three years. In 
 Moscow alone upwai'ds of 100,000 persons 
 perished. Boris did all he could to relieve 
 the wants of the people, but could not ac- 
 complish much in the midst of so much 
 suffering. 
 
 In the midst of the discontent caused by 
 the famine an impostor appeared iu Poland 
 and claimed to be Dimitri, the son of Ivan, 
 •whom Boris had caused to be put to death 
 when a child. He was supported by a 
 number of Polish noblemen, and succeeded 
 in collecting a force with which he invaded 
 Russia in 1603. All who were dissatisfied 
 with Boris flocked to his standai-d, and he 
 soon found himself at the head of a con- 
 siderable army. He won a victory over 
 the forces of the czar, but was at length 
 defeated. He threw himself into one of 
 the fortified cities and maintained his po- 
 sition there. 
 
 On the 13th of April, 1605, Boris died 
 suddenly. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Feodor II., a youth of sixteen. On the 
 7th of May — only six weeks later — the 
 army revolted and proclaimed the false 
 Dimitri czar. On the 1st of June the in- 
 habitants of Moscow followed the example 
 ai the army, proclaimed Dimitri, and 
 seized Feodor and threw him into prison. 
 
 where he was soon after murdered. On the 
 20th of June Dimitri entered Moscow amid 
 the joyful acclamations of the populace, 
 and a few weeks later was solemnly crowned 
 Czar of all the Russias. He gave evidence 
 of unusual talent as a sovereign, and was a 
 man of more liberal views than Russia had 
 ever known. It was his chief desire to 
 unite all the forces of the Slav race and 
 drive the Tartars and Turks out of Europe, 
 and he began at once to prepai-e for this; 
 struggle. He meant that the clergy should 
 bear their share of the cost of the war, and 
 levied a tax upon them. This brought 
 about his ruin. The clergy had no idea 
 of bearing any of the burdens of the state, 
 and threw the whole of their powerful in- 
 fluence against the czar. They instigated 
 a conspiracy to dethrone him, which was 
 joined by a number of boyars, among whom 
 were some of those who had been the first 
 to desert the cause of Boris. The head of 
 the conspiracy was Vassili Shuiski, a pow- 
 erful noble who had been especially favored 
 by Dimitri. On the 18th of May, 1606, 
 the czar was married with great pomp to a 
 Polish princess, who came attended by a 
 numerous retinue of her countrymen. The 
 marriage of the czar to a princess not of 
 the orthodox faith gave great offence to the 
 people, and the thoughtless conduct of the 
 Poles, "who showed open disrespect to the 
 Greek faith, greatly increased this feeling. 
 On the night of the 18th the conspirators, 
 taking advantage of the popular discontent,, 
 took up arms, and being joined by the 
 people of Moscow, gained admittance to the 
 Kremlin and attacked the palace. Dimitri 
 and the few who stood by him were killed, 
 and the czarina narrowly escaped with her 
 life. 
 
 Immediately upon the death of Dimitri 
 the boyars proclaimed Vassili Shuiski czar, 
 as Vassili VI., and he was crowned on the 
 1st of June, 1606. The reign of Shuiski 
 was not accepted by the entire nation, and 
 a rebellion soon broke out against him. It 
 was given out that the Czar Dimitri was 
 not dead, but had escaped to Poland, 
 whence he issued orders to his supporters to 
 attack Shuiski. A false Dimitri soon ap- 
 peared, aided by a Polish army. He ad- 
 vanced towards Moscow. Vassili VI., or 
 Shuiski, made an alliance with the Swedes 
 to resist this invasion, and this act induced 
 Sigismuud III. of Poland to espouse the 
 cause of the false Dimitri. Shuiski found 
 his Swedish allies utterly untrustworthy. 
 
FR03r REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1021 
 
 They soon went over to the Poles, and 
 Moscow was forced to surrender in 1610. 
 The czar was made prisoner, and was sent 
 to a Polish fortress, where he died the next 
 year. In 1611 the Poles, being attacked in 
 Moscow by the inhabitants, burned the city 
 and put thousands of the people to the 
 sword. A period of anarchy now set in. 
 Kussia was without a sovereign, and its 
 capital was in the hands of the Poles. The 
 evident determination of the Poles to make 
 Russia a province of their country revived 
 the national spirit, and in 1G12 Pozharski 
 and other popular leaders succeeded in 
 compelling the Poles to withdraw to their 
 own dominions. 
 
 Having freed their country, the Russians 
 prepared to elect a new sovereign to the 
 vacant throne. The choice fell upon 
 Michael Romanoff, who was descended 
 through the female line from Rurik, the 
 founder of the empire. He was the son of 
 Feodor, Archbishop of Rostov, and after- 
 wards Patriarch of Moscow. He was pro- 
 claimed and crowned czar in 1613, and 
 became the founder of tlie present imperial 
 family of Russia. Michael was but sixteen 
 years old at the time of his election. He 
 reigned thirty-two years, and succeeded in 
 restoring order to his distracted empire. 
 He concluded in 1617 a treaty of peace 
 with Sweden and Poland, and devoted all 
 his energies to promoting the prosperity of 
 his country. He entered into commercial 
 treaties with England, France, China, and 
 Persia, and so revived the prostrate trade 
 of Russia. In 1639 he pushed the borders 
 of his Asiatic provinces to the Pacific. 
 Michael proved himself a wise and able 
 ruler, and after the conclusion of the wars 
 with Sweden and Poland, succeeded in pre- 
 serving peace for his empire and restoring 
 to a great degree its lost prosperity. He 
 died in 1645. 
 
 Alexis, the eldest son of Michael, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne without opposition. 
 The new czar carried out with great energy 
 his father's policy of civilizing Russia and 
 winning for her a place among the nations 
 of Europe. In 1654 he established his 
 power over the Cossacks of the Don. As 
 this tribe had been subject to Poland, a 
 war with that country ensued, and ended in 
 the restoration to Russia of Tchernigov, 
 Smolensk, Kiev, and the Ukraine. Alexis 
 died in 1676, and was succeeded by his sou 
 Feodor III., who died in 1682. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT 
 TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 The Sons of Feodor UI.—The Princess Sophia- 
 Makes Herself Kegeut— Accession of Peter the 
 Great— Determines to Make Kussia a Great Euro- 
 pean Power— Conquers Azov— Visits the Coun- 
 tries of Western Europe to Learn the Arts of 
 Civilization- Returns to Kussia— Suppresses a 
 Mutiny of the Strelitz— Measures of Peter for the 
 Improvement of his Country— Wars with Sweden 
 — Seizes Ingria and Carelia — St. Petershurg 
 Founded — Wars with Turkey — Loss of Azov — 
 Kapid Advance of Russia under Peter— His Death 
 — Catharine I. — Peter II. Becomes Czar — The 
 Empress Anna — War witli Turkey — Azov Recon- 
 quered — Elizabeth Becomes Empress — The Seven 
 Years' War — Russia Becomes the Ally of Austria 
 — Death of Elizabeth — Peter III. Favors Prussia 
 — Catharine the Great — Her Reign — Relations 
 with Sweden — Kussia Intervenes in Polish Aflkirs 
 —Wars with Turkey— The First Partition of 
 Poland — Russia's Share — Successes Over the 
 Turks— Suwaroii'-Capture of Ismail — Treaty of 
 Jassy— Death of Catharine the Great — Paull. — 
 Kussia Takes Part in the Wars of the French 
 Revolution — Murder of Paul — Alexander I.— His 
 Wars with Napoleon — Treaty of Tilsit^Frieiid- 
 ship of Alexander for Napoleon — The War Re- 
 newed — French Invasion of Russia — Its Disas- 
 trous End — Last Years of Alexander — His Death 
 — Nicholas — War with Turkej- — Polish Revolu- 
 tion of 1830 — It is Crushed — The Crimean War — 
 Death of Nicholas — Alexander II. — Abolition of 
 Serfdom — Alexander's Treatment of Poland — The 
 Insurrection of 1863 — It is Put Down — Poland 
 Absorbed in the Empire — Sale of the Russian 
 American Possessions — Abrogation of the Treaty 
 of Paris — Advance of Russia in the East — Tlie 
 Conquest of Khiva — Insurrection in the Turki&iv 
 Provinces in 1875 — Kussia Resolves to Intervene 
 in Behalf of the Greek Christians — The Bulgarian 
 Massacres — Excitement in Russia — Eflbrts for a 
 Settlement — Russia Prepares for War — The Army 
 Ordered to Take the Field — Russia Declares War 
 Against Turkey — Events of the Campaign in Ar- 
 menia — Fall of Kars — Events of the War in 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 ETER and Ivan, sons of the Czar 
 Alexis, were now crowned sover- 
 eigns of Russia. Ivan was a poor 
 deformed idiot, and was czar only 
 in name. Peter being a mere boy, 
 the regency was held by his sister 
 Sophia, a beautiful and daring woman, 
 who attempted to secure the crown for her- 
 self Her scheme was defeated in 1689 by 
 Peter, who seized the throne and made him- 
 self czar. He was but seventeen years old, 
 tall, rawboued, addicted to sensual pleas- 
 ures and to drunkenness ; but he already 
 gave evidence of the tremendous energy 
 and strength of will which wei-e to make 
 him one of the most remarkable characters 
 of history, and to win him the well-deserved 
 title of " Great." 
 
1022 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Peter I., called " the Great," began his 
 reign with the firm resolve to make Russia 
 one of tlie leading states of Europe. It was 
 already a powerful country, but was cut off 
 
 ment of his single port of Archangel. He 
 believed that to give his country the im- 
 portance she was entitled to in the Euro- 
 pean system she must have a more extended 
 
 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 CATHARINE THE GREAT. 
 
 from all relations with the European states. 
 He forced Poland to give up a considerable 
 amount of Russian territory held by her, 
 and gave great attention to the improve- 
 
 seq,-coast. In 1696 he conquered and an- 
 nexed to his dominions the territory of 
 Azov, which had been held by the Turks. 
 This gave him a footing on the Black Sea, 
 
FBOM REIQN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1023 
 
 aud he resolved to create a fleet which 
 should enable him to hold his conquest and 
 make him the superior of Turkey. 
 
 In order to do this, and to learn the arts 
 of civilization, which he meant to introduce 
 among his people, Peter placed the govern- 
 ment in the hands of an old noble, and 
 travelled into foreign countries to study 
 their institutions and learn the industrial 
 arts by which they had gained their pros- 
 perity. He visited Sweden and Branden- 
 burg, and fixed his residence at Saardam, 
 in Holland, where he Avorked as a common 
 ship-carpenter, receiving his wages every 
 Saturday night, and living in all respects 
 like the other workmen. Thus he learned 
 by actual experience the art of ship-building, 
 aud observed with vigilant eyes the other 
 sources of the prosperity of Holland. Dur- 
 ing this time he kept a close watch over the 
 affairs of Russia, and directed the govern- 
 ment of that country from his laborer's hut 
 in Holland. In 1698 he visited England 
 at the request of William III., by whom he 
 was cordially received ; but instead of giv- 
 ing himself up to court festivities, he passed 
 his time in visiting the dock-yards and per- 
 fecting his knowledge of shipbuilding. He 
 thus prepared himself to be the civilizer of 
 his own country — a noble ambition which 
 goes far to redeem his faults. 
 
 Peter was recalled to Russia in 1698 by 
 the news of an insurrection of the Strelitz. 
 He reached Moscow in September, immedi- 
 ately after the suppression of the revolt by 
 his generals. 7,000 prisoners had been 
 taken, and he caused every man of these to 
 be put to death, beheading many with his 
 own hand. 
 
 Having restored order, the czar began to 
 put in force the measures by which he hoped 
 to bring Russia into direct intercourse with 
 Europe, and to fit her for the position he 
 meant she should assume. He laid aside 
 the old national dress, adopted the costume 
 of western Europe, aud required all the 
 Russians, save the priests and the peasants, 
 to follow his example. He laid a heavy 
 tax upon beards in order to put a stop to 
 their use ; changed the titles of the nobility, 
 and greatly curtailed their powers. He 
 allowed the Bible to be circulated freely 
 within his dominions and granted toleration 
 to all sects. 
 
 Peter was aware that an outlet on the 
 Baltic was indispensable to the success of 
 his plans, and as Sweden, which held the 
 territory between his kingdom and that sea. 
 
 had passed into the hands of the youthful 
 Charles XII., it seemed that no better op- 
 portunity could be desired for the accom- 
 plishment of his designs. He therefore 
 joined the league of Denmark, Poland, and 
 Saxony for the dismemberment of the Swed- 
 ish dominions. Charles, as we have related, 
 astonished his assailants by the vigor and 
 promptness of his resistance. When he had 
 punished Denmark he turned upon the Rus- 
 sian army which was besieging the town of 
 Narva, in the Swedish territory east of the 
 Gulf of Finland. With an inferior force, 
 Charles defeated the Russians on the 30th 
 of November, 1700, and made most of them 
 prisoners, with their baggage aud artillery. 
 Peter was not present on the battle-field, 
 but took to heart the lesson of his defeat. 
 His armies were numerous enough, but 
 they were iindisciplined ; and in order to 
 remedy this defect in them, he sent 20,000 
 of his best troops to serve under the King 
 of Poland, who was the next object of 
 Charles's vengeance. 
 
 The success of Charles in driving Au- 
 gustus II. from the Polish throne and set- 
 ting up Stanislaus, has been related in the 
 history of Sweden. Peter passed the years 
 thus employed by Charles, in improving his 
 army aud navy, and seized the provinces 
 of Ingria and Carelia, which had been 
 wrested from Russia by Sweden in 1612. 
 The possession of this territory gave him a 
 footing on the Baltic, and he was resolved 
 never to relinquish it. In 1704 Dorpat and 
 Narva were captured, and the Russian forces 
 occupied Courland and Lithuania. In the 
 same year Peter, who was confident that he 
 would never be forced to relinquish his con- 
 quests, founded a new city on an island near 
 the junction of the Neva with the Gulf of 
 Finland, and named it St. Petersburg in 
 honor of his patron saint, the Apostle Peter. 
 This city he meant should be the new capi- 
 tal of his empire. For its protection he es- 
 tablished the fortress of Cronstadt at the 
 head of the Gulf of Finland. The sites of 
 both of these places belonged at the time 
 by treaty to Sweden. Upon learning of 
 the treaty of Altraustadt, by Avhich Au- 
 gustus II. accepted the changes in Poland, 
 Peter hastened to Poland and succeeded in 
 inducing the diet to set aside the treaty and 
 declare the Polish throne vacant. 
 
 In 1708 Charles XII. invaded Russia, in- 
 tending to march to Moscow. We have 
 related the story of this invasion and its 
 disastrous end. In 1711, while Charles was 
 
PETEB THE (iKEAX WORKING AS A SUIP-CARPENTER IN HOLLAND. 
 
 1024 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1025 
 
 in Turkey, Peter was induced to invade the 
 province of Moldavia. He suddenly found 
 himself surrounded by a superior Turkish 
 army, and seemed on the point of being 
 ruined. He was rescued from his perilous 
 position by the genius of his wife, the Czar- 
 ina Catharine, and through her peace was 
 made with Turkey. Peter surrendered 
 Azov to the sultan, engaged to withdraw 
 his array Irom Poland, and was permitted 
 to recross the Prutii without further loss. 
 In September, 1721, the war between Rus- 
 sia and Sweden was brought to a close by 
 the peace of Nystadt. By this treaty Rus- 
 sia restored Finland, but kept the Swedish 
 provinces east of the Baltic. 
 
 ST. ISAAC'S PLACE 
 
 Peter had good reason to be proud of his 
 work. In the twenty-one years which had 
 elapsed since the opening of the century he 
 had reorganized and disciplined his army, 
 created a navy, established himself upon 
 the Baltic, and had built a splendid city 
 amid the marshes of the Neva. He had 
 improved the administration of justice, had 
 more than doubled the foreign commerce 
 of Russia, had caused manufactures to 
 spring up in his kingdom, had built roads, 
 dug canals, and introduced the printing 
 press. In a word he had civilized Russia 
 and had placed her in the front rank of the 
 European powers ; and he had done all this 
 by the force of his own genius. The senate 
 65 
 
 and synod in solemn assembly conferred 
 upon him the title of " Emperor of all the 
 Russias," and he was styled by his subjects 
 of all classes, "Peter the Great," a title 
 richly earned. In the next few years Peter 
 extended the border of his empire on the 
 Caspian Sea at the expense of Persia. 
 
 In 1718 Alexis, the eldest son of Peter, 
 who had joined the old Russian party iu 
 opposition to his father's reforms, was de- 
 tected in a conspiracy against the czar, and 
 was put to death. He left a son, three 
 years of age, and a daughter aged four 
 years. In 1725 Peter the Great died. He 
 was succeeded by his widow, the Empress 
 Catharine, who had been crowned during 
 ^ ~^ "^ the life of her 
 
 husband, and 
 who was now sup- 
 ported by the new 
 Russian party. 
 She continued 
 the policy of Pe- 
 ter I., but died in 
 1727, leaving the 
 crown to her 
 grandson Peter 
 II., the son of 
 Alexis. The new 
 czar had married 
 the daughter of 
 jwgWii^i Prince Menschi- 
 koff, the prime 
 f^^^^ minister. Thein- 
 ^:^ solence of this 
 minister soon 
 rendered himodi- 
 ous to his son-in- 
 law, and he was 
 banished to Sibe- 
 ria. 
 
 Peter II. died 
 in 1730, and was succeeded by Anna Ivan- 
 ovua, Duchess of Courland, a niece of 
 Peter the Great. One of her first acts 
 was to make peace with Persia, and to 
 restore the larger part of the territory 
 taken from that country by Peter I. In 
 1735 she began a war against the Tar- 
 tars of the Crimea, and a little later ex- 
 tended the war to the Turkish empire. 
 Miinnich, the Russian commander, recon- 
 quered Azov, and defeated the Turks in a 
 number of engagements. The Emperor of 
 Austria made an alliance with Russia 
 against Turkey in 1737, but the Austrians 
 were unsuccessful, and in 1739 a treaty was 
 made with the Turks to which Russia was 
 
 Pi-TKHSBUKG. 
 
1026 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 obliged to accede. Belgrade, Sabatch, and 
 the Austrian part of Servia were ceded to 
 the sultan. Russia retained Azov, but 
 agreed not to maintain a fleet in the Black 
 Sea. 
 
 In 1739 a revolution placed Elizabeth, 
 the daughter of Peter the Great and Catha- 
 rine, on the Russian throne. She reigned 
 over twenty-two years. She took no part 
 in the war of the Austrian succession, as 
 
 The part played by the Russian armies in 
 this war has been related in the German 
 history of this period, and need not be re- 
 lated here. Fortunately for Frederick the 
 Great, the Empress Elizabeth died in Jan- 
 uary, 1762, and was succeeded by her 
 nephew Peter III., who was friendly to 
 Frederick. The czar now withdrew from 
 the coalition against Prussia, as has been 
 related, and made an alliance with Freder- 
 
 FESTIVAL IN A RUSSIAN VILLAGE. 
 
 she was engaged at home in a war with 
 Sweden, which power, as has been related, 
 attempted to recover its lost territory east 
 of the Baltic. The result of this war was 
 that Sweden was defeated and stripped of 
 her provinces east of the Gulf of Bothnia, 
 which were added to the Russian empire. 
 
 At the opening of the Seven Years' War 
 Russia allied herself with Austria, France, 
 Sweden, and Saxony for the destruction and 
 dismemberment of the Prussian kingdom. 
 
 ick. In a few months he was murdered by 
 order of his wife, the Empress Catharine, 
 who mounted the throne as Catharine II. 
 Catharine refused to continue the alliance 
 with Frederick, and withdrew altogether 
 from the war — a great gain for Frederick. 
 Catharine II., called "the Great," was, 
 next to Peter the Great, the most remarka- 
 ble sovereign of Russia. She was a woman 
 of notoriously dissolute character, and did 
 not hesitate to descend to crime in order to 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1027 
 
 accomplish her objects. Ivau "VI., the true 
 heir to the throne, had been deposed by the 
 Empress Elizabeth in 1741, had since been 
 kept a prisoner, and had been treated with 
 such cruelty that he had become a lunatic. 
 In order to remove him out of her way, 
 Catharine engaged one of her former favor- 
 ites, Mirowitch, who had offended her, in 
 an attempt to release him, and then caused 
 both the prince and Mirowitch to be put 
 to death. 
 
 To her own country Catharine proved a 
 wise and vigorous ruler. She continued 
 the policy of Peter the Great, and devoted 
 herself to the civilization of her empire, and 
 the advancement of it to a leading place 
 among the powers of Europe. The army 
 and navy were kept in a high state of effi- 
 ciency, and the empire was divided for con- 
 venience of administration into a series of 
 "governments," which system is still main- 
 tained. A number of reforms were in- 
 augurated in the civil service, which was 
 made more efficient, aod the influence of 
 Russia abroad was advanced steadily. 
 
 The feeble condition of Sweden gave 
 Catharine an opportunity to seek to extend 
 her influence over that kingdom, and in 
 this she was partially successful until the 
 accession of Gustavus III. to the throne of 
 that country. The re-establishment of the 
 independence of Sweden under this king 
 led to a war with Russia, which was closed 
 by the treaty of Werela, as has been related. 
 A treaty of alliance and friendship was con- 
 cluded between the two countries at Drott- 
 ningholm, and during the remainder of the 
 century the relations between Russia and 
 Sweden were intimate and cordial. 
 
 Poland now engaged the attention of 
 Catharine. We have traced elsewhere the 
 wars of that country from the opening of 
 the century to the accession of Augustus 
 III. in 1733. His title was confirmed by 
 the treaty of Vienna in 1738, and he held 
 undisputed possession of the throne until 
 1763. His death in that year left Poland 
 in a condition of anarchy, an evil which 
 was the direct result of its worthless con- 
 stitution. The crown was contested by two 
 factions, one of which was supported by 
 Russia and Prussia, the other by France. 
 The Russo-Prussian faction was triumphant, 
 and elevated to the throne Stanislaus Po- 
 niatowski, a weak and incompetent prince. 
 As he was an old lover of Catharine, she 
 had no difficulty in making him merely a 
 tool for the furtherance of her own desisrns. 
 
 The situation of Poland was wretched in 
 the extreme. At least two-thirds of the 
 people were serfs ; they were utterly igno- 
 rant and debased ; and their condition was 
 one of abject poverty. They were incapa- 
 ble of holding property, or of earning their 
 bread by any independent labor of their 
 own. They depended for their subsistence 
 on the annual harvests, a failure of which 
 doomed whole districts to starvation. The 
 remainder of the population consisted of the 
 three orders of the nobility, the clergy, 
 lawyers, inhabitants of cities and villages, 
 and Jews. The citizen class consisted 
 mainly of some 40,000 or 50,000 laboring 
 men, who were scattered through the vil- 
 lages and towns. Their condition was but 
 one or two degrees above that of the serfs, 
 and in any other country would have been 
 considered unendurable. The citizens, clergy 
 and Jews were the only classes of the popu- 
 lation subject to taxation, and the burdens 
 laid upon them were heavy indeed. The 
 finances were grossly mismanaged, and the 
 revenue failed to meet the wants of the 
 nation. The nobles were divided into 
 three classes. The first, numbering about 
 120 persons, were the great princes, the 
 heads of the various factions into which the 
 country was divided. The second class 
 numbered about 20,000 or 30,000 persons; 
 and the lower class of nobles numbered 
 about a million. The majority w'ere noble 
 only in name, they were ignorant, misera- 
 bly poor in many cases, idle, and turbulent. 
 The constitution of the kingdom gave them 
 the privilege of opposing with arms, if they 
 saw fit, any distasteful action of the king, 
 and the most insignificant noble could nul- 
 lify any act of the whole diet by the inter- 
 position of his single negative vote. A 
 more impracticable constitution, a more 
 wretched and disunited people can scarcely 
 be imagined. 
 
 Catharine saw in this state of affairs an 
 opportunity for breaking up the Polish 
 kingdom and bringing it under her own 
 vigorous rule. For this purpose she se- 
 cured the election of Stanislaus to the 
 throne. A large part of the Polish popu- 
 lation was Protestant, but the government 
 was Roman Catholic. The Protestants 
 were greatly oppressed by the Catholic 
 party, and Catharine availed herself of the 
 opportunity which this persecution offered 
 to interfere in Polish affairs on the pretext 
 of securing political equality for the Prot- 
 estants. In 1765 the diet, indignant at 
 
1028 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 this interference, re-enacted all the oppres- 
 sive laws against heretics. Stanislaus was 
 unable to oppose this movement, and by 
 yielding to it gave gx'eat offence to Cath- 
 arine. She won over to her interests 
 Prince Charles Radzivil, the leading oppo- 
 nent of Stanislaus in the kingdom, and 
 made him the instrument of her vengeance 
 upon the Polish king. 
 
 Radzivil was liberally supplied with Pus- 
 
 measures was only to deceive his subjects. 
 A confederacy of nobles was formed at Bar 
 at the instigation of France, for the avowed 
 object of dethroning Stanislaus and driving 
 the Russians from Poland. The confed- 
 erates placed an army in the field, and 
 Catharine promptly sent a force to op- 
 pose them under General Suwarof, who in 
 1768 took Cracow and defeated the Con- 
 federates of Bar. 
 
 VIEW OF SEVASTOPOL. 
 
 sian gold, and he succeeded in forming a 
 party among the nobles devoted to himself. 
 It numbered 80,000 men, and, in accord- 
 ance with the custom of the country, as- 
 sumed dictatorial powers. They succeeded 
 in bringing the king so thoroughly under 
 their control that the nation became con- 
 vinced that Stanislaus was merely a tool of 
 Russia, and that his support of the national 
 
 A war now broke out with Turkey, ani.! 
 for a time put a stop to the movement 
 against Poland. The Tartars of the Crimea 
 burst into the southern provinces of Russia 
 and committed terrible ravages. Prince 
 Galitzin was sent against them in 1769, but 
 was unsuccessful. In 1770 Prince Roman- 
 zoff took command of the Russian army 
 and drove back the Turks and Tartars. 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1029 
 
 He quickly made himself master of Mol- 
 davia and Wallachia, and in the same year 
 the Russian fleet, under Alexis OrlofF, de- 
 feated the Turks in a great battle oft" Scio, 
 and burned their fleet in the harbor of 
 Smyrna. Catharine followed up Orlofi"'s 
 success by seeking to free Greece and to 
 establish it as an independent kingdom. 
 Her efforts were premature, and upon the 
 withdrawal of her forces the Greeks were 
 punished with horrible cruelties by the 
 Turks. 
 
 The success of Catharine in dealing with 
 Poland encouraged Austria and Prussia to 
 attempt to obtain each a share of that 
 kingdom at its dismemberment, which they 
 saw was inevitable. In the summer of 1770 
 Austria occupied the county of Zip and the 
 greater part of Gallicia with her troops, 
 and, declaring these provinces reunited to 
 Hungary, placed them under Austrian gov- 
 ernors. The Prussian army occupied Polish 
 Prussia on the pretext of forming a cordon 
 against the plague. 
 
 Russia was so closely engaged with the 
 Turkish war that she was not able to offer 
 any opposition to these movements, and 
 Catharine came to the conclusion that it 
 was better to share her plunder with her 
 powerful neighbors than to quarrel over it 
 with them. In 1772 a treaty was signed 
 between Russia, Austria and Prussia, pro- 
 viding for the partition of a large part of 
 the Polish territories between them. Rus- 
 sia received Polish Livonia and the coun- 
 tries between the upper waters of the 
 Dwina and the Dneiper ; Austria the palat- 
 inate of Gallicia and Lodomiria; Prussia 
 all of Polish Prussia except Dantzic and 
 Thorn, and a large part of Great Poland. 
 The Confederates of Bar having been de- 
 feated, the three powers had no trouble in 
 securing their prizes. An army of 30,000 
 men of the three robber powers advanced 
 into the remaining territories of Poland to 
 overawe the government of that country, 
 and Stanislaus was compelled to summon a 
 diet to confirm the robberies. The other 
 nations of Europe made no effort to save 
 unhappy Poland, and thus one of the 
 greatest wrongs of history was accom- 
 plished without opposition. Poland paid 
 the penalty of her failure to advance with 
 the world around her ; but the nations 
 which plundered her had no just cause of 
 complaint against her or excuse for their 
 action. 
 
 The war between Russia and Turkey 
 
 went on until July, 1774, when it was 
 closed by the peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji. 
 By this treaty the sultan received back 
 Moldavia, Wallachia, Georgia, Mingrelia, 
 and some other provinces, Russia reserving 
 certain rights of interference in their aflJairs. 
 In return for these provinces the sultan 
 acknowledged the independence of the Tar- 
 tars of the region north of the Black Sea. 
 Russia was given the free navigation of the 
 Black Sea and all Turkish waters. This 
 treaty was only a stepping-stone to Cath- 
 arine's real design. Fi'equent controversies 
 occurred respecting the independence of the 
 Tartars, and in 1783 Russia ended them 
 by seizing the Crimea and Little Tar- 
 tary and annexing them to her empire. 
 The people rose in resistance to this annex- 
 ation, but were crushed l)y the military 
 force of Russia. In this revolt 30,000 
 Tartars perished. 
 
 In 1787 a new war broke out between 
 Russia and Turkey, the sultan taking the 
 initiative by attacking the fortress of Kin- 
 burn, on the Black Sea, in September. 
 The attack was repulsed. In June, 1788, 
 a great battle was fought between the Rus- 
 sian and Turkish fleets near Oczakoff, in 
 which the Turkish fleet was almost en- 
 tirely destroyed. Oczakoff* was besieged by 
 the Russian array under Prince Potemkin, 
 and was carried by assault after a siege of 
 six months. The loss of life upon this oc- 
 casion was frightful. 
 
 The Emperor Joseph II. now declared 
 war against the sultan as the ally of Russia, 
 but his efforts were so unsuccessful that he 
 soon withdrew from active participation in 
 the struggle. Sweden attacked Russia, in 
 support of her old ally, the sultan, and the 
 Russian fleet, which was about to sail for 
 the Mediterranean, was retained in the 
 Baltic to meet this new danger. Denmark, 
 as the ally of Russia, prepared to invade 
 Sweden, but was compelled, by the inter- 
 vention of England, Holland, and Prussia, 
 to remain neutral. Prussia now took up 
 the cause of Turkey and attacked Russia. 
 In spite of these eff'orts of the great powers 
 in his behalf, the sultan lost ground stead- 
 ily, and fortress after fortress was taken 
 from him by the Russians. In 1790 the 
 internal affairs of Austria compelled her 
 to withdraw from the war. She made 
 peace with Prussia by the convention of 
 Reichenbach in June, 1790, and with 
 Turkey by the treaty of Sistova in August, 
 1791. 
 
CATHARINE THE GREAT AT THE HEAD OF HER ARMY. 
 
 1030 
 
FBOM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1031 
 
 In the campaigu of 1790 the Russian 
 forces won a number of brilliant successes. 
 The most important of these were the 
 storming and capture of the strong fortress 
 of Ismail by the Russian army under 
 Suwarof, and the annihilation of the 
 Turkish fleet near Sevastopol in the Black 
 Sea. These successes were almost matched 
 by those won during the summer of 1789. 
 Prussia and Great Britain, alarmed for the 
 fate of Turkey, and fearing lest Russia 
 should become mistress of Constantinople, 
 interfered with energy to compel Russia to 
 make peace. The treaty of Jassy closed 
 the war in January, 1792. By the terms 
 of this treaty the Russian frontier was ad- 
 vanced to the Dneister, which was made 
 the boundary between the two empires. 
 
 Catharine the Great died on the 7th of 
 November, 1796, and Avas succeeded by her 
 son Paul I. He was an eccentric and half- 
 crazy person, and under his weak and va- 
 cillating rule Russia paused in her forward 
 career, and her affairs would have fallen 
 into confusion had they not been to a great 
 degree still administered by the men ap- 
 pointed by Catharine. For some time 
 Paul I. held aloof from European affairs. 
 Upon the execution of Louis XVI. Catha- 
 rine had joined the coalition against France, 
 and in 1798 the Emperor Paul became a 
 party to the second coalition, consisting of 
 Russia, Great Britain, Austria, the Two 
 Sicilies, and Turkey. A Russian army 
 under Suwarof was sent into Italy to aid 
 in the expulsion of the French. Its ex- 
 ploits have been already related. Had not 
 Suwarof, who was given the command of 
 the allied forces, been hampered by the 
 orders of the Aulic Council at Vienna, he 
 would most likely have crushed Moreau. 
 In 1799 a second Russian army under 
 Korsakoff" was sent into Switzerland, into 
 which country Suwarof tnoved to co operate 
 with it. Korsakoff" was defeated by Mas- 
 sena, as related, aud Suwarof was obliged to 
 make his way back into Russia after a se- 
 vere defeat. 
 
 Tiie close of the eighteenth century saw 
 Russia on the high road to civilization and 
 material wealth, and firmly established as 
 one of the leading powers of Europe. The 
 opening of the century had found her with 
 but a single port — that of Archangel ; its 
 close saw her the mistress of the eastern 
 shore of the Baltic, and of the northern 
 shore of the Black Sea. At the opening of 
 the century she had scarcely a single war 
 
 vessel ; at its close she was a strong naval 
 power, with fleets in the Baltic and Black 
 Seas, and her naval annals had been adorned 
 by a number of brilliant victories. 
 
 The defeat of his armies in Italy and 
 Switzerland caused the Emperor Paul to 
 withdraw from the coalition against Napo- 
 leon. He constituted himself Grand-Master 
 of the Knights of St. John, and demanded 
 the surrender of Malta to that order by 
 England. In December, 1800, he revived 
 the armed neutrality of 1780 by a coalition 
 of Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia, 
 in defence of the rights of neutrals. Paul 
 I. was a madman, and under him Russia 
 could hardly be said to have any definite 
 policy. His mad and reckless acts arrayed 
 a powerful body of Russian nobles against 
 him, and on the 23d of March, 1801, he was 
 murdered by them. 
 
 Alexander I., Paul's eldest son, a prom- 
 ising young man of twenty-five, became 
 czar by the death of his father. He re- 
 mained at peace with France until 1805, 
 when he yielded to the persuasions of Eng- 
 land, and joined the alliance of Austria 
 and Great Britain against France. The 
 victory of Napoleon over the Austro-Rus- 
 sian army at Austerlitz compelled the czar 
 to withdraw into his own dominions. After 
 the battle of Jena and the conquest of 
 Prussia, Napoleon advanced against the 
 Russians, and attacked them at Eyleau on 
 the 8th of February, 1807. He was unsuc- 
 cessful, but won a great victory over them 
 at Friedland on the 14th of May. 
 
 The czar now asked for peace, and an 
 interview was held between the two sover- 
 eigns on a raft moored in the Nieraen at 
 Tilsit. The terms of the treaty negotiated 
 here have been related in the French his- 
 tory of this period. Alexander was greatly 
 won by the bi-illiant qualities of Napoleon, 
 and from an enemy became a friend to 
 France. The two emperors hoped to share 
 the European continent between them, and 
 Alexander w^as confident of ultimately ob- 
 taining the assistance of France in his 
 eflTorts to carry out the traditional policy 
 of his house of driving the Turks out of 
 Europe. 
 
 For six years Russia and France re- 
 mained at peace with each other, and during 
 this time Russia became involved in a war 
 with Sweden, and wrested all of Finland 
 from her in 1808. This contest was fol- 
 lowed by a war with Turkey, by which the 
 Russian frontier was advanced to the mouth 
 
1032 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1033 
 
 of the Danube. At the same time a war with 
 Persia broke out, and was prosecuted suc- 
 cessfully. Persia was compelled to sur- 
 render to Russia a considerable area of her 
 territory lying between the Black and the 
 Caspian Seas. 
 
 The determination of Napoleon to en- 
 force his continental system without regard 
 to the interests of other nations, and his 
 disregard of the rights of the other princes 
 of Europe, at length broke up, as we have 
 seen, the friendship between France and 
 Russia. A series of bitter disputes grew 
 out of the acts of the French emperor, and 
 at length the unjust seizure of Swedish 
 Pomerania by Napoleon induced Alexander 
 in 1812 to answer the appeal of Sweden by 
 a declaration of war against France. We 
 have related the events of the invasion of 
 Russia by Napoleon, his disastrous retreat, 
 and the part taken by Russia in the over- 
 throw of the French emperor, and need not 
 repeat them here. In the arrangement of 
 the general peace which followed the fall 
 of Napoleon, the influence of Russia was 
 all-powerful, and was cast in favor of the 
 restoration of absolute rule throughout 
 Europe. At the instance of the czar, the 
 league known as the " Holy Alliance" was 
 organized by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
 to prevent any change in the iniquitous 
 settlement arranged by the Congress of Vi- 
 enna. The czar was a great gainer by this 
 settlement. The grand duchy of Warsaw, 
 which had been formed by Napoleon out 
 of the Polish provinces of Prussia, and to 
 which he had added the Polish territory 
 gained by Austria in the last partition, was 
 taken from the King of Saxony, upon 
 whom Napoleon had bestowed it. The 
 grand duchy of Posen was restored to Prus- 
 sia, and the remainder was erected into the 
 kingdom of Poland. This kingdom was 
 given an independent constitution, and was 
 annexed to Russia as a separate state under 
 the rule of the czar. 
 
 Alexander was greatly annoyed during 
 his latter years by the plots of conspirators 
 who wished to introduce a more liberal sys- 
 tem into Russia. He died during a visit 
 to the Crimea, on the 1st of December, 
 1825, at the early age of forty-nine. 
 
 Immediately upon the death of Alexan- 
 der, the Grand Duke Constantine, the sec- 
 ond son of the Czar Paul I., and the legal 
 successor of his brother Alexander, de- 
 spatched his younger brother Michael from 
 Warsaw to his brother, the Grand Duke 
 
 Nicholas, with a letter containing a formal 
 confirmation of the act of 1822, by which 
 Constantine had resigned his claims to the 
 throne in favor of Nicholas. Nicholas was 
 at once proclaimed emperor, and an insur- 
 rection immediately broke out at St. Peters- 
 burg, caused by the popular fear that Con- 
 stantine had been unjustly excluded from 
 his rightful inheritance. Nicholas placed 
 himself at the head of his troops, and in a 
 few hours crushed the outbreak and restored 
 order. On the 24th of December, 1825, he 
 was crowned Czar of all the Russias. The 
 new czar was a strikingly handsome man, 
 and was during his life the chief strength 
 of absolutism in Europe. 
 
 In 1828 a war broke out between Russia 
 and Turkey, by which Russia gained some 
 advantages at the mouth of the Danube, 
 and compelled Turkey to make some con- 
 cessions to her Christian subjects. 
 
 The union of Poland with Russia was 
 but a prelude to the destruction of the in- 
 dependence of the latter country. The 
 rights of Poland were treated with but little 
 consideration by the gigantic despotism to 
 which she was attached, and the Grand 
 Duke Constantine, who administered the 
 Polish government for his brothers Alex- 
 ander and Nicholas, treated the Poles with 
 such harshness that their patience was at 
 length exhausted. In November, 1830, the 
 Poles rose in insurrection, and were joined 
 by the Polish regiments in the Russian 
 army and by many of the great nobles. 
 Prince Adam Czartoryski, who was de- 
 scended from the ancient Dukes of Lithu- 
 ania, led the movement, and was to be 
 made king in the event of the success of the 
 revolt. In the hope of conciliating the 
 great powers of Europe, it was resolved to 
 establish a constitutional and hereditary 
 monarchy. The struggle lasted several 
 months, and was maintained by the Poles 
 with a heroism which won them the admi- 
 ration of the world. It was in vain, how- 
 ever. The overwhelming power of Russia 
 was fatal to the Polish cause. The revolt 
 was crushed with great cruelty, the king- 
 dom of Poland was declared at an end, and 
 the country became a mere province of the 
 Russian empire. The czar then proceeded 
 to punish the Poles with terrible severity. 
 Eighty thousand Poles, of both sexes, were 
 exiled to Siberia in a single year. Children 
 of insurgent parents were seized and sent to 
 military colonies. The Polish troops were 
 enrolled in the Russian regiments ; the Ro- 
 
1034 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 man Catholic religion, -which was the na- 
 tional faith of Poland, was replaced by the 
 Greek Church of Russia ; the University of 
 Warsaw was destroyed ; the national ar- 
 chives, the libraries, and scientific collec- 
 tions were conveyed to St. Petersburg, and 
 every effort was made to blot out the na- 
 tional existence of Poland. 
 
 In 1839 Russia aided Turkey to stay the 
 progress of Mehemet Ali, the enterprising 
 Viceroy of Egypt, and his son Ibrahim 
 Pasha, Avho had overrun Syria, and were 
 
 render of the Hungarian leaders who had 
 escaped into the Turkish territory ; but the 
 demand was refused by the sultan. 
 
 In 1851 difficulties began to occur be- 
 tween the Greek Christians of Syria and 
 the government of the sultan. In that 
 country the Greek clergy had long enjoyed 
 great monopolies, and had had precedence 
 over the Latin Christians. Nicholas, who 
 had long meditated the design of destroying 
 the Turkish power in Europe and adding 
 its dominions to his own empire, determined 
 
 SWEABOKG. 
 
 threatening the European possessions of 
 Turkey. It did not suit the interests of 
 Russia that a more vigorous government 
 sliDuld be set up in Constantinople. 
 
 The Revolution of 1848 greatly alarmed 
 the Emperor Nicholas, who recognized it as 
 the death-knell of European despotism. He 
 readily granted the request of Austria for 
 aid against her revolted Hungarian sub- 
 jects, and, as we have seen, sent a powerful 
 army into Hungary in 1849, and crushed 
 the revolt. He then demanded the sur- 
 
 to make these troubles the occasion of in- 
 tervening in the affairs of Turkey in such a 
 manner as to give him a paramount influ- 
 ence in the Ottoman empire. Fortunately 
 for Turkey, the English ambassador, Lord 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, a statesman of un- 
 usual ability, penetrated the designs of the 
 czar, and exerted himself to prevent a rup- 
 ture between the two powers. He was 
 successful, and the trouble was settled for 
 a while. 
 
 In 1853 Nicholas renewed his interfer- 
 
FBOM BEIQN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1035 
 
 ence in Turkish affairs, and this time made 
 secret proposals to Great Britain to join 
 him in sharing the spoils of the "sick 
 man " of Turkey. His proposal was firmly 
 declined by Great Britain, but, undismayed 
 by this, the czar made such extravagant 
 demands of the sultan that had they been 
 granted, the Emperor of Russia would have 
 become the real sovereign of the Greek 
 Christians throughout the Turkish empire. 
 These constituted a large majority of the 
 people of European Turkey, and Nicholas 
 
 bian provinces by a Russian army. Great 
 Britain and France then made an alliance 
 with Turkey, and declared war against 
 Russia. The events of the Crimean war 
 are related in our account of the French 
 history of this period, to which the reader 
 is referred. The heroic defence of Sevasto- 
 pol could not atone for the disasters of the 
 war, under the weight of which the Em- 
 peror Nicholas sank. On the 2d of March, 
 1855, he died suddenly in the fifty-ninth 
 year of his age. 
 
 SEVASTOPOL DUKING TXiE BOMBARDMENT. 
 
 was aware that if he could once establish 
 his authority over them, they would render 
 him a hearty support in his designs against 
 the porte. The Turkish government Avas 
 greatly alarmed by this demand, which was 
 made in a most insulting manner, and but 
 for the encouragement of Lord Stratford de 
 RedclifFe, who induced the porte to resist 
 and assured it of the support of Great Brit- 
 ain, the sultan would have yielded. The 
 refusal of the Russian demand by Turkey 
 was followed by an invasion of tlie Danu- 
 
 Alexander II., the eldest son of Nicholas, 
 succeeded his father on the throne, and still 
 occupies it. Towards the close of the year, 
 Sevastopol having fallen, negotiations for 
 peace were begun, and on the 30th of 
 March, 1856, the war was brought to an 
 end by the treaty of Paris. The terms of 
 this treaty have been stated in our account 
 of the Crimean war. 
 
 Alexander II. pursued a different course 
 from that of his father. He began his 
 reign with the determination to complete 
 
1036 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the work of civilization commenced in 
 Russia by Peter the Great, and his efforts 
 were given entirely to the reform of the old 
 Russian system. In these efforts he had to 
 encounter the opposition of the old Russian 
 or conservative party, but he persevered, 
 and under him Russia entered upon a new 
 period of her career. The principal event 
 of his reign was the abolition of serfdom or 
 white slavery in the Russian dominions, 
 which was begun in 1858, and completed in 
 1863, by which 20,000,000 of serfs were 
 released from bondage. The emperor stead- 
 fastly encouraged the freed serfs to acquire 
 property, aided them in doing so, and en- 
 deavored to establish a system of schools 
 among them which he hoped would in time 
 change their character for the better, and 
 give to Russia an intelligent and industrious 
 peasantry in the place of the former de- 
 graded and discontented slaves. 
 
 Another wise reform of Alexander was 
 the admission of the Jews to civil privileges 
 and equality before the law in 1862. 
 
 The czar did not sympathize with the 
 harsh measures of which Poland had been 
 the victim during his father's reign, and 
 was anxious to embrace that province in 
 his reforms. la 1861 and 1862 he in- 
 augurated a number of reforms in Poland, 
 and might in time have rendered that prov- 
 ince satisfied with Russian rule ; but the 
 cruelty with which Nicholas had treated 
 them had made the Poles distrustful of his 
 son, and the discontent increased instead 
 of diminishing. Alexander, alarmed at 
 this, put a stop to his reforms and resorted 
 to severe repressive measures. In January, 
 1863, an attempt was made to enroll the 
 able-bodied Poles in the Russian army, in 
 order to prevent them from taking part in 
 the outbreak which seemed imminent. 
 This harsh measure brought on the strug- 
 gle it was intended to prevent. War broke 
 out at once. The insurrection was directed 
 by a secret government at Warsaw, which 
 managed to elude all the efforts of the 
 Russians for its discovery. Its orders were 
 obeyed unhesitatingly by the Poles, who 
 were cheered in their eflbrts for freedom by 
 the sympathy of the civilized world. In 
 February, 1863, an agreement was entered 
 into between Russia and Prussia, by which 
 the latter power agreed to assist in the 
 suppression of the revolt. The outbreak 
 was put down after a gallant resistance in 
 the course of a few months, France en- 
 deavored to obtain for the Poles a mitiga- 
 
 tion of their hard lot, but Russia refused to 
 allow any interference on their behalf, and 
 adopted the most severe measures in the 
 settlement of the trouble. In 1864, 1865, 
 and 1866 these measures were put in force. 
 The use of the Polish language was forbid- 
 den in the schools of that country, and 
 Russian was substituted in its place. Rus- 
 sia was resolved that the very name of 
 Poland should be blotted from the map, 
 and in 1868 Poland ceased to exist and 
 was entirely absorbed in the empire. 
 
 In 1867 Russia sold her American pos- 
 sessions to the United States. 
 
 Russia remained neutral in the war be- 
 tween France and Germany in 1870, but 
 availed herself of the crippled condition of 
 France to demand of the great powers a 
 modification of the treaty of Paris of 1856, 
 by which Russia was forbidden to establish 
 military or naval depots on the Black Sea, 
 or to keep a fleet iu those waters. She 
 pressed her demand with firmness, as we 
 have related in the History of Turkey, and 
 in 1871 the treaty of Paris was abrogated 
 by a conference of the great powers at 
 London. Thus one of the losses entailed 
 upon Russia by the Crimean war was re- 
 paired. 
 
 Since the destruction of the Tartar power 
 by the Czars of Moscow Russia has steadily 
 pushed her conquests eastward. At first 
 her object was vengeance upon the people 
 that had so long held her in subjection, and 
 the increase of her territory. Later on 
 these conquests became necessary in order 
 to provide a market for the manufactures 
 of Russia, which, being of a very inferior 
 quality, had no sale in Europe. The 
 steppes or prairies which lay between the 
 Ural and the Irtish were inhabited by 
 small tribes of wandering Kirghiz. These 
 tribes, when at peace among themselves, 
 united in attacking the Russian frontier, 
 and compelled Russia to push them back 
 into the interior of the steppes. For two 
 centuries this irregular warfare went on ; 
 but at length, in the reign of the Czar 
 Nicholas, the steppes beyond the Ural be- 
 came Russian territory, and some outpost 
 settlements were established, not only on 
 the steppes, but beyond them on the banks 
 of the Sir Darya. The most important of 
 these was Fort Perovsky, on the shore of 
 the Sea of Aral. Under its protection 
 Russia was enabled to launch two steamers 
 on the Sea of Aral, and to navigate not 
 only that sea, but a part of the Sir Darya» 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1037 
 
 These advances were steadfastly opposed by 
 the Khan of Khokan and the Emir of 
 Bokhara, whose united forces repeatedly 
 attacked the most advanced of the Russian 
 outposts. In order to strengthen its posi- 
 tion and put a stop to these attacks, the 
 Russian government determined to construct 
 a new line of outposts along the Sir Darya 
 to the foot of the Thian-shan mountains 
 and the Lake of Issik-kul. The Crimean 
 war prevented the execution of this meas- 
 ure, but it was resumed in 1860, when 
 Forts Viernoye and Kastek were con- 
 structed at the foot of the Thian-shan 
 range. In 1863 two strong detachments 
 were pushed forward farther into central 
 Asia, and the Khokan fortresses of Pishpek 
 and Tokraak and Yeni Kurgan were occu- 
 pied. In June, 1864, the detachment 
 under Colonel Verefkin took Hazret-i- 
 Turkestan ; and about the same time the 
 western detachment under Colonel Tcher- 
 niayeff captured the fort of Auliet. In 
 October the united detachments, under 
 Colonel Tcherniayeff, entered Tchemkend. 
 Russia had now pushed her conquests as 
 far eastward as she intended for the present, 
 and the Russian commander had orders to 
 rest satisfied with what he had accom- 
 plished, and to secure the territory already 
 occupied. This was rendered impossible, 
 however, by the conduct of the Khans of 
 Bokhara and Khokan, and, at a later 
 period, of Khiva. These potentates, 
 alarmed by the proximity of the Russian 
 outposts to their dominions, commenced a 
 series of formidable attacks upon these out- 
 posts, which compelled the Russian com- 
 manders, for their own safety, to push their 
 advance farther eastward, and finally re- 
 sulted in the conquest of the territories of 
 the khans. In 1865 Tashkend was taken 
 by the Russians, and Khojend fell into 
 their hands in 1866. General Kaufmann, 
 in 1868, captured Samarcand, and in 1873 
 defeated the Khan of Khiva and overran a 
 large part of his dominions. In September, 
 1875, he inflicted a second defeat upon the 
 Khan of Khiva and took the city of Kho- 
 kan. The Khan of Khiva was compelled 
 to cede to Russia the entire eastern coast 
 of the Caspian Sea, an important military 
 gain for Russia, since it enabled her to main- 
 tain constant and uninterrupted communi- 
 cation with her advanced positions by 
 river, rail, and sea from St. Petersburg. 
 Early in the year 1876 the conquest of 
 Khokan was completed by the Russian 
 
 forces, and the territory of that khannate 
 was annexed to Russia by an imperial de- 
 cree, and organized as a Russian province 
 under the name of the province of Fer- 
 ghana. By this annexation Russia gained 
 an addition of 28,270 square miles to her 
 territory, and 960,000 souls to her popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Since the period of the Crimean war the 
 Greek Christians of the Danubian prov- 
 inces of Turkey had regarded Russia as a 
 sort of protector of their religious rights, 
 and the Russian people had felt the keen- 
 est sympathy for them. It was natural, 
 therefore, when the people of Herzegovina 
 rose iu revolt against the tyranny of the 
 Turks in tiie summer of 1875, that the 
 sympathy of the Russian people should be 
 outspoken and intense. The barbarity 
 with which the Turks sought to put down 
 this outbreak but inci'eased this feeling, 
 and the government was compelled to take 
 decisive steps to restrain it within proper 
 boundaries. The czar, as we have seen in 
 our account of the History of Turkey, 
 joined cordially in the efforts that were 
 made to secure peace and protect the rights 
 of the Christian subjects of Turkey. His 
 government united in the Andrassy and 
 Berlin notes, and by repeated warnings 
 through its minister at Constantinople en- 
 deavored to bring about the desired result, 
 but was at every step met and baffled by 
 the obstinacy of the porte. Russia ear- 
 nestly sought to induce the European 
 powers to make common cause in compel- 
 ling the porte to grant the reforms de- 
 manded not only by the best interests of 
 the Ottoman empire, but by the simplest 
 dictates of justice ancl humanity, but at the 
 same time declared her intention to act in- 
 dependently of the powers if necessary. 
 The steps taken by Russia and the other 
 powers in this connection have been related 
 in our account of the Turkish history of 
 this period, and need not be repeated here. 
 
 The Bulgarian massacres sent a thrill of 
 horror and indignation throughout Europe, 
 and from all quarters of the Russian em- 
 pire there was an outspoken demand that 
 the czar should actively intervene in be- 
 half of the suffering Christians. The gov- 
 ernment firmly resisted this pressure upon 
 it, and even went to the length of suppres- 
 sing several newspapers which had become 
 noted for their extreme utterances. The 
 popular sentiment was too strong to be 
 silenced, however, and the government was 
 
1058 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 compelled to abandon its prosecution of the 
 press. The agitation in Russia became so 
 violent that the government was obliged to 
 consent to the enlistment of large numbers 
 of officers and volunteers in the Servian 
 army. This it did on condition that they 
 should quit the Russian service. 
 
 In September, 1876, the czar visited the 
 Crimea, where he remained two months. 
 During this period he gave orders for 
 strengthening the fortifications of the 
 Crimean coast, from Sevastopol to Kertch, 
 and for the establishment of additional 
 
 ALEXANDER II. 
 
 posts. On his return from the Crimea the 
 czar made a brief visit to Moscow. While 
 there he was waited upon by a deputation 
 of citizens, and to their address made the 
 following reply : 
 
 " I thank you for your sentiments re- 
 specting the political situation, which is 
 now more clearly defined than before. You 
 know that Turkey has yielded to my de- 
 mand for an immediate armistice, to end 
 the useless slaughter in Servia and Monte- 
 negro. In this unequal struggle the Mon- 
 tenegrins, as heretofore, have shown them- 
 selves real heroes. Unfortunately the 
 
 same cannot be said of the Servians, not- 
 withstanding the assistance of our volun- 
 teers, many of whom shed their blood for 
 the Slavonic cause. I know that all Russia 
 joins me in warmly sympathizing in the 
 sufferings of our brethren and co-religion- 
 ists. The true interests of Russia are, how- 
 ever, dearer to me than all. My wish to 
 the uttermost is to spare Russian blood. 
 Therefore I have striven, and will strive, to 
 obtain a real improvement of the position 
 of the Christians by peaceful means. In a 
 few days negotiations will commence at 
 Constantinople. My 
 most ardent wish is that 
 we may arrive at a gen- 
 eral agreement. Should 
 this, however, not be 
 achieved, and should I 
 see that we cannot ob- 
 tain guarantees necessary 
 for carrying out what we 
 intend to demand from 
 the porte, I am firmly 
 determined to act inde- 
 pendently. I am con- 
 vinced that the whole of 
 Russia will respond to 
 my summons should I 
 g^ consider it necessary and 
 Russia's honor require 
 it. Moscow will lead 
 the van by its example. 
 May God help us to 
 carry out our sacred mis- 
 sion." 
 
 This speech was re- 
 ceived with enthusiasm 
 throughout Russia. 
 Town councils, diets, 
 trade associations, mer- 
 chants' guilds, the clergy 
 — all classes, declared 
 their readiness to sup- 
 port the czar in any measures he might 
 deem necessary for the honor of the coun- 
 try and the welfare of their co-religionists. 
 The speech was also regarded throughout 
 Europe as deeply significant, and was 
 looked upon as a reply to the threat of the 
 British government, which we have related 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Though sincerely anxious for peace, the 
 czar was convinced that war with Turkey 
 was inevitable, and early in November 
 issued orders for the mobilization of the 
 army, and appointing a day for calling re- 
 cruits from all parts of the empire, except 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1039 
 
 Siberia, Archangel, and Orenburg. Six 
 army corps were ordered to assemble iu the 
 provinces of Odessa, Kharkov, and Kiev, 
 the region nearest the Turkish frontier. 
 At the same time Prince Gortchakoff, the 
 Russian prime minister, in a circular ad- 
 dressed to the Russian representatives at 
 foreign courts, explained the policy of his 
 government. " The czar," he said, " does 
 not wish war, and will, if possible, avoid it. 
 He is, however, determined that the prin- 
 ciples of justice which have been recognized 
 by the whole of Europe shall be carried out 
 in Turkey under efficacious guarantees." 
 The czar, while pressing his military prep- 
 arations with energy, did not relax his 
 
 preserve peace having failed through the 
 obstinacy of the porte, the czar, on the 
 24th of April, 1877, declared war against 
 Turkey, and ordered his armies to cross 
 the frontier. This order was issued from 
 Kischenev, to which place the emperor had 
 repaired in order to be with his troops in 
 the advance into Turkey. 
 
 In commencing the war with Turkey 
 Russia had to rely entirely upon her own 
 military and financial resources for its 
 prosecution. It will be well to glance at 
 these for a moment. The United Service 
 Magazine, at the beginning of 1877, stated 
 the actual strength of the Russian army as 
 follows : 
 
 COSSACKS AT RIFLE PKACTICE. 
 
 efforts to secure peace. These efforts, up to 
 the failure of the conference at Constanti- 
 nople, and the rejection of the protocol by 
 the porte, have been related in our History 
 of Turkey. 
 
 In the meantime the concentration of 
 troops on the Turkish European frontier 
 was carried on with energy. The head- 
 quarters of this army were established at 
 Kischenev, and the command was con- 
 ferred upon the Grand Duke Nicholas, the 
 brother of the czar. Another force was 
 concentrated on the frontier of Armenia, 
 and placed under the command of the 
 Grand Duke Michael, another brother of 
 the czar. The head-quarters of this army 
 were at Tiflis, in Georgia. All efforts to 
 
 Infantry, 682 battalions 679,000 
 
 Reserve, 168 " 168,000 
 
 Cavalry, 932 regiments 126,000 
 
 Artillery, 346 batteries, 2,672 pieces.... 87,000 
 
 Sappers, engineers, etc., 17 battalions. 14,340 
 
 Total 1,074,340 
 
 To these must be added, at least, for 
 
 Cossack irregulars 100,000 
 
 Total 1,174,340 
 
 By calling out the reserves this force 
 could be increased to two millions of men. 
 Of course, of the number given above, 
 large bodies were needed in the various 
 provinces of the empire, especially in the 
 disaffected districts, such as Poland, the 
 Caucasus, etc., for garrison and police duty. 
 This left between 500,000 and 600,000 for 
 
1040 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 active service in the war. The array was 
 well disciplined and clothed, and was 
 armed with breech-loading rifles. 
 
 Having been forbidden by the treaty of 
 Paris to maintain a naval force in the 
 Black Sea, Russia was not able to under- 
 take any operations in that sea. Her naval 
 stations were confined to the Baltic, the 
 White and Cas{)ian Seas. In March, 1876, 
 her navy numbered seventy-seven vessels, 
 of which twenty-five were iron-clads. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1876, the public 
 debt of Russia was 2,515,893,480 roubles, 
 or $1,852,208,915. Since then the Russian 
 government has negotiated two loans — one 
 a foreign loan uncertain in amount, theother 
 a home loan amounting to $54,750,000. 
 
 The Turkish army was undergoing the 
 process of reorganization at the time of the 
 breaking out of the war. It consists of 
 720,000 men, divided into a regular army 
 of 220,000 men ; a first reserve of 80,000 
 men, a second reserve, and a sedentary 
 army corresponding to the German Land- 
 sturm. There is also an irregular force of 
 about 50,000 men, consisting of the gens- 
 darmes, Bashi-Bazouks, Spahis, Bedawin, 
 and other volunteer corps. The provinces 
 and tributary states furnish about 80,000 
 men. Deducting the forces required for 
 home duty, Turkey was not able to bring 
 into the field at the outset of the war more 
 than 400,000 men. These were poorly clad 
 and fed, but were armed with the American 
 breech-loading rifle, and the artillery con- 
 sisted largely of the Krupp breech-loading 
 steel gun. 
 
 The Turkish navy was greatly superior to 
 that of Russia. It consisted of 150 steam- 
 ers, twenty of which were iron-clads, seven 
 of the latter being frigates. Having com- 
 mand of the Black Sea through this navy, 
 the Turks enjoyed a very decided advantage 
 over their adversaries along its shores. 
 
 The finances of Turkey were, as we have 
 seen, in a hopelessly bad condition. The 
 national debt exceeded $1,075,000,000, of 
 which between seven and eight hundred 
 millions were held in Great Britain. On 
 this debt the porte stopped paying interest, 
 as we have stated, in October, 1875. The 
 sultan had the power to increase his re- 
 sources by proclaiming the struggle a holy 
 war, and calling upon the mosques to con- 
 tribute towards its support. The treasures 
 of the Kaaba at Mecca alone are estimated 
 at over fifty millions of dollars. 
 
 The task before the Russian commanders 
 at the opening of the war was one of ex- 
 
 traordinary magnitude. The Turkish em- 
 pire was to be invaded from two quarters — ■ 
 from the line of the Danube, in Eu- 
 rope, and from the Caucasus, in Asia 
 Minor. The two invasions were to support 
 each other as near as possible. We shall 
 call the attention of the reader first to the 
 events of the war in Asia Minor. 
 
 The army of the Caucasus, under the 
 Grand Duke Michael, numbered about 
 150,000 men, and 168 guns, and was posted 
 along the frontier of Armenia from Tiflis 
 to Erivan. The country in which it was to 
 operate is mountainous. "It will only be 
 practicable to give a clear idea of its main 
 features, so that the general movements of 
 the campaign may be understood. From 
 a point on the Black Sea, south of Poti, 
 commences a range which extends a little 
 south of east to the vicinity of Akhaltzik, 
 and thence keeps on northeast until it 
 unites with the main Caucasus range at 
 Mount Velicti. The principal river of the 
 basin thus formed is the Rion, which emp- 
 ties into the Black Sea at or very near Poti, 
 where the railway to Tiflis commences, and 
 extends up the valley of the river, crossing 
 the range just described near a little place 
 called Suram. Kutais is the principal 
 town in this basin, and is on a branch of 
 the Rion. North of the latter is the Ingour 
 river, and still farther north the Kodor. . . . 
 Near where the range last described turns 
 to the northeast in the vicinity of Akhaltzik, 
 and separated from it by the valley of the 
 Kur, the Allaghez range commences, and 
 extends southeast to the Blue lake and be- 
 yond, uniting finally with the Ararat chain 
 south of the Araxes. Between the Cau- 
 casus range and that of Allaghez is the 
 great valley of the Kur, in which Tiflis is 
 situated. . . . The chain of Ararat begins 
 on the Black Sea, near Fort St. Nicholas, 
 and extends nearly east until it reaches a 
 point some twenty miles west of Akhaltzik, 
 and thus far its crest forms the boundary 
 line between Russia and Turkey. Thence 
 the range turns south until it reaches a 
 point some forty miles south of Erzeroum, 
 where it turns nearly northeast to the vi- 
 cinity of Kagazmin, thence south of east 
 to Mount Ararat, Avhence it follows the 
 right bank of the Araxes for some dis- 
 tance, and then on to the Caspian. The 
 region between the Allaghez and Ararat 
 ranges, together with the western and 
 southern slopes of the latter, make up 
 the theatre of the operations now in 
 progress." 
 
FEOM RE ION OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME 1041 
 
 The roads of this region are of the high- 
 est importance, and a knowledge of them 
 is necessary to a correct understanding of 
 the events of the campaign. We quote 
 from the description of General McClellan, 
 from which the extracts given above are 
 taken : " The coast-road from Fort St. 
 Nicholas to Baton m is practicable for 
 wagons ; beyond that point to Trebizonde 
 it is a mere path. The road from Akbal- 
 tzik to Ai'dahan, sixty-five miles, winds 
 through gently undulating and wooded 
 hills until the Ulgar Pass is reached, about 
 half-way to Ardahan ; here there is a steep 
 
 responding part of the Ararat range and 
 spurs. These passes, and the mountains 
 near by, are covered with dense forests of 
 oak and pine, so thick that the snow re- 
 mains late in the summer. They are inter- 
 sected by rocky valleys with marshy bot- 
 toms. 
 
 "From Alexandropol to Kars is about 
 forty-three miles by way of Kniss ; from 
 Kars to Kotanli is seventeen miles. From 
 the latter point two roads lead across the 
 Saganlugh and reunite near an old stone 
 bridge over the Araxes at Kerpi-Kev, or 
 Kopri-Koi ; this is a well-preserved bridge 
 
 SIBERIAN WINTEK SCEXE. 
 
 ascent; hence to Ardahan and beyond the 
 descent is easier. From Ardahan to Erze- 
 roum, by way of Dadaschin, the Karatschli 
 Pass, Olti, and Noriman, is 122 miles. The 
 Karatschli Pass leads over the main Ararat 
 range, from the valley of the Kur to that 
 of Tchorokh ; there are some steep places 
 in this pass, but affords the best communi- 
 cation with Erzeroum, and is preferred by 
 the inhabitants to the Saganlugh. It may 
 be well to state that the portion of the 
 Ararat range near the Karatschli Pass some- 
 times receives the name of the Karatschli 
 Mountains, while the Saganlugh Pass, or 
 rather passes, give their name to the cor- 
 66 
 
 of seven arches, attributed by tradition to 
 Darius Hystaspes. 
 
 " The Saganlugh forests, already alluded 
 to, extend from the Kotanli base to the 
 castle of Zevin, and from seven to fifteen 
 miles on either side of the two roads. 
 Deep and difficult ravines afibrd good po- 
 sitions of defence at almost every step. 
 
 *' The left-hand road, called the Medjin- 
 gherte road, first traverses Aspuga and the 
 gorges of Delli-Musa-Perun, thence follow- 
 ing the banks of the Khami torrent, it 
 passes by the villages of Sarakamish, the 
 gorges of Milli-Duz, the castle of Medjin- 
 irherte, and the village of Khorasan to 
 
1042 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Kerpi-Kev, fifty-four miles. The right 
 hand, or Zevin, road passes through the 
 villages of Kekutsch, Tchirikli, Kijil-Kil- 
 lissi, the castles of Zevin and Zaghin, and 
 the village of Ardost, seventy miles. 
 
 " From Kerpi-Kev to Hassan-Kale is ten 
 miles, thence to Erzeroum twenty-seven 
 miles, making from Kars to Erzeroum 108 
 miles by Medjingherte, and 124: miles by 
 Zevin. From Kars to the foot of the Sa- 
 ganlugh the country is not difficult, and over 
 the mountain passes the difficulty in former 
 times Avas less from the steepness of the 
 slopes than from the marshes in the valleys, 
 and the rocks and trees which narrowed 
 the way; these difficulties have probably 
 been somewhat lessened of late years. 
 
 "From Ahalkalahi there is a mountain 
 road to Kars over the Ghegh-Dagh, fifty- 
 two miles. From Ardahan to Kars there 
 is a good road, fifty miles. 
 
 " From Sardar-Abad, near Erivan, there 
 are two good roads to Kars — one by 
 Ketcheranka and Subotan, eighty miles; 
 the other by Kaghizman, ninety-three miles. 
 From Kaghizman there is a mountain-road 
 by Getschevan to Hassan-Kale. 
 
 " From Erivan one road by Katchi Ghe- 
 duk, forty -three miles, and another by Zer- 
 Gheduk, sixty-two miles, unite at Bayazeth ; 
 these roads are good, but lack wood and 
 supplies. Through Bayazeth passes the 
 great road from Tebriz to Constantinople, 
 passing through Dijadin and Toprakh-Kale, 
 over the ridges of the Kosh-Dagh, and 
 through Deli-Baba to Hassan-Kale and 
 Erzeroum, 107 miles from Bayazeth. There 
 is also a road from Toprakh-Kale, through 
 Melisgherd, Kniss, Mount Brigol, and Kuli 
 to Erzeroum ; from Kniss a branch leads 
 to Musch ; these are good roads, with 
 abundance of wood, water and forage. 
 
 " From Erzeroum to Trebizonde, by Bai- 
 burt and Gumisch-Khan, is about one hun- 
 dred and eighty miles ; this road has long 
 been a good one to Baiburt, but beyond 
 was formerly very difficult even for pack- 
 animals ; it is probably in a better condition 
 now. From Erzeroum by Baiburt and 
 Kara-Hissar to Sivas, two hundred and 
 sixty-six miles ; or, by Erzingan, two hun- 
 dred miles ; both of these are good wagon 
 roads, and traverse a fertile and well-peopled 
 country. The caravan route to Sivas passes 
 through Ach-Kale and Kilkil-Tchifflilis, 
 but is inferior to the other roads. About 
 eighty miles from Sivas, at the village of 
 Anduas, a road turns off to Tokat, eighty- 
 
 seven miles, and thence to Samsun, one 
 hundred and fifteen miles; this road is 
 said to be practicable for wagons. There is 
 also a road leading up the valley of the 
 Tchorokh from Batoum, through Artwin^ 
 Kiskin and Ispira to Baiburt. Near Kis- 
 kin this road sends off a branch to Olti, 
 and a little higher up the valley two 
 branches to the southeast, which, near 
 Gertum, intersect the direct road from Ar- 
 dahan, through Olti, to Erzeroum, and by 
 another parallel branch communicate di- 
 rectly with Erzeroum. 
 
 " The southern shore of the Black Sea is 
 skirted by one or more parallel coast 
 ranges ; the interior is made up of moun- 
 tains, valleys, and lofty plateaus, but no- 
 where west of Erzeroum are the difficulties 
 in the way of an army so great as east of 
 that point, and the country furnishes large 
 amounts of supplies." 
 
 The fortified places in Armenia are 
 Kars, Batoum, Anlahan, Bayazeth, Erze- 
 roum, Toprakh-Kale, Hassan-Kale, Artwin 
 and Olli. The key to the whole country,, 
 and the principal objective point of the 
 Russian movements, was the fortified city 
 of Kars. 
 
 To meet the invasion of the Russians the 
 Turks had collected an army but little in- 
 ferior in numbers to their adversaries close 
 to their frontier. Kars and Ardahan were 
 held by good-sized garrisons, and the re- 
 mainder of the Turkish forces were disposed 
 so as to cover Kars and Erzeroum. The 
 chief command was held by Mukhtar 
 Pasha, a general of skill and experience. 
 
 The advance of the Russian array was 
 begun on the day previous to the declara- 
 tion of war. On the 23d of April three 
 Russian columns crossed the frontier. The 
 right wing moved from Poti upon Batoum ; 
 the centre, or main army, from Alexandro- 
 pol upon Kars ; and the left wing from 
 Erivan upon Bayazeth. The task assigned 
 to the right wing was to cut off the commu- 
 nication between Batoum and the interior, 
 and prevent reinforcements approaching 
 Kars from the sea in that quarter. This 
 was successfully accomplished. The left 
 wing was equally fortunate in the task as- 
 signed it. Under the command of General 
 Tergukassoff it carried Bayazeth on the 
 26th, without firing a shot. The advance 
 of the centre, being opposed by the main 
 body of the Turks, was slower ; but, over- 
 coming all obstacles, it moved steadily upon 
 Kars. Fearing that his retreat to Erze- 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 104S 
 
 roum would be cut off", Mukhtar Pasha left 
 a force of tweuty-nine battalions and eight 
 batteries iu Kars, and retired in good order, 
 closely followed by the Russians to the 
 Horukiar Dooz plateau, on the Saganlugh 
 range. General Melikoff, commanding the 
 central army, now put an end to the pur- 
 suit, and marched to Kars. Leaving the 
 bulk of his forces before that place, he 
 hastened to Ardahau with the remainder. 
 On the 14th of May he opened fire upon 
 that town, and on the 16th carried it by 
 
 the centre was before Kars, with its cavalry 
 patrols advanced to Vezinvaisin ; and the 
 left was at Utsch-Kilissa, with its advanced 
 guard near Toprakh-Kale. The Turkish 
 right was posted iu front of Deli-Baba, 
 with its advanced guard at Toprakh-Kale ; 
 the centre was posted in a strong position 
 in the Saganlugh, near Zevin; and the left 
 was in rear of Olti. 
 
 Early in June the Russian left wing was 
 advanced, and Mukhtar Pasha ordered 
 Mehemet Pasha, the commander of the 
 
 ODESSA, THE PRINCIPAL PORT OF RUSSIA ON THE BLACK SEA. 
 
 assault. Placing a strong garrison in the 
 captured fortress he returned to Kars and 
 began the erection of siege batteries. 
 These were pushed forward rapidly, and 
 about the 26th of May the bombardment 
 of Kars was begun. 
 
 At the end of May the position of the 
 two armies was as follows: the Russian 
 right wing, now separated from the active 
 army by the nature of its service, was 
 threatening Batoum. The right wing of 
 the active army was in small force at Olti ; 
 
 Turkish right wing, to fall back, intrench, 
 and hold the Deli-Baba Pass. About this 
 time the Turkish army was strongly rein^ 
 forced. 
 
 Mukhtar now learned that the Russian 
 right and left wings were much weaker 
 than he had supposed, and resolved to 
 attack them in succession. He rapidly re- 
 inforced his left wing, and brought it 'to a 
 strength of eleven battalions of infantry, 
 three regiments of cavalry, and six moun- 
 tain guns, and threw it forward towards 
 
1044 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Olti. The Russian force opposed to the 
 Turkish left consisted of three battalions of 
 infantry, and a small force of cavalry and 
 artillery. It fell back, without offering any 
 resistance, to the Kanly mountains, and on 
 the 7th of June the Turks reoccupied Olti. 
 The Russian left, under General Tergu- 
 kassoif, continued to advance, and on the 
 9th of June occupied Zaidikhan, at the 
 foot of the Kosch passes. Mukhtar, en- 
 couraged by the retreat of the Russian 
 right from Olti, now reinforced his 
 right at Deli-Baba until it numbered 
 seventeen battalions of infantry, three bat- 
 teries of artillery, and about 800 cavalry. 
 He then ordered Mehemet Pasha to drive 
 the Russians from Zaidikhan. General 
 Tergukassoff was promptly informed of 
 the movement against him, and, without 
 awaiting the Turkish advance, marched out 
 of Zaidikhan to meet the enemy. His force 
 was inferior to that of his adversary in in- 
 fantry, but was superior to it in cavalry 
 and artillery. On the 16th the Russians 
 attacked the Turks at Taghir and com- 
 pletely routed them. The victors at once 
 pressed on and occupied the passes. Here 
 they were compelled to halt, as they were 
 not strong enough to continue the pursuit 
 farther. Another division, says a compe- 
 tent authority, " would have enabled them 
 to seize Kopri-Koi and co-operate with the 
 attack made upon Zevin by the centre a 
 few days later." 
 
 While these movements were in progress 
 Bayazeth was captured by a Turkish force 
 approaching from Lake Van. The small 
 Russian garrison retired to the citadel, 
 which was at once invested by the Turks. 
 
 In the meantime Mukhtar Pasha, upon 
 learning of the defeat of his right wing at 
 Taghir, rapidly reinforced it and brought 
 it to a strength of nineteen battalions, 
 twenty pieces of artillery, and twenty-five 
 hundred cavalry. Then, placing himself 
 at the head of this force, he advanced to 
 attack the Russian left, which consisted of 
 ten battalions, about fifteen pieces of artil- 
 lery, and a small force of cavalry. On the 
 21st of June Mukhtar attacked the Russian 
 position with great energy, but was re- 
 pulsed with heavy loss. During the night 
 the Russians fell back to Zaidikhan, from 
 which point they continued their retreat 
 without serious molestation to Igdyr, a 
 town within their own territory and about 
 thirty miles southwest of Erivan. General 
 Tergukassoff, having replenished his sup- 
 
 plies, at once moved upon Bayazeth. On 
 the 12th of July he attacked the Turkish 
 investing force, thirteen thousand strong, 
 and routed it. The gallant little garrison 
 was rescued from its dangerous position, 
 and the Russians retired leisurely to Igdyr. 
 The Russian centre, under General Meli- 
 koff, had, during all this time, kept up the 
 bombardment of Kars, but without accom- 
 plishing anything definite. Late in June, 
 leaving a strong force to continue the siege, 
 Melikoff moved with the rest of his army 
 towards the Saganlugh, with the intention 
 of forcing that position, after which he in- 
 tended to form a junction with Tergukas- 
 soff at Kopri-Koi and advance upon Erze- 
 roum direct. On the 25th of June he 
 found his progress barred by the Turkish 
 forces under Faizi Pasha at Zevin-Dooz. 
 He at once attacked the Turks with great 
 fury, but, after a battle that lasted from 
 morning until eight o'clock in the evening, 
 was repulsed with heavy loss. Melikoff 
 thereupon fell back slowly and reunited his 
 command with -the besieging force in front 
 of Kars. Mukhtar Pasha followed him 
 leisurely, and on the 8th of July opened 
 communication with the beleaguered city. 
 Before his arrival the Russian commander 
 had decided to raise the siege. The Rus- 
 sians therefore drew back gradually to 
 their intrenched camp at Zaim, about eight 
 miles northwest of Kars. They held that 
 position long enough to cover the safe 
 withdrawal of all their siege material, and 
 then fell back leisurely and unpursued to 
 the heights of Kurukdere, about half-way 
 between Kars and Alexandropol, where 
 they halted to await reinforcements. 
 
 On the 24th of June the Turks attacked 
 the Russian force in front of Batoum. 
 Both sides claimed the victory ; but the 
 result was that the Russians retreated from 
 their position before Batoum, and occupied 
 a new line along the frontier between Fort 
 St. Nicholas and Ozurgeti. 
 
 By the 26th of July the new position of 
 the army of General Melikoff at Kuruk- 
 dere, Gulweren, and Tashkah, was fairly 
 occupied. The left wing, under General 
 Tergukassoff, was still at Igdyr. Mukhtar 
 Pasha had followed the Russians upon their 
 retreat, and now occupied a strongly in- 
 trenched position opposite Melikoff's line, 
 and at a moderate distance from it. Both 
 armies had been considerably reinforced, 
 and frequent but unimportant skirmishes 
 occurred between them. On the 18th of 
 
FBOM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1045 
 
 August Melikoff made a determined assault 
 upon the Turkish position, but was repulsed 
 with heavy loss. Mukhtar Pasha followed 
 up this success by carrying the height of 
 Kizil-Tepe, one of the advanced Russian 
 positions, on the 25th of August. The 
 Russians made repeated and determined 
 efforts to regain the hill during the day, 
 but were each time driven back with loss. 
 
 The Turkish position now extended from 
 Aladja-Dagh to Kars, passing through Ve- 
 zinkoi. In front of the main line were the 
 
 in person. Severe fighting occurred on the 
 2d, 3d, and 4th of October between the two 
 armies, to the general disadvantage of the 
 Russians. On the 15th of October the 
 grand duke made a general attack upon 
 the Turkish position. The key to this 
 position was the Olya-Tepe, which was 
 held by four battalions and a battery. 
 The task of carrying this hill was assigned 
 to the division of General Heimann. A 
 tremendous artillery fire was opened upon 
 the Turkish position, and Heimann's gren- 
 
 ERZEROUM. 
 
 detached knolls of Kizil-Tepe, Nakharji- 
 Tepe, Olya-Tepe, and Yagui-Tepe, all of 
 which were well intrenched and held by 
 strong garrisons. In order to maintain this 
 greatly extended line, the Turkish com- 
 mander was obliged to reduce the garrison 
 of Kars to a merely nominal force. His 
 array numbered about 40,000 men and 
 fifty-four pieces of cannon. The Russian 
 army had been largely reinforced, and now 
 uumbei-ed about 70,000 men and 200 guns, 
 commanded by the Grand Duke Michael 
 
 adiers were kept lying down for three hours 
 awaiting the order to charge. Mukhtar 
 threw forward a strong line of Turkish in- 
 fantry to the support of the assailed point, 
 but this was driven back by the Russian 
 fire. Then, under the cover of a heavy fire 
 from the Russian batteries, Heimann's men 
 were moved up the hill to the assault. The 
 Turks offered a gallant resistance, but 
 nothing could stay the steady advance of 
 the Russian grenadiers, who reached the 
 crest, swarmed over the redoubt, and drove 
 
1046 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the defenders down the opposite side of the 
 hill. The Olya-Tepe being won, the Rus- 
 sians next stormed and carried the plateau 
 in front of Vezinkoi, which was also strongly 
 fortified. Shortly after four o'clock in the 
 afternoon the Moscow grenadiers carried 
 the Turkish position at Aladja-Dagh. The 
 Turks fled, leaving their camp and all its 
 contents, and thirty-two pieces of artillery, 
 in the hands of the victors. They remained 
 in the mountains until eight o'clock in the 
 evening, when, being cut off from their 
 main body and without food or shelter, 
 they surrendered to the Russians. The 
 defeat of the Turkish army was overwhelm- 
 ing, and the Russians prepared to follow 
 up their advantage with energy. 
 
 Mukhtar Pasha now threw a strong gar- 
 rison into Kars, and with the remainder of 
 hisarray retreated towards Erzeroum. The 
 Russians followed in pursuit, and a few days 
 after the battle of Aladja-Dagh began the 
 second investment of Kars. A strong force 
 was thrown out towards Erzeroum, and the 
 Russian left wing, under General Tergukas- 
 soff, moved rapidly in the same direction. 
 On the 4th of November the Russians at- 
 tacked Mukhtar Pasha's army at Deve- 
 Boyun. The Turks were routed and 
 retreated to Erzeroum, where they were 
 besieged by the Russians. 
 
 In the meantime the siege of Kars had 
 been pressed with vigor. The Turks made 
 several spirited sorties, but were invariably 
 driven back within their defences. At 
 length, on the night of the 17th of Novem- 
 ber, the Russians made a determined assault 
 upon the defences of the city. The battle 
 lasted from eight o'clock on the night of 
 the 17th to eight o'clock on the morning of 
 the 18th, and was directed by General Meli- 
 koff in person. It resulted in the capture 
 of the city and its defences, 10,000 prisoners, 
 300 cannon, and large quantities of stores, 
 ammunition, arms, etc. The Russians made 
 but trifling booty, and spared the peaceful 
 citizens and the women and children. At 
 eleven o'clock on the morning of the 18th, 
 the Grand Duke Michael entered the city 
 and took formal possession of it. 
 
 Kars, the key to Armenia, having fallen, 
 the Russians pressed forward their invest- 
 ment of Erzeroum with vigor. At the 
 present writing the siege of that place is 
 still in progress. 
 
 During the progress of the campaign in 
 Armenia the Turkish fleet in the Black 
 Sea was quite active. A number of the 
 
 Russian fortified ports were bombarded, but 
 nothing of importance was accomplished by 
 these attacks. An efibrt was made by 
 Turkey to excite an insurrection among the 
 Circassians, and thus raise up a formidable 
 foe in the rear of the Russian army in Ar- 
 menia. Some disturbances occurred among 
 the Circassians, but the Turks failed to 
 accomplish their object. 
 
 Let us now glance at the campaign in 
 Europe. " First let us touch upon the 
 main topographical features of Turkey in 
 Europe. Referring to any good map of the 
 region, the first thing that strikes the eye is 
 the river Danube. We are concerned with 
 the portion of the river below where it 
 breaks through the mountains at the Iron 
 Gates, near Orsova. This river is the first 
 Turkish line of defence. Below the Iron 
 Gates the Danube, except when divided by 
 islands into several arms, is nowhere less 
 than nine hundred paces in width, often 
 more than double that. In places it is from 
 seventy to eighty feet deep, often shallower, 
 but always a deep river, nowhere fordable. 
 There is only one place, at Tuldscha, where 
 a sandbar reduces its depth so much as to 
 render a pile bridge practicable; at all 
 other points bridges must be supported 
 upon boats. The current averages about 
 two and one-half miles per hour. As a 
 rule the right, or Turkish bank, commands 
 the left bank, which is often marshy to the 
 water's edge. The points suitable for cross- 
 ing large bodies of troops are few, and are 
 generally covered by fortifications on the 
 Turkish bank. 
 
 " Of these works the most westerly of 
 any importance is Widdin. This is a town 
 of considerable size and importance on the 
 right bank of the river ; it is well fortified, 
 and contains extensive military establish- 
 ments. Kalafat, on the opposite bank, 
 formerly served as its tete de pont, but is 
 now in the hands of the Roumanian troops, 
 — a great advantage for the Russians. Be- 
 low Widdin there are small works at Lorn 
 and Orchova. Nikopoli is a place of more 
 importance; the Osma river here enters the 
 Danube from the south, and the Alutafrom 
 the north. ... At Sistova is another small 
 work. Still lower down is the important 
 fortress of Rutschuk, which is well fortified ; 
 opposite to this, but at long range, is Giur- 
 gevo. At Rutschuk is the terminus of the 
 railway from Varna. About twenty-five 
 miles below Rutschuk is Turtukai, which 
 has been strengthened of late years. . . . 
 
FBOM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1047 
 
 ^ext below is the strong fortress and in- 
 trenched camp of Silistria, so well known 
 from its admirable defences in 1828 and 
 1835. Hirsova is a smaller work, covering 
 a very important point for crossing the 
 river. Some forty miles below is Brailov, 
 and at some little distance from it, on the 
 Turkish side, the fortification of Matchin. 
 Galatz, Reni, and Ismail are all in the hands 
 of the Russians. 
 
 " South of the Danube and at an aver- 
 age distance of some sixty miles, the Balkan 
 range extends eastwardly from Albania to 
 Cape Emineh, on the Black Sea. This is 
 the second line of defence for the Turks. 
 Between it and the Danube lies Bulgaria. 
 . . . At Rassova the Danube, in its course to 
 the sea, turns sharply to the north ; and just 
 at this point commenced Trajan's wall, which 
 extended to Kostendji on the Black Sea. 
 
 " The peninsula north of Trajan's wall, 
 and between the D.anube and the Euxine, 
 is known as the Dobrutscha. The northern 
 part of this district is broken by the moun- 
 tains of Matchin, Betschepta, and Baba- 
 Dagh ; towards the south the surface is hilly 
 and undulating, and of no great elevation. 
 The soil is sandy, underlaid by limestone, 
 and the interior valleys are destitute of 
 springs and streams, so that no water is to 
 be procured except from a few deep wells. 
 The population is scanty. From these 
 causes the region is a barren waste, afford- 
 ing no supplies except pasturage, and even 
 this fails at midsummer. 
 
 "To hold Bulgaria the passes of the 
 Balkan must be secured ; to dictate peace 
 in Adrianople or Constantinople, these 
 passes must be carried and traversed. So 
 that when they have overcome the difiicul- 
 ties of the Danube, the Russians next find 
 the Balkan athwart their path. At its 
 western extremity the Balkan unites with 
 the range traversing Albania and Dalma- 
 tia, and connects with the mountain system 
 of Herzegovina and Servia ; near Sophia it 
 sends out to the north an off*-shoot which 
 connects it with the Carpathian range, and 
 it is through this oflTshoot that the Danube 
 forces its way at the Iron Gates. The 
 greatest elevation of the main Balkan range 
 is to tlie west of the sources of the Jantra 
 and Tuudscha, that is, west of Kassanlik 
 and Tirnova, where the summits are cov- 
 ered with snow until mid-summer. Thence 
 to the sources of the Kamtschik the eleva- 
 tion is not over 5,000 feet, and further east 
 not more than 4,000 feet. The prevailing 
 
 character of the range is that of richly 
 wooded round hills ; it is only in the valleys 
 that masses of rock are found. The south- 
 ern slope is by far the most steep. On the 
 northern side is a parallel range of foot- 
 hills, differing much from the main range. 
 These foot-hills are of limestone, with flat 
 tops, often falling oflT at the sides in perpen- 
 dicular walls from 100 to 200 feet in height, 
 and forming singular defiles. Towards the 
 bottom of the valleys the face of the rock 
 slopes more gradually as it descends. The 
 
 BULGARIAN PEASANT. 
 
 hill-tops are not easily accessible, and are 
 covered, not with the magnificent trees of 
 the main range, but with dense brushwood. 
 For long distances from the foot of the 
 lower range the plain is covered with an 
 undergrowth of oak, which renders the 
 movements of masses of troops across the 
 country difficult and almost impossible. 
 The idea, in former times, that the Balkan 
 was impassable arose not so much from the 
 height and inherent difficulties of the range 
 as from the fact that no really good roads 
 
1048 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 existed, and that within a distance of five 
 or six marches many small difficulties were 
 a.ccumulated which had to be overcome by 
 all the troops in succession. The space at 
 our disposal will permit only a brief men- 
 tion of the most important passes across the 
 Balkan range. 
 
 " The most westward are in the vicinity 
 of Sophia, whei'e two main roads cross the 
 mountains. One comes from Ukschub, 
 
 a branch to Enos on the ^gean Sea. These 
 passes present comparatively few natural 
 difficulties ; the roads have been improved, 
 and fortified of late years. The next im- 
 portant pass is that through which the road 
 from Tirnova to Kassanlik and Adrianople 
 is constructed. Another road leads from 
 Tirnova by Seldiuo and Jamboli to Adri- 
 anople; this road is connected by a branch 
 with Kasan and Karnabad, as well as with 
 
 VIEW IN SIBEEIA. 
 
 where roads unite from Montenegro, Herze- 
 govina, Bosnia, and Servia, and passes 
 through Dubnitza to Tatar-Basardschyk ; 
 the other comes from Sophia, where the 
 road from Belgrade and Nisch unites with 
 that from Widdin, and also leads to Tatar- 
 Basardschyk ; thence the united roads lead 
 to Adrianople aud Constantinople. Sarim- 
 berg, about twelve miles west of Tatar- 
 Basardschyk, is the terminus of a railway 
 through Adrianople to Constantinople, with 
 
 Aidos ; the two last being important strate- 
 gical points. Karnabad is connected toward 
 the north by roads through Kasan with 
 Tirnova on the one hand, and through 
 Osmanbasar with Rutschuk to the left, and 
 through Rasgrad with Turtukai on the 
 right ; to the south, roads lead to Adriano- 
 ple, to Bourgas, and to Constantinople. 
 Aidos is connected, towards the north, 
 through Prawady with Shumla and Osman- 
 basar on the left, with Varna, Bazardjikj 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1049 
 
 and Silistria on the right; while to the 
 south it is connected with Bourgas, Con- 
 stantinople, and Adrianople. Most of the 
 roads through Karnabad and Aidos to 
 Varna and Shumla have of late years been 
 made practicable for artillery and fortified 
 in the mountains."* 
 
 Months before the declaration of war, as 
 we have stated elsewhere, the town of Kis- 
 chenev, in Bessarabia, the Russian province 
 nearest to the Danubiau principalities, had 
 been chosen as the point for the concentra- 
 tion of troops and supplies for the antici- 
 pated campaign. Kischenev is directly 
 connected with the entire Russian railway 
 system, and was admirably suited to the 
 purpose to which it was applied. The work 
 of concentration was carried on with energy, 
 and an army was assembled under the 
 command of the Grand Duke Nicholas, 
 numbering about 325,000 men. The Turk- 
 ish army opposed to this force lay behind 
 the Danube, and was about 250,000 strong. 
 It was commanded by Abdul-Kerim Pasha, 
 who had W'on considerable distinction as 
 the commander of the Turkish forces in 
 the war against Servia which preceded the 
 struggle with Russia. 
 
 On the 24th of April, 1877, as has been 
 stated, Russia declared war against Turkey. 
 On the 23d the advanced guard of the Rus- 
 sian army crossed the frontier and entered 
 Roumania. An arrangement was entered 
 into Avith the Roumanian government by 
 which the co-operation of the army of that 
 country was secured by Russia. This gave 
 to the Russians an additional force of about 
 60,000 men ; but these troops did not come 
 into service until Bulgaria had been occu- 
 pied by the forces of the czar. 
 
 The advance of the Russian army was 
 led by the fourteenth corps. By a rapid 
 and well-executed march of forty miles in 
 thirty-six hours, the fourteenth corps occu- 
 pied Galatz and Brailov, on the Danube, 
 and secured the important railroad bridge 
 over the Sereth at Barboschi, between the 
 last-named cities. The remainder of the 
 army was marched rapidly into Roumania, 
 and proceeded to occupy the important 
 strategic points. "To form an idea of the 
 magnitude of this work," says General 
 McClellan, "it must be remembered that 
 the distance from the point of crossing the 
 frontier near Kischenev to Bucharest is 
 more than 330 miles by the circuitous rail- 
 
 * Gen. Geo. B. McClellan. 
 
 way, and more than 250 by the common 
 roads. From Bucharest to Sistova is about 
 sixty-five miles, and to Kalafat nearly 200 
 miles ; while, following the roads along the 
 northern bank of the Danube, it is more 
 than 400 miles from Kalafat to Isatchki, 
 where the Russians first crossed in 1828. 
 The first task of the Russians was the solid 
 occupation of the principalities and the left 
 bank of the Danube, the accumulation of 
 men, material, and supplies, the isolation 
 or destruction of the Turkish gun-boats in 
 the river by means of batteries and torpe- 
 does, and the preparation of means for 
 crossing the river." In most of her former 
 wars with Turkey during this century, 
 Russia enjoyed the advantage of a powerful 
 fleet in the Black Sea, which greatly sim- 
 plified her task of supplying and reinforcing 
 her army. Now the Turks held the Black 
 Sea, and the Russians were compelled to 
 adopt an interior line of communication, 
 and to depend upon the single line of rail- 
 way from Bessarabia into the principalities. 
 The terrible condition of the roads leading 
 through Roumania to the Danube made 
 the work of collecting men and material on 
 that river both difficult and lengthy. The 
 waters of the Danube remained swollen to 
 an unusual point for many weeks beyond 
 the ordinary time, and so prevented an 
 early effort to pass the river. This delay 
 was improved by the Russians in bringing 
 up men and supplies to their front. 
 
 At length, the river having fallen, and 
 all things being ready for an advance in 
 force, the order for the passage of the river 
 was given. The first effort of the Russians 
 was to secure the Dobrutscha, and thus 
 gain the command of the lower Danube 
 and neutralize the strong fortresses in that 
 region. On the 20th of June ten compa- 
 nies of infantry crossed the Danube at 
 Galatz, and attacked the Turkish force ou 
 the opposite bank. After a gallant strug- 
 gle they carried the heights occupied by 
 the Turks, and held them until the return 
 of the boats brought reinfoi'cements. The 
 Turks were then driven back from the 
 river, and the position secured. 
 
 The crossing at Galatz having been se~ 
 cured, a bridge was thrown over the Dan- 
 ube at Brailov, and a strong Russian force 
 was sent across to the opposite bank. An- 
 other bi'idge was built at Hirsova, higher 
 up the river, and on the 25th of June a 
 column of 18,000 troops crossed over and 
 effected a junction with those who had 
 
1050 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 crossed at the points lower down. By 
 nightfall on the 25th the Russians had a 
 force of 60,000 men, with artillery and 
 cavalry, in the Dobrutscha. Matchin and 
 the other fortified places in the upper Do- 
 brutscha were speedily captured, and the 
 peninsula passed into the hands of the Rus- 
 sians from Galatz to Silistria, The latter 
 fortress was strongly threatened, and the 
 garrison prevented from undertaking any 
 operation beyond the walls. 
 
 While the occupation of the Dobrutscha 
 was in progress, a heavy cannonade was 
 maintained upon Rutschuk, Nikopoli, and 
 other fortified places higher up the river, 
 -and the Turkish gunboats in the Danube 
 were completely neutralized by the Russian 
 batteries and torpedoes. 
 
 The attention of the Turks having been 
 drawn to the occupation of the Dobrutscha, 
 the Russians began their main eflTort higher 
 up the river. Materials for bridging the 
 Danube were quietly collected in Simuitza, 
 and a strong force was concentrated at that 
 point for the purpose of forcing a passage 
 of the stream. At a little after sunset on 
 the 26th of June the troops moved out of 
 Simnitza towards the river, and at the same 
 time the artillery was thrown forward to 
 the water's edge to cover the passage of the 
 men. The first crossing was directed by 
 •General Dragomiroflf. Promptly at one 
 o'clock on the morning of the 27th the 
 fifty-third regiment, with eight mountain 
 guns, entered the boats and began the diffi- 
 cult and dangerous movement. When the 
 boats were half way over the river the 
 Turks on the opposite bank discovered 
 their approach and opened a heavy fire 
 upon them. The Turks had about 6,000 
 infantry and eight or ten guns, and the task 
 before the Russian force was problematical 
 in the extreme. 
 
 As the first companies of the Russians 
 landed, the men were made to lie down in 
 the mud in skirmish lines, and the boats 
 returned for reinforcements. They contin- 
 ued plying across the river all night. When 
 about two battalions had crossed, the order 
 was given to attack the heights held by the 
 Turks. The men arose, reeking with mud, 
 and with a cheer went at the enemy. A 
 terrific volley crashed from the Turkish 
 line, but was fortunately too high to dam- 
 age their assailants. Trusting to the bayo- 
 net, the Russians drove back the Moslems 
 from their first position, and, being steadily 
 reinforced, gained ground every hour. 
 
 Towards one o'clock in the afternoon of the 
 27th the Russian field artillery began to 
 cross, and by two o'clock the Turks were 
 driven out of Sistova. The heights com- 
 manding that town were next carried, and 
 the crossing was fully secured. By night- 
 fall the entire eighth corps was over the 
 river and firmly lodged ou the Bulgarian 
 bank. The crossing had been conducted 
 with such skill and precision that the Rus- 
 sian loss was less than a thousand men. 
 
 On the 28th the construction of a bridge 
 was begun, and the crossing of troops in 
 boats was continued. The work on the 
 bridge was interrupted by a storm, but was 
 completed on the 2d of July. The Russian 
 infantry, artillery, and cavalry now poured 
 in a steady stream over the bridge. The 
 troops were moved forward promptly from 
 the river, and on the 3d of July the Russian 
 outposts were established twenty miles 
 south of the Danube, and their cavalry 
 patrols were thrown out still closer to the 
 Balkans. 
 
 The Danube had been safely passed, and 
 the Russian army was firmly established in 
 Bulgaria. The force in the Dobrutscha 
 was separated from the main body, how- 
 ever, by the "quadrilateral" formed by the 
 fortresses of Rutschuk, Silistria, Varna, and 
 Shumla. It was sufficient to neutralize 
 these fortresses, and to prevent the Turks 
 from directing a force from the coast of the 
 Black Sea against the left flank of the main 
 Russian army in Bulgaria. On the 2d of 
 July fighting between the Russians and the 
 Turks in the Dobrutscha began along the 
 line of the railway from Kostendgi to 
 Tschernavoda, to the general advantage of 
 the former. On the 15th the Russians 
 occupied Kostendgi. 
 
 General Gourkha, commanding the Rus- 
 sian advance in Bulgaria, moved rapidly 
 southward after the passage of the Danube. 
 On the 5th of July he occupied Bjela, and 
 being relieved by other troops, pushed on 
 to Tirnova, from which place he drove a 
 considerable Turkish force of infantry and 
 artillery. He at once occupied the town, 
 and a day or two later was strongly rein- 
 forced. 
 
 Immediately after passing the Danube 
 the Grand Duke Nicholas moved a column 
 from Sistova upon Nikopoli, and attacked 
 that place from the south, while the Rus- 
 sian batteries at Turna, on the north bank 
 of the Danube, opened fire upon it. Niko- 
 poli yielded to this combined attack, and 
 
FROM REIQN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1051 
 
 on the morning of the 16th surrendered to 
 the Russians. Two Turkish gunboats were 
 included in the capitulation. The capture 
 of Nikopoli was of the greatest importance 
 to the Russians, as it gave them a second 
 crossing-place over the Danube, and ena- 
 bled them to confront more promptly the 
 Turkish left, which was advancing against 
 them from Widdin and Plevna. 
 
 Tirnova having been successfully occu- 
 pied, and the Russian communications with 
 Roumania being made secure, the advance 
 upon the Balkans was begun. The ninth 
 division was directed through Dranova 
 upon Gabrova, at the northern entrance to 
 the Shipka Pass. At the same time Gen- 
 eral Gourkha, whose column was freed by 
 this movement, made a recounoissance to 
 Osmanbasar, in order to ascertain whether 
 the route by which he intended to cross the 
 Balkans was covered by the Turkish left 
 wing. He encountered considerable re- 
 sistance, but ascertained that the route he 
 had chosen across the mountains was clear. 
 He then withdrew, leaving the Turks under 
 the impression that they had repulsed a 
 serious attack. The route chosen by Gen- 
 eral Gourkha was the Hainkoi Pass, about 
 half way between Slivno and the Shipka 
 Pass. It had been unused for generations 
 save by the Bulgarian Christian refugees 
 who had made their homes in the retreats 
 of the Balkans. Under the guidance of the 
 natives, Gourkha marched rapidly to the 
 Hainkoi Pass, seized it on the 14th of July, 
 and passed the mountains in safety. On 
 the 15th his advanced guard occupied 
 Kanaro, repulsing an attack of the enemy, 
 and on the same day the Cossack cavalry 
 made a dash down the Tundscha valley, 
 captured Jeui Saghra, and destroyed the 
 railroad and telegraph between Jamboli 
 and the main line of the Adrianople rail- 
 road. On the 16th General Gourkha con- 
 tinued his advance, moving upon Kissanlik. 
 At Uplami he encountered a strong Turkish 
 column of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, 
 and routed it with considerable loss. On 
 the morning of the 17th he resumed his 
 march, skirmishing with the enemy all day, 
 and late in the afternoon occupied Kissan- 
 lik. The occupation of this place enabled 
 him to close the southern outlet of the 
 Shipka Pass, which was held by a consider- 
 able Turkish force. On the 17th a portion 
 of the ninth Russian division attacked the 
 pass from the north, and after a severe con- 
 flict carried the outer line of intrenchraents, 
 
 in which they bivouacked for the night. 
 On the morning of the 18th the command 
 of General Gourkha advanced into the 
 pass from the south, while the detachment 
 of the ninth division renewed its attack 
 from the north. The Turks now hung out 
 the white flag, and negotiations were opened 
 for the surrender of the pass. While these 
 were in progress the Turkish force escaped 
 under the cover of darkness during the 
 night of the 18th, leaving the pass, their 
 camp, and artillery in the hands of the 
 Russians. The pass was at once occupied 
 by the Russians, and its defences were 
 greatly strengthened. 
 
 When General Krudener advanced from 
 Sistova upon Nikopoli, as has been related, 
 he neglected to occupy the important town 
 of Plevna, which commands the line of the 
 river Wid. It was promptly seized by the 
 advanced forces of the array of Osraan 
 Pasha, who was marching eastward from 
 Widdin. This movement of the Turks 
 aroused Krudener to a sense of his error, 
 and he sent a force of three regiments to 
 take Plevna. The attempt was successful, 
 but the Russians had hardly taken posses- 
 sion of the town before they were attacked 
 and driven out with heavy loss by a supe- 
 rior force coming from the direction of 
 Widdin. 
 
 The Grand Duke Nicholas now deter- 
 mined to make a more determined effort to 
 seize Plevna, but he underrated the 
 strength of the enemy, and his preparations 
 were inadequate to the task before him. 
 The Turkish force around Plevna amounted 
 to 50,000 men, amply supplied with artil- 
 lery, and their position was upon a series 
 of commanding hills and was strongly in- 
 trenched. The grand duke reinforced 
 General Krudener, and brought his force 
 to a strength of 32,000 infantry, 160 guns, 
 and three brigades of cavalry. The attack 
 was made on the 31st of July. The Rus- 
 sian right wing, under General Krudener 
 in person, accomplished nothing. It main- 
 tained an artillery fire all day, but the in- 
 fantry did not attack. The left, under 
 General Schackoskoy, made a vigorous 
 assault, and carried three lines of Turkish 
 intrenchraents in the face of a most gallant 
 resistance. The Turks, seeing that Kru- 
 dener did not attack their left, now threw 
 every available man against Schackoskoy, 
 and by a determined effort drove him from 
 the redoubts he had captured, and which he 
 was unable to hold with his exhausted force 
 
1052 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 without support. The Russians now fell 
 back to the Osma, and the Turks proceeded 
 to strengthen their position at Plevna. The 
 Russian loss in the battle of the 31st was 
 5,000 men ; the Turkish loss was also 
 heavy. 
 
 Early in August the position of the two 
 armies was as follows : The left of the general 
 Russian line consisted of the army of the 
 czarowitch (the crown prince of Russia). 
 Its left rested " on the Danube, close above 
 Rutschuk, crossing the Lora near Bassa- 
 rabo, and thence following in general the 
 heights on the right bank of the Kara 
 Lom, with outposts well forward, and the 
 right not very far west of Osmanbasar. 
 The head-quarters of the czarowitch were 
 at Bjela, where the road from Tirnova to 
 Rutschuk crosses the Jantra river. The 
 centre of the army of operations was at 
 Tirnova, under General Radetzky, and 
 consisted of the eighth corps and the 
 fourth rifle brigade. These troops were to 
 aid in the defence of the Shipka Pass, and 
 also to watch the roads towards Osman- 
 basar and Lovatz, as well as the passes 
 debouching between Elena and Tirnova. 
 Detachments held Drenova, Gabrova, 
 Selvi, and other points, supporting the 
 troops in the Shipka and Haiukoi 
 Passes. The country south of the Bal- 
 kans had been already evacuated by 
 General Gourkha, who retired by the same 
 pass through which he originally crossed. 
 The Russian right held its position in 
 front of Plevna, occupying Paradim and 
 Tirstenik ; one division of Roumanians 
 had crossed the Danube, and Avere between 
 Nikopoli and Plevna. The head-quarters 
 of the commander-in-chief were at Gorny 
 Studen, nearly midway between Bjela and 
 Paradim, and about equally distant from 
 these places and Tirnova. The fifth corps 
 was at Gorny Studen. The Turkish right 
 held Rutschuk, Rasgrad, and Osman- 
 basar. Their centre, under Suleiman 
 Pasha, held Kissanlik, and was pi'eparing 
 to attack the Shipka Pass. The Turkish 
 left, under Osman Pasha, held Plevna and 
 Lovatz." 
 
 For some time the Russians remained 
 inactive, awaiting reinforcements. In 
 the meantime the Turkish centre, under 
 Suleiman Pasha, made a determined efFoi't 
 to recover the Shipka Pass. This pass had 
 been fortified by the Turks at the outset 
 of the war to resist an attack from the 
 north. Upon gaining possession of it the 
 
 Russians had strongly fortified it towards 
 the south, from which direction the Turks 
 would seek to recover it, and had made the 
 roads from the north practicable for artil- 
 lery and trains. "The summit of the pass 
 is about 4,400 feet above the sea, and 2,300 
 feet above the village of Shipka. The 
 highest point in the pass is a rocky hill, on 
 which is the fort to which the Russians 
 have given the name of St. Nicholas ; on 
 either side are ridges nearly parallel with 
 the Gabrova road. Diverging from the 
 summit towards the south there are many 
 ravines and valleys,which, though imprac- 
 ticable for artillery, permit infantry to 
 turn any position oetween the summit and 
 base of the mountains. The same thing 
 holds, looking towards the north. The 
 summit, therefore, is the vital point for 
 both parties." The defeat of the Russian 
 column at Plevna on the 31st of July, and 
 the approach of Suleiman Pasha upon 
 Kissanlik, made it necessary for the com- 
 mand of General Gourkha to withdraw 
 from the country south of the Balkans. 
 This was done on the 8th of August, as has 
 been related. Kissanlik was promptly oc- 
 cupied by the Turkish centre, and Suleiman 
 Pasha prepared to drive the Russian garri- 
 son out of the Shipka Pass. The Russian 
 force consisted of less than four battalions 
 and sixteen guns. The Turks outnum- 
 bered them ten to one. 
 
 On the 21st of August Suleiman Pasha 
 made a heavy attack upon the Shipka 
 Pass, and for three days maintained it with 
 great vigor, forcing the little garrison to 
 great exertions to hold their positions. By 
 the afternoon of the third day the Russians 
 were thoroughly worn out and their ammu- 
 nition almost exhausted. At this juncture 
 the Turks were pressing heavily the posi- 
 tions on the flanks of the pass, which com- 
 manded the Gabrova road, and with a fair 
 prospect of carrying them. As their line 
 steadily advanced, a ringing cheer was 
 heard in the valley below, and the advanced 
 guard of the fourth rifle brigade, mounted 
 on fleet Cossack ponies, and led by Gen- 
 eral Radetzky in person, dashed up the 
 mountain side towards the endangered 
 points. At once dismounting his men, 
 Radetzky threw them into the fight, 
 checked the Turkish advance, and held his 
 ground until the arrival of fresh reinforce- 
 ments, when he drove the Turks back 
 down the mountain side. Not disheart- 
 ened, Suleiman continued his attacks for 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1053 
 
 four days longer. He lost many excellent 
 soldiers, but accomplished nothing. The 
 Russians held on to the pass with a deter- 
 mination that nothing could shake, and 
 the Turks dashed themselves against its 
 rocky sides in vain. Suleiman now ceased 
 his attacks and changed his plan of opera- 
 tions. He brought up fresh troops, and on 
 the 14th of September opened a heavy fire 
 upon the Russian works from eight-inch 
 
 bered up the steep mountain side and car- 
 ried a trench some distance in advance of 
 the main work. Until six o'clock reinforce- 
 ments swarmed up the mountain to this 
 point, bringing gabions and fascines with 
 which to intrench the position they had 
 won. They held their ground until noon, 
 when the Russians by a supreme effort 
 drove them back into the pass below, in- 
 flicting terrible losses upon them. Three 
 
 MONASTIK, IN BULGARIA. 
 
 mortars. He continued this bombardment 
 until the morning of the 17th, when, be- 
 lieving that he had sufficiently weakened 
 the Russian position, he suddenly assaulted 
 their works. During the day he made six 
 furious assaults. The first attack was di- 
 rected against Fort St. Nicholas, Avhich 
 was the main object of the Turkish efforts 
 throughout the battle. At three o'clock in 
 the morning, the Turks suddenly clam- 
 
 thousand Turkish soldiers were left dead 
 on the mountain side. The Russian loss 
 was about 1,000. The Turks fought with 
 great gallantry in this battle, and the Rus- 
 sians had good reason to feel proud of their 
 victory. 
 
 During the month of August repeated 
 efforts were made by Mehemet Ali to force 
 the army of the czarowitch back over the 
 Lorn. On the 29th the Turks attacked the 
 
1054 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Russians at Karahassankoi, and drove them 
 back over the Lom. The Russians took 
 position near Popkoi, and the Turks fore- 
 bore to follow up their success. On the 4th 
 of September a Turkish force from Ruts- 
 chuk attacked the Russian position at 
 Kadikoi, but was repulsed. On the 5th 
 the Russian centre at Kacelyvo was at- 
 tacked by au overwhelming force of Turks 
 and driven back behind the Lom. It took 
 position at Ostritza. On the same day the 
 Turks made energetic efforts to drive back 
 the Russian right from Popkoi and their 
 left from Kadikoi, but without success. In 
 consequence of the disaster to his centre the 
 czarowitch abandoned the line of the Kara 
 Lom, above the mouth of the Banicka 
 Lom, and occupied a new line behind the 
 Lom, extending from Metcka, on the 
 Danube, about fifteen miles above Ruts- 
 chuk, through Obertini and Monastir, 
 Cherkovna and Covikoi, back to the Jan- 
 tra. On the 20th of September Mehemet 
 Ali made a sharp attack on the Russian 
 position at Cherkovna in the hope of secur- 
 ing a footing on the western bank of the 
 Banicka Lom, but was driven back with 
 heavy loss. On the 24th Mehemet discon- 
 tinued his forward movement, and fell 
 back to the line of the Kara Lom. 
 
 In the meantime the eflTorts of the Rus- 
 sians to secure Plevna were pushed forward 
 with vigor. This town, held by a strong 
 Turkish army, was so close to the Russian 
 lines of communication with Roumania and 
 their own country, that they were obliged 
 either to wrest it from the Turks or invest 
 it with a strong army before they could re- 
 sume their movement upon the Balkans. 
 They chose the former course. 
 
 "Plevna," says General McClellan, "is 
 not immediately upon the banks of the 
 Wid, but about four miles to the east, in a 
 large valley, on a branch formed by the 
 union of the Grivitza, Radichevo, Tutche- 
 nitza, Bogot, and other small streams. The 
 valleys of these streams have between them, 
 or on either side, the high ridges or pla- 
 teaus upon which are the great redoubts 
 and lines of works which have so well with- 
 stood the fierce attacks of the Russians. 
 The most northerly of these branches was 
 the Grivitza, whose course is nearly at right 
 angles with the Wid. Just north of the 
 Grivitza is a high ridge bordering the 
 stream from its head to Oponetz, on the 
 Wid. On this ridge, close by the head of 
 the little stream, is w'hat has been called 
 
 the central redoubt of Grivitza; just 
 west of this is the second great redoubt ; 
 from this there extends along the summit 
 of the ridge a line of works reaching as far 
 as Oponetz. . , . South of the great re- 
 doubt, which occupies a strong salient in 
 the general line, and on the ridge between 
 the Grivitza and the Radichevo is another 
 work, and between the Radichevo and the 
 Tutchenitza still another. . . . The re- 
 mainder of the line, after crossing the 
 Tutchenitza, bends square to the west, reach- 
 ing the Wid near the mouth of a small 
 stream which joins it near Dubnik. Within 
 this portion of the line is a second line, 
 facing also to the east. This forms a spe- 
 cies of citadel, leaving the town of Plevna 
 outside. On the left bank of the Wid, 
 quite near the stream, are three or four 
 small works looking westAvard." 
 
 About the middle of August the Russian 
 army before Plevna was largely reinforced, 
 and a little later a strong column was 
 moved towards Lovatz, an important town 
 to the south of Plevna. The possession of 
 this place was of vital importance to the 
 Russians, as it commanded the roads lead- 
 ing northward from the Karaul and 
 Orchanie Passes, and enabled the Turks to 
 threaten the left flank of the Russian army 
 before Plevna. 
 
 On the 22d of August a strong Turkish 
 force from Lovatz attacked the Russians at 
 Selvi, but was repulsed. A new element 
 now entered into the struggle. The details 
 of the alliance between Russia and Rou- 
 mania having been completed, the main 
 body of the Roumanian army crossed the 
 Danube on the 25tli of August, and moved 
 forward towards Plevna. On the 31st of 
 August Osman Pasha, with 25,000 men, 
 moved out of his lines at Plevna and at- 
 tacked the Russian position at Pelisat. He 
 was successful at first, but was finally driven 
 back into his lines after a stubborn fight, 
 and with heavy loss. On the 1st of Sep- 
 tember Prince Charles of Roumania as- 
 sumed the immediate command of the army 
 before Plevna, acting under the general 
 orders of the grand duke, the commander- 
 in-chief. 
 
 On the 2d of September the Russian 
 commander made a successful attack upon 
 Lovatz. A column of 22,000 men, under 
 Prince Imeretinski, was directed upon that 
 town, which was held by a nearly equal 
 Turkish force. The attack was opened 
 early in the morning by the left wing under 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1055 
 
 General Skobeleff, who gained possession 
 of two important peaks overlooking the 
 valley in which Lovatz lies. The Turks 
 were strongly intrenched, and held every 
 approach to the town. During the night 
 of the 2d and 3d the Russian troops were 
 moved up quietly, and placed in position 
 just in the rear of the crest of the hills, 
 near the Selvi road, the point gained by 
 Skobeleff. The right wing was under Gen- 
 eral Dobrovolski ; the left under Skobeleff; 
 and the reserve under General Engmann, 
 At six o'clock on the morning of the 3d 
 the battle was opened by the Russian bat- 
 teries, ten in number, aud an hour later 
 General Dobrovolski began his advance 
 upon the works on the right bank of the 
 Osma in his front. By ten o'clock he had 
 entire possession of them. The task of the 
 right Aving being accomplished, Skobeleff 
 moved off promptly with the left, under the 
 cover of a tremendous artillery fire, and by 
 one o'clock had driven the enemy from 
 every position in his front, and was in 
 possession of the town of Lovatz. The 
 Turks now held only one work — a strong 
 redoubt on a commanding ridge on the 
 western side of the town. The approach 
 to this work was difficult and dangerous, 
 as it was swept by a murderous fire from 
 the Turkish guns. The Russians promptly 
 prepared to carry the Avork, and at three 
 o'clock, after several feints to draw the 
 attention of the Turks from the true point 
 of attack, made an impetuous charge upon 
 it, and carried it after a brief but fierce 
 struggle. The whole Turkish position was 
 now won, and its defenders were in full 
 retreat. The Russian loss was less than 
 one thousand men. The Turks left 2,200 
 dead on the field. On the 4th Osman 
 Pasha made a furious effort to recover Lo- 
 vatz, but was repulsed. 
 
 Lovatz being in their hands, the Rus- 
 sians were now free to press their opera- 
 tions against Plevna. On the morning of 
 the 7th of September they opened a heavy 
 fire upon tlie Turkish lines from their bat- 
 teries, which had been placed in position 
 during the two previous days. On the 
 night of the 7th the batteries were ad- 
 vanced nearer to the Turkish lines, and 
 the cannonade was resumed the next morn- 
 ing. On the afternoon of the 8th the Rus- 
 sians carried the heights south of Olcagas, 
 to the southwest of Plevna, with slight loss. 
 This was accomplished by the commands 
 of Imeretinski and Skobeleff, who held the 
 
 extreme left of the Russian line. During 
 the morning of the 9th the Turks under- 
 took to drive back these commands from 
 the heights they had won, but were re- 
 pulsed with heavy loss. On the same day 
 the Roumanian army arrived from Ver- 
 bitza, and took position on the north of 
 Plevna from the river Wid to the Rus- 
 sian right, thus completely hemming in 
 Plevna on the eastern side of the Wid. 
 During the 9th aud 10th new batteries 
 were thrown up by the Russians still closer 
 to the Turkish lines, and a heavy fire kept 
 up from them. On the 11th, all things 
 being in readiness, a grand assault was 
 made upon the great redoubt at Grivitza, 
 and upon the redoubts south of Olcagas, 
 which commanded the Turkish line of 
 retreat by the road to Sophia. 
 
 The attack upon the Olcagas redoubts 
 was intrusted to the division of General 
 Skobeleff, which consisted of four regiments 
 of the line, four battalions of rifles, and 
 twenty pieces of artillery. In order to 
 place his men in a position to attack the 
 redoubt in his front, Skobeleff was com- 
 pelled to occupy a hill a short distance 
 from the work. While engaged in this 
 movement, he was furiously attacked by 
 the Turks. He repulsed the attack, occu- 
 pied the hill, brought up his artillery, and 
 opened a heavy fire upon the enemy at 
 short range. Late in the afternoon he 
 advanced two regiments of the line and 
 two battalions of rifles, with orders to 
 storm the redoubt with the bayonet. The 
 line advanced rapidly, with bugles sound- 
 ing and bands playing, but was met by a 
 withering fire from the Turks, and began 
 to hesitate. Skobeleff promptly sent ano- 
 ther regiment forward to reinforce the as- 
 saulting party, and the advance was re- 
 sumed. The fire of the Turks was terrible, 
 and the line once more wavered. In an 
 instant Skobeleff placed himself at the 
 head of his last two battalions of rifles, 
 and dashed forward at a run. Cheered by 
 this sight the whole line resumed the 
 charge, reached the work, and after a ter- 
 rific hand-to-hand combat, drove the sur- 
 vivors of the garrison from it. The Rus- 
 sian loss was two thousand men killed aud 
 wounded. 
 
 In the meantime the attack on the Gri- 
 vitza redoubt had been made. At one 
 o'clock the assault was made by a division 
 of the fourth corps, but was repulsed. At 
 four o'clock a second assault was made by 
 
1056 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 twelve battalions. This force entered the 
 work, but after a gallant struggle was driven 
 back. The Roumanians about the same 
 time made three determined assaults upon 
 the great central redoubt, but were re- 
 pulsed. Towards seven o'clock a last as- 
 sault was made upon the central redoubt 
 by six Russian and one Roumanian bat- 
 talion, and the work was carried after a 
 desperate struggle. On the 12th Osman 
 Pasha made repeated efforts to recover the 
 central redoubt, but without success. He 
 then concentrated his efforts upon Sko- 
 beleff, who declared his position untenable 
 without reinforcements. He also begged 
 the commander-in-chief to reinforce him to 
 an extent which would enable him to carry 
 the neighboring works. His appeal was 
 unheeded, and after repulsing five desperate 
 assaults, he was driven, in a sixth charge, 
 from the work he had so gallantly won. 
 He fell back rapidly to his position of the 
 morning of the 11th, and the Turks made 
 no effort at pursuit. 
 
 The result of these operations was to con- 
 vince the Russian commander that Plevna 
 could be taken only by a regular siege, 
 and it was resolved to begin this at once. 
 The veteran General Todleben, whose he- 
 roic defence of Sevastopol in the Crimean 
 war we have related, was given practical 
 direction of the operations. Several weeks 
 w^ere spent in perfecting the preparations 
 for the siege, and in bringing up reinforce- 
 ments. During this time the Turks, who 
 had command of the roads to Orchanie and 
 Sophia, were able to throw reinforcements 
 and provisions into Plevna, and Osman 
 Pasha's army was brought to a strength of 
 50,000 men. 
 
 On the 24th of October the Russian 
 imperial guard arrived at Plevna, and 
 brought the strength of the army to about 
 120,000 men. On the 27th of October the 
 siege was formally begun. The imperial 
 guard were thrown across the river Wid to 
 the west bank, and rapidly extending their 
 line to the northward opened communi- 
 cation with the Roumanian forces at Bivo- 
 lar on the east bank of the Wid, and com- 
 pleted the investment of Plevna. The town 
 was now entirely surrounded. The siege 
 was pushed forward with vigor, the Rus- 
 sians maintaining a steady fire upon the 
 Turkish works, and advancing their own 
 lines day by day by regular siege ap- 
 proaches. Osman Pasha conducted his 
 defence with ability. A number of vigor- 
 
 ous sorties were made, but though the 
 Turks won some minor advantages, they 
 were nowhere able to break the Russian 
 line of investment, or prevent the slow and 
 inexorable advance of their trenches. At 
 length the provisions of the Turkish army 
 began to fail, and sickness appeared in 
 their ranks. It soon became apparent to 
 Osman Pasha that his only chance of safety 
 lay in breaking through the Russian in- 
 vestment and escaping towards Widdin. 
 In the early part of December the army 
 of Suleiman Pasha moved westward from 
 Rasgrad in the hope of forcing the Rus- 
 sians to raise the siege of Plevna. After 
 some hard fighting the Turks succeeded 
 in occupying Elena. The Russian com- 
 mander rapidly reinforced his left, and 
 Suleiman's advance was brought to a halt. 
 In the meantime the garrison of Plevna 
 suffered severely. The bombardment was 
 continued without intermission, and the 
 Turkish losses from the Russian shells, 
 sickness and desertion were more than 
 three hundred men daily. At length Os- 
 man Pasha resolved upon a vigorous effort 
 to break through the Russian lines and 
 reach Widdin. By some means the Rus- 
 sian commanders were informed of his in- 
 tention, and prepared to take advantage 
 of it. On the night of the 9th of Decem- 
 ber Osman Pasha silently evacuated his 
 lines and concentrated his whole force on 
 the banks of the Wid. This movement was 
 at once discovered by General Skobeleff, 
 who promptly threw forward his men and 
 occupied the abandoned works on the south 
 of Plevna. At seven o'clock on the morn- 
 ing of the 10th the Turkish army crossed 
 the river Wid by two bridges, and attacked 
 the Russian position on the west bank of 
 that stream. Their assault Avas made with 
 such fury that it was at first successful. 
 They captured eight cannon and almost 
 destroyed the Sibirsky grenadier regiment. 
 This success brought them under the fire 
 of one hundred cannon of the second Rus- 
 sian line, and at the same time a heavy 
 infantry attack was directed against them. 
 They were driven back in a hand-to-hand 
 struggle, and were forced to take shelter 
 under the banks of the river. The Russians 
 in the meantime had rapidly advanced 
 from their positions on the east bank of the 
 AVid, and had seized the Turkish works 
 and had occupied the town of Plevna. Os- 
 man Pasha now found himself hemmed in 
 on all sides, with no prospect of escape. 
 
FROM REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1057 
 
 He was severely wounded, having displayed 
 great personal gallantry during the day. 
 At half-past twelve o'clock he sounded a 
 parley, and opened negotiations with the 
 Russian commander. The result was that 
 he surrendered his entire force uncondi- 
 tionally to the Emperor of Russia, who 
 subsequently returned him his sword in 
 recognition of his skill and bravery. 
 
 By the surrender of Plevna over thirty 
 thousand prisoners and all the artillery, 
 arms, military stores, etc., of Osman Pasha's 
 army fell into the hands of the Russians. 
 It was the most terrible disaster Turkey 
 had experienced during the war. The 
 entire left wing of the Turkish army was 
 destroyed, and the road was opened to 
 Adrianople and Constantinople. 
 
 The fall of Plevna encouraged Servia to 
 renew the war with Turkey. On the 15th 
 of December Prince Milan issued a proc- 
 lamation declaring war against Turkey, 
 and ordering his troops to cross the fron- 
 tier. The Servian ai-my thereupon entered 
 the Turkish territory at Pirot, on the 16th, 
 and advanced upon Kossova. On the 24th 
 of December, after eight days of hard 
 fighting, the Servians captured Ak-Palanka, 
 on the Danube, southeast of Widdin ; and 
 on the same day they began the bombard- 
 ment of Nissa, which place surrendered to 
 them on the 11th of January. By this 
 capture 8,000 Turkish soldiers, ninety can- 
 non, and 12,000 rifles fell into the hands of 
 the Servians. 
 
 Up to the fall of Plevna the Turks had 
 maintained the contest with hopefulness as 
 well as with vigor. They now began to 
 despond, and the Turkish government ap- 
 pealed to the Queen of England to use her 
 good ofiices in securing an armistice. The 
 Turkish request was immediately presented 
 to the czar by England ; the Emperor 
 Alexander replied that if the sultan de- 
 sired an armistice, he must apply to the 
 Russian commander-in-chief for it. 
 
 In the meantime the Russians followed 
 up vigorously their success at Plevna. 
 General Gourkho with a strong force was 
 at once thrown across the Balkans. On 
 the 31st of December he captured the 
 Turkish position at Tashesan, after a severe 
 battle. The Turks retreated towards So- 
 phia, and, after a slight halt to rest his men, 
 Gourkho pushed on in pursuit, and on the 
 3d of January, 1878, occupied Sophia. On 
 the 9th of January, 1878, General Ra- 
 detzky captured the entire Turkish force 
 67 
 
 defending the southern outlet of the Shipka 
 pass, numbering forty-one battalions, ten 
 batteries, and one regiment of cavalry. 
 This brilliant victory gave to the Russians 
 a free passage of the Balkans, and notwith- 
 standing the great severity of the weather 
 and the fact that the roads were blocked by 
 deep snows, the Russian army was moved 
 rapidly across the Balkans into Roumelia 
 — Adrianople being the objective point of 
 the whole force. 
 
 Turkey was now thoroughly alarmed, 
 and made great efforts to bring about a 
 suspension of hostilities. On the 9th of 
 January, the day which witnessed the cap- 
 ture of the Shipka army, the Turkish 
 commander-in-chief notified the Grand 
 Duke Nicholas that he was authorized to 
 conclude an armistice. The grand duke 
 replied that he had telegraphed to St. Peters- 
 burg for instructions, and at the same time 
 pressed his advance with vigor into Turkey. 
 The sultan at once sent Server Pasha and 
 Namyk Pasha to open negotiations with 
 the Russians. They reached the head- 
 quarters of the Grand Duke Nicholas on 
 the 18th of January, but were informed by 
 him that he would treat only at Adrian- 
 ople, which place he entered in triumph on 
 the 26th. The discussion of the armistice 
 was immediately begun, and at the same time 
 the Russian army advanced rapidly upon 
 Constantinople. By the first of February 
 it occupied positions at Rodosto, on the Sea 
 of Marmora, Tchorlu, and Bourgas, com- 
 pletely commanding the peninsula on 
 which Constantinople is situated, and 
 threatening the capital itself. This was the 
 state of affairs when the armistice was 
 signed on the 3d of February, and hostilities 
 were brought to an end. 
 
 In Armenia the investment of Erzeroum 
 had been pressed with vigor. On the 5th 
 of February, in accordance with the terms 
 of the armistice, the town surrendered to 
 the Russian forces. 
 
 In the meantime Great Britain had 
 watched the progress of the Russian forces 
 with grave distrust. The near approach 
 of the conquering army to the Turkish 
 capital at length determined the British 
 government to intervene actively in behalf 
 of Turkey, and Admiral Hornby, com- 
 manding the British fleet in Besika bay. 
 was ordered to enter the Dardanelles and 
 proceed to Constantino[)le. Finding that 
 this measure would not be sustained by 
 parliament, the government recalled the 
 
1058 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 fleet just as it was about to enter the 
 Dardanelles. At a later period, the evi- 
 dent determination of Russia to occupy 
 Constantinople entirely changed the atti- 
 tude of parliament. The government was 
 granted a credit of £6,000,000, and the 
 fleet was ordered to enter the Dardanelles. 
 Russia thereupon declared that if the Brit- 
 ish ships of war appeared before Constan- 
 
 occupied a portion of the defences of Con- 
 stantinople, thus gaining command of the 
 city. The British fleet did not proceed to 
 Constantinople, but anchored at Princess 
 island, about thirty miles southeast of that 
 city. The Russians thereupon withdrew 
 their troops from the portion of the fortifi- 
 cations they had occupied, and resumed 
 their former positions. 
 
 THE KUSSIAN FLEET TJNDEK FULL SAIL. 
 
 tinople, she would occupy the city with her 
 troops. The sultan protested against the ap- 
 proach of the British fleet; but in vain, and 
 the Russian forces were advanced to the 
 defences of Constantinople. On the 13th 
 of February Admiral Hornby passed the 
 Dardanelles, and entered the Sea of Mar- 
 mora. At the same time a Russian force 
 
 For a while it seemed probable that Aus- 
 tria would be drawn into the struggle, but 
 in order to avoid this the Austrian em- 
 peror proposed a general congress of the 
 European powers to settle the terras of the 
 peace. The invitation was accepted, and 
 the meeting of the conference was set for 
 an early day in March. 
 
FBOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1059 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SI>A.IN*. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Situation of Spain — Original Inhabi- 
 tants — The Carthaginian Conquest — The Second 
 Punic War — The Roman Dominion — The German 
 Invasion — The Gothic Kingdom — The Early- 
 Kings — Theodoric I. — Euric Founds the Kingdom 
 of Spain — Theodoric II. — His Successors — Keign 
 of Leovigild — Wamba's Wise Rule — Reign of 
 Roderic— Count Julian — Conquest of Spain by 
 the Saracens — The Christians Driven to the North 
 — The Viceroys — Abderahmau Founds the King- 
 dom of Cordova — Spain Under the Moors — The 
 Western Khalifate— Fall of the Kingdom of Cor- 
 dova — Rise of the Smaller Moorish States — The 
 Kingdom of Granada Founded — The Christian 
 Kingdom of Asturias — Pelayo and his Successors 
 — Rise of Leon, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre — 
 Wars with the Moors — The Cid — The Portuguese 
 Monarchy Founded — The Moors Driven South- 
 ward — Battle of the Navas de Tolosa — Rapid Ad- 
 vance of the Christian Kingdoms — Pedro the 
 Cruel — Ferdinand and Isabella — The Modern 
 Kingdom of Spain Established — The Inquisition — 
 Conquest of Granada — Discovery of America — 
 Charles I. — Death of Cardinal Ximenes — Charles 
 Elected Emperor — Strengthens the Arbitrary 
 Power of the Spanish Crown — Persecution of the 
 Moors — Charles Punishes the Revolt of the Flem- 
 ings — Abdication of Charles — Philip II. — War 
 with France— Wealth of Spain— Philip Crushes 
 the Reformation in Spain — The Moors Extermi- 
 nated—Spain Loses her Dutch Provinces — Philip 
 Seizes Portugal — The Invincible Armada — Its 
 Fate— Death of Philip— Philip III. King— The 
 Jews Driven from Spain — Philip IV. — War with 
 France — Peace of the Pyrenees — Revolt of Portu- 
 gal — Spain Acknowledges the Independence of 
 the Dutch Republic— Charles II.— War of the 
 Spanish Succession — Losses of Spain — Her Great 
 Wealth — Philip V. — Wars of the Polish and Aus- 
 trian Succession — Wars with England — Spain 
 Supports the Independence of the United States 
 of America — Charles IV.— War with the French 
 Republic— Treaty of San Ildefonso— The Struggle 
 with Napoleon — Ferdinand VII.— Spain Loses her 
 American Colonies — Revolution of 1820 — Death 
 of Ferdinand— Isabella II.— The Carlist War- 
 Marriage of the Queen— Revolution of 1868— The 
 Provisional Government — Amadeo King — Carlist 
 Insur-rection — Abdication of Amadeo— Alfonso 
 XII. Proclaimed King— The Cuban Insurrection. 
 
 q^^^HE Kingdom of Spain comprises the 
 
 '^lil S^^^^^^ P^i't of the most western 
 
 of the three peninsulas of Europe, 
 
 and forms, with Portugal, the 
 
 Pyrenean or Iberian peninsula. 
 
 It lies between latitude 36° and 
 
 43° 48' K, and longitude 3° 20' E., and 
 
 9° 21' W. Its greatest extent from north I 
 
 to south is from Cape Peuas to Tarifa 
 Point and the Strait of Gibraltar, 540 miles, 
 and its greatest extent from east to west is 
 from Cape Creus to Cape Finisterre, about 
 630 miles. Including the Canary Islands 
 it has an area of 195,774 square miles, and 
 a population of 16,835,506 souls. 
 
 The Spanish peninsula was first visited 
 by the Phoenicians, who, as has been related 
 elsewhere, established flourishing colonies 
 on its coasts, and maintained an active and 
 profitable trade with it. The principal of 
 these colonies were Tartessus on the Gau- 
 dalquiver and Gadez, now Cadiz. At a 
 later period the Greeks founded a number 
 of colonies in the peninsula. The Greeks 
 at first called the eastern coast Iberia, after 
 the river Ibcrus, now the Ebro ; the central 
 part Celtica ; and the western part Tartessis, 
 but later on applied the name of Iberia to 
 the whole peninsula. The Romans changed 
 this name to Hispania, from which the 
 modern name of Spain is derived. The 
 original inhabitants of Spain were the 
 Celtiberians, a race made up of the Celts 
 and Iberians, It is believed that the Ibe- 
 rians were the primitive inhabitants of 
 Spain, and that the Celts crossed the Py- 
 renees and established themselves in the 
 country. They were grave in dress, sober 
 and temperate in their habits, unyielding 
 in their resolves, and brave and resolute in 
 war. They were an agricultural people, 
 and engaged in raising sheep and in the 
 production of oil and wine. The chief 
 wealth of the country, however, lay in its 
 mines of gold and silver and other metals, 
 which were worked by the Phoenicians and 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 After the first Punic war Carthage began 
 to make extensive settlements in Spain. 
 Hasdrubal conquered several tribes on the 
 south and east coast, and established the 
 Carthaginian power firmly in the peninsula. 
 Several new cities were founded by the 
 Carthaginians, among which was New Car- 
 thage, which still exists under the name of 
 Cartagena. Spain, as we have related else- 
 where, was a source of great wealth to Car- 
 thage, and the government of the province 
 was administered according to a carefully 
 
1060 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 arranged system. It was not long before 
 the Carthaginians in their efforts to extend 
 their dominions in the peninsula came in 
 conflict with the Greeks. The Greek colo- 
 nies of Saguntum and Emporise being hard 
 pressed by the Punic forces, applied for aid 
 to the Romans, who granted it and com- 
 pelled the Carthaginians to respect the in- 
 dependence of Saguntum and to enter into 
 an agreement not to seek to extend their 
 territory beyond the Ebro. When Hanni- 
 bal succeeded to the command in Spain he 
 resolved not to observe this agreement, and 
 in B. c. 219 captured and destroyed Sagun- 
 tum. This act drew upon Carthage the 
 vengeance of Rome, and brought on the 
 second Punic war. During this struggle 
 Seipio expelled the Carthaginians from 
 Spain, B. c. 206. 
 
 Having made themselves masters of the 
 Carthaginian dominions, the Romans under- 
 took the conquest of the entire peninsula. 
 This required of them a constant war of 
 nearly two hundred years. The leading 
 events of these wars have been related in 
 the history of Rome, and need not be re- 
 peated here. In b. c. 19 the subjugation 
 of the entire peninsula, with the exception 
 of the Basques, was completed. 
 
 Augustus divided the peninsula into 
 three provinces. Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 the first of these, comprised the north, east, 
 and centre; Hispania Boetica, the second, 
 comprised the south of Spain, with Cordova 
 for its capital ; and Lusitania, the third, 
 was nearly identical with the modern king- 
 dom of Portugal. Roman institutions were 
 introduced, and under Augustus and his 
 successors the peninsula became one of the 
 principal seats of the civilization and learn- 
 ing of the empire. Christianity was intro- 
 duced into Spain during the time of the 
 apostles, and under Constantine the Great 
 the Christianization of the peninsula was 
 entirely accomplished. 
 
 The rapid decline of the Roman empire 
 allowed the German tribes to pass the bar- 
 rier of the Rhine and overrun Gaul. From 
 this province they crossed the Pyrenees and 
 entered Spain. The Suevi, under their 
 King Hermeric, the Alans under Atace, 
 and the Vandals under Gunderic swept 
 over the mountains and descended upon the 
 peninsula, A. d. 409. These barbarous 
 tribes ravaged the peninsula with fire and 
 sword, and spread suffering and desolation 
 on all sides. When they had almost turned 
 the country into a wilderness, they suddenly 
 
 paused, and divided it between them by 
 lot. Galicia and a large part of Leon and 
 Castile fell to the Suevi, who established a 
 powerful kingdom there; Lusitania was 
 given to the Alans ; and Boetica or southern 
 Spain passed into the hands of the Vandals. 
 
 In A. D. 411 a fourth nation made its 
 appearance in Spain. The Emperor Hono- 
 rius, the reader will remember, in order to 
 save Italy from the Goths, had offered them 
 the tempting provinces of southern Gaul 
 and Spain, and they had accepted the offer. 
 Having established their dominion in south- 
 ern Gaul, they now burst through the 
 Pyrenees under their King Ataulphus, and 
 established themselves in northeastern Spain, 
 from which they undertook several expe- 
 ditions against the Vandals. Ataulphus, 
 Avho had married Placidia, the sister of 
 Honorius, deemed it best to become the 
 ally of the Romans. This drew upon hira 
 the hostility of his chieftains, who despised 
 the Romans, and he was murdered within 
 the year after his entrance into Spain. 
 His successor, Sigeric, was a cruel rufiian, 
 and was quickly put to death by his dis- 
 gusted subjects. 
 
 The choice of the Goths now fell upon 
 Wallia, who proved himself in every way 
 worthy of it. He undertook an expedition 
 against the Roman possessions in Africa, 
 but his fleet was destroyed by a storm. 
 This disaster induced Constantius, the im- 
 perial commander in Gaul, to advance 
 towards the Pyrenees. Wallia prepared to 
 meet him, but the conflict was averted by 
 the surrender to Constantius, of Placidia, 
 the widow of Ataulphus, of whom the im- 
 perial general was deeply enamoured. This 
 done, Wallia formed an alliance with the 
 Romans against the other Barbarian tribes 
 in Spain, a. d. 417. The Vandals were 
 expelled from the territories they had oc- 
 cupied, and were forced to seek an asylum 
 among the Suevi of Galicia. The Alans 
 of Lusitania were almost exterminated ; 
 the remnant left was incorporated with the 
 Vandals ; and from this time their name 
 disappears from the history of Spain, The 
 Suevi averted their doom by placing them- 
 selves under the protection of the Romans, 
 and Wallia, who was not yet prepared to go to 
 war with Rome, allowed them to remain in 
 undisturbed possession of their territories. 
 The Emperor Honorius rewarded Wallia, 
 whom he regarded as his ally, with a gift 
 of a portion of southern France, from Tou- 
 louse to the Mediterranean. Wallia at 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1061 
 
 once repaired to his new dominions, and from 
 this time until the reign of Euric, the 
 Gothic kings, while regarding Spain as a 
 part of their dominions, remained in south- 
 ern France. 
 
 Wallia was succeeded by Theodored 
 about A. D. 420. In the reign of this king 
 the Vandals made war upon the Suevi, who 
 had received them so kindly in the last 
 reign, and drove them into the mountains 
 of Asturias, from which they were unable 
 to move them. The Vandals then left 
 Asturias and fought their way southward 
 to their old homes in Boetica. There they 
 maintained themselves in spite of the efforts 
 of the imperial generals to dislodge them. 
 They gave to their country the name of 
 Vandalicia, which has in time been softened 
 into Andalnsia. Having command of the 
 sea, their fleets spread terror along the 
 Spanish coast and the islands of the Medi- 
 terranean. . In A. D. 427 they undertook 
 the conquest of the Roman province of 
 Africa, as has been related. The Suevi 
 now took heart, and issuing from their 
 mountain retreats soon regained Galicia. 
 They extended their dominions steadily, 
 and in 438 pushed their conquests into 
 southern Spain, routed the Romans on the 
 banks of the Xenil, and seized Merida and 
 Seville. For the next ten years Richilan, 
 the Suevic king, ruled this extensive realm 
 with a firm hand. 
 
 Theodored in the meantime had been en- 
 gaged in humbling the Roman power in 
 southern Gaul. Having accomplished this, 
 he was about to march against the Suevi in 
 Spain, when he was summoned to take part 
 in the struggle against the Huns under At- 
 tila. He was slain in the great battle of 
 Chalons, as has been related, and the Goths 
 conferred their crown upon his son Thorsi- 
 mund. The new king was murdered within 
 a year by his two brothers, the elder of 
 whom succeeded him as Theodoric I. This 
 monarch subdued the Suevi, but being 
 obliged to return to France, his army was 
 cut to pieces by the people of Leon, in re- 
 venge for the excesses it committed. The 
 country now fell rapidly into a state of 
 anarchy, and the sufferings of the people 
 were very great. The state of affairs in 
 France prevented Theodoric from returning 
 to Spain. He had just tranquillized his 
 Gallic dominions, and was preparing to re- 
 turn to the peninsula, when he was assas- 
 sinated, it is said by his brother Euric, 
 A. D. 466, 
 
 Euric was a great prince. He subdued 
 the Suevi, re-established his authority in 
 Andalusia, and brought the whole of cen- 
 tral and northeastern Spain under his sway. 
 He permitted the Suevi to retain Galicia, 
 with a portion of modern Leon and Por- 
 tugal, under their own kings ; but made 
 the Suevic monarch his vassal, and for the 
 next hundred years the Suevi submitted in 
 peace to the Gothic rule. Euric drove out 
 the Romans, wresting from them Tarra- 
 gona, their last stronghold, and made him- 
 self master of the entire peninsula. He 
 next enlarged his dominions in Gaul at the 
 expense of the Romans and Burgundians, 
 and compelled Odoacer, the Gothic King 
 of Italy, to surrender to him all the 
 Roman possessions in Gaul beyond the 
 Alps, as far as the Rhine and the sea. 
 From this time the Goths regarded Gaul 
 and Spain as constituting their proper 
 kingdom. Euric established his capital at 
 Aries, where he died in 483. He is justly 
 regarded as the founder of the Gothic king- 
 dom of Spain. His predecessors had been 
 rulers of Gaul, having but a feeble hold on 
 tlie peninsula. Euric held Spain with a 
 firm grasp, and gave to it its first code of 
 laws. The chief blot on his memory is the 
 fury with which he persecuted the Roman 
 Catholics, to whom, as an Arian, he was 
 bitterly opposed. 
 
 Euric was succeeded by his son Alaric, 
 a feeble prince. He reigned twenty-three 
 years. During the latter part of his reign 
 he became involved in a war with Clovis, 
 the King of the Franks, who stripped him 
 of the greater part of his possessions in 
 France. He died in 506, leaving a son 
 who was too young to be intrusted with the 
 government. In view of this the Goths 
 conferred the crown upon Gensaleic, the 
 illegitimate brother of Alaric. He was 
 hard pressed by the Franks and Burgun- 
 dians, who besieged him in Carcassonne. 
 Theodoric, the powerful King of the Ostro- 
 goths, the father of the wife of Alaric, now 
 took the field, not only against Clovis, but 
 also against the Visigothic king, whom he 
 regarded as having unlawfully usurped the 
 throne of his grandson. He compelled 
 Clovis to sue for peace, and defeated 
 Gensaleic and put him to death. Then 
 disregarding the rights of his grandson, he 
 made himself King of Spain, as Theodoric 
 II. He never established his court in Spain, 
 but intrusted the government to Theudis, 
 I one of his ablest generals. He inaugurated 
 
1062 
 
 THE ILLUSTBATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 a rule of justice and order, and, though an 
 Arian, protected the Catholics in the exer- 
 cise of their religion. In 522 he resigned 
 the Spanish crown to his grandson Ama- 
 laric, and died four years later. 
 
 Amalaric established his court at Seville, 
 being the first Gothic King of Spain to re- 
 side in that country. He ceded to Atha- 
 laric, the successor of Theodoric, his Gallic 
 territory between the Rhone and the Alps. 
 He married Clotilda, the daughter of Clovis, 
 but this princess being a Catholic, brought 
 only trouble to her Arian husband. Their 
 quarrels over their religious faith were so 
 fierce, that Amalaric treated his wife with 
 indignity, and she appealed to her brother 
 Childebert, King of the Franks, for pro- 
 tection. Childebert invaded Spain, defeated 
 and slew Amalaric in a great battle in 
 Catalonia, and returned to France laden 
 with the plunder of the Arian churches, A. D. 
 531. The Gothic crown was now conferred 
 upon Theudis, who had governed Spain for 
 Theodoric II. He was obliged to give up 
 his possessions in Gaul, but succeeded in 
 defending the peninsula against the attacks 
 of the Frankish kings. He was a wise and 
 able ruler, and was long remembered by 
 his people. He was assassinated in 548, 
 He was succeeded by Theudisdel, who had 
 been one of his generals, but this prince 
 treated his people so badly, that they mur- 
 dered him the next year. Agilan, his suc- 
 cessor, had a troubled reign of five years, 
 the southern part of Spain refusing to 
 recognize hira as king. He was defeated 
 and slain, a. d. 554, 
 
 Athanagild, the leader of the rebels, now 
 became King of Spain. To aid hira in his 
 revolt he had called in the troops of the 
 Emperor Justinian. He now demanded 
 their withdrawal from the country ; but 
 they refused to leave, and established 
 themselves in the province of Carthageua, 
 from which they made frequent inroads 
 into the neighboring provinces. The Gothic 
 king was unable to expel them, and they 
 held the places they had seized until in the 
 course of time they were absorbed in the 
 Gothic nation. During this reign the 
 Suevi, who had been converted to Arianism 
 a century before, abandoned that faith for 
 Catholicism, A. D. 560. In 567 Athana- 
 gild died, after a peaceful and useful reign 
 of fourteen years. He was succeeded by 
 Liuva, who died three years later. 
 
 Leovigild, the brother of Liuva, came to 
 the throne in a. d. 570. He was one of the 
 
 greatest of the Gothic kings. He drove the 
 imperialists out of Granada, and put down 
 several revolts against his authority. This 
 required ten years of constant efibrt, but at 
 length his authority was firmly established 
 throughout Spain. In 582 he associated 
 his oldest son, Ermenigild, in the govern- 
 ment with him, and secured for him the 
 hand of the Frankish Princess Ingunda. 
 This princess was a Catholic, and won her 
 husband over to that faith. Ermenigild 
 soon after took up arms against his father, 
 but was conquered after a desperate strug- 
 gle and forced to submit. He was par- 
 doned, but deprived of his royal dignity, 
 and soon rebelled again. He was again 
 subdued, and this time was put to death by 
 his father's order. The Catholic Church 
 has always regarded hira as a martyr for 
 his religion, and has canonized him. Upon 
 the death of Ermenigild, the Frankish 
 king, the brother of his widow, took up 
 arms to avenge him, and the Suevi threw 
 off their allegiance and joined tlie Franks. 
 With the aid of his second son, Recared, 
 Leovigild beat back the Franks and sub- 
 dued the Suevi. He put an end to the 
 Suevic kingdom, and annexed their posses- 
 sions to the crown of Spain. Leovigild was 
 a violent persecutor of the Catholic party. 
 He plundered their churches, and with the 
 riches thus amassed surrounded hiraself 
 with a brilliant court. He did much for 
 the improvement of his kingdom, and is 
 the first of the Visigothic kings represented 
 in the ancient coins with the royal crown 
 upon his head. He died in 587. 
 
 Recared I. succeeded his father as sole 
 king of the Goths, and was promptly ac- 
 knowledged throughout the peninsula. In 
 589 he renounced Arianism and embraced 
 Catholicism. His example was followed by 
 the entire Gothic nation. This step put an 
 end to religious dissensions in Spain, and 
 did much to unite the Goths, the Latins, 
 and the native Spaniards into one Spanish 
 nationality, with a general prevalence of 
 the Latin element. He defeated the efforts 
 of the Franks to invade Spain, subdued the 
 Basques, and chastised the imperialists and 
 confined them to their fortresses on the 
 coast. It is one of the inconsistencies of 
 Spanish history that this handful of im- 
 perialists should have been able to main- 
 tain themselves on the coasts of so powerful 
 a kingdom, in defiance of an able king and 
 a warlike nation. Recared's reign was 
 highly beneficial to his people, to whom he 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1063 
 
 was a liberal and enlightened sovereign. 
 He died in 601. 
 
 The reigns of the eleven kings who fol- 
 lowed Recared were uneventful and but 
 little is known of them. Their names and 
 the dates of their reigns are as follows : 
 Liuva, 601 to 603 ; Witeric, 603 to 610 ; 
 Gundemar, 610 to 612; Sisebert, 612 to 
 €21 ; Recared II., who reigned three 
 months ; Swintila, 621 to 631 ; Sisenand, 
 631 to 636 ; Chintila, 636 to 640 ; Tulga, 
 640 to 642; Chindaswiud, 642 to 649; 
 Receswind, 649 to 672. Of these kings the 
 most noted were Sisebert, who won signal 
 successes over the Basques, wrested a num- 
 ber of fortresses from the imperialists, and 
 persecuted the Jews ; Swintila, who reduced 
 all the fortresses of the imperialists, and so 
 €nded forever their influence in Spain ; and 
 Receswind, Avho ruled his kingdom with a 
 firm hand, putting down all opposition to 
 him with vigor and promptness, and who 
 caused the enactment of a law by which 
 future kings were required to transmit their 
 wealth to their successors on the throne, and 
 not to their children. 
 
 At the death of Receswind the choice of 
 the Gothic electors fell upon Wamba, 
 whose virtues and wisdom were well known 
 to the whole nation. For a long time he 
 refused the crown, but was at length com- 
 pelled to accept it by the threat of death in 
 case of his continued refusal. Soon after 
 his accession, in 673, revolts broke out in 
 various parts of the kingdom. Wamba, 
 who had accepted the crown with so much 
 reluctance, was prompt, now that he had 
 assumed it, to maintain its authority. He 
 put down the outbreaks with rapidity and 
 firmness, and compelled the rebels to sue 
 for mercy. He banished from his kingdom 
 all the Jews who refused to be baptized, 
 and so drove many into nominal baptism 
 to escape exile, but left them greatly 
 exasperated against him. He defeated an 
 attempt of the Arabs, who had conquered 
 the northern shore of Africa, to invade 
 Spain, and had he been succeeded by mon- 
 archs of equal vigor and prudence, the sub- 
 sequent conquest of Spain by the Saracens 
 would have been impossible. He was 
 rigidly just and incorruptible in the admin- 
 istration of his kingdom, uniting moderation 
 with firmness, and was greatly beloved by 
 his people. On the 14th of October, 680, 
 the king fell ill and quickly passed into a 
 comatose state. His attendants, supposing 
 him dead, prepared him for burial, in 
 
 accordance with the custom of the times, 
 by shaving his head and enveloping him in 
 a penitential habit. " In other words, he 
 was transformed from a layman into a 
 member of the monastic profession," and 
 was thus rendered incapable of holding the 
 throne. He recovered his consciousness 
 within twenty-four hours, but his fate had 
 been irrevocably decided for him, and he 
 was compelled to retire into a monastery, 
 where he died some years later. 
 
 Wamba was succeeded by Ervigius, a 
 nephew of King Chindaswiud. His reign 
 was uneventful ; he died in 687 and was 
 succeeded by Egica, a brother of Wamba, 
 whose reign is memorable chiefly for the 
 severe laws against the Jews, who were sus- 
 pected of seeking to induce the Arabs of 
 northern Africa to invade Spain. Witiza, 
 the son of Egica, came to the throne in 
 701. The first part of his reign appears to 
 have been just and prosperous, but iu the 
 end he became a cruel and lustful tyrant. 
 His last years are enveloped in uncertainty, 
 but it seems that his cruelties provoked a 
 rebellion against him, headed by Roderic, 
 a powerful noble. All that is known with 
 certainty is, that in 709 Witiza's reign 
 came to an end and Roderic ascended the 
 throne of the Goths. 
 
 Roderic does not appear to have been 
 much better than his predecessor. He soon 
 raised up a powerful opposition. The rela- 
 tives of Witiza, at the head of whom was 
 Count Julian, refused to recognize his 
 authority. According to some writers. 
 Count Julian was governor of the fortresses 
 of Tangier and Ceuta, on the African shore 
 opposite Gibraltar. King Roderic, having 
 dishonored the Lady Florinda, the only 
 daughter of Julian, the father resolved to 
 be revenged upon the Gothic king, and in- 
 vited the Saracens to invade Spain, and 
 placed in their hands the African fortresses 
 commanding the entrance into that coun- 
 try. Other authorities deny the story of 
 Florinda, and state that Julian was in- 
 fluenced in making his offer by his loyalty 
 to the house of Witiza and his hatred of 
 Roderic, whom he regarded as a usurper. 
 Be this as it may, it is certain that Julian, 
 as one of the leaders of the opposition to 
 Roderic, placed the African fortresses in the 
 hands of the Saracen General Muza. It 
 can hardly be supposed that the discon- 
 tented Goths desired the conquest or pos- 
 session of the peninsula by the Moslems, or 
 that they clearly foresaw that such would 
 
1064 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 be the result. The Spanish writers gen- 
 erally intimate that Count Julian "little 
 expected the horrors which ensued." 
 
 Muza, the Mohammedan leader in Africa, 
 acted with caution even after he had gotten 
 the African fortresses into his hands. At 
 length, having satisfied himself that the 
 splendor of the Gothic monarchy merely 
 covered a state rotten to the core, he pre- 
 pared for the invasion of Spain. On the 
 30th of April, 711, a strong force under 
 Tarik, a veteran and skilful leader, landed 
 at Gibraltar, which obtains its name (Gibal- 
 Tarik, mountain of Tarik) from him. The 
 
 before them. "Within ten years from the 
 landing of Tarik the Moslems had overrun 
 all of Spain save the mountainous districts 
 of Asturias, Cantabria, and Navarre. Into 
 this region the Christians retired, and 
 under their King Pelayo, whom they chose 
 as Roderic's successor, successfully resisted 
 all the efforts of the Saracens to dislodge 
 them. 
 
 The Saracen conquest of Spain was ac- 
 companied with great cruelty on the part 
 of the conquerors. The country was at first 
 held as a province of the Eastern khalifate, 
 and was governed by viceroys. In 732, as 
 
 COURT OF LIONS— ALHAMBKA. 
 
 first resistance of the Goths was overcome, 
 and Tarik advanced rapidly northward. 
 Roderic assembled all his forces to meet 
 him, but was defeated and slain in a great 
 battle at Xeres de la Froutera, on the 
 western bank of the Gaudaleta. This vic- 
 tory was followed by the rapid conquest of 
 southern Spain. Cordova, Malaga, and 
 Toledo were taken, and, Tarik having been 
 joined by Muza, his superior, with fresh 
 forces, Seville and Merida were taken. In 
 spite of the dissensions between Muza and 
 Tarik, the Arabs steadily pushed their con- 
 quests northward, forcing the Goths back 
 
 has been related, the Saracens felt them- 
 selves strong enough to attempt the con- 
 quest of western Europe. An immense 
 host, recruited from all parts of Asia and 
 Africa, passed the Pyi-euees, and entered 
 southern France. It was utterly routed by 
 the Franks under Charles Martel, in the 
 great battle of Tours, and driven back into 
 Spain. 
 
 The reigns of the viceroys lasted forty 
 years, and in the whole of that period there 
 was little else but civil war among the Mo- 
 hammedan factions. " So mutable had 
 been the government that twenty different 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1065 
 
 emirs had been called or had raised them- 
 selves to direct it. Jealousy, hatred, dis- 
 trust of oue another, open revolt, successful 
 rebellions, forced submission, and a longing 
 for revenge, with regard to the viceroys, 
 had perpetually signalized the administra- 
 tion of the Arabs. The khalifs were too 
 remote and too much occupied with nearer 
 interests to apply a reasonable remedy to 
 those evils ; the Governors of Almagreb had 
 lost their delegated jurisdiction ; yet at this 
 very time, when no sheik or wall would 
 recognize a superior — when the Mohamme- 
 dan society of the peninsula was thus fear- 
 fully disorganized — the Christians of the 
 Asturias were consolidating their infant 
 power, and were naturally alive to every 
 advantage that could be gained over the 
 odious strangers." The more thoughtful 
 of the Arab chiefs recognized the danger to 
 which the unsettled state of their conquests 
 exposed them, and resolved to avert it by 
 erecting Spain into an independent mon- 
 archy. Accordingly about eighty of them 
 assembled at Cordova, and agreed to offer 
 the crown of the new kingdom to Abder- 
 ahman, the last surviving son of the last 
 khalif of the line of the Ommiyades (or 
 descendants of Omar), who had escaped the 
 massacre of his family by the Khalif Abbas, 
 and was then in concealment in northern 
 Africa. It was necessary to act with se- 
 cresy, however, lest the matter should come 
 to the ears of Yussuf, the reigning Viceroy 
 of the Khalif of Damascus. A deputation 
 was sent to Africa, and the crown was of- 
 fered to Abderahman, who promptly ac- 
 cepted it, and set out for Spain accompanied 
 by a force of 750 well-armed horsemen. 
 He landed on the coast of Andalusia early 
 in 755, and was received by the people with 
 enthusiasm. He soon found himself at the 
 head of a considerable army. During the 
 year he defeated the forces of the viceroy 
 in several hard-fought battles, and finally 
 compelled him to surrender. The entire 
 peninsula, except the northern mountains, 
 which were held by the Christians, now 
 acknowledged Abderahman as king. He 
 fixed his capital at Cordova, which he 
 greatly improved and strengthened. Though 
 the great bulk of the Mohammedans in 
 Spain were warmly attached to Abderah- 
 man, the house of Abbas still had many 
 partisans in the peninsula. These greatly 
 disturbed the reign of the king by their 
 frequent insurrections, to quell which re- 
 quired many active and bard-fought cam- 
 
 paigns. In one of these struggles Charle- 
 magne made an expedition into Spain in 
 aid of the rebels, as we have related. The 
 result w-as the addition of a portion of 
 Spain to the empire of the Frankish mon- 
 arch. Soon after the return of Charlemagne 
 to his own dominions Abderahman recov- 
 ered the territory thus lost. The Saracen 
 king had several wars with the Christian 
 kingdom of Asturias, but did not succeed 
 in conquering it. In A. d. 787 Abderah- 
 man died. He was a just and generous 
 king, scrupulously honorable in all his 
 dealings, a lover of justice, and a promoter 
 of religion. He founded schools and en- 
 couraged literature in his kingdom. " Mo- 
 hammedan Spain wanted a hero and legis- 
 lator to lay the first stone of her prosperity, 
 and she found both in him." 
 
 Abderahman was succeeded by his young- 
 est son, Hixem the Good. This monarch 
 endeavored to conquer the Christian king- 
 dom of Asturias, but was defeated. He 
 died in 796, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Alhakem, a whimsical tyrant. In 807 
 Louis, the son of Charlemagne, invaded 
 Spain, and took a number of fortified 
 places. The territory thus acquired was 
 erected by Charlemagne into "the Spanish 
 March," and a governor was appointed, 
 whose residence was fixed at Barcelona. 
 
 The Moorish kingdom of Spain lasted 
 for three centuries. At first its spiritual 
 allegiance was paid to the Khalif of Bag- 
 dad (the Eastern khalif having removed 
 from Damascus to Bagdad in the reign of 
 Abderahman I.), but in A. D. 912 Abder- 
 ahman III. took the title of khalif, and 
 from this time until the decay of the 
 Moorish power there was a Khalif of Cor- 
 dova as well as a Khalif of Bagdad. Under 
 the Moorish sovereigns of Spain the penin- 
 sula attained a high degree of prosperity; 
 agriculture, commerce, science and art 
 flourished, and the schools of the Spanish 
 Mohammedans became so justly celebrated 
 that they attracted students from all parts 
 of Christian Europe. Under these sover- 
 eigns the Jews of Spain passed their hap- 
 piest days in Europe, and it was during 
 this period that the mediaeval literature of 
 the Hebrews reached its highest develop- 
 ment. The INIoors deprived the Christians 
 who remained among them of their civil 
 rights, but protected them in the free exer- 
 cise of their religion. The manners and 
 customs of the Moors prevailed throughout 
 the greater part of Spain, and during the."** 
 
1066 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 centuries the peninsula was as thoroughly 
 Arab as the opposite shores of Africa. 
 
 Early in the eleventh century the khali- 
 fate of Cordova became the prey of internal 
 dissensions. These rapidly sapped its 
 power, and in 1031, only thirty years after 
 the reign of Almansor, one of the most pow- 
 erful of the khalifs, it ceased to exist. " It 
 can scarcely be said to have declined; it 
 fell at once. . . . Other kingdoms, indeed, 
 as powerful as Cordova, have been as 
 speedily, perhaps, deprived of their inde- 
 pendence ; but if they have been subdued 
 by invading enemies, their resources, their 
 vigor, to a certain extent their greatness, 
 have long survived their loss of that bless- 
 ing. Cordova, in the very fulness of her 
 strength, was torn to pieces by her turbu- 
 lent children." 
 
 Upon the ruins, of the khalifate of Cor- 
 dova a number of petty states sprang up, 
 always at variance among themselves ; and 
 thus affording the Christians of the north 
 the opportunity of extending their domin- 
 ions at the expense of the Saracens. For 
 two centuries — from A. D. 1031 to 1238 — • 
 Mohammedan Spain continued thus di- 
 vided. 
 
 At length, in 1238, the kingdom of 
 Granada was founded by Mohammed Ben 
 Alhamar, a great and warlike sovereign, 
 who collected in his new realm the great 
 body of his countrymen whom the steadily 
 advancing arms of the Chi'istians had 
 driven south wapd. For two centuries 
 Granada continued a prosperous and pow- 
 erful state, inhabited by a numerous popu- 
 lation. It became celebrated for its culture 
 and refinement, of which the beautiful 
 Castle of the Alhambra is a lasting monu- 
 ment ; art and science flourished ; and the 
 kingdom was adorned with noble and useful 
 public works. 
 
 In the meantime the Christian kingdom 
 of Asturias and Leon, founded by Pelayo, 
 had flourished in spite of all the efforts of 
 the Saracens to crush it. It was at first 
 confined to the district of Oviedo. A state 
 of constant war was maintained with the 
 Saracens, and in the course of time the 
 Christians were enabled to extend their 
 territories southward. Alfonso I., called 
 "the Catholic," the third sovereign, and 
 theson-in-lawof Pelayo, came to the throne 
 in 739. He conquered Galicia, and parts 
 of Leon and Castile, annexed them to his 
 dominions, and took the title of King of 
 Asturias. Alfonso III., who became king 
 
 in 866, conquered the whole of Leon, and 
 removed his capital to the city of Leon. 
 During his reign, in the year 873, Navarre 
 became independent of Asturias, and event- 
 ually grew into a powerful kingdom. About 
 982 Castile, which had been subject to 
 Leon, recovered its independence, and early 
 in the next century it was erected by its 
 rulers into a kingdom. In 1037 Ferdinand 
 L, called the Great, united the kingdom 
 of Leon with Castile, and the new state was 
 from this time the strongest power in Spain. 
 In 1035 Aragon, which had formed a part 
 of the kingdom of Navarre, became an in- 
 dependent kingdom under Ramiro I. Fer- 
 nando I., at his death, in 1065, gave his 
 crown of Asturias and Leon to his son, Al- 
 fonso VI., and Castile to Sancho II., his 
 eldest son. In 1071, at the death of Sancho, 
 between whom and his brother there had 
 been almost constant war, Alfonso VI. se- 
 cured the crown of Castile, and so united 
 the two kingdoms again. At his death he 
 divided his dominions among his children. 
 
 During all this time the Christian kings 
 of the north had been pressing the Moors 
 farther southward. The growing weakness 
 and divisions of the khalifate of Cordova 
 enabled them to do this with comparative 
 ease, and the state of affairs which followed 
 the fall of that monarchy gave them au 
 opportunity of greatly increasing their do- 
 minions, by which they were quick to profit. 
 Alfonso VI., of Leon and Castile, won back 
 the old capital of Toledo, and came near 
 driving the Moors out of Spain. To this 
 reign belong the romantic exploits of the 
 Cid, the great hero of Spanish history, 
 whose career belongs more to the realms of 
 fiction than to the domain of sober history. 
 Alfonso destroyed the Moorish kingdom of 
 Toledo, made that city his residence, and 
 gave to his conquests the name of New Cas- 
 tile. About 1095 Alfonso erected Portugal 
 into a separate county. In 1139 it re- 
 nounced its allegiance to Leon and Castile, 
 and became a separate kingdom. 
 
 During the twelfth century the kingdom 
 of Aragon grew rapidly in strength and 
 importance. In 1118 Alfonso I. of Aragon 
 took Saragossa, the chief city of eastern 
 Spain, from the Moors. 
 
 Little by little the Christians pushed the 
 Moors southward, and made themselves 
 masters of Spain. Towards the middle of 
 the twelfth century the peninsula contained 
 the Moorish kingdoms of Cordova and 
 Granada, and the Christian kingdoms of 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1067 
 
 Aragon, Navarre, Castile, Leon, and Por- 
 tugal. The Christian kingdoms were gen- 
 erally divided against each other, especially 
 after the death of Alfonso VIII. in 1159. 
 The Saracens on the other hand, though 
 divided among themselves, presented a solid 
 front to the Christians, and "with the aid of 
 fresh recruits from Africa, maintained their 
 hold upon Andalusia. Towards the close 
 of the eleventh century the Moorish sect of 
 the Almoravides, who had established their 
 dynasty in Morocco, invaded Spain, over- 
 threw the kingdom of Seville, and rapidly 
 brought the other Moorish territories in 
 Spain under their sway. Towards the 
 latter part of the twelfth century this dy- 
 nasty was overthrown in Africa by the 
 Almohades, to whom Moorish Spain was 
 compelled to submit. The khalifs of this 
 house were enabled by the dissensions of 
 the Christian states to win back some of 
 the territory that had been lost by the 
 Moors. 
 
 The death of the Almohade Khalif Jacob 
 (Yacub Ben Yussef ), the greatest of his 
 line, in A. D. 1198, relieved the Christians 
 of a formidable enemy. Putting an end to 
 their quarrels they combined, and inflicted 
 a severe defeat upon the Moors in the great 
 battle of the Navas de Tolosa, in 1212. 
 This terrible blow was fatal to the ^Moorish 
 power in Spain, which from this time de- 
 clined steadily. 
 
 In 1217 Ferdinand III., called Saint 
 Ferdinand, came to the throne of Castile. 
 He reigned until 1252. In 1230 he united 
 the crowns of Castile and Leon, which were 
 never again separated, and extending his 
 territories southward at the expense of the 
 Moors, won back a large portion of the 
 peninsula, including the cities of Seville 
 and Cordova. 
 
 While Castile and Leon were thus ad- 
 vancing, Aragon and Portugal were steadily 
 pushing their conquests in the east and 
 west of the peninsula. Aragon, as we have 
 seen in narrating the history of other coun- 
 tries, was the only Spanish kingdom which 
 concerned itself with European affairs at 
 this period. The greatest of the Kings of 
 j\ragon was James the Conqueror, who 
 reigned from 1213 to 1276. His son Pedro 
 married the daughter of Manfred, King of 
 Sicily, and thus began the connection be- 
 tween Aragon and the Sicilies. Castile and 
 Portugal w-ere the principal states engaged 
 in the work of redeeming the peninsula 
 from the floors, who were finally driven 
 
 within the southern part of Spain, where 
 in 1238 they set up the kingdom of Gra- 
 nada. The northern frontier of this king- 
 dom was formed by a chain of high moun- 
 tains, which protected it like a wall, and 
 for two centuries enabled it to resist the 
 attacks of the Christians. 
 
 The history of the Spanish kingdoms 
 during the fourteenth century is unimpor- 
 tant. The Moors were confined to their 
 kingdom of Granada, and though there 
 were several wars between them and the 
 kingdom of Castile and Leon, now the 
 most powerful of the Spanish states, yet 
 were they compelled to remain within the 
 line of the southern mountains. The Chris- 
 tian kingdoms passed the century in quar- 
 relling with each other. In Castile Pedro 
 the Cruel came to the throne in 1350. His 
 cruelties rendered him odious to his people, 
 and his murder of his wife, Blanche of 
 Bourbon, sister of the Queen of France, 
 drew upon him the hostility of the French 
 king. At length his brother, Henry of 
 Trastamara, took up arms against him, but 
 was driven out of the kingdom. He fled 
 to the French court, and asked aid of 
 Charles V., who sent Du Guesclin with an 
 army to assist him. As has been related, 
 the expedition was successful. Pedro was 
 forced to fly the kingdom, and Henry as- 
 cended the throne. Pedro fled to Bordeaux 
 and engaged the assistance of the Black 
 Prince, who marched into Spain, defeated 
 Henry and Du Guesclin at Navarette, in 
 April, 1367, and restored Pedro to his 
 throne. Pedro had promised to pay the 
 expenses of the war, but upon regaining 
 his throne broke his word, and left the 
 Black Prince to bear the burden alone, 
 thus alienating his only friend. The next 
 year the King of France sent Du Guesclin 
 again into Spain, and Pedro was driven 
 from the throne of Castile, and was soon 
 after slain by Henry, who was formally 
 acknowledged King of Castile and Leon. 
 
 The fifteenth century saw Spain suddenly 
 come into prominence as one of the great 
 powers of Europe. During the long mi- 
 nority of John II. the kingdom of Castile 
 and Leon was ruled by the Constable Al- 
 varo de Luna, the most powerful noble of 
 the kingdom, as regent. His rule was so 
 oppressive that the nobles, with John at 
 their head, rose against him and caused 
 him to be executed at Valladolid. John 
 was succeeded by his son Henry IV., 
 who died in 1474. As Henry left no 
 
1068 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD- 
 
 ^ 
 
 male heirs, his sister Isabella inherited the 
 crown. 
 
 Aragon, to which kingdom Catalonia had 
 been united since 1137, was the third naval 
 power of Europe, ranking next to Venice 
 
 ried Blanche, Queen of Navarre. The son 
 by this marriage, Charles, was at the death 
 of Queen Blanche the rightful heir to the 
 crown of Navarre, but his father refused to 
 allow him to ascend the throne. Charles 
 
 MAKRIAGE OF FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 and Genoa. The King of Aragou was also 
 King of Naples and Sicily. Alfonso V. 
 resided in his Italian kingdom, and his 
 brother John II., of Aragon, governed his 
 Spanish possessions as viceroy. John mar- 
 
 then took refuge with his uncle Alfonso in 
 Naples. After Alfonso's death he was re- 
 called to Spain and made to believe that 
 no opposition would be offered to his acces- 
 sion to the Navarrese throne. Soon after 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1069 
 
 his arrival in Spain he died, poisoned, it 
 was thought, by his stepmother Joanna, 
 John's second wife. The true heir to Na- 
 varre was now Charles' sister Blanche, but 
 the kingdom had been promised by treaty 
 to the Count of Foix, who had married 
 Eleanor, the younger sister of Charles. 
 Blanche fell into the hands of her sister, by 
 whom she was poisoned in 1464. John II. 
 was succeeded by his son Ferdinand. The 
 Catalans believing that Queen Joanna, 
 Ferdinand's mother, was the real author of 
 the crimes just mentioned, refused to swear 
 allegiance to him. A civil war ensued, 
 which lasted eleven years. The Catalans 
 were forced to submit, and Ferdinand be- 
 came undisputed King of Aragon in 1479. 
 Previous to this, Ferdinand married Queen 
 Isabella of Castile and Leon, in 1471, and 
 from this time, except for a very short pe- 
 riod, the crowns of Aragon and Castile 
 were united. Thus was formed the modern 
 kingdom of Spain. 
 
 The first efforts of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella were to curb the power of the lawless 
 nobles and establish the reign of law in 
 their dominions. It was the custom in both 
 realms for the sovereign to preside once a 
 week over a court of justice, in which the 
 poor, who were unable to employ counsel, 
 might plead their own cause. In 1480 Isa- 
 bella, after a long and painful hesitation, con- 
 sented to join her more bigoted husband in 
 establishing the Inquisition in Spain as a 
 royal court for the punishment of heresy 
 and similar offences. The next year 2,000 
 persons were burned at the stake in Spain, 
 and 17,000 others suffered punishments less 
 severe, by order of this terrible tribunal. 
 
 The Spanish sovereigns did not confine 
 their efforts to the ignoble work of perse- 
 cuting their subjects. A more glorious en- 
 terprise now claimed their zeal. For sev- 
 eral centuries the Moors had been confined 
 to the kingdom of Granada. In the arts 
 and sciences they had far surpassed their 
 Christian rivals, and in architecture es- 
 pecially they had attained a degree of 
 beauty, at which travellers still wonder. 
 In spite of these achievements, however, 
 the Moors had not escaped the fate of other 
 nations. Dissensions had greatly weakened 
 them, and at length the rebellion of Bo- 
 abdil against his father, the reigning king, 
 plunged the kingdom into a disastrous civil 
 war. Taking advantage of this war, the 
 Spanish sovereigns began to push their con- 
 quests beyond the mountains. In 1487 
 
 Malaga was captured after a siege of three 
 months ; other places followed, and at last, 
 in 1492, Granada, the capital of the Moorish 
 kingdom, after a gallant but fruitless de- 
 fence, surrendered to Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella. The Moors passed over to the Af- 
 rican shore to rejoin their countrymen, and 
 all Spain was united under Ferdinand and 
 Isabella. The conquest of the Moorish 
 kingdom was regarded as a fitting offset to 
 the loss of Constantinople. Unhappily, 
 Ferdinand and Isabella signalized their 
 victory by expelling all the Jews from their 
 dominions. Several hundred thousand Jews 
 were obliged to quit the kingdom, and the 
 little time allowed them for their prepara- 
 tions entailed the greatest hardships and 
 suffering upon them. Spain thus lost one 
 of the most useful, and one of the wealth- 
 iest classes of her people. The exiles set- 
 tled principally in the Mohammedan do- 
 minions, where they were kindly received. 
 " You call this a wise sovereign," said Ba- 
 jazet II. scornfully, "who impoverishes his 
 kingdom to enrich mine." 
 
 It was during this reign that Columbus 
 discovered America under the auspices of 
 the crown of Castile and Leon. The nar- 
 ration of his voyages belongs to another 
 portion of this work. 
 
 The union of the Spanish states by the 
 marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella was 
 the beginning of the greatness of Spain, 
 which must be from this time counted 
 among the great powers of Europe. The 
 expulsion of the French from Naples by 
 Gonsalvo of Cordova, in 1503, gave the 
 crown of the Two Sicilies to F-erdinand, 
 whose power was thereby greatly increased. 
 In A. D. 1504 Queen Isabella died, and the 
 last check upon the selfishness and mean- 
 ness of Ferdinand was removed. Joanna, 
 the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 was married to Philip, Archduke of Aus- 
 tria, the son of the Emperor Maximilian 
 and Mary of Burgundy. Philip and Jo- 
 anna succeeded Isabella in Castile and 
 Leon, while Ferdinand continued to reign 
 in Aragon and the Two Sicilies. Philip 
 died in 1506, and, as Joanna was insane, 
 Ferdinand became once more the actual 
 ruler of all Spain. Joanna's son Charles 
 remained under the guardianship of his 
 grandfather Maximilian. The part which 
 Ferdinand played in the affairs of Italy and 
 France has been related in the history of 
 those countries. Towards the close of his 
 reign he w^as able to increase his dominions 
 
1070 
 
 HE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 by the conquest of the little kingdom of i Sicilies, for his mother's mental condition 
 Navarre, which became a part of the king- was hopeless. In 1520, upon the death of 
 dora of Castile. The Kings of Navarre his paternal grandfather Maximilian, he 
 from this time were restricted to the princi- was elected emperor, as has been related, 
 pality of Beam, on the French side of the He was Charles I. of Spain ; but as em- 
 
 pal ity 
 
 Pyrenees. Ferdinand died in 1516. 
 
 peror, was Charles V. of Germany, by 
 
 MALAGA. 
 
 Charles, the son of Philip of Austria 
 and Joanna of Spain, had assumed in 1515 
 the government of the Low Countries which 
 he had inherited from his father. Upon 
 the death of his grandfather Ferdinand he 
 inherited the crowns of Spain and the Two 
 
 which name he is known in history. The 
 events of his reign have been related al- 
 ready as far as they concern other coun- 
 tries. It remains to mention those con- 
 nected with the history of Spain. 
 
 At the death of Ferdinand Charles was 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1071 
 
 in the Netherlands. He was at once pro- 
 claimed king at Madrid by the Spanish 
 prime minister, Cardinal Ximenes. To the 
 energy and fidelity of this able minister 
 Charles owed his undisputed accession. It 
 was not until the autumn of 1517, however, 
 that Charles visited Spain. He took with him 
 a large train of Flemings, who made them- 
 selves very unpopular in that country by 
 their insolence and rapacity. Cardinal 
 Ximenes, venturing to remonstrate with 
 the king, was removed from his offices, and 
 this ingratitude caused his death. Charles 
 now advanced his Flemish favorites to the 
 offices and dignities of the kingdom with 
 such recklessness that the Castilian cities 
 addressed to him a remonstrance upon the 
 subject, which he treated with contempt. 
 The Spaniards were greatly displeased by 
 the acceptance of the imperial crown by 
 Charles, and the cortes could scarcely be 
 prevailed upon to grant him the means of 
 maintaining his new dignity. 
 
 During the absence of Charles in Ger- 
 many, Andrew de Foix, a relative of the 
 deposed King of Navarre, invaded and 
 made himself master of the greater part of 
 that kingdom. About the same time the 
 Spaniards, indignant at the absence of 
 Charles from Spain, rose in insurrection, 
 and, obtaining possession of the insane 
 Queen Joanna, endeavored to use her au- 
 thority in their attempt to expel the regent 
 appointed by the king The junta of the 
 insurgents presented a memorial to Charles 
 demanding that he should reside in Spain, 
 and should not confer any office, civil or 
 ecclesiastical, upon a foreigner. They also 
 required that he should summon a cortes 
 or legislative assembly at least once in 
 three years, and that no member of this 
 body should receive any reward or pension 
 from the king. Other measures, equally 
 just, were demanded ; but the demands 
 were all rejected by Charles, and a civil 
 war ensued, which resulted in the triumph 
 of the king and in the more complete es- 
 tablishment of the royal authority. 
 
 Profiting by the lessons of this rebellion, 
 Charles fixed his permanent residence in 
 Spain, and by treating the rebels with 
 great clemency made himself extremely 
 popular with his subjects. lie adopted the 
 dress, language and manners of the coun- 
 try, and excluded foreigners from office in 
 the church as well as the state. While 
 thus complying with the just wishes of his 
 people, he took care to strengthen his own 
 
 power at their expense. He compelled the 
 three houses of the cortes to meet in sepa- 
 rate places, thus preventing a concert of 
 action between them, and permitted no de- 
 bate except in the presence of a presiding 
 officer appointed by himself. In contrast 
 with his condescension to the Spaniards 
 was his treatment of the Moors, a large 
 number of whom still remained in Spain. 
 These had been promised at the conquest 
 of Granada the free exercise of their re- 
 ligion. Charles, who scrupled at no dis- 
 graceful act where he thought he could 
 derive advantage from it, now broke 
 the pledge of his predecessors, and in 
 1525 commanded the Moors to change 
 their faith or quit the kingdom. Their 
 mosques were closed, and their copies of 
 the Koran confiscated. In order to prevent 
 them from reaching Africa all the ports but 
 Corunna, in the extreme north, were closed 
 to them. Somewhat later an edict was is- 
 sued consigning all, who refused to change 
 their faith, to slavery. The Moors were a 
 refined and cultivated people — the supe- 
 riors of the Spaniards in this respect — and 
 this inhuman order threw them into de- 
 spair. About 100,000 succeeded in reaching 
 Africa, but others took up arms, and large 
 numbers were slain. Some adopted the 
 religion and language of the country, but 
 were, even after this, reduced to the most 
 humiliating condition of life. The cruelty 
 of the king struck a severe blow at the 
 prosperity of his kingdom, to which pros- 
 perity the Moors had contributed in a 
 marked degree. 
 
 Charles remained eight years in Spain, 
 during which time his wars with the 
 French in Italy were conducted by his able 
 generals. In 1529 he went to Italy to 
 settle the affiiirs of that country and to 
 receive the imperial crown from the pope. 
 After his return he undertook an expedi- 
 tion against the famous Barbarossa, the 
 Kiugof Algiers, who had seized Tunis, and 
 was keeping the whole Mediterranean re- 
 gion in terror by his piracies. Barbarossa 
 was driven out of Tunis, the rightful king 
 of that country was restored, and he en- 
 gaged to suppress piracy and protect the 
 Christians in the exercise of their religion. 
 Thousands of captives were liberated by 
 the emperor, who fed, clothed, and sent 
 them back to Europe. This spirited expe- 
 dition raised the emperor's credit to a high 
 state throughout Europe. 
 
 lu 1539 the people of the Netherlauds, 
 
1072 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 which -were a part of the Spanish posses- 
 sions, having been inherited by Charles 
 from his father, were driven into rebellion 
 by the excessive taxation to which they 
 were subjected. They appealed to Francis 
 I. for aid, but the French king betrayed 
 them to the emperor, and gave Charles a 
 passage through his dominions into Flan- 
 ders, as has been related. Charles entered 
 Ghent, his native city, on the 1st of Janu- 
 ary, 1540. He was met by the principal 
 
 In the mean time the fleet of Barbarossa 
 had become so troublesome in the Medi- 
 terranean that the emperor, in 1541, under- 
 took a second expedition to Africa against 
 him. His fleet was wrecked, the expedi- 
 tion was. defeated by storms and pestilence, 
 and in December, 1541, he returned with 
 the wreck of his once formidable force to 
 Spain. The Spaniards, who had not been 
 molested at home by the pirates, had re- 
 fused to grant supplies for this expedition. 
 
 THE ESCXTKIAL— THE KESIDE^^CE OF THE KINGS OF SPAIN. 
 
 citizens, who asked pardon on their knees. 
 They found they had to deal with a master 
 in whose breast neither forgiveness nor 
 generosity had any place. The emperor 
 caused twenty of the principal magistrates 
 to be beheaded. The old Abbey of St. 
 Bavon, in whose tower hung the great bell 
 Roland, the notes of which had often 
 roused the Flemings to the defence of their 
 rights, was destroyed. The commercial 
 prosperity of Ghent was ended by the trans- 
 fer of its privileges to Antwerp. 
 
 In return the emperor ceased to convoke 
 the cortes, and, as neither the sovereign nor 
 the nobles would make any concession to 
 the other side, the will of the king began 
 to be the only law which prevailed in the 
 kingdom. 
 
 The events of the latter part of the 
 reign of Charles concerned Italy and Ger- 
 many more than Spain, and have been re- 
 lated in connection with the history of 
 those countries. In 1555 the emperor, who 
 was worn out with the cares and disap- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1073 
 
 pointraents which had been gradually thick- 
 ening about him, began to put in execution 
 the design he had long contemplated, of 
 withdrawing from public life. In October 
 of that year he recalled his son Philip, who 
 had married Mary of England, and in an 
 assembly at Brussels conferred upon him 
 the sovereignty of the Netherlands. The 
 seventeen provinces thus confided to Philip 
 comprised the duchies of Brabant, Lim- 
 burg, Luxemburg, and Guelders ; the 
 counties of Artois, Flanders, Haiuault, 
 Namur, Zutphen, Holland, and Zealand ; 
 the margravate of Antwerp; and the 
 baronies of Mechlin, Utrecht, Friesland, 
 Overyssel, and Groningen. A few weeks 
 later the emperor resigned to Philip the 
 crowns of Spain and the Two Sicilies, with 
 the Spanish dominions in Asia, Africa and 
 America. Then, resigning the imperial 
 crown in favor of his brother Ferdinand, 
 Charles sailed from Flushing to Spain, 
 where he entered the monastery of San 
 Yuste, in Estramadura. He died there on 
 the 21st of September, 1558. 
 
 Philip II. began his reign with a war 
 with the pope, as has been related. His 
 conscience troubled him sorely about this 
 struggle, which he regarded as impious, and 
 he was glad to make peace. He had mar- 
 ried Mary of England, and had resided 
 some years in that country, where he was 
 hated. It was a relief to him to return to 
 his own dominions when summoned by his 
 father, and notwithstanding his wife's ap- 
 peals, he was fully determined to remain 
 away from her. In 1557, in order to draw 
 England into an alliance with him in his 
 war with France, he made a last brief visit 
 to that country, and secured his object by 
 threatening to desert his wife if she refused 
 to help him. His army was commanded 
 by Emmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, 
 and the war resulted to his advantage and 
 England's loss, as has been related. Dur- 
 ing the wars of the Emperor Charles and 
 those of the early part of Philip's reign the 
 Spanish infantry acquired a renown which 
 caused them to be regarded as invincible. 
 The Spanish conquests in America had be- 
 come a source of great wealth to the crown, 
 and it was believed would yield still greater 
 riches. This wealth and the valor of her 
 troops made Spain the most formidable 
 power in Europe during this century. 
 
 By the treaty of Catteau Cambresis the 
 sovereigns of France and Spain had bound 
 themselves bv a secret article to take viiror- 
 68 
 
 ous measures for the suppression of heresy 
 Avithin their dominions. Philip was a man 
 of gloomy and morose disposition, stern, 
 haughty, and cruel, and withal a most 
 bigoted Catholic. As may be supposed 
 the spirit of the Reformation, which had 
 affected all Europe so powerfully, had not 
 left Spain entirely untouched. The con- 
 stant intercourse between that country and 
 Germany during the reign of Charles V. 
 had caused the Lutheran doctrines to be 
 well known in Spain, and many persons 
 had adopted them. Bibles in the Castilian 
 tongue were generally to be found in the 
 houses of the nobles and the middle class. 
 
 PHILIP II. 
 
 Philip was greatly alarmed by these signs 
 of heresy, and at once set the Inquisition to 
 work to rid his kingdom of the evil. By a 
 cruel persecution he succeeded in banishing 
 the Bible and the Protestant doctrines from 
 Spain. He also struck down by the same 
 bloAV freedom of thought, and threw his 
 kingdom back into the barbarism from 
 which it has never yet emerged. 
 
 At the same time Philip revived the 
 cruelties of his father toward the Christian 
 Moors who still remained in Spain, They 
 inhabited the region of the Alpujarras, and 
 were known as Moriscoes. Though they 
 were nominally Christians, they secretly 
 maintained tlieir old faith. In 1566 Philip, 
 
1074 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 by an edict ordered them to discontinue the 
 use of their native language, to cease to 
 bestow Moorish names upon their offspring, 
 and to send all their children between the 
 ages of three and fifteen to Spanish schools. 
 In 1567 the Moors, driven to despair, took 
 up arms, and murdered the Christian in- 
 habitants of the region. The war which 
 Philip had thus provoked raged with great 
 cruelty for four years. The Moors were 
 almost exterminated, and in 1571 the re- 
 volt came to an end. 
 
 In 1580, the throne of Portugal being 
 vacant, was claimed by several candidates. 
 The most powerful of these was Philip of 
 Spain. Dom Antonio, the nephew of Se- 
 bastian, the last king, was crowned by the 
 Portuguese party, but Philip sent an army 
 into Portugal under the Duke of Alva, who 
 soon drove out Dom Antonio, conquered the 
 country, and compelled the Portuguese to 
 acknowledge Philip as their sovereign. He 
 conducted the war with a brutality and 
 cruelty equalled only by his conduct in the 
 
 BADAJOZ. 
 
 In the Netherlands Philip was not so 
 successful. His efforts to force the Roman 
 Catholic religion upon the people cost him, 
 as we shall see in another part of this work, 
 the larger part of that rich and prosperous 
 country, which was forever lost to Spain, 
 and brought ruin and suffering upon the 
 provinces that remained in the possession 
 of the Spanish crown. The events of the 
 struggle between Spain and the Nether- 
 lands will be related in the history of the 
 latter country, and we pass them by for the 
 present. 
 
 Netherlands. With the kingdom the for- 
 eign possessions of Portugal in Brazil, 
 Africa, and the Indies passed into Philip's 
 hands. 
 
 In the summer of 1588 Philip despatched 
 against England the expedition known as 
 the Invincible Armada. The fate of this 
 expedition has been related. He intended 
 the conquest of England as a preliminary 
 to a similar attempt upon Holland. He 
 spent large sums upon the preparation of 
 the fleet, and its failure caused him serious 
 financial embarrassment. In 1589 the 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1075 
 
 English attacked Lisbon, and destroyed a 
 numbei' of vessels laden with supplies for a 
 new armada. In 1595 a combined Eng- 
 lish and Dutch fleet attacked the Spanish 
 fleet in the harbor of Cadiz, defeated it and 
 captured the town. In 1596 a second 
 armada which Philip had collected for the 
 invasion of England was scattered by a 
 tempest. 
 
 On the 13th of September, 1598, Philip 
 II. died, after a reign of forty-two years. 
 He inherited from his father the most pow- 
 erful monarchy in Christendom. He was 
 a diligent ruler, but he did nothing but 
 bring misfortune upon his people. He 
 ruthlessly crushed the freedom and civiliza- 
 tion of Spain, and drove that country back 
 into the depths of mediaeval ignorance from 
 which it was seeking to escape ; he ruined 
 Portugal ; lost the provinces of the Nether- 
 lauds which formed the Dutch republic; 
 and reduced those which he succeeded in 
 retaining to beggary. Notwithstanding his 
 possession of the wealth of the Indies, the 
 Spanish treasury at his death was bankruj^t. 
 He made himself odious to the whole world 
 by his cruelties, and among his victim^ was 
 his eldest sou Don Carlos, whom he drove 
 to madness and death. He seemed to de- 
 light in the sufferings of others, and was 
 insensible to the better and nobler feelings 
 of our nature. He was a devoted Catholic, 
 and the greater part of his cruelties was due 
 to his bigoted determination to crush the 
 Reformation in his dominions. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his youngest and only surviving 
 son, who ascended the throne as Philip III. 
 
 A considerable part of the history of 
 Spain during the seventeenth century has 
 been related in connection with the history 
 of Germany, France, and England, and 
 need not be repeated here. At the com- 
 mencement of the reign of Philip III., 
 Spain, which had passed out of the hands 
 of the Emperor Charles V. at the height of 
 her power and glory, had fairly entered 
 upon her decline. The bigoted policy of 
 Philip II. had robbed her of her great 
 advantages and had laid the foundations 
 of her ruin ; but she was still a great and 
 formidable state at his death. It remained 
 for his successors to complete his work. 
 
 Philip III. continued his father's policy 
 of ruin. Within two years after his acces- 
 sion to the throne, he brought the persecu- 
 tion of the Moriscoes, which had continued 
 throughout the reign of Philip II., to a 
 summary end by commanding the survivors 
 
 to depart from Spain. The export of gold 
 from the kingdom was forbidden, and the 
 unhappy people were thus compelled to 
 abandon the greater part of their property, 
 which Avas seized by the state. Their exile 
 was conducted with the greatest cruelty. 
 Over 130,000 set out for Africa. Of these 
 over 95,000 died of h u nger and exhaustion on 
 the way ; 100,000 others passed into France, 
 but were required to adopt the Romau 
 Catholic religion as a condition of their re- 
 maining in the kingdom. They refused to 
 do so, and were ordered to withdraw. While 
 seeking the means of leaving France, so 
 many died in the ports of that kingdom 
 that only a wreck of the multitude that had 
 entered it succeeded in getting out of it. 
 Their loss was severely felt in Spain. Whole 
 districts among the most productive in the 
 kingdom lay idle for want of cultivators, 
 and the prosperity of the country received 
 a severe blow. Philip III. died in March, 
 1621, and was succeeded by his son Philip 
 IV., then sixteen years old. 
 
 Under the new king, who was in many 
 respects superior to his father, the decay of 
 the greatness of Spain went on with rapid- 
 ity. The part which Spain took in the 
 Thirty Years' War has been related. She 
 gained nothing by this contest, all her 
 earlier advantages being wrested from her 
 as the Avar progressed. During the latter 
 part of the war the Spanish forces were 
 obliged to suppress a revolt in their own 
 country. During the campaign of 1639- 
 40 the outrages of the Spanish army quar- 
 tered in Biscay and Catalonia drove those 
 provinces into revolt. An army of 20,000 
 Spanish troops was sent to put down the 
 outbreak, and did so with such merciless 
 fury that the rebels transferred their alle- 
 giance to France in 1641, Biscay and 
 Catalonia were formally united to the 
 French crown. ThewarAvith France Avent 
 on until 1659, when it Avas closed by the 
 peace of the Pyrenees. Spain Avas com- 
 pelled to cede to France Rousillon and the 
 county of Artois. She still held possession 
 of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the 
 duchy of Milan, the county of Burgundy, 
 and the southern Netherlands. By this 
 treaty the Infanta Maria Theresa Avas con- 
 tracted in marriage to Louis XIV. of 
 France. 
 
 Until the beginning of the Avar Avith 
 France Spain had held possession of Portu- 
 gal, Avhich had been seized by Philip II. in 
 the last century, as related. For sixty 
 
1076 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 years the little kingdom was crushed to the 
 earth by the merciless tyranny of Spain. 
 Upon the commencement of the Catalonian 
 insurrection the Portuguese troops were 
 ordered to march against the insurgents. 
 Instead of obeying, they attacked the 
 iSpanish forces in their country, defeated 
 them, and proclaimed the Duke of Bra- 
 ganza king, as John IV., A. D. 1640. The 
 Portuguese colonies, with the exception of 
 Ceuta, in Africa, drove out their Spanish 
 garrisons and renewed their allegiance to 
 their mother country. Thus was the inde- 
 pendence of Portugal re-established. The 
 house of Braganza still holds the throne in 
 that country, and a branch of it is the 
 reigning family of Brazil. 
 
 In 1647 Naples revolted, but was com- 
 pelled to submit to Spain the next year. 
 This revolt, aud the great strain put upon 
 his resources by the Thirty Years' War, 
 compelled Philip IV. to make peace with 
 the United Netherlands, and in January, 
 1648, Spain signed a treaty with the seven 
 northern provinces of the Netherlands, com- 
 prising the Dutch republic, in which she 
 acknowledged them as free and indepen- 
 dent states, and made over to them the towns 
 of Dutch Flanders and the conquests of 
 Holland in Asia, Africa, and America. 
 
 The treaty of Westphalia did not restore 
 peace between Spain and France, and the 
 war between those countries went on, as has 
 been related, until 1659, and was closed by 
 the peace of the Pyrenees. The events of 
 this part of the war have been related in 
 the History of France. By this treaty 
 Spain surrendered the last vestige of the 
 supremacy she had enjoyed in European 
 affairs since the days of Charles V. 
 
 Philip IV. died in 1665, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Charles II. As Charles 
 was the son of Philip IV. by a second mar- 
 riage, Louis XIV. of France, whose wife 
 was the eldest child of Philip, claimed the 
 Spanish Netherlands in her right. This 
 brought on a new war between France and 
 Spain, known as the War of the Spanish 
 Succession, the events of which are narrated 
 in the French history of this period. With 
 the exception of this war, the reign of 
 Chai'les was uneventful. 
 
 The treaty of Utrecht stripped Spain of 
 her Italian possessions and the Spanish 
 Netherlands, which were transferred to the 
 house of Austria ; Gibraltar and Minorca 
 were ceded to the English ; and Spain and 
 Portugal resumed their former boundaries. 
 
 Though stripped of her greatness, Spain 
 was still regarded as a formidable power, 
 and her American possessions poured into 
 her coffers a ceaseless stream of wealth. 
 Precious metals to the amount of $20,000,000 
 were annually exported to Spain from 
 America, and the products of Central 
 America, the West Indies, Mexico, and 
 South America found their way to the 
 markets of Europe only through the ports 
 of Spain. A fleet was sent once a year 
 from Spain to the ports of Cartagena, Porto 
 Bello, and Vera Cruz, and returned laden 
 with the products of the colonies. A few 
 commercial houses in the mother country 
 controlled this vast trade, and by the laws 
 of the kingdom no foreign vessels could 
 enter any Spanish colonial port for pur- 
 poses of trade, save once a year, when an 
 English ship was allowed to visit Porto 
 Bello. These narrow-minded restrictions 
 gave rise to an extensive smuggling trade, 
 and filled the waters of the West Indies 
 with pirates. 
 
 Philip V. was as narrow-minded and 
 bigoted as his predecessors. He placed 
 himself entirely in the hands of the Jesuits, 
 and during his reign 2,346 persons were 
 burned at the stake for their religious 
 views. Philip cherished the hope of suc- 
 ceeding to the French crown in case of the 
 death of Louis XV., whose health was very 
 feeble. In 1723, believing that event close 
 at hand, he abdicated the Spanish throne 
 in favor of his eldest son, Don Louis. The 
 French king suddenly recovered his health, 
 Don Louis died, and Philip resumed the 
 Spanish crown. His daughter had been 
 betrothed to Louis XV., and had been sent 
 to France to reside, as has been related. 
 She was now sent back to Madrid, and 
 Louis XV. married Marie Leszczynski. 
 
 In the war of the Polish succession Philip 
 seized Naples and Sicily, where the Aus- 
 trian rule was detested, and conferred them 
 upon Don Carlos, his son by his second 
 wife, Elizabeth of Parma. He became 
 king as Charles III., and with him began 
 the reign of the Spanish Bourbons at 
 Naples. 
 
 In the war of the Austrian succession 
 Philip, as has been related, was the ally of 
 France. Spain was not very successful in 
 this struggle. Philip died suddenly in 
 1745, and was succeeded by his son Ferdi- 
 nand VI., who withdrew from the alliance 
 and abandoned northern Italy to the Aus- 
 trians. Spain gained nothing by this war. 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESEJUT DAY 
 
 1077 
 
 During his reign Ferdinand took no 
 part in European affairs. He died in 
 1759, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Charles III., who resigned the crown of the 
 Two Sicilies to his third son, who became 
 Ferdinand IV. Charles renewed the alli- 
 ance with France, and a third family com- 
 pact bound France and Spain together. 
 Spain agreed to declare war against Eng- 
 land in May, 1762, unless peace should be 
 concluded before then. A Spanish army 
 was sent to the Portuguese frontier, and 
 that kingdom was ordered to renounce the 
 
 land, in alliance with France, and made 
 great eftbrts to regain Gibraltar. That 
 post was defended for three years and seven 
 months by the English garrison, under 
 General Eliott, against the most deter- 
 mined assaults, and in the face of extraor- 
 dinary hardships. During this period Ad- 
 miral Rodney defeated a Spanish fleet of 
 superior force off Cape St. Vincent. Peace 
 between Spain, France, the United States^ 
 and England was signed at Paris on the 
 3d of September, 1783. Spain received 
 Minorca and Florida, but could not obtain 
 
 KOYAL PALACE AT BARCELONA. 
 
 English alliance for that of the Bourbons. 
 The Portuguese king at once declared war 
 against Spain and France, and appealed to 
 England for aid. An English fleet and a 
 German and English army were sent to his 
 assistance, and the Spaniards were driven 
 out of Portugal. The allies then invaded 
 Spain, and captured several towns by way 
 of reprisals. At the opposite sides of the 
 world, the English fleet captured Havana, 
 in Cuba, Manilla, and the Philippine 
 islands. 
 
 In 1779 Spain declared war against Eng- 
 
 Gibraltar, though she offered to purchase it. 
 In 1788 Charles III. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Charles IV. In 1791 
 the Spanish king joined the general Euro- 
 pean movement for the assistance of the 
 dethroned royal family of France and the 
 restoration of the Bourbon monarchy of 
 that country. In 1793 the Convention de- 
 clared war against Spain. The death of 
 the unhappy young Louis XVII. in the 
 Temple opened the way for a peace between 
 Spain and France, and a treaty was signed 
 between those two countries in July, 17P5, 
 
1078 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 as has been related. This treaty was due 
 mainly to the exertions of the favorite 
 Godoy, a worthless profligate, who received 
 the high-sounding title of "Prince of the 
 Peace." In August, 1796, the treaty of 
 San Ildefonso was signed between France 
 and Spain, and placed the resources of 
 Spain at the disposal of the former country 
 in the war with England. Godoy, in 
 order to secure the favor of the Directory, 
 which pensioned him liberally, made the 
 affairs of Spain entirely subservient to the 
 interests of France. Spanish influence 
 succeeded in withdrawing Portugal from 
 the coalition against France. Thus mat- 
 ters stood at the close of the century. 
 
 The history of Spain from the opening of 
 the century until the downfall of Napoleon, 
 in 1815, has been told in the French history 
 of this period, and need not be repeated 
 here. 
 
 Upon the return of peace, in 1815, Ferdi- 
 nand VII. was restored to the throne of his 
 fathers. He at once re-established the In- 
 quisition and the convents, which had been 
 suppressed by the French. Tyranny was 
 restored in its most odious form, and the 
 Spanish people found that all their strug- 
 gles against Napoleon had ended in the 
 loss of their freedom. 
 
 The Spanish colonies in America, encour- 
 aged by the example of the United States, 
 had renounced their allegiance to Spain in 
 1810, upon the fall of Ferdinand, and had 
 proclaimed their independence. Upon his 
 return to his throne Ferdinand set to work 
 to recover these colonies. He made great 
 exertions and spent large sums to reconquer 
 them, but in the end failed, and the domin- 
 ion of Spain on the American continent 
 came to an end. The struggle with the 
 colonies exhausted the Spanish treasury 
 and left the army unpaid and half muti- 
 nous and the nation discontented. The 
 result was a revolution in 1820, which com- 
 pelled Ferdinand to abolish the Inquisition 
 and the convents, and restore the libex-al 
 constitution of 1812. The Holy Alliance 
 now intervened, and demanded the aboli- 
 tion of this constitution and the restoration 
 of absolutism. The cortes refused to com- 
 ply with this demand, and Spain was in- 
 vaded in 1823 by a French army under the 
 Duke of Angouleme. The liberals were 
 defeated in every quarter, and Cadiz, their 
 last stronghold, was taken in 1823. Ferdi- 
 nand VII. was restored to his absolute 
 rule, and proceeded to take vengeance upon 
 
 his enemies. The French generals endeav- 
 ored to incline him to a more liberal course, 
 but he turned a deaf ear to them and pun- 
 ished the liberal leaders that fell into his 
 power with savage cruelty. So great was 
 the discontent of the Spanish people that 
 Ferdinand was only upheld on his throne 
 by the French troops, who remained in 
 Spain for seven years. 
 
 In 1833 Ferdinand died, leaving two 
 daughters, the elder of whom was but three 
 years old. In September, 1830, he had 
 issued a j^ragmatic sanction, which annulled 
 the law excluding women from the Spanish 
 throne. Upon his death his brother, Don 
 Carlos, produced a paper which he claimed 
 was signed by Ferdinand, which revoked 
 the pragmatic sanction, and which Don 
 Carlos offered in support of his own claim 
 to the crown. Spain was at once divided 
 between two parties — the liberals, who sup- 
 ported the regency of the queen-mother, 
 Christina of Naples, and the Carlists, or 
 partisans of Don Carlos. England and 
 France favored the former, but the pope 
 and the northern powers sustained Don 
 Carlos. A civil war ensued, and the liber- 
 als finally triumphed, and procured the 
 acknowledgment of the young queen, Isa- 
 bella II. Don Carlos, however, continued 
 the war until 1840, when he was finally 
 defeated and forced to abandon the struggle. 
 
 A considerable party desired that the 
 young queen should marry her cousin, the 
 Count of Montemolin, the son and heir of 
 Don Carlos, a union which would have 
 united all the claims to the crown, and have 
 restored peace to Spain. France and Eng- 
 land, howevei*, opposed this union, and 
 Louis Philippe, as we have seen, resolved 
 to make Queen Isabella's marriage the 
 means of strengthening his dynasty. He 
 succeeded in inducing her to marry her 
 cousin, Don Francisco of Assis, who was 
 little better than an idiot, and at the same 
 time married his youngest son, the Duke 
 of Montpensier, to the Princess Maria 
 Louisa, the sister of Queen Isabella, and 
 who, from her more vigorous health, seemed 
 likely to outlive her sister. This cunning 
 scheme, so characteristic of the selfish King 
 of the French, resulted, as we have seen, in 
 more injury than benefit to the Orleans 
 monarchy. 
 
 In 1843 Queen Isabella was declared of 
 age, and from this time Spain was gov- 
 erned as a constitutional state. The queen, 
 who was a woman of notoriously evil life, 
 
FB03I THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1079 
 
 took but little part in the government, 
 which was administered principally by her 
 favorites and a succession of popular gen- 
 erals. The result was that the kingdom 
 was almost constantly in a state of civil 
 war. In 1868 Gonzales Bravo became 
 prime minister. He caused the arrest and 
 banishment of seven of the leading generals 
 of the army, and also of the Duke and 
 Duchess of Moutpensier, the latter of whom 
 the reader will remember was the sister of 
 the queen. The banished generals each 
 had adherents in the army, and a revolution 
 at once broke out. The queen's troops were 
 defeated, and she herself was driven out of 
 Spain. She took refuge in France. The 
 Bourbon dynasty was declared at an end in 
 Spain, and a provisional government was 
 set up in Madrid, with Marshal Serrano, one 
 of the banished generals, at its head. 
 
 The unhappy kingdom was once more 
 divided as to the form of government it 
 should adopt. A small, cultivated class, 
 wished to set up a republic, but the great 
 body of the nation desired a constitutional 
 monarchy. Don Carlos, a grandson of the 
 queen's uncle of the same name, proclaimed 
 himself king as Charles VII., and was sup- 
 ported by a considerable party. In June, 
 1870, Queen Isabella abdicated her crown 
 in favor of her son, the Prince of Asturias, 
 then eleven years old, and his claims were 
 supported by the French government, which 
 hoped through him to establish its influence 
 in Spain. The Spanish nation, however, 
 refused to accept him. The crown was then 
 offered to the King of Portugal, who de- 
 clined it for both himself and his brother. 
 General Prim, who had become the ruling 
 spirit of the Spanish government, then 
 selected Prince Frederick of Hohenzollern- 
 Sigmaringen, a distant relative of the King 
 of Prussia. The invitation was declined by 
 Prince Frederick in the summer of 1870, 
 
 and was transferred to his younger brother, 
 Prince Leopold. The French government, 
 as we have seen, made this choice the pre- 
 text for war with Prussia. Prince Leopold, 
 in consequenceof this, declined the Spanish 
 invitation. 
 
 After this the Spanish crown was offered 
 to Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, the second son 
 of Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, and 
 was accepted by him. He was formally 
 chosen by the cortes on the 16th of Decem- 
 ber, 1870. A few days later he set out for 
 Spain, landing at Carthagena. The festivi- 
 ties attending his arrival were brought to 
 an end by the assassination of General 
 Prim, the wisest and best of Spanish states- 
 men of the time, on the 29th of December. 
 On the 30th King Amadeo was crowned, 
 and gave his consent to a liberal constitu- 
 tion, which guaranteed civil and religious 
 liberty to the nation. Amadeo found his 
 throne anything but a bed of roses. The 
 liberal party desired still greater changes, 
 and the adherents of Don Carlos, supported 
 by the constant intrigues of the priests, 
 were plotting the overthrow of the liberal 
 monarchy. In April, 1872, the Carlists 
 rose in open rebellion in the northern prov- 
 inces; and on the 19th of July in the same 
 year a dastardly attempt was made to assas- 
 sinate the king and queen. Thoroughly 
 disgusted with his subjects, Amadeo re- 
 signed his crown on the 11th of February, 
 1873. His abdication was followed by the 
 proclamation of a republic, which, in 1875, 
 gave place to a monarchy under Alfonso, 
 the young Prince of Asturias, who is the 
 present reigning sovereign. 
 
 In 1868 a revolution broke out in Cuba. 
 The patriot party proclaimed their inde- 
 pendence of Spain, and organized a repub- 
 lic. The war still (in 1877) drags its slow 
 course, the patriots having failed to hold 
 more than a small part of the island. 
 
1080 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 THE HISTOHY OF P»OIlTXJGA.L. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRES- 
 ENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Portugal — Earliest Inhab- 
 itants—Subdued by the Romans — The Saracen 
 Conquest— Recovered by the Christians — Erected 
 into a County — Origin of the Name Portugal — 
 Sancho I. Makes Portugal a Kingdom — Reigns 
 of Alfonso II. and Dinis I.— Alfonso IV.— Murder 
 of Ifies de Castro— Fury of Dom Pedro— Reign 
 of Pedro I.— Fernando I.— Reign of Joam I.— His 
 Conquests in Africa— Maritime Enterprises and 
 Discoveries of the Portuguese— Reign of Alfonso 
 v.— Dom Pedro Driven into Rebellion — Joam II. 
 — His Great Reign — His Reforms — Failure of the 
 Plots Against him — Prosperity of Portugal — The 
 Cape of Good Hope Doubled — Manuel — The 
 Portuguese in India— Their Possessions and In- 
 fluence in the East— Discovery of Brazil — Joam 
 in.— Brazil Colonized — Sebastian — Invades Af- 
 rica — Is Defeated and Slain — Reign of Dom 
 Henry — Philip II. of Spain Seizes Portugal — The 
 Kingdom Declines under Spanish Rule — Revolu- 
 tion of 1640— The Duke of Braganza Made King 
 —War with Spain — Alfonso VI. — Battle of Villa- 
 viciosa — Alliance with England — Reigns of Pedro 
 II. and Joam V. — Reign of Maria — Dom Joam 
 Regent — Declares War Against the French Re- 
 public — Napoleon Attacks Portugal — Flight of 
 the Court to Brazil — The Peninsular War — Joam 
 VI.— Revolution of 1820— Return of the King- 
 Maria da Gloria — Brazil Becomes Independent — 
 Reigns of Pedro V. and Luiz I. 
 
 >ORTUGAL comprises the most of 
 the western portioa of the Iberian 
 peninsula of Europe. It is bounded 
 on the north and east by Spain, 
 and on the south and west by the 
 ^. Atlantic Ocean. It lies between 
 latitude 36= 57' and 42° 8' north, and longi- 
 tude 6= 12' to 9° 32' west. Its greatest 
 length from north to south is 366 miles ; 
 its greatest breadth from east to west 137 
 miles, with a general breadth of 100 miles. 
 It embraces an area of 84,500 square miles. 
 The Azores and Madeira, which form a 
 part of the kingdom, comprise an area of 
 1,237 square miles additional. The popu- 
 lation of Portugal proper is 4,298,881 ; with 
 the Azores and Madeira the population of 
 the kingdom is 4,677,562. 
 
 Portugal was originally inhabited by 
 Celtic tribes, and at an early day a profit- 
 able trade with them was carried on by the 
 Phoenicians, the Carthaginians, and the 
 Greeks. The Romans knew the country as 
 Lusitania, from its chief tribe, the Lusi- 
 tani. We have already related, in the his- 
 
 tory of Rome, the subjugation of Lusitania 
 by the Romans, which was completed about 
 B. c. 140. As we have also seen, it re- 
 mained a Roman province until the fifth 
 century of the Christian era, when it was 
 seized by the Alans upon the irruption of 
 the German barbarians into the Spanish 
 peninsula. It subsequently passed into the 
 hands of the Visigoths, who made it a part 
 of their kingdom. At the fall of the Gothic 
 kingdom, in the eighth century, Lusitania 
 was conquered by the Saracens or Moors, 
 who held it for more than two hundred 
 years. As the kingdom of Leon and Cas- 
 tile grew in strength, the Christians, as we 
 have seen, pressed the Moors backward. 
 Near the close of the eleventh century Al- 
 fonso VI. of Leon and Castile recovered a 
 large part of Lusitania from the Moors, 
 and held it firmly against them. In A. D. 
 1095 Alfonso gave the country between the 
 Minho and Douro to Henry of Burgundy, 
 his son-in-law, who took the title of Count 
 of Portugal — from Partus Caie, the ancient 
 name of the town of Oporto. Henry made 
 Guimaraens his capital, and in several vig- 
 orous campaigns extended his dominions 
 southward at the expense of the Saracens. 
 
 Henry died in 1112, and was succeeded 
 by his son, Alfonso Henriquez, who also 
 won great successes over the Moors. In 
 1137 he defeated them in the great battle 
 of Ourique, near the Tagus. He then as- 
 sumed the royal title, and ascended the 
 throne as Alfonso I. Thus was founded 
 the kingdom of Portugal. The title of Al- 
 fonso was acknowledged by the King of 
 Leon and Castile, and was confirmed by the 
 pope. He continued his wars against the 
 Moors, and on the 25th of October, 1147, 
 took Lisbon by storm. He extended his 
 authority over fully one-half of the modern 
 kingdom of Portugal, and successfully laid 
 the foundations of his country's greatness. 
 In 1143 he assembled a diet at Lamego. 
 which drew up the first code of laws of the 
 kingdom. He died in 1185. 
 
 Sancho I. became king at the death of 
 his father. He continued the wars against 
 the Moors, and succeeded in extending his 
 kingdom to its present size. He trans- 
 ferred his capital to Coimbra, and brought 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRFSENl DAY. 
 
 1081 
 
 Portugal to a high degree of prosperity 
 and power. At his death, iu 1211, he was 
 succeeded by his son, Alfonso II., the chief 
 event of whose reign was a war with Leon 
 and Castile, in which he suffered many re- 
 verses. He died in 1223, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Sancho II., who, after 
 winning several important successes over 
 the Moors and conquering a large part of 
 Algarve, the extreme southern part of 
 Portugal, became involved iu a quarrel 
 with the church. He was never very scru- 
 
 marriage invalid, but on the death of the 
 queen issued a bull legitimating the second 
 marriage and the issue arising from it. Al- 
 fonso died in 1279. 
 
 Diuis I., the son of Alfonso, succeeded to 
 the crown. Like his predecessors he soon' 
 became embroiled in a quarrel with the 
 church, but managed to effect a reconcilia- 
 tion with the pope on terms advantageous 
 to himself. He was one of the greatest of 
 the Portuguese kings. He founded up- 
 wards of forty cities, was a liberal friend of 
 
 VII.W OK Ul'UUTC). 
 
 pulous in his dealings with ecclesiastics, and 
 now seized their revenues and property 
 without compunction, and appointed his 
 favorites to the vacancies in the church. 
 He was deposed by the Council of Lyons, in 
 1245, and retired to Castile, where he died. 
 He was succeeded by his brother, Alfonso 
 III., who conquered Algarve, and annexed 
 it to his dominions. He drew upon him- 
 self the censure of the chui'ch by marrying 
 a second wife while his first was still alive. 
 Pope Alexander IV. declared the second 
 
 learning, industry, and commerce, and be- 
 gan for Portugal the career of navigation 
 and commercial enterprise which subse- 
 quently rendered her illustrious and wealthy. 
 " With great zeal iu the administration of 
 justice, he combined a liberality truly 
 royal, and a capacity of mind truly com- 
 prehensive." He was termed " the father 
 of his country " by his subjects. He died 
 iu 1325. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Alfonso IV., called "The Brave." His 
 reign would have been unimportant but 
 
1082 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 for the war he waged with Alfonso of Castile 
 to avenge the wrongs of his daughter, who 
 was the wife of the Castilian king. 
 
 Pedro, the son and heir of the Portu- 
 guese kiug, had formed a guilty connection 
 ■ with Ines de Castro, a lady of his court. 
 Fearing that Pedro would seek to marry 
 Ines after the death of his wife, Alfonso 
 caused Ines to hold over the baptismal font 
 a child of Pedro — thus forcing her to con- 
 tract what was supposed to be a spiritual 
 affinity to Pedro, too near to permit him to 
 marry her. Pedro paid no attention to 
 this, and after the death of his wafe was 
 privately married to Ines on the 1st of Jan- 
 uary, 1354. She had already borne him 
 four children. When questioned by his 
 father, Pedro denied the marriage, but 
 firmly refused to abandon Ines or to marry 
 again. Alfonso was fearful that Pedro's 
 infatuation for Ines would cause him to set 
 aside his son by his first wife, who was his 
 true heir, in favor of one of his children by 
 Ines. He consulted his courtiers, who were 
 already jealous of the favor shown by Pedro 
 to the Castros, and was advised to put Ines 
 to death. He reluctantly consented. The 
 queen and the Archbishop of Braga learned 
 of the plot, and warned Pedro of it, but he 
 disregarded their warnings, as he could not 
 believe that his father would even harbor 
 the thought of such a crime. Several 
 months later, during Pedro's absence on a 
 hunting excursion, Alfonso went to the 
 Convent of St. Clair at Coimbra, where Ines 
 was residing, to put his horrid plan in ex- 
 ecution; but the tears, the youth, and 
 beauty of Ines, and the sight of her little 
 ones, his own grandchildren, so moved him 
 that he departed, leaving them unharmed. 
 After his departure his attendants re- 
 proached him for what they termed his 
 weakness, and drew from him an order to 
 carry out the plan themselves. They at 
 once returned to the convent, and the un- 
 happy Ines perished beneath their dag- 
 gers. Pedro returned from his hunting 
 expedition soon after the assassins de- 
 parted. His grief and rage at finding his 
 wife barbarously murdered were wild. As 
 he could not revenge the deed on the per- 
 sons of the assassins, who were protected by 
 his father, he took up arms and ravaged 
 with fire and sword the provinces where 
 their chief possessions lay. Alfonso, alarmed 
 by this formidable outbreak, endeavored to 
 pacify his son, and though he refused to 
 deliver up the murderers of Ines, agreed to 
 
 banish them from the kingdom as the price 
 of peace. Pedro then consented to a recon- 
 ciliation, deferring the completion of his 
 revenge until he should have become king. 
 Alfonso died in 1357, two years after the 
 nmrder of Ines. His death is said to have 
 been hastened by his remorse for his share 
 in that tragic event. 
 
 Pedro I. now came to the throne. He 
 at once demanded of his namesake, Pedro 
 the Cruel, of Castile, the surrender of the 
 murderers of liies, who had taken refuge in 
 that country, offering to surrender certain 
 Castilian nobles who had obtained an 
 asylum in Portugal, and whom Pedro the 
 Cruel was anxious to get into his power. 
 The offer was accepted. One of the mur- 
 derers of lues escaped, but the other two 
 were arrested and surrendered to the Por- 
 tuguese king, who on his part seized the 
 Castilian refugees and delivered them to 
 their sovereign. Having gotten his victims 
 into his power, Pedro put them to death 
 with horrible torments, which he helped 
 with his own hand to inflict. The king 
 now caused his marriage with Ines to be 
 made public, and the states of the kingdom 
 solemnly declared that liies Avas entitled to 
 the honors usually paid to the queens of 
 Portugal. Pedro next caused the dead 
 body of his wife to be disinterred and 
 arrayed in royal robes, with crown and 
 sceptre, and seated on a superb throne in 
 the Church of St. Clair, at Coimbra. Then 
 taking his stand by the side of the corpse, 
 he compelled his nobles and clergy to do 
 homage to the dead body, sternly eying 
 each one as he approached to see that he 
 failed not in fulfilling the duty of a subject 
 to his queen. He then buried Ines with 
 solemn pomp in the monastery of Alcoba9a. 
 
 Pedro's reign lasted ten years. He exe- 
 cuted the laws sternly and mercilessly, his 
 chief wrath being directed against those 
 who were guilty of the excesses that had 
 marked his own youth. He died in 1367. 
 
 Fernando I., the son of Pedro by his first 
 wife, succeeded him. He was cruel and 
 licentious. He compelled one of his nobles 
 to divorce his wife in order that he might 
 marry her himself, and during his whole 
 reign was under the influence of this un- 
 principled woman. The marriage gave 
 great offence to the nation. Though Fer- 
 nando's reign was, on the whole, infamous, 
 he did some things worthy of a king. He 
 put down the bandits who were causing 
 much trouble in some of the provinces ; pro- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1083 
 
 hibited the clergy from succeeding by testa- 
 mentary bequest to landed property ; im- 
 proved the government of the cities ; 
 brought the fleet to a higher degree of effi- 
 ciency, and rebuilt the walls of Coimbra and 
 Lisbon. His only child was a daughter, 
 who was married to the King of Castile. 
 
 The death of Fernando in 1383 was fol- 
 lowed by an interregnum of two years, 
 during which the kingdom was torn by the 
 violence of the contending parties. The 
 result was that Joam (or John), the illegiti- 
 mate son of Pedro I. by a lady of Galicia, 
 who had made himself regent, seized the 
 throne, and on the 6th of April, 1385, was 
 proclaimed king as Joam I. 
 
 Joam was a man of considerable ability, 
 and was cunning and unscrupulous. He 
 defeated the efforts of the King of Castile 
 to conquer Portugal, the crown of which 
 that monarch claimed in right of his wife, 
 who was the daughter of Fernando I. He 
 administered justice faithfully, and did 
 much to suppress brigandage. He married 
 Philippa, the daughter of the English Duke 
 of Lancaster, by whom he had five sons and 
 several daughters. In order to give these 
 sons an opportunity to distinguish them- 
 selves he undertook a war against the Moors 
 •on the African side of the Straits of Gibral- 
 tar. The fortified city of Ceuta was taken 
 in 1415. The Moors made repeated and 
 desperate efforts to regain the city, but it 
 was held against them by the Portuguese 
 garrison. It remained in the hands of Por- 
 tugal until seizure of the kingdom by Philip 
 II. of Spain, when it became a possession 
 of that country, which still holds it. Joam 
 L died in 1433. 
 
 In the reign of Joam I. the Portuguese 
 began their remarkable career of maritime 
 discovery. Prince Henrique, or Henry, 
 the fourth son of King Joam, devoted him- 
 self with ardor to the advancement of nauti- 
 cal science. He established an observatory 
 near Cape St. Vincent, where he gathered 
 about him men of all countries skilled in 
 mathematics and astronomy, and consulted 
 them concerning his favorite scheme, which 
 "was to find a passage to the East Indies by 
 sailing around the most southern point of 
 Africa. He supported with great liberality 
 the various attempts that were made at 
 maritime discovery, and his zeal was at 
 length rewarded by the discovery in 1419 
 ■of the Madeira Islands, and later still of 
 the Azores, the Cape de Verde Islands, and 
 the coast of Guinea. Before his death, in 
 
 1463, the Portuguese discoveries had been 
 pushed to within five degrees of the equator. 
 The popes, as the heirs of the Ciesars, 
 claimed the right to dispose of all islands 
 and newly discovered lands, and Pope 
 Eugenius IV. conferred upon the King of 
 Portugal all the countries between Cape 
 Non and the Indies, 
 
 Duarte (or Edward), the son of Joam, 
 came to the throne at his father's death iu 
 1433. He reigned five years. He under- 
 took an unsuccessful war against the Moors 
 of Africa. His army was beaten and his 
 brother Don Fernando was taken prisoner. 
 He was treated with great cruelty by the 
 Moors, and died, after a captivity of several 
 years, from the severities imposed upon him. 
 Duarte died of the plague. 
 
 Alfonso v., son of Duarte, was proclaimed 
 king at his father's death in 1438. Being 
 a minor, his mother, Queen Leonora, 
 claimed the regency. She was driven from 
 this position by the king's uncle, Dom 
 Pedro, and forced to retire into Castile. 
 Pedro governed the kingdom wisely during 
 the eight years of his regency, and the 
 grateful people of Lisbon would have erected 
 a statue to him had he not forbidden them 
 to do so. In 1446 Alfonso, being fourteen 
 years old, was declared of age. He con- 
 tinued Pedro at the head of the state for 
 some time, and married his daughter Isabel. 
 His favorites at length succeeded in poison- 
 ing his mind against Dom Pedro, and he 
 came to regard his father-in-law as his most 
 dangerous enemy. Perceiving this change, 
 Pedro requested leave to resign his place in 
 the government and retire to Coimbra, of 
 which he was duke. His request was 
 granted, but he was soon horrified by being 
 charged by his enemies with having pois- 
 oned the late king and queen. Alfonso 
 accepted the charge as true, ordered Pedro 
 to remain on his estates, and forbade his 
 subjects to hold any communication with 
 him. The duke was subjected to other in- 
 sults, and was finally driven to take up 
 arms, as it was ])laiu to him that he must 
 choose between death on the field or on the 
 scaffold. His forces were defeated by the 
 royal army, and he was slain. Alfonso 
 brutally refused his body burial. It was 
 privately interred by some peasants. Five 
 years later Alfonso, who had been brought 
 to his senses by the indignant remonstrances 
 of the pope and the European sovereigns, 
 acknowledged the innocence of Dom Pedro, 
 and interred his bones with great pom]) 
 
1084 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 in the burial-place of the kings of Por- 
 tugal. In i-evenge for the fate of the un- 
 happy Dom Fernando, Alfonso renewed 
 the war with the Moors, and invaded 
 Africa in 1471. He took Tangier, which 
 was held by the Portuguese until 1662, 
 when it was ceded to England as a part 
 of the dowry of the bride of Charles II. 
 Alfonso next became involved in a war 
 with Castile, in the hope of obtaining the 
 crown of that country by marrying Juana, 
 the reputed daughter of Enrique IV. He 
 was compelled to make peace in 1479, and 
 to relinquish his pretensions to the Castilian 
 crown. He died in 1481. 
 
 Joam, or John II., succeeded his father. 
 He was the greatest of the kings of Por- 
 tugal, and his reign was the most brilliant 
 in the history of that country. He was a 
 man of broad and liberal views, vigorous 
 in the execution of his designs, yet politic 
 and cautious; a lover of justice, and sin- 
 cerely anxious to promote the happiness 
 and prosperity of his people. Upon com- 
 ing to the throne he found the royal reve- 
 nues so much exhausted by the extravagance 
 of his father that the state was nearly bank- 
 rupt. He at once inaugurated reforms 
 which filled the treasury without oppres- 
 sing the people. He next introduced a 
 series of measures by which he broke the 
 power of the feudal nobility, and rendered 
 them entirely dependent upon the crown. 
 He took from them the power of life and 
 death over their vassals, and restricted it 
 to himself and to the royal courts — a great 
 gain for the people. He compelled all who 
 had received grants, whether of lands or 
 dignities, from his predecessors to produce 
 their title deeds and other necessary instru- 
 ments. Where the title was defective the 
 claimant was deprived of it; where the 
 concession was extravagant it was greatly 
 modified. He also took from the nobles 
 the right to nominate the local magistrates, 
 who had been until now chosen from this 
 order, and vested the nomination in the 
 crown and threw the office open to all 
 classes, the only qualifications demanded 
 being learning and merit. These reforms, 
 so necessary to the welfare not only of the 
 commons but of the entire kingdom, gave 
 great offence to the nobles, and several con- 
 spiracies were formed by them against the 
 king. The first of these was headed by the 
 Duke of Braganza. It was detected by 
 Joam, and the duke was beheaded. An- 
 other conspiracy was formed by a number 
 
 of the leading nobles, and had for its object 
 the elevation of the Duke of Viseo, the 
 king's cousin, to the throne. The plot was 
 betrayed by the mistress of the Bishop of 
 Evora, one of the leading conspirators. 
 Joam with his own hand slew the Duke of 
 Viseo, and sent the other conspirators to 
 the block and to prison. 
 
 Joam prosecuted the war with the Af- 
 rican Moors with vigor, and his generals 
 won many brilliant successes over them. 
 At home he introduced industry and com- 
 fort among his people, and greatly increased 
 the wealth and resources of his kingdom. 
 
 In this reign the maritime enterprises of 
 the Portuguese were pushed forward with 
 vigor. Joam was a wise and liberal friend 
 to these undertakings, which contributed so 
 largely to the prosperity of his kingdom. 
 He built up an active and lucrative trade 
 with the tribes on the coast of Guinea, from 
 which the crown derived a great revenue of 
 gold and ivory. Exploring expeditions 
 were sent along the African coast, which 
 discovered the African kingdoms of Benin 
 and Congo, with which profitable commer- 
 cial relations were established, the Portu- 
 guese in each case erecting a fort and 
 trading post in the newly discovered coun- 
 try. In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz doubled 
 the most southern cape of Africa, and found 
 that the eastern coast of that continent 
 stretched away from the cape to the northeast. 
 In consequence of the terrible weather he 
 experienced he named it the Cape of Storms, 
 but the discovery so encouraged the King 
 of Portugal in his hope of reaching the 
 Indies by sea that he changed the name to 
 the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 The last years of Joam were saddened by 
 the death of his only son, in 1491. He 
 did not long survive this affliction, but 
 died in 1495, sincerely mourned by all 
 classes of his subjects. 
 
 Manuel, the brother of the Duke of 
 Viseo, and cousin to Joam, succeeded him 
 on the throne. He proved himself a great 
 king, and maintained the prosperity of his 
 kingdom at home, and its renown abroad. 
 He vigorously carried out Joam's policy of 
 establishing the influence of Portugal in 
 the East. In 1497 the great Admiral Vasco 
 da Gama sailed from Lisbon, doubled the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and reached Calicut, 
 in Malabar, or Western India, in May, 
 1498. In spite of the hostility of the Mo- 
 hammedan rulers of India, the Portuguese, 
 in this and other expeditions, succeeded in 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 108l> 
 
 establishing themselves at Goa and other 
 places on the Indian coast, from which in 
 the sixteenth century they built up a large 
 and lucrative trade with their own country, 
 which rendered Portugal one of the richest 
 kingdoms in Europe. Until now the pro- 
 ducts of the Indies had been brought to 
 Europe from Alexandria by the Venetian 
 traders. The success of the Portuguese 
 diverted the commerce of the East from the 
 Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and con- 
 tributed more than any other cause to the 
 decline of Venice. The Portuguese wisely 
 avoided a policy of territorial acquisition, 
 and confined themselves to commercial 
 establishments on the coast. For nearly a 
 century they were masters of the Indian 
 Ocean. Their possessions in that quarter 
 were governed by a number of viceroys, of 
 whom Don Alfonso d'Albuquerque was the 
 most gifted. In 1500 a new field for Por- 
 tuguese enterprise was opened by the dis- 
 covery of Brazil by Cabral, an admiral of 
 King Manuel. 
 
 Manuel died in 1521, and was succeeded 
 by Joam or John III. Early in the reign 
 of this prince Brazil was colonized by Por- 
 tugal. He passed his reign in extending 
 his power in Asia, but lost ground in north- 
 ern Africa. He introduced the Inquisition 
 into Portugal against the protests and 
 entreaties of his people ; but his reign was, 
 on the whole, a good one. He died in 
 1557. 
 
 Sebastian, the grandson of Joam, suc- 
 ceeded to the crown. Being only three 
 years old, the government was for a while 
 administered for him by his grandmother, 
 the wife of Joam, who was the sister of the 
 Emperor Charles V. She resigned the re- 
 gency in a few years to Cardinal Henrique. 
 In 1568, the king having reached the age 
 of fourteen, assumed the government him- 
 self. He at once engaged in an ill-advised 
 war against the kingdom of Morocco, for 
 the support of which he laid heavy burdens 
 upon his people. The war was unpopular, 
 and the king was implored by his counsel- 
 lors to abandon it ; but he persisted, and in 
 1578 invaded Morocco at the head of an 
 array of 15,000 men. On the 4th of Au- 
 gust he was defeated and slain by the 
 Moors in the battle of Alcazar-Seguer. 
 
 Dom Henry, the uncle of Sebastian, as- 
 cended the throne of Portugal immediately 
 upon the receipt of the news of the king's 
 death. His reign was brief, and in 1580 he 
 died without heirs. 
 
 A number of claimants of the Portuguese 
 crown now appeared. Of these the most 
 powerful was Philip II. of Spain, whose 
 mother was the daughter of King Manuel, 
 and whose first wife was Maria, the eldest 
 daughter of Joam III. Philip's power en- 
 abled him, as we have related in The His- 
 tory of Spain, to seize the Portuguese king- 
 dom and triumph over his rivals. He was 
 proclaimed King of Portugal in 1580, and 
 for the next sixty years that country formed 
 a part of the Spanish monarchy. Under 
 the Spanish rule the greatness of Portugal 
 steadily declined. Her possessions in north- 
 ern Africa passed into the hands of Spain, 
 and were lost to her forever. On the western 
 coast of Africa the Dutch became formid- 
 able rivals of Portugal, and drew from her 
 much of her trade. In Asia they also 
 made great gains, and put an end to the 
 Portuguese supremacy in that quarter of 
 the world. At the end of the Spanish as- 
 cendency the Portuguese settlements in the 
 East were reduced to half their former 
 number, and those which remained were in 
 great peril. The English also began now 
 to lay the foundations of their Eastern 
 empire, which was one day to overshadow 
 the power of both the Portuguese and the 
 Dutch. 
 
 The Spaniards were universally detested 
 by the Portuguese, and their rule bore so 
 heavily upon the country that the popular 
 discontent steadily increased. In 1640 the 
 entire nation rose in revolt, and proclaimed 
 the Duke of Braganza king as Joam IV. 
 The new king was recognized by England, 
 France and Holland, all of whom were 
 hostile to Spain. Joam did not depend on 
 the favor of other powers, however, but pre- 
 pared to meet the efforts he knew Spain 
 would make to recover her lost authority. 
 A desultory war with that country began in 
 1641, and continued until the death of 
 Joam, which took place in 1656. 
 
 Alfonso VI., the second son of Joam, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne, his elder brother 
 having died some time previous. He was 
 so weak and contemptible a king that the 
 Spaniards were induced to prosecute the 
 war against Portugal more vigorously. 
 Success declared in favor of the smaller 
 kingdom, and the Spaniards were decisively 
 defeated in the battle of Villaviciosa, in 
 1666. From this time the independence of 
 Portugal was secure, though Spain as yet 
 refused to acknowledge it. In 1661 a 
 treaty of alliance was concluded with Eng- 
 
1086 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 land, and Catharine, the daughter of Al- 
 fonso, was married to Charles II. of Eng- 
 land. Tangier and Bombay were ceded to 
 the English as the dowry of the Princess 
 Catharine. This treaty was the beginning 
 of a long connection between Portugal and 
 England, which had a marked effect upon 
 the fortunes of the former country. In 
 1667 the Portuguese, who had become dis- 
 gusted with Alfonso, set him aside as an 
 imbecile, and made his brother Pedro re- 
 gent. A dispensation was obtained from 
 
 the throne at the death of his father, in 
 1706. The principal event of his reign 
 was the conclusion of a treaty with Spain, 
 in 1737, by which that power recognized 
 the independence of Portugal. Joam died 
 in 1750, and was succeeded by his son Jose, 
 or Joseph. 
 
 Jose ^was one of the best of the Portu- 
 guese kings, but his reign was marked by 
 many calamities to his country. The most 
 important of these was the terrible earth- 
 quake of November, 1755, which laid one- 
 
 VIEW OF LISBON. 
 
 the pope which annulled the marriage be- 
 tween Alfonso and his queen. The queen 
 at once married Pedro. Alfonso was kept 
 a prisoner until 1683, when he died. 
 
 The regent now ascended the throne as 
 Pedro II. The greater part of his reign 
 was peaceful and uneventful. In 1703 an 
 offensive and defensive alliance was con- 
 cluded with England, and Portugal was 
 thus drawn into the war of the Spanish 
 succession. Three years later, during the 
 progress of the war, Pedro died. 
 
 Joam v., the son of Pedro II., came to 
 
 half of Lisbon in ruins, and caused great 
 loss of life among the inhabitants. The 
 chief efforts of the king were directed to 
 restoring the agricultural and commercial 
 prosperity of his kingdom. By the various 
 treaties with England many important con- 
 cessions had been made to that country, 
 and the commerce of Portugal was rapidly 
 passing into English hands. Jose endeav- 
 ored to put an end to the English monopoly, 
 though not with entire success. He was 
 ably seconded by his prime minister, the 
 famous Marquess of Pombal. He expelled 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1087 
 
 the Jesuits from Portugal, as he regarded 
 their influence as detrimental to the pros- 
 perity of the country. He died in 1777, 
 leaving a daughter to inherit his crown. 
 
 Maria was forty-two years old at the 
 time of her accession to the throne. Some 
 opposition was shown to her, as she was the 
 first female sovereign Portugal had had, 
 but this was put down and her authority 
 generally acknowledged. As he had no 
 son, King Jose, her father, in order to se- 
 cure the succession to her, had married 
 her to his brother, and her unclej the In- 
 fante Dom Pedro. She reigned conjointly 
 with him until his death, in 1786. In 1792 
 she began to show symptoms of insanity, 
 and her eldest surviving son, Dom Joam, 
 was intrusted with the government, which 
 was administered in her name until 1799, 
 when Joam was declared regent of the kinfj- 
 dom. In 1793 he was induced by the 
 English government to declare war against 
 the French republic. This step led to a 
 severe commercial panic and a general 
 bankruptcy in Portugal, and Joam was 
 glad to make peace with France in 1797. 
 In 1799 the regent again yielded to the 
 persuasions of England, and joined that 
 country and Russia in a second war with 
 France. This caused as much loss and 
 suffering to Portugal as the first war had 
 done. In 1801 Spain became the ally of 
 France, and Portugal Avas exposed to the 
 full power of her stronger neighbor. The 
 treaty of Badajoz, signed in 1802, shortly 
 after the peace of Amiens, compelled Por- 
 tugal to cede Olivenca to Spain, and to pay 
 to that power a considerable indemnity. 
 
 For the next five years Portugal was at 
 peace. The commercial relations existing 
 between that country and Great Britain 
 soon drew upon it the anger of Napoleon, 
 who had for some time cherished the design 
 of seizing both Spain and Portugal, and 
 making them merely provinces of his empire. 
 In 1807 he ordered the Portuguese regent 
 to close the ports of that kingdom against 
 British vessels, to arrest all British sub- 
 jects, and to confiscate all British property 
 within his dominions, threatening war as 
 the alternative. The regent obeyed hesita- 
 tingly and under protest, and thus offended 
 Napoleon, who proclaimed that " the house 
 of Braganza had ceased to reign in Eu- 
 rope," and sent General Junot with 30,000 
 men to take possession of Lisbon. Being 
 unable to oppose the French, the regent and 
 the royal family embarked on board the 
 
 fleet and sailed for South America to fix 
 the seat of the Portuguese government in 
 Brazil. On the same day — November 
 30th, 1807 — the French entered Lisbon. 
 The presence of the French was hateful to 
 the Portuguese, and in 1808 they rose 
 against them. They were several times 
 defeated, but kept up their resistance and 
 appealed to England for aid. The British 
 government sent a force under Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley (afterwards the Duke of Wel- 
 lington) into Portugal. The French were 
 beaten in the battle of Vimiera, on the 21st 
 of August, 1808, and on the 30th of Au- 
 gust Junot was compelled to sign the con- 
 vention of Cintra, by which he agreed to 
 evacuate Portugal with his whole army. 
 On the 12th of September the English en- 
 tered Lisbon in triumph. As we have re- 
 lated elsewhere, the French under Marshal 
 Soult overran Portugal in 1809. Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley was strongly reinforced from 
 England, and in the course of a few weeks 
 forced the French back into Spain. The 
 events of the peninsular war have been 
 related elsewhere, and need not be repeated 
 here. Portugal was protected during this 
 struggle by the English arms, and the 
 French did not again succeed in gaining a 
 footing in it. At the downfall of Napo- 
 leon, as Portugal was freed from the danger 
 of conquest, the English forces were with- 
 drawn, and she was left to manage her own 
 affairs. 
 
 All this while the Portuguese court had 
 been established in Rio de Janeiro, in 
 Brazil. In 1815 Brazil was made a king- 
 dom. In 1816 Maria died, and her son, 
 the regent, became King of Portugal and 
 Brazil as Joam VI. The king continued 
 to reside in Brazil, and this gave great 
 offence to the Portuguese. In 1820 a revo- 
 lution occurred, in which the army and 
 people acted together, and so avoided 
 bloodshed. A liberal constitution was 
 adopted, and an appeal was addressed to 
 the king to return to Portugal. Joam re- 
 sponded to the wish of the nation, and 
 leaving his son Pedro in Brazil as regent 
 returned to Portugal in 1821. Before 
 being allowed to land at Lisbon the king 
 was obliged to swear fealty to the new con- 
 stitution, which considerably curtailed the 
 royal power, and secured for the people 
 freedom of person and property, liberty of 
 the press, equality of all citizens before the 
 law, the abolition of privileges, and the 
 eligibility of all Portuguese to offices. In 
 
1088 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 1822 a revolution occurred in Brazil, which 
 country declared itself an independent em- 
 pire. The regent was proclaimed emperor 
 as Pedro I. Portugal was not able to undo 
 this action, and the two countries finally 
 separated. 
 
 Joam VI. died in 1826. Dom Pedro, 
 the Emperor of Brazil, was his lawful suc- 
 cessor. He relinquished the Portuguese 
 crown to his daughter, Maria da Gloria, 
 and established a tolerably liberal constitu- 
 tion for that kingdom. Maria immediately 
 sailed for Portugal, but before her arrival 
 her uncle, Dom Miguel, Pedro's youngest 
 brother, who had been intrusted with the 
 regency, declared himself king, and began 
 to rule in defiance of the constitution. The 
 result was a civil war. Dom Pedro re- 
 paired to Portugal and raised an army and 
 fleet in support of the claims of his daugh- 
 ter. He took Oporto on the 8th of July, 
 1832, and occupied Lisbon in July, 1833. 
 On the 29th of May, 1834, Dom Miguel 
 submitted to him. On the 15th of Septem- 
 ber Maria II. was declared of age, and on 
 the 24th Dom Pedro died. 
 
 Maria's reign was vexed by a number 
 of revolutions, one of which, in 1846-47, 
 
 would have overturned her throne had it 
 not been checked by the intervention of 
 England, France, and Spain. Maria died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Pedro V. succeeded his mother. From 
 her death until his majority, in 1855, the 
 kingdom was governed by his father, Fer- 
 dinand of Saxe-Coburg, as regent. Ferdi- 
 nand was a sincere lover of free institutions, 
 and inspired his son with the same feelings. 
 Upon coming to the throne Pedro exerted 
 himself to repair the evils of the revolutions 
 and wars of the previous reigns, and to pro- 
 mote the prosperity of the country. In 
 1861 Lisbon was visited with a severe epi- 
 demic of yellow fever. Tlie young king in 
 his efibrts to aid the suflferers exposed him- 
 self to the plague, and died on the 11th of 
 November. 
 
 Luiz, or Louis I., became king at the 
 death of his brother, and still holds the 
 throne. The principal events of his reign 
 have been the abolition of slavery in the 
 colonies in 1868, the industrial exhibitions 
 at Oporto in 1866 and 1872, the consolida- 
 tion of the floating debt in 1873, and the 
 extension of railway and telegraph lines 
 throughout the kingdom. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE :N"ETHER- 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRES- 
 ENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Holland — Formation of 
 the Country— Primitive Inhabitants— The Neth- 
 erlands Under the Romans and the Franlis — 
 Reclaiming the Lands — Growth of the Towns — 
 Rise of Flanders — Character of the People — Their 
 Industry^Love of Freedom — Revolt of the Flem- 
 ings — Battle of Courtrai — James Van Artevelde — 
 Philip the Bold — Mary of Burgundy— Charles 
 Becomes Ruler of the Netherlands — His Treat- 
 ment of them — Philip II. of Spain— His Policy in 
 the Netherlands— Prosperity of the Country at 
 the Accession of Philip — Margaret of Parma Ap- 
 pointed Regent — Persecution of the Protestants 
 Begun — The Duke of Alva sent to the Nether- 
 lands — His Cruelties— Return of the Prince of 
 Orange— Revolt of the Netherlands — The War 
 
 for Independence — The Dutch Republic P^stab- 
 lished — Siege of Haarlem — Don Louis de Reque- 
 sens — Extremity of Leyden— The Dikes Cut — 
 Leyden Relieved — Outrages of the Spaniards — The 
 Pacification of Ghent — Prince of Parma made 
 Regent — The Flemings Choose Charles of Anjou 
 as their Leader — Murder of William the Silent — 
 Antwerp Taken — Belgium Ruined — Prince Mau- 
 rice — Internal Dissensions — Execution of Barne- 
 veldt — The Thirty Years' War — Spain Recognizes 
 the Independence of the Dutch Republic — War 
 with England — William of Orange — Becomes 
 Stadtholder — Is Made Kingol England — Holland 
 Shelters the French Protestant Refugees — Wars 
 with France — The Seven Years' War — Holland 
 Recognizes the Independence of the United States 
 of America — War with England — Internal Trou- 
 bles — Conquest of Holland by the French Repub- 
 lican Forces — The Treaty of Vienna— The King- 
 dom of the Netherlands Organized — Revolt of the 
 Belgians — Separation of Belgium from Holland — 
 Subsequent History. 
 
FM03I THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1089 
 
 )HE kingdom of the Netherlands, or 
 Holland, lies between latitude 50° 
 45' and 53° 35' N., and longitude 
 3° 24' and 7° 12' E. It is 
 bounded on the north and west by 
 the North Sea, on the east by Ger- 
 many, and on the south by Belgium. Its 
 greatest length from north to south is about 
 190 miles; its width varies from about 60 to 
 120 miles. It covers an area of 12,680 square 
 miles ; and has a population of 3,809,527 
 souls. The kingdom possesses extensive 
 and valuable colonies in the East and West 
 Indies, which contain a population of over 
 twenty-four millions. Holland was origi- 
 nally a marshy district, the greater part of 
 which was exposed to the high tides of the 
 sea, which swept over it. It was won back 
 from the waves by the patient labors of the 
 inhabitants, who, by erecting dikes along 
 the coast and the river shores, preserved 
 the land from the encroachment of the sea, 
 and confined the rivers within their proper 
 channels. The country is still protected 
 from the sea by means of dikes. These are 
 built partly of blocks of granite brought 
 from Norway, and partly of timbers, fag- 
 ots, turf, and clay. They are usually 
 thirty feet high, seventy feet broad at the 
 bottom, and wide enough at the top for a 
 roadway. They are the work of centuries, 
 and are watched with the greatest care and 
 kept in perfect repair. Holland originally 
 abounded in lakes, but about ninety of 
 these have been drained and converted into 
 farming land. The surface of the country 
 is a dead level, broken by only a few sandy 
 hillocks. 
 
 The Netherlands until 1830 included 
 also the country now known as Belgium. 
 The first historical mention of it is made by 
 Julius Caesar in his account of his conquest 
 of Gaul. Belgium was then covered with 
 dense forests and marshy districts, and was 
 inhabited by a number of tribes mostly of 
 the Gallic race, though in some parts of the 
 country tribes of Germanic origin had ob- 
 tained the supremacy. The principal of 
 these were the Batavians. Ctesar conquered 
 Belgium, but made the Batavians the al- 
 lies, and not the subjects, of Eome. They 
 always furnished a strong body of troops to 
 the Roman army from this time, and these 
 were considered by the emperors their most 
 trusted soldiers. The country now known 
 as Holland was then little more than a 
 series of half-submerged islands, over which 
 the North Sea swept furiously. It was in- 
 69 
 
 habited by a race of hardy and independent 
 people. In the first Christian century 
 Pliny, the naturalist, visited this region, 
 and has left us the following picture of it : 
 " There the ocean pours in its flood twice 
 every day, and produces a perpetual uncer- 
 tainty whether the country may be consid- 
 ered as a part of the continent or of the sea. 
 The wretched inhabitants take refuge on 
 the sand-hills, or in little huts, "which they 
 construct on the summits of lofty stakes, 
 whose elevation is conformable to that of 
 the highest tides. When the sea rises they 
 appear like navigators ; when it retires they 
 seem as though they had been shipwrecked. 
 They subsist on the fish left by the refluent 
 waters, and which they catch in nets 
 formed of rushes or seaweed. Neither tree 
 nor shrub is visible on these shores. The 
 
 A DUTCH TREE. 
 
 drink of the people is rain water, which 
 they preserve with great care ; their fuel, a 
 sort of turf, which they gather and form 
 with the hand." As late as the third cen- 
 tury, Eumenius states that this was the 
 condition of the country. The people 
 showed no tendency to mix with foreigners, 
 and preferred their marshy country and 
 their constant struggle with the sea to the 
 benefits of a connection with Rome, such as 
 that enjoyed by the Batavians. They 
 were known as Frisians, and were always 
 noted for their love of liberty, their patient 
 courage and their industry. About the 
 third century of our era they began by de- 
 grees to cultivate the beans that grew wild 
 among their marshes, and to tend and feed 
 a small and coarse breed of horned cattle. 
 From this first step in civilization they 
 passed to the work of reclaiming their coun- 
 try from the sea by building dikes. They 
 made slow progress, but they never went 
 
1090 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 backward from any step taken. By de- 
 grees also the Frisians began to cross the 
 sea and trade with England, which Avas 
 then a Roman province. 
 
 During the civil war between Vespasian 
 and Vitellius, Claudius Civilis, a Batavian, 
 who had received a Roman education and 
 had served with distinction in the Roman 
 army, formed a confederation of all the 
 tribes of the Netherlands against the Ro- 
 mans, A. D. 69. He was defeated after a 
 gallant struggle, and the Netherlands re- 
 mained a part of the empire until they 
 were overrun by the Germanic tribes in the 
 fifth century. In the sixth and seventh 
 centuries the Netherlands became a part of 
 the kingdom of the Franks. In the eighth 
 century the Frisians revolted, but were 
 subdued by Charles Martel. Charles en- 
 deavored to establish Christianity among 
 the Frisians, and St. Willebrod went among 
 them as a missionary. Towards the middle 
 of the century their conversion was com- 
 pleted. The Netherlands formed a part of 
 Charlemagne's empire, and derived con- 
 siderable advantages from his liberal treat- 
 ment of them. The portion which is now 
 Holland was especially benefited. At the 
 death of Charlemagne that country had 
 fairly entered upon its career of prosperity. 
 " The marshes and fens which had arrested 
 and repulsed the progress of imperial Rome 
 had disappeared in every part of the interior. 
 The Meuse and the Scheldt no longer joined 
 at their outlets to desolate the neighboring 
 lands, whether this change was produced 
 by the labors of man or merely by the 
 accumulation of sand deposited by either 
 stream and forming barriers to both. The 
 towns of Courtrai, Bruges, Ghent, Ant- 
 werp, Bergen-op-Zoom and Thiel had already 
 a flourishing trade. The last-mentioned 
 town contained in the following century 
 fifty-five churches; a fact from which, in 
 the absence of other evidence, the extent of 
 the population may be conjectured. The 
 formation of dikes for the protection of 
 lands formerly submerged was already well 
 understood and regulated by uniform cus- 
 tom. The plains thus reconquered from 
 the waters were distributed in portions, 
 according to their labor, by those who 
 reclaimed them, except the parts reserved 
 for the chieftain, the church, and the poor. 
 This vital necessity for the construction of 
 dikes had given to the Frisian and Flemish 
 population a particular habit of union, 
 good will, and reciprocal justice, because it 
 
 was necessary to make common cause in 
 this great work for their mutual preserva- 
 tion. In all other points the detail of the 
 laws and manners of this united people pre- 
 sents a picture similar to that of the Saxons 
 of England, with the sole exception that 
 the people of the Netherlands were milder 
 than the Saxon race properly so called — 
 their long habit of laborious industry exer- 
 cising its happy influence on the martial 
 spirit original to both. The manufacturing 
 arts were also somewhat more advanced ia 
 this part of the continent than in Great 
 Britain. The Frisians, for example, Avere 
 the only persons who could succeed in mak- 
 ing the costly mantles in use among the 
 wealthy Franks." 
 
 After the disruption of Charlemagne's- 
 empire the whole of the Netherlands was 
 divided among a number of petty princes, 
 some of whom owed allegiance to the Ger- 
 man empire and some to the kings of France, 
 About 864 Judith, the daughter of Charles 
 the Bald of France, and widoAV of Ethel- 
 wolf, King of England, became attached to 
 a powerful Flemish chieftain named Bald- 
 win. As her father opposed the union, 
 Baldwin carried her off" and married her. 
 Charles was obliged to sanction the act, as 
 Baldwin was too formidable to be allowed 
 to become his enemy. He created his son- 
 in-law Count of Flanders, and confirmed to 
 him the hereditary government of the region, 
 between the Scheldt and the Somme. This 
 was the beginning of the famous county of 
 Flanders, and its founder is known in his- 
 tory as " Baldwin Bras-de-fer," or Bald- 
 win of the Iron Arm. In 922 Charles the 
 Simple by letters patent created the county 
 of Holland. The country improved rapidly 
 during these centuries in wealth and popu- 
 lation. In what is now Holland more land 
 was reclaimed and brought under cultiva- 
 tion and new towns were built. The thir- 
 teenth century saw the Netherlands divided 
 into a number of dukedoms and countships, 
 whose rulers claimed to be independent 
 princes, and acknowledged only a nominal 
 allegiance to the emperor or to the French 
 king. 
 
 The most powerful of these states was 
 Flanders, which under the descendants of 
 Baldwin Bras-de-fer grew rapidly in popu- 
 lation, wealth and importance. It con- 
 tained the towns of Ghent, Bruges, Ant- 
 werp, and Brussels, each of which was the 
 centre of an important trade. Indeed all 
 the Netherlands shared in this growing 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 1091 
 
 prosperity, one of the chief sources of which 
 was the weaving of woollen and linen cloths. 
 An immense quantity of these was manu- 
 factured in all parts of the Netherlands, 
 and found a ready market in every country 
 in Europe. A large and lucrative carry- 
 ing trade had also grown steadily. " Whole 
 fleets of Dutch and Flemish merchant ships 
 repaired regularly to the coasts of Spain 
 and Languedoc. Flanders was already be- 
 come the great market for England and all 
 the north of Europe. The great increase 
 of population forced all parts of the country 
 into cultivation ; so much so, that lands 
 were in those times sold at a high price 
 which are to-day left waste from imputed 
 sterility." The commercial cities had ac- 
 quired a commanding influence in the gov- 
 ernment, and within their own Avails the 
 burghers enjoyed almost democratic free- 
 dom. The people of the Netherlands were 
 from the first noted for their sturdy love of 
 liberty and their readiness to defend their 
 rights with arms. The citizens were care- 
 ful to maintain these rights against the 
 nobles. " They appointed their own judges 
 and magistrates, and attached to their 
 authority the old custom of ordering all the 
 citizens to assemble or march when the 
 summons of the feudal lord sounded the 
 signal for their assemblage or service. By 
 this means each municipal magistracy had 
 the disposal of a force far superior to those 
 of the nobles, for the population of the 
 towns exceeded both in number and in disci- 
 pline the vassals of the seignorial lands. 
 And these trained bands of the towns made 
 war in a way very different from that 
 hitherto practised ; for the chivalry of the 
 country making the trade of arms a pro- 
 fession for life, the feuds of the chieftains 
 produced hereditary struggles, almost al- 
 ways slow, and mutually disastrous. But 
 the townsmen, forced to tear themselves 
 from every association of home and its 
 manifold endearments, advanced boldly to 
 the object of the contest, never shrinking 
 from the dangers of war from fear of that 
 still greater to be found in a prolonged 
 struggle." 
 
 In 1300, as we have seen in our account 
 of the history of France, the Flemings aban- 
 doned their own sovereign. Count Guy, and 
 transferred their allegiance to Philip the 
 Fair of France. They soon had cause to 
 repent this course, and in 1302 the people 
 of Bruges rose under the leadership of Peter 
 de Koning, a weaver, and John Breydel, a 
 
 butcher, and drove out the French garrison, 
 putting 3,000 of them to death. The other 
 cities followed the example of Bruges. 
 Philip sent a splendid army into Flanders 
 to chastise the rebellious burghers, but it was 
 defeated by them under the walls of Courtrai 
 on the 11th of July, 1302, in which battle 
 the flower of the French chivalry perished. 
 The war was brought to an end on the 5th 
 of June, 1305, by a treaty between Philip 
 and the Flemings. The French king re- 
 leased the eldest son of the late Count Guy, 
 and recognized him as Count of Flanders. 
 The young prince on his part agreed to 
 hold his county as a fief of France. The 
 new count proved as tyrannical as his 
 father, and the Flemings rebelled against 
 him. He sought aid of his feudal lord, 
 Philip VI. of France. Philip granted his 
 request, and the Flemings were defeated in 
 the battle of Cassel, August 23d, 1328, and 
 forced to submit. Count Louis now gave 
 free rein to his tyranny, and in 1338 the 
 Flemings again rebelled, this time under 
 James Van Artevelde, the famous brewer 
 of Ghent. At his advice the Flemings 
 recognized as valid the claim of Edward 
 III. of England to the French crown, and 
 transferred their allegiance to him. They 
 joined him with an army of 60,000 men, 
 and a Flemish squadron decided the great 
 naval battle of Helvoetsluys in favor of 
 the English, June 23d, 1340. A Flemish 
 army covered the siege of Calais, and de- 
 feated the Dauphin of France, who was 
 marching to the relief of that place, 1348. 
 A truce was concluded between France 
 and England soon after the fall of Calais. 
 Edward abandoned his Flemish allies to 
 the French king, but the sturdy burghers, 
 left to their own resources, compelled the 
 King of France and young Louis de Malle, 
 the heir of their count, to recognize their 
 right of self-government according to the 
 ancient privileges. In 1384 Count Louis 
 of Flanders died. He had no sons, and 
 his title of Count of Flanders passed, W'ith 
 the province itself, to Philip the Bold of 
 Burgundy, who had married his daughter 
 and heiress. The next year Philip effected 
 a settlement with the Flemings, and was 
 acknowledged by them. In the same year 
 the Duchess of Brabant died, and Philip 
 being her heir came into possession of that 
 duchy, which, added to his other possessions 
 of Burgundy and Flanders, made him one 
 of the most powerful sovereigns in Europe. 
 He proved an excellent ruler to the Flem> 
 
1092 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ings, who were from this time subject to 
 the house of Burgundy. In 1437 Philip 
 the Good of Burgundy became master of 
 Hainault, Holland, and Zealand, thus ac- 
 quiring almost the whole of the Nether- 
 lands. His successors brought the rest 
 under their authority. 
 
 In 1477 Mary of Burgundy, daughter 
 of Charles the Bold, married Maximilian, 
 Archduke of Austria. By this marriage 
 the Netherlands, now the richest and most 
 populous part of Europe, became a posses- 
 sion of the house of Hapsburg. At her 
 death her son Philip came into possession 
 of the Netherlands. His reign was un- 
 eventful, and he is chiefly noted in history 
 as the father of the Emperor Charles V. 
 Philip died in 1506, and the regency of 
 the Netherlands reverting to the Emperor 
 Maximilian, that monarch appointed his 
 daughter Margaret to the government of 
 that country. She was a woman of talent 
 and courage, and successfully maintained 
 her position against the intrigues of France. 
 In 1515 Charles, the son of Philip and 
 Joanna of Spain, having attained the age 
 of fifteen, succeeded to his inheritance of 
 the Netherlands. The next year he was 
 recognized as the heir to the crown of Spain 
 and the Indies. In 1519 he was chosen 
 Emperor of Germany, and so became the 
 most powerful monarch on the globe. The 
 part played by the Netherlands in the 
 wars between Charles and Francis I. of 
 France has been related. The Nether- 
 lauds suffered severely from the ravages of 
 the French fleet, which almost entirely 
 destroyed the herring fisheries of Holland 
 and Zealand. We have also related the 
 rebellion of the Flemings against Charles, 
 and his merciless punishment of the rebels, 
 1539-40. In 1555 Charles, as has been 
 stated, abdicated his sovereignty of the 
 Netherlands, in favor of his son Philip, and 
 the next year transferred to him his crown 
 of Spain and the Indies. 
 
 At the time of the accession of Philip 11. 
 of Spain, the Netherlands comprised the 
 dukedoms of Brabant, Limburg, Luxem- 
 burg, and Guelderland, and the counties of 
 Artois, Hainault, Flanders, Namur, Zut- 
 phen, Holland, and Zealand, the baronies 
 of Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, 
 and Groningen, and the margravate of 
 Antwerp — making seventeen provinces in 
 all. These contained over 200 walled 
 cities, 150 chartered towns, 6,300 small 
 towns and villages, 60 strong fortresses, 
 
 and a large number of castles, hamlets and 
 farms. The great prosperity of the coun- 
 try, which was now at its highest point, 
 was due to the intelligence as well as to 
 the industry of the people ; for the inhab- 
 itants of the Low Countries were the most 
 generally enlightened people in Europe. 
 A person who could not read and write was 
 an exception among them. Agriculture 
 was carried to a high degree of perfection, 
 and the people were largely engaged in 
 commerce and manufactures. The cities 
 of Antwerp, Amsterdam and Rotterdam 
 were the principal commercial centres of 
 northern Europe. The various provinces 
 differed from each other in language, laws, 
 and customs. The four Walloon provinces, 
 which lay nearest France, spoke a corrupted 
 French ; the central provinces spoke the 
 Flemish, which was a branch of the Ger- 
 man tongue ; and in the northern provinces 
 the Dutch language was spoken. Besides 
 the common tie of industry and interest, 
 they were united by their allegiance to the 
 same sovereign, the King of Spain. They 
 had also a common legislative assembly, 
 or states general, which met at irregular 
 periods. 
 
 The people of the Netherlands, as we 
 have seen, had long been among the freest 
 in Europe, and, as they were the most in- 
 telligent, the doctrines of the Reformation 
 had received a careful consideration by 
 them, and had been adopted by a large 
 part of the population. The Emperor 
 Charles was greatly annoyed by this, and 
 endeavored, by a number of severe meas- 
 ures, to stop the growth of Protestantism 
 in this region. These failing, the Inquisi- 
 tion was set up in the Netherlands. The 
 emperor greatly restricted its powers, and 
 endeavored to deprive it of many of the 
 cruel features which had marked it in 
 Spain. It was impossible to change its 
 character, however, and during Charles' 
 reign several thousand Protestants were 
 put to death in the Low Countries, by its 
 orders. 
 
 In 1559 Philip appointed his half-sister 
 Margaret, Duchess of Parma, Regent of the 
 Netherlands. Returning to Spain, he pre- 
 pared to put in force the scheme he had 
 long meditated, for the extirpation of heresy 
 in these provinces. Henry II. of France, 
 after the treaty of Catteau Cambresis, had 
 revealed this intention to William of Nas- 
 sau, Prince of Orange, the principal digni- 
 tary of the Low Countries. William was 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1093 
 
 then a Catholic, but he shrank in horror 
 from the plot. Philip soon began the ex- 
 ecution of his part of the agreement, by 
 ordering the Inquisition to proceed with 
 more rigor against heretics. The Prince 
 of Orange, Avho was governor of Holland 
 and Zealand, at once took his stand as the 
 champion of his country, by refusing to 
 allow his people to be burned in his prov- 
 inces ; and his example was imitated by 
 the governors of some of the other provinces. 
 The more prudent Flemings fled the coun- 
 try, carrying with them their industry and 
 their skill in manufac- 
 tures. Those who re- 
 mained were thrown into 
 a frenzy of alarm, and a 
 petition was addressed to 
 the regent, setting forth 
 their grievances ; but the 
 only notice she took of 
 it was to issue an edict 
 which changed the pun- 
 ishment of heretics from 
 burningto hanging. The 
 cruelties of the Inquisi- 
 tion and the determina- 
 tion of the king to com- 
 pel his subjects to adopt 
 his faith, kept the excite- 
 ment at its highest pitch. 
 At last it burst all 
 bounds, and in four days 
 four hundred churches 
 were destroyed, Avith all 
 their contents. The re- 
 gent was soon afterwards 
 obliged to grant the Prot- 
 estants permission to 
 worship in public in 
 their own manner, 1566. 
 Philip's anger was very 
 great when the news of 
 these acts reached him. 
 He at once prepared to punish the Low 
 Countries for their resistance. The Prince 
 of Orange, whose religious views had been 
 greatly modified, and who subsequently be- 
 came a Protestant, endeavored to mediate 
 between the king and his subjects ; but fail- 
 ing in his efforts, withdrew into Germany 
 with a number of the Flemish nobles. The 
 Duke of Alva, a man of inflexible will and 
 brutal character, was sent to Brussels with 
 a strong force of Spanish troops to crush 
 the insurrection, 1567. Alva executed his 
 orders to the letter. A tribunal, known 
 as the " Council of Blood," was established 
 
 at Brussels, and hundreds of the Flemings, 
 of all ranks and ages, were executed by 
 its orders. Nobles were beheaded ; com- 
 mon criminals were shot or hanged ; and 
 obstinate heretics were burned. During 
 the six years of his administration, Alva 
 boasted that he had sent 18,000 persons to 
 the scaffold and the stake. 
 
 In 1568 the Inquisition sentenced the 
 entire population of the Netherlands, Avith 
 a few designated exceptions, to death for 
 heresy; and this monstrous sentence was 
 confirmed by a royal edict ten days later. 
 
 AMSTERDAM IN 1639. 
 
 Philip frequently declared that he would 
 rather see the provinces depopulated than 
 held by heretics. Though the Spanish gov- 
 ernor never enforced this decree literally, 
 it was made the cover for cruelty and op- 
 pression of all kinds. The property of the 
 victims was confiscated, and it is said that 
 for some years the wealth of the proscribed 
 and murdered Protestants of the Low Coun- 
 tries brought into the treasury of Philip 
 twenty millions of dollars annually. Com- 
 merce ceased ; the towns were deserted ; 
 people fled from the country; the woods 
 swarmed with fugitives who were forced 
 
1094 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 into brigandage to obtain food ; and the 
 sea was covered with piratical cruisers. 
 
 In this sad state of affairs the Prince of 
 Orange collected an army in Germany, 
 and marched into the Netherlands to the 
 assistance of his countrymen. His forces 
 were divided into three armies, two of which 
 were defeated by the Spaniards. The third, 
 under Count Louis of Nassau, gained a 
 victory over the enemy, at Groningen. In 
 order to strike terror to the patriots, Alva 
 now caused Counts Egmont and Horn, two 
 of the principal Flemish nobles, to be exe- 
 cuted, in violation of their rights, and of the 
 laws of the land. He then marched against 
 
 THE STADTHOLDER'S HOUSE, HAARLEM, 1635 
 
 the forces of the Prince of Orange, and the city, 
 compelled him to disband them and with- 
 draw into France, where he took service 
 with the Huguenots. 
 
 The Flemish cruisers continued their 
 depredations upon the Spanish commerce, 
 and carried their prizes into English ports, 
 where they obtained the supplies they 
 needed. At length Elizabeth, finding that 
 a continuance of this aid would involve her 
 in a war with Spain, forbade her subjects to 
 sell supplies to the Flemings. Thereupon 
 De La Marck, a Flemish captain, left Eng- 
 land with twenty-four vessels, and proceed- 
 ing to the most northern island of Zealand, 
 captured Brille, its capital, and made it 
 the rendezvous of the privateers. Wal- 
 cheren, and a number of towns in the north- 
 
 ern provinces, at once rose in revolt against 
 the Spaniards ; and on the 15th of July, 
 1572, an assembly was held at Dort, and 
 the Dutch republic was definitely organ- 
 ized. William of Orange was declared 
 chief magistrate of Holland, Zealand, Fries- 
 land and Utrecht, with the title of stadt- 
 holder. 
 
 Alva now exerted himself with vigor, 
 and succeeded in reducing the southern 
 provinces to submission. Brabant and 
 Flanders were conquered, and Mechlin was 
 given up to the horrors of pillage and mas- 
 sacre for three days. The northern prov- 
 inces, however, maintained their position 
 unshaken. William 
 of Orange assumed 
 thegovernment,and 
 successfully main- 
 tained the indepen- 
 dence of the repub- 
 lic. 
 
 In the winter of 
 1572-73 Alva at- 
 tempted to capture 
 the Dutch fleet, 
 which was frozen 
 up in the harbor of 
 Amsterdam ; but 
 his troops were de- 
 feated by a Dutch 
 force on skates. He 
 next laid siege to 
 Haarlem, which was 
 taken after a mem- 
 orable defence. Be- 
 tween two and three 
 thousand citizens 
 were put to death af- 
 ter the surrender of 
 Alkmaar was next besieged ; but 
 warned by the fate of Haarlem, it held out 
 with such stubbornness that Alva was 
 obliged to raise the siege. The constancy 
 and patience of the Dutch had now con- 
 vinced him that their subjugation was an 
 impossibility, and he asked to be recalled. 
 He was succeeded by Don Louis de Re- 
 quesens, a man of nobler character. He sup- 
 pressed the robberies and murders that 
 had become a part of the daily task of the 
 Spanish soldiery ; but continued the Council 
 of Blood, and pressed the war with vigor. 
 
 Leyden was now invested by the Span- 
 iards. The garrison was small, but the 
 heroic citizens supplied this deficiency by 
 their own services. In June, 1574, the 
 provisions began to run low, and in a little 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1095 
 
 ■while a famine set in. Still the city held 
 out, July, August and September passed 
 away, and the sufferings of the inhabitants 
 were terrible. William of Orange was 
 anxiously watching the enemy from Delft 
 and Amsterdam, and finding that he 
 could save Leyden in no other way, ob- 
 tained the consent of the states to a des- 
 perate measure. The dikes were cut, and 
 the waters of the German ocean poured in 
 upon the country, flooding the Spanish 
 camp, and enabling the Dutch fleet to 
 throw supplies into Leyden. The next 
 day a strong northeasterly gale drove back 
 the waters, and the dikes were at once 
 repaired. 
 
 In March, 1576, Requesens died, and 
 the Spanish soldiery, who had not been 
 paid for a long time, broke into 
 open mutiny, and inflicted the 
 greatest suffering upon the prov- 
 inces by plundering and de- 
 stroying wherever they went. 
 Alost, Ghent, Utrecht, Valen 
 ciennes and Maestricht were 
 captured by them in the order 
 named, and plundered ; and Ant- 
 werp was sacked for three days, 
 and suffered a loss of 8,000 citi- 
 zens and 1,000 houses. These 
 outrages compelled all the prov- 
 inces to form a union, which 
 was known as the Pacification 
 of Ghent. It was agreed to sum- 
 mon the states general, to take 
 measures for expelling the Span- 'i^^^^ 
 iards and establishing universal :^'-'^' 
 toleration in religious affairs, 
 A. D. 1576. 
 
 Philip now sent his brother, 
 Don John of Austria, the hero of Lepauto,to 
 conduct the war in the Netherlands. He was 
 not able to accomplish anything decisive, 
 and Philip soon sent his nephew, Alexander 
 Farnese, Prince of Parma, the greatest gen- 
 eral of the age, with reinforcements, to take 
 charge of the military operations. In the 
 autumn of 1578 Don John of Austria died, 
 and the Prince of Parma succeeded him as 
 regent. Previous to this the popular party 
 had set up the Archduke Mathias, the 
 brother of the emperor, as Governor Gen- 
 eral of the Netherlands. Finding him a 
 weak and worthless person, they set him 
 aside and made the Duke of Anjou, bro- 
 ther of Charles IX. and afterwards Henry 
 III. of France, " defender of the liberties 
 of the Netherlands." The riotous conduct 
 
 of the popular party soon produced a sharp 
 quarrel among the patriots, which was 
 more injurious to them than the efforts of 
 the Spaniards. The Catholic provinces 
 withdrew from the league. The seven Prot- 
 estant states of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
 Gueldei's, Overyssel, Friesland, and Gro- 
 ningen, organized themselves into a con- 
 federation by an agreement known as the 
 Union of Utrecht. Thus the Dutch re- 
 public was made a certainty, 1579. 
 
 Philip now offered a reward for the mur- 
 der of the Prince of Orange, who was the 
 soul of the patriotic movement. The prince 
 met this offer with a spirited reply, in which 
 he charged Philip with having previously 
 sought to eflTect his assassination. On the 
 26 th of October, 1581, the states general 
 
 CITADEL OF ANTWERP IN 1585. 
 
 proclaimed the Duke of Anjou sovereign 
 lord of the Netherlands, and formally re- 
 nounced their allegiance to Philip of Spain. 
 Plolland and Zealand, which were reserved 
 for the Prince of Orange, were exempted 
 from his rule. Anjou compelled the Prince 
 of Parma to raise the siege of Cam bray, 
 and entered Antwerp in triumph. He was 
 dissatisfied with his limited sovereignty, 
 and was jealous of the superior influence 
 of the Prince of Orange. In 1583 he at- 
 tempted to seize the city of Antwerp, but 
 Avas driven out of the country by the in- 
 dignant Flemings. 
 
 Philip, who scrupled at nothing to ac- 
 complish his ends, had, as we have stated, 
 offered a reward for the assassination of 
 the Prince of Orange, and within two years 
 
1096 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD, 
 
 five separate attempts had been made upon 
 William's life by the agents of the King of 
 Spain. A sixth was successful. In July, 
 1584, he was shot by Balthazar Gerard, a 
 Burgundian. The assassin was put to death 
 by the Dutch; but his parents were en- 
 nobled and richly rewarded by Philip. The 
 death of William was a terrible blow to the 
 patriots. He was the first statesman, and 
 one of the ablest military leaders of his 
 time, and a man of the most unswerving 
 integrity and patriotism. Still his people 
 had learned too deeply the lessons of civic 
 virtue to be ruined even by so great a mis- 
 fortune. The struggle went on. William's 
 second son, Prince Maurice, though but 
 eighteen years old (the elder son was a 
 
 STREET SCENE IN HAARLEM. 
 
 prisoner in Spain), was made his successor. 
 In 1585 Antwerp was taken by the Prince 
 of Parma, after one of the most memorable 
 defences on record. It was garrisoned with 
 Spanish troops, the Jesuits were restored 
 to power, and Antwerp Avas ruined. Philip's 
 generals had succeeded in retaining the 
 provinces south of the Scheldt, and in ban- 
 ishing the Protestants from those regions ; 
 but at the same time they " ruined the in- 
 dustry of Flanders, destroyed its trade, and 
 reduced the Catholics themselves to beggary. 
 Bruges and Ghent became crowded with 
 thieves and paupers. The busy quays of 
 Antwerp were deserted, and its industrious 
 artisans, tradesmen and merchants fled from 
 the place, leaving their property behind 
 them a prey to the spoiler." Philip beheld 
 
 the ruin of his best provinces with satisfac- 
 tion. The cruelty of the Spaniards com- 
 pelled the people to make at least a nomi- 
 nal submission to the Roman Church, and 
 the king wrote to Parma, expressing his 
 great satisfaction at the results of the war. 
 Elizabeth now made an open alliance 
 with the Netherlands, but her assistance 
 did not amount to much. Whatever was 
 gained was due to the exertions of Prince 
 Maurice, for the English commander, the 
 Earl of Leicester, was incompetent. The 
 Spaniards were crippled by a lack of sup- 
 plies, and their troops were unpaid. These 
 things neutralized to a considerable extent 
 the genius of Parma, and enabled Prince 
 Maurice to reunite the seven provinces of 
 the Dutch repub- 
 lic into a compact 
 state, and to extend 
 his territories to the 
 Meuse and the 
 Scheldt. The ac- 
 cession of Henry 
 IV. to the French 
 throne compelled 
 Philip to send the 
 Prince of Parma 
 and his army into 
 France. We have 
 already seen the 
 results of this cam- 
 paign. In 1592 
 Parma died. 
 
 The Dutch war 
 for iudei^endence 
 was continued un- 
 der the leadership 
 of Prince Maurice, 
 the son and succes- 
 sor of William the Silent. A twelve years' 
 truce was at length negotiated with Spain,^ 
 and at the expiration of this terra, Richelieu, 
 whose constant policy was the humiliation of 
 the house of Austria, concluded an alliance 
 between France and Holland in 1624. In 
 consequence of this alliance the Dutch sent 
 a fleet to assist the French in the siege of 
 Rochelle. On the whole, the reign of 
 Prince Maurice was favorable to his coun- 
 try. The worst feature of it was his parti- 
 sanship in the unhappy religious contro- 
 versy which broke out early in the century 
 between the Calvinists and Arminians of 
 Holland. Among the latter were Olden 
 Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the friend 
 and compatriot of William the Silent,. 
 and Hugo Grotius, the great jurist. Barn- 
 
FB03f THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 109T 
 
 eveldt regarded the ambition of Maurice as 
 dangerous to the country, and sought to 
 place it within restraints. The controversy 
 terminated in the overthrow of the Arrain- 
 ians, who were condemned without a hear- 
 ing by the Calvin istic Synod of Dort, and 
 their pastors were deprived of their charges 
 or banished. Barneveldt and Grotius were 
 brought to trial before a council of their 
 enemies. The latter "was sentenced to im- 
 prisonment for life; the former, who had 
 done more for the freedom of Holland than 
 any man save the murdered William, was 
 condemned to death, and was executed on 
 the 14th of May, 1619. Maurice of Nassau 
 could have saved him had he chosen to in- 
 terfere ; but he declined to do so, and 
 Barneveldt could not stoop to beg his life. 
 
 Maurice died in April, 1625, and his 
 brother. Prince Frederick Henry, was 
 chosen his successor. The war with Spain 
 went on w'ithout any change in its general 
 conduct until the year 1634, when a close 
 alliance was formed between Holland and 
 France for a combined invasion of the 
 Spanish Netherlands from the north and 
 south. An invitation was extended to these 
 provinces to tlii'ow off the Spanish yoke and 
 form an indej)endent state. As the price 
 of their deliverance they Avere to cede a 
 strip of their territories on each side to 
 their deliverers. In case of a refusal of this 
 invitation their country was to be con- 
 quered, and divided between France and 
 Holland. 
 
 Holland took an active part in the last 
 period of the Thirty Years' War, and en- 
 deavored to assist the Elector Palatine to 
 recover his territories, but the army sent to 
 his assistance was annihilated by the impe- 
 rialist General Hatzfeld. In 1644 the vic- 
 tories of Enghien and Conde gave the 
 French the whole of the Rhine valley from 
 Basle to Coblentz, and opened the way for 
 a more successful campaign on the part of 
 the Dutch. These events have been related, 
 and it only remains to add that the con- 
 quests of the combined forces of France and 
 Holland were checked in mid career by the 
 misfortunes of the Prince of Orange, Avho 
 became insane, and was unable to co-oper- 
 ate effectively with the French. Spain had 
 been gradually growing weaker, and her 
 enemies were pressing her so heavily that 
 it now became necessary for her to make 
 peace with Holland. In January, 1648, a 
 treaty was signed between the two powers, 
 by which Spain acknowledged the seven 
 
 provinces of the Dutch republic as free and 
 independent states, and made over to them 
 all the towns in Dutch Flanders and ac- 
 knowledged their right to their possessions 
 in Asia, Africa, and America. 
 
 Thus the long Eighty Years' War of in- 
 dependence was brought to a triumphal 
 close, and Holland took her place among- 
 the nations of the world. The bravery and 
 energy of her people had more than com- 
 pensated for her smallness of territory, and 
 she had become a power whose alliance 
 was desired by all the leading states of 
 Europe. The Dutch had not neglected 
 their natural advantages, and Holland now 
 disputed with England the rank of the first 
 naval power of the world. Her fleet was 
 strong, and was manned by officers and 
 men of tried skill and courage. Her in- 
 dustry had built up a rich commerce with 
 all parts of the world, and she had obtained 
 a footing in Asia and Africa by planting 
 there trading colonies of her own people, 
 and in North America had begun the set- 
 tlement of the magnificent region watered 
 by the Hudson and the Delaware. 
 
 This activity in commercial enterprises at 
 length brought the Dutch in conflict with 
 the English, to w^iom they were now sujoe- 
 rior in naval strength. In 1652 the Eng- 
 lish parliament passed the famous naviga- 
 tion act, which prohibited any foreign vessel 
 from bringing the products of any country 
 save its own into English ports. Holland 
 was chiefly engaged in the carrying ti'ade, 
 and England was her best market. This 
 act therefore struck a terrible blow to her 
 commerce, and the two republics soon 
 drifted into war. The events of this war 
 occurred at sea, and have been related in 
 the history of England. Peace was signed 
 in April, 1654. 
 
 Louis XIV., in order to strengthen him- 
 self in his designs against the Spanish 
 Netherlands, made an alliance and estab- 
 lished friendly relations with Holland. 
 Charles II. of England was anxious to 
 place his nephew, the Prince of Orange, at 
 the head of the Dutch republic, but the 
 grand pensionary, De Witt, opposed this 
 scheme with great energy. War soon fol- 
 lowed between England and Holland, in 
 which the Dutch possessions on the Hudson 
 and Delaware were seized by the English. 
 In June, 1665, the Dutch fleet was defeated 
 by the Duke of York near LowestofF, and 
 the Bishop of Munster, an ally of the Eng- 
 lish, ravaged the territories of the republic 
 
1098 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 from the eastward, Louis XIV., much 
 against his will, had been compelled to send 
 assistance to the Dutch, and he now joined 
 the German allies of Holland in com- 
 pelling the bishop to cease hostilities. Sev- 
 eral naval engagements were fought between 
 the Dutch and English forces, and the 
 Dutch fleet entered the Medway and block- 
 aded the Thames, as related. The war was 
 closed by the peace of Breda, July 31st, 
 1667. The Dutch colonies in America 
 were ceded to England. 
 
 In spite of this loss Holland was now at 
 the height of her power and glory. She 
 had held her own against England, and 
 had rescued Denmark from Sweden, as we 
 shall see ; and she now joined the coalition 
 
 VIEW OF DORT. 
 
 which sought to check the ambition of 
 Louis XIV., and set bounds to his acquisi- 
 tion of territory. By so doing she incurred 
 the deadly vengeance of the French king, 
 who had also begun to hate the republic 
 for giving to the fugitives from his tyranny 
 a safe and sure asylum. In April, 1672, 
 the French army invaded and rapidly over- 
 ran the Dutch territories. The young 
 Prince William of Orange had been ap- 
 pointed captain-general for the campaign, 
 and in the general panic which seized upon 
 the Dutch at this invasion, he was the 
 only person who retained his calmness and 
 courage. The government in dismay of- 
 fered through the Grand Pensionary De 
 Witt the most abject terms. Louis an- 
 swered with haughty insults, and the spirit 
 
 of the Dutch was aroused. The Pensionary 
 De Witt and his brother, the admiral, were 
 murdered by the mob, and William of 
 Orange was placed at the head of afiairs, 
 with dictatorial powers. The history of 
 his gallant defence of his country, and the 
 gradual release of Holland from her trou- 
 bles, has been related in connection with 
 the French history of this period, to which 
 the reader is referred. In February, 1674, 
 England, the alliance of which country had 
 been sold to Louis by Charles II., made 
 peace with Holland, and France was left 
 with no ally but Sweden. In 1677 Charles 
 II. was forced by the English parliament 
 to declare war against France in support 
 of Holland, and the alliance was cemented 
 by the marriage of the 
 Prince of Orange to 
 Mary, the eldest daugh- 
 ter of the Duke of 
 York, and the niece of 
 the king. The war 
 was closed by the 
 treaty of Nimwegen, 
 August 14th, 1G78. By 
 this treaty Holland 
 ceded to France her 
 settlements in Senegal 
 and Guiana, which had 
 been conquered by the 
 French. 
 
 In spite of her wars 
 Holland prospered un- 
 _ der the wise and firm 
 I rule of William of Or- 
 ange. William's life- 
 longpolicy was to check 
 the ambition of Louis 
 XIV., and to compel 
 him to respect the rights of his neigh- 
 bors, and it was owing to him that 
 Louis did not succeed in rendering all 
 western Europe subservient to France. 
 Upon the commencement of the persecutions 
 of the Huguenots, large numbers of the 
 fugitive Protestants sought refuge in Hol- 
 land, where they were protected. Thus 
 the cruel policy of Louis greatly strength- 
 ened the hands of his ablest and most de- 
 termined rival. Repeated coalitions were 
 formed against the French king by the 
 genius and determination of William, who 
 gained another advantage over his rival in 
 1688 by his accession to the crown of Eng- 
 land, the circumstances of which have been 
 related. Holland retained her independ- 
 ence and separate government after this 
 
FBOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1099 
 
 event, but gained immeasurably in being 
 able to count on the unwavering and de- 
 termined support of the powerful English 
 kingdom in her opposition to Louis. The 
 war with France, which followed this event, 
 was fought outside the limits of the repub- 
 lic, and was closed in May, 1697, by the 
 peace of Ryswick. In 1698 Holland en- 
 tered into a secret treaty with France and 
 England for the partition of the Spanish 
 dominions upon the death of Charles II. of 
 Spain, thus becoming a participant in the 
 war of the Spanish succession. Her share 
 in it has been related. Holland gained 
 nothing by this war, and her losses during 
 its existence were very great. In the war 
 of the Austrian succession Holland espoused 
 the cause of Maria Theresa, and in 1747 
 her territory was invaded by the French 
 army under Count Lowendahl. The only 
 important result of this invasion was to seat 
 the hereditary stadtholder, William IV. of 
 INTassau-Dietz, on the Dutch throne. He 
 was the son-in-law of the King of Eng- 
 land. The war required great sacrifices of 
 Holland, and gained little or nothing for 
 her. It was closed by the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, in October, 1748. 
 
 The republic took no part in the Seven 
 Years' War, and remained at peace until 
 
 1780, when a secret commercial treaty was 
 negotiated with the United States of Amer- 
 ica, then struggling to establish their inde- 
 pendence. This treaty was discovered by 
 Oreat Britain, and as it fully recognized 
 the independence of the United States, it 
 was held to be a sufficient cause for hostili- 
 ties. War was therefore declared against 
 Holland by Great Britain. The English 
 fleet inflicted great losses upon the Dutch. 
 Several of the Dutch West India islands 
 "were taken by the English, who also, in 
 
 1781, captured a fleet of thirty richly laden 
 Dutch merchantmen. These ships were re- 
 taken by a French fleet, and sent into Brest. 
 Demerara and Essequibo were captured, 
 but the English fleet sent against the Cape 
 of Good Hope was defeated by the French. 
 The war closed in 1783. 
 
 The Dutch had been placed by the treaty 
 of Utrecht in possession of a line of frontier 
 fortresses between France and the Austrian 
 Netherlands, which were erected as a bar- 
 rier between the possessions of France and 
 Austria. This arrangement was continued 
 until the reign of the Emperor Joseph II., 
 who peremptorily ordered the Dutch to 
 withdraw their forces from these fortresses. 
 
 which he demolished. War was prevented 
 only by the armed intervention of France, 
 which secured the conclusion of the treaty 
 of Fontaiuebleau. 
 
 Holland was now divided internally be- 
 tween two parties, which were very hostile 
 to each other, and which came to an open 
 rupture during the long minority of Wil- 
 liam v., the hereditary stadtholder. The 
 republican, or patriot party, encouraged by 
 the French, wished to make the dignities 
 of stadtholder, high-admiral, and captain- 
 general elective, and thus weaken the house 
 of Orange. The Orange party maintained 
 the hereditary nature of these dignities, and 
 was sustained by England and Prussia. 
 The patriot party at length obtained the 
 mastery, and William V. of Orange, the 
 hereditary stadtholder, was expelled from 
 the fortress of the Hague, and his wife was 
 treated as a prisoner. The Princess of 
 Orange was the sister of Frederick William 
 II., King of Prussia. The Prussian mon- 
 arch at once invaded Holland with an army 
 of 30,000 men, and restored the stadt- 
 holder. Holland now renounced the French 
 alliance for that of England and Prussia. 
 This was accomplished by the treaty of Loo, 
 in June, 1788. 
 
 Upon the execution of Louis XVI. of 
 France, Holland made common cause with 
 her allies against France, and in 1792 the 
 French convention declared war against 
 her. Later in the year the French array 
 under General Dumouriez invaded the 
 Dutch territory and seized Breda, Klun- 
 dert, and Gertruydenberg. The attempted 
 arrest and sudden flight of the French com- 
 mander to the Austrian camp gave the 
 Dutch a brief respite. The next year the 
 invasion was resumed by Pichegru, as has 
 been related. The republican party openly 
 welcomed the French, who by a series of easy 
 victories obtained possession of the country. 
 The Prince of Orange fled to England, and 
 the states general abolished the oflRce of 
 stadtholder, and proclaimed the Batavian 
 republic, the form of government being 
 modelled upon that of republican France. 
 A close alliance was made with France, 
 and Holland became involved in a war with 
 Great Britain, by which she lost her colo- 
 nies in the West Indies, the East Indies 
 and at the Cape of Good Hope, which were 
 wrested from her by the English. 
 
 The history of Holland from the com- 
 mencement of the nineteenth century to the 
 downfall of Napoleon I. has been related 
 
1100 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 in connection with that of France. At the 
 return of peace, in 1815, the whole of the 
 Low Countries, including the Austrian 
 provinces, but excepting the districts which 
 had been conquered by Louis XIV., which 
 France was allowed to retain, were formed 
 into the kingdom of the Netherlands, and 
 the crown was conferred upon William, 
 Prince of Orange, who also held the grand 
 duchy of Luxemburg, which formed a part 
 of the German confederation. 
 
 The northern and southern provinces, 
 
 A conference of the representatives of these 
 powers was held at London, and a plan for 
 the separation of Belgium from Holland 
 was agreed upon. Holland was allowed to 
 retain Luxemburg, but with this exception 
 was confined to the limits it had occu- 
 pied in 1790. In June, 1831, a Belgian 
 congress met at Brussels, and conferred 
 the crown upon Prince Leopold of Saxe- 
 Coburg. 
 
 The King of Holland refused to be bound 
 by these arrangements, and held Antwerp 
 
 VIEW OP THE HAGUE. 
 
 however, did not agree w'ell, and after a 
 long series of disputes the southern prov- 
 inces, which had formerly constituted the 
 Austrian Netherlands, rebelled against the 
 rule of the Dutch, from whom they differed 
 in religion, language, and customs. The 
 disturbances began with a riot in the Col- 
 lege of Lou vain. The French revolution 
 of 1830 greatly encouraged the Belgians, 
 and all the cities of the southern provinces 
 joined the revolt. The Dutch troops were 
 everywhere expelled, and a provisional 
 government was set up in Brussels. The 
 independence of Belgium was proclaimed, 
 and was recognized by the five great powers. 
 
 with a garrison of 4,000 men under General 
 Chasse. Dutch garrisons also occupied 
 other points along the Scheldt. In Novem- 
 ber, 183] , a French army of 50,000 men 
 laid siege to Antwerp, which maintained a 
 vigorous defence until the 23d of December, 
 Avhen it surrendered, as the French were 
 about to carry it by assault. The Dutch 
 troops were then withdrawn from the 
 Scheldt, the navigation of which became 
 free to the Belgians. Holland in 1839 
 recognized the independence of Belgium. 
 
 Since that period the history of Holland 
 has been peaceful and uneventful. In 1840 
 King William I. abdicated his crown in 
 
FBOM FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM TO THE PRESENT DAY. HQl 
 
 favor of his son, William II., who died in 
 1849, and was succeeded by his son, Wil- 
 liam III., the present king. In 1862 sla- 
 very was abolished in the Dutch West 
 India possessions. In 1866, upon the dis- 
 ruption of the German confederation, the 
 grand duchies of Limburg and Luxemburg 
 ceased to be members of the German league. 
 The next year the King of Holland, being 
 
 greatly in need of money, offered to sell 
 Luxemburg to France. This offer pro- 
 duced serious complications in Europe, as 
 we have seen, and the sale was prevented 
 by the interposition of Prussia. In 1870 
 capital punishment was abolished through- 
 out the kingdom. Since this event the 
 history of the country has been peaceful 
 and uneventful. 
 
 book: xixiix:. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF BELaiUlM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM 
 TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Situation of Belgium — Population — 
 Belgium Retained by Spain After the Dutch War 
 of Independence — Becomes a Possession of Austria 
 — Its History Under Austrian Eule— Conquered 
 by the French Republic — Becomes a Part of 
 France — Is Made by the Treaty of Vienna a Part 
 of the Kingdom of "the Netherlands— Dissatisfac- 
 tion of the Belgians — Revolution of 1830 — The 
 Petition to the King — It is Unheeded— Prince 
 Frederick at Brussels— The Revolt Spreads— The 
 Dutch Troops Driven from Brussels — General 
 Chasse Opens Fire Upon Antwerp — A Provisional 
 Government Established by the Patriots — The 
 National Congress — The Independent Kingdom 
 of Belgium Proclaimed — Intervention of the 
 Great Powers — Belgian Independence Sustained 
 — Leopold of Saxe-Coburg Chosen King — Holland 
 Renews the War — France Aids Belgium — Siege 
 and Surrender of Antwerp — Subsequent History 
 of Belgium. 
 
 )HE kingdom of Belgium lies south 
 of the Netherlands, between lati- 
 tude 49° 30' and 51° N., and 
 longitude 2° 33' and 6° 6' E. It 
 is bounded on the north by the 
 Netherlands, on the east by Ger- 
 many, on the south by France, and on the 
 west by France and the North Sea. Its 
 greatest length, from southeast to north- 
 west, is 180 miles, and its greatest breadth, 
 from the northern border of the province 
 of Antwerp to the southern extremity of 
 Hainault, is 124 miles. It covers an area 
 of 11,372 miles. The population in De- 
 cember, 1874, was 5,336,634. 
 
 The history of Belgium, from the time 
 of the conquest of the Belgse by Julius 
 Caesar to the establishment of the independ- 
 ence of the Dutch republic, has been re- 
 
 lated in the preceding portions of this work, 
 and need not be repeated here. 
 
 During the latter part of the Dutch war 
 of independence, the southern provinces of 
 the Netherlands, which now comprise the 
 kingdom of Belgium, adhered to the cause 
 of Spain. In 1648 Spain acknowledged 
 the independence of the Dutch republic, 
 and the two portions of the Low Countries 
 were definitely separated, Spain retaining 
 the provinces south of the Scheldt, and 
 confirming Holland in the possession of 
 those north of that river. For at least a 
 century the southern provinces were the 
 battle-field of Europe ; many of the con- 
 flicts of the Thirty Years' War, the war 
 between Louis XIV. and Spain, and the 
 war of the Spanish succession being fought 
 in the various provinces. The treaties of 
 Aix-la-Chajjelle, in 1668 ; Nimwegen, in 
 1678 ; and Ryswick, in 1697, passed the 
 provinces from the hands of one power to 
 the other, and the treaty of Utrecht, in 
 1713, which closed the war of the Spanish 
 succession, gave the Spanish Netherlands 
 to Austria. In 1715 a supplementary 
 treaty was concluded, which required that 
 a line of frontier fortresses, from Furnes on 
 the coast, to Charleroi and Namur, should 
 be garrisoned by the Dutch as a perpetual 
 barrier between France and the Low Coun- 
 tries. Somewhat later Holland closed the 
 Scheldt to any but her own vessels, and so 
 diverted to Amsterdam the trade of Ant- 
 werp, which had begun to revive from the 
 injuries inflicted upon it by the bigoted 
 policy of Philip II. of Spain. Charles, 
 Duke of Lorraine, was appointed by the 
 Empress Maria Theresa Viceroy of the 
 
1102 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Austrian Netherlands, as they were now 
 called. His rule was just and liberal, and 
 under him the people began to enjoy some 
 degree of their former prosperity. Joseph 
 II. put an end to the occupation of the 
 frontier forts by the Dutch, and compelled 
 them to withdraw into their own country. 
 He endeavored to secure the reopening of 
 the navigation of the Scheldt, but did not 
 succeed in doing so. His eflTorts to reform 
 the abuses existing in the government of 
 the Netherlands, while well meant, were 
 
 the authority of the emperor in the prov- 
 inces. In 1795 General Pichegru was 
 ordered by the directory to enter Belgium 
 with a French army to the assistance of the 
 republicans. The Austrians were driven 
 back at all points, and a decree was issued 
 by the French government declaring Bel- 
 gium (as the Austrian Netherlands were 
 now called) an integral part of the French 
 republic. At the formation of the empire 
 Belgium became a part of that monarchy. 
 Upon the abdication of Napoleon, in 1814^ 
 
 VIEW OF ANTWERP. 
 
 too violent, and aroused a strong popular 
 opposition which was greatly encouraged by 
 the success of the French Revolution. On 
 the 11th of December, 1789, the people of 
 Brussels rose against the Austrian garrison 
 and forced it to surrender. Joseph, and 
 his successor Leopold II., offered liberal 
 terras to the provinces in their efforts to 
 settle the differences, but the Belgian lead- 
 ers refused to accept them, and declared 
 tlieir intention to establish an independent 
 Belgian republic. In the contest which fol- 
 lowed, the Austrian forces re-established 
 
 Austria reasserted her claim to the country, 
 and it was placed under an Austrian vice- 
 roy. By the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, 
 Belgium was united with Holland. The 
 two countries were styled the kingdom of 
 the Netherlands, and were placed under 
 the sovereignty of William Frederick of 
 Orange-Nassau, Avho became the first mon- 
 arch of the new kingdom, which was de- 
 signed by the allies to form one of the 
 chief bulwarks against France. 
 
 This union was particularly distasteful to 
 the people of Belgium, who were not con- 
 
FBOM FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1103 
 
 suited by the allies in the formation of the 
 new kingdom. The Belgians were sepa- 
 rated from the Dutch by differences in 
 national character, language, religion, and 
 commercial pursuits. Holland had a pop- 
 ulation of about 2,500,000, but in the states 
 general her representation was equal to 
 that of Belgium, the population of which 
 was about 4,000,000. In addition to this, 
 at the time of the union the public debt of 
 Belgium was only 4,000,000 florins ; that 
 of Holland was 1,200,000,000 florins, for 
 which the Belgians became responsible. 
 The use of the French language in judicial 
 proceedings and the acts of the government 
 was discontinued, and there were many 
 other measures adopted which were odious 
 to the Belgians and served to keep alive 
 the popular discontent. 
 
 Matters came to a crisis in May, 1830, 
 when the government, in the face of 640 
 petitions, adopted a new and rigorous press 
 law. At the same time officials holding 
 sentiments favorable to Belgium were dis- 
 missed from their positions. A subscrip- 
 tion was opened by the leaders of the Bel- 
 gian party for the benefit of the discharged 
 officials, and was liberally supported. M. 
 de Potter and his co-workers, Tielemans, 
 Bartels, and De Neve, the leaders of the 
 Belgian party and the prime movers in this 
 subscription, were arrested on a charge of 
 sedition, and being found guilty, were ban- 
 ished from the kingdom. This sentence 
 was received by the people of Belgium with 
 the greatest indignation, and in the midst 
 of this excitement the news came of the 
 successful revolution of July at Paris, and 
 the flight of Charles X. The agitation 
 spread rapidly, and on the night of the 25th 
 of August, 1830, during the performance 
 of the opera of " Masaniello " at the grand 
 opera house of Brussels, the audience rose 
 en masse and gave the signal for the revolu- 
 tion. The excited spectators rushed from 
 the theatre, sacked the office of the National 
 newspaper, the government organ, plun- 
 dered the gun-shops, and erected barricades 
 in the streets. The outbreak was put down 
 the next day by the civic guard, but the 
 revolution had spread, and in all the prin- 
 cipal towns of Belgium similar scenes were 
 enacted. 
 
 On the 28th of August a congress of 
 citizens met at the town hall of Brussels 
 and adopted an address to the king, in 
 which they appealed to him to make cer- 
 tain reforms in the system of government, i 
 
 to grant trial by jury in criminal prosecu- 
 tions and in proceedings affecting the press, 
 and to remove the unpopular ministers. A 
 deputation was appointed to proceed to the 
 Hague, and present these demands. It 
 was received by the king, who refused to 
 promise anything until the Belgians sub- 
 mitted to his authority, but said he would 
 consider the matter at an early day. This 
 reply only increased the excitement in Bel- 
 gium. At length the Crown Pi'ince Fred- 
 erick was prevailed upon to visit Brussels 
 and try to effect a settlement of the troubles. 
 He held a conference with the leading men 
 of that city, but could accomplish nothing. 
 A deputation from Liege plainly told him 
 that the people of Belgium would be 
 satisfied with nothing less than a total 
 separation from Holland. On the 13th of 
 September the states general met in ex- 
 traordinary session and a new ministry was 
 appointed by the king. An army of 14,000 
 men, under Prince Frederick, was sent to 
 suppress the revolt at Brussels, and after 
 three days of hard fighting gained posses- 
 sion of the principal part of the city, Sep- 
 tember 23d-26th. The revolutionists were 
 rapidly i-einforced from Liege and other 
 towns, and Prince Frederick was compelled 
 to retreat from Brussels. Other leading 
 cities of Belgium followed the example of 
 Brussels, and on the 6th of October the 
 Dutch garrison of Liege capitulated. Ant- 
 werp alone held out for Holland. General 
 Chasse had occupied the citadel of that 
 town with several thousand Dutch troops, 
 and the magistrates had concluded an ar- 
 mistice with him in the hope of saving the 
 city. The insurgent leaders i-epudiated 
 this arrangement and summoned the Dutch 
 forces to surrender. General Chasse re- 
 plied by opening fire upon the quarter of 
 the town occupied by the insurgents. The 
 city was much damaged and a great amount 
 of property was destroyed by this can- 
 nonade. 
 
 A provisional government was estab- 
 lished by the revolutionists at Brussels, and 
 proceeded to the work of framing a consti- 
 tution for Belgium as an independent king- 
 dom. Prince Frederick, who was at Ant- 
 werp, agreed to consent to this arrangement 
 on condition that he should be made king, 
 but the Belgians declined his offer. He 
 thereupon left Antwerp, and on the 25th 
 of October General Chasse opened a two 
 days' bombardment of the city, inflicting 
 great damage upon it. By this useless act 
 
1104 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of barbarity he put an end forever to all visional government in establishing the 
 hopeof a friendly settlement with Holland, monarchical form of government, and de- 
 
 MARKET-PLACE AT LIEGE. 
 
 On the 10th of November a national con- 
 gress was held at Brussels. This body pro- 
 claimed the independence of the kingdom 
 of Belgium, ratified the work of the pro- 
 
 clared the house of Orange forever ex- 
 cluded from the Belgian throne. 
 
 King William of Holland now appealed 
 to the great powers, from whom he had re- 
 
FROM FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1105 
 
 cefved Belgium, to compel the Belgians to 
 adhere to the arrangement, and at his 
 request a conference of the representatives 
 of these powers was held at London. The 
 Dutch and Belgians were ordered to with- 
 draw their troops within their respective 
 frontiers and to engage in no further hos- 
 tilities until the result of the conference 
 should be made known. On the 20th of 
 January, 1831, the conference acknowl- 
 edged the independence of Belgium, and 
 bound that country to assume a share of 
 the national debt of the Netherlands, which 
 was to be paid by monthly instalments. 
 
 The national congress of the Belgians 
 now offered the crown of the new kingdom 
 to the Duke de Nemours, the son of Louis 
 Philippe of France, but the prince declined 
 it as tlae European powers opposed his ac- 
 ceptance of it. A regency, with the Baron 
 Surlet de Choquier at its head, was estab- 
 lished in the place of the provisional gov- 
 ernment. The crown was then offered to 
 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the son-in- 
 law of George IV. of England. He ac- 
 cepted the offer, and on the 21st of July, 
 1831, was crowned King of the Belgians. 
 Not long after this a Dutch army invaded 
 the Belgian dominions in defiance of the 
 armistice. The new kingdom was in too 
 unsettled a condition to meet this danger, 
 and Leopold appealed to France for aid. 
 A French army, under Marshal Gerard, 
 entered Belgium, drove out the Dutch 
 forces, and compelled General Chasse to 
 surrender the citadel of Antwerp, Decem- 
 ber 23cl, 1832. This brought the actual 
 hostilities to a close, but the final treaty of 
 peace between Belgium and Holland was 
 not signed until April 19th, 1839, and then 
 only at the dictation of the European 
 powers. By this treaty Luxemburg and 
 Limburg were divided between the con- 
 tending parties, Holland's share being the 
 eastern portion of these provinces, with the 
 fortresses of Msestricht, Venloo, and Lux- 
 70 
 
 emburg. On the 9th of August, 1832, 
 King Leopold married the Princess Louise, 
 the daughter of Louis Philippe, by whom 
 he had several children. 
 
 Leopold devoted himself earnestly to 
 promoting the prosperity and freedom of 
 his kingdom. Liberal institutions were es- 
 tablished, and Belgium entered upon the 
 career of prosperous industry which has 
 made her one of the richest nations of 
 Europe. Being so close to France, the 
 kingdom did not entirely escape the agi- 
 tation caused by the revolution of 1848, but 
 this movement, so far as Belgium was con- 
 cerned, resulted only in certain reforms in 
 the electoral system and the abolition of the 
 newspaper duty. The coup d'etat of Na- 
 poleon in 1851 drove large numbers of 
 French refugees into Belgium, and these 
 caused the government considerable embar- 
 rassment. The liberal journals were very 
 bitter in their denunciations of the course 
 of Napoleon, and the government was 
 obliged to suppress some of the most ob- 
 noxious of these, to expel a few of the 
 refugees, and to procure the passage of a 
 law punishing attempts against the lives of 
 foreign sovereigns. Leopold died on the 
 9th of December, 1865, after a peaceful 
 and prosperous reign of thirty-four years. 
 
 Leopold II., the eldest son of the first 
 king, succeeded his father. His reign has 
 been prosperous and peaceful. During the 
 Franco-German war of 1870-71 Belgium 
 observed a rigid neutrality between the 
 combatants, forbidding even the exportation 
 of arms, ammunition, or materials of war. 
 On the 9th of August, 1870, England, 
 which, since the formation of the kingdom, 
 has been recognized as the special protector 
 of Belgium, concluded a treaty with France 
 and Prussia, by which those powers agreed 
 to respect the neutrality of Belgium. Since 
 the close of this war the history of the 
 country has been uneventful. 
 
1106 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF DENIM^HK:. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRES- 
 ENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Denmark — Early History 
 Mythical — Origin of the Name — Gorm the Old — 
 Queen Thy ra— Builds the Dannevirke— Harald 
 Blue Tooth — Sveud— Conquers a Part of England 
 — Canute the Great — Abolishes Paganism— Con- 
 version of the Danes to Christianity — Denmark 
 Joined to Norway — Magnus the Good — Division of 
 the Kingdoms— Reign of Svend II. — His Succes- 
 sors — Valdemar I. — Valdemar II. — Converts the 
 Esthonians— His Captivity — His Successors — Rise 
 of the Commons — Christopher I. — Decline of the 
 Royal Power — War with Schleswig — Valdemar 
 III. — Olaf— Margaret — Her Good Reign — Her 
 Successors — Christian of Oldenburg Becomes 
 King — Christian II. — Loses Sweden— Is Deposed 
 — Frederick I. — Denmark Becomes Protestant — 
 The Wars of the Seventeenth Century — Christian 
 VII. — War with England — Defeat of the Danish 
 Fleet by Lord Nelson — Bombardment of Copen- 
 hagen — Denmark Joins the Coalition Against 
 Napoleon — Loses Norway — Frederick VII. — The 
 Schieswig-Holsteiu Wars — Denmark Loses the 
 Duchies— The Millennial Celebration of Iceland. 
 
 )HE kingdom of Denmark is situ- 
 ated in the north of Europe, and 
 lies between latitude 54° 30' and 
 57° 45' N., and longitude 8° 5' 
 and 12° 45' E. It includes also 
 _ the small island of Bornholm, in 
 the Baltic, which lies in longitude 15° E. 
 The kingdom is bounded on the north by 
 the Skager Rack, on the northeast and 
 east by the Cattegat, the Sound, and the 
 Baltic, on the south by the Strait of Fe- 
 mern, the Little Belt, and Schleswig, and on 
 the west by the North Sea. The kingdom 
 consists of the peninsula of Jutland and 
 the islands of Seeland, Fiinen, Laaland, Fal- 
 ster, Langeland, Moen, Samso, Laso, Arro, 
 Bornholm, and some other smaller islands. 
 It possesses also the Faroe Islands, Iceland 
 and Greenland, and the islands of Santa 
 Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John, in the 
 West Indies. The area of the kingdom 
 proper is 14,752 square miles, and its popu- 
 lation 1,903,000. Including the colonies 
 the area is 87,161 square miles, and the 
 population 2,032,000. 
 
 The early history of Denmark is full of 
 uncertainty. According to the national 
 traditions the country received its name 
 from Dan Mykillati, or "Dan the Fa- 
 mous," one of its earliest kings, who taught 
 
 his people many useful arts, and made all 
 the neighboring princes tributary to him. 
 The date and the events of his reign are 
 unknown. He was followed by a long line 
 of kings, one of whom, Stoerkodder, is the 
 Northern Hercules, and many legends are 
 related of his great strength and prowess. 
 He is believed to have reigned about a. d. 
 600. Another of these legendary heroes 
 was Sigurd Ring, whose son, Regner Lod- 
 brog, even surpassed him in valor. 
 
 Towards the end of the ninth century 
 Denmark, which had been until then divided 
 among a number of petty rulers, became 
 united in a single kingdom. The first king of 
 the new state was Gorm the Old, who reigned 
 between a. d. 860 and 936. By this time 
 the Northmen, of whom the Danes were the 
 foremost, had made themselves a terror to 
 all the coasts of Europe. In their strong, 
 swift-sailing galleys they descended upon 
 all the exposed points of tlie coast, and 
 marked their progress by their violence. 
 We have related their ravages elsewhere, 
 and need not repeat the account here. 
 Gorm was one of the principal leaders of 
 these plundering bands. He invaded Ger- 
 many, ravaged the northern coast with fire 
 and sword, and even carried his arms as 
 far south as Aix-la-Chapelle, where he 
 plundered the chapel in which Charlemagne 
 lay buried. He also took part in the first 
 siege of Paris by the Northmen, in 885. In 
 891 he headed his troops in the battle of 
 Louvain, in which the Northmen were 
 overwhelmingly beaten by the German 
 king, Arnulf. 
 
 During the absence of Gorm on his 
 roving expeditions, Denmark was ruled by 
 his queen, Thyra, a woman of unusual 
 vigor of mind. Her husband was a fierce 
 pagan, but she was favorably inclined to 
 Christianity. She caused the erection of 
 the immense rampart known as the Danne- 
 virke, which stretched across the peninsula 
 at the southern end of Schleswig. It was 
 forty-five to seventy feet high and eight 
 miles in length, and was meant to protect 
 Denmark from the invasions of the Ger- 
 mans. 
 
 Gorm died in 936, and his son Harald 
 Blue Tooth came to the throne. He was 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1107 
 
 a cruel and crafty king, and succeeded by 
 treachery in making Norway tributary to 
 him for a time, but the latter kingdom soon 
 recovered its independence. Harald pro- 
 fessed Christianity and was baptized, to- 
 gether with, his wife and his son Svend, or 
 Sweyn, by a German monk named Poppa, 
 who also converted a large part of the 
 Danish people. Harald undertook several 
 wars with France in aid of the young Duke 
 Richard the Fearless of Normandy. He 
 died in battle in 985. 
 
 Svend, or Sweyn, the son of Harald, suc- 
 
 Harald was chosen King of Denmark, and 
 Canute, who was but fourteen years old at 
 the time, was given his father's conquests in 
 England. He followed these up with vigor, 
 and soon won for himself the whole of Eng- 
 land. In 1018 Harald died, and Canute 
 was chosen his successor on the Danish 
 throne. Being a Christian he abolished 
 the worship of Odin in Denmark, and made 
 Christianity the religion of the state. He 
 preferred England as a place of residence, 
 and his reign belongs more to English than 
 to Danish history. He made himself mas- 
 
 COPENHAGEN. 
 
 ceeded his father on the throne of Denmark. 
 As we have related elsewhere he invaded 
 England in 994, during the reign of Ethel- 
 red the Unready, and conquered a large 
 part of that kingdom. This conquest con- 
 sumed a number of years, and in 1014 
 Svend died suddenly at Gainesborough. 
 Though baptized in childhood, he relapsed 
 from Christianity to paganism upon reach- 
 ing maturer years. 
 
 Svend left two sons, Harald and Knud, 
 or as he is known in English history, Canute. 
 
 ter of Sweden and Norway, as well as of 
 Cumberland and parts of Scotland, and 
 though but thirty-six years old at the time 
 of his death, was one of the greatest of 
 European monarchs. He died in 1035. 
 
 Harald Harefoot, the son of Canute by 
 his first wife, succeeded to the English 
 throne, and Harthakund, or Hardicanute, 
 a son by a second marriage, obtained the 
 crown of Denmark. Harald died in 1039, 
 and Hardicanute succeeded him as King 
 of England. He reigned three years, and 
 
1108 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 passed most of his time in England. In 
 Danish history his reign is uneventful. 
 
 At the death of Hardicanute in 1042, 
 Denmark passed to Norway, in consequence 
 of an agreement to that effect between Har- 
 dicanute and Magnus the Good of Nor- 
 way. This was a gain for Denmark, and 
 for five years the Danes enjoyed the benefits 
 of the wise rule of King Magnus. At his 
 death in 1047 he resigned the Danish crown 
 to Svend, the nephew of Canute, and thus 
 the kingdoms of Norway and Denmark were 
 again separated. 
 
 King Harald of Norway endeavored to 
 defeat this arrangement, and for seven- 
 teen years kept up a constant war upon 
 Denmai'k, in which that country suffered 
 greatly. As he wished to make war upon 
 England, he concluded a peace with Svend 
 in 1064. Svend was a good ruler and a 
 good man, and his reign was in the main a 
 prosperous one. In 1069 he attempted to 
 wrest England from William the Con- 
 queror, but without success. This was the 
 last of the Danish attempts upon England. 
 Svend was a warm friend of Pope Gregory 
 VII., with whom he maintained a constant 
 correspondence ; but when Gregory ordered 
 him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the 
 holy see, he refused to do so, and stoutly 
 maintained the ir^dependence of his king- 
 dom. He is said to have been an exceed- 
 ingly ugly and clumsy man, and personally 
 a great coward. He was a good king to 
 his country, however, and was the founder 
 of the present reigning house of Denmark. 
 He died in 1076, and left fourteen sons. 
 Five of these were in succession Kings of 
 Denmark. Harald, the eldest, reigned 
 from 1076 to 1080; Knud to 1086; Olaf 
 from 1086 to 1095; Erik from 1095 to 
 1103; and Niels from 1103 to 1134. The 
 reigns of these kings were full of trouble 
 and internal dissensions. 
 
 The death of Niels was followed by a 
 troubled period, which was ended by the 
 accession to the Danish throne of Valde- 
 mar I., called The Great. This prince 
 found his kingdom poor, without an army, 
 and in great distress. He left it a prosper- 
 ous, well-defended, and busy country. He 
 won great successes over the heathen 
 Wends and Esthonians, on the Baltic, 
 whom he forced to embrace Christianity. 
 He died in 1182, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Knud VI., who brought all Pomerania 
 and some of eastern Prussia under the 
 power of Denmark. He died in 1202, and 
 
 was succeeded by his brother, Valdemar 
 II., one of Denmark's greatest kings. He 
 subdued and annexed all of Pomerania, and 
 in 1217 the German emperor granted to 
 him and his successors all the territories 
 north of the Elbe and the Elde,thus making 
 him actual master of the greater part of 
 northern Germany. In 1219 Valdemar, 
 with the sanction of the pope, undertook 
 to convert the Esthonians to Christianity. 
 He entered upon his task with a force of 
 60,000 men and a fleet of 1,400 ships. He 
 soon overran the whole of Esthonia, and 
 compelled large numbers of the people to 
 submit to baptism. The Livonian knights 
 of the sword bitterly opposed this conver- 
 sion of Esthonia, as they declared that they 
 alone had the right to make Christians of 
 the heathen of that region. They took up 
 arms to expel the Danes, and several severe 
 battles occurred between the contending 
 forces, in which the Danes were generally 
 successful. When Valdemar returned to 
 Denmark from Esthonia he seemed at the 
 height of his power. In 1223, however, 
 while sleeping in his tent during a hunting 
 expedition, he was seized, gagged, and 
 bound, together with his eldest son. Prince 
 Valdemar, by Count Henry of Schwerin, 
 carried off in a swift sailing vessel to Ger- 
 many, and thrown with his son into a dun- 
 geon in the Castle of Danneberg, in Han- 
 over. He was kept in this shameful captivity 
 for several years, and was only released 
 upon payment of a ransom of 45,000 silver 
 marks. The remainder of his reign was 
 uneventful. He was unable to avenge 
 himself upon Count Henry, and devoted 
 his efforts to the improvement of his king- 
 dom. In 1241 he gave to Denmark her 
 first uniform code of laws. This code re- 
 mained in force for nearly 450 years, and 
 even then was not entirely abolished. Three 
 days after this code Avas adopted by the 
 Danish estates Valdemar died, at the age 
 of seventy-one. 
 
 Prince Valdemar having died before his 
 father, the king's second son, Erik, came to 
 the throne at Valdemar's death. He reigned 
 until 1251, and was murdered by order of 
 his brother, Abel, Duke of Schleswig, who 
 obtained the crown. Abel reigned only 
 two years, and was slain in 1252 by a man 
 whom he had wronged. His reign is noted 
 chiefly as being the first in which the 
 burgher class were permitted as a distinct 
 body to send representatives to the " Dane- 
 hof," or yearly national assembly. They 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1109 
 
 ■were also granted important municipal 
 privileges, which they had not enjoyed be- 
 fore. King Abel was succeeded by his 
 brother Christopher, a man in the prime of 
 life, who reigned until 1259. His career 
 was uneventful. 
 
 Christopher I. was succeeded by his son, 
 Erik Clipping, a child of ten years. He 
 reigned until 1286, but his reign was un- 
 
 Danish nobles compelled him to sign a 
 charter which rendered them almost inde- 
 pendent of the king, and entirely freed them 
 from taxation by the crown, thus largely 
 reducing the revenues of the monarch. 
 Christopher's efforts to free himself from 
 these hard conditions involved the kingdom 
 in many civil wars. In 1325 the nobles 
 called in the assistance of Count Gerhard 
 
 KOYAL PALACE AT KEONBEEG. 
 
 eventful. His son, Erik Menved, also a 
 child of ten years, succeeded him and 
 reigned until 1319. Under these two 
 kings the royal power declined rapidly, and 
 the Hanse towns were able to dictate the 
 terms upon which the Danes should engage 
 iu the fisheries. Christojiher II., the bro- 
 ther of Erik, succeeded to the throne in 
 1319. The crown being elective, before 
 they allowed Christopher to assume it the 
 
 of Holstein, wlio defeated the king, and 
 persuaded the Danes to declare the throne 
 vacant. He set up his nephew, Valdeniar 
 of Schleswig, as king, but for fourteen yea is 
 was himself the real ruler of Denmark. 
 Christopher, after many attempts to regain 
 his throne, died in 1332. Count Gerhartl 
 continued to rule Denmark, greatly op- 
 pressing the people, and earning their bitter 
 hatred. In 1340 he was slain in the midst 
 
1110 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of his nobles and army by a Jutlander of 
 rank named Niels Ebbeson. The Jut- 
 landers at once rallied under this daring 
 man, and drove out the German army. Count 
 Henry, the son of Gerhard, took up arms 
 to avenge his father, and defeated the 
 Danes in the battle of Skandersborg, in 
 which Niels was slain. Henry then with- 
 drew his troops, and left the Danes to 
 settle their own affairs. 
 
 The Danish princes chose Valderaar 
 Atterdag, the youngest son of Christopher, 
 to be their king. He revived the power 
 and credit of the Danish monarchy, and 
 conducted a successful war with the Hanse 
 towns. Being anxious to secure the mar- 
 riage of his daughter Margaret with the 
 Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway, he 
 seized the Princess Elizabeth of Holstein 
 Gottorp, who was betrothed to that prince, 
 and held her a prisoner until he effected 
 the marriage of his daughter with the heir 
 to the Swedish throne. This act involved 
 him in a war with the Counts of Holstein, 
 who made an alliance against him with the 
 Hanse towns and some of the German 
 princes. Valdemar was defeated with the 
 loss of a considerable part of his kingdom, 
 and was obliged to fly from Denmark in 
 1368. For four years the Hansers man- 
 aged the affairs of the Danish kingdom, but 
 in 1372 permitted Valdemar to return to 
 his throne on condition that in future the 
 Hanse towns should have a voice in the 
 election of the Danish kings. In 1375 
 Valdemar died. The Danish nobles at 
 once proclaimed as King of Denmark Olaf, 
 the son of Margaret, Queen of Sweden and 
 Norway, Valdemar's daughter. Olaf died 
 in 1387, at the age of seventeen. The Danes 
 then chose Margaret, the mother of Olaf, 
 to be their queen. Soon after this Mar- 
 garet was crowned Queen of Norway, and 
 thus Denmark and Norway were united 
 under one crown. 
 
 Margaret was one of the most remarka- 
 ble women in history. She proved a wise 
 and good ruler to her two kingdoms, and 
 greatly attached her people to her. She 
 adopted as her heir Erik of Pomerania, the 
 grandson of her sister Ingeborg, and strove 
 hard to render him worthy of his destiny. 
 The great chronicler of Liibeck says of 
 her: "She made peace with old foes, and 
 kept good order over her people, gaining 
 to her side both nobles and peasants. She 
 went from castle to castle, and received the 
 homage and faithful service of the great ; 
 
 she journeyed from province to province,^ 
 and looked well into matters of law and 
 of right, until all obeyed and served her; 
 justice was done in the land, and even the 
 high-born sea-robbers, who so long had 
 plagued the kingdom and defied the laws, 
 were seized with terror, and were glad to 
 come forward and give surety in money for 
 their future good conduct." 
 
 Margaret was not contented with her two 
 kingdoms, but claimed the crown of Swe- 
 den also, in right of her husband. In 1389 
 she invaded that country, and defeated the 
 reigning king, Albert the Elder, of Meck- 
 lenburg, and kept him a prisoner for six 
 years. She assumed the government of 
 Sweden immediately after her victory. In 
 1398 she caused her nephew, Erik of Pom- 
 erania, to be crowned with great state at 
 Calmar, as King of Denmark, Norway, and 
 Sweden, and on this occasion proclaimed 
 the arrangement known as the " Calmar 
 Act of Union," by which the three king- 
 doms were united in one monarchy. The 
 king was to be elected conjointly by the 
 three nations. This act was distasteful to 
 the Swedes, but continued in force until the 
 sixteenth century. "If Margaret could 
 have been followed on the throne by rulers 
 as good and just as she had been, this Act 
 of the Union of Calmar might have worked 
 for the good of the three kingdoms. For 
 it was quite true, as the queen said, that 
 each one alone was a poor, weak state, open 
 to danger from every side, but that the 
 three united would make a monarchy 
 strong enough to defy the attacks and 
 schemes of the Hanse traders and all foes 
 from the side of Germany, and would keep 
 the Baltic clear of danger from foreigners. 
 There was, however, no ruler who came 
 after Queen Margaret equal to her, as there 
 had been none before her to be compared 
 to her." Margaret died suddenly in 1412, 
 and Erik remained sole ruler of the three 
 kingdoms. 
 
 Erik was a weak and incompetent prince. 
 During the last years of Margaret's life he 
 had shown signs of incapacity, but her 
 abilities had saved him from the conse- 
 quences of his blunders. He devoted his 
 chief energies to the conquest of Holstein, 
 but was generally unsuccessful in his opera- 
 tions. He married Philippa, the daughter 
 of Henry IV. of England, and her abilities 
 did much to prolong his reign. In 1435 
 the Swedes rose against Erik, in consequence 
 of his tvrannical treatment of them, and in 
 
FB03f THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 nil 
 
 1439 the council of state declared him de- 
 posed. The Danes followed their example, 
 and also deposed him. He was absent at 
 the island of Gothland at the time, and 
 sought to return to Denmark, but Avas not 
 allowed to land at any port, and died in 
 1459, poor and neglected. 
 
 Christopher, the son of the Duke of Ba- 
 varia, and the nephew of Erik, was chosen 
 ruler of Denmark, and was crowned in 
 1 439. Three years later, he was proclaimed 
 King of Sweden and Norway also. He died 
 in 1448, leaving no children. 
 
 The Danish nobles now bestowed their 
 crown upon Count Christian of Oldenburg, 
 a descendant of the ancient kings of Den- 
 mark. He married the widow of Christo- 
 pher, and was readily acknowledged by the 
 Danes. He thus established the house of 
 Oldenburg, which has since held the Dan- 
 ish throne. In 1450 he was crowned King 
 of Norway, but though he claimed the 
 Swedish crown, and strove hard to win it, 
 he could never succeed in obtaining a firm 
 footing in that country. In 1469 he mar- 
 ried his daughter Margaret to the young 
 King James III. of Scotland, and ceded to 
 that kingdom the Orkney and Shetland 
 Isles in lieu of her dowry. He died in 
 1481. 
 
 Hans, the eldest son of Christian, suc- 
 ceeded his father, though not without mak- 
 ing hard terms with the nobles, with whom 
 he was unpopular. He also undertook to 
 conquer the Swedish crown, but without 
 success. He defeated the Liibeck traders, 
 and greatly restrained the insolence of the 
 Hanse towns. He died in 1515. 
 
 Christian II., the only son of King Hans, 
 DOW came to the throne of Denmark and 
 Norway. He promptly asserted his claim 
 to Sweden, conquered the force opposed to 
 him in that country, and in 1520 was 
 crowned king at Stockholm, thus once 
 more uniting the three Scandinavian king- 
 doms under one crown. His oppressive 
 government soon drove the Swedes into 
 rebellion, under the leadership of Gustavus 
 Yasa, and Sweden was forever lost to Den- 
 mark. In 1523 he was deposed for his 
 tyranny, and the crown was given to his 
 uncle Frederick, Duke of Holstein, who 
 became Frederick I. During his reign the 
 Lutheran religion was established in Den- 
 mark. He died in 1533, and was succeeded 
 by his son, Christian III., who was one of 
 the best princes of the age. Under him the 
 Beformation was completed. He died in 
 
 1559, and Frederick II. came to the throne. 
 This king extended the authority of Den- 
 mark over the free people of Ditmarsen, 
 who had opposed a successful resistance of 
 several centuries to that country. Freder- 
 ick's son, Christian IV., came to the throne 
 in 1588. The monarchy over which he 
 reigned embraced all of Denmark and Nor- 
 way, and the seven southern provinces of 
 Sweden. In 1611 he embarked in a fool- 
 ish and useless war with Sweden, which 
 continued two years, when it was ended 
 through the mediation of England. Dur- 
 ing the early part of the Thirty Years' 
 War, Christian undertook to intervene in 
 the affairs of Germany, as chief of the 
 Protestant League. He endeavored to 
 unite the Protestant nations against the 
 Emperor Ferdinand, and failing in this, 
 invaded Germany in 1625. He was de- 
 feated at Lutter in 1627, and driven out of 
 Germany, and after experiencing heavy 
 losses, was forced to make peace in 1629. 
 He continued to reign until 1648, when he 
 died, and was succeeded by his son Freder- 
 ick III., who in 1657 became involved in a 
 war with Charles X. of Sweden, the events 
 of which we shall relate in connection 
 with the history of that country. Peace 
 was restored by the treaty of Roskild in 
 March, 1658, and Denmai-k was obliged to 
 cede to Sweden some of her most valuable 
 islands, and to abandon all her offensive 
 alliances. On the pretext that the terms 
 of this treaty had not been fulfilled by 
 Denmark, the war was renewed by Sweden 
 in August, 1658. Copenhagen was be- 
 sieged, but the intervention of the Dutch, 
 who sent a fleet to the assistance of the 
 Danes, compelled Charles X. to relinquish 
 his designs upon Denmark. In 1670 
 Christian V. came to the Danish throne, 
 and in 1675 the war with Sweden was re- 
 newed, in alliance with the Elector of 
 Brandenburg and the Dutch republic. 
 The war was brought to a close in 1679 at 
 the command of Louis XIV. of France, 
 and the allies were compelled to restore to 
 Sweden all the territory they had taken 
 from her. In the meantime the Danish 
 monarchy had been changed by a peaceful 
 revolution, in 1667, from an elective into 
 an hereditary monarchy. By this change 
 the power of the nobles was greatly weak- 
 ened. Christian V. reigned until 1699, 
 when he was succeeded by his son Freder- 
 ick IV. In the latter part of the seven- 
 teenth century, the territory of Denmark 
 
1112 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 was greatly reduced. By the treaty of 
 Copenhagen, in 1660, Denmark ceded to 
 Sweden all that part of her territory which 
 lay within the northern peninsula — the 
 seven southern provinces of Sweden — and 
 retained only Jutland and the islands. 
 
 The part taken by Denmark against 
 Charles XII. of Sweden will be related in 
 the history of that country. By this war 
 Denmark was confirmed in the possession of 
 Schleswig. The kingdom took no part in the 
 European wars of the first half of this cen- 
 tury. In 1759 it entered into an alliance 
 with Russia and Sweden for mutual pro- 
 tection, and to maintain the commercial 
 neutrality of the Baltic. In 1787 Sweden 
 having become involved in a war with Rus- 
 sia, Christian VII. of Denmark, as the ally 
 of Russia, sent an army to invade the Swe- 
 dish territory ; but England, Holland and 
 Prussia intervened, and compelled him to 
 remain neutral. In 1780 Denmark joined 
 the league of the northern powers, Russia, 
 Sweden, Prussia and Holland, to compel 
 England to respect the rights of neutral 
 vessels, as has been related. The kingdom 
 took no part in the wars of the French 
 revolution, and remained at peace until 
 the close ot the "century. 
 
 We have already related the course 
 pursued by Denmark in the wars of Na- 
 poleon. During the earlier years of the 
 century, repeated efibrts were made by the 
 northern powers to put a stop to the inter- 
 ference of English ships of war with neutral 
 vessels on the high seas on the pretence of 
 searching for contraband of war. The first 
 coalition for this purpose was formed in 
 1800 between Russia, Sweden, Denmark 
 and Prussia. Denmark was the only suf- 
 ferer by it. The British fleet, under Lord 
 Nelson, passed the sound and defeated the 
 Danish fleet before Copenhagen in April, 
 1801, and compelled Denmark to withdraw 
 from the coalition. 
 
 From this time until 1807 Denmark pre- 
 served an attitude of neutrality in Euro- 
 pean affairs ; but in the summer of that 
 year England, alarmed by the probability 
 of her adhesion to the new northern coali- 
 tion, suddenly sent a fleet to Copenhagen, 
 and demanded the surrender of the Danish 
 fleet, promising to restore it at the end of 
 the war. This humiliating demand was 
 refused by the Danish government, and 
 Copenhagen was bombarded for three days, 
 and was forced to surrender, after being 
 almost destroyed. The Danish ^eet and 
 
 a large quantity of naval stores fell into 
 the hands of the English, and were carried 
 to England. Two months after this ex- 
 traordinary action, England declared war 
 against Denmark, which was thus forced 
 to unite her eflTorts with those of Napoleon 
 and to adopt his continental system. Den- 
 mark lost her West Indian colonies of St. 
 Thomas and St. Croix, which fell into the 
 hands of the English. For the next six 
 years Denmark supported the cause of 
 France. 
 
 In 1813, after the defeat of Napoleon at 
 Leipzig, Denmark joined the coalition 
 against him. Norway, which until now 
 had formed a part of the Danish kingdom, 
 was ceded to Sweden, and Denmark re- 
 ceived in exchange for it Swedish Pomerania 
 and the island of Riigen. Great Britain 
 agreed to pay Denmark a liberal subsidy 
 to enable her to maintain a force of 10,000 
 troops. Upon the fall of the French em- 
 pire, Denmark incorporated its German 
 duchy of Holstein with the kingdom. 
 Shortly afterwards, Swedish Pomerania was 
 ceded to Prussia, in exchange for the duchy 
 of Lauenburg. As Duke of Holstein and 
 Lauenburg, the King of Denmark became 
 a member of the German confederation. 
 The peace of 1815 made no change in the 
 character of the Danish state, which re- 
 mained an absolute monarchy. 
 
 In 1848 Frederick VII. came to the 
 throne, and gave to his people a constitu- 
 tion ; since which time Denmark has been 
 ruled as a constitutional monarchy. In the 
 same year the duchies of Schleswig and 
 Holstein, aided by Prussia and Hanover, 
 revolted from Denmark. We have already 
 related the cause and the events of this 
 troublesome war in the German history of 
 this period, to which the reader is referred. 
 The quarrel was temporai'ily settled in 
 1852. Frederick VII. died in November, 
 1863, and was succeeded by Prince Chris- 
 tian of Schleswig- Holstein -Glucksburg, 
 who had married a grand-niece of Fred- 
 erick. Upon the accession of Christian IX. 
 to the throne, the claims of the Duke of 
 Augustenburg, the head of the elder branch 
 of his family, to the duchies of Schleswig 
 and Holstein were revived. This brought 
 on a war with Austria and Prussia in 1864, 
 as we have already related. The Danes 
 were steadily beaten in this contest, and 
 the duchies were relinquished to Austria 
 and Prussia; and finally, in 1866, were 
 surrendered to Prussia alone. 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1113 
 
 In 1866 a new constitution was adopted by 
 Denmark ; and since then the history of the 
 kingdom has been peaceful and uneventful. 
 
 In the summer of 1874 King Christian 
 
 and the Crown Prince of Denmark visited 
 Iceland, and took part in the celebrations 
 which commemorated the millennial anni- 
 versary of the settlement of the island. 
 
 «s-# 
 
 BOOiEC :xx:x:i. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SA^^H;3DEN ^ISTD 
 
 ISTORTV^^Y. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRES- 
 ENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Norway — Primitive In- 
 habitants — The Northmen Occupy the Country — 
 Harald Harfager — Hako the Good — The First 
 Codeof Laws— Hako's Successors — The Death of 
 King Olaf I. — Saint Olaf — Norway Converted to 
 Christianity — Magnus I. — Magnus Barefoot's Con- 
 quests — Sigurd I. — Sverre — His Successors — Erik 
 the Priest-hater — Margaret — Norway United to 
 Denmark — TheUnionofCalmar— Decline of Nor- 
 way — Margaret's Successors — Christian IV. — His 
 Good Reign — Norway Becomes Merely a Danish 
 Province — Frederick VI. — Norway Detached from 
 Denmark and Given to Sweden — Conditions of 
 the Union — Geographical Position of Sweden — 
 Primitive Inhabitants — Arrival of Odin and the 
 Swedes — The Successors of Odin— Olaf the Lap- 
 King — Introduction of Christianity — St. Erik — 
 His Successors — Valdemar I. — Magnus Barn- 
 lock — Margaret — The Union of Calmar — Mar- 
 garet's Successors — Christian II. — Eevolt of the 
 Swedes Under Gustavus Vasa — Reigns of Sigis- 
 mund and Charles IX.— Gustavus Adolphus — 
 His Wars — Christina Abdicates — Charles X. — His 
 Wars with the Northern States of Europe — Charles 
 XI. — Charles XII. — His Wars with Russia — His 
 Flight into Turkey — Destruction of the Suprem- 
 acy of Sweden in the North — Sweden Loses Her 
 Provinces — Sweden During the Eighteenth Cen- 
 tury — Gustavus III.— Wars with France— Charles 
 XIII. — Bernadotte — Sweden is Given Norway 
 by the Allies — The Union — Subsequent History. 
 
 I. The History of Norway. 
 
 ORWAY comprises the western por- 
 tion of the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 and lies between latitude 57° 57' and 
 71° 11' N., and longitude 4° 45' and 
 31°15'E. It is bounded on the north 
 by the Arctic Ocean ; on the east 
 by Russian Lapland and Sweden ; on the 
 .south by the Skager Rack ; and on the west 
 by the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. 
 Its greatest length, from north to south, is 
 1080 miles ; its greatest breadth, from east 
 to west, 275 miles. It comprises an area 
 
 of 122,279 miles, and contains a population 
 of 1,802,882 souls. It forms a part of the 
 kingdom of Sweden and Norway, but while 
 submitting to the same sovereign as Swe- 
 den, it is in its internal administration en- 
 tirely independent of that country. 
 
 A NOKSE SEA-KING OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The early history of Norway is shrouded 
 in uncertainty. The primitive inhabitants 
 were Fins, and these the Northmen found 
 settled in the country upon their occupa- 
 tion of it. The Northmen, as we have seen, 
 were a German people, of Gothic origin, 
 who, long before they had any written his- 
 tory, had been pressed by other nations from 
 their old homes till they reached the shores 
 of the Baltic and the German Ocean. In 
 
1114 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Norway they drove out the Finnish inhabit- 
 ants, and settled themselves in the country. 
 
 The authentic history of Norway begins 
 with Harald Harfager, or Harold the Fair- 
 haired, who is supposed to have reigned about 
 A. D. 863 to 933. He subdued the petty Norse 
 chiefs, and united the people in one nation. 
 The high-spirited chieftains could not bear 
 their subjugation, and embarked with their 
 followers in piratical expeditions against 
 the coasts of Europe. Harald was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Erik the Cruel, who 
 reigned five years. In 938 his people, mad- 
 dened by his tyranny, rose up against him, 
 and drove him out of the country. They 
 then conferred the crown upon Hakon or 
 Hako I., called " the Good." He was the 
 sou of Harald Harfager, but had been edu- 
 cated at the court of the English king, 
 ^thelstan, from which circumstauce he is 
 also known as "^thelstan's foster son." 
 He was a wise and good sovereign, and his 
 memory is justly cherished by his people. 
 He gave to Norway a code of laws ; and 
 also endeavored to introduce Christianity 
 into his kingdom, but the people were 
 staunch pagans, aud it took three centuries 
 to accomplish their conversion. During 
 his reign the soqs of Erik, aided by Den- 
 mark, repeatedly endeavored to win back 
 their father's crown. In 963 he was slain 
 in a battle with them. Erik the Cruel's 
 son Erik Graafell, and his cousin Hakon 
 Jarl, divided the kingdom between them 
 until the death of Hakon Jarl, in 995, 
 when the Norwegians revolted, and placed 
 Olaf I. on the throne. He is one of the 
 great heroes of Norwegian romance, and 
 his exploits form a fruitful theme for the 
 songs of the poets. He destroyed the pagan 
 temples, and founded the town of Drou- 
 theim. He was defeated by the Danes in 
 a great naval battle in a. d. 1000, and 
 when all was lost, sprang overboard in full 
 armor to escape capture, and was drowned. 
 For the next fifteen years Norway was a 
 prey to the attacks of Denmark and Swe- 
 den, and suffered severely at their hands. 
 
 In 1015 Olaf II., called "the Saint," 
 drove out the oppressors of his country, 
 and restored the independence and unity 
 of Norway. He completed the Christianiza- 
 tion of the country, but did so in such a 
 harsh and cruel manner that all classes of 
 his people were turned against him. In 
 1030 Canute the Great, of Denmark, in- 
 vaded Norway, defeated Olaf and drove 
 him out of the kingdom, which he added 
 
 to his own dominions. Olaf subsequently 
 returned and made an effort to recover his 
 crown, but was defeated and slain in the 
 battle of Stikklestad. Canute then con- 
 ferred the government of Norway upon his 
 son Svend or Sweyn ; but after the death of 
 the great king, Sweyn was driven out by 
 Magnus I., the son of St. Olaf, who reigned 
 from 1035 to 1047. He was killed in a 
 battle with the Danes, and was succeeded 
 by his uncle Harald (II.) Hardrada, who 
 reigned until 1066. In the last year of his 
 reign he attempted to wrest England from 
 Harold, the last of the Saxon kings, and 
 was defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Stamford Bridge, in Yorkshire, September 
 10th, 1066. Olaf III., the eldest son of 
 King Harald, succeeded his father. His 
 reign was peaceful and prosperous, and he 
 greatly endeared himself to his subjects. 
 He endeavored to introduce the civilization 
 of Europe into his kingdom. He died in 
 1093, and his son Magnus (II.) Barefoot suc- 
 ceeded him. He invaded and conquered the 
 Isle of Man, the Hebrides, the Shetlands, 
 and Orkneys ; and invaded Ireland, but was 
 defeated and slain in battle by the people 
 of that island, A. d. 1103. 
 
 At the death of Magnus, the Norwegians 
 made his three sons, Ejsten, Sigurd and 
 Olaf, joint Kings of Norway. Olaf died 
 when a child, and Ejsten followed him in 
 1123, leaving Sigurd I. sole king. He is 
 one of the great heroes of Norway ; he 
 fought against the Moors, made a pilgrim- 
 age to Jerusalem, where he joined his arms 
 with those of Baldwin, and captured and 
 plundered Sidon. He died in 1130, and 
 for fifty-four years Norway was afflicted 
 with anarchy and civil war, various princes 
 contending for the crown. 
 
 Order was restored by Sverre, or Sverer, 
 who came to the throne in 1184. He 
 claimed to be the son of Sigurd II., but 
 was generally believed to be the son of a 
 brushmaker. He was succeeded by his 
 only son Hakon III., in 1202. This prince 
 died in 1204, when Guttorm, a grandson of 
 Sverre, was made king. He was a mere 
 child, aud died after a reign of a few months. 
 The crown then passed to Inge Baardsen, 
 a nephew of the great Sverre, who ruled 
 until 1217. His whole reign was passed in 
 wars with rival claimants of his crown. At 
 the death of Inge, Hakon IV., said to be a 
 son of Hakon III., came to the throne. 
 He was a wise and powerful king, and in 
 1161 subdued Iceland. In 1262 he at- 
 
FROM TEE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1115 
 
 tempted the conquest of Scotland, but was 
 defeated in a battle at the mouth of the 
 Clyde river, and died shortly after in the 
 Orkneys. 
 
 Hakon was succeeded by his son Mag- 
 nus v., who reigned until 1280. He sold 
 the Hebrides to Scotland, and his son Erik 
 married the daughter of the Scottish king, 
 Alexander III. He was a good king and 
 gi-eatly improved the laws of Norway. 
 Erik the Priest-hater came to the throne in 
 1280, at the death of his father, and reigned 
 until 1299. His reign was uneventful, and, 
 as he left no sons, he was succeeded by his 
 only brother Hakon V., who was a good 
 ruler, and so endeared himself to his people, 
 that at his death in 1319 they bestowed the 
 crown of Norway upon the young Prince 
 Magnus of Sweden, the son of King Ha- 
 kon's daughter Ingeborg by her marriage 
 with Erik, the brother of the King of Swe- 
 den. 
 
 In 1350 King Magnus resigned the 
 crown of Norway to his second son Hakon 
 VI., who had married Margaret of Den- 
 mark. At the death of Hakon in 1380 his 
 son Olaf became king, under the regency 
 of his mother Margaret. Olaf died in 1387, 
 and Margaret became Queen of Norway. 
 
 Since the death of Hakon IV. Norway 
 had steadily declined. The constant wars 
 with Denmark exhausted the kingdom, and 
 the monopoly of trade enjoyed by the 
 Hanse towns prevented the proper exercise 
 of the industry of the people. In 1348 a 
 plague known as the Black Death broke 
 out, and scourged the kingdom for two 
 years, destroying more than two-thirds of 
 the people, an evil from which Norway did 
 not recover for centuries. Margaret, as we 
 have seen, united the crowns of Denmark, 
 Sweden and Norway by the act of the union 
 of Calmar in 1397. From this period the 
 Norwegians wholly lost their independence, 
 and the Danish influence became supreme 
 in the kingdom. The Norwegian nobles 
 were destroyed as an order, and were forced 
 to give way to Danish emigrants. For sev- 
 eral centuries after Margaret, Norway had 
 no separate existence, and Avas little more 
 than a province of Denmark. Christian I. 
 ceded the Shetland and Orkney islands, 
 which had come to him with Norway, to 
 Scotland, in lieu of his daughter's dowry. 
 The revolt of Sweden under Gustavus Vasa 
 in 1523 accomplished nothing for Norway, 
 and left that country still subject to Den- 
 jnark. Christian I. died in 1481, and Nor- 
 
 way continued to languish under his suc- 
 cessors, Hans (1481-1513) ; Christian II. 
 (1513-1523); Frederick I. (1523-1533); 
 Christian III. (1533-1559) ; and Frederick 
 II. (1559-1588). During this period the 
 doctrines of the Reformation spread into 
 Norway. The movement began in 1536, 
 and in spite of the efforts of the priests and 
 the government to prevent it, made such 
 progress among the people that in the course 
 of the next twenty years the country be- 
 came thoroughly Protestant. 
 
 Christian IV. came to the Danish throne 
 in 1588. The Norwegians were more at- 
 tached to him than to any other Danish 
 king. He spent a large part of his time 
 in Norway ; rebuilt Christiana in 1624, and 
 in 1641 founded Christiansand. He also 
 gave to the country an excellent code of 
 laws, many of which are still in force. His 
 successors did not continue his wise policy, 
 but treated Norway more as a conquered 
 province than as a joint kingdom. This 
 state of affairs continued throughout the 
 eighteenth century, and during this period 
 Norway cannot be said to have had any in- 
 dependent history. 
 
 In 1808 Frederick VI. came to the 
 throne, and began to treat Norway more 
 justly. In 1811 he founded the university 
 of Christiana, and revived many of the old 
 privileges of the kingdom. 
 
 In 1812 Sweden joined the coalition 
 against Napoleon, having been offered by 
 Russia, as an inducement to this course, the 
 possession of Norway. England joined 
 Russia in this guarantee, and though nei- 
 ther of these powers had any right to dis- 
 pose of Norway, the arrangement received 
 the tacit approval of the other parties to 
 the coalition. Sweden accordingly sent an 
 army into Germany under Bernadotte, the 
 crown prince. After the battle of Leipzig 
 (in October, 1813), Bernadotte marched 
 into Holstein with the Swedish army to 
 compel the Danes to give up Norway. 
 Liibeck was taken and several severe de- 
 feats were inflicted upon the Danes, who 
 were forced to enter into the treaty of Kiel 
 on the 14th of January, 1814, by which 
 Norway was transferred to Sweden. 
 
 The Norwegians were very indignant at 
 this transfer, in which their wishes had not 
 been consulted. The Danish Crown Prince 
 Christian hastened to Norway, and assem- 
 bled a national diet at Eidsvold, near Chris- 
 tiana, in May, 1814. This body conferred 
 upon him the crown of Norway, and con- 
 
1116 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WOULD. 
 
 stituted the kingdom an independent mon- 
 archy. In July Bernadotte invaded Nor- 
 way with a strong army, and a British fleet 
 blockaded the ports of that country. The 
 Norwegians were compelled to submit, the 
 Danish prince abdicated his crown, and on 
 the 14th of August an armistice was signed, 
 which recognized Norway as a separate and 
 independent monarchy under the Swedish 
 king and his heirs. The Norwegian Storth- 
 ing formally ratified this arrangement on 
 the 20th of the following October, and on 
 the 4th of November it received the ap- 
 proval of the King of Sweden and Norway. 
 Since that time the two countries, while 
 maintaining separate governments, have 
 been united under one sovereign. 
 
 II. The History of Sweden. 
 
 Sweden comprises the eastern part of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula of Europe, and lies 
 between latitude 55° 20' and 69° N., and 
 longitude 11° 10' and 24° 10' E. It is 
 bounded on the north and west by Norway, 
 on the east by the Baltic and the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, on the northeast by Finland, on 
 the south by the Baltic, and on the south- 
 west by the Skager Rack, the Cattegat, 
 and the Sound. The greatest length of 
 Sweden, from north to south, is 970 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth, from east to west, 
 about 200 miles. It comprises an area of 
 171,750 square miles, and contains a popu- 
 lation of (in 1875) 4,383,291 souls. Sweden 
 is divided from Norway by the main cliain 
 of the Scandinavian range of mountains, 
 along which a wide avenue cut through the 
 forest, and provided at regular intervals by 
 stone monuments, marks the boundary be- 
 tween the two kingdoms. This avenue is kept 
 up with the greatest care by the Norwegians. 
 
 The primitive inhabitants of Sweden 
 were Laps and Fins. At an uncertain but 
 very remote period, these were driven out 
 of the southern part of the country by the 
 Goths, who settled the region now known 
 as Gottland, or the Land of the Goths. 
 According to the old Swedish chronicles, 
 Odin, at the head of the race of Swedes, 
 who were also of German origin, invaded 
 the country during this uncertain period, 
 and finding the southern part in possession 
 of the Goths, whom they recognized as a 
 kindred people, passed farther north and 
 drove out the Laps and Fins, and settled in 
 the region now known as Svealand, the 
 central province of the present kingdom. 
 *' The Svea (or Swedes) were governed after 
 
 Odin's death by his pontiffs (or chief 
 priests), who had charge of his temple at 
 Sigtuna ; and this tribe by degrees grew so 
 much more powerful than the Goths that 
 they were allowed to take the lead in all 
 public matters, and their rulers were looked 
 up to as chief kings by all the ' Smaa-kon- 
 gar ' (small kings) of the Goths as well as 
 Swedes. In these and other legends of the 
 same kind it is not easy to discover whether 
 the old Swedes honored Odin as a god or as 
 a mere human chief of their race ; but it 
 has been supposed by some writers that 
 long after the first Gothic invaders brought 
 his worship into Sweden a second band of 
 the same tribe may have come, under a 
 leader called by his name, who set up a 
 newer form of faith, which gained such 
 hold over the minds of the people that in 
 time they came to worship the two Odins 
 under one common faith." 
 
 Odin's successor was the Pontiff Njord, 
 whose son, Frey Yngve, was the founder of 
 the royal line of the Ynglingar. He is 
 said to have built a new temple on the 
 ruins of the more ancient, one of Sigtuna, 
 and called it Upp-Sala (or the High Halls). 
 He was so greatly beloved by his people 
 that at his death they placed him among 
 their gods. The line of the Ynglings is 
 believed to have ended before the eighth 
 century with Ingjald-Illraada, or "Ingjald 
 the Bad Ruler," a cruel and crafty prince. 
 
 In 998 Olaf, the Lap-king, so called be- 
 cause he received the homage of his jDrinces 
 while an infant in the arms, came to the 
 throne, and with him the authentic history 
 of Sweden begins. Christianity had been 
 introduced into Sweden in 829 by Ausgar, 
 a monk of Corbie, but had made slow pro- 
 gress. Olaf embraced the new faith and. 
 founded a bishopric at Skara. He could 
 not induce his people to accept Christianity, 
 however, and they remained pagans for 
 more than a century longer. He died in 
 1024, and was succeeded by his son An- 
 und, who reigned until 1052, when his 
 brother, Edmund the Old, came to the 
 throne. This king, who was the last of the 
 Uppsala line, died in 1055. His reign is 
 chiefly noted for a persecution of the Chris- 
 tians. 
 
 After the death of Edmund a fierce war 
 broke out between the Goths and the 
 Swedes, and the former succeeded in placing 
 Stenkil, one of their own chiefs, on the 
 throne as king over both nations. He was 
 a Christian. For the next century anarchy 
 
FE03I THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1117 
 
 prevailed, the period being marked by the 
 incessant struggles between the Swedes and 
 the Goths. In 1135 Sverker I,, a Chris- 
 tian, came to the throne. He greatly ex- 
 erted himself to promote theChristianization 
 of his kingdom, and erected many churches 
 and monasteries. He restored order and 
 prosperity to the kingdom, and greatly im- 
 proved the administration of justice. He died 
 in 1155, and was succeeded by his cousin, 
 Erik, called " The Saint," who improved 
 the laws of his kingdom and promoted the 
 spread of Christianity. He conquered a 
 large part of Finland, and compelled it to 
 accept the Christian religion. He died in 
 1160. The reigns of his successors, Karl 
 Sverkersson (1160-1167), Knud Eriksson 
 (1167-1195), Sverker II. (1195-1210), 
 Erik Knudsson (1210-1216), Johan Sver- 
 kersson (1216-1222), and Erik L£espe(1222 
 -1250), were uneventful. During this period 
 Christianity spread rapidly, and the clergy 
 became the most powerful order in the 
 state. " In all this ' period there is nothing 
 to record of affairs in Sweden but the 
 quarrels, wars, and murders of many kings, 
 and the disorder and misery of the whole 
 country. The only class of men who did 
 anything to lessen these evils were the 
 monks, many of whom had come from 
 England. These zealous men first taught 
 the Swedes how to till the ground and 
 plant gardens, to prepare salt, to build and 
 work water-mills, and to make roads and 
 bridges." 
 
 In 1250 a more certain period in Swedish 
 history began. Valdemar, the son of the 
 chief of the powerful race of the Folkungar, 
 was chosen King of Sweden, and with him 
 began the Folkungar line. He died in 
 1302, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Magnus, who was a wise king, and greatly 
 augmented the power of the crown. He 
 was termed Magnus Ladu-laas, or Barn- 
 lock, because he protected the granaries of 
 the people from the rapacity of the nobles. 
 He died in 1290, and a long period of 
 strife between his three sons ensued. In 
 1319 Magnus Srnek, the grandson of Mag- 
 nus Ladu-laas, came to the throne. He was 
 but three years old at the time. In 1320 
 he succeeded by right of his mother to the 
 throne of Norway. Later on he married 
 his son, Hakon, to Margaret of Denmark, 
 as we have seen, and placed him upon the 
 throne of Norway. Now that the three 
 kingdoms were so closely allied, Magnus 
 undertook to abolish the Swedish senate, 
 
 but was deposed, and in 1363 Albert of 
 Mecklenburg was chosen King of Sweden. 
 As we have seen, Margaret, upon succeed- 
 ing to the crowns of Denmark and Norway 
 at the death of her husband, made war 
 upon Sweden, defeated Albert, and made 
 herself Queen of Sweden. Her next step 
 was the promulgation of the Act of the 
 Union of Calmar, in 1397, by which Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Norway were united in 
 a single monarchy. 
 
 Margaret died in 1412, and was succeeded 
 by her nephew, Erik of Pomerania. The 
 Union of Calmar was maintained with great 
 difficulty for more than a century. In 
 1434-36 it was nearly destroyed by the re- 
 volt of the Swedes under Engelbrecht En- 
 gel brechtsson. His assassination by a Swe- 
 dish noble in 1436 was all that saved the 
 union from total destruction. In 1439 
 Erik was deposed, and was succeeded by his 
 nephew, Karl Knudsson. From this time 
 until the accession of Christian II. to the 
 Danish throne, in 1513, all was anarchy 
 and confusion in Sweden. 
 
 Christian II. was a stern tyrant, and 
 soon drove the Swedes into rebellion. The 
 patriot party was led by Gustavus Vasa. 
 His father and ninety-three other nobles 
 had been perfidiously murdered by Chris- 
 tian immediately after his coronation. Gus- 
 tavus escaped to the mines of Dalecarlia, 
 and roused the people of that region to an 
 effort for the independence of their coun- 
 try. A desperate struggle ensued, and in 
 the end the Danish forces- Avere driven out 
 of Sweden, which became an independent 
 kingdom. The grateful people chose Gus- 
 tavus Vasa to be their ruler, and in the 
 spring of 1523 he was crowned King of 
 Sweden. He reigned for thirty-seven years, 
 and governed the country with wisdom and 
 prudence. He established the Lutheran 
 religion in Sweden, and raised that country 
 to a more important position in Europe 
 than it had ever occupied before. He died 
 in 1560. He was succeeded by his eldest 
 son, Erik XIV., Avho died in 1568 after an 
 uneventful reign. The last years of his reign 
 were passed in hopeless insanity. He was 
 succeeded by his brother, Johan III., who 
 reigned until 1592, when he died, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Sigismund, who in 
 1587 had been elected King of Poland. 
 This king was thoroughly under the influ- 
 ence of the Jesuits, into whose hands he had 
 fallen in Poland, and endeavored to restore 
 the Romish religion in Sweden. He also 
 
1118 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 absented himself from the country, and 
 made his residence in Poland. The result 
 was that he was deposed by the Swedes, 
 who proclaimed his uncle, Charles IX., the 
 sou of Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden, 
 1599. Charles was an able and vigorous 
 sovereign, and his reign was mainly one 
 of tranquillity. Under him the kingdom 
 prospered greatly. 
 
 Charles IX. died in 1611, and his son, 
 Gustavus Adolphus, succeeded to the 
 throne. He was but seventeen years old, 
 but had already seen service in the war 
 with Christian IV. of Denmark. He was 
 destined to become not only one of the 
 most illustrious heroes of the old world, but 
 the author of a new system of warfare. 
 Peace was made with Denmark in 1613, 
 through the mediation of England. A war 
 with Russia now engaged the attention of 
 the young king. The line of Ruric having 
 died out, a party in Russia desired to offer 
 the crown of that country to a brother of 
 Gustavus. The greater part of the nation 
 sustained the claims of Michael Romanoff, 
 and in the war which ensued Sweden was 
 not able to overcome this obstacle. The 
 peace of Stolbova closed the war in 1617, 
 and Russia ceded considerable territory, 
 including the site of the present city of St. 
 Petersburg, to Sweden. A little later Gus- 
 tavus became involved in a war with Po- 
 land, which lasted for nine years. It was 
 caused by the pretensions of Sigismund of 
 Poland to the Swedish crown. It was 
 closed in 1629 through the mediation of 
 Richelieu, who was anxious to allow Gus- 
 tavus liberty to engage in the Thirty Years' 
 War. The part borne by Gustavus in the 
 Thirty Years' War, and his death, in 1632, 
 have been related in The History of Ger- 
 many, to which the reader is referred. 
 
 Upon leaving Sweden in 1630, Gustavus 
 placed the affairs of his kingdom in the 
 hands of a council of regency presided over 
 by his prime minister, the Chancellor Oxen- 
 stiern, a man of great ability and integrity. 
 To this council the king confided his infant 
 daughter Christina. Upon her father's 
 death Christina was proclaimed queen, and 
 the government was administered by Oxen- 
 stiern, under whose guidance Sweden re- 
 tained her place at the head of the Protes- 
 tant league. Christina, upon reaching 
 years of discretion, took the government 
 into her own hands, and to the astonish- 
 ment and delight of her people, proved her- 
 self a worthy daughter of Gustavus. As 
 
 the time passed on she disappointed the ex- 
 pectations to which the promise of her first 
 years had given rise, and in 1654, having 
 become weary of the cares of state, she ab- 
 dicated her throne in favor of her cousin 
 Charles Gustavus, and left the country. She 
 was but twenty-eight years old at the time. 
 She subsequently abjured her father's faith 
 and entered the Roman Catholic Church. 
 After a life of pleasure and dissipation she 
 died at Rome in 1 680 at the age of sixty-three. 
 Charles X., the successor of Christina, 
 was ambitious of becoming the absolute 
 master of northern Europe. His kingdom 
 was greatly exhausted by the expenses of 
 the Thirty Years' War, and the extrava- 
 gance of the last years of Christina's reign. 
 Nevertheless, he persisted in "his determina- 
 tion to make Sweden supreme on the Baltic. 
 The distracted condition of Poland pointed 
 her out as his first victim. An alliance 
 was made with Russia, which country had 
 cause for complaint against the Poles, and 
 in 1654 the Russian armies invaded Poland. 
 In 1655 the Swedish fleet blockaded the 
 free city of Dantzic, and two Swedish ar- 
 mies invaded Poland. Charles X. gained 
 several important victories, one of Avhich 
 was won over the Great Elector Frederick 
 William of Brandenburg, whom he forced 
 to become a vassal of Sweden instead of 
 Poland. The subsequent embarrassments 
 of Sweden enabled the elector to recover 
 by treaty all he had lost. Warsaw was 
 taken by Charles X. in person, and he was 
 acknowledged King of Poland by the army 
 and the greater part of the nation. Had 
 Russia and Sweden been harmonious, Po- 
 land might have been divided between 
 them, but the czar became jealous of the 
 success of his rival and turned against him, 
 and the Emperor Leopold and the King 
 of Denmark united to compel Charles to 
 relinquish his conquests. Charles at once 
 withdrew from Poland and made a rapid 
 dash at Denmark, and overran the duchies 
 of Bremen, Holstein and Schleswig almost 
 without resistance. In the midst of a winter 
 of unusual severity, he crossed his army 
 with its artillery and infantry over the two 
 Belts on the solid ice, and by a series of 
 brilliant successes placed Copenhagen at 
 his mercy. France and England now in- 
 tervened to compel peace, and the treaty of 
 Roskild was signed in March, 1658, by 
 which Denmark surrendered the principal 
 islands to Sweden. On the pretext that 
 Frederick III. of Denmark had not exe- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1119 
 
 cuted the treaty in good faith, Charles re- 
 newed the war in August. Copenhagen 
 was seriously threatened, but was saved by 
 the intervention of the Dutch, who sent a 
 fleet to its relief. The Elector of Branden- 
 burg now drove the Swedes from Jutland, 
 and Charles was forced to withdraw into 
 his own country. The maritime powers 
 now resolved to put a stop to the war, which 
 was crippling their commerce in the Baltic. 
 The death of Charles X. in February, 1660, 
 removed the only real obstacle to peace, 
 which was concluded by the Queen Regent 
 of Sweden with Poland, Russia, and Den- 
 mark, 
 
 In 1675 the war was renewed against 
 Sweden by the Elector of Brandenburg, 
 aided by the forces of Christian V. of Den- 
 mark and a Dutch fleet. The war lasted 
 with varying success until 1679, when Louis 
 XIV. intervened in behalf of Sweden, and 
 compelled her antagonists to make peace 
 with her, and restore her all the territory 
 they had taken from her. Sweden was 
 thus saved from parting with any of her 
 territory, but she came out of the war in a 
 greatly crippled condition. Her fleet was 
 destroyed and her finances were nearly ru- 
 ined. It was a serious question whether 
 the government could maintain itself with- 
 out assistance from abroad. In this state 
 of affairs a peaceful revolution in 1680 
 changed the character of the government. 
 A new constitution was adopted, conferring 
 absolute and irresponsible power upon the 
 king. A thorough reform was introduced 
 into all branches of the public service, and 
 the prudent and energetic measures of 
 Charles XI. (1660-1697) during the re- 
 mainder of the century prepared the country 
 to resume its old position of supremacy in 
 the Baltic. 
 
 Charles XI. died in 1697, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Charles XII., a youth of 
 fifteen. This event seemed to offer to the 
 neighboring powers an opportunity to wrest 
 from Sweden her possessions east and south 
 of the Baltic, namely : Finland, Carelia, 
 Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia, most of Pomer- 
 ania, the fortified towns of Stettin, Wismar, 
 and Stralsund, and the duchies of Bremen 
 and Verden. A league for this purpose 
 was organized by Augustus II. of Poland 
 and I. of Saxony. Frederick IV. of Den- 
 mark, one of the confederates, began hos- 
 tilities in March, 1700, by invading the 
 territories of the Duke of Holstein-Got- 
 torp, Charles's brother-in-law and most 
 
 valued friend. The young king astonished 
 both his friends and his enemies by the 
 firmness he displayed in this emergency. 
 He made an alliance with England and 
 Holland, and under the protection of their 
 fleet made a descent upon Denmark and 
 compelled Frederick to sue for peace. By 
 the treaty of Travendal, the Danish king 
 renewed his former treaties with the Duke 
 of Holstein and agreed to pay a consider- 
 able sum to replace the losses he had in- 
 flicted. He thus brought the war to a tri- 
 umphant close without striking a blow. 
 
 Peter I. of Russia had entered into the con- 
 spiracy against Sweden, and the peace with 
 Denmark left Charles free to turn his at- 
 tention to him. Peter had laid siege to 
 Narva with 80,000 men. In November, 
 1700, Charles attacked him with an inferior 
 force, and compelled him to raise the siege. 
 Charles then turned upon the King of Sax- 
 ony and Poland, and in 1701 defeated the 
 Saxon troops near Riga, and occupied the 
 whole of Courland. In 1702 he captured 
 Warsaw without a blow. Augustus fled to 
 Cracow, and in July Charles defeated the 
 combined army of Poles and Saxons at 
 Clissow, about half-way between Warsaw 
 and Cracow. In 1703 he defeated the 
 Saxons at Pultusk, and took the city of 
 Thorn and destroyed its fortifications. A 
 movement was now made by a party in 
 Poland to exclude Augustus from the throne 
 of that country. It was favored by Charles 
 XII., through whose influence Count Stan- 
 islaus Leszczynski was proclaimed King of 
 Poland in July, 1704. He signed a treaty 
 of peace and alliance with Charles XII. 
 Augustus withdrew to Dresden, the capital 
 of Saxony. In 1706 Charles appeared be- 
 fore Dresden with an army of 20,000 men, 
 and compelled Augustus to sign the treaty 
 of Altranstadt, by which he renounced all 
 claim to the Polish crown for himself and 
 his heirs, and abandoned his alliance with 
 Russia. 
 
 In the meantime Peter the Great of 
 Russia had been increasing and improving 
 his army, and had overrun the provinces 
 of Ingria and Carelia, which had been held 
 by Sweden since 1617. In 1704 his armies 
 occupied Lithuania and Courland and cap- 
 tured Dorpat and Narva. Upon hearing of 
 the treaty of Altranstadt Peter hastened to 
 Poland and induced the diet of nobles, held 
 at Lublin in July, 1707, to repudiate that 
 treaty and declare the Polish throne vacant 
 since the abdication of Augustus. The 
 
1120 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 electors were suraraoDed to choose a kiug. 
 Charles XII., who was in Saxony, at once 
 marched into Poland to defeat this move- 
 ment, but Peter avoided meeting him in a 
 pitched battle, and harassed him and wore 
 out his army by his skilful manoeuvres. 
 
 In 1708 Charles determined to strike at 
 the heart of his adversary's kingdom, and 
 invaded Russia, intending, as is believed, to 
 capture Moscow. He found the country 
 stripped of food for man or horse, and 
 every road watched by the Russian cavalry, 
 
 their march to join Charles, had in the 
 meantime been defeated and driven back 
 by the Russians at Liesna with the loss of 
 half their number. Charles, instead of 
 retreating from the Ukraine into Poland 
 by a shorter route, laid siege to Pultawa. 
 He was defeated by a powerful Russian 
 army, and was wounded and forced to seek 
 safety in flight. Nearly half of his army 
 was left dead on the field, and the most 
 famous Swedish officers were taken pris- 
 oners. The king escaped with difficulty, 
 
 STOCIillULM. 
 
 which harassed his march at every step, but 
 could never be brought to a general en- 
 gagement. Reinforcements were on their 
 way to join Charles, but without waiting 
 for them he suddenly marched into the ter- 
 ritory of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, 
 whose chief, Mazeppa, had promised to join 
 him with 30,000 men. He was indeed 
 joined by Mazeppa, but the chief could 
 bring with him only a few followers, and 
 came to ask protection for his life from 
 Charles. The Swedish reinforcements, on 
 
 and leaving General Lowenhaupt in com- 
 mand of the wreck of his army, fled to the 
 territory of the sultan. Lowenhaupt was 
 forced to surrender. 
 
 The treaties of Travendal and Altran- 
 stadt were now trodden under foot by the 
 allies. Stanislaus fled from Poland, and 
 Augustus II. resumed 
 country, and renewed 
 Russia and Denmark. 
 Denmark invaded Sweden and took Hel- 
 singborg, but the Swedish General Stenbock 
 
 the crown of that 
 his alliances with 
 Frederick IV. of 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1121 
 
 prevented him from gaining any further 
 success. The German provinces of Sweden 
 were overrun by the combined armies of 
 Russia, Saxony, and Poland. The inter- 
 ference of the emperor and of England and 
 Holland compelled the allies to allow these 
 provinces to remain neutral. Sweden, left 
 without a king and almost without an army, 
 seemed on the point of being utterly dis- 
 membered by her enemies. 
 
 Charles remained five years in Turkey, 
 and managed, as we shall see farther on, to 
 incite the sultan to a war against Russia. 
 He at length found himself an unwelcome 
 guest, and was forcibly expelled from the 
 Turkish dominions by the sultan. He was 
 furnished with a safe conduct through Ger- 
 many by the emperor, and returned to his 
 own kingdom, where his presence was sadly 
 needed. He reached Stralsund in Novem- 
 ber, 1714, and immediately set to work to 
 wrest Pomerauia from Frederick William 
 I. of Prussia. The battle of Pultawa, how- 
 ever, had ended the supremacy of Sweden 
 in the north, and Charles found himself 
 now opposed by a league consisting of Rus- 
 sia, Poland, Denmark, and England. Wis- 
 mar and Stralsund were taken by the allied 
 forces, and Sweden was stripped of the last 
 of her possessions south of the Baltic. Rus- 
 sia had already gained the larger part of 
 the Swedish possessions east of the Baltic, 
 and was satisfied with what she had gained. 
 She therefore readily consented to make a 
 separate peace with Sweden. The prelimi- 
 naries of a treaty for this purpose had just 
 been signed when Charles XII. was killed 
 by a cannon-ball, in December, 1718, at 
 the siege of Fredericshall in Norway. He 
 found Sweden the most powerful state of 
 the north; he left it humbled and reduced 
 by the loss of all its possessions south and 
 east of the Baltic. From this time its 
 part in European affairs was insignificant. 
 
 The heir to the Swedish crown was the 
 Duke of Holstein, the nephew of Charles 
 XII., but a revolution broke out at the 
 death of the king, and the Swedish crown 
 was made elective, and was conferred upon 
 Ulrica Eleanora, the second sister of 
 Charles. She was the wife of Frederick of 
 Hesse-Cassel, who had been for some time 
 in command of the Swedish army. He be- 
 came the real ruler of Sweden. The nego- 
 tiations for peace with Russia were broken 
 off, but treaties were signed between Sweden 
 and England, Poland, Prussia, and Den- 
 mark. The duchies of Bremen and Verdeu 
 71 
 
 were confirmed to Hanover ; Prussia ob- 
 tained Stettin and the region lying between 
 the Oder and Peene, and also the islands of 
 Usedom and Wollin ; and Denmark re- 
 ceived Schleswig. In 1721, through the 
 mediation of France, the peace of Nystadt 
 was signed between Sweden and Russia. 
 The latter power restored Finland to 
 Sweden, but retained all the provinces she 
 had taken from her east of the Baltic. 
 
 During the war of the Austrian succes- 
 sion, Sweden ventured to renew the war 
 with Russia at the instigation of France. 
 The result of this war was that Sweden was 
 obliged to surrender all her provinces east 
 of the Gulf of Bothnia, which were added 
 to the Russian empire in 1743. In 1751 
 Queen Ulrica died, and was succeeded by 
 Adolphus Frederick. 
 
 In 1756, at the opening of the Seven 
 Years' War, Sweden joined the coalition 
 against Prussia, in the hope of winning 
 back Pomerania, but accomplished nothing 
 of moment against the Prussian king. In 
 1759 she formed an alliance with Denmark 
 and Russia for mutual defence, and for the 
 maintenance of the commercial neutrality 
 of the Baltic. In 1762 peace was made 
 between Sweden and Prussia. In 1771 
 Gustavus III., the son of Adolphus Fred- 
 erick, and the nephew of Frederick the 
 Great, succeeded his father as King of 
 Sweden. 
 
 The Swedish kingdom, though nominally 
 independent, was for many years really ruled 
 by foreign courts. The French and Russians 
 had their respective parties, which in the 
 poverty of the kingdom looked to those 
 nations for support. They kept the king- 
 dom in a state of constant turmoil. Gus- 
 tavus III., by a mild but firm policy, put 
 an end to these factions, and succeeded in 
 neutralizing the designs of Russia for the 
 enslavement of his country. The result 
 was a war between the two countries. It 
 was closed by the peace of Werela, and 
 during the remainder of the century the 
 most cordial relations existed between 
 Sweden and Russia. Under Gustavus III. 
 another change was made in the character 
 of the Swedish government. Since 1720 it 
 had been almost wholly aristocratic, but in 
 1772 the royal power, with the good will 
 of the people, was set up again. In 1789, 
 Russia having become involved in a war 
 with the Turks, Sweden, the ancient ally 
 of the sultan, declared war against Russia, 
 and prevented the fleet of that country from 
 
1122 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 sailing to the Mediterranean. Denmark, 
 the ally of Russia, prepared to invade 
 Sweden, but was forced by England, Hol- 
 land, and Prussia to remain neutral. In 
 1780 Sweden joined Russia, Denmark, Hol- 
 land, and Prussia in the "Armed Neutral- 
 ity" for the purpose of compelling Eng- 
 land to abandon her claim to search neutral 
 vessels for contraband of war, as has been 
 related. 
 
 In 1792 Gustavus IV. succeeded to the 
 Swedish throne. He was friendly to France, 
 and held aloof from the coalition against the 
 French republic. Gustavus was very bitter 
 against Napoleon, but the Swedish people 
 were as friendly to the empire as they had 
 been to the republic. Out of this state of 
 affairs arose a war with Russia, which 
 power succeeded in wresting all of Finland 
 from Sweden. In 1809 Gustavus was de- 
 posed, and was succeeded by Charles XIII., 
 who gave to his people a free constitution. 
 In 1810 peace was made with France ; and 
 in order to strengthen the friendship be- 
 tween the two countries, the Swedish diet 
 chose as the heir of Charles XIII., who 
 had no children, Marshal Bernadotte, one 
 of Napoleon's ablest generals. Bernadotte 
 repaired to Sweden forthwith, and assumed 
 the position of crown prince. He devoted 
 himself heartily to the interests of his 
 adopted country, and gave but a partial 
 and unwilling adhesion to Napoleon's con- 
 tinental system. His adoptive father's ill- 
 ness soon left the administration of the 
 government in his hands, and his admission 
 of British goods into Pomerania brought 
 on a war with France. Bernadotte ap- 
 pealed to Russia for aid, and an alliance 
 was concluded between Sweden, Russia and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 In 1813 Sweden, under the guidance of 
 Bernadotte, joined in the war for the liber- 
 
 ation of Germany. By the terms of the 
 treaty arranging European affairs after the 
 battle of Leipzig, she ceded to Denmark 
 her territory of Pomerania, and received in 
 exchange Norway, which had until now 
 formed a part of the Danish monarchy. 
 Russia was allowed to retain Finland. 
 This arrangement was distasteful to the 
 Norwegians, who took up arms to resist it. 
 They declared their independence of Swe- 
 den, and proclaimed a Danish prince king, 
 and adopted a constitution freer than that 
 of any European monarchy. Sweden pre- 
 pared to enforce her authority, and con- 
 quered the Norwegians, but was obliged, 
 on her part, to accept the union of Norway 
 with the Swedish state, on terms which 
 recognized Norway as an independent mon- 
 archy, with its own constitution. 
 
 III. The History of Sweden and 
 
 NORAVAY. 
 
 In 1818 Charles XIII. died, and Berna- 
 dotte was crowned king as Charles XIV. 
 John. He proved himself an able sov- 
 ereign, and under him both Sweden and 
 Norway prospered greatly. The arts and 
 manufactures made great progress, and 
 education was more generally diffused. He 
 died on the 8th of March, 1849, and his 
 crown passed to his son, Oscar I,, who 
 reigned until 1859. During the Crimean 
 war Sweden and Norway remained neutral, 
 as they have also done during the subse- 
 quent struggles in Europe. At the death 
 of King Oscar his son, Charles XV., came 
 to the throne. The last-named king died 
 on the 18th of September, 1872, and being 
 without children was succeeded by his 
 brother, Oscar II., the present (1878) 
 reigning sovereign. The history of the 
 kingdom since the union has been peaceful 
 and uneventful. 
 
FBOM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1123 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE XJlSriTED 
 STA.TES OE A-M:ERIC^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT 
 TO THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Maritime Enterprises in the Fifteenth Century — 
 Discoveries of the Portuguese — Christopher Co- 
 Ipmbus — His Scheme for Finding a Passage by 
 Sea to India — Is Employed by Spain — His Voy- 
 age — Discovers America — His Subsequent Voy- 
 ages and Death — The New World Named America 
 — Efforts of Spain to Conquer and Settle America 
 — Conquest of Mexico and Peru — Expedition of 
 De Soto — His Death — The French in America — 
 Unsuccessful Attempt to Settle Florida — The 
 English Enterprises in America — Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert — Sir Walter Haleigh Plants a Colony on 
 Roanoke Island — Its Fate — The Spanish Colonies 
 — The Portuguese Settle Brazil — The London 
 Company — Settlement of Virginia — Captain John 
 Smith — The Jamestown Colony — The First Legis- 
 lative Assembly in America — The Pilgrim Fa- 
 thers — Settlement of Plymouth — Massachusetts 
 Bay Settled — Maine Settled — Connecticut and 
 Rhode Island Colonized — The Dutch Found New 
 York — Settlement of New Jersey, Delaware, 
 Pennsylvania and Maryland — The Carolinas Set- 
 tled — The Colony of Georgia Founded — Character 
 of the Settlers in the New World — African Slavery 
 Introduced — Establishment of Free Schools — 
 Wars with the Indians — Settlement of Canada by 
 the French — The Jesuit Missionaries — The 
 French and English Come to Blows — King Wil- 
 liam's War — Queen Anne's War — The Indians 
 Aid the French — King George's War — Capture 
 of Louisburg — The French on the Ohio — Wash- 
 ington's Mission to Fort Duquesne — Beginning 
 of Hostilities— The Old French War— Defeat of 
 General Braddock — Exile of the Acadians — Battle 
 of Lake George — The Marquis de Montcalm — 
 Capture of Fort William Henry by the French — 
 William Pitt in Power — Capture of Louisburg — 
 Fort Duquesne Taken — Failure of the Attack 
 upon Ticonderoga — Capture of Quebec — Death 
 of Wolfe and Montcalm — Great Britain Ac- 
 quires Canada — Close of the AVar — Pontiac's 
 Rebellion. 
 
 )HE fifteenth century witnessed a re- 
 markable awakening of human 
 thought and enterprise, one of the 
 most important results of which 
 was the activity in maritime under- 
 takings which led to the discovery 
 of lands hitherto unknown to the civilized 
 world, and gave new life and fresh fields to 
 commerce. It is usual to attribute the in- 
 vention of the mariner's compass to an Ital- 
 ian named Gioja, who lived about the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century ; but it 
 
 is certain that the polarity of the magnet 
 and its application to the compass was 
 known in Europe at least two centuries 
 earlier. The practical application of the 
 compass to the art of navigation did not 
 take place until about the beginning of the 
 fifteenth century. It at once led to the 
 undertaking of longer and more daring voy- 
 ages than had ever been attempted before, 
 the results of which were the discoveries of 
 the Madeira, Azores, and Cape de Verde is- 
 lands, and the coast of Guinea, the doubling 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, and the estab- 
 lishment of the new route by sea to the 
 Indies. The Portuguese were, as we have 
 seen, the pioneers in these undertakings. 
 Their exploits and discoveries have been 
 related in The Historrj of Portugal, to which 
 the reader is referred, and need not be re- 
 told here. 
 
 Among those who had watched the pro- 
 gress of the Portuguese with the deepest 
 interest was Christopher Columbus, a native 
 of Genoa in Italy. He at an early day 
 conceived the idea that the Indies might be 
 reached by a shorter and more direct route 
 than that around the Cape of Good Hope; 
 and as he held the belief, which the church 
 had pronounced heretical, that the earth 
 was spherical in form, he proposed to ac- 
 complish his design by sailing due west 
 from Europe. To the fulfilment of this 
 design he devoted the remainder of his life. 
 He had studied the science of navigation 
 profoundly, and had had practical expe- 
 rience in it, so that his belief that land lay 
 to the westward of Europe was the result 
 of long and careful study, and not a mere 
 unsupported notion. He spent many years 
 in endeavoring to enlist the various govern- 
 ments of Europe in support of his scheme. 
 Genoa, Portugal, England, and Spain were 
 urged to assist him, but in vain. At last 
 Isabella of Spain was won over to the 
 views of Columbus, and agreed to furnish 
 him with the means of making the attempt 
 he desired. She declared that she would 
 even pawn her jewels if necessary to raise 
 the funds needed for the enterprise. Colum- 
 
1124 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 bus was created high admiral, and ap- 
 pointed viceroy of all the lands he might 
 discover, and it was agreed that he should 
 receive one-teuth of the net profits of the 
 trade with such lauds. He was furnished 
 with three small ships. He sailed from 
 Palos in Spain on the 3d of August, 1492, 
 and touched at the Canary islands to refit. 
 After a long and trying voyage, during 
 which all but Columbus lost whatever hope 
 of success they had cherished, land was dis- 
 covered on the 12th of October. This was 
 one of the Bahama islands, and was named 
 by Columbus San Salvador, or the " Holy 
 Saviour.' During this voyage the islands 
 
 CHKISTOPHER COLTJMBUS. 
 
 of Hayti and Cuba were discovered. Co- 
 lumbus believed that the region discovered 
 by him was a part of the Indies, and named 
 the natives Indians, qualifying this name 
 by the term "West." These and the 
 neighboring islands are still called the 
 West Indies, Columbus took possession 
 of the new lands in the name of the King 
 and Queen of Spain, and collecting such 
 articles as would serve to prove his suc- 
 cess and show the character of the coun- 
 try, and taking with him a few of the na- 
 tives, he set sail for Europe, and reached 
 Palos on the 15th of March, 1493. From 
 that port to the court at Barcelona his 
 progress was a triumphal procession. He 
 was received by the king and queen with 
 
 the most distinguished honors, and was cor- 
 dially aided by the government in fitting 
 out a second expedition. With seventeen 
 ships he sailed from Cadiz on the 25th of 
 September, 1493, and on this voyage dis- 
 covered Jamaica and many of the Caribee 
 islands. He found that the colony which 
 he had planted in Hayti on his first voyage 
 had been destroyed by the natives. He 
 replaced it with another, but the discovery 
 of gold in Hayti soon drew the attention 
 of the Spaniards from more useful employ- 
 ments to the search for the precious metal. 
 In his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus 
 for the first time saw the continent of Amer- 
 ica. He touched it near the mouth 
 of the Orinoco, and examined a part 
 of the South American coast. His 
 decisive measures for the preserva- 
 tion of the colony which he had 
 planted in the new world made him 
 many enemies, who were already jeal- 
 ous of his success. Complaints were 
 lodged against him in Spain, and he 
 was sent back to Europe in irons. 
 Isabella, indignant at this treatment, 
 endeavored to atone for these unde- 
 served indignities by increased at- 
 tentions to the great admiral. Co- 
 lumbus went on a fourth voyage to 
 the new world in the first years of 
 the sixteenth century, and was ship- 
 wrecked upon the coast of Jamaica. 
 Returning to Spain he found that 
 his friend and patroness. Queen 
 Isabella, was upon her death-bed. 
 Ferdinand, with characteristic mean- 
 ness, evaded the payment of the 
 remuneration that had been prom- 
 ised to Coiumbus, and at last the 
 great admiral, worn out with dis- 
 appointment, died in poverty at Valladolid, 
 in 1506. 
 
 About seven years after the first voyage 
 of Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
 tine, visited the West Indies and the east- 
 ern coast of South America. On his return 
 he published a description of these coun- 
 tries. Somewhat later a German writer on 
 geography, who may never have heard of 
 Columbus, gave to the new world the name 
 America, which has since clung to it. 
 
 England also bore a share in the discov- 
 eries beyond the Atlantic. In 1497 Sebas- 
 tian Cabot, then employed in the service 
 of Henry VII., undertook a voyage to the 
 western continent. He sailed along the 
 coast of North America from Labrador to 
 
FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1125 
 
 the Delaware. Though his voyage was fol- 
 lowed by no immediate result, his discov- 
 eries were subsequently made the basis of 
 the claims of England to North America. 
 
 In consequence of these discoveries and 
 of the spirit aroused by them, the commerce 
 of Europe increased with wonderful rapid- 
 ity. There was a marked improvement in 
 the vessels employed, and the navies of the 
 states of the old world began to grow with 
 sudden vigor. 
 
 The discoveries begun in the latter part 
 of the fifteenth century were prosecuted 
 with vigor in the sixteenth. The Portu- 
 guese, Spaniards, and English engaged in 
 ao honorable rivalry in 
 these exploits. In 1500 
 Cabral, a Portuguese 
 navigator, discovered the 
 rich country of Brazil, 
 and took possession of it 
 in the name of his sov- 
 ereign, Manuel I. Gas- 
 par Cortereal,in the ser- 
 vice of the same king, 
 explored the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence and the Lab- 
 rador coast as far north 
 as Hudson's bay. In 
 1509 Diego Columbus, 
 who was hei'editary 
 Viceroy of Sj)aiu in the 
 new world, undertook 
 the conquest and coloni- 
 zation of Cuba, which 
 were accomplished in 
 1511. There was a be- 
 lief among the Euro- 
 peans that the mainland 
 of America abounded in 
 precious metals, which 
 could be obtained with 
 little trouble, and the Spaniards added to 
 this a romantic faith that somewhere in the 
 south there was a fountain, the waters of 
 which would ensure perpetual youth to him 
 who should drink of them. The first to go 
 in search of this fountain was Juan Ponce 
 de Leon, in 1512. His expedition resulted 
 in the discovery of Florida, which name he 
 gave to the coast because of the beauty and 
 luxuriance of its foliage. In 1513 Vasco 
 Nunez de Balboa, at the head of a party of 
 Spaniards, crossed the Isthmus of Darien, 
 and discovered the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 In 1519 Hernando Cortez, with less than 
 600 men, undertook the most considerable 
 expedition yet attempted — the conquest of 
 
 Mexico. This remarkable country was 
 inhabited by a race which had made a de- 
 cided advance in civilization. It possessed 
 numerous and populous cities, and was 
 governed by a code of laws which gave 
 security to life and commerce. It pos- 
 sessed good roads, and a steady and pros- 
 perous trade was maintained between its 
 various portions. Its temples and other 
 architectural works were noted for their 
 grandeur, and many of the arts and luxu- 
 ries of civilization were in constant use. 
 The country was governed by a race of 
 hereditary emperors, who were regarded 
 with religious reverence by their subjects. 
 
 THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 In the course of a few years, Cortez, with 
 the aid of his cavalry and firearms, was 
 enabled to reduce this mighty empire to 
 subjection. The authority of Spain was 
 firmly established over Mexico, and it be- 
 came a source of constant and enormous 
 wealth to that kingdom. Cortez was not 
 satisfied with merely conquering the coun- 
 try; he had the elements of true greatness 
 in his soul, and he earnestly tried to civilize 
 and Christianize it. His efforts were to a 
 great degree rewarded with success, and 
 Christianity spread rapidly throughout the 
 country. The natives, thinking that their 
 gods had either deserted them or bad been 
 conquered, embraced Christianity with great 
 
1126 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD, 
 
 rapidity, and the humane and benevolent 
 conduct of the missionaries, prominent 
 among whom was the good Las Casas, won 
 them powerfully to the new faith. 
 
 In 1531 a Spanish force, led by Fran- 
 cisco Pizarro, invaded Peru, and in five 
 years subdued that country. Peru was in- 
 ferior to Mexico in civilization, but was 
 rich in the precious metals. The conquest 
 of this country was conducted with the 
 utmost barbarity. Pizarro and his suc- 
 cessors cared only for riches, and extorted 
 immense sums of gold and silver from the 
 
 quest of that region. He found it impossi- 
 ble to subdue the Indians of this peninsula, 
 and his attempt at conquest degenerated 
 into a search for gold, in which he wan- 
 dered from Tampa bay to the Alleghenies, 
 and thence to the Mississippi, which he 
 discovered at a point not far from the pres- 
 ent city of Memphis, in 1541. Crossing the 
 great river, he wandered two hundred miles 
 farther west, and then descended the Wachita 
 to the Red river, from which he passed to 
 the Mississippi again. He died on the 
 banks of the last-named stream, and his 
 
 THE SPANIAKDS DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI AFTER THE DEATH OF DE SOTO. 
 
 natives by the cruellest torments. They 
 were compelled to work in the mines in 
 gangs, and four-fifths of those so employed 
 are said to have died from the hardships and 
 cruelties inflicted upon them. 
 
 Between 1540 and 1542 the Pacific coast 
 of North America was explored by Coro- 
 nado and Cabrillo, commanders in the 
 service of Spain ; hut no settlements were 
 made on that coast. In 1539 Fernando de 
 Soto was appointed by the Emperor Charles 
 v., Governor General of Cuba and of all the 
 countries he should conquer. He sailed 
 from Cuba to Florida, to attempt the con- 
 
 body was consigned to its mighty flood, 
 A. D. 1542. After many hardships, a por- 
 tion of his followers succeeded in reaching 
 Mexico. 
 
 Bolivia and Buenos Ayres were settled 
 between 1535 and 1540, the discovery of 
 silver in those countries drawing a con- 
 siderable Spanish emigration to them. 
 Brazil was settled by the Portuguese about 
 the same time, but its agricultural wealth 
 was the attraction, its mineral wealth be- 
 ing unknown until a much later period. 
 
 The French were early attracted to the 
 fisheries of the banks of Newfoundland, 
 
FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1127 
 
 but they made no effort to settle the coast 
 of America until near the middle of the 
 century. Francis I., envious of the good 
 fortune of Charles V., sent Verrazziui, an 
 Italian navigator, on a voyage of discovery. 
 He explored the Atlantic coast from Flor- 
 ida to Newfoundland, and visited the har- 
 bors of New York and Newport. In 1534- 
 35 Jacques Cartier explored the coast of 
 Newfoundland and Canada, and ascended 
 the St. Lawrence beyond the present towns 
 of Quebec and Montreal, which were then 
 
 five men to hold the site, and went back 
 to France. The civil wars made it impos- 
 sible for anything further to be done, and 
 the men who had been left in Florida built 
 a vessel and abandoned that country. Two 
 years later Coligny sent out a colony, which 
 formed a settlement on the St. John's, then 
 called the river May. This colony en- 
 dured considerable suffering, but the arri- 
 val of aid from France placed matters on 
 a more favorable footing. Philip II. of 
 Spain, who claimed Florida as a part of 
 
 INDIAN VILLAGE IN WINTER. 
 
 large Indian villages. In 1542 the Sieur 
 de Roberval planted a colony in Nova 
 Scotia, but it enjoyed but a brief existence. 
 In 1562, Coligny, wishing to establish a 
 colony in the new world as a refuge for the 
 Huguenots of France, obtained a commis- 
 sion for that purpose from Charles IX., and 
 sent Jean Ribault on a voyage of explora- 
 tion. Ribault landed on the coast of Flor- 
 ida, near the present town of St. Augustine, 
 and named the country Carolina in honor 
 of the King of France. Delighted with 
 the climate and the country, he left twenty- 
 
 his possessions, no sooner heard of the 
 settlement of a Protestant colony within 
 its limits, than he sent out a squadron 
 under Melendez, who captured and mas- 
 sacred the settlers, A. D. 1564. Melendez 
 secured the country to Spain by establish- 
 ing a settlement on the Florida coast. He 
 named the new town St. Augustine, in 
 honor of the saint on whose festival he had 
 reached Florida. It still bears this name, 
 and is by forty years the oldest town in the 
 United States. When the news of the 
 massacre of the French reached Europe, 
 
1128 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Dominic de Gourges, a gentleman of Gas- 
 cony, fitted out three ships at his own ex- 
 pense, and sailing to Florida, attacked and 
 captured the Spanish force which held the 
 fort that had been taken from the French. 
 He hung his prisoners in retaliation, for 
 the cruelties of Melendez, 1568. 
 
 England, although as yet making no 
 effort to compete with the continental na- 
 tions in the planting of colonies in America, 
 still maintained her claims to the Atlantic 
 coast of that country, which were founded 
 upon Cabot's discoveries. Queen Eliza- 
 beth gave to this region the name of Vir- 
 ginia, in honor of her virgin life. English 
 
 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 
 
 vessels visited the Newfoundland fisheries, 
 and several expeditions were sent to the 
 coast of Labrador in search of a northwest 
 passage to India, and of gold. In 1578 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert made an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt to plant a colony at St. John's 
 in Newfoundland. In 1584 Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, the half-brother of Gilbert, sent 
 over an expedition under Amidas and Bar- 
 low, who explored the coast of North Caro- 
 lina, and fixed upon Roanoake island as a 
 proper site for a colony. Their reports, 
 upon their return to England, drew numer- 
 ous volunteers, from whom one hundred 
 and eight persons were selected and sent 
 
 over to Roanoake island in 1585. The 
 colonists soon exhausted their provisions, 
 and Sir Francis Drake chancing to arrive 
 with his fleet from the West Indies about 
 this time, the disheartened settlers implored 
 him to take them back to England. He 
 did so. Another effort was made to settle 
 the island the next year, but with similar 
 success. It was during this attempt that 
 the first white child was born in America. 
 She was the child of Eleanor Dare, the 
 daughter of the governor of the colony, 
 and was named from her birthplace, Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 Thus far Spain had reaped the greatest 
 advantage from the settlement 
 of the new world. Her prov- 
 inces in Cuba and the West In- 
 dies, Mexico, Central America 
 and South America, were gov- 
 erned by viceroys, and had al- 
 ready a large Spanish popula- 
 tion, which was rapidly increas- 
 ing. By the close of the six- 
 teenth century the export of 
 the precious metals amounted to 
 about $20,000,000 per annum. 
 A large and lucrative com- 
 merce was conducted between 
 Spain and her colonies, which 
 poured their rich products into 
 her markets, and received her 
 manufactures in return. Had 
 the mother country been gov- 
 erned by a liberal and enlight- 
 ened policy, this wealth might 
 have enabled her to maintain 
 her position as the most power- 
 ful state of Europe. Narrow- 
 minded and bigoted, she derived 
 no lasting benefit from it. The 
 Spanish colonies in America, 
 however, were governed upon 
 the most despotic principles, and 
 were regarded by Spain chiefly as a source 
 of wealth. The extension of the Spanish 
 power in Mexico, Central America, and 
 South America, went on through the seven- 
 teenth century. Their history will be re- 
 lated elsewhere. 
 
 In 1624 the Dutch seized the settlements 
 in Brazil, which had passed with Portugal 
 into the hands of Spain. The next year 
 they were recovered by the Spaniards, and 
 in 1645 Portugal having re-established her 
 independence, Brazil became her possession 
 once more. In 1696 the gold mines of 
 Brazil were discovered ; but fortunately 
 for that country her great agricultural re- 
 
FE03I THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1129 
 
 sources had been to some extent developed, 
 and her people had acquired the charac- 
 teristics which were the foundation of her 
 prosperity. 
 
 Tlie interest of the history of the western 
 world centres in North America. Until 
 the opening of the seventeenth century 
 England had made no effort to colonize 
 the territory which she claimed in North 
 America ; but now associations began to 
 be formed in England for the planting of 
 commercial colonies upon the American 
 coast. The first of these was the Lon- 
 don Company, which was chartered 
 by King James I. in 1606. Early in 
 the year 1607 a company of emi- 
 grants was sent out, which established 
 the first permanent English settle- 
 ment at Jamestown, on the banks of 
 the James river, in Virginia. The 
 command of this expedition was ves- 
 ted in Captain Newport, but the true 
 hero of the undertaking Avas the fa- 
 mous Captain John Smith, to whom 
 alone is due the credit of carrying 
 the colony through the dangers and 
 trials of its infancy, and establishing 
 it upon a firm basis. He explored 
 the Chesapeake and its tributaries, of 
 which he made maps and sketches, 
 which are still noted for their accu- 
 racy. The government of Virginia 
 was first vested in a council ap- 
 pointed by the king ; but after sev- 
 eral changes, the colony was given 
 the right of self-government, and a 
 house of burgesses chosen by the 
 people was established. This was the 
 first representative body that ever 
 met in America, and held its first 
 session on the 19th of June, 1619. 
 In August of the same year a Dutch 
 man-of-war brought a cargo of Afri- 
 can slaves into the James river, and 
 so introduced negro slavery into 
 America. 
 
 A settlement of a difierent character by 
 the Pilgrim fathers, a band of Puritan 
 exiles from England, who had first sought 
 refuge in Holland, was made at Plymouth, 
 on the shore of Cape Cod bay, on the 21st 
 of December, 1620. These exiles came to 
 found a state, and endured their trials with 
 a heroism the memory of which their de- 
 scendants gratefully cherish. They had 
 no charter from the king, or sanction from 
 the Plymouth Company in England, to 
 which this portion of America had been 
 
 granted by the crown, but conducted their 
 enterprise upon their own responsibility. 
 Before landing in America, they oi'ganized 
 a government iu the cabin of the May- 
 flower, the ship which bore them from Eng- 
 land. Their civil system was thoroughly 
 republican. The governor was chosen by 
 the people, and his acts were subject to the 
 control of the council. In the beffiuninc: 
 the legislative power was vested in the 
 whole people, but as the colony grew larger, 
 a legislature, chosen by the votes of the 
 
 LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 
 
 freemen, was established. In 1629 the 
 colony received a charter from Charles I. 
 of England. 
 
 The Plymouth Company now resolved to 
 settle its vast possessions iu America, and 
 in 1628 a colony of Puritans, under John 
 Endicott, was planted at Salem, on the 
 Massachusetts bay, the name of which was 
 given to the whole province along its shores. 
 In 1630 a fleet of vessels with 840 new set- 
 tlers, under John Wiuthrop, arrived from 
 England, and iu September of that year 
 founded the city of Boston. New settlers 
 
1130 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 came over rapidly, and in 1690 the colonies 
 of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were 
 united in one government. 
 
 In 1623 Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John 
 Mason took out a patent from the king for 
 a territory called Laconia, lying between 
 the Atlantic, the St. Lawrence, the Merri- 
 mac, and the Kennebec. In the same year 
 tliey founded the towns of Portsmouth and 
 Dover in New Hampshire. A French 
 colony had been planted in Maine in 1613, 
 but had been broken up by an expedition 
 from Virginia, and the first permanent set- 
 tlements iu Maine were made by the Eng- 
 
 WILLIAM PENN. 
 
 lish at Saco and on Monhegan island in 
 1622 or 1623. Some years later Maine 
 became a part of the territory of Massa- 
 chusetts, and was retained by her until the 
 formation of the state of Maine in 1820. 
 
 In 1685 a company of emigrants from 
 Massachusetts, under the pious Hooker, set 
 out from Boston on foot through the wilder- 
 ness to settle the Connecticut valley. They 
 founded the city of Hartford, the town of 
 Weathersfield and some other places. In 
 1636 Roger Williams, who had been exiled 
 from Massachusetts for his religious opin- 
 ions, founded the colony of Rhode Island, 
 
 by settling the city of Providence, which is 
 now the capital of the state. 
 
 New York was settled by the Dutch, but 
 the state was first entered by a French 
 officer named Samuel Champlain, through 
 whose energy Canada was settled by his 
 countrymen. He explored the northern 
 part in company with a war party of Hu- 
 rons, and in July, 1609, discovered the lake 
 which bears his name, and assisted the 
 Hurons to defeat a force of Mohawks upon 
 its shores. From this time the Five Na- 
 tions, as the Mohawks were termed by the 
 English, were the bitter enemies of the 
 French. On the 6th of September, 
 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman 
 in the service of the Dutch East 
 India Company, discovered the great 
 river to which his name has been 
 given, and explored it to within a 
 few miles of the site of Albany. 
 He took possession of the region along 
 its shores for the Dutch republic, 
 which named it New Netherlands. 
 In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on 
 the lower end of Manhattan island, at 
 the mouth of the Hudson, and named 
 the settlement which sprang up 
 around it New Amsterdam. Other 
 settlements were made along the Hud- 
 son as high as Fprt Orange, now 
 Albany. In 1638 emigration, which 
 had been slack up to this time, in- 
 creased rapidly. The Dutch settle- 
 ments soon extended as far eastward 
 as Connecticut and as far south as the 
 Delaware. The Swedes, who had set- 
 tled on the latter river, and had vil- 
 lages along its banks as far up as Phil- 
 adelphia, resisted the encroachments 
 of the Dutch, but were finally driven 
 away by a military expedition of the 
 latter in 1655. The whole region set- 
 tled by the Dutch was claimed by the 
 English in virtue of Cabot's discoveries, and 
 was seized by a naval force sent out for that 
 purpose by the Duke of York, upon whom 
 Charles II. had bestowed the country in 
 1664. The English changed the names of 
 the province and of the settlement on Man- 
 hattan island, to New York, and that of 
 Fort Orange to Albany, in honor of the 
 Duke of York, the new proprietor, who 
 was afterwards James II., King of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 That portion of New Jersey lying along 
 the Hudson was settled by the Dutch about 
 the same time the colony at New Amster- 
 
FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1131 
 
 dam began to attract emigrants. The 
 Swedes settled the southwest portion along 
 the Delaware in 1627. It passed with New 
 York into the hands of the English as the 
 property of the Duke of York. At the 
 same time it acquired the name it bears at 
 present. Sir George Cartaret and Lord 
 Berkeley purchased New Jersey from the 
 Duke of York and settled it as an English 
 province. 
 
 Delaware was settled by the Dutch in 
 1630, at a point near Lewes. In 1633 this 
 settlement was entirely destroyed by the 
 
 the proprietary of Maryland, but was held 
 by the Duke of York, who sold it to Wil- 
 liam Penn. Penu's rights were sustained 
 by the English authorities, and the three 
 Delaware counties remained a part of Penn- 
 sylvania until 1703, when they were given 
 a separate government. Until 1776, how- 
 ever, the same governor administered the 
 affairs of Pennsylvania and Delaware. 
 
 In 1681 William Penn obtained from 
 the English government, in payment of a 
 debt due him, a grant of lauds west of the 
 Delaware, and in 1682 brought over a col- 
 
 PENN'S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS. 
 
 Indians. In 1637 a company of Swedes 
 and Fins made a settlement on the island 
 of Tiaicum, a few miles below Philadelphia. 
 Several other settlements were formed, and 
 the country was called New Sweden. The 
 Dutch protested against this occupation of 
 territory claimed by them, and in 1655 an 
 expedition from New Netherlands reduced 
 the Swedish forts, and sent back to Europe 
 all the Swedes who refused to swear alle- 
 giance to Holland. The Delaware settle- 
 ments were held by the Dutch till their 
 conquest by the English. The title to this 
 region was disputed by Lord Baltimore, 
 
 ony of Friends or Quakers, and founded 
 the city of Philadelphia. His colony flour- 
 ished from the beginning, and by treating 
 the Indians with kindness and justice in 
 his dealings with them, he secured their 
 warm friendship, and a consequent immu- 
 nity from the savage warfare to which the 
 other colonies were subjected. There was 
 peace between the Indians and the whites 
 of Pennsylvania, as Penn's province was 
 termed, for nearly one hundred years. 
 Early in the eighteenth century there was 
 a large emigration of Germans to Pennsyl- 
 vania. They settled in the southern coun- 
 
1132 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ties of the colony, to which they gave the 
 characteristics which still distinguish them 
 from the rest of the state. 
 
 Maryland, so called in honor of Queen 
 Henrietta Maria of England, was first set- 
 tled by a band of adventurers engaged in 
 the fur trade, on Kent island, near the head 
 of the Chesapeake bay. In 1632 Sir George 
 Calvert, Lord Baltimore, obtained a grant 
 of the province from Charles I. The next 
 year the first colony of actual settlers was 
 sent out by the second Lord Baltimore, the 
 son of George Calvert, who had succeeded 
 to his father's patent as well as his title. 
 They numbered 201 persons, mostly Roman 
 Catholics, and embarked for America in 
 two vessels called the Ark and the Dove. 
 They reached the Chesapeake in the spring 
 of 1634, and ascending to the Potomac 
 founded the town of St. Mary's, in the 
 county of the same name, on the 27th of 
 March. The colony prospered from the 
 first under the generous encouragement of 
 the proprietary. The first legislative as- 
 sembly met in 1639. In 1649 this assembly 
 enacted the first law passed in America 
 granting religious toleration to all persons 
 within the limits of the colony. 
 
 North Carolina and South Carolina were 
 originally one province, which was granted 
 by Charles 11. to a company of his favorites 
 in 1663. Settlements had been formed in 
 North Carolina along the Chowan and Al- 
 bemarle sound by emigrants from Virginia 
 as early as 1653. These settlements spread 
 slowly along the coast towards the Cape 
 Fear river. In 1670 a company of emi- 
 grants sent out by the proprietaries estab- 
 lished themselves in South Carolina. They 
 settled first at Port Royal, but soon removed 
 to Charleston. The name of Carolina was 
 given to the whole country south of Vir- 
 ginia. In 1690 a large emigration of French 
 Huguenots added considerably to the popu- 
 lation of South Carolina. The proprietaries 
 endeavored to govern their province by an 
 absurd constitution prepared by the great 
 philosopher John Locke and the Earl of 
 Shaftesbury. The attempt to force this 
 constitution upon the settlers, who regarded 
 it as destructive of their liberties — as it 
 was — kept the province in a continual state 
 of trouble. In. 1727 the king bought out 
 the proprietaries and divided the province 
 into two colonies, called respectively North 
 and South Carolina. 
 
 We shall anticipate events somewhat, 
 and for the sake of convenience state that 
 
 Georgia was settled in 1733 by a company 
 of English emigrants under General James 
 Oglethorpe. Oglethorpe designed his col- 
 ony as a refuge for poor debtors, who were 
 liable to imprisonment in England, and for 
 the oppressed of every nation. The settle- 
 ment of Georgia completed the thirteen 
 colonies which in the next century estab- 
 lished the independence of America. 
 
 The majority of the inhabitants of these 
 colonies were from England, or of English 
 parentage, but there was a liberal admix- 
 ture among the people of Scotch, Irish, 
 French and German elements. The pre- 
 vailing religious sentiment of the New Eng- 
 land colonies was Calvinistic ; Quakerism 
 predominated in Pennsylvania; and, until 
 near the close of the century, Roman 
 Catholicism in Maryland ; while the Church 
 of England claiiped as her children the 
 majority of the people of New York and of 
 the southern colonies. African slavery had 
 become firmly established in the south, and 
 the industry of that section was rapidly 
 being based upon it. All the colonies were 
 fairly on the road to prosperity at the close 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 The colonists of New England were care- 
 ful to provide for the future training of their 
 children by the establishment of schools, to 
 be supported at the public expense and free 
 to every child within their limits. In 1637 
 Harvard College was founded in Massachu- 
 setts. The southern colonies were less careful 
 to provide for the education of their young. 
 
 The first settlers found the Indians very 
 friendly, and for some time peaceful rela- 
 tions were maintained with them. Wars, 
 which were usually brought on by the in- 
 justice of the whites, soon broke out, and 
 nearly every colony had to fight for the es- 
 tablishment of its settlements, as the Indians 
 soon settled into a determined hostility to 
 them. Powhatan, the great Virginia chief, 
 and the friend of the whites, died in 1618, 
 and his successor, Oppecancanough, a bold 
 and able chieftain, was the bitter foe of the 
 English. He made two attempts to destroy 
 the Virginia settlements, but without suc- 
 cess. He was taken prisoner and put to 
 death in 1644, and his fate broke the power 
 of his people in Virginia. They were 
 driven westward. 
 
 The hostility of the Indians of New Eng- 
 land hastened their destruction. In 1637 
 Connecticut destroyed the towns of the 
 Pequods and exterminated the tribe. In 
 June, 1675, the struggle known as King 
 
FROM THE DISCOVEBY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1133 
 
 Philip's War burst upon the colonies of Mas- 
 sachusetts and Plymouth. It continued 
 until August, 1G76, and caused great suffer- 
 ing and loss to those colonies. It resulted 
 in the blotting out of existence of the Wam- 
 panoag and Narragansett tribes. 
 
 The colonies were very jealous of their 
 rights, and opposed from the first a steady 
 resistance to the efforts of the English gov- 
 ernment to reduce them to abject submission 
 to its will. Little real trouble in tliis re- 
 spect was experienced during the reign of 
 Charles I., the period of the commonwealth, 
 and the reign of Charles II. James II. 
 made a deliberate effort to overturn the lib- 
 erties of the colonies, and to force the 
 Roman Catholic religion upon New York. 
 He declared all the charters of the New 
 England colonies forfeited, and sent over 
 Sir Edmund Andros as Governor-General of 
 New England. Andros conducted his ad- 
 ministration with such tyranny that upon 
 the receipt of the news of the revolution in 
 England, tlie people of Boston rose against 
 him, imprisoned him, and proclaimed Wil- 
 liam and Mary. 
 
 In the meantime the French had settled 
 Canada. Quebec was settled in 1G08 by a 
 party under Samuel Champlaiu. The set- 
 tlement of Canada differed from that of 
 British America, as it was more a military 
 occupation than a genuine colonization 
 From Canada the French missionaries ex- 
 tended their operations along the great 
 lakes as far as the head of Lake Superior, 
 making many converts to the Christian 
 faith, and extending the influence of France 
 over the distant tribes. In 1634 they had 
 penetrated as far west as Lake Huron, and 
 in 1668 the mission of St. Mary, the oldest 
 European settlement in Michigan, was es- 
 tablished. In 1673 Father Marquette, a 
 Jesuit missionary, floated down the Wis- 
 consin in a canoe and discovered the Mis- 
 sissippi, which he explored as far south as 
 the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682 La 
 Salle, a Frenchman, descended the Missis- 
 sippi to the Gulf of Mexico, and named the 
 country along the great river Louisiana, in 
 honor of Louis XIV. of France. In 1684 
 he attempted to plant a colony at the mouth 
 of the Mississippi, but reached the coast of 
 Texas by mistake. The colony failed, and 
 La Salle was killed by his men in 1687. 
 In 1699 La Salle's plan was carried out by 
 Leraoine d'Ibberville, who planted a settle- 
 ment on the site of New Orleans, which was 
 the germ of the present city. 
 
 The wars which prevailed between France 
 and England in the latter part of this cen- 
 tury soon extended to their possessions in 
 America. The French, believing that they 
 had securely established themselves in Can- 
 ada, were anxious to dislodge the English 
 from their possessions on the south, and 
 towards the close of this century began to 
 incite the Indians to commit depredations 
 upon the English colonies, suj)plying them 
 with arras and ammunition, and joining 
 them in their expeditions. In 1689 the 
 struggle, known in America as King Wil- 
 
 THE PALISADES OF THE HUDSON. 
 
 Ham's War, began. New England and New 
 York suffered severely from the incursions 
 of the French and Indians, and several 
 towns (Dover, New Hampshire, Schenectady, 
 New York, and Deerfield and Haverhill, 
 Massachusetts) were destroyed by bands of 
 Indians, or French and Indians, and their 
 inhabitants massacred or carried into cap- 
 tivity. On the other hand a New England 
 fleet under Sir William Phipps captured 
 Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, which name 
 was changed to Annapolis, and brought the 
 greater part of Nova Scotia under English 
 
1134 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 rule. The war was brought to a close in 
 1697 by the peace of Ryswick. 
 
 Five years after the peace of Ryswick 
 the war of the Spanish succession began in 
 Europe in 1702. It soon extended to 
 America, where it was termed Queen Anne's 
 War, and embroiled the English and French 
 in this country. The English settlements 
 on the western frontier of New England 
 were almost annihilated by the Indians, 
 while the French were unusually active. 
 
 BURNING OF DEERFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 ISIassachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode 
 Island made a combined attempt to conquer 
 Acadie, or Nova Scotia, in 1707, but with- 
 out success. In 1710 an expedition from 
 Boston drove the French out of Acadie, 
 and annexed it to the British crown, under 
 the name of Nova Scotia. In 1711 two 
 vigorous efforts were made to conquer Can- 
 ada, but were both unsuccessful. On the 11th 
 of April, 1713, the peace of Utrecht closed 
 the war. For thirty years afterwards there 
 
 was peace in America, and during this time 
 the colonies grew rapidly in population and 
 prosperity. 
 
 King George's War grew out of the war of 
 the Austrian succession in Europe, and began 
 in America in the summer of 1744. It lasted 
 a little over four years, and was closed by 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, October ISth^ 
 1748. The principal event of this war was 
 the capture of Louisburg, the strongest po- 
 sition of the French in America, by a vol- 
 _ unteer force from 
 
 New England, led 
 by William Pep- 
 perell, a wealthy 
 merchant of 
 Maine. At the 
 close of the war 
 Louisburg was re- 
 stored to the 
 French. 
 
 In 1749 the 
 Governor of Vir- 
 ginia received or- 
 ders from England 
 to grant to an or- 
 ganization known 
 as the "Ohio 
 Company" half a 
 million of acres 
 of land lying on 
 the Ohio river, 
 and between the 
 Monongahela and 
 the Kanawha riv- 
 ers. This region, 
 though included 
 in the territory of 
 Virginia, was 
 claimed by 
 France, and as 
 soon as the Eng- 
 lis^h began to form 
 settlements in it, 
 they were resisted 
 by the French, 
 who established 
 several military posts within its limits, and 
 drove out the English settlers. Governor 
 Dinwiddie resolved to remonstrate with the 
 French commander before seeking to dispos- 
 sess him by force, and intrusted a letter to 
 him to George Washington, then a young man 
 less than twenty-two years of age, but with a 
 reputation for bravery and prudence beyond 
 his years. He performed the long and dan- 
 gerous journey between the Virginia fron- 
 tier and the Ohio, delivered the letter of 
 
FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT TO THE REVOLUTION. 1135 
 
 the governor, and returned in safety with 
 the reply of the French commander. The 
 Frenchman's answer was evasive and unsat- 
 isfactory, and Virginia prepared to main- 
 tain her claim to the Oliio region by force 
 of arms, and an expedition was 
 fitted out for this purpose. Wash- 
 ington was assigned the second 
 place in this expedition, but by 
 the death of Colonel Fry, he soon 
 succeeded to the chief command. 
 He at once moved towards the 
 Ohio, and hearing that the French 
 had erected Fort Duquesne at 
 the head of the Ohio, he pushed 
 forward to reconnoitre that posi- 
 tion. On the way a body of 
 French troops under Jumonville 
 attempted to surprise him, but 
 was defeated by Washington's 
 command, Jumonville himself 
 being among the slain. May 28th, 
 1754. This encounter began the 
 final struggle between England 
 and France for the supremacy in 
 America, which is known in 
 American history as the old 
 French War, or the French and 
 Indian War, and in European 
 history as the Seven Years' War. 
 Hostilities did not begin imme- 
 diately in Europe, as we have seen, 
 the Seven Years' AVar beginning 
 in the year 1756. France and 
 England did not come to blows 
 until that year. Each country 
 professed to be at peace with the 
 other, but each sent assistance to 
 its colonies in America. The 
 campaign of 1755 in America in- 
 cluded several expeditions against 
 the French on the Ohio, the lakes, 
 and the Atlantic. 
 
 The first of these was an expedi- 
 tion against Fort Duquesne, from 
 Virginia, consisting of a force of 
 royal troops and pi'ovincials under 
 General Braddock. Washington 
 held an appointment on Brad- 
 dock's staff, and rendered good 
 service during the campaign. 
 Braddock's army advanced slowly, 
 and without regard to the danger to be 
 apprehended from the savages. Washing- 
 ton warned the general of his danger, but 
 his suggestions were treated with contempt. 
 When it had gotten within ten miles of 
 
 bushed by the French and Indians, on the 
 9th of July, and was routed with terrible 
 slaughter. Braddock himself was mortally 
 wounded, and died a few days later. The 
 remnant of his force, under General Forbes, 
 
 Fort Duquesne, Braddock's army was am- 
 
 BKONZE DOOR IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL COMMEMORATING 
 THE EVENTS OF THE LIFE OF WASHINGTON. 
 
 retreated east of the mountains. A second 
 column under General Shirley, Governor 
 of Massachusetts, was despatched against 
 Forts Frontenac and Niagara, on the 
 Niagara river. It proved a failure. Shir- 
 ley was delayed by bad weather, and sick- 
 
1136 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ness broke out among his Indian allies, 
 who belonged to the tribes of the Six 
 Nations, and they deserted him in large 
 numbers. Disheartened by these things, 
 Shirley retraced his steps eastward, and his 
 expedition amounted to nothing. 
 
 A third expedition was despatched under 
 General Winslow, of New England., against 
 the French posts on the Bay of Fundy. 
 It was successful, and the posts were cap- 
 tured and held by the English. Subse- 
 quently General "Winslow received positive 
 orders from England to remove the Aca- 
 dians, or neutral French, from Acadie to 
 the English colonies, which duty he per- 
 formed. There was no actual necessity for 
 the removal of these people, and this harsh 
 
 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 
 
 and cruel measure occasioned them great 
 suffering. 
 
 The fourth expedition was against Crown 
 Point, and was led by General William 
 Johnson. The troops were principally 
 from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New 
 Hampshire. Johnson advanced to the 
 head of Lake George, near which he was 
 attacked by a force of French and Indians, 
 under Baron Dieskau, on the 6th of Sep- 
 tember, 1755. Through the exertions of 
 General Lyman, the second in command 
 and an American, the French were repulsed 
 and were forced to retreat. Dieskau was 
 mortally wounded and was made a pris- 
 oner. Johnson lost the fruits of the victory 
 by lingering at the head of Lake George 
 until it was too late in the season to ad- 
 vance upon Crown Point. 
 
 Dieskau was succeeded by the Marquis 
 de Montcalm, to whom was assigned the 
 command of all the French forces in Amer- 
 ica. He was an officer of experience, 
 energy, and skill, and opened the campaign 
 of 1756 with a series of successes which 
 continued for two years. In 1756 he cap- 
 tured Oswego, with a large quantity of 
 stores collected there by the English. In 
 1757 he laid siege to Fort William Henry, 
 and compelled it to surrender. After the 
 delivery of the fort, the Indians serving 
 with the French army attacked the captive 
 garrison and massacred a large number. 
 Montcalm heroically exerted himself to 
 save his prisoners, and succeeded in stop- 
 ping the massacre. 
 
 The disasters of the English in Amer- 
 ica were keenly felt by the people of 
 Great Britain, who demanded a change 
 of the ministry. The popular demand 
 was unwillingly complied with, as we 
 have seen, and the king placed AVilliam 
 Pitt at the head of affairs. From the 
 moment that this great man began to 
 direct the war the prospects of the Eng- 
 lish improved. Pitt appreciated the 
 I efforts of the Americans, and resolved 
 to sustain them. He also decided that 
 Great Britain should assume the cost 
 of the war, and that the colonies should 
 be repaid the sums they had expended 
 in its support. The calls of Pitt for 
 volunteers were Avell responded to in the 
 colonies, and when the campaign of 
 1758 opened, the English took the field 
 with 50,000 men, commanded by offi- 
 cers of experience and skill. The prin- 
 cipal events of this campaign were : the 
 capture of Louisburg by Generals Amherst 
 and Wolfe, on the 27th of July, after a 
 siege of fifty days; the capture of Fort 
 Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, by a force of 
 colonial troops under Colonel Bradstreet; 
 the capture of Fort Duquesne by a force 
 under General Forbes, in which the Vir- 
 ginia troops were commanded by Washing- 
 ton ; and the defeat of Abercrombie at 
 Ticonderoga. Abercrombie advanced upon 
 Ticonderoga with a force four times as 
 great as that which Montcalm collected for 
 the defence of the position. The leading 
 spirit of the expedition was Lord George 
 Howe, a young officer of great promise. 
 Howe was killed in a skirmish, and Aber- 
 crombie, who was utterly incompetent, 
 was repulsed with heavy loss in his attack 
 upon the fort, and obliged to retreat to the 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 1137 
 
 head of Lake George. He lost 2,000 men 
 in his fruitless expedition. This disaster 
 closed the campaign, and more than coun- 
 terbalanced the successes of the English at 
 the outset. 
 
 Abercrombie was removed from his com- 
 mand, and was succeeded by General Am- 
 herst, who advanced in the spring of 1759 
 upon Ticonderoga and Crown Point, from 
 which the French retreated without risking 
 an engagement. About the same time Sir 
 William Johnson took Niagara, and routed 
 
 firmed that of England in the new world. 
 The war in America virtually ceased after 
 the fall of Quebec, but continued on the 
 ocean and in Europe for nearly four years 
 longer. Peace was restored by the treaty 
 of Paris, in 1763, by which Canada and its 
 dependencies, including the posts along the 
 lakes and the Ohio, were forever ceded to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The surrender of Canada was deeply re- 
 sented by the Indians of the northwest. 
 Under their great chief Pontiac, one of the 
 
 DEATH OF WOLFE. 
 
 a large French force which was marching 
 to its relief On the 13th of September, 
 1759, the crowning event of the war oc- 
 curred. The British army under General 
 Wolfe scaled the Heights of Abraham, at 
 Quebec, and defeated the French under 
 Montcalm. Both commanders were slain 
 in the battle. On the 18th Quebec was 
 surrendered to the English. Its capture 
 is regarded as one of the most remarkable 
 events in modern history ; not only because 
 it decided the war in America, but because 
 it destroyed the power of France and con- 
 
 most remarkable of his race, they made a 
 determined effort, in 1763, to throw off the 
 English rule. The war lasted until 1764, 
 when the resistance of the Indians was put 
 down. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Services of the Colonists in the French and Indian 
 Wars — Great Britain Jealous of her Colonies — 
 Harsh Laws— The " Writs of Assistance"— They 
 are Resisted— Great Britain Proposes to Tax the 
 Colonies— The Stamp Act— Eesistauce of the Col- 
 
1138 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 onies to it — Measures for Protection — The First 
 Colonial Congress— Repeal of the Stamp Act — 
 New Duties Imjiosed — liiot in Boston — The Town 
 Occupied by British Troops — The King Maintains 
 his Right to Tax the Colonies — Destruction of Tea 
 at Boston — The Boston Port Bill— Meeting of the 
 Continental Congress — Measures of that Body — 
 The Colonies Arm — Battles of Lexington and 
 Concord — The Revolution Begun — Boston Be- 
 sieged — Capture of Crown Point and Ticonderoga 
 — i3attle of Bunker Hill— The Second Continental 
 Congress Assembles at Philadelphia — Washing- 
 ton in Command of the Army — The British Evac- 
 uate Boston — Invasion of Canada — Attack on 
 Fort Moultrie — Declaration of Independence — 
 Articles of Confederation — Battle of Long Island 
 — Washington Retreats Across the Delaware — 
 Battle of Trenton — Washington Eludes Cornwal- 
 lis — Battle of Princeton — Effect of these Victories 
 — Battle of the Brandy wine — The British Occupy 
 Philadelphia — Battle of Germantown — Surrender 
 of Burgoyne — Alliance with France — The Winter 
 at the Valley Forge — The British Evacuate Phil- 
 adelphia — Battle of Monmouth — Arrival of the 
 French Fleet — The War in the South — Capture 
 of Savannah — Georgia Overrun — Spain Joins the 
 Alliance — Exploits of Paul Jones — Attack on 
 Newport — Surrender of Charleston — Exploits of 
 Marion and Sumter — Battles of Camden and 
 King's Mountain — Greene in Command in the 
 South — Arrival of the French Army — Arnold's 
 Treason — Battles of the Cowpens and Eutaw 
 Springs — Cornwallis in Virginia — Washington 
 Moves South — Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of 
 Cornwallis' Army — Close of the War — Great 
 Britain Recognizes the Independence of the 
 United States. 
 
 )HE conflicts with the French and 
 Indians, in which the colonies had 
 been engaged, had demanded great 
 sacrifices from them, and had left 
 them greatly exhausted in both 
 men and money. They had shown 
 the devotion of America to the mother 
 country in the most conspicuous light, and 
 had certainly earned for the Americans the 
 considerate forbearance of Great Britain. 
 As for the Americans themselves, they had 
 learned valuable lessons in modern warfare, 
 had seen for themselves that British gen- 
 erals were not infallible nor British troops 
 invincible, and had gained a very decided 
 confidence in their own prowess. 
 
 Great Britain, however, did not regard 
 her colonies with either motherly wisdom 
 or kindness. Jealous of their growing 
 commercial and manufacturing prosperity, 
 she sought in numerous ways to cripple 
 their industry and retard their advance- 
 ment. Always a law-abiding people, the 
 Americans submitted to all the harsh 
 measures of the mother country as long as 
 they were kept within the limits sanctioned 
 by the British constitution. In 1761, how- 
 ever, the home government threw off its 
 constitutional restraints. A law was en- 
 
 acted by parliament authorizing the sheriffs 
 and customs ofiicers to enter stores and 
 private dwellings, upon the authority of 
 "writs of assistance," or general search 
 warrants, and search for goods which it was 
 suspected had not paid duty. The first 
 attempt to use these writs was made in 
 Massachusetts. They were resisted, and 
 the persons refusing to obey them were 
 brought to trial, but were acquitted. This 
 trial settled the fate of the writs, and no 
 further attempt was made to use them. 
 
 The British government now proposed to 
 levy a direct tax upon the colonies, which 
 denied the right of Great Britain to tax 
 them without granting them representation 
 in parliament. As such representation 
 was impossible by reason of the distance 
 between the two countries, the colonies 
 claimed that taxes could be levied only by 
 their own legislatures. An act for taxing 
 the colonies, known as the Stamp Act, was 
 passed by parliament in the spring of 1765, 
 and was at once signed by the king. It 
 required that every written or printed 
 paper used in trade, in order to be valid, 
 should have afiixed to it a stamp of a de- 
 nomination to be determined by the charac- 
 ter of the paper, and that no stamp should 
 be for a less sum than one shilling. The 
 colonies had earnestly pi'otested against 
 this measure while it was being discussed 
 in parliament, but the only notice the 
 British government took of these protests 
 was to send over a body of troops for the 
 purpose of enforcing obedience to the stamp 
 act, and the ministers were authorized by 
 ])arliament to compel the colonies to find 
 " quarters, fuel, cider or rum, candles, and 
 other necessaries " for these troops. 
 
 These infamous measures produced great 
 excitement in America. The Virginia leg- 
 islature declared that the colonists were 
 bound to pay only such taxes as were 
 levied by their own legislatures. The 
 general court of Massachusetts ordered the 
 courts of that province to transact their 
 business without the use of the stamps. In 
 the other colonies the opposition Avas strong, 
 and associations called " Sons of Liberty " 
 were formed all over the country, consist' 
 ing of men who pledged themselves to 
 oppose the unlawful acts of Great Britain. 
 The determination not to use the stamps 
 was general, and when the 1st of Novem- 
 ber, 1765, the day on which the hated law 
 was to go into operation, arrived, it was 
 found that all the agents for the distribu- 
 
1139 
 
1140 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tion of the stamps had resigned through 
 fear of violence at the hands of the people. 
 A general mourning was observed through- 
 out the colonies. The merchants pledged 
 themselves to import no more English 
 goods, and the people agreed not to pur- 
 chase such goods, until the law was repealed. 
 
 On the 7th of October, 1765, the first 
 colonial congress met in New York to con- 
 sider the state of the country, and consisted 
 of delegates from nine of the colonies. 
 This congress drew up a declaration of 
 rights for the colonies, a memorial to par- 
 liament, and a petition to the king, in 
 which, after asserting their loyalty to the 
 crown and laws of England, they insisted 
 upon their right to be taxed only by their 
 own representatives. These documents 
 were submitted to and approved by the 
 provincial legislatures, and were laid before 
 the British government in the name of the 
 united colonies. 
 
 The friends of America in parliament 
 warmly supported the petition of the colo- 
 nies, and demanded a repeal of the stamp 
 act. Pitt and Burke urged the repeal with 
 powerful eloquence. The British mer- 
 chants, who had begun to feel the effects 
 of the non-intercourse policy of the Ameri- 
 cans, were clamorous for a repeal of the 
 act ; and at length parliament yielded, and 
 on the 18th of March, 1766, the stamp act 
 was repealed. The repeal was celebrated 
 with great rejoicings in America and 
 England. 
 
 The king did not relinquish his determi- 
 nation to tax America, and on the 29th of 
 June, 1767, parliament passed an act im- 
 posing duties on glass, tea, paper, and 
 some other articles imported into the colo- 
 nies. The Americans met this new aggres- 
 sion with a revival of their societies for 
 discontinuing the importation of English 
 goods. A riot having occurred in Boston, 
 in opposition to the exaction of these duties, 
 the British government ordered General 
 Gage to occupy Boston with a strong mili- 
 tary force. This occupation increased the 
 disaffection of the Bostonians, and on the 
 5th of March, 1770, a collision occurred 
 between the citizens and the troops, in 
 which three of the former were killed and 
 five wounded. 
 
 The feeling of the colonies was so unmis- 
 takable that parliament resolved to remove 
 the obnoxious duties. The king, however, 
 was determined that at least one nominal 
 duty should be retained, as he did not 
 
 meat! to surrender his right to tax the 
 colonies. In accordance with the royal 
 command a duty of three per cent, on tea 
 was retained, and all the others were re- 
 moved. The Americans, however, objected 
 to the principle of taxation without repre- 
 sentation, and not to the amount of the tax, 
 and resolved to discontinue the use of tea 
 until the duty should be repealed. When 
 it was learned that several ships loaded 
 with tea had sailed from England to 
 Boston, a meeting of the citizens of Boston 
 was held at Faneuil Hall, and it was de- 
 termined to send the ships back to England 
 immediately upon their arrival. Three 
 ships loaded with tea reached Boston soon 
 after, and their owners, in compliance with 
 the public demand, consented to order them 
 back to England, if the governor would 
 allow t'hem to leave the port. Governor 
 Hutchinson evaded the request for permis- 
 sion for the ships to sail. On the night of 
 the 18th of December, 1773, a band of 
 citizens, disguised as Indians, seized the 
 vessels, emptied the tea into the harbor, and 
 then quietly dispersed without harming 
 the shij^s. This bold act greatly incensed 
 the British government, and parliament 
 adopted severe measures for the purpose 
 of punishing the colonies. The harbor of 
 Boston was closed to all commerce, the 
 seat of the colonial government was re- 
 moved to Salem, soldiers were ordered to 
 be quartered on all the colonies at the ex- 
 pense of the citizens, and it was required 
 that all officers who should be prosecuted 
 for enforcing these measures should be 
 sent to England for trial. 
 
 The excitement in the colonies over these 
 measures was tremendous. Boston was 
 everywhere regarded as the victim of 
 British tyranny, and assurances of sym- 
 pathy, and money and provisions for the 
 poor of the town, were sent from all parts 
 of the country. Even in the city of Lon- 
 don thirty thousand pounds were subscribed 
 for the relief of Boston. Salem refused to 
 accept the transfer of the seat of govern- 
 ment, and the authorities of Marblehead 
 requested the merchants of Boston to use 
 their port free of charge. The excitement 
 continued to increase throughout the coun- 
 try, and the breach between the colonies 
 and England widened daily. 
 
 On the 5th of September, 1774, the con- 
 tinental congress met at Philadelphia. It 
 was composed of delegates from all the 
 colonies save Georgia, whose royalist gov- 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 1141 
 
 ernor had prevented an election. It em- 
 braced among its members the first men in 
 America. This body, after considering the 
 grievances of the colonies, adopted a 
 declaration, setting forth their rights, as 
 subjects of the British crown, to a just 
 share in the making of their own laws, and 
 in imposing their own taxes ; to the right 
 of a speedy trial by jury in the community 
 in which the offence should be committed, 
 and to the right to hold public meetings 
 and petition for the redress of grievances. 
 A protest against the unconstitutional acts 
 of the British parliament was adopted, as 
 well as a petition to the king, an appeal to 
 the British nation, and a memorial to the 
 people of the colonies. The congress pro- 
 posed, as a means of redress, the formation 
 of an "American Asso- 
 ciation," the members of 
 which should pledge 
 themselves not to trade 
 with Great Britain or 
 the West Indies, or 
 with pei'sons engaged 
 in the slave trade, and 
 to refrain from using 
 British goods or tea. 
 The papers drawn up 
 by the congress were 
 transmitted to England. 
 The Earl of Chatham 
 (William Pitt) was 
 deeply impressed by 
 them, and declared in 
 parliament that " all 
 attempts to im2iose ser- 
 vitude upon such a 
 mighty continental na- 
 tion must be vain." The 
 English people, as a general rule, desired 
 that the demands of the Americans should 
 be complied with, and even Lord North, 
 the prime minister, who carried the arbi- 
 trary measures of the government through 
 parliament, was at heart opposed to them, 
 and only upheld them at the express com- 
 mand of the king, who was determined to 
 force his American subjects into submission. 
 Few of the leaders of the colonists now 
 doubted that hostilities were close at hand, 
 and the colonies took measui-es to raise and 
 arm troops with a view to be prepared for 
 any emergency. General Gage was 
 alarmed by these measures, and fortified 
 Boston Neck, and seized the small stock of 
 ammunition collected by the Massachusetts 
 authorities at Worcester. Emboldened by 
 
 his success in this attempt. Gage resolved 
 to destroy the arms and military stores 
 deposited by Massachusetts at Concord. 
 On the night of the 18th of April, 1775, he 
 sent a detachment of troops, under Colonel 
 Smith, to destroy these stores. It was his 
 design that the movement should be secret, 
 but he was so closely watched by the 
 patriots, that the march of his troops was 
 instantly discovered, and the alarm spread 
 through the surrounding country by mes- 
 sengers. The people at once flew to arms, 
 and when the troops reached Lexington, a 
 small village half-way between Boston and 
 Concord, on the morning of the 19th of 
 April, they found a small force of the 
 people of the town drawn up on the 
 common. They were fired upon and dis- 
 
 CARPENTEKS' HALL- 
 
 -PLACE OF MEETING OF THE CONTINENTAL 
 CONGRESS. 
 
 persed by the British troops, and eight 
 were killed and several wounded. The 
 troops then proceeded to Concord, where 
 they destroyed a few stores, and came in 
 conflict with a body of several hundred 
 minute-men. Finding that the country 
 was rapidly rising around him, and fearing 
 that he would be surrounded. Colonel 
 Smith, after a brief encounter Avith the 
 minute-men, decided to retreat to Boston. 
 He was followed the whole way by the 
 minute-men, who kept up a galling fire 
 upon the royal troops during the whole 
 retreat. The British were reinforced at 
 Lexington by a column of 900 men and 
 two cannon, under Lord Percy, but were 
 driven back to Charlestown. Their loss 
 during the day was nearly 300 men. 
 
1142 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The events of the 19th of April put an 
 end to the long cTispute between the colo- 
 nies and England, and inaugurated the 
 revolution. Measures were taken to put a 
 New England army in the field, and by 
 the 1st of May an army of 20,000 men was 
 encamped around Boston, and General 
 Gage found himself besieged in his chosen 
 position. In May he was reinforced by 
 fresh troops from England under Generals 
 Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, and the 
 
 was received ; and in North Carolina a 
 convention was held at Charlotte, in Meck- 
 lenburg county, which body, in May, 1775, 
 proclaimed the independence of North 
 Carolina, and prepared to resist the au- 
 thority of Great Britain by force of arms. 
 Alarmed by the activity of the American 
 force before Boston, General Gage deter- 
 mined to seize and fortify the heights 
 around that city. His plan was betrayed 
 to General Ward, the American comman- 
 
 THE BATTLE OF LEXINGTON, APRIL 19, 1775. 
 
 strength of his army was increased to 
 10,000 men. 
 
 In the other colonies equally important 
 measures were begun. The fortresses of 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point were sur- 
 prised and captured by volunteers from 
 Vermont, under Colonel Ethan Allen. The 
 Americans captured with these fortresses 
 large quantities of cannon and stores, which 
 were of the greatest service to them. In 
 Virginia and the Caroliuas the people took 
 up arms as soon as the news from the north 
 
 der, who sent Colonel Prescott, on the 
 night of the 16th of June, 1775, to fortify 
 Bunker Hill, which commanded the great 
 northern road out of Boston across the 
 peninsula of Charlestown. By some mis- 
 take Prescott passed by Bunker Hill, and 
 went to Breed's Hill, much nearer Boston, 
 and there threw up a slight breastwork, 
 which was discovered by the British on the 
 morning of the 17th, The British war 
 vessels in the harbor immediately opened 
 fire on the intrenchments, and General 
 
THE BEVOLUTION. 
 
 1143 
 
 Gage resolved to storm them at once, and 
 drive the Americans from the hill. A force 
 of 3,000 regulars was detailed to carry the 
 works, assisted by the fire of the meu-of- 
 war in the harbor. The American force on 
 the hill consisted of scarcely half this num- 
 ber, and was composed of raw and undis- 
 ciplined provincials. The British^ made 
 their attack about three o'clock in the 
 afternoon. The Americans repulsed two 
 assaults, but in the third, their ammunition 
 having failed, they were driven from the 
 hill. They retreated across Charlestown 
 Neck to Cambridge, which was held by the 
 contiaeutal army. The American loss in 
 the battle of Bunker Hill was 449 killed, 
 wounded and prisoners. The loss of the 
 British was 1049 killed and wounded, in- 
 cluding some of their best officers. Among 
 the killed was General Joseph Warren, of 
 Boston, who was serving as a volunteer. 
 His loss was greatly lamented. The battle, 
 though an actual defeat of the Americans, 
 was equal to a victory in its effects upon 
 them, inasmuch as it demonstrated their 
 ability to hold their ground against the 
 regular troops of Great Britain, and in- 
 spired them with confidence. 
 
 On the 10th of May, 1775, the second 
 continental congress met at Philadelphia. 
 The proceedings of this body were moder- 
 ate and deliberate. A petition to the king 
 was drawn up and forwarded to England, 
 denying any intention to separate from 
 Great Britain, and asking only for redress 
 of the wrongs of which the colonies com- 
 plained. A federal union of the colonies 
 was formed, and congress assumed and ex- 
 ercised the general government of the 
 country. Measures were taken to estab- 
 lish an army, to procure military supplies, 
 and to provide a navy. A loan of $2,000,- 
 000 was authorized, and the faith of the 
 "united colonies" pledged for its redemp- 
 tion. The troops before Boston were organ- 
 ized as a continental army, and were placed 
 under the control of congress. George 
 Washington, then a member of congress, 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of this 
 army. As soon as he received his commis- 
 sion he set out for the army. 
 
 Washington reached the array before 
 Boston a few days after the battle of Bun- 
 ker Hill, and at once assumed the command. 
 By extraordinary exertions he succeeded in 
 bringing the force to a tolerably effective 
 condition. Boston was regularly invested, 
 and the siege was pressed with vigor. On 
 
 the 4th of March, 1776, Washington seized 
 and fortified Dorchester Heights, overlook- 
 ing and commanding the town and harbor 
 from the south. The city being thus ren- 
 dered untenable, the British were forced ta 
 evacuate it, which they did on the 17th of 
 March, and sailed for Halifax. 
 
 In the meantime a force had been sent to 
 invade Canada from two points, under 
 General Richard Montgomery and Colonel 
 Benedict Arnold. The principal event of 
 the invasion was an attack upon Quebec 
 by the forces of Montgomery and Arnold. 
 It was unsuccessful. Montgomery was 
 killed, and Arnold, who succeeded to the 
 command, was wounded and was forced to 
 retreat. The expedition accomplished 
 nothing of permanent value, and was com- 
 pelled to return to the colonies after suffer- 
 ing great losses and many hardships. 
 
 A British fleet attacked and burned 
 Falmouth (now Portland), in Maine, and 
 committed many outrages on the coast of 
 Virginia. A powerful fleet, under Sir 
 Peter Parker, attacked Fort Moultrie, in 
 the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, 
 for the purpose of forcing its way to that 
 city. It was repulsed with heavy loss, June 
 28th, 1776. 
 
 During the year 1776 the Americans 
 sent out several cruisers, which captured a 
 number of British vessels laden with stores 
 for their army. These captures enabled 
 Washington to do much towards equipping 
 the force under his command. 
 
 Congress took measures for the active 
 prosecution of the war. Supplies were 
 drawn from the West Indies ; powder mills 
 and cannon foundries were provided for on 
 a small scale ; thirteen frigates were ordered 
 to be constructed (a few of which eventually 
 got to sea") ; a committee of war, one of 
 finance, and a secret committee, to which 
 was intrusted the negotiations of the colo- 
 nies with foreign powers and persons 
 abroad friendly to the cause, were appointed. 
 Finally, on the 4th of July, 1776, congress 
 adopted, on behalf of the colonies, a dec- 
 laration of independence of the British 
 crown. The colonies now took their stand 
 as free and independent states. At the 
 same time a plan for the general govern- 
 ment of the United States, known as the 
 Articles of Confederation, was adopted. 
 
 As he supposed that the British would 
 attack New York, Washington transferred 
 his army to that place immediately after 
 his occupation of Boston. He had not 
 
1144 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 long to wait, for General Howe soon ar- 
 rived in New York bay with his army, and 
 in June was joined by his brother. Admiral 
 Lord Howe, with reinforcements and a 
 strong fleet. The British army now num- 
 bered 30,000 men, a large part of whom 
 were Hessian troops, hired from the gov- 
 ernment of Hesse-Cassel, in Germany, by 
 the King of England. The troops were 
 landed on Staten island, and preparations 
 were made for attacking the city of New 
 York. Before proceeding to hostilities 
 Lord Howe issued a proclamation to the 
 people of America, offering a free pardon 
 to all who would lay down their arms and 
 accept the king's clemency. The proclama- 
 
 and capture them in New York ; but Wash- 
 ington withdrew from that city and re- 
 treated to the mainland. After some inde- 
 cisive encounters, the American army 
 crossed the Hudson into New Jersey. The 
 British followed up their successes, and 
 "Washington was obliged to abandon the 
 Hudson and retreat across New Jersey to 
 the Delaware, which he crossed near 
 Trenton. He halted in Pennsylvania, and 
 the British made no effort to pass the river. 
 
 The American cause now seemed gloomy * 
 indeed. New York and New Jersey were 
 lost to the patriots, and Washington had 
 with him in Pennsylvania only 4,000 half 
 starved and badly clothed men. The 
 
 WASHINGTON CKOSSING THE DELAWAKE. 
 
 tion produced no effect whatever, for the 
 Americans were convinced that they could 
 expect but a poor regard for their rights 
 and liberties at the hands of King George. 
 Washington's force was vastly inferior 
 to that of the enemy. He was compelled 
 to divide it, and to place a portion of it on 
 Long island, in order to cover the ap- 
 proaches to New York city. The force on 
 Long island was attacked and defeated by 
 the British on the 27th of August, 1776. 
 By a skilful retreat on the night of the 
 29th, Washington withdrew his troops 
 from Long island to New York. Howe 
 was greatly mortified at the escape of the 
 Americans, and prepared to shut them up 
 
 British had by this time taken possession 
 of the island of Rhode Island, and had 
 made a descent upon Baskingridge, New 
 Jersey, and had captured General Charles 
 Lee. By December, 1776, the cause of the 
 colonies seemed so desperate that the people 
 generally began to abandon the hope of 
 success, and many of them commenced to 
 make their peace witli the royal authorities. 
 At this hour, when everything was so 
 gloomy, Washington was calm and hope- 
 ful. He had expected reverses, and they 
 did not dismay him. He was resolved to 
 maintain the struggle to the last possible 
 moment, and exerted himself to cheer the 
 little band of heroes who remained faithful 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 1145 
 
 to the cause. Feeling that the situation of 
 affairs demanded some decisive action on 
 his part, he determined to attack and drive 
 back the Hessians who constituted the ad- 
 vanced guard of the British army, and 
 who occupied an exposed position on the 
 Delaware between Trenton and Burlington. 
 He crossed the Delaware with a portion of 
 his army, in open boats, in the midst of 
 snow and floating ice, on the night of De- 
 cember 25th, 1776, and 
 about eight o'clock on 
 the morning of the 26th 
 attacked the Hessians at 
 Trenton and defeated 
 them. He took 1,000 
 prisoners, 1,000 stand 
 of arms, 6 brass cannon, 
 and 4 standards. On 
 the night of the 26th 
 he recrossed the Del- 
 aware and returned to 
 his camp in Pennsyl- 
 vania. A few days 
 later, having received 
 a small reinforcement, 
 Washington crossed the 
 Delaware once more, 
 and took position at 
 Trenton. General 
 Howe hurried a force 
 of 7,000 men, under 
 Lord Cornwallis, to- 
 wards Trenton to crush 
 Washington's array. By 
 a brilliant march 
 around the British left, 
 Washington eluded 
 Cornwallis and hurried 
 towards New B r u n s - 
 wick to seize the stores 
 of the British army. On 
 the 3d of January, 
 1777, while on the 
 march, he defeated a 
 strong British force at 
 Princeton. He aban- 
 doned his movement 
 on New Brunswick, and 
 marched to Morristown, where he went 
 into winter quarters with his army. He 
 wag so active during the winter that the 
 British confined themselves to the shores 
 of Raritan bay, and did not venture again 
 into the interior of the state. 
 
 The victories of the American army 
 were so brilliant and audacious that they 
 not only startled the British, who had be- 
 
 lieved the war virtually over in the north, 
 but aroused as if by magic the drooping' 
 spirits of the American people, and did 
 much for the cause in the eyes of foreign 
 nations. Congress now invested Washing- 
 ton with dictatorial powers for a specified 
 time ; troops were enlisted for three years 
 instead of one year, which was the original 
 term ; and agents were sent to foreign coun- 
 tries to procure the recognition of the inde- 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1878. 
 
 pendence of the United States, and assist- 
 ance in the prosecution of the war. 
 
 When the campaign of 1777 opened, the 
 prospects of the country had so far im- 
 proved that Washington found himself at 
 the head of an army of 7,000 men. Sir 
 William Howe made repeated efforts to 
 draw hira into a general engagement, but 
 Washington completely outgencralled him. 
 
1146 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and Howe withdrew his army from New 
 Jersey to Staten island. Soon after this he 
 sailed with 16,000 men to the Chesapeake, 
 which he ascended to Elkton, in Maryland, 
 where he landed his forces and advanced 
 through Delaware towards Philadelphia, 
 which was the seat of the federal govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Washington, who had moved south of 
 the Schuylkill, in anticipation of this at- 
 tempt, endeavored to check Howe's ad- 
 vance at the passage of the Brandywine, 
 on the 11th of September, but was defeated 
 with the loss of 1,000 men. Congress with- 
 drew from Philadelphia to Lancaster, and 
 then to York, Pennsylvania. The British 
 occupied Philadelphia a few days after the 
 battle. On the 4th of October the Ameri- 
 can army made a vigorous attack upon the 
 British force at Germantown, seven miles 
 from Philadelphia, but was repulsed. 
 
 In the north the American forces were 
 more successful. General Burgoyne, with 
 a force of 7,000 British and German regu- 
 lars, and a considerable body of Canadians 
 and Indians, entered New York from Can- 
 ada by way of Lake Champlain, during the 
 summer of 1777. Crown Point and Ticon- 
 deroga were evacuated by the Americans, 
 and Burgoyne pushed on in triumph as far 
 as Fort Edward, on the Hudson. From 
 this point he sent a strong detachment to 
 Bennington, in Vermont, to destroy the 
 stores collected there by the Americans. 
 This force was routed with heavy loss by 
 the militia of Vermont and New Hamp- 
 shire, under General Stark, near Benning- 
 ton, on the 16th of August, 1777. General 
 Gates was now appointed to the command 
 of the American army confronting Bur- 
 goyne, and his force grew larger every day 
 by reinforcements of militia from New 
 England and New York. Burgoyne at- 
 tacked him on the 19th of September at 
 Behmus' Heights, and a severe but indecis- 
 ive battle occurred. A second and more 
 decisive engagement was fought on the 7th 
 of October. Burgoyne was considerably 
 worsted and endeavored to retreat, but 
 upon reaching the vicinity of the town of 
 Saratoga, was surrounded and forced to 
 surrender his entire army on the 17tli of 
 October. 
 
 This victory, the most important of the 
 war, greatly elated the Americans and 
 cheered their friends in Europe. It ad- 
 vanced the bills of the continental congress, 
 which had become greatly depreciated, and 
 
 had the effect of inducing the French gov- 
 ernment, which had secretly encouraged 
 and aided the colonies from the first, to 
 recognize the independence of the states. 
 In February, 1798, a treaty of friendship, 
 commerce and alliance was signed at Paris 
 between the United States and France. 
 Great Britain seemed to realize now, for 
 the first time, that she was about to lose her 
 colonies, and endeavored to repair her mis- 
 takes. On the 11th of March, 1778, parlia- 
 ment repealed the acts that had been so 
 obnoxious to the Americans, and subse- 
 quently sent three commissioners to settle 
 the differences between the two countries. 
 As these commissioners had no authority ta 
 treat with the United States as an inde- 
 pendent nation, congress refused to enter 
 into any negotiations with them. 
 
 Washington's army passed the winter of 
 1777-78 at Valley Forge, about twenty 
 miles from Philadelphia. The troops suf- 
 fered terribly from hunger, exposure, and 
 the dreadful privations to which they were 
 subjected, but remained with their colors 
 through it all. Their devotion was re- 
 warded in the spring by the news of the 
 alliance with France, which reached them 
 in May, 1778, and was greeted with demon- 
 strations of the liveliest joy. 
 
 Sir William Howe's course did not give 
 satisfaction at home, and he was removed 
 from his command in America, and was 
 succeeded by Sir Henry Clinton, who was 
 ordered by his government to evacuate 
 Philadelphia and concentrate his forces at 
 New York, as the French fleet might be 
 expected in the Delaware at any moment. 
 On the 18th of June Clinton withdrew his 
 forces from Philadelphia, and set out across 
 New Jersey for New York. Washington 
 pursued him promptly, and came up with 
 him at Monmouth Court-House. A severe 
 but indecisive engagement occurred between 
 the two armies. At its close Clinton re- 
 sumed his retreat to New York, and re- 
 mained there for the rest of the summer, 
 without seeking to renew hostilities with 
 Washmgton. A few days after Clinton's 
 evacuation of Philadelphia, the French 
 fleet under Count D'Estaing arrived in the 
 Delaware. Finding his enemy gone, the 
 French admiral sailed for New York. The 
 British fleet took refuge in Raritan bay, 
 whither the larger vessels of the French 
 were unable to follow them. In August 
 the Americans made an attempt, in concert 
 with the French fleet, to capture the British 
 
THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 1147 
 
 force at Newport, R. I. The French af- 
 forded so little aid that the enterprise failed. 
 D'Estaing withdrew from the coast soon 
 after this, and sailed to the West Indies, 
 having rendered little practical aid during 
 his presence in American waters. 
 
 The finances of the country were in the 
 greatest confusion. Fortunately the wis- 
 dom and unshrinking patriotism of Robert 
 Morris, an eminent merchant of and mem- 
 ber of congress from Philadelphia, saved 
 them from ruin. When the public credit 
 failed he borrowed large sums of money for 
 the use of congress, for the payment of 
 which he pledged his own credit. On the 
 whole, however, the cause of the states was 
 much improved. Besides the alliance with 
 France, they had the secret encouragement 
 of Spain. They had confined the British 
 to the territory held by that array in 1776, 
 and their own army was larger and better 
 disciplined than it had. ever been. 
 
 In 1779 the principal military operations 
 were transferred to the south. Savannah 
 had been already captured on the 29th of 
 December, 1778, by an expedition sent from 
 New York by Sir Henry Clinton, and by 
 the summer of 1779 the whole state of 
 Georgia was in the hands of the British. 
 lu September, 1779, the French fleet and 
 the American army under General Lincoln 
 attempted to recover Savannah, but were 
 repulsed with a loss of 1,000 men. 
 
 On the 16th of June, 1799, Spain de- 
 clared war against England, and in the 
 summer of that year the French king, in- 
 fluenced by the appeals of Lafayette, who 
 had visited France for that purpose, agreed 
 to send another fleet and a strong body of 
 troops to the aid of the Americans. The 
 cruisers of the United States did great 
 damage to the British commerce at sea, and 
 in British waters, and John Paul Jones, 
 with a squadron of three ships, fought and 
 won one of the most desperate battles in 
 naval history, within plain sight of the 
 English coast. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to in- 
 structions received from England, now 
 withdrew the detachment from Newport, 
 and concentrated his array at New York. 
 Early in 1780, leaving a strong garrison 
 under General Knyphausen to hold New 
 York, he sailed with the bulk of his army 
 to the south, and laid siege to Charleston, 
 which was held by General Lincoln with a 
 force of about 7,000 continentals and mi- 
 litia. After a gallant defence the city and 
 
 garrison were surrendered to Clinton on 
 the 17th of May, 1780. By the 1st of June 
 the British had overrun the better part of 
 South Carolina, and Clinton was so well 
 convinced of the completeness of its sub- 
 jugation that he went back to New York, 
 leaving the command in the south to 
 Lord Cornwallis. 
 
 Small bands of partisan troops, under 
 Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, and other 
 leaders, now sprang up in various parts of 
 South Carolina, and maintained a vigorous 
 guerilla warfare, from which the enemy suf- 
 fered greatly. Congress soon after sent 
 General Gates to comraand the forces in 
 the south. Gates's success at Saratoga had 
 made him the idol of the hour, and it had 
 even been suggested by a few discontented 
 persons that he should supersede Wash- 
 ington himself His northern laurels were 
 soon " changed to southern willows." Corn- 
 wallis met him at Camden on the 16th of 
 August, routed him with the loss of 1,000 
 men, and drove him into North Carolina. 
 By the close of the summer the only Amer- 
 ican force left in South Carolina was the 
 little band under Marion. Cornwallis, 
 feeling that his communications with 
 Charleston were safe, followed Gates's 
 beaten army into North Carolina, about the 
 middle of September, intending to continue 
 his advance into Virginia. On the 7th of 
 October a strong detachment of his army 
 was totally defeated with heavy loss, at 
 King's Mountain, in North Carolina, by 
 the militia of that state. This was a severe 
 blow to the British commander, and checked 
 his advance. Marion and Pickens about 
 the same time renewed their operations 
 in South Carolina with such activity 
 that Cornwallis became alarmed for his 
 communications, and fell back to Winns- 
 borough. South Carolina. 
 
 In the north the British commander 
 vainly endeavored to draw Washington 
 into a general engagement, in which he felt 
 confident that his vast preponderance of 
 numbers would give him the victory. 
 Washington warily avoided being caught 
 in the trap, and on the 23d of June, Gen- 
 eral Greene inflicted such a stinging defeat 
 upon a British force at Springfield, N. J., 
 that Clinton withdrew to New York, and 
 remained there for the balance of the year. 
 After the battle of Camden General Greene 
 was sent to the Carolinas to succeed Gates 
 in the command of the southern army. 
 On the 10th of July, 1780, a French 
 
1148 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 fleet and 6,000 troops under the Count de 
 Rochambeau, reached Newport, R. I. In 
 September, during the absence of Wash- 
 ington at Hartford, Conn., whither he had 
 gone to arrange a plan of operations with 
 the French commander, it was discovered 
 that General Benedict Arnold, one of the 
 most brilliant officers of the continental 
 army, had agreed to deliver into the hands 
 of the British the important fortress of 
 West Point, which he commanded at that 
 time. The discovery of the plot put an 
 end to the danger with which it threatened 
 the cause. The traitor Arnold escaped, but 
 
 GENERAL NATHANIEL GREENE. 
 
 Major Andre, a British officer, through 
 whom Arnold had conducted his negotia- j 
 tions with Sir Henry Clinton, and whose j 
 capture had revealed the plot, was hanged 
 as a spy. 
 
 Towards the close of the year, Great 
 Britain having discovered that the United 
 States and Holland were secretly negoti- 
 ating a treaty, declared war against the 
 Dutch. 
 
 The campaign of 1781 opened with the 
 brilliant victory of the Cowpens, won over 
 the British under Colonel Tarleton, by Gen- 
 eral Morgan, on the 17th of January. On 
 the 15th of March the battle of Guilford 
 
 Court-House was fought in North Carolina, 
 and resulted in a victory for the British. 
 Cornwallis was unable to follow up his vic- 
 tory, and withdrew to Wilmington on the 
 coast. On September 8th, the British forces 
 under Colonel Stewart were defeated in the 
 bloody battle of Eutaw Springs by General 
 Greene, and were compelled to retire to the 
 neighborhood of Charleston, to which they 
 were confined during the remainder of the 
 war. 
 
 Meanwhile Cornwallis, after resting and 
 recruiting his army at Wilmington, had 
 advanced into Virginia, driving before him 
 the handful of troops un- 
 der Lafayette, Wayne and 
 Steuben, who sought to 
 stay his march. While in 
 Virginia he occupied him- 
 self chiefly in destroying 
 private property, and at 
 length, in August, 1781, 
 in obedience to orders from 
 Sir Henry Clinton to oc- 
 cupy a strong defensive 
 position in Virginia, in- 
 trenched himself at York- 
 town, near the entrance of 
 York river into the Ches- 
 apeake bay. 
 
 Washington, whose army 
 had been reinforced on the 
 Hudson by the French 
 troops under the Count de 
 Rochambeau, Avas anxious 
 to attack New York, and 
 preparations were made for 
 a combined attack on that 
 city. A message was re- 
 ceived at this juncture 
 from the Count de Grasse, 
 the French admiral in 
 the West Indies, who an- 
 nounced that he had sailed for the Chesa- 
 peake. This led to an immediate change 
 in the plan of operations determined upon 
 by Washington, and he resolved to transfer 
 his army at once to Virginia and attempt 
 the capture of Cornwallis. Skilfully de- 
 ceiving Sir Henry Clinton into the belief 
 that New York was the threatened point, 
 and thus preventing him from sending as- 
 sistance to Cornwallis, Washington moved 
 rapidly to Virginia, and arrived before the 
 British works at Yorktown with an army 
 of 16,000 men on the 28th of September, 
 1781. The enemy's position was at once 
 invested by land, and the French fleet cut 
 
FBOM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1149 
 
 off all chance of escape by water. The 
 siege was prosecuted with vigor, and on the 
 19th of October Cornwallis, having ex- 
 hausted all his resources, surrendered his 
 array of 7,000 troops, with all his stores, 
 cannon, and several ships-of-war. 
 
 This victory virtually closed the war. It 
 produced the wildest joy in America, and 
 compelled a change of ministers in Eng- 
 land. Lord North and his cabinet retired 
 from office on the 20th of March, 1782, 
 and the new administration, perceiving the 
 hopelessness of the struggle, resolved to 
 make peace. Commissioners for that pur- 
 pose were appointed, and orders were sent 
 to the British commanders in America to 
 desist from further hostilities. A prelimi- 
 nary treaty of peace was signed at Paris 
 between the United States and Great Brit- 
 ain, on the 30th of November, 1782, and 
 a formal treaty on the 3d of September, 
 1783, all the nations concerned in the war 
 taking part in this treaty. By this treaty 
 Great Britain acknowledged her former 
 colonies to be free, sovereign, and indepen- 
 dent states, and withdrew her troops from 
 New York on the 25th of November, 1782. 
 Savannah and Charleston were evacuated 
 in the following month. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL 
 WAR. 
 
 Results of the War — Adoption of the Constitntion 
 of the United States — Washington Elected Presi- 
 dent — His First Term — Is Re-elected — Admission 
 of New States — Washington Retires to Private 
 Life — His Farewell Address — John Adams Presi- 
 dent — War with France — The Alien and Sedition 
 Laws — Thomas Jefferson Elected President — War 
 with the African States — Purchase of Louisiana 
 — Jefferson Re-elected — Burr's Treason — Troubles 
 ■with England — The "Chesajjeake" and "Leopard" 
 — The Embargo — James Madison Chosen Presi- 
 dent—War with England — Invasion of Canada — 
 Surrender of Detroit — Failure of the Campaign — 
 Naval Victories — The " Constitution " and the 
 '•' Guerriere " — The Second Invasion of Canada — 
 Capture of York — Massacre at the River Raisin — 
 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie — Battle of the 
 Thames — Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane 
 — Attack on Plattsburgh — Battle of Lake Cham- 
 plain — Capture of Washington — Attack on Balti- 
 more Repulsed — Death of General Ross — Battle 
 of New Orleans — Close of the War— The Barbary 
 States Humbled — The Hartford Convention — 
 James Monroe Chosen President — The Bank of 
 the United States— New States Admitted— The 
 Missouri Compromise—" The Monroe Doctrine " 
 — John Quincy Adams President — The Tariff — 
 Andrew Jackson Elected President — His Fight 
 with the Bank — The Nullification Troubles — 
 Jackson Removes the Deposits — The National 
 
 Debt Paid — Relations with Foreign Powers — The 
 Seminole War — Martin Van Buren President — • 
 Financial Troubles— William Henry Harrisoa 
 President — His Death — John Tyler Becomes 
 President— Vetoes the Bank Bill — The Northern 
 Boundary Question Settled — Annexation of 
 Texas— James K. Polk President — The Mexican 
 War — Battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, 
 Monterey, and Buena Vista — Capture of Vera 
 Cruz — Scott's Campaign — Capture of the City of 
 Mexico— Close of the War — Its Results— The 
 Oregon Question — Zachary Taylor President — 
 The Slavery Question — Discovery of Gold in Cali- 
 fornia — Compromise of 1850 — Death of General 
 Taylor — Millard Fillmore Becomes President — 
 Events of his Administration — Franklin Pierce 
 President — Arizona Purchased — The Kansas-Ne- 
 braska Bill — James Buchanan President — The 
 Kansas Troubles — Border War — The Mormon 
 Rebellion — The John Brown Raid — Execution of 
 Brown. 
 
 HE great war was now over, and the 
 republic took its place in the fam- 
 ily of nations ; but it was terribly 
 weakened by its efforts. Its fi- 
 nances were in the most pitiful 
 condition, and it had not the 
 money to pay the troops it was about to 
 disband, and who were really suffering for 
 want of money. Considerable trouble arose 
 on this account, but Washington succeeded 
 in effecting an arrangement to the satisfac- 
 tion of the soldiers. The army was dis- 
 banded immediately after the close of the 
 war, and on the 23d of December, 1783, 
 Washington resigned his commission into 
 the hands of congress, and retired to his 
 home at Mount Vernon. 
 
 It was found that the articles of confed- 
 eration were inadequate to the necessities 
 of the republic, and after much discussion 
 a new constitution was framed by a federal 
 convention at Philadelphia, in 1787, and 
 was adopted by the states. It went into 
 operation on the 4th of March, 1789. The 
 city of New York was designated as the 
 seat of government. 
 
 Washington was unanimously chosen the 
 first President of the United States, and 
 John Adams vice-president. They went 
 into office on the 30th of April, 1789. The 
 first measures of Washington's administra- 
 tion greatly restored the confidence of the 
 people in the government. Alexander 
 Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, 
 inaugurated a series of reforms, which were 
 eminently beneficial. The debts of the old 
 confederated government and of the states 
 themselves were all assumed by the United 
 States ; a bank of the United States (which 
 went into operation in February, 1794) was 
 incorporated, and a national mint was es- 
 
1150 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tablished at Philadelphia. An Indian war 
 in the west was prosecuted to a successful 
 termination, and the neutrality of the re- 
 public with regard to the parties engaged 
 
 GEOKGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 in the wars springing out of the French 
 revolution was faithfully maintained. 
 
 Washington and Adams were re-elected 
 in 1792. The French republic made great 
 efforts to embroil the United States in a 
 war with England, but they were met with 
 firmness by Washington, who demanded 
 the recall of M. Genet, the French minister. 
 His demand was complied with by France. 
 In 1794 a treaty was negotiated with Eug- 
 land, in settlement of the questions left 
 unsettled by the revolution. In 1792 a 
 formidable outbreak, in opposition to the 
 excise law, known as the whiskey insurrec- 
 tion, occurred in western Pennsylvania. It 
 was suppressed by the federal govern- 
 ment in 1794. Three new states were 
 admitted into the Union during Washing- 
 ton's administration : Vermont, in 1791 ; 
 Kentucky, in 1792 ; and Tennessee, in 
 1796. 
 
 Washington was urgently importuned to 
 be a candidate for a third presidential term, 
 but declined a re-election, although it was 
 certain there would be no opposition to 
 him. His action in this respect has become 
 the settled policy of the government. In 
 September, 1796, he issued a "Farewell 
 Address " to his countrymen, warning them 
 of the dangers to which their new system 
 was exposed, and urging them to adhere 
 firmly to the pi'inciples of the constitution 
 
 as their only hope of liberty and happi- 
 ness. 
 
 The third presidential election occurred 
 in 1796, and was marked by a display of 
 bitterness between the opposing par- 
 ties never surpassed in the subsequent 
 political history of the country. It 
 resulted in the election of John 
 Adams, the federalist candidate, to 
 the presidency. Thomas Jefferson, 
 the republican candidate, having re- 
 ceived the next highest number of 
 votes, was declared elected vice- 
 president, in accordance with the law 
 as it then stood. President Adams 
 was opposed, with great bitterness, 
 by his political enemies during his 
 whole term. The president convened 
 congress in extra session on the 15th 
 of May, 1797, to consider the rela- 
 tions of this country with France. 
 The French directory had for some 
 time been pursuing a systematic 
 course of outrage upon American 
 ships and citizens, and had carried 
 these outrages to an extent which left 
 little doubtof its determination to ruin 
 the commerce of this country. Three en- 
 voys were sent to France by President 
 Adams to attempt a peaceful settlement of 
 the quarrel. The directory refused to re- 
 ceive them, but they were given to under- 
 stand that the payment of a large sum of 
 money by their government would greatly 
 assist the settle- 
 ment of the 
 matter. The 
 commissio n ers 
 refused to enter- 
 tain such a de- 
 mand, and were 
 ordered to quit 
 the country. 
 Great indigna- 
 tion prevailed 
 throughout the 
 United States 
 when these in- 
 sults to the 
 American commissionei'S became known. 
 The government took prompt measures to 
 raise an army and navy adequate to the 
 struggle which seemed imminent. Wash- 
 ington was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the army, Avith the rank of lieutenant- 
 general; and hostilities actually began at 
 sea, where the cruisers of the United States 
 Avon several brilliant successes over French 
 ships-of-war. 
 
 JOHN ADAMS. 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1151 
 
 The energy and determination thus mani- 
 fested by the United States had a happy 
 effect in bringing about a settlement of the 
 quarrel. Napoleon became First Consul of 
 France; negotiations were reopened, and a 
 treaty of peace between the two countries 
 was definitely concluded on the 30th of 
 September, 1800. 
 
 During the existence of hostilities with 
 France two laws were enacted by congress, 
 which are generally known as the " alien 
 and sedition laws." They empowered the 
 president to send out of the country such 
 foreigners as should be found conspiring 
 against the peace and safety of the repub- 
 lic, and restricted the liberty of speech and 
 of the press enjoyed by the people. 
 These laws were very unpopular, 
 and brought about the overwhelm- 
 ing defeat of the federalist par- 
 ty, by which they were enacted. 
 During President Adams' terra 
 the seat of government was re- 
 moved from Philadelphia to Wash- 
 ington city, in 1800. 
 
 In the fourth contest for the pres- 
 idency the votes of the republican 
 party were equally divided between 
 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, 
 each of whom received seventy- 
 three votes. This threw the elec- 
 tion into the house of representa- 
 tives, where Jefferson was chosen 
 president, and Burr vice-president. 
 This circumstance also occasioned 
 an amendment to the constitution 
 (adopted finally in 1804), requiring 
 the electors to vote separately, as at 
 present, for president and vice- 
 president. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated on the 
 4th of March, 1801. His first term was 
 marked by wisdom and vigor. The domes- 
 tic affairs of the nation prospered, and the 
 finances were managed in a masterly man- 
 ner by Albert Gallatin, the great secretary 
 of the treasury. The insolence and the 
 piracies of the Barbary States of Africa 
 were punished and stopped by a naval ex- 
 pedition to the Mediterranean. The prin- 
 cipal event of this term was the purchase 
 from France, and the annexation to the 
 domain of the republic, in 1803, of the vast 
 territory of Louisiana, out of which have 
 been formed the states of Louisiana, Ar- 
 kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, 
 Nebraska, Oregon, and Colorado ; and the 
 territories of Dakotah, Utah, Wyoming, 
 Montana, Idaho, and Washington. 
 
 In 1804 Mr. Jefferson was re-elected to 
 the presidency, receiving every electoral 
 vote but fourteen. Burr was succeeded in 
 the vice-presidency by George Clinton. 
 He was then defeated for Governor of New 
 York, chiefly through the influence of 
 Alexander Hamilton, whom he challenged, 
 and shot in a duel on the 11th of July, 
 1804. In 1806 Burr was arrested and 
 tried for a supposed attempt to separate the 
 western states from the Union. He was 
 acquitted of the charge, and his innocence 
 is now generally admitted. 
 
 American commerce was much injured 
 by the retaliatory decrees and orders in 
 council of the French and British govern- 
 
 THOMAS JEFKEKSON. 
 
 ments, under the authority of which Amer- 
 ican ships were seized and confiscated, in 
 utter defiance of the rights of neutrals. 
 Great Britain gave additional cause of 
 offence by asserting a right to impress 
 American seamen into her navy, and to 
 stop American vessels on the high seas and 
 search them for deserters from her ships-of- 
 war. These searches were generally con- 
 ducted in the most aggravating manner, 
 and hundreds of American sailors, owing 
 no allegiance to King George, were forced 
 into the British service. In June, 1807, 
 the American frigate "Chesapeake," on 
 her way to the Mediterranean, was stopped 
 off the Chesapeake bay by the British 
 frigate " Leopard," whose commander pro- 
 duced an order from the British admiral 
 requiring him to search for deserters. The 
 
1152 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 American vessel refused to submit to the 
 search, aud was fired into by the " Leopard," 
 and being in a helpless condition, was 
 forced to strike her colors, with a loss of 
 twenty-one of her crew. Four men were 
 taken from her and sent on board the 
 " Leopard." Three of these were afterwards 
 pi'oved to be native-born Americans. This 
 outrage aroused a feeling of the most in- 
 tense indignation throughout the United 
 States, and the federal government de- 
 manded reparation of England, which was 
 evaded at the time, but was finally made 
 in 1811. 
 
 On the 11th of November, 1807, England 
 issued an order in council, forbidding neu- 
 tral vessels to enter the ports of France 
 until they had first touched at a British 
 port and paid a duty ; aud the next month 
 Napoleon replied to this by a decree dated 
 at Milan, ordering the confiscation of every 
 
 vessel which 
 should submit 
 to be searched 
 by or pay any 
 duties to the 
 British author- 
 ities. These 
 two piratical 
 acts, each of 
 Avhich was sup- 
 ported by arbi- 
 trary power, 
 meant simply 
 the destruction 
 of ail neutral 
 commerce, and 
 that of America in particular. In De- 
 cember, 1807, Mr. Jefferson advised con- 
 gress to lay an embargo, detaining all 
 vessels, American or foreign, in the ports 
 of the United States, and to order the 
 immediate return home of all American 
 vessels abroad. This measure, which was a 
 most singular expedient, was adopted, aud 
 gave rise to such intense dissatisfaction and 
 heavy loss that it was repealed in February, 
 1809. 
 
 At the elections in 1808, James Madison 
 of Virginia, the democratic candidate, was 
 chosen president, Mr. Jefferson having re- 
 fused a third terra. Mr. Madison was in- 
 augurated on the 4th of March, 1809. The 
 measures of Mr. Jeflferson's second term, 
 and especially the embargo, had given rise 
 to considerable opposition to the democracy, 
 and this opposition was now directed 
 against the new administration with no 
 
 JAMKS MADISON. 
 
 little bitterness, and followed it persistently 
 until its withdrawal from power. 
 
 Great Britain, instead of discontinuing 
 her outrages upon American seamen and 
 commerce, increased them, and steadily 
 disregarded the protests and representations 
 of the United States. In March, 1808, 
 congress passed an act prohibiting all com- 
 mercial intercourse between the United 
 States and Great Britain and France. 
 Napoleon met this act by an offer to with- 
 draw the restrictions he had placed upon 
 neutral commerce if England would do 
 likewise ; but England would give no such 
 pledge. In 1811 the French emperor ful- 
 filled his promise, and the United States 
 withdrew the prohibition of trade with 
 France. England, however, refused to 
 withdraw her orders in council until it was 
 too late, aud the federal government, hav- 
 ing exhausted a-ll peaceful means of redress, 
 was driven to obtain it by the sword. On 
 the 3d of June, 1812, the United States 
 declared war against Great Britain. Con- 
 gress authorized the President to increase 
 the regular army to 25,000 men, and to 
 call for 50,000 volunteers. The call was 
 responded to promptly in some of the states, 
 tardily in others, for the country was far 
 from being united in support of the war. 
 
 Hostilities began in the northwest. Pre- 
 vious to the war the Indians of that region, 
 instigated by British emissaries, attacked 
 the frontier settlements under the leadership 
 of the famous Shawnee chief Tecumseh. 
 General Harrison (afterwards president), 
 the Governor of the Territory of Indiana, 
 as soon as he learned of this, organized a 
 considerable force of western militia, and 
 marched against the savages, whom he de- 
 feated with terrible loss in a sanguinary 
 battle at Tippecanoe, on the banks of the 
 Wabash river, on the 7th of November, 
 1811. Though defeated in this battle, 
 Tecuraseh was not conquered. He passed 
 the next six months in reorganizing his 
 forces, and with the beginning of the sum- 
 mer of 1812 renewed hostilities. General 
 Hull, the Governor of Michigan, was sent 
 against him with a force of 2,000 men. He 
 had just begun his march when war was 
 declared against England. Hull was then 
 ordered to discontinue his expedition against 
 the Indians and take part in the contem- 
 plated invasion of Canada. His force was 
 too weak even to hold its position at De- 
 troit, but no reinforcements could be sent 
 him. General Brock, with a superior 
 
FEOM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1153 
 
 force, Advanced against Detroit, and on the 
 16th of August, 1812, Hull surrendered 
 the town and his forces to the British with- 
 out striking a blow. This placed the whole 
 Michigan frontier in the hands of the 
 British. An invasion of Canada from the 
 Niagara frontier was undertaken by the 
 American forces in the autumn of 1812, 
 but resulted in a most disastrous failure. 
 
 These defeats on land wei-e partly atoned 
 for by the successes of the American navy 
 at sea. The navy had been utterly ne- 
 glected by the government previous to the 
 war, and consisted of but a small squadron 
 
 and on the 29th of December the " Consti- 
 tution," Captain Bainbridge, captured the 
 British frigate "Java." Privateers went 
 to sea in great numbers during the year, 
 and by the close of 1812 had captured over 
 300 English merchant vessels. 
 
 The American government renewed its 
 efforts to conquer Canada in 1813. An 
 army, under General Harrison, was col- 
 lected near the head of Lake Erie, and was 
 styled the Ai-my of the West ; an Army of 
 the Centre, under General Dearborn, was 
 stationed along the Niagara frontier ; and 
 an Army of the North, under General 
 
 THE PATENT OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 of frigates and other vessels. These were 
 generally of an excellent character, how- 
 ever, and were manned by officers and 
 crews of skill and valor. On the 19th of 
 August, 1812, the frigate " Constitution," 
 Captain Hull, captured the English frigate 
 " Guerriere," reducing the latter to a total 
 wreck. This was the first time in half a 
 century that an English ship-of-war had 
 struck her flag to a vessel of equal force. 
 On the 18th of October the sloop-of-war 
 " Wasp," Captain Jones, captured the 
 British brig "Frolic." On the 25th of 
 October the frigate " United States " cap- 
 tured the British frigate "Macedonian;" 
 73 
 
 Wade Hampton, was posted in northern 
 New York, on the border of Lake Cham- 
 plain. There were numerous engagements 
 between these forces and the enemy, but 
 nothing definite was accomplished during 
 the first half year. In April, General 
 Pike, with a force of 1,700 men, captured 
 York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper 
 Canada, but was himself killed by the ex- 
 plosion of a mine fired by the enemy. The 
 town w^as not held, however, and the suc- 
 cess of the attack was fully balanced by a 
 terrible disaster which befell the western 
 army at the river Raisin, in January, in 
 which a detachment of 800 men, under 
 
1154 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 General Winchester, was defeated and mas- 
 sacred by the British and Indians (the 
 latter of whom were now the open allies of 
 the British), under General Proctor. In 
 May the British made an attack on Sack- 
 ett's Harbor, on Lake Ontario, but were 
 repulsed. In the same month an American 
 force, under General Boyd and Colonel 
 Miller, captured Fort George, in Canada, 
 
 NIAGAKA FALLS. 
 
 inflicting upon the British a loss of nearly 
 1,000 men. Nothing definite was accom- 
 plished on the Niagara frontier, owing to 
 the quarrels between Generals Wilkinson 
 and Hampton ; and the grand invasion of 
 Canada, from which so much had been ex- 
 pected, never took place. The year was 
 not to close without some compensating 
 success for the Americans. The British 
 
 held Lake Erie with an armed squadron^ 
 which by its presence greatly hampered the 
 operations of the western army uuder Gen- 
 eral Harrison. Lieutenant Oliver H. Perry, 
 of the United States navy, volunteered to 
 recover the lake, and caused to be built a 
 squadron of vessels inferior in size and 
 armament to the English fleet. On the 
 10th of Septembei', 1813, he attacked the 
 
 enemy's squad- 
 ron near the 
 upper end of 
 Lake Erie, and 
 defeated and de- 
 stroyed it. This 
 victory won back 
 Lake Erie and 
 the shores of 
 Ohio and Michi- 
 gan for the 
 Americans. It 
 \\as followed by 
 the advance of 
 the western army 
 into Canada. 
 On the 6th of 
 October General 
 Harrison at- 
 tacked the Brit- 
 ish and Indians, 
 under Proctor 
 and Tecumseh, 
 and routed them 
 in the battle of 
 the Thames. 
 Tecumseh was 
 slain, and Proc- 
 toi was saved 
 only by the speed 
 of his horse. 
 
 At sea this 
 3 ear the Ameri- 
 can brig " Hor- 
 net," Captain 
 Lawrence, cap- 
 tuicd the "Pea- 
 cock," on the 
 24th of Febru- 
 ary. Captain 
 Lawrence having been placed in command 
 of the frigate " Chesapeake," engaged the 
 British frigate " Shannon," off" Boston, on 
 the 1st of June. Lawrence was killed and 
 the " Chesapeake " was captured. On the 
 5th of September the American brig " Enter- 
 prise," Lieutenant Burrows, captured the 
 British brig " Boxer," Lieutenant Blythe. 
 Both commanders were killed in the fight. 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1155 
 
 The campaign of 1814 was more im- 
 portant. The war in Europe having closed, 
 large numbers of Wellington's veteran 
 troops were sent over to America. They 
 reached this country during the latter part 
 of the year. On the 5th of July the Amer- 
 ican army under General Brown defeated 
 the British at Chippewa. On the 25th of 
 the same month General Brown won a 
 second victory over the British at Lundy's 
 Lane, or Bridgewater. Towards the close 
 of the summer Sir George Prevost, the Brit- 
 ish commander in Canada, having been re- 
 inforced from Wel- 
 lington's army, in- 
 vaded the state of 
 New York at the 
 head of 14,000 men. 
 He was accompa- 
 nied by a fleet 
 of considerable 
 strength, which 
 moved up Lake 
 Cham plain. He was 
 met at Plattsburgh 
 on the 3d of Septem 
 ber by a small 
 American force 
 undar General Ma- 
 comb, which dis- 
 pute 1 his passage of 
 theSaranac. At the 
 same time an Amer 
 icau squadron under 
 Commodore Mac- 
 do nough engaged 
 the British fleet at 
 the entrance to 
 Plattsburgh bay, 
 and routed it with 
 the loss of every 
 vessel except a 
 few gunboats, which 
 
 escaped. The American army repulsed 
 every effort of the British to pass the Sara- 
 nac, and Sir George Prevost, disheartened 
 by his double disaster, retreated into Can- 
 ada, having lost his fleet and 2,500 of his 
 troops. 
 
 la the summer of 1814 a British fleet 
 under Admirals Cockburn and Warren 
 ravaged the shores of the Chesapeake bay, 
 committing the most horrible barbarities 
 upon the helpless people. In August these 
 vessels landed a force of several thousand 
 British troops under General Ross, at Ben- 
 edict, on the Patuxent. Ross at once ad- 
 vanced upon the city of Wa.shington, which 
 
 was defenceless, and on the 24th of August 
 defeated a small force of American militia 
 which sought to bar his way at Bladens- 
 burg. He then resumed his advance and 
 occupied Washington that evening, the 
 federal government having withdrawn from 
 the city. He burned the capitol, the presi- 
 dent's house, the navy yard, and several of 
 the buildings occupied by the executive 
 departments of the government, and re- 
 treated to the Patuxent, and re-embarked 
 on his ships. " Few more shameful acts 
 are recorded in our history," says an Eng- 
 
 HARBOR OF NEW YORK IN 1878. 
 
 lish writer of note, " and it was the more 
 shameful in that it was done under strict 
 orders from the government at home." 
 General Ross then ascended the Chesapeake 
 to Baltimore, and landed his troops at 
 North Point, near that city, while the fleet 
 made a sharp attack upon Fort McHenry, 
 which guarded the entrance to the harbor. 
 The fleet was repulsed by the fort, and 
 Ross was killed in a skirmish near North 
 Point on the 12th of September. His suc- 
 cessor at once re-embarked the army, and 
 abandoned the effort against Baltimore. 
 
 At sea during 1814 the American frigates 
 " Essei " and " President " were captured by 
 
1156 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 superior forces of the enemy, while the 
 British sloops-of-war " Epervier," "Avon," 
 " Reindeer," " Cyane," " Levant," and " Pen- 
 guin " were captured by American cruisers. 
 During the remainder of the year 1814 
 nothing of importance occuxTed. On the 
 8th of January, 1815, a British force of 
 12,000 of AVellington's veteran troops at- 
 tacked the city of New Orleans, but were de- 
 feated with the loss of their commander and 
 2,000 men, by 5,000 Americans under Gen- 
 eral Jackson, This battle was fought after 
 a treaty of peace between the United States 
 
 of the vexatious issues that had produced 
 the war, and disposed the British govern- 
 ment to be just in its dealings with Amer- 
 ica. Negotiations for peace were begun in 
 the summer of 1814, and a treaty of peace 
 was finally signed at Ghent, on the 24th of 
 December, 1814. By the terms of the 
 treaty the two governments agreed upon a 
 settlement of the boundary between the 
 United States and Canada, and to mutually 
 restore all territory taken during the war, 
 and arranged some minor details respecting 
 their future intercourse, but nothing was 
 
 THE BATTERY AND CASTLE GARDEN, NEW YORK, IN 1878. 
 
 and Great Britain had been signed in Eu- 
 rope, but before the news had reached 
 America. The victory was most important 
 to the Americans, for had the result been 
 different, there can be little doubt that 
 England would have disregarded the treaty, 
 and have clung to a conquest which would 
 have given her the control of the mouth of 
 the Mississippi. In such an event either 
 the war would have been renewed, or the 
 destiny of the great west would have been 
 marred forever. 
 
 The restoration of peace in Europe upon 
 the downfall of Napoleon removed many 
 
 said of the impressment of American sea- 
 men, the chief cause of the war. Inasmuch, 
 however, as Great Britain has never since 
 then attempted such outrages, this question 
 also may be regarded as having been set- 
 tled by this war. 
 
 During the struggle with England the 
 pirate states of northern Africa — Tripoli, 
 Tunis, and Algiers — had resumed their 
 outi-ages upon American commerce. In 
 the spring of 1815 a strong naval expedi- 
 tion under Commodore Decatur was sent 
 to the Mediterranean, and forced these 
 states to make indemnity for their pira- 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1157 
 
 cies, and to pledge themselves to cease to 
 molest American vessels in future. 
 
 The federalist party had from the first 
 opposed the war with England, and during 
 its continuance had given it no aid save 
 what was forced from them by the laws. 
 The strength of this party lay in the New 
 England states, where the losses of the war 
 fell heaviest. To remedy the evils which 
 the federalists declared the government had 
 recklessly brought upon the country, a con- 
 vention was held at Hartford, Connecticut, 
 in 1814. This body recommended certain 
 measures to the legislatures of the eastern 
 states, limiting the power of the general 
 government over the militia of the states, 
 and proposed several amendments to the 
 federal constitution. The news of the treaty 
 of peace put a stop to all further proceed- 
 ings of the convention, which resulted in 
 nothing but the destruction of the federalist 
 party, which came to be regarded by the 
 people at large as having been untrue to 
 the republic in its hour of need. 
 
 Mr. Madison was re-elected president in 
 1812, and had the satisfaction of conducting 
 the war wdiich had been begun during his 
 administration to a successful close. He 
 declined to be a candidate for a thiixl term, 
 and James Monroe, of Virginia, was nomi- 
 nated by the democratic party, and elected 
 by a large majority in 1816. Mr. Monroe 
 had been secretary of state during the 
 greater part of Mr. Madison's administra- 
 tion. 
 
 The return of peace found the country 
 burdened with a debt of $80,000,000, and 
 with almost a total absence of specie in its 
 mercantile transactions, the majority of the 
 banks having suspended the payment of 
 gold and silver during the war. In 1817 
 congress, to relieve the general distress, es- 
 tablished a bank of the United States at 
 Philadelphia, with a charter for twenty 
 years and a capital of $35,000,000. The 
 notes of this institution supplied the de- 
 mand for a circulating medium of uniform 
 value throughout the country, and did 
 much to relieve the financial distress of the 
 period. 
 
 Two new states were added to the Union 
 during Mr. Madison's administration — Lou- 
 isiana in 1812, and Indiana in 1816. 
 
 Mr. Monroe was inaugurated in March, 
 1817. He had been exceedingly popular 
 as secretary of state, and the good will of 
 the people followed him into the presi- 
 dential chair. His administration proved 
 
 so acceptable to all parties that he was re- 
 elected in 1820 by every electoral vote but 
 one. Five new states were admitted into 
 the Union during his presidency. They 
 were Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1818, 
 Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820, and Mis- 
 souri in 1821. 
 
 For some years the opposition to African 
 slavery in America had been spreading 
 through the northern states, and had been 
 steadily gathering strength. When the 
 territory of Missouri presented its petition 
 to congress in 1820 for admission into the 
 Union as a state with a constitution sanc- 
 tioning slavery, there was a very general 
 determination on the part of the free states 
 to oppose the admission of another slave- 
 holding state. The southern members of 
 the confederacy, on the other hand, in- 
 sisted upon the 
 right of M i s - 
 souri to choose 
 its own institu- 
 tions, and threat- 
 ened to with- 
 draw from the 
 Union if this 
 right was denied 
 her by exclud- 
 ing her from the 
 Union. A bitter 
 contest with re- 
 gard to the sub- 
 ject of slavery 
 now developed 
 itself between 
 the two sections of the Union, and continued 
 from this time until it culminated in the 
 civil war. The country was agitated in 
 every portion, and the best men of the land 
 expressed the fear that the Union would be 
 torn in pieces by the violence of the con- 
 tending parties. Henry Clay succeeded in 
 procuring the passage of a series of measures 
 known as the Missouri Compromise. Sla- 
 very was forever prohibited in that portion 
 of the republic lying north of 36° 30' N. 
 latitude, and Missouri was subsequently ad- 
 mitted with her slaveholding constitution. 
 The compromise was regarded as a final 
 settlement of the slavery question, and se- 
 cured about thirty years of quiet aud repose 
 for the country. 
 
 During Mr. Monroe's presidency the 
 Spanish colonies in North aud South 
 America declared their independence of 
 Spain, and successfully maintained it for 
 several years. In 1822 they were recog- 
 
 JAMES MOXKOE. 
 
1158 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 nized by the United States. In his annual 
 message to congress in 1823, Mr. Monroe 
 gave utterance to the following principle, 
 which has since been distinctly recognized 
 by his successors as the unwavering policy 
 of the United States : " That as a principle 
 the American continents, by the free and 
 independent position which they have as- 
 sumed and maintained, are henceforth not 
 to be considered as subjects of future colo- 
 nization by any European power." This 
 declaration is commonly known as the 
 " Monroe Doctrine." 
 
 Mr. Monroe declined to be a candidate 
 for re-election in 1824. There was no 
 
 choice by the 
 popular vote 
 this year, and 
 the election 
 passed into the 
 house of rep- 
 resentatives, 
 by which John 
 Quincy A d - 
 ams, of Mas- 
 sachusetts, was 
 chosen presi- 
 dent. He was 
 i n a u g u rated 
 on the 4th of 
 March, 1825. 
 The principal event of this administra- 
 tion was the adoption of a high tariff for 
 the purpose of protecting American manu- 
 factures from the competition of foreign 
 importations. This act was sustained by 
 the northern people, who were engaged in 
 manufactures, and for whose benefit it was 
 adopted ; but was bitterly denounced by the 
 south, which, being an agricultural section, 
 naturally desired the liberty of buying her 
 goods where they could be procured best 
 and cheapest. The division of sentiment 
 thus produced grew more distinct every 
 day, and brought about considerable trouble 
 in the end. 
 
 In 1828 Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, 
 was elected president by the votes of the 
 democratic party. He was inaugurated 
 on the 4th of March, 1829, and began his 
 career by advising congress, in his annual 
 message, not to continue the bank of the 
 United States, the directors of which sought 
 a renewal of its charter. He declared the 
 law creating the bank unconstitutional. 
 This message inaugurated a long and bitter 
 contest between the administration and the 
 friends of the bank, the latter party embrac- 
 
 JOIIN QUINCY ADAMS. 
 
 ing almost the entire mercantile community. 
 In 1832 congress passed a bill renewing the 
 charter of the bank ; it was vetoed by the 
 president ; and an efibrt to pass it over his 
 veto failed. The charter of the bank there- 
 fore expired by law in 1836. 
 
 The tariff question assumed formidable 
 proportions during this administration. In 
 1832 congress increased the rate of duties. 
 South Carolina at once declared her inten- 
 tion to resist the efforts of the government 
 to collect the increased duties in her ports, 
 and prepared to maintain her position by 
 force of arms. The great leader of this 
 opposition to the government, which was 
 known as the "Nullification Movement," 
 was John C. Calhoun, who had a short time 
 previous resigned the vice-presidency of 
 the United States to become a senator from 
 South Carolina. His principal coadjutors 
 were Robert Y. Hayne, senator from South 
 Carolina, and George McDuffie, the gov- 
 ernor of the state. The party of which 
 these brilliant men were the leaders de- 
 clared that a state might at pleasure nullify 
 any law of congress which it believed to be 
 unconstitutional. The danger to the country 
 was very great, and it seemed that open war 
 would ensue between the federal government 
 and South Carolina ; for President Jackson, 
 who had been re-elected in 1832, declared 
 his determination to enforce the law, and to 
 
 treat the 
 action o f 
 South Car- 
 o 1 i n a as 
 treason. He 
 sent a ship 
 of war to 
 Charleston 
 = harbor, or- 
 * dered Gen- 
 > eral Scott 
 ? to proceed 
 to that port 
 with all the 
 available 
 troops un- 
 der his 
 command, and issued a proclamation deny- 
 ing the right of a state to nullify the laws 
 of congress, and warning all persons en- 
 gaged in sustaining the action of South 
 Carolina in its unlawful course that they 
 would be held liable to prosecution under 
 the laws for the punishment of treason. 
 He also caused the leaders of the movement 
 to be privately informed of his intention to 
 
 AXDRp;W JACKSON. 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1159 
 
 seize and hang them as soon as they should 
 commit the first overt act against the 
 United States. The president's firmness 
 averted the troubles for the time. He was 
 sustained by the great majority of the peo- 
 ple throughout the country, and the vexed 
 question was finally settled by the introduc- 
 tion into congress of a bill for the gradual 
 reduction of the obnoxious duties. This 
 compromise was carried through congress 
 by Henry Clay. 
 
 the funds, and deposit them in specified 
 state banks. Mr. McLane refused to do 
 so, and was transferred to the state de- 
 partment, which was then vacant. Wm. J. 
 Duane was then appointed secretary of the 
 treasury, but he, too, refused to remove the 
 funds, and was promptly deprived of his 
 ofiice, which was conferred upon Roger B. 
 Taney, who executed the president's order, 
 and transferred the funds to the banks 
 designated by the executive. This was a 
 
 THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 The bank question came up again, just 
 as the nullification excitement died out. 
 The law of congress required the public 
 funds to be deposited in the bank of the 
 Uuited States, the charter of which was 
 about to expire by limitation. The presi- 
 dent, in December, 1832, recommended the 
 removal of these funds by act of congress, 
 but that body refused to take this step. 
 The president then ordered the secretary 
 of the treasury, Mr. McLane, to remove 
 
 severe blow to the bank of the United 
 States, and was followed by a great strin- 
 gency in financial circles. The president 
 lost many friends, and was denounced 
 throughout the country. The senate by a 
 vote of 26 ayes to 20 noes passed a resolu- 
 tion censuring his course. He was sus- 
 tained by the house of representatives, 
 whose indorsement, considering the origin 
 of that body, was more important than the 
 censure of the senate. In March, 1837, 
 
1160 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 MABTIN VAN BUREN. 
 
 the senate did justice to the president's 
 motives, and expunged its resolution of 
 censure from its journal. 
 
 During President Jackson's administra- 
 tion the national debt was paid. The state 
 of Arkansas was admitted into the Union in 
 
 1836, and was followed by Michigan in 
 
 1837. The governments of France, Spain, 
 
 Naples, Por- 
 tugal and 
 Holland 
 were com- 
 pelled to 
 pay fair in- 
 demnities 
 for their 
 spoliation 
 of American 
 commerce 
 daring the 
 wars of Na- 
 poleon, and 
 important 
 commercial 
 treaties were 
 negotiated 
 with foreign 
 
 countries. The Seminole Indians of Flor- 
 ida resisted the efforts of the government to 
 remove them to reservations west of the 
 Mississippi, and a war ensued with them, 
 which lasted until 1842, and cost the coun- 
 try $40,000,000. 
 
 In 1836 Martin 
 Van Buren, of 
 New York, the 
 candidate of the 
 democratic party, 
 was elected pres- 
 ident. He was 
 inaugurated i n 
 March, 1837, and 
 h i s administra- 
 tion had scarcely 
 begun when the 
 country was 
 plunged into the 
 severe financial 
 crisis ot 1837. The troubles resulting 
 from this disaster lasted throughout his 
 whole term of office, and the principal 
 measures of his administration were designed 
 to remedy them. The most important of 
 these measures was the establishment of the 
 sub-treasury of the United States, the wis- 
 dom of which has been amply demonstrated 
 by its successful operation since that period. 
 In 1840, William Henry Harrison, of 
 
 JOHN TYLER. 
 
 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 
 
 Ohio, the candidate of the whig party, was 
 elected president. He was inaugurated in 
 March, 1841, but was taken sick almost 
 immediately afterwards, and died on the 
 4th of April. By the terms of the consti- 
 tution John Tyler, of Virginia, the vice- 
 president, became president. The whigs: 
 were in favor of a national bank, and con- 
 gress passed 
 several acts 
 chartering 
 such an insti- 
 tution, all of 
 which were 
 vetoed by the 
 pres ident, 
 whose views 
 uj)on the sub- 
 ject accorded 
 with those of 
 the democrat- 
 ic party rather 
 than with the 
 whigs. Incon- 
 sequence o f 
 these acts, he 
 was abandon- 
 ed by the party which had elected him, and 
 was supported by the democracy, with which 
 he thenceforth identified himself. During 
 Mr. Tyler's terra the question of the north- 
 western boundary between the United States 
 and British America was settled by a treaty^ 
 with Great 
 Britain, 
 which was 
 ratified b y 
 the senate on 
 the 20th of 
 August,1842. 
 During this 
 administra- 
 tion, also, the 
 republic o f 
 Texas, which 
 had won its 
 independence 
 from Mexico, 
 was annexed 
 to the United 
 States as a 
 state of the Union. The annexation 
 was opposed by the whig party and by 
 the northern states in general, which 
 regarded it as an effort to extend the area 
 of negro slavery. Texas was admitted into 
 the Union on the 1st of March, 1845. Mr. 
 Tyler's last official act Avas to approve the. 
 
 JAMES K. POLK. 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1161 
 
 bill for the admission of the states of Iowa 
 and Florida into the Union on the 3d of 
 March, 1845. 
 
 In 1844 James K. Polk, of Tennessee, 
 was elected president. This was a demo- 
 cratic triumph. He was inaugurated on 
 the 4th of March, 1845. Mr. Polk found 
 the country involved in a dispute with 
 Mexico respecting the boundary of Texas. 
 This dispute resulted in war between the 
 United States and Mexico, the latter coun- 
 try proving the aggressor. Hostilities be- 
 gan on the Rio Grande between the army 
 of General Taylor and the Mexican army 
 of General Arista in April, 1846. General 
 Taylor defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto, 
 on the 8th of May, 1846, and again at Re- 
 saca de la Palma, the next day. On Seing 
 reinforced, he crossed the Rio Grande, and 
 drove the Mexicans into the interior of their 
 country, capturing their strong city of Mon- 
 terey, in September, 1846, and defeating 
 their best army under President Santa Anna 
 himself at Buena Vista on the 23d of Feb- 
 ruary, 1847. 
 
 Another army, under General Winfield 
 Scott, was directed against Vera Cruz and 
 the city of Mexico, and troops were drawn 
 from Taylor's array in the spring of 1847 
 to reinforce it. This brought Taylor's op- 
 erations to a close. Scott landed his forces 
 near Vera Cruz on the 9th of March, 1847, 
 and captured it, after a vigorous siege, on 
 the 29th. Moving into the interior, on the 
 direct road to the capital, he defeated the 
 enemy in a series of hard-fought battles, at 
 Cerro Gordo, on the 18th of April ; Con- 
 treras and Churubusco, on the 20th of Au- 
 gust ; Molino del Rey, on the 8th of Sep- 
 tember ; and Chapultepec, on the 12th of 
 September. On the 14th of September, 
 1847, he entered the city of Mexico in 
 triumph, and held it until the close of the 
 war. 
 
 In 1846 General Stephen Kearney con- 
 quered New Mexico, while Commodore 
 Stockton and Colonel Fremont drove the 
 Mexicans out of California and occupied 
 that province. Kearney marched from 
 New Mexico into California, arriving there 
 in January, 1847 ; and on the 8th of Feb- 
 ruary assumed the office of governor, and 
 proclaimed the annexation of California to 
 the United States, About the same time 
 Colonel Doniphan, with 1,000 Missouri vol- 
 unteers, made a forced march across the 
 plains, and on the 28th of February de- 
 feated a force of 4,000 Mexicans, and cap- 
 
 tured the important city of Chihuahua. 
 He then continued his march to Monterey 
 and the Rio Grande. 
 
 A treaty of peace between the United 
 States and the Mexican republic was signed 
 at Guadaloupe-Hidalgo, on the 2d of Feb- 
 ruary, 1848. Mexico yielded the boun- 
 dary of the Rio Grande, and ceded Cali- 
 fornia and New Mexico to the United 
 States, and the latter power agreed to pay 
 Mexico for the territory taken from her the 
 sum of $15,000,000, and to assume the debts 
 due by Mexico to American citizens, to the 
 amount of $3,750,000. 
 
 Great Britain claimed the territory of 
 Oregon as a part of British America, and 
 the federal government insisted that it, 
 was a part of the territory of the republic, 
 and even declared its intention to go to 
 war with Great Britain rather than sacri- 
 fice it. Nevertheless, as a measure of peace,^ 
 the adminis- 
 tration of Mr. 
 Polk pro- 
 posed to Eng- 
 land the 49th 
 parallel of 
 north latitude 
 for a bounda- 1 
 ry, the origi- ] 
 nal claim of 
 the United 
 States having 
 extended to 
 the line of 54° 
 40'. As this 
 CO m promise 
 gave Great Britain all of Vancouver's 
 island, it was accepted. 
 
 Free-trade ideas prevailed during this 
 administration to an extent sufficient to 
 secure a modification of the high protective 
 tariff" of 1846. In May, 1848, Wisconsin 
 was admitted into the Union as a state. 
 
 In the fall of 1848 Zachary Taylor, of 
 Louisiana, was elected president by the 
 whig party. He was inaugurated on the 
 4th of March, 1849. 
 
 The slavery question now presented itself 
 again to the country, and this time in a 
 most aggravated form ; for both the friends 
 and enemies of that system had grown more 
 powerful since the temporary settlement in 
 1820. A strong anti-slavery party had 
 grown up at the north, which was avow- 
 edly determined to oppose the extension of 
 slavery beyond its existing limits, and which 
 was believed by the south to be working 
 
 GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT. 
 
1162 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 for the overthrow of slavery in the states 
 in which it already existed. The contest 
 was resumed in congress in 1846, while 
 measures were on foot looking to peace with 
 Mexico, by a proposition from David Wil- 
 mot, a representative from Pennsylvania, 
 providing that in the territory which might 
 be acquired by the war then going on, there 
 should be neither slavery nor involuntary 
 servitude, except for crime. This measure, 
 known as the " Wilmot Proviso," passed 
 the house of representatives by a large 
 majority, but the senate adjourned before 
 
 was added to the controversy by the events 
 in California. 
 
 Gold was discovered in California in Feb- 
 ruary, 1848. As soon as tiiis discovery was 
 made known, a large emigration to the Pa- 
 cific coast began from the eastern states 
 and from all parts of the world. In a few 
 months the population of the territory was 
 over 100,000. Early in 1849 it was found 
 that an organized government was an ab- 
 solute necessity. There were inhabitants 
 enough to entitle the territory to admission 
 into the Union as a state ; and in Septem- 
 
 THE POST OFFICE, NEW YOKK, IN 1878. 
 
 a vote upon it could be reached. The next 
 year the house readopted the proviso, 
 which was rejected by the senate. The 
 house then abandoned it. The proviso was 
 bitterly denounced by the southern states, 
 which claimed that, inasmuch as they had 
 furnished the larger number of the troops 
 by which the war was fought and the terri- 
 tory won, their institutions should receive 
 equal protection in the new territory with 
 those of the north. The dispute became 
 very bitter, and made the presidential elec- 
 tion of 1848 one of the most memorable in 
 the history of the Union. Fresh excitement 
 
 ber, 1849, a convention was held at Mon- 
 terey, which adopted and submitted to con- 
 gress a constitution prohibiting slavery. 
 The southern states took strong ground 
 against the admission of California as a 
 free state, and even went so far as to threaten 
 to withdraw from the Union if slavery was 
 excluded from the territories. A disunion 
 convention was held at Nashville, Ten- 
 nessee, in 1850, by the extreme party in 
 the south. The south demanded of con- 
 gress not only the rejection of the free con- 
 stitution of California, but an amendment 
 of the constitution of the United States 
 
FB03f THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAB. 
 
 1163 
 
 'which should equalize the power of the free 
 and the slave states in the general govern- 
 ment. New Mexico now asked admission 
 into the Union, and Texas set up a claim 
 to a western boundary which included a 
 large part of New Mexico. These minor 
 <][uestion3 very greatly complicated the main 
 issue. The country was plunged into an 
 excitement greater than that which had 
 prevailed in 1820, and for a while it seemed 
 that the Union would surely be destroyed. 
 Finally a settlement, known as the " com- 
 promise of 1850," was proposed in the 
 senate by Henry Clay, and carried through 
 congress by his efforts, aided by the mod- 
 erate men of both sections. This com- 
 promise admitted California as a free state ; 
 greeted Utah and New Mexico into terri- 
 tories, leaving the question of the admis- 
 sion or exclu- 
 sion of slav- 
 ery to the peo- 
 ple thereof 
 when they 
 came to form 
 state consti- 
 tutions ; ar- 
 ranged the 
 western 
 boundary of 
 Texas; abol- 
 ished the 
 slave-trade 
 in the Dis- 
 trict of Co- 
 lumbia; and 
 substituted a new law for the rendition of 
 fugitive slaves in placeof the old act, which 
 was ineffective. The compromise was bit- 
 terly opposed by the extremists of both sec- 
 tions. Those of the north denounced the 
 concessions to Texas in the boundary ques- 
 tion, and fiercely assailed the refusal of 
 congress to forbid slavery in the terri- 
 tories. The fugitive slave law was not only 
 ■denounced as unchristian and unconstitu- 
 tional, but was opposed and nullified on the 
 part of the free states by a series of per- 
 sonal liberty acts, which were as unlawful 
 as the disunion measures of the pro-slavery 
 party. The southern extremists resented 
 the admission of California as a free state, 
 and the refusal of congress to sanction and 
 protect slavery in the territories. Still, as 
 it was plain that the compromise em- 
 bodied the only settlement possible at the 
 time, the great body of the nation accepted 
 it in good faith, and the government hou- 
 
 ZACHAKY TAYLOR. 
 
 estly executed the fugitive slave law in all 
 cases in which its aid was invoked, putting 
 down the resistance to it by force. 
 
 In the midst of the struggle over the 
 compromise. General Taylor died, on the 
 9th of July, 1850, and was succeeded by 
 Millard Fill- 
 more, of New 
 York, the vice- 
 president, "who 
 opened his ad- 
 ministration 
 with a change 
 of cabinet min- 
 isters. The new 
 president gave 
 his hearty sup- 
 port to the 
 compromise 
 measures, 
 while pending, millakd fillmore. 
 
 and his instant approval upon their pas- 
 sage. The principal events of his term 
 were, the invasion of Cuba by Lopez, in 
 1851, which was defeated by the Spaniards ; 
 the visit of Louis Kossuth to the United 
 States in 1851 ; the disputes with England 
 concerning the fisheries, in 1852, which 
 were satisfactorily settled ; and the expedi- 
 tion of Commodore Perry to Japan, by 
 means of which an important treaty was 
 negotiated with that country, and the Ja- 
 panese ports opened to the commerce of 
 the world. 
 
 The slavery question entered largely into 
 the presidential campaign of 1852, and so 
 greatly weakened the whig party, that the 
 democrats 
 were enabled 
 to elect their 
 candidate, 
 Franklin 
 Pierce, of New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 General 
 Pierce was in- 
 augurated on 
 t h e 4th of 
 March, 1853. 
 His adminis- 
 tration is 
 memorable 
 for the violent 
 political con- 
 tests which prevailed during its terra. One 
 of its first measures was the settlement of a 
 dispute with Mexico by purchasing the 
 territory of Arizona. In 1853 Jefferson 
 
 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 
 
1164 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Davis, the secretary of war, inaugurated the 
 surveys for a railway to the Pacific by send- 
 ing out an expedition of engineers of the 
 United States army for that purpose. In 
 1853 Stephen A. Douglas, a senator from 
 Illinois, introduced a bill organizing the 
 territories of Kansas and Nebraska, lying 
 west of the Missouri river, and north of 
 the line of 36° 30' N. latitude, in which 
 region the act of 1820 forever prohibited 
 
 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1878. 
 
 slavery. This new bill repealed the Mis- 
 souri compromise act of 1820, and reopened 
 the slavery question in that region. The 
 administration of Mr. Pierce and the lead- 
 ers of the democratic party supported the 
 measure, which was opposed by the great 
 mass of the people of the free states with- 
 out regard to party, as a violation of the 
 plighted faith of the nation. The bill Avas 
 hotly debated in congress, but passed the 
 
 senate by a vote of 37 to 14, and the house 
 by a vote of 113 to 100, and received the 
 executive approval on the 31st of May, 
 1854. The passage of the bill was followed 
 by great agitation throughout the country. 
 It greatly increased the strength of the 
 anti-slavery party, which now began to be 
 known as the republican party, and drove 
 many democrats into its ranks. The act 
 left the territories free to decide between 
 slavery and free labor, and thu& 
 opened the way for a long and 
 bloody warfare in Kansas, which 
 was begun by the pro-slavery party 
 for the purpose of obtaining pos- 
 session of the territory, and was 
 continued until the outbreak of 
 the civil war. An effort was made 
 by President Pierce to purchase 
 Cuba from Spain, but that power 
 declined to sell the island. An 
 expedition of fillibusters, under 
 General William Walker, suc- 
 ceeded in conquering the Central 
 American state of Nicaragua. 
 Walker sent an envoy to Wash- 
 ington, who was formally rec- 
 ognized by the president. 
 
 In the fall of 1856 the demo- 
 crats elected James Buchanan,, 
 of Pennsylvania, president. In 
 this campaign John C. Fremont, 
 the candidate of the republican 
 or anti-slavery party, received a 
 popular vote of 1,341,264, and 
 114 votes in the electoral college. 
 Mr. Buchanan's administra- 
 tion was entirely southern in its 
 sympathies, and was marked by 
 a constant struggle in congress 
 and throughout the country over 
 the slavery question. The war in 
 Kansas went on with great bit- 
 terness through this whole term, 
 the power of the federal govern- 
 ment being generally cast against 
 the free settlers, who were forced 
 to take extraordinary measures 
 for their defence. An effort was 
 made to force a pro-slavery constitution 
 upon the territory, and it split the demo- 
 cratic party into two wings — the larger of 
 which, led by Stephen A. Douglas, united 
 with the republicans in opposing this con- 
 stitution ; while the smaller, led by the ex- 
 treme southern men, in congress, received 
 the aid of the administration, and favored 
 the adoption of the constitution. 
 
 In 1858 Minnesota was admitted into 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1165 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 the Union as a state, and was followed by- 
 Oregon in 1859. In 1857 the Mormon 
 settlers of Utah territory took up arms 
 against the authority of the general govern- 
 ment. The rebellion continued for some 
 time, and a military force was sent across 
 
 the plains to 
 suppress it; 
 but the trou- 
 bles were set- 
 1 1 e d without 
 bloodshed. 
 
 In October, 
 1859, John 
 Brown, with a 
 small band of 
 fo 1 lowers, 
 seized the 
 United States 
 arsenal at 
 Harper's Fer- 
 ry, and en- 
 deavored to incite the slaves of Virginia to 
 insurrection. Brown and his men were 
 captured by the United States troops, sev- 
 eral of them being killed by the soldiers in 
 the fight. The survivors were surrendered 
 by the federal government to the state of 
 Virginia for trial, and were convicted and 
 hanged. The " John Brown raid " was re- 
 garded by the south as incontestable evi- 
 dence of the determination of the north to 
 destroy the institutions of the south under 
 the cover of the Union, while at the north 
 a formidable party denounced the execu- 
 tion of Brown as a murder, and assailed the 
 south most bitterly for it. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 The Presidential Election of 1860— The Sectional 
 Issue — Abraham Lincoln Elected President — 
 Secession of the Cotton States — Anderson Occu- 
 pies Fort Sumter — Position of the Federal Govern- 
 ment—Course of Jlr. Buchanan — The Peace Con- 
 gress — The Confederate States— Jefferson Davis 
 Chosen President — Inauguration of President 
 Lincoln — Fall of Fort Sumter— The War Begun — 
 Secession of the Border States— The Battles of 
 Rich Mountain and Bethel Church — Battle of 
 Bull Run— The War in Missouri— Battle of Wil- 
 son's Creek — The Confederates Driven Out of 
 Missouri — Capture of Fort Hatteras and Port 
 Royal— Mason and Slidell— Battle of Mill Spring 
 — Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson — Battle 
 of Shiloh— Loss of Island No. 10 and Fort Pillow 
 by the Con federates — Bragg's Kentucky Campaign 
 — Battles of Murfreesboro' and Stone River — Cam- 
 paign in North Mississipjn — The War in Arkansas 
 — Capture of Roanoake Island — Fall of New Or- 
 leans — The War in Virginia — Siege of Yorktown 
 
 — The Seven Days' Battles — Defeat of General 
 Pope's Army — Lee Invades Maryland — Capture 
 of Harper's Ferry — Battles of South Mountain 
 and Antietam — McClellan Removed from Com- 
 mand — Battle of Fredericksburg — Battle of Chan- 
 cellorsville — Death of Stonewall Jackson — In- 
 vasion of Pennsylvania — Battle of Gettysburg — 
 Retreat of Lee — Capture of Vicksburg — The 
 Mississippi Reopened — Battle of Chickamauga — 
 The Chattanooga Campaign — The Siege of Knox- 
 ville — Siege of Charleston — The Emancipation 
 Proclamation — The Red River Expedition — The 
 War in Virginia — Battles of the Wilderness and 
 Spottsylvania Court-House — Second Battle of 
 Cold Harbor — Grant Crosses the James River — 
 Siege of Petersburg — The Valley Campaign — 
 Sheridan's Successes — The War in Georgia — The 
 Atlanta Campaign — Johnston Removed — Fall of 
 Atlanta — Hood Attacks Nashville — Sherman's 
 March to the Sea — Battle of Mobile Bay — De- 
 struction of the "Alabama" — Re-election of Lin- 
 coln — The Hampton Roads Conference — Capture 
 of Fort Fisher — Sherman Marches Through the 
 Carolinas — Charleston Evacuated — Battles of 
 Bentonville and Averasboro' — Grant Moves — 
 Battle of Five Forks — Evacuation of Richmond 
 and Petersburg — Surrender of General Lee — The 
 Other Confederate Armies Surrender — Assassina- 
 tion of President Lincoln — Capture of Jefferson 
 Davis. 
 
 HE presidential election of 1860 
 
 II turned mainly upon the question 
 of slavery in the territories. The 
 " democratic party, already Aveak- 
 ened by the Kansas question, now 
 finally split into two fragments. 
 The larger wing nominated Stephen A. 
 Douglas, of Illinois, as its candidate. It 
 held that congress had no power either to 
 sanction or forbid slavery in the territories, 
 and that the question could be decided 
 only by the people thereof, Avho were the 
 most interested in it. The smaller wing 
 chose John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, 
 as its candidate, and declared it to be the 
 express duty of congress to sanction and 
 protect slavery in all the territories of the 
 republic, and maintained that the constitu- 
 tion, of its own force, carried slavery into 
 them. The republican party nominated 
 Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, as its candi- 
 date. This party denied all intention to 
 interfere with the domestic institutions of 
 any of the states of the Union, but avowed 
 its determination to prevent the introduc- 
 tion of slavery into the territories by con- 
 gressional legislation, and denounced as 
 false the doctrine that the constitution 
 established slavery in any part of the 
 Union. It asserted the right of every 
 community to manage its domestic affairs 
 in its own way, and denounced the invasion 
 of Virginia by John Brown as wicked and 
 unjustifiable. A fourth party, known as 
 
1166 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the constitutional union party, nominated 
 John Bell, of Tennessee, and adopted the 
 following vague and indefinite platform : 
 " The union, the constitution, and the en- 
 forcement of the laws." The contest was 
 bitter beyond all precedent. It resulted in 
 the election of Abraham Lincoln by a 
 plurality in the popular vote, and a major- 
 ity of fifty-seven votes over all his competi- 
 tors in the electoral college. 
 
 The southern states had threatened to 
 withdraw from the Union in the event of 
 the election of a president hostile to slavery, 
 and now proceeded to put tiieir threats 
 into execution. As soon as the election 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, 
 the legislature of South Carolina summoned 
 a convention of the people of that state, 
 which met on the 17th of December, 1860. 
 This convention adopted an ordinance of 
 secession, and withdrew the state from the 
 Union on the 20th of December. The 
 secession of South Carolina was followed 
 by that of the following states : Mississippi, 
 on the 9th of January, 1861 ; Florida, Jan- 
 uary 10th; Alabama, January 11th; 
 Georgia, January 19th ; Louisiana, Janu- 
 ary 26th ; and Texas, February 1st. The 
 forts, arsenals, and other public property 
 of the United States in these states, were 
 seized by the state authorities and held by 
 
 their troops, except Fort Sumter, in Charles- 
 ton harbor, and Fort Pickens, on Santa 
 Rosa island, near Peusacola, Florida. Fort 
 Sumter was occupied by a garrison of 
 eighty men, under Major Robert Anderson, 
 who had originally occupied Fort Moultrie, 
 on Sullivan's island. On the night of 
 December 25th, 1860, Anderson evacuated 
 Fort Moultrie and threw' his command 
 into Fort Sumter. 
 
 The i'ederal government was at this time 
 almost helpless. The army, but 16,000 
 strong, was posted on the Indian frontier, 
 and the available vessels of the navy were 
 nearly all in foreign waters. Many of the 
 most prominent officials, including 
 several of the cabinet ministers, were 
 in open sympathy with the seceded 
 states, and the president seemed only 
 anxious to delay any definite action 
 in the matter until the inauguration 
 of his successor. His recommenda- 
 tions to congress were not equal to 
 the emergency. He was in favor of 
 conceding to the south everything but 
 separate independence ; not seeing that 
 the leaders of the secession movement 
 would accept nothing but separation, 
 and by his timidity lost the advan- 
 tages which the government would 
 have obtained by a bold, firm course. 
 Still he rel'used to yield to the press- 
 ure brought to bear upon him for 
 the purpose of inducing him to sur- 
 render Fort Sun)ier to the state of 
 South Carolina. He also refused to 
 sell the fort to the state, or to order 
 Anderson back to Fort Moultrie, as 
 ^^ he was urged to do. 
 
 Various plans were proposed in con- 
 gress and by the states for a settle- 
 ment of the national troubles, but 
 none were attended with success. A con- 
 vention of delegates from the border states 
 met at Washington in February, 1861, for 
 the purpose of devising a plan of settle- 
 ment, but adjourned after a session of three 
 weeks, without having accomplished any- 
 thing. Early in January, 1861, the steamer 
 "Star of the West" was despatched to 
 Charleston by the government with rein- 
 forcements and supplies for Fort Sumter. 
 She attempted to enter the harbor on the 
 9th, and was fired upon and turned back 
 by the South Carolina batteries. 
 
 On the 4th of February, 1861, a conven- 
 tion of delegates from the six seceded states 
 met at Montgomery, Alabama, and organ- 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 116T 
 
 ized the new republic of the confederate 
 states of America, and on the 8tli elected 
 Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, president of 
 the provisional government. 
 
 On the 4Lh of March, 1881, Abraham 
 Lincoln was inaugurated President of the 
 Unitad States. The first act of the new 
 administration was to send an expedition 
 to Cliarleston harbor for the relief of Fort 
 Sumter. This expadition sailed from New 
 York and Norfolk on the 7th of April, and 
 G )vernor Pickens of South Carolina was at 
 once informed of its departure. The con- 
 federate government thereupon ordered 
 Ganeral Beauregard, commanding its forces 
 at Charleston, to reduce Fort Sumter. 
 The bombardment was begun on the 
 morning of the 12th of Api'il, and 
 was continued until tiie afternoon of 
 the 13r,h, when the f )rt surrendered. 
 
 Upon the fall of Fort Sumter Pres- 
 ident Lincoln issued his proclamation 
 for 75,000 tro()|)s to aid in suppres- 
 sing the rebellion against the laws of 
 the United States. The northern and 
 western states responded to it with 
 enthusiasm. The state of Virginia 
 now sided with the south, and seceded 
 from the Union on the 17th of April, 
 and was followed by Arkansas on 
 the 6th of May, North C.irolina on 
 the 20Lh of May, and Tennessee on 
 the 8Lh of June. These states subse- 
 quently became members of the con- 
 federate states. Harper's Ferry and 
 the navy yard at Port?n)outh, in 
 Virginia, were seize! by the state 
 forces. The western part of Virginia 
 refused to act with the eastern conn- 
 tie-!, and proclaimed its independence 
 of the old state. It was sustained 
 in this action by the flxleral govern- 
 ment, and organized the state of West Vir- 
 ginia, which was admitted into the Union in 
 1883. Kentucky and Missouri wished to 
 remain neutral in the contest, but neither 
 the federal nor confederate governments 
 were either willing or able to respect their 
 neutrality. The prominent points in Vir- 
 ginia were occupied by the confederate 
 forces, and the federal government assem- 
 bled an army near Washington and others 
 on the Ohio and at commanding points in 
 the west. Vigorous measures were intro- 
 duced and carried out with firmness for the 
 purpose of checking the disaffection in 
 Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky. 
 
 Hostilities began in Western Virginia. 
 
 The confederate force in that section waa 
 defeated at Philippi on the 3d of June, and 
 at Rich Mountain on the 8th, by the fed- 
 eral troops under General McClellan, and 
 driven east of the mountains, with the loss 
 of its commander, General Garnett. 
 
 On the 10th of June a federal column 
 advanced from Fortress Monroe, and at- 
 tacked the confederates under General 
 Magruder, at Bethel Church, on the penin- 
 sula below Richmond. This was but the 
 opening of hostilities in the east. The 
 federal government had collected near 
 Washington a strong army under General 
 McDowell, and was preparing for an ad- 
 
 JEFFERSON DAVIS. 
 
 vance upon the confederate army, under 
 General Beauregard, at Manassas Junction, 
 in Virginia. A column of 20,000 federal 
 troops, under General Patterson, was sent 
 into the valley of Virginia to prevent the 
 confederate force under General Johnston, 
 stationed at Harper's Ferry, from assisting 
 Beauregard. On the 17th of July General 
 McDowell, with over 50,000 men, advanced 
 from Washington upon Beauregard's army, 
 which held the line of Bull Run, in ad- 
 vance of Manassas Junction. Johnston, 
 upon learning of this movement, skilfully 
 eluded Patterson's army, and marched to 
 Bull Run with the bulk of his forces. On 
 the 21st of July McDowell attacked the 
 
1168 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 confederates, now about 31,000 strong, but 
 his army was routed and driven back upon 
 Washington with heavy loss. 
 
 The confederates made no eflfort to ad- 
 vance upon Washington, and the federal 
 government set to work to repair its re- 
 verses. The command of the federal army 
 ■was conferred upon General McClellan, and 
 a call was issued for 500,000 fresh troops. 
 A powerful force, known as the army of the 
 Potomac, was organized near Washington. 
 The confederate government in the mean- 
 time had been removed to Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia, in May, and that city remained the 
 capital of the confederacy until the close 
 of the war. The remainder of the year 
 
 CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 was passed by both sides in Virginia in 
 preparing for a fresh struggle in the fol- 
 lowing spring, and in the winter of 1861-62 
 the confederate government sent a force 
 under General T. J. Jackson to hold the val- 
 ley of Virginia. On the 21st of October a 
 federal force of 2,000 men under Colonel 
 Baker was defeated in an attempt to drive 
 in the southern left wing at Leesburg, on 
 the Potomac. Colonel Baker was killed. 
 
 In Missouri General Lyon, an energetic 
 officer, collected a force of Union troops, 
 and drove the governor and state forces out 
 of St. Louis and Jefferson City into the 
 southwestern part of the state. On the 
 10th of August Lyon attacked the Missouri 
 forces under General Price, which had been 
 reinforced by several thousand confederate 
 
 troops under General McCulloch, at Wil- 
 son's Creek, near Springfield. The Union 
 army was repulsed, and General Lyon was 
 killed. On the 20th of September General 
 Price captured Lexington, Missouri, after a 
 short siege. General Fremont was now 
 appointed to command the federal forces in 
 Missouri, but before he could accomplish 
 anything was removed and succeeded by 
 General Halleck, who drove Price's army 
 out of Missouri into Arkansas. The year 
 closed with Missouri in possession of the 
 federal forces. 
 
 The confederates early in the summer of 
 1861 occupied Columbus, on the Mississippi 
 river, and Bowling Green, in the central 
 part of Kentucky. 
 A small force was 
 stationed at Bel- 
 mont, on the Mis- 
 souri shore, oppo- 
 site Columbus. It 
 was attacked by a 
 federal column 
 from Cairo under 
 General Grant on 
 the 7th of Novem- 
 ber. Grant was 
 repulsed and forced 
 to return to Cairo. 
 At the outset of 
 the war the federal 
 government pro- 
 claimed the- whole 
 coast of the south- 
 ern states in a state 
 of blockade. In 
 order to make this 
 effective, it was ne- 
 cessary to secure 
 the principal harbors on the coast, and 
 during the war successive expeditions 
 were sent against them. The first of 
 these was despatched in August, 1861, 
 and captured the works at Hatteras inlet, 
 on the North Carolina coast, thus securing 
 an entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico 
 sounds. On the 7th of November Port 
 Royal, in South Carolina, was reduced. 
 
 The confederate government for some time 
 cherished the hope of receiving assistance 
 from France and England, and for the pur- 
 pose of securing this aid, commissioners 
 were sent to those countries in the fall of 
 1861. They were arrested on board the 
 English mail-steamer "Trent" on the high 
 seas, by Captain Wilkes of the United States 
 steamer "San Jacinto," and taken to Bostonj, 
 
 IN 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1169 
 
 where they were imprisoned. Great Britain 
 demanded their release, and they were lib- 
 erated by the federal government, which 
 disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes. 
 The commissioners repaired to London and 
 Paris, but neither Great Britain nor France 
 would receive them in their official ca- 
 pacity. 
 
 The eastern portion of Tennessee did not 
 sympathize in the secession movement, but 
 remained loyal to the Union. In the au- 
 tumn of 1861 the East Tennesseeans rose 
 in insurrection against the confederate gov- 
 ernment, and burned the bridges of the 
 railways connecting Virginia with the more 
 southern states. During the war East Ten- 
 nessee remained a constant menace to the 
 confederacy. 
 
 The year 1862 found both governments 
 with powerful armies, prepared to prosecute 
 the war upon a gigantic scale. Hostilities 
 opened in the west. General George H. 
 Thomas, on the 19th of January, 1862, de- 
 feated General Zollicoffer at Mill Spring, 
 in western Kentucky. This success drove 
 back the right of the confederate line in 
 that state. It was followed by other suc- 
 cesses. General U. S. Grant, aided by a 
 fleet of gunboats under Commodore Foote, 
 captured Fort Henry, on the Tennessee 
 river, on the 6th of February, and Fort 
 Donelsou, on the Cumberland, on the 16th. 
 These were the most important successes of 
 the war, and compelled the confederates to 
 abandon their position in Kentucky. Bowl- 
 ing Green and Columbus were evacuated, 
 and Nashville fell into the hands of the 
 federal army under General Buell. General 
 Beauregard, commanding the confederate 
 forces at Columbus, fell back to Corinth, 
 an important railroad centre in northern 
 Mississippi, and was subsequently joined 
 there by the army of General Sidney 
 Johnston, which had performed a successful 
 flank march from Nashville, after the loss 
 of Fort Donelson. General Grant had ad- 
 vanced to Pittsburgh Landing on the Ten- 
 nessee, and was encamped there, awaiting 
 the arrival of Buell's army from Nashville. 
 On the 6th of April he was attacked at 
 Shiloh Church, near Pittsburgh Landing, by 
 the army of General Sidney Johnston, and 
 after a desperate struggle was driven back 
 to the Tennessee. General Johnston was 
 mortally wounded at the close of the day, 
 and the command passed to General Beau- 
 regard, who failed to follow up his success. 
 During the night Grant was reinforced by 
 Buell's army, and the next morning at- 
 74 
 
 tacked Beauregard, and drove him back to 
 Corinth. Another success was won by the 
 Union arms about the same time in the 
 capture of island No. 10, below Colum- 
 bus, which occurred on the 7th of March. 
 The Union fleet then descended the Missis- 
 sippi to Fort Pillow, where its progress was 
 barred by the confederates. General Hal- 
 leck now assumed the command of the forces 
 of Grant and Buell, and laid siege to Co- 
 rinth, which was evacuated by the confed- 
 erates on the 29th of May. The loss of 
 Corinth compelled the confederates to 
 evacuate Fort Pillow. They did so on the 
 4th of June. The Union fleet then de- 
 scended the river to Memphis, and on the 
 7th of June attacked and destroyed the 
 confederate flotilla above that city. Mem- 
 phis at once surrendered, and the Missis- 
 sippi was opened as far as Vicksburg. 
 
 After the loss of Corinth the confederates 
 assembled an army of 50,000 men in East 
 Tennessee, and in the hope of restoring 
 their falling fortunes invaded Kentucky. 
 They moved in two columns — one from 
 Knoxville, under General E. Kirby Smith, 
 and the main body from Chattanooga, 
 under General Bragg. General Buell lell 
 back from Nashville into Kentucky, and 
 reached Louisville in time to prevent its 
 capture. On the 30th of August General 
 Smith won a victory over a federal force at 
 Richmond, and occupied Frankfort and 
 Lexington, and threatened Cincinnati. 
 Learning that a strong force was assembling 
 for the protection of Cincinnati, General 
 Smith fell back, and joined Bragg at Frank- 
 fort on the 4th of October. Finding it 
 impossible to hold Kentucky, Bragg fell 
 back slowly, taking with him a train of 
 wagons forty miles long, loaded with 
 plunder. He was followed leisurely by 
 Buell, who made no serious effort to inter- 
 cept his retreat. On the 8th of October 
 an indecisive battle was fought at Perry- 
 ville, and Bragg resumed his retreat to 
 Murfreesboro', Tennessee, about thirty miles 
 beyond Nashville. There he was attacked 
 on the 31st of December by the federal 
 army, which had been taken from Buell 
 and placed under command of General 
 Roseci'ans. Rosecrans was driven back 
 with heavy loss. He took up a new posi- 
 tion on Stone river, and on the 2d of Jan- 
 uary, 1863, was attacked by Bragg, who 
 met with a terrible repulse. Bragg then 
 fell back to Tullahoma, about thirty miles 
 from Murfreesboro'. 
 
 In the meantime, while Bragg was in 
 
1170 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Kentucky, the confederates had attempted 
 to drive Grant's array out of northern Mis- 
 sissippi. On the 19th of September their 
 army under General Price was defeated at 
 luka, and on the 4th of October Price and 
 Van Dorn, having united their forces, at- 
 tacked Corinth, which was held by an equal 
 federal force under General Rosecrans. 
 They were repulsed with great slaughter, 
 and driven southward for thirty miles. 
 Towards the close of the year General 
 Grant undertook an expedition against 
 Vicksburg, Mississippi, but it proved a 
 failure. 
 
 As we have stated, the confederates were 
 driven out of Missouri into Arkansas at 
 
 the close of 
 1861. General 
 Van Dorn was 
 placed in com- 
 mand of their 
 army, and on 
 the 7th of 
 March, 1862, at- 
 tacked the fed- 
 eral army un- 
 der General 
 Curtis at Pea 
 Ridge, in the 
 northwestern 
 part of Arkan- 
 sas. Curtis was driven back the first day, but 
 taking up a new position during the night, 
 repulsed the confederates on the 8th. Van 
 Dorn and Price with their troops were soon 
 after ordered east of the Mississippi, and 
 bore the brunt of the campaign in northern 
 Mississippi in the summer and fall of 
 1862. 
 
 The federal government continued its 
 efforts to capture the prominent points on 
 the southern coast. A powerful expedition 
 under General Burnside was sent to the 
 coast of North Carolina. On the 8th of 
 February it captured Roanoake island, com- 
 manding Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, 
 and on the 10th defeated and destroyed the 
 confederate squadron in Albemarle sound. 
 On the 14th of March Newbern was taken, 
 and on the 25th of April Fort Macon, at 
 the mouth of Beaufort harbor, one of the 
 strongest works on the coast, surrendered 
 after a short siege. With the exception 
 of the mouth of the Cape Fear, the whole 
 North Carolina coast was now in possession 
 of the Union forces. Important points 
 were captured on the Florida coast by ex- 
 peditions from Port Royal. 
 
 GEN. JOS. E. JOHNSTON. 
 
 An expedition was sent against New Or- 
 leans under Commodore Farragut and Gen- 
 ei'al Butler. Having failed to reduce Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip, on the lower Mis- 
 sissippi, by a bombardment, Farragut forced 
 his way by them with his fleet on the morn- 
 ing of April 24th, and destroyed the con- 
 federate fleet, two of which were ironclads^ 
 in the river above. He then ascended to 
 New Orleans, which was surrendei'ed to 
 him on the 25th. On the 28th Forts Jack- 
 son and St. Philip surrendered. The loss 
 of New Orleans greatly disheartened the 
 south, and placed the lower Mississippi in 
 the hands of the federal forces. On the 
 11th of April Fort Pulaski, at the mouth 
 of the Savannah river, surrendered to the 
 federal forces after a bombardment of fif- 
 teen days. This capture closed the port of 
 Savannah to the confederates. 
 
 Matters in Virginia were of the highest 
 importance. On the 8th of March General 
 Johnston evacuated his position at Centre- 
 ville, and fell back to the Rapidan. Mc- 
 Clellan now determined to assail Richmond 
 from a new direction, and moved his army 
 by water from Washington to Fortress 
 Monroe, intending to advance upon the 
 confederate capital by way of the peninsula 
 between the York and James rivers. On 
 the 4th and 5th of April he attacked the 
 position of General Magruder at York town, 
 but was repulsed, and Magruder main- 
 tained his line at all points until the arrival 
 of Johnston's army from the Rapidan put 
 an end to his danger. McClellan then laid 
 siege to Yorktown. 
 
 In the meantime a conflict, most im- 
 portant in its results, had occurred in 
 Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James 
 river. The confederates had prepared a pow- 
 erful iron-clad ram, called the '* Virginia," 
 which, on the 8th of March, steamed out of 
 Norfolk into Hampton Roads, and destroyed 
 the " Cumberland " and " Congress " men- 
 of-war, and threatened to destroy the whole 
 federal fleet. The " Virginia " withdrew at 
 nightfall, and returned the next morning 
 to complete her work. During the night 
 of the 8th, however, the federal iron-clad 
 "Monitor" arrived at Fortress Monroe on 
 her trial trip from New York. On the ap- 
 pearance of the "Virginia" on the 9th, the 
 "Monitor" at once engaged her, and drove 
 her back to Norfolk with heavy loss. This 
 was the first engagement ever fought be- 
 tween iron-clads, and revolutionized the 
 naval system of the entire world. 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1171 
 
 On the 3d of May Johnston's array fell 
 back from the lines of Yorktown towards 
 Richmond. McClellan at once moved for- 
 ward in pui'suit. An encounter occurred 
 at Williamsburg on the 5th, but Johnston 
 accomplished his movement without further 
 molestation, and took position behind the 
 Chickahominy in front of Richmond. The 
 federal army advanced to the north bank 
 of that river. The city of Norfolk was 
 abandoned upon the retreat from the penin- 
 sula, and the iron-clad " Virginia " was blown 
 up. McClellan, towards the last of May, 
 threw his left wing across the Chickahom- 
 iny. It" was attacked by General 
 Johnston on the 31st of May, and 
 was defeated with heavy loss at 
 Seven Pines. General Johnston 
 was wounded in this engagement, 
 and was succeeded by General 
 R. E. Lee, who determined to 
 drive McClellan away from the 
 Chickahominy. McClellan in the 
 meantime had been promised the 
 assistance of McDowell's army of 
 40,000 men, which had been re- 
 tained before Washington for the 
 protection of the capital, and he 
 prepared to attack Richmond 
 immediately upon the arrival of 
 this force. 
 
 To prevent the execution of 
 this plan General Jackson was or- 
 dered to drive the federal forces 
 out of the valley of Virginia, and 
 threaten Washington. He accom- 
 plished this object by one of the 
 most brilliant campaigns of the 
 war. He crossed the mountains 
 and drove back the army of Gen- 
 eral Fremont at the village of 
 McDowell in West Virginia, on 
 the 8th of May, and returning to the valley 
 with all speed defeated Banks' army in a se- 
 ries of encounters, and drove him across the 
 Potomac. General McDowell's march to 
 McClellan's assistance was suspended by 
 the federal government, and he was or- 
 dered to co-operate with Fremont in an 
 effort to destroy Jackson. Jackson by a 
 rapid and skilful march eluded his pur- 
 suers until he had reached a point from 
 which his line of retreat was safe, and then 
 turned upon them and defeated Fremont at 
 Cross Keys on the 8th of June, and Shields 
 at Port Republic the next day. Having 
 thus prevented the junction of his enemies, 
 he hastened to the Chickahominy to as- 
 
 sist General Lee in his attack upon Mc- 
 Clellan. 
 
 General McClellan, upon the failure of 
 McDowell to join him, became alarmed for 
 the safety of his communications with his 
 base at the head of the York river, and 
 resolved to abandon them and establish a 
 new base on the James river. Before he 
 could accomplish this his right wing at 
 Mechauicsville was attacked by General 
 Lee on the 25th of June, and driven in 
 upon his centre at Cold Harbor. He was 
 attacked at the latter place the next day by 
 the combined forces of Lee and Jackson, 
 
 LIEUT.-GEN. T. J. JACKSON. 
 
 and was driven across the Chickahominy 
 into the strongly fortified position of his left 
 wing. He now destroyed his communica- 
 tions with the York river, and on the 28th 
 began his retreat to the James, through 
 White Oak Swamp. On the 29th his rear- 
 guard under General Sumner repulsed an 
 attack of the confederates at Savage Sta- 
 tion. On the 30th the battle of Frazier's 
 Farm was fought, in which McClellan held 
 his ground until his army was safely out of 
 the swamp. On the 1st of July the confed- 
 erates made their final attack upon the im- 
 pregnable position of the federal army at 
 Malvern Hill, and were repulsed with se- 
 vere loss. The federal army now took 
 
1172 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 position at Harrison's Landing, on the 
 James river, under the protection of the 
 fleet, which had ascended the James. 
 
 The federal government acted with great 
 vigor in its efforts to repair its losses. Six 
 hundred thousand fresh troops were raised 
 in three months, and a large army was col- 
 lected in northern Virginia under General 
 Pope. A few weeks later McClellan was 
 drawn from his position on the James, and 
 ordered to reinforce Pope. General Lee 
 had sent Jackson's corps to the Rappahan- 
 nock to watch Pope, and Jackson had de- 
 feated the advanced forces of that army at 
 Cedar Mountain on the 9th of August. 
 
 GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. 
 
 Upon the withdrawal of McClellan from 
 the James, Lee joined Jackson with his 
 whole force, and attacked Pope, hoping to 
 defeat him before he could be joined by 
 McClellan. He penetrated to his rear, de- 
 stroyed his depot of supplies at Manassas, 
 and defeated him in a series of battles on 
 the 28th, 29th, and 30th of August— the 
 last engagement, the second battle of Bull 
 Run, being one of the best fought fields of 
 the war — and drove him within the lines 
 of Washington. 
 
 Having defeated Pope, Lee crossed the 
 Potomac and entered Maryland. On the 
 6th of September he occupied Frederick, 
 
 and on the 15th Jackson's corps captured 
 Harper's Ferry and its garrison of 11,000 
 men. General McClellan was restored to 
 the command of the army of the Potomac 
 after Pope's defeat. He reorganized the 
 beaten force on the march, and promptly 
 advanced against Lee, whom he encoun- 
 tered at South Mountain, where the latter 
 had taken position to await the issue of 
 Jackson's attack on Harper's Ferry. Mc- 
 Clellan attacked him on the 14th of Sep- 
 tember, and forced him to fall back. Lee 
 took position behind Antietam creek, 
 where he was joined by Jackson's troops on 
 the morning of the 17th. On the 17th 
 McClellan attacked the confed- 
 erate army, and the battle lasted 
 throughout the day. Lee held 
 his position that day and through- 
 out the 18th, and during the 
 night of the 18th retreated into 
 Virginia. McClellan followed 
 leisurely, and moved towards the 
 Rappahannock. On the 7th of 
 November he was removed from 
 his command, and was succeeded 
 by General Burnside. Burnside 
 moved towards Fredericksburg, 
 and Lee took position on the 
 heights in the rear of that town. 
 He was attacked in this position 
 by the federal army on the 13th 
 of December, and repulsed every 
 assault. Burnside retreated 
 across the Rappahannock, and the 
 campaign closed. 
 
 The defeated commander was 
 now removed at his own request, 
 and was succeeded by General 
 Hooker. Towards the last of 
 April, 1863, Hooker, whose army 
 numbered 120,000 men, and 
 was in splendid condition, 
 crossed the Rappahannock to attack Lee, 
 who had been weakened by the with- 
 drawal of Longstreet's corps for service 
 in lower Virginia. The southern array 
 numbered 50,000 men. Lee, whose situa- 
 tion, perilous in the extreme, demanded the 
 utmost boldness, attacked Hooker, and 
 drove him from the intrenched position he 
 had taken at Chancellorsville to the banks 
 of the Rappahannock, on the 2d and 3d of 
 May. He then turned upon the column of 
 General Sedgewick, which had crossed the 
 Rappahannock and carried his old position 
 at Fredericksburg, and defeated it and com- 
 pelled it to recross that stream on the 4th, 
 
1173 
 
1174 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 MAJ.-GEN. GEO. B. M'CLELLAN. 
 
 and then moved against Hooker again. 
 The federal commander, however, retreated 
 across the Rappahannock with his main 
 body on the night of the 5th, having lost 
 12,000 men. The confederates bought their 
 
 victory dearly 
 in the loss of 
 Gen. (Stone- 
 wall) Jackson, 
 one of their 
 ablest leaders, 
 who was mor- 
 ^ tally wounded 
 in the first 
 day's attack. 
 
 The confed- 
 e r a t e s fol- 
 lowed up their 
 victory by an 
 invasion of the 
 north by the 
 army of Gen- 
 eral Lee, 80,000 strong. The Potomac 
 was crossed on the 22d of June. The 
 federal army followed, moving east of 
 the mountains, and on the march General 
 Hooker, unable to agree with the war de- 
 partment on a plan of operations, resigned 
 his command, and was succeeded by Gen- 
 eral George G. Meade, Both armies now 
 moved upon Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, 
 where, ignorant of each other's designs, they 
 met on the 1st of July. Each took up a 
 strong position with the town between them, 
 and on the 3d the confederates made a tre- 
 mendous attack 
 upon the federal 
 line, and were 
 repulsed with 
 terrible loss. On 
 the night of the 
 4th Lee with- 
 drew from Get- 
 tysburg, and re- 
 treated to the 
 Potomac, which 
 he recrossed on 
 the 13th and 14th 
 without serious opposition from the federal 
 army. He retreated slowly to the Rapidan, 
 followed by the army of the Potomac. The 
 two forces passed the winter on the banks 
 of this stream. 
 
 In the west and southwest the federal 
 arms were equally successful. The army 
 of General Grant crossed the Mississippi 
 below Vicksburg on the 1st of May, and 
 thrust itself boldly between the army col- 
 
 MAJ.-GEN. JOS. HOOKER. 
 
 lected at Jackson by General Joseph E. 
 Johnston and that of Vicksburg. On the 
 14th of May Johnston was driven from 
 Jackson, and Grant then turned upon 
 Pemberton, defeated him at Champion 
 Hills on the 16th, and again at the Big 
 Black on the 17th, and drove him within the 
 defences of Vicksburg, which were invested 
 by the federal army. On the 4th of July 
 Vicksburg, with its garrison of 30,000 men, 
 surrendered to General Grant, and on the 
 8th Port Hudson, lower down the Missis- 
 sippi, surrendered to General Banks. These 
 victories deprived the confederates of their 
 last hold upon the Mississippi, and with the 
 defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, were 
 decisive of the war. 
 
 After the battle of Stone river there was 
 no movement of importance until the fall, 
 when Rosecrans advanced against Bragg, 
 who had occupied Chattanooga. Bragg 
 
 f e 1 1 back 
 into Georgia, 
 where he was 
 heavily rein- 
 forced, and 
 then wheeled 
 upon Rose- 
 crans, who 
 had followed 
 in pursuit, 
 and defeated 
 him at Chick- 
 amauga on 
 the 19th and 
 20th of Sep- 
 tember. Rose- 
 crans retreated to Chattanooga, which was at 
 once invested by Bragg's army. The federal 
 forces were reduced to great hardships by a 
 scarcity of provisions. After the fall of 
 Vicksburg Rosecrans was relieved of his 
 command. General Thomas succeeded 
 him in command of the army of the Cum- 
 berland, and General Grant was given the 
 supreme command of the western armies, 
 and ordered to relieve the army of the 
 Cumberland. He was heavily reinforced 
 for this purpose, and about the middle of 
 November was before Chattanooga with his 
 forces. On the 23d of November General 
 Thomas, by a sudden sortie from Chatta- 
 nooga, captured the important position of 
 Orchard Knob. On the 24th Hooker 
 stormed and carried Lookout Mountain, 
 and on the 25th Bragg's army was driven 
 from its last position at Mission Ridge. 
 Bragg retreated into Georgia, and was 
 
 MAJ.-GEN. GEO. G. MEADE. 
 
1175 
 
1176 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OB THE WORLD. 
 
 soon after succeeded by General Jos. E. 
 Johnston. 
 
 In the summer of 1863 General Burn- 
 side, with a force of 25,000 men, entered 
 East Tennessee from Kentucky, and occu- 
 pied Knoxville. After the battle of 
 Chickamauga, Bragg sent Lougstreet's 
 corps to drive the federals out of East Ten- 
 nessee. Longstreet succeeded in confining 
 Burnside to the defences of Knoxville, and 
 besieged him there. Though reduced al- 
 most to starvation, Burnside held out reso- 
 
 On the 7th of April Dupont endeavored to 
 force his way into the harbor, but was 
 driven back by the southern batteries. 
 Early in July a force of land troops, under 
 General Gilmore, laid siege to Fort Wagner 
 on Morris' island. It was evacuated on the 
 night of the 6th of September, j ust as the 
 final assault was about to be made by the 
 besiegers. From the position thus gained 
 a heavy fire was maintained upon Fort 
 Sumter by the federal guns, and shells 
 were thrown into Charleston. 
 
 ATTACK ON FORT SUMTER BY THE MONITOR FLEET. 
 
 lutely, and after the relief of Chattanooga, 
 Grant sent Sherman's army to his assist- 
 ance. Upon the approach pf this force 
 Longstreet raised the siege of Knoxville 
 and retreated into Virginia. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1863, the confed- 
 erates recaptured Galveston, which had 
 fallen into the hands of the federal forces 
 in the autumn of 1862. Their efforts to 
 recover Arkansas were not successful. 
 
 A powerful naval expedition, under Ad- 
 miral Dupont, was sent against Charleston. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1863, President 
 Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring 
 all the slaves within the limits of the 
 southern states free from that date. 
 
 The year 1864 opened with an expedi- 
 tion from New Orleans, under General 
 Banks and Admiral Porter, to the rich 
 region known as the Red river country. 
 Banks Avas defeated at Sabine Cross-Roads, 
 on the 8th of April, and was forced to re- 
 treat. He repulsed an attack at Pleasant 
 Hill on the 9th, but continued his re- 
 
1177 
 
1178 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 MAJ.-GEN. PHIL SHERIDAN. 
 
 treat, and the expedition proved a total 
 failure. 
 
 In March General U. S. Grant was made 
 lieutenant-general and given the chief com- 
 mand of the armies of the United States. 
 He established his head-quarters with the 
 
 array of the 
 Potomac, 
 and assumed 
 the immedi- 
 ate direction 
 of affairs in 
 Virginia. 
 General "W. 
 -T. Sherman 
 as at the 
 same time 
 placed in 
 command of 
 the western 
 armies, and 
 charged with 
 the direction of the campaign against Gen- 
 eral Johnston in Georgia. 
 
 On the 4th of May the army of the 
 Potomac, 140,000 strong, crossed the Rapi- 
 dan under General Grant's orders. On the 
 5th it encountered the confederate army, 
 under General Lee, in the Wilderness, and 
 a severe battle ensued, which was continued 
 the next day. Failing to force Lee back 
 by a direct attack. Grant turned his right 
 flank, and moved to Spottsylvania Court- 
 House. Lee reached that point before him 
 and took position on the heights around it. 
 Between the 9th and 12th of May Grant 
 made several determined efforts to dislodge 
 Lee, but failed to do so, and on the 21st 
 renewed his flank movement in the direc- 
 tion of the North Anna river. Arriving 
 there on the 23d he found Lee's army in 
 position behind that stream. Finding the 
 confederate position too strong to be at- 
 tacked, he moved, on the 26th, to the 
 Chickahominy. Lee followed him and oc- 
 cupied a strong position at Cold Harbor. 
 On the 3d of June Grant attempted to 
 carry the southern works by storm, but was 
 repulsed with a loss of 13,000 men, making 
 his total loss over 60,000 men since the 
 opening of the campaign. He again moved 
 around Lee's right, and, crossing the 
 James river, at Wilcox's Landing, on the 
 15th and 16th of June, advanced upon 
 Petersburg, and attacked that city. Being 
 unable to carry the confederate works, he 
 laid siege to Petersburg. His right ex- 
 tended across the Appomattox, and rested 
 
 on the James, and was subsequently pro- 
 longed to the north side of the James. His 
 left was gradually extended during the 
 year for the purpose of seizing the Weldon 
 road, one of Lee's lines of communication 
 with North Carolina. 
 
 The federal plan of campaign included 
 the occupation of the valley of Virginia 
 and the seizure of the railway connecting 
 Virginia with East Tennessee and Georgia. 
 General Sigel, with an army of 10,000 men, 
 was charged with the execution of this task, 
 but was defeated by General Breckenridge 
 at New Market, on the 15th of May, and 
 driven down the valley. General Hunter 
 succeeded him in the command, and forced 
 his way to the vicinity of Lynchburg. 
 General Lee became alarmed for the safety 
 of that place, and sent General Early to its 
 relief with 12,000 men. Early drove Hun- 
 ter into West Virginia, and hastening 
 down the valley, crossed the Potomac, and 
 on the 7th of July occupied Frederick, 
 Maryland. On the 9lh he defeated a 
 small force that sought to stop his advance 
 at the Monocacy river, and marched upon 
 AVashington, which was defended by a 
 small garrison. Grant hurried reinforce- 
 ments to the capital, and when Early ar- 
 rived before its defences, he found them 
 occupied by too strong a force to justify 
 him in attacking them, and retreated 
 across the Potomac. An army of 40,000 
 men was now assembled in the valley of 
 Virginia by the federal government, and 
 placed un- 
 der General 
 S h e r idan. 
 He defeated 
 Early a t 
 Winchester 
 on the 19th 
 of Septem- 
 b e r ; a 1 : 
 Fisher's 
 Hill on the 
 22d; and 
 at Cedar 
 Creek, o n 
 the 19th of 
 October, de- 
 stroyed his army and laid waste the entire 
 valley of the Shenandoah. 
 
 On the 7th of May the western army, 
 under General Sherman, 100,000 strong, 
 advanced from Chattanooga upon the con- 
 federate army, 50,000 strong, under Gen- 
 eral Johnston, which was posted at Dalton, 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1179 
 
 MAJ.-GEN, GEO. H. THOMAS. 
 
 Georgia. By a flank movement Sherman 
 dislodged Johnston from his position and 
 compelled liim to fall back to Resaca. 
 He then attacked Johnston at Resaca on 
 the 14th and 15th of May, but without suc- 
 cess. To avoid being outflanked, Johnston 
 
 fell back to 
 Dallas. Af- 
 ter some 
 very heavy 
 fighting a t 
 New Hope 
 Church, 
 Sherman 
 turned Alla- 
 toona Pass, 
 and John- 
 ston fell back 
 to a line 
 e m b r a cing 
 Pine, Lost, 
 and Kene- 
 savv moun- 
 tains. Be- 
 tween the 
 15th of June and the 2d of July, Sherman 
 made several attempts to force this line, but 
 failing, moved to the left and turned it. 
 Johnston at once fell back behind the 
 Chattahoochee, and within the lines of 
 Athmta. He had prepared this important 
 city ior a siege, and was resolved, as soon 
 as Sherman had passed the Chattahoochee, 
 to attack him and force him to a decisive 
 battle. The federal army had already lost 
 over 30,000 men since the opening of the 
 campaign, while Johnston had lost less than 
 ^,000. Before the confederate commander 
 could execute his plan, he was removed by 
 the confederate president, who was per- 
 sonally unfriendly to him, and was suc- 
 ceeded by General Hood, a gallant but in- 
 competent commander. Hood attacked 
 Sherman on the 20th and 22d of July, 
 before Atlanta, and was each time defeated 
 with heavy loss. He was outgeneralled by 
 Sliernian, and was forced to evacuate At- 
 hinta on the 31st of August, and on the 2d 
 of September Sherman occupied the city. 
 
 Hood now endeavored to draw Sherman 
 out of Georgia by an invasion of Tennessee, 
 but the latter left General Thomas, who 
 held Nashville, to manage the confederates, 
 and embarked in another enterprise. Hood 
 moved from the Tennessee river on the 19th 
 of November, and, defeating a federal force 
 under General Schofield at Franklin, on 
 the 30th, advanced to Nashville, and laid 
 
 siege to that place, which was defended by 
 General Thomas with an army of 40,000 
 men. On the 15th and 16th Thomas at- 
 tacked the confederates, defeated them, and 
 drove them across the Tennessee in utter 
 rout. 
 
 In the meantime Sherman cut his com- 
 munications with Chattanooga, set fire to 
 Atlanta, and, on the 14th of November, 
 began his " march to the sea," through 
 Georgia, at the head of a splendid army of 
 60,000 men. His march was accomplished 
 without difl[iculty, as there was no enemy 
 of any consequence in his front, and he de- 
 voted his energies to ravaging the country 
 through which he passed. In about four 
 weeks he reached the coast, on the 13th of 
 December stormed and captured Fort 
 McAllister, and on the 22d of December 
 occupied Savannah, which had been evacu- 
 ated by the confederates. 
 
 In the summer of 1864 Admiral Farra- 
 gut forced his way with his fleet by the 
 forts defending the entrance to Mobile bay, 
 and on the 5th of August defeated the con- 
 federate fleet in the lower bay in one of the 
 hardest fought naval battles on record. 
 The forts subsequently surrendered to the 
 land forces accompanying the expedition, 
 but the city of Mobile was not taken for 
 some months afterwards. In December an 
 expedition was sent against Fort Fisher, at 
 the mouth of the Cape Fear river, but was 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 On the 
 19th of June 
 the famous 
 confederate 
 cruiser "Al- 
 a b a m a ," 
 which had 
 destroyed a 
 large num- 
 ber of mer- 
 chant ves- 
 sels owned 
 in northern 
 states, was 
 defeated 
 and sunk 
 by the Uni- 
 ted States steamer "Kearsarge" off' Cher- 
 bourg, France. 
 
 In the fall of 1864 President Lincoln was 
 re-elected over General McClellan, the can- 
 didate of the democratic party. On the 
 31st of October the state of Nevada was 
 admitted into the Union. 
 
 ADMIRAL FARRAGtJT. 
 
1180 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The year 1865 opened with brilliant 
 prospects for the Union cause. The con- 
 federates were at the end of their resources, 
 and the Union forces had recovered a large 
 part of the south. On the 3d of February 
 an informal conference was held, between 
 President Lincoln and several commis- 
 sioners from the confederate government, in 
 Hampton Roads, but resulted in nothing, 
 as President Lincoln refused to entertain 
 
 the confederates, and cut them off from all 
 communication with Europe. On the 22d 
 of February Wilmington was captured by 
 the Union forces. 
 
 Towards the end of January Sherman, 
 who had given his army a month's rest on 
 the coast, resumed his advance through 
 South Carolina towards Virginia, to co- 
 operate with Grant in bringing the war to 
 a close. He pushed forward with energy 
 
 SINKING OF THE "ALABAMA" BY THE " KEARSARGE." 
 
 any propositions that were not based upon 
 the unconditional submission of the southern 
 states. 
 
 The attempt to capture Fort Fisher was 
 renewed by Admiral Porter and General 
 Terry in January, 1865, and on the 15th 
 the fort was carried by assault after a des- 
 perate struggle. The confederates then 
 abandoned their other works at the mouth 
 of the Cape Fear. The capture of Fort 
 Fisher closed the port of Wilmington to 
 
 through a country rendered almost im- 
 passable by the winter rains, and on the 
 17th of February occupied Columbia, South 
 Carolina, which was nearly destroyed by 
 fire. Charleston was evacuated by the con- 
 federates on the same day, and on the 18th 
 was occupied by the federal forces. On the 
 12th of March Sherman reached Fayette- 
 ville, North Carolina, and moved from that 
 place towards Goldsboro'. The confederate 
 government gathered a force of 35,000 men 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1181 
 
 uuder General Johnston in Sherman's front. 
 Johnston with this force attacked Sherman 
 at Averasboro' on the 16th of March, and 
 at Bentonville on the 19th, but was unable 
 to stay the progress of the federal army, 
 which on the 22d of March occupied Golds- 
 boro'. Johnston then withdrew towards 
 Raleigh. 
 
 Amelia Court-House, from which he moved 
 towards Lynchburg. Richmond and Pe- 
 tersburg were occupied by the federal forces 
 on the morning of the 3d, and the main 
 body of the army hurried on in pursuit of 
 Lee, who was overtaken, cut off from Lynch- 
 burg, and compelled to surrender at Appo- 
 mattox Court-House on the 9th of April. 
 
 SURRENDER OF GENERAL LEE. 
 
 The army of General Grant resumed 
 operations towards the last of March, hav- 
 ing been joined by 10,000 cavalry from the 
 valley of Virginia, uuder General Sheridan. 
 Lee's right wing was turned on the 30th of 
 March, and was defeated at Five Forks on 
 the 1st of April. On the night of the 2d 
 of April General Lee evacuated Richmond 
 and Petersburg, and retreated towards 
 
 Johnston's army surrendered on the 26th 
 of April to General Sherman. The other 
 southern forces promptly laid down their 
 arms, the last to surrender being the army 
 of General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on 
 the 26th of May. 
 
 The rejoicings of the north over the close 
 of the war were cut short by the assassina- 
 tion of President Lincoln by John Wilkes 
 
1182 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Booth, at Ford's theatre, in Washington, 
 on the night of the 14th of April. The 
 president died the next day. The assassin 
 and his companions were subsequently cap- 
 tured. Booth was killed by his captors. 
 The others were either hanged or impris- 
 oned. The body of the murdered president 
 was conveyed through the principal cities 
 of the north and west to his home in Illi- 
 
 nois, where it was buried amid the deep 
 grief of the nation. By the terms of the 
 constitution, Andrew Johnson, the vice- 
 president, became President of the United 
 States. 
 
 On the 10th of May Jefferson Davis was 
 captured at Irwinsville, Georgia, and sent 
 as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe. 
 
 MONUMENT TO ABRAHAM LINCOLN IN FAIRMOUNT PARK, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PROM THE CLOSE OP THE CIVIL WAR TO 
 THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Close of the War — Andrew Johnson President — 
 The Reconstruction Question — Impeachment of 
 the President— His Acquittal — Amendments to 
 the Constitution— The Public Debt— The At- 
 lantic Telegraph — Ulysses S. Grant Elected Pres- 
 ident — The Pacific Railway Completed — The 
 Alabama Claims— The Chicago and Boston Fires 
 — Grant Re-elected President — Death of Horace 
 Greeley — The Modoc War — Murder of General 
 Canby and the Peace Commissioners — The " Yir- 
 ginius" Outrage — Firmness of the Government — 
 The Panic of 1873— The Law for the Resumption 
 of Specie Payments — The Centennial Celebra- 
 tions — The Centennial Exhibition — Its Great 
 Success — Celebration of the 4th of July, 1S76 — 
 The Sioux War — Massacre of General Custer and 
 the Seventh Cavalrv — The Presidential Campaign 
 of 1876— The Result Disputed— Danger to the 
 Country — The Florida and Louisiana Returning 
 Boards — Their Action — Meeting of Congress — 
 Dispute between the two Houses — The Electoral 
 Commission — Counting the Vote — Action of the 
 
 Electoral Commission— Hayes Declared President 
 — Inauguration of President Hayes — He Removes 
 the Federal Troops from South Carolina and 
 Louisiana. 
 
 (HE war was now at an end. It 
 had cost the country a million of 
 men, and an enormous sum in 
 money. The efTorts of the govern- 
 ment were now devoted to the re- 
 construction of the Union. The 
 president held that the southern states had 
 never been out of the Union, and attempted 
 to restore them to their former places ^Yith- 
 out consulting congress. That body upon 
 assembling in December, 18G5, repudiated 
 the president's action, and demanded that 
 the southern states should adopt the thir- 
 teenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amend- 
 ments to the federal constitution abolishing 
 slavery, and admitting the negro to the 
 rights and privileges of a citizen, before 
 being admitted into the Union. A pro- 
 
FROM THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1183 
 
 ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 longed struggle, which lasted for several 
 years, ensued between the conquered states 
 and congress, the former being sustained 
 by the president, who declared the action 
 of congress unconstitutional. The states of 
 
 the south were 
 finally com- 
 pelled to ac- 
 cept the terms 
 of congress, 
 and upon 
 ratifying the 
 amendments 
 were at length 
 restored to the 
 Union. The 
 quarrel be- 
 tween the 
 president and 
 congress re- 
 sulted in an 
 effort to re- 
 move the former by impeachment. He 
 was tried before the senate on charges pre- 
 ferred by the house of representatives in 
 the spring of 1868, but was acquitted. 
 
 The thirteenth amendment to 
 the fedsral constitution, abolishing 
 slavery, was adopted by the states. 
 in 1865. The fourteenth amend- 
 m3nt, guaranteeing civil rights to 
 all, without distinction of race or 
 color, and basing representation 
 on the number of inhabitants, was 
 adopted in 1868. The fifteenth ^ 
 
 amendment, guaranteeing the right 
 of suffiuge to all, irrespective of 
 race, color, or previous condition 
 of servitude, was adopted in 1870. 
 The course of the United States 
 with regard to the French occu- 
 pation of Mexico has been related 
 in the French history of this cen- 
 tury. 
 
 The public debt was enormous 
 at the close of the war, amount- 
 ing to nearly $2,700,000,000. 
 Measures were set on foot for 
 its reduction, and the national 
 finances were adjusted upon a plan 
 satisfactory to the nation. The 
 heavy rate of taxation was grad- 
 ually reduced, and the country 
 began to recover rapidly from the effects 
 of the war, the south sharing in the happy 
 improvement of affairs. 
 
 In 1866 a telegraphic cable was success- 
 fully laid between America and Ireland. 
 
 This great work was accomplished only 
 after repeated and costly failures extending 
 through a period of nine years. Its final 
 success was due to the energy and persever- 
 ance of Cyrus W. Field, of New York. 
 
 In the fall of 1868 Ulysses S. Grant, of 
 Illinois, the successful commander of the 
 Union armies during the civil war, was 
 elected president. He was inaugurated in 
 March, 1869. In the summer of 1869 the 
 great railway from the Missouri river to 
 the Pacific Ocean was completed. 
 
 During the civil war a number of con- 
 federate cruisers, built, equipped, and 
 manned in British ports, went to sea, and 
 committed great ravages upon the com- 
 merce of the United States. After the close 
 of the war the American government de- 
 manded compensation from Great Britain 
 for these losses. The British government 
 refused at first to entertain the demand, 
 but after some years agreed to submit the 
 question to the arbitration of a board 
 chosen from the neutral nations. This 
 board met at Geneva in Switzerland on 
 the 15th of April, 1872, and on the 27th 
 
 GENERAL U. S. GRANT. 
 
 of June submitted its award in favor of 
 the United States. Great Britain was re- 
 quired to pay the United States damages 
 to the amount of $16,250,000. 
 
 A great fire broke out in Chicago on the 
 
1184 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 8th of October, 1871, and raged for two 
 days. The area burned over was 2,124 
 acres, or nearly three and one-third square 
 miles. The number of buildings destroyed 
 was 17,450. The loss was from $196,000,- 
 000 to $200,000,000. It was the most de- 
 structive conflagration of modern times. 
 
 On the 9th of November, 1872, a fire 
 occurred in Boston and swept over an area 
 of 65 acres in the heart of the business 
 section of the city. It destroyed 776 build- 
 ings, and inflicted a loss of $78,000,000 
 upon the city. 
 
 In the fall of 1872 General Grant was 
 re-elected president by an overwhelming 
 majority over Horace Greeley, the can- 
 didate of the liberal republican and dem- 
 
 sioners, and killed all but one. At the 
 same moment. General Canby, command- 
 ing the United States troops operating 
 against the savages, who was also present, 
 was shot down, and died instantly. The 
 war was then pressed with vigor. The In- 
 dians were forced to surrender, and those 
 who had been concerned in the murder of 
 the peace commissioners and General Canby 
 were hanged on the 3d of October, 1873. 
 
 A revolution broke out in the island of 
 Cuba in 1868, and for several years the 
 patriot forces successfully held their ground 
 against the Spanish troops. The govern- 
 ment of the United States faithfully en- 
 deavored to observe neutrality between the 
 contending parties, and to prevent the 
 sending of supplies 
 or men to the 
 island. In spite of 
 the precautions of 
 the government, 
 h we ver, several 
 expeditions did suc- 
 ceed in getting to 
 sea and reaching 
 Cuba. One of these 
 embarked on the 
 steamer " Virginius" 
 in the fall of 1873. 
 The steamer, though 
 carrying the Amer- 
 ican flag and sail- 
 ing in English 
 waters at the time, 
 was captured by the 
 Spanish man-of-war 
 "Tornado" off" the 
 coastof Jamaica and 
 taken into the port 
 of Santiago de Cuba, 
 ocratic parties. A deplorable result of the The commander of the steamer, and about 
 
 CAPE HORN, ON THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD. 
 
 struggle, which was conducted with intense 
 bitterness, was the death of Mr. Greeley on 
 the 29th of November, 1872. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1873, President 
 Grant entered upon his second term of 
 office. Early in the same year a trouble- 
 some war began with the Modoc Indians, 
 who were dissatisfied with the reservations 
 assigned them by the government in the 
 northern part of Oregon. They took refiige 
 in a diflficult region known as the " lava 
 beds," where they maintained a successful 
 resistance of several months. Efforts were 
 made to settle the war by treaty, and 
 during one of these conferences the Indians 
 suddenly turned upon the peace commis- 
 
 forty of the crew and passengers, were given 
 a mock trial by the Spaniards, and were shot. 
 The consul of the United States at Santi- 
 ago de Cuba made great exertions to save 
 the doomed men, but was treated with in- 
 dignity by the Spanish officials, and was 
 not allowed to communicate with Havana, 
 from which point he could telegraph to 
 Washington. The popular indignation iu 
 the United States upon the receipt of the 
 news of this outrage was intense and out- 
 spoken. The government acted with pru- 
 dence and firmness. Several vessels of war 
 were sent to Santiago de Cuba to prevent 
 the execution of the surviving prisoners, 
 and the fleet in the West Indies was re- 
 
FR03I THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1185 
 
 inforced as rapidly as possible. Every 
 preparation was made for war, but it was 
 determined to settle the matter peacefully 
 if possible. The United States demanded 
 of Spain the arrest and punishment of the 
 officials concerned iu the massacre of the 
 prisoners, a suitable indemnity in money 
 for the families of the murdered men, an 
 apology to the Uuited States for the outrage 
 upon their flag, and the surrender of the 
 " Virginius " and her remaining passengers 
 and crew to an American man-of-war. 
 The alternative was war. The Spanish 
 government was compelled to 
 concede these terras, and or- 
 ders were sent to Cuba to 
 surrender the "Virginius" and 
 all the survivors to the naval 
 forces of the United States. 
 The Cuban officials endeav- 
 ored to evade these orders, 
 but were compelled to submit, 
 and the " Virginius " and the 
 prisoners were delivered to an 
 Amarican man-of-war in the 
 harbor of Havaua. The 
 apology was also made, and 
 at a later period the indemn- 
 ity was paid to the United 
 States. 
 
 Iu the fall of 1873 a severe 
 coininarcial crisis, known as 
 the " railroad pauic," caused 
 by excessive speculations iu 
 railroad stocks and the reck- 
 less construction of railroads 
 in sections of the country 
 where they were not needed, 
 burst upon the country. It 
 was the occasion of the fail- 
 ure of many of the leading 
 banking houses and financial 
 institutions of the Union, and 
 produced great hardship and suffering in 
 all parts of the country, and was followed 
 by several years of great dulness and loss 
 in all branches of trade. 
 
 In January, 1875, congress passed an act 
 providing for the resumption of specie pay- 
 ments, and requiring that on and after 
 January 1st, 1879, the legal tender notes 
 of the government shall be redeemed in 
 specie. 
 
 Ou the 4th of March, 1875, the territory 
 of Colorado was admitted into the Union 
 as a state, making the thirty-eighth mem- 
 ber of the confederacy. 
 
 The year 1875 completed the period of 
 75 
 
 one hundred years from the opening of the 
 revolution, and the events of 1775 were 
 celebrated with appropriate ceremonies at 
 the places at which they occurred. The 
 centennial anniversary of the battles of 
 Lexington and Concord was commemorated 
 at both those places on the 19th of April, 
 with great rejoicings. On the 17th of June 
 the centennial of the battle of Bunker Hill 
 was celebrated at Charlestown. Vast 
 crowds were present from all parts of the 
 country. One of the most gratifying fea- 
 tures of the last-named celebration was the 
 
 HORACE GKEELEY. 
 
 presence of a large body of troops from the 
 southern states, all of whom had served in 
 the confederate armies during the civil war. 
 As early as 1872 measures were set on 
 foot for the proper observance of the com- 
 pletion of the first century of American 
 independence. For this purpose it was re- 
 solved to hold, in the city of Philadelphia, 
 an international exhibition in 1876, in 
 which all the nations of the world were in- 
 vited to participate. Preparations were at 
 once set on foot for the celebration. The 
 European governments accepted, with great 
 cordiality, the invitations extended to them 
 by the government of the United States, 
 
1186 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and made liberal provisions for the display 
 of their respective products and achieve- 
 ments. On the 10th of May, 1876, the 
 exhibition was opened by the president of 
 the United States in the presence of an 
 immense concourse of citizens from all parts 
 of the Union, and of the Emperor of 
 Brazil. The exhibition remained open 
 until November 10th, 1876, and was visited 
 by 9,789,392 persons, from the various 
 states of the Union, from Canada, South 
 America, and Europe. It was one of the 
 
 was naturally that which was held at 
 Philadelphia, in which city the Declaration 
 of Independence was adopted. It began 
 on the 1st of July and was continued until 
 midnight on the 4th, and was in all respects 
 a grand and enthusiastic demonstration. 
 
 The year 1876 was not destined to be al- 
 together a period of peace. In 1867 the 
 government of the United States made a 
 treaty with the Sioux Indians, by which 
 the latter agreed to relinquish to the 
 United States all the territory south of 
 
 THE BURNING OF CHICAGO. 
 
 grandest and most notable events of the 
 century, and was successful in every respect. 
 On the 4th day of July, 1876, the United 
 States of America completed the one hun- 
 dredth year of their existence as an inde- 
 pendent nation. The day was celebrated 
 with imposing ceremonies in all parts of the 
 Union. The celebrations began on the 
 night of the 3d, and were kept up until 
 near midnight on the 4th. Each of the 
 great cities of the Union vied with the 
 others in the splendor and completeness of 
 its festival ; but the most interesting of all 
 
 Niobrara river, west of the one hundred 
 and fourth meridian of longitude, and north 
 of the forty-sixth parallel of latitude. This 
 treaty secured to the Sioux a large reserva- 
 tion in the southwestern part of Dakota, 
 and they agreed to withdraw to this reser- 
 vation by the 1st of January, 1876. A few 
 years later gold was discovered in the Black 
 Hills country, a region lying -within the 
 Sioux reservation, and this discovery pro- 
 duced great excitement among the mining 
 class. An expedition under General Cus- 
 ter in 1874 confirmed this discovery, and 
 
1187 
 
1188 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 preparations were at once made by the 
 miners to proceed to the Black Hills and 
 open the mines. The government ordered 
 the military authorities to prevent any such 
 intrusions into the territories of the Indians, 
 but many parties set out in spite of these 
 orders. Some were driven back by the In- 
 dians, but others succeeded in reaching the 
 gold regions. 
 
 It was now evident that a systematic and 
 determined effort would be made to settle 
 the Black Hills, and as a measure of peace 
 the government resolved to purchase that 
 region from the Indians, and throw it open 
 to emigration. Efforts were made during 
 1875 to induce the Sioux to sell their lands, 
 but they refused to do so. They had never 
 been really willing to retire to the reserva- 
 
 too small for the work required of it, but in 
 spite of this succeeded in forcing the sav- 
 ages back to the Big Horn mountains. On 
 the 25th of June, 1876, the seventh cavalry, 
 under General Custer, was defeated and 
 cut to pieces to a man by an overwhelming 
 force of Indians. It was the most terrible 
 reverse ever suffered by the American army 
 at the hands of the savages. The popular 
 indignation compelled the government to 
 hurry reinforcements to the scene of war, 
 and Generals Terry and Crook were able 
 to conduct the campaign with more vigor. 
 The Indians were beaten in a number of 
 engagements, and on the 24th of November 
 suffered a decisive defeat in a battle with 
 the fourth cavalry, under Colonel McKen- 
 zie, at one of the passes of the Big Horn 
 
 orEXl.NG CEREMONIES OF THE INTERNATIONAL CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 
 
 tions to which the treaty of 1867 confined 
 them, and now took advantage of the in- 
 trusion of the whites into their territory to 
 gratify their long-cherished wish for war. 
 They broke away from their reservation, 
 and made repeated forays into Wyoming 
 and Montana, laid the country waste, car- 
 ried off the horses and cattle, and mur- 
 dered such settlers as ventured to oppose 
 them. 
 
 This brought matters to a crisis, and 
 early in 1876 the government resolved to 
 drive the Sioux back to their reservation. 
 A force of regular troops under Generals 
 Terry and Crook was sent into the diflBcult 
 and mountainous region of the upper Yel- 
 lowstone, and an active campaign was be- 
 gun against the Indians. The force was 
 
 mountains. Negotiations were in progress 
 during the summer and autumn for the 
 removal of the Sioux to the Indian terri- 
 tory, and by the beginning of the winter 
 the majority of them had surrendered. A 
 few bands under Sitting Bull and Crazy 
 Horse continued in the field. They were 
 not allowed to remain in security during 
 the winter, but were pushed vigorously. 
 On the 8th of January, 1877, a decisive 
 victory was won over the band of Crazy 
 Horse, at Wolf mountains, in Montana 
 territory, by a force of infantry and artil- 
 lery under General Miles. This victory 
 led to the surrender of other bands of In- 
 dians, and early in 1877 the operations 
 against Sitting Bull obliged that chief to 
 take refuge in the territory of British 
 
usy 
 
1190 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 America. By the spring of 1877 the war 
 had been practically brought to a close. 
 
 In the summer of 1876 the various polit- 
 ical parties of the Union met in their re- 
 spective conventions to nominate candidates 
 for the offices of President and Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the United States. The candidates 
 of the republican party were : for president, 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio; for vice- 
 president, William A, Wheeler, of New 
 York. The democratic candidates were : 
 for president, Samuel J. Tilden, of New 
 York ; for vice-president, Thomas A. Hen- 
 dricks, of Indiana. A third party, 
 called the independent greenback party, 
 nominated Peter Cooper, of New York, for 
 president, and Samuel F. Gary, of Ohio, 
 for vice-president. The campaign which 
 followed these nominations was one of un- 
 precedented bitterness, and was conducted 
 by the republican party upon distinct sec- 
 tional issues ; the old wounds of the civil 
 war were torn open, and threats of a new 
 conflict freely indulged in. The election 
 was held on the 7th of November. The 
 popular vote was as follows : for Samuel J. 
 Tilden, 4,284,265 ; for Rutherford B. Hayes, 
 4,033,295 ; for Peter Cooper, 81,737. Til- 
 den thus received a majority of 250,970 
 popular votes over Hayes, and a majority 
 of 169,233 votes over both Hayes and 
 Cooper. 
 
 In the electoral colleges 185 votes were 
 necessary to a choice. Of this number 
 Governor Tilden received 184 and Governor 
 Hayes 163 undisputed votes. The votes of 
 the states of Florida, Louisiana, South 
 Carolina, and Oregon — twenty-two in num- 
 ber — were claimed by both parties for their 
 respective candidates. It was declared by 
 the democrats that, even conceding the 
 votes of Oregon and South Carolina to Mr. 
 Hayes, Mr. Tilden had fairly carried both 
 Florida and Louisiana, and was entitled to 
 196 electoral votes. The revision of the 
 vote in Florida and Louisiana had been 
 confided, since the reorganization of those 
 states, to returning boards, which bodies 
 had power to manipulate the votes of the 
 people of their respective states to an extent 
 sufficient to make the result what they 
 pleased. In consequence of this, it had 
 several times happened in Louisiana that 
 the returning board had, after canvassing 
 the vote, announced a result entirely at 
 "variance with the vote at the polls. In the 
 present case these boards were republican 
 in their composition. In the Florida board 
 
 there was one democratic member, but in 
 the Louisiana board the place of the demo- 
 cratic member was vacant, and the board 
 refused to fill the vacancy, leaving the 
 board entirely republican. 
 
 The returning boards did not possess the 
 confidence of the country, and it was re- 
 garded as of the highest importance that 
 some restraint should be placed upon them. 
 Immediately after the election, therefore, 
 President Grant induced a number of 
 prominent republicans to proceed to Flor- 
 ida and Louisiana to watch the counting 
 of the votes of those states ; and a number 
 of leading democrats repaired to Tallahas- 
 see and New Orleans for the same purpose. 
 These gentlemen had no official character, 
 and were without power to interfere in any 
 way with the counting of the vote. It was 
 hoped, however, that their presence would 
 act as a check upon the returning boards 
 and secure a fair count. This hope was 
 not destined to be realized. The Louisiana 
 board, in particular, was composed of reck- 
 less and disreputable men, and in spite of 
 the presence of the gentlemen referred to, 
 some of the most prominent of whom gave 
 open encouragement to the course of the 
 board, returned the vote of the state for 
 Hayes, thus setting aside the popular 
 majority at the polls of over 10,000 votes 
 for the democratic candidates. The Florida 
 board by a similar course returned the vote 
 of that state for Hayes. Investigations 
 showed that the electoral vote of South 
 Carolina had been fairly cast for Hayes, 
 and it was generally conceded to him. The 
 democratic Governor of Oregon attempted 
 by a transparent trick to give the electoral 
 vote of that state to Mr. Tilden, and thus 
 elect him ; but it came to be the general 
 sentiment of the country that the electoral 
 vote of Oregon should be rightfully cast for 
 Hayes. 
 
 This confined the real struggle to the 
 votes of Florida and Louisiana. It was 
 the general conviction of the country that 
 both of those states had been fiairly carried 
 by the democratic party, and many earnest 
 republicans gave open expression to this 
 belief. The action of the return boards, 
 however, though so evidently in defiance of 
 the will of the people, was still within the 
 letter of the laws under which they had 
 acted. The republican party, therefore, 
 claimed that, as such action was not con- 
 trary to the laws of Florida and Louisiana, 
 it must stand ; that neither congress nor 
 
FROM THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1191 
 
 iiny other body had power to go behind the 
 ■certificate of the electoral vote of a state, 
 properly signed and authenticated by the 
 state officials ; and that when such certifi- 
 cates were presented to the two houses of 
 congress, at the counting of the electoral 
 votes of the states, they must be accepted 
 without question, and the electoral votes of 
 Florida and Louisiana be counted for 
 Hayes. They declared that the states had 
 power to make any laws they might see fit 
 for the counting of their popular vote, and 
 
 crats, on the other hand, maintained that 
 the popular majority for Tilden in Florida 
 and Louisiana was too evident to be 
 doubted, being simply overwhelming in the 
 latter state, and that the return boards had 
 overcome these majorities only by a fraud- 
 ulent use of their powers in throwing out 
 democratic votes to an extent sufficient to 
 give Florida and Louisiana to the republi- 
 cans. They declared, moreover, that, as 
 the Louisiana board had refused to appoint 
 a democratic member to the vacancy in 
 
 BIRDS'-EYE VIEW OF NEW YORK. CITY. 
 
 that for congress to seek to interfere with 
 such laws would be to illegally trespass 
 upon the reserved rights of the states. 
 They held, therefore, that as the action of 
 the return boards was within the letter of 
 the laws of their respective states, Florida 
 and Louisiana must be counted for Hayes ; 
 and in order to maintain this position the 
 republican party was compelled to assume 
 the strange and inconsistent role of the 
 champion of states' rights, the doctrine 
 against which it had waged a relentless 
 ■Nvar of nearlv twenty vears. The deiuo- 
 
 that body, as required by the law under 
 which they acted, their action was neces- 
 sarily illegal. They held that, as both 
 Florida and Louisiana had been wrongfully 
 and fraudulently given to the republicans 
 by the return boards, in defiance of the 
 will of the people of those states, as ex- 
 pressed at the polls, the electoral votes of 
 both of those states should not be counted 
 by congress. Such action on the part of 
 congress would have resulted in a declara- 
 tion by that body that there had been no 
 popular choice of a jiresident and vice- 
 
1192 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 president, and the election of the president 
 would have devolved upon the house of 
 representatives, and the choice of the vice- 
 president upon the senate, in accordance 
 with the provisions of the constitution. 
 The democrats, therefore, declared that 
 they would insist upon the rejection of the 
 votes of Florida and Louisiana, upon the 
 ground of fraud on the part of the return 
 boards; and the republicans announced 
 their decision to insist upon the counting 
 of the votes of those states as certified by 
 the state officials. Each party denounced 
 the other with great bitterness ; the country 
 was deeply agitated, and threats of armed 
 
 that, by the terms of the constitution, the 
 vice-president was compelled to open the 
 certificates of the states in the presence of 
 the two houses of congress, in joint conven- 
 tion, and declare the result, the two houses 
 being present merely as witnesses of the 
 count by the vice-president. With this 
 view the republicans in the lower house 
 agreed. The democrats in both houses 
 maintained that while the constitution re- 
 quired the vice-president to open the certifi- 
 cates and count the electoral votes, the two 
 houses of congress were made the judges of 
 the legality of those certificates, and that, 
 in the case of the presentation of two cer- 
 
 THE TTNITED STATES TREASTTEY, WASHINGTON CITY. 
 
 resistance were freely indulged in by both 
 parties. The crisis was the most alarming 
 that had threatened the country since the 
 outbreak of the civil war. A feeling of 
 general uneasiness prevailed throughout 
 the Union, which showed itself in the de- 
 pression of business in all sections. 
 
 Congress met on the 4th of December, 
 1876. The house of representatives was 
 organized by the democratic majority by 
 the election of Samuel J. Randall, of Penn- 
 sylvania, as speaker. Immediately upon 
 the organization of congress the question of 
 the manner of counting the electoral votes 
 of the states came up in that body. The 
 republican majority in the senate claimed 
 
 tificates from the same state, the two houses 
 were the rightful judges of which was the 
 proper one ; and that, in the event of a 
 failure of the two houses to agree in such a 
 decision, the vote of such state must be re- 
 jected. In support of this view they 
 brought forward the twenty-second joint 
 rule of congress, adopted February 6th, 
 1865, by a republican congress, and under 
 which the counting of the electoral vote 
 in 1865, 1869, and 1873 had been can- 
 ducted. This rule was designed to secui-e a 
 republican triumph at the time of its pas- 
 sage, but in January, 1876, when it was evi- 
 dent that, the house of representatives having 
 become democratic, the rule would be used 
 
FROM THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1193 
 
 by the democrats for their own advantage, 
 the senate, still republican, passed a con- 
 current resolution adopting the joint rules 
 of the previous session of congress as the 
 joint rules for that session, " excepting the 
 twenty-second joint rule." The house failed 
 to act upon the resolution. At the opening 
 of the session in December, 1876, the presi- 
 dent of the senate ruled that there were no 
 joint rules in operation. The speaker of 
 the house, on the other hand, ruled that the 
 joint rules previously existing still existed. 
 Thus the issue between the two houses was 
 distinctly made. The house declared its 
 intention of insisting upon the right secured 
 to it by the twenty-second joint rule of 
 objecting to the vote of a state, and that it 
 would withdraw from the joint convention 
 if this right were denied it by the senate. 
 The senate declared that, in case of such 
 withdrawal by the house, the count would 
 be continued by the senate, and the result 
 proclaimed by the vice-president. The 
 house, on the other hand, announced its 
 intention of acting in such a case as if there 
 had been no choice by the electoral vote; it 
 would at once proceed to elect the president 
 as required by the constitution. Each 
 house was firm in its resolution, and the 
 breach between them widened daily. Angry 
 speeches and threats were made by members 
 of congress, and the general alarm and un- 
 easiness deepened throughout the country. 
 The time appointed by the constitution for 
 couuting the electoral vote was rapidly 
 drawing nigh, and it seemed likely that an 
 era of anarchy was about to ensue. Each 
 house would act for itself; two presidents 
 would be declared elected. There was no 
 doubt that President Grant would sustain 
 the choice of the senate with the army. 
 In such an event civil war was inevitable. 
 
 The danger was so great that patriotic 
 men of both parties in congress set to work 
 to devise soma means of settlement. It was 
 plain that this could be accomplished only 
 by a compromise. A conference committee 
 was appointed by each house, which com- 
 mittee, after a long deliberation, reported to 
 the two houses of congress a bill providing 
 for the appointment of a commission, to 
 consist of fifteen members. Five of these 
 were to be appointed by the senate, and five 
 by the house of representatives. The re- 
 maining five were to be chosen from the 
 justices of the supreme court. Four of the 
 justices were designated by the bill ; the 
 fifth was to be chosen by the justices named 
 
 in the bill. The bill provided for the 
 meeting of the two houses of congress in 
 joint convention on the first Thursday in 
 February. The votes were to be opened by 
 the vice-president, and counted by tellers 
 appointed for the purpose. Each house 
 was to have the right to object to the vote 
 of a state, but in cases where only one cer- 
 tificate was presented, the objection must be 
 sustained by the affirmative vote of both 
 houses. If not so sustained, the objection 
 must fall and the vote be counted. Section 
 II. of the bill provided, " That, if more than 
 one return, or paper purporting to be a re- 
 turn from a state, shall have been received 
 by the president of the senate, purporting 
 to be the certificates of electoral votes given 
 at the last preceding election for president 
 and vice-president in such state (unless 
 they shall be duplicates of the same return), 
 all such returns and papers shall be opened 
 by him in the presence of the two houses 
 when met as aforesaid, and read by the 
 tellers, and all such returns and papers 
 shall thereupon be submitted to the judg- 
 ment and decision, as to which is the true 
 and lawful electoral vote of such state," of 
 the commission appointed by the bill. The 
 decision of the commission, with the reasons 
 therefor, was to be submitted to the two 
 houses of congress. Should objection be 
 made by five senators and five representa- 
 tives to the report of the commission, the 
 two houses were to separate and discuss the 
 said objections, the time allowed for debate 
 being limited by the bill ; but unless both 
 houses should agree to sustain the objec- 
 tions, the decision of the commission should 
 stand. 
 
 This plan met with considerable favor 
 from the conservative element of both 
 houses, but was strongly opposed by the 
 more ultra of both parties. It was debated 
 at length and with great vigor. It passed 
 the senate on the 25th of January, 1877, by 
 a vote of 47 yeas and 17 nays ; ten senators 
 not voting. The vote in the house was 
 taken the next day, and stood, yeas, 191 ; 
 nays, 86 ; fourteen representatives not 
 voting. The vote in the senate was di- 
 vided as follows : Yeas — Republicans, 21 ; 
 Democrats, 46. Nays — Republicans, 16 ; 
 Democrats, 1. In the house it stood : Yeas 
 — Democrats, 159: Republicans, 32. Nays 
 — Democrats, 18 ; Republicans, 68. The 
 bill was immediately signed by President 
 Grant, who had from the first given it his 
 warm encouragement. 
 
1194 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The members of the commission were 
 promjDtly appointed. They were as follows : 
 Justices Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field and 
 Bradley, of the supreme court; Senators 
 Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- 
 mau and Bayard ; and Representatives 
 Payne, Hunton, Abbott, Garfield and 
 Hoar, 
 
 The two houses of congress met in joint 
 convention on the 1st of February, 1877, 
 and began the counting of the electoral 
 vote. When the vote of Florida was 
 
 commission mortified and disgusted the 
 whole country, which had looked to the 
 commission for a decision that should be 
 beyond question. A similar conclusion was 
 come to in the case of Louisiana. Objec- 
 tions were made to the reception of the 
 votes of Oregon and South Carolina. In 
 the Oregon case the decision was unani- 
 mously in favor of counting the votes of the 
 Hayes' electors. In the South Carolina case 
 the commission decided that the democratic 
 electors were not lawfully chosen ; but on 
 
 BOSTON IN 1878. 
 
 reached, three certificates were presented 
 and were referred to the electoral commis- 
 sion. This body, upon hearing the argu- 
 ments of the council of the democratic and 
 republican parties, decided that it had no 
 power to go behind the action of the return 
 board, and that the certificate of that body 
 giving the vote of that state to Hayes must 
 be accepted by the two houses of congress. 
 The vote by which this decision was reached 
 stood eight (all republicans) in favor of it, 
 and seven (all democrats) against it. The 
 party line appearing thus so sharply in the 
 
 the motion to give the state to Hayes, the 
 vote stood eight yeas to seven nays. So 
 South Carolina was counted for Hayes. 
 Objection was made, on the ground of in- 
 eligibility, to certain electors from Michi- 
 gan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
 Vermont and Wisconsin, but the objec- 
 tions were not sustained by the two houses. 
 The final result was reached at ten min- 
 utes after four o'clock on the morning of the 
 2d of March, 1877. The counting of the votes 
 of the states having been concluded, Mr. Al- 
 lison, one of the tellers on the part of the 
 
FROM THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1195 
 
 senate, announced the result of the footings ; 
 whereupon the presiding officer of the two 
 houses declared Rutherford B. Hayes, of 
 Ohio, the duly elected president, and Wil- 
 liam A. Wheeler, of New York, the duly 
 elected vice-president, for the term of four 
 years, commencing on the 4th of March, 
 1877. 
 
 The country had watched the proceedings 
 of the electoral commission with the deep- 
 est interest, and with feelings of pain and 
 disgust at the strong partisan bias which 
 marked all of its decisions. For a while there 
 was a disposition to re- 
 ject its award ; but the 
 conservative sentiment of 
 the nation prevailed, and 
 it was finally resolved t( 
 accept the decision as the> 
 only escape from worse 
 trouble. 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, 
 the nineteenth President 
 of the United States, was 
 inaugurated at Washing- 
 ton on Monday, the 5th 
 of March, 1877, with im- 
 posing ceremonies. 
 
 The most important 
 matter which presented 
 itself to the new president 
 for settlement was the 
 condition of the states of 
 Louisiana and South Car- 
 olina. Under President 
 Grant the troops of the 
 United States had been 
 freely used to control the 
 political affairs of those 
 states. In the fall of 1876 
 an election for governor 
 and other state officers 
 was held in each of these states. The 
 result at the polls was in favor of the dem- 
 ocratic or conservative candidates. In each 
 state the revision of the vote was controlled 
 by the most ultra republicans, some of 
 whom were candidates for re-election. The 
 returning boards, therefore, made such 
 changes in the poj)ular vote as they found 
 necessary for their own success, and an- 
 nounced the triumph of the republican 
 tickets in Louisiana and South Carolina. 
 The outrage was too transparent this time, 
 and the patience of the people was ex- 
 hausted. The republican party of the 
 North declined to sustain their southern 
 associates any longer. 
 
 In South Carolina the conservatives re- 
 solved to inaugurate General Wade Hamp- 
 ton, their candidate, as governor. All inves- 
 tigations into the election made it evident 
 that Hampton and his associates had been 
 fairly chosen by the people at the polls ; and 
 the party which had elected him, and which 
 represented the property and intelligence 
 of the state, determined not to submit to 
 the rule of the men whom they had de- 
 feated. The governor of the state was Mr. 
 Daniel H. Chamberlain, who had been the 
 republican candidate for re-election. Upon 
 
 EUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 learning the intention of the democrats to 
 inaugurate their governor, Mr. Chamberlain 
 applied to President Grant for military aid. 
 He hoped to repeat in South Carolina what 
 had been done in Louisiana — to organize 
 his legislature under the protection of the 
 troops of the United States, declare the re- 
 sult of the election in his favor, and compel 
 the people to submit on pain of a conflict 
 with the United States. His application to 
 President Grant was promptly responded 
 to, and General Ruger, commanding the 
 department of the south, was ordered to 
 place the troops stationed in Columbia at 
 Governor Chamberlain's disposal. Hav- 
 ing secured the aid of the troops. Governor 
 
1196 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Chamberlain now proceeded to take the 
 first step in his plan. On the night of the 
 27th of November the state house was oc- 
 cupied by a detachment of troops, which 
 was posted so as to command all the ap- 
 proaches to the halls of the legislature. 
 
 The 28th of November, 1876, was the 
 day appointed for the meeting of the legis- 
 lature. The democratic members met in 
 caucus at ten o'clock in the morning, and 
 proceeded in a body to the state house. 
 Arriving there they found the building oc- 
 cupied by the troops, and were compelled 
 to submit their credentials to the officer of 
 the guard, who admitted such as had papers 
 which he pronounced satisfactory. Passing 
 through the troops the members of the 
 legislature reached the door of the hall of 
 the lower house, which they found guarded 
 also by troops. The doorkeeper, backed 
 by the military force, refused to admit cer- 
 tain of the delegates, whose credentials he 
 declared were null and void. The entire 
 body of democratic members then with- 
 drew, after protesting against the inter- 
 ference of the military. Under the protec- 
 tion of the troops the republicans organized 
 the legislature. 
 
 The interference of the troops aroused 
 the most intense excitement in Columbia, 
 and it was with difficulty that an outbreak 
 was prevented, mainly through the influ- 
 ence of General Hampton. This indigna- 
 tion spread throughout the country, and 
 the unwarrantable interference of President 
 Grant in the domestic aflkirs of a state was 
 sharply denounced. 
 
 The democrats, on the 29th of November, 
 succeeded in gaining admission to the state 
 house, where they organized the house of 
 representatives. After a struggle of a week 
 with the republicans, they withdrew to 
 South Carolina Hall, and conducted the 
 sessions of their legislature there, gaining 
 members by degrees from Chamberlain's 
 legislature at the state house. The repub- 
 lican legislature declared the election of 
 Governor Chamberlain, and on the 7th of 
 December he was sworn into office, under 
 the protection of the federal troops. 
 
 The conservative legislature continued 
 its sessions at South Carolina Hall, and on 
 the 14th of December Governor Hampton 
 was publicly inaugurated amid the greatest 
 enthusiasm. He at once set to work, with 
 his associates, to administer the govern- 
 ment of the state. He was recognized by 
 the vast majority of the people of South 
 
 Carolina, by many even who had voted 
 against him. His authority was every- 
 where respected ; and his calls upon the 
 people to advance a portion of the taxes to 
 enable him to carry on the government 
 were cordially and promptly responded to. 
 The authority of Governor Chamberlain 
 was not recognized beyond the limits of the 
 state house, in which the federal troops were 
 quartered ; the people refused to pay their 
 taxes to his government, and his governor- 
 ship was a mere name. In view of this 
 state of afiairs President Grant was repeat- • 
 edly urged to withdraw the troops from the 
 state buildings to their barracks ; but as he 
 knew that such a step would result in the 
 downfall of the Chamberlain government, 
 he persistently refused to do so. 
 
 Such was the state of aflJairs in South 
 Carolina at the inauguration of President 
 Hayes. The new president, with charac- 
 teristic caution, proceeded to investigate the 
 matter. After a patient and thorough in- 
 quiry he found that the federal troops were 
 quartered in the state house of South Car- 
 olina in an unlawful manner ; that the con- 
 stitution gave to the federal government no 
 authority to interfere in the domestic con- 
 cerns of a state, leaving the decision of 
 disputed ele'ctions to the state courts for 
 settlement ; and that no such state of law- 
 lessness or insurrection as would justify 
 federal interference existed in South Car- 
 olina. In view of these facts, his duty in 
 the case was plain. It was to restore the 
 proper relations between the federal gov- 
 ernment and the state of South Carolina, 
 and to put an end to the unlawful and un- 
 justifiable interference with the afl'airs of 
 that state. The matter was laid before the 
 cabinet, and on the 2d of April, 1877, it 
 was resolved to order the troops to with- 
 draw from the state house to their barracks 
 at Columbia. The order was at once issued, 
 and was carried into effect on the 6th of 
 April. The troops were withdrawn, and 
 South Carolina was left to settle her own 
 affairs. This step was followed by the 
 speedy withdrawal of Governor Chamber- 
 lain from the contest. The Hampton gov- 
 ernment was soon installed in the state 
 house, and its authority was firmly estab- 
 lished in all parts of the state, to the great 
 joy of its people. 
 
 The state buildings of Louisiana had 
 been held by the federal troops ever since 
 the expulsion of the members of the legis- 
 lature by General De Trobriand in 1873.- 
 
FBOM THE CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 1197 
 
 At the election, in 1876, Mr. Stephen B. 
 Packard was the republican candidate for 
 governor, and Mr. H. T. Nicholls was the 
 candidate of the democratic party for the 
 same office. The election resulted in the 
 choice at the polls of Governor Nicholls by 
 an overwhelming majority. The returning 
 board, however, so manipulated the popular 
 vote as to make it appear that Mr. Packard 
 had been chosen governor. This fraud- 
 ulent return was supported by the federal 
 
 day Mr. Packard was sworn into office 
 under the protection of the troops. The 
 Nicholls government got to work as soon 
 as possible ; its authority was recognized 
 throughout the state by the courts and 
 people ; taxes were paid to it, and it was 
 indorsed and supported by a vast majority 
 of the people of Louisiana. President 
 Grant was urged to remove the troops from 
 the State-house and other buildings be- 
 longing to Louisiana, and was assured that 
 
 THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON CITY. 
 
 government, and under the protection of 
 the troops Packard was inaugurated. 
 
 The substitution of Mr. Packard for Mr. 
 Kellogg as Governor of Louisiana did not 
 touch the evils from which the people of that 
 state had been suffering for so many years. 
 Their patience was exhausted, and they re- 
 solved to repudiate the men that had been 
 forced upon them and to sustain the govern- 
 ment of their choice. The conservative legis- 
 lature was accordingly organized, and on 
 the 8th of January, 1877, Governor Nicholls 
 was publicly inaugurated. On the same 
 
 the Packard government would fall to 
 pieces for lack of support as soon as he 
 should take the troops away. He refused 
 to do so, however. 
 
 President Hayes found Louisiana in this 
 condition when he entered upon his duties 
 as chief magistrate. He selected a com- 
 mission, consisting of four republicans and 
 one democrat, and these gentlemen, at his 
 request, proceeded to New Orleans to in- 
 vestigate and report to him the real state 
 of affairs in Louisiana. They made an in- 
 vestigation of the affairs of the state, and 
 
1198 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 found Packard a governor in name only, 
 while the authority of the Nicholls govern- 
 ment extended throughout the state. They 
 found also that the condition of affairs in 
 Louisiana was not such as to justify the 
 further interference of the federal govern- 
 ment in the domestic concerns of the state. 
 The conclusions of the commission were 
 reported to the president on the 19th of 
 April, and the next day he issued the order 
 to withdraw the United States troops in 
 New Orleans from the state buildings to 
 their barracks. The troops were withdrawn 
 at noon on the 24th of April, amid the re- 
 joicings of the people. Governor Packard 
 at once abandoned the contest. The mem- 
 
 bers of his legislature joined the Nicholls 
 legislature, and the affairs of the state were 
 once more placed in her own hands. 
 
 The action of the president in with- 
 drawing the troops from South Carolina and 
 Louisiana gave great satisfaction to the 
 country at large. A small class of extreme 
 politicians were disposed to denounce it, but 
 their partisan outcries were silenced by 
 the general voice of approval which came 
 from all parts of the Union. The nation 
 was sick of civil war and partisan strife, 
 and hailed the action of the president as 
 the beginning of the long-hoped-for, long- 
 delayed era of peace and good-will. 
 
 book: x:x:x:iii. 
 
 THE HISTOHY OF THE DOIVIINION 
 
 OE OA.N^D^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF CANADA TO 
 THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Canada — Discoveries of 
 Cartier — The First Emigrants — The St. Lawrence 
 Discovered and Named — Cartier at Montreal — 
 Failure of the Enterprise — Colonies of Roberval 
 and Cartier — Samuel Champlain — Des Monts 
 Settles Nova Scotia — Quebec Founded — Death of 
 Champlain — Character of tlie French Settlements 
 — Intercourse with the Indians — Laboi's of the 
 Jesuit Missionaries — Wars with the English Col- 
 onies — Canada Ceded to Great Britain — Settle- 
 ment of Nova Scotia by the French — Argall's 
 Expedition — Efforts of the English to Settle the 
 Peninsula — Port Royal Taken by them — Nova 
 Scotia Ceded to Great Britain — Expulsion of the 
 Acadians — Settlement of New Brunswick and 
 Prince Edward Island — The British Provinces 
 during the American Revolution — The War of 
 1812-15 — Canada after the Peace — Its Marked 
 Prosperity — The Welland Canal — Rebellion of 
 1837 — Union of Upper and Lower Canada — The 
 Montreal Riots — Ottawa Made the Capital— The 
 Fenian Invasion — The Dominion of Canada Es- 
 tablished. 
 
 )HE Dominion of Canada occupies 
 the northern part of the continent 
 of North America. It is bounded 
 on the north by the Arctic Ocean, 
 on the east by the Atlantic, on the 
 south by the United States, and on 
 
 the west by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. 
 
 It comprises the following provinces and 
 
 territories : British Columbia, 220,000 
 square miles ; Manitoba, 14,340 square 
 miles ; New Brunswick, 27,322 square miles ; 
 Northwest territories (exclusive of La- 
 brador and the islands in the Arctic Ocean), 
 2,750,000 square miles; Nova Scotia, 21,- 
 731 square miles ; Ontario, 107,780 square 
 miles ; Prince Edward Island, 2,173 square 
 miles ; and Quebec, 193,355 square miles ; 
 making the total area 3,336,701 square 
 miles. The population in 1875 was 3,712,- 
 331 ; of which Ontario has 1,620,851, and 
 Quebec 1,191,516. Labrador is not in- 
 cluded in the dominion, being a part of the 
 province of Newfoundland, the only Brit- 
 ish American province which has not en- 
 tered the dominion. 
 
 Until 1867 the term Canada was ap- 
 plied only to the provinces of Ontario and 
 Quebec. 
 
 In the year 1534 Chabot, Admiral of 
 France, induced Francis I. to send out an 
 exploring expedition to America. The ex- 
 pedition was placed under the command of 
 Jacques Cartier, a mariner of St. Malo, 
 and despatched in April, 1534, for the pur- 
 pose of exploring the American coast with 
 a view to colonizing it. A quick voyage 
 of twenty days carried Cartier to New- 
 foundland. Having passed through the 
 Straits of Belleisle, he crossed the gulf and 
 
FR03r THE SETTLEMENT OF CANADA TO THE PRESENT BAY. 1199 
 
 entered a Day which he named DesChaleurs, 
 from the extreme heats he experienced 
 there. He proceeded along the coast as 
 far as the small inlet called Gaspe, where 
 he landed and took formal possession of the 
 country in the name of the King of France. 
 Leaving Gaspe bay, Cartier discovered the 
 great river of Canada, and sailed up the 
 stream until he could see the land on 
 either side. His explorations consumed 
 the months of May, June and July. Being 
 unprepared to pass the winter in America, 
 the fleet sailed for Europe early in August, 
 and reached St. Malo in safety in about 
 thirty days. 
 
 The reports of Cartier concerning Amer- 
 ica aroused the deepest intei*est in France, 
 and it was determined by the government 
 to proceed at once to the founding of a 
 colony in the new world. A fleet of three 
 well-equipped ships was fitted out, and vol- 
 unteers from some of the noblest families 
 in France were not lacking. The whole 
 company repaired to the cathedral, where 
 they received the bishop's blessing, and on 
 the 19th of May, 1535, the expedition 
 sailed from St. Malo. The voyage was 
 long and stormy, but Newfoundland was 
 reached at length. Passing through the 
 straits of Belleisle, they entered the gulf 
 lying west of Newfoundland on the 10th 
 of August, the festival of St. Lawrence the 
 martyr, and gave to the gulf the name of 
 that saiut, which was subsequently applied 
 to the great river emptying into it. The 
 voyagers ascended the stream to the island 
 since called Orleans. There the fleet an- 
 chored, while Cartier proceeded farther up 
 the river to the chief Indian settlement on 
 the island of Hochelega. It was the de- 
 lightful season of September, and the 
 country was beautiful and inviting. Car- 
 tier ascended a hill, at the foot of which 
 the Indian settlement lay, and gazed with 
 admiration at the magnificent region which 
 spread out before him. He named the hill 
 Mont Real, or Royal mount, a name which 
 is now borne by the island and by the great 
 city which marks the site of the Indiau 
 village. 
 
 The balminess of the autumn induced 
 Cartier to hope that the climate would 
 prove as mild as that of France ; but a 
 rigorous winter, which was rendered hor- 
 rible by the prevalence of scurvy among 
 the ships' crews, disheartened the whole ex- 
 pedition. The winter was spent at the Isle 
 of Orleans, and in the early spring Cartier 
 
 erected a cross on the shore, to which was 
 afiixed a shield inscribed with the arms of 
 France and a legend declaring Francis I. 
 the true and rightful king of the country. 
 The fleet then sailed for France, and ar- 
 rived at St. Malo on the 6th of July, 1536. 
 Cartier published a truthful account of his 
 voyage, setting forth the severity of the 
 Canadian climate and the absence of mines 
 of precious metals. His report checked for 
 the time the enthusiasm with which the 
 French had regarded America, and for four 
 years the plan of colonizing the new country 
 was laid aside. 
 
 Some ardent spirits, however, still be- 
 lieved in the possibility of planting suc- 
 cessful colonies in the new world and bring- 
 ing that vast region under the dominion of 
 France. Among these was Francis de la 
 Roque, Loi-d of Roberval, a nobleman of 
 Picardy. He was appointed, by King 
 Francis, viceroy of the territories on or 
 near the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, to 
 which the high-sounding name of Norim- 
 bega was given, and was empowered to col- 
 onize it. The assistance of Cartier was 
 necessary to such an undertaking, and he 
 had the additional advantage of possessing 
 the entire confidence of the king. Roberval 
 was forced to employ him, and Cartier was 
 given authority by the king to search the 
 prisons and take from them such persons as 
 he needed for the expedition. Roberval 
 and Cartier, however, failed to agree, and 
 their dissensions defeated the object of the 
 undertaking. Cartier sailed from St. Malo 
 in May, 1541, and ascended the St. Law- 
 rence to a point near the present city of 
 Quebec, where he built a fort. The winter 
 was passed in idleness and discord, and in 
 the spring of 1542 Cartier abandoned the 
 attempt, and sailed away for Fiance with 
 his ships just as Roberval arrived with a 
 large reinforcement. 
 
 Roberval was unable to accomplish more 
 than Cartier. His new subjects had been 
 largely drawn from the prisons, and they 
 gave him considerable trouble, if we may 
 judge from the efforts resorted to to keep 
 them quiet. One of them was hanged for 
 theft during the winter, several were put 
 in irons, and a number of men and women 
 were whipped. After remaining in Canada 
 for a year, Roberval became disheartened, 
 and re-embarked his subjects and returned 
 to France. 
 
 Nearly thirty years passed away, during 
 which the French made no effort to secure 
 
1200 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 to themselves the region of the St. Law- 
 rence. Their fishermen, however, continued 
 to frequent the American waters. By the 
 close of the sixteenth century 150 vessels 
 were engaged in the fisheries of Newfound- 
 land, and voyages for the purpose of trad- 
 ing with the Indians had become common. 
 In 1598 the Marquis de la Roche, a noble- 
 man of Brittany, attempted to plant a col- 
 ony on the Isle of Sable. The colonists 
 consisted of criminals from the prisons of 
 France, and the effort proved a failure. 
 
 In 1600 Chauvin obtained a patent from 
 the crown, conferring upon him a monoply 
 of the fur trade, and Pontgrave, a mer- 
 chant of St. Malo, became his partner in the 
 enterprise. Two successful voyages were 
 made to Canada, and Chauvin intended 
 
 territory embraced the St. Lawrence region, 
 the Rouen company were unable for the 
 present to accomplish anything. Des Monts 
 proceeded with his preparations, and in 
 March, 1604, an expedition consisting of 
 two ships was sent out to Acadie, or Nova 
 Scotia. The summer was passed in trading 
 with the Indians and exploring the coast, 
 and in the autumn the colonists made a 
 settlement on the island of St. Croix, at the 
 mouth of the river of the same name. In 
 the spring of 1605 tliey abandoned this 
 settlement and removed to Port Royal, now 
 known as Annapolis. Efforts were made 
 to find a more southern location in the 
 latter part of 1605 and 1606, but the expe- 
 ditions sent out for this purpose were driven 
 back by storms, or wrecked among the 
 
 SCENE ON THE ST. LAWRENCE. 
 
 founding a colony there. His death, in 
 1602, prevented the execution of this plan. 
 
 In 1603 a company of merchants of 
 Rouen was organized, and Samuel Cham- 
 plain, an able and experienced officer of 
 the French navy, was placed in charge of 
 an expedition, and sent to Canada to ex- 
 plore the country. He was in every way 
 qualified for the task committed to him, 
 and after making a thorough and systematic 
 examination of the region of the St. Law- 
 rence, and fixing upon Quebec as the proper 
 site for a fort, returned to France and laid 
 before his employers his report, which is 
 still valuable for its accurate description of 
 the country and the manners of the natives. 
 
 Soon after Champlain's return to France 
 a patent was issued to Des Monts, confer- 
 ring upon him the sole right to colonize the 
 vast region lying between the fortieth and 
 forty-sixth parallels of latitude. As this 
 
 shoals of Cape Cod, and the colonists de- 
 cided to remain at Port Royal. Thus the 
 permanency of the colony was established. 
 Some years later a number of Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries were sent out to Port Royal. 
 These labored diligently among the tribes 
 between the Penobscot and the Kennebec, 
 and not only spread the Christian faith 
 among them, but won for the French the 
 constant affection of the savages. During 
 all her contests with the English in Amer- 
 ica, these tribes remained the faithful and 
 unwavering allies of France. 
 
 In the meantime the French merchants 
 had succeeded in obtaining a revocation of 
 the impolitic monopoly of Des Monts. A 
 company of merchants of St. Malo and 
 Dieppe was foj-med, and an expedition was 
 sent out to Canada under Champlain, who 
 " aimed not at the profits of trade, but at 
 the glory of founding a state." On the 3d 
 
FROM THE SETTLEMEJSIT OF CANADA TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1201 
 
 of July, 1608, the city of Quebec was be- 
 gun by the erection of one or two cottages. 
 In 1609 Champlain, with but two Euro- 
 peans, joined a party of Hurons from Mon- 
 treal, and Algonquius from Quebec, in an 
 expedition against the Five Nations. He 
 ascended the Sorel, explored the lake which 
 is now called by his name, and examined a 
 considerable part of northern New York. 
 The religious disputes of France spread to 
 the colony, and Champlain was obliged to 
 use all his energy and authority to over- 
 come the evils which these inflicted upon 
 the infant settlement. He succeeded in over- 
 coming them, and by his energy and perse- 
 verance the fortunes of Quebec were placed 
 beyond the reach of failure. Champlain 
 died in 1635, and was buried in " New 
 France," of which he is justly called " the 
 father." 
 
 The efforts of Champlain established the 
 settlement of Canada upon a sure basis of 
 success, and after his death settlers came 
 over to Canada from France in considerable 
 numbers. Quebec became an important 
 place, and other settlements were founded. 
 It was apparent from the first that the 
 French colonies must occupy a very differ- 
 ent footing from those of England. The 
 soil and the climate were both unfavorable 
 to agriculture, and the French settlements 
 were of necessity organized chiefly as trad- 
 ing-posts. The trade in furs was immensely 
 valuable, and the French sought to secure 
 the exclusive possession of it. To this end 
 it was indispensable to secure the friend- 
 ship of the Indians, especially of those 
 tribes inhabiting the country to the north 
 and west of the great lakes. 
 
 In 1634, three years before the death of 
 Champlain, Louis XHI. granted a charter 
 to a company of French nobles and mer- 
 chants, bestowing upon them the entire 
 region embraced in the valley of the St. 
 Lawrence, then known as New France. 
 Richelieu and Champlain, who were mem- 
 bers of this company, were wise enough to 
 understand that their countrymen were not 
 suited to the task of colonization, and that 
 if France was to found an empire in the 
 new world, it must be by civilizing and 
 Christianizing the Indians, and bringing 
 them under the rule of her king, and not 
 by seeking to people Canada with French- 
 men. From this time it became the policy 
 of France to bring the savages under her 
 sway. The efforts of the settlers in Canada 
 were mainly devoted to trading with the 
 76 
 
 Indians, and no attempt was made to found 
 an agricultural state. 
 
 The task of Christianizing and civilizing 
 the savages was confided to the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries. These pushed their operations 
 far beyond the limits of Canada, and by the 
 close of the year 1646 the French had 
 established a line of missions extending 
 across the continent from Lake Superior to 
 Nova Scotia, and between sixty and seventy 
 missionaries were actively engaged in in- 
 structing and preaching to tiie savages. 
 How far the labors of these devoted men 
 were actually successful will never be 
 known, as their work was of a character 
 which cannot be submitted to any human 
 test. They did not succeed, however, in 
 changing either the character or the habits 
 of their converts. They were still wild men, 
 who scorned to engage in the labor of culti- 
 vating their lands, and lived by hunting 
 and fishing. They learned to engage in 
 the religious services of the missionaries : 
 to chant matins and vespers, but they made 
 no approach to civilization. When in after 
 years the zeal of the whites for their con- 
 version became less active, and the mis- 
 sionaries less numerous, they fell back into 
 their old ways. 
 
 Though the French were exceedingly 
 successful in establishing friendly relations 
 with the Indians dwelling in Canada, they 
 were almost constantly at war with the 
 Iroquois, or, as they were afterwards called 
 by the English, the Five Nations, who 
 dwelt south of the lakes. 
 
 The efforts of the French to control the 
 valley of the Mississippi at length brought 
 them in conflict with the English colonies, 
 and led to several wars between them. The 
 events of these wars have been related in 
 The History of the United States, to which 
 the reader is referred, and need not be re- 
 peated here. The struggle was ended by 
 the capture of Quebec in 1759 by the Eng- 
 lish army under General Wolfe, and of 
 Montreal by General Amherst in 1760. 
 On the 10th of February, 1763, the treaty 
 of Paris was signed. By this treaty all 
 the French possessions in North America 
 east of the Mississippi were ceded to Great 
 Britain. Thus Canada became an English 
 province. 
 
 Nova Scotia was discovered by the Cabots, 
 but the first settlement was made, as we 
 have seen, by Des Mouts in 1604. He 
 named the country Acadia. For eight 
 years efforts were made to found settlements 
 
1202 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 at Port Royal, now Annapolis, and other 
 places. In 1613 Captain Samuel Argall, 
 commanding an English vessel, discovered 
 these settlements and destroyed them, claim- 
 ing the country for England in right of the 
 original discovery by Cabot. In 1621 
 James I. of England granted the peninsula 
 to Sir William Alexander, under the name 
 of Nova Scotia. Alexander intended to 
 colonize the country upon an extensive 
 scale, and sent out several companies of 
 emigrants. These found the places they 
 intended to colonize already settled by the 
 French, who had returned after Argall's 
 departure, and sailed back to England. 
 The French settlements increased rapidly, 
 and soon covered the greater part of the 
 peninsula. Under Cromwell the English 
 claim to Nova Scotia was renewed, and in 
 1654astrong expedition reduced the French 
 to submission to Great Britain. In 1667 
 the treaty of Breda restored Nova Scotia 
 to France. After this several efforts were 
 made by the English to conquer Nova 
 Scotia. These are related in The History 
 of the United States, to which the reader is 
 referred. In 1710 an expedition from Bos- 
 ton, aided by an English fleet, took Port 
 Royal, drove the French out of the greater 
 part of the province, and annexed it to 
 Great Britain under the name of Nova 
 Scotia. The name of Port Royal was 
 changed to Annapolis, in honor of the 
 English queen. In 1713 the treaty of 
 Utrecht ceded Nova Scotia to Great 
 Britain. 
 
 A considerable part of Nova Scotia still 
 remained in the hands of the Acadians, 
 or French settlers. It lay at the head of 
 the Bay of Fundy, and was defended by 
 two French forts. This region was the 
 oldest French colony in North America, 
 having been settled sixteen years before 
 the landing of the Pilgrims, but was re- 
 garded by the English as within their juris- 
 diction. In May, 1755, during the French 
 and Indian war, an expedition of three 
 thousand New England troops was de- 
 spatched from Boston, under Colonel John 
 AVinslow, to attack these forts and establish 
 the English authority over the French 
 settlements. Upon reaching the Bay of 
 Fundy Winslow was joined by three hun- 
 dred English regulars, under Colonel 
 Monckton, who assumed the command. 
 The forts were taken with comparatively 
 little effort, and the authority of England 
 was extended over the whole of Nova Scotia. 
 
 The Acadians agreed to acknowledge the 
 authority of their new masters, and to ob- 
 serve a strict neutrality between France 
 and England in the war ; and the English 
 on their part promised not to require of them 
 the usual oaths of allegiance ; to excuse 
 them from bearing arms against France, 
 and to protect them in the exercise of the 
 Catholic religion. 
 
 The Acadians numbered about 17,000 
 souls. They were a simple and harmless 
 people, and were enjoying in a marked de- 
 gree the blessings of industry and thrift. 
 They had begun their settlements by de- 
 pending upon the fur-trade and the fisheries 
 for their support, but had abandoned these 
 pursuits for that of agriculture, which was 
 already yielding them rich rewai'ds for their 
 skill and labor. They were proud of their 
 farms and took but little interest in public 
 affairs, scarcely knowing what was trans- 
 piring in the world around them. It is 
 hard to imagine a more peaceful or a hap- 
 pier community than this one at the time 
 they passed under the baleful rule of Eng- 
 land. Crime was unknown among them, 
 and they seldom carried their disputes be- 
 fore the English magistrates, but settled 
 them by the arbitration of their old men. 
 They were devoted Catiiolics; and were at- 
 tached to the rule of France by language 
 and religion ; but submitted peacefully to 
 the rule of the English and faithfully 
 observed the tei-ms of their surrender. 
 
 Unfortunately for the Acadians their 
 possessions soon began to excite the envy 
 of the English. The English authorities 
 prepared a cunningly-devised scheme for 
 dispossessing these simple people of their 
 homes, and nojv proceeded to put it in exe- 
 cution. The usual oaths of allegiance had 
 not been tendered to the Acadians upon 
 their surrender, as it was known that as 
 Frenchmen and Catholics they could not 
 take them, as they required them to bear 
 arms against their own brethren in Canada, 
 and to make war upon their religion. It 
 was resolved now to offer the oaths to them, 
 and thus either drive them into rebellion 
 or force them to abandon their homes. 
 When this intention was known, the priests 
 urged their people to refuse the oaths. The 
 Acadians hesitated. 
 
 The officers sent by the English authori- 
 ties to enforce their demands acted with a 
 haughtiness and cruelty which added greatly 
 to the sorrows of the Acadians. Their 
 titles to their lands were declared null and 
 
FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF CANADA TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1203 
 
 void, and all their papers and title-deeds 
 were taken from them. Their property 
 was taken for the public service without 
 compensation, and if they failed to furnish 
 wood at the times required, the English 
 soldiers " might take their houses for fuel." 
 Their guns were seized, and they were de- 
 prived of their boats on the pretext that 
 they might be used to communicate with 
 the French in Canada. At last, wearied 
 out with these oppressions, the Acadians 
 offered to swear allegiance to Great Britain. 
 This, however, formed no part of the plan 
 of their persecutors, and they were answered, 
 that by a British statute persons who had 
 been once offered the oaths, and who had 
 refused them, could not be permitted to 
 take them, but ^ 
 must be treated fi 
 as popish re- 
 cusants. 
 
 This brought 
 matters to a 
 crisis, and the 
 English n o w 
 resolved toi 
 strike the de- 
 cisive blow. 
 A proclama- 
 tion was issued, 
 requiring "the 
 old men, and 
 young men, as g 
 well as all lads 
 over ten years 
 of age," to as- 
 semble on the 
 5th of Septem- 
 ber, 1755, at a 
 certain hour, at 
 
 designated places in their respective dis- 
 tricts, to hear the "wishes of the king." 
 In the greater number of places the order 
 was obeyed. What happened at the village 
 of Grand Pre, the principal settlement, will 
 show the course pursued by the English in 
 all the districts. Four hundred and eighteen 
 of the men of the place assembled. They 
 were unarmed, and were marched into the 
 church, which was securely guarded. Wins- 
 low, the New England commander, then 
 addressed them as follows : " You are con- 
 vened together to manifest to you his maj- 
 esty's final resolution to the French inhabi- 
 tants of this his province. Your lands and 
 tenements, cattle of all kinds, and live 
 stock of all sorts, are forfeited to the crown, 
 and you yourselves are to be removed from 
 
 this his province. I am, through his maj- 
 esty's goodness, directed to allow you liberty 
 to carry off your money and household 
 goods, as many as you can, without dis- 
 commoding the vessels you go in." He 
 then declared them, together with their 
 wives and children, a total of nineteen hun- 
 dred and twenty-three souls, the king's 
 prisoners. The announcement took the 
 unfortunate men by surprise, and filled 
 them with the deepest indignation ; but 
 they were unarmed, and unable to resist. 
 They were held close prisoners in the 
 church, and their homes, which they had 
 left in the morning full of hope, were to 
 see them no more. They were kept with- 
 out food for themselves or their children 
 
 VIEW OF MONTREAL FROM MOUNT ROYAL. 
 
 that day, and were poorly fed during the 
 remainder of their captivity. They were 
 held in confinement until the 10th of Sep- 
 tember, when it was announced that the 
 vessels were in readiness to carry them 
 away. They were not to be allowed to join 
 their brethren in Canada, lest they should 
 serve as a reinforcement to the French in 
 that province, but were to be scattered as 
 paupers through the English colouies, 
 among people of another race and a dif- 
 ferent faith. 
 
 On the morning of the 10th, the cap- 
 tives were drawn up six deep. The Eng- 
 lish, intending to make their trial as bitter 
 and as painful as possible, had resolved upon 
 the barbarous measure of separating the 
 families of their victims. The young men 
 
1204 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and boys were driven at the point of the 
 bayonet from the church to the ship, and 
 compelled to embark. They passed amid 
 the rows of their mothers and sisters, who, 
 kneeling, prayed heaven to bless and keep 
 them. Then the fathers and husbands 
 were forced by the bayonet on board of 
 another ship, and as the vessels were now 
 full, the women and children were left be- 
 hind until more ships could come for them. 
 They were kept for weeks near the sea, 
 suffering greatly from lack of proper 
 shelter and food, and it was December be- 
 fore the last of them were removed. Those 
 who tried to escape were ruthlessly shot 
 down by the sentinels. 
 
 In some of the settlements the designs of 
 the English were suspected and the procla- 
 mation was not heeded. Some of the people 
 fled to Canada; others sought shelter with 
 the Indians, who received them with kind- 
 ness ; others still fled to the woods, hoping 
 to hide there till the storm was over. The 
 English at once proceeded to lay waste 
 their homes ; the country was made desolate 
 in order that the fugitives might be com- 
 pelled through starvation to surrender 
 themselves. 
 
 Seven thousand Acadians were torn from 
 their homes and scattered among the Eng- 
 lish colonies on the Atlantic coast, from 
 New Hampshire to Georgia. Families 
 were utterly broken up, never to be re- 
 united. The colonial newspapers for many 
 years were filled with mournful advertise- 
 ments, inquiring for a lost husband or wife; 
 parents sought their missing children, and 
 children their parents in this way. But of 
 all these inquiries few were answered. The 
 exiles were doomed to a parting worse than 
 death, and their captors had done their 
 work so well that human ingenuity could 
 not undo it. Some of those who had been 
 carried to Georgia attempted to return to 
 their homes. They escaped to sea in boats, 
 and coasted from point to point northward, 
 until they reached New England, when 
 they were sternly ordered back. Their 
 homes were their own no longer. More 
 than three thousand Acadians fled to Can- 
 ada, and of these about fifteen hundred set- 
 tled south of the Ristigouche. Upon the 
 surrender of Canada they were again sub- 
 jected to the persecutions of the English. 
 
 In 1763 Cape Breton and Prince Ed- 
 ward island were made a part of the prov- 
 ince of Nova Scotia, but in 1770 the latter 
 was separated from it. The growth of 
 
 Nova Scotia was greatly promoted by the 
 result of the American revolution. Large 
 numbers of the royalist refugees from the 
 United States settled there during and after 
 the war, and gave a new impetus to the 
 progress of the province. 
 
 New Brunswick originally formed a part 
 of the colony of Acadia or New France. 
 The first settlement was made by the 
 French on the Bay of Chaleurs in 1639. 
 In 1672 other settlements were made on the 
 Miramichi river, and at other points on the 
 eastern coast. In 1713 the province, as a 
 part of Acadia, was ceded to Great Britain 
 by France by the treaty of Utrecht. In 
 1764 the first English settlement was made 
 on the banks of the Miramichi. In 1784 
 New Brunswick was formally separated 
 from Nova Scotia, and became a distinct 
 colony. At the close of the American rev- 
 olution 5,000 royalist refugees settled in 
 the province. 
 
 Prince Edward island was settled by the 
 French, and was named by them Isle St. 
 Jean (St. John's island). It was held by 
 France until 1763, when it was ceded to 
 Great Britain. A few settlements had been 
 planted in the island previous to this, but 
 the permanent colonization did not begin 
 until after the cession to Great Britain. 
 The island was placed by the British crown 
 under the government of Nova Scotia. In 
 1768 it was given a separate government. 
 In 1800 the name of the island was changed 
 by an act of the colonial legislature to 
 Prince Edward island, in honor of Prince 
 Edward, Duke of Kent, the father of Queen 
 Victoria. 
 
 During the American revolution Can- 
 ada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince 
 Edward island, and Newfoundland re- 
 mained loyal to Great Britain. The part 
 played by these provinces in this war is 
 related in The History of the United States, 
 to which the reader is referred. During 
 the second war between the United States 
 and England several unsuccessful eflforts 
 were made by the former power to conquer 
 Canada. For the events of this war the 
 reader is referred to The History of the 
 United States. 
 
 The history of the British American 
 provinces after the peace of 1815 was quiet 
 and uneventful. The government of Can- 
 ada was administered under the act of par- 
 liament of 1774, organizing the province 
 of Quebec, as the newly-acquired region 
 was then called. By the provisions of this 
 
FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF CANADA TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1205 
 
 act the government was administered by a 
 council of not less than seventeen nor more 
 than twenty-three members, appointed by 
 the King of England. This council had 
 power to levy taxes for public roads or 
 buildings, but for no other purpose. Such 
 ordinances as it might pass concerning re- 
 ligion were invalid until they had received 
 the sanction of the king. The criminal 
 laws of Great Britain were extended to the 
 colony. In 1791 the British parliament 
 divided Canada into two provinces, called 
 Upper and Lower Canada, and gave to each 
 a legislative council appointed by the crown, 
 and a popular assembly chosen by the 
 people. Over each province was placed a 
 governor appointed by the crown. In the 
 hope of introducing the Church of England 
 
 of steamboats upon the St. Lawrence and 
 the lakes did much to promote the growth 
 of Canada, and increased its internal and 
 foreign commerce in a marked degree. In 
 1824 the Welland canal was begun, and 
 was completed in 1829, giving a continuous 
 water passage from Lake Ontario to Lake 
 Erie. It was followed by the Lachine and 
 other canals, all of which have been im- 
 portant agents in the growth of Canadian 
 commerce. 
 
 In the early part of the present century 
 a bitter dispute arose in Canada concerning 
 the proper interpretation of the act of par- 
 liament for the government of the two 
 provinces. One party insisted that Canada 
 was in possession of a transcript of the 
 British constitution, and that the council, 
 
 TTNIVEKSITY OF TORONTO. 
 
 as the religious establishment of the prov- 
 inces, an area of 3,400,000 acres of the 
 public land was set apart for the endowment 
 of the clergy. The effort proved a failure, 
 and in 1854 the lands were devoted to 
 secular purposes, and the idea of estab- 
 lishing a state church was abandoned. 
 
 The provinces grew steadily in population 
 and prosperity, and if their advance was 
 not as rapid .as that of their southern 
 neighbor, the United States, yet it was as 
 substantial. As the bitter feelings engen- 
 dered by the war died away, cordial rela- 
 tions sprang up between Canada and the 
 United States, and a profitable commerce 
 was inaugurated between them, and grew 
 steadily year by year until it attained its 
 present vast proportions. The introduction 
 
 which constituted the advisers of the gov- 
 ernors in matters of state, should be respon- 
 sible to the popular assembly. The other 
 party maintained that the council Avas re- 
 sponsible to the governor only, and that the 
 assembly had no claim upon it. The dis- 
 putes ran very high, and the trouble was 
 increased by the general course of the gov- 
 ernors of the provinces, who administered 
 their governments in an arbitrary manner, 
 paying little attention to the popular as- 
 sembly, and utterly disregarding the de- 
 mands of the people. In Lower Canada 
 the popular discontent was very great, and 
 in 1837 a portion of the inhabitants of that 
 province, under the leadership of Louis 
 Joseph Papineau, took up arms with the 
 avowed purpose of throwing off the rule of 
 
1206 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Great Britain. They were defeated by the 
 government troops in a series of engage- 
 ments, and were at length compelled to 
 submit. Papineau and the other leaders 
 fled the country. In December, 1837, the 
 popular party of Upper Canada, indignant 
 at the arbitrary measures of Sir Francis 
 Head, the governor, rose in rebellion under 
 the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie. 
 The revolt was suppressed by the govern- 
 ment forces after some serious conflicts 
 with tlie insurgents. For some weeks the 
 insurgents had possession of Navy island, 
 situated in the Niagara river, just above 
 the falls. Considerable sympathy was 
 manifested for them by the people of the 
 state of New York, and substantial aid was 
 
 PARLIAMENT HOUSE, OTTAWA, 
 
 rendered them in spite of the efforts of the 
 President of the United States and the Gov- 
 ernor of New York to prevent it. Navy 
 island forms a part of Canada, and lies 
 near the shore of that country. The insur- 
 gents in possession of the island employed 
 the steamboat " Caroline " to convey men 
 and provisions from the town of Schlosser,on 
 the American shore, to the island. The 
 British authorities in Canada determined 
 to destroy the boat. One dark night in 
 December, 1837, a detachment from Can- 
 ada was sent to Navy island for this pur- 
 pose. Not finding the "Caroline" there, 
 they went over to Schlosser, where she was 
 moored at her dock. The boat was cap- 
 tured after a short struggle, in which one 
 American was killed, and was carried out 
 
 into the stream and set on fire. She drifted 
 down to the falls, and plunged over them 
 in a blaze. The British minister at Wash- 
 ington at once declared the responsibility 
 of his government for the capture of the 
 boat, and justified it on the ground of self- 
 defence. In the meantime the president 
 had sent General W^ool with a strong force 
 to the Canadian border with orders to pre- 
 vent any expedition from leaving this coun- 
 try to aid the Canadians. He compelled 
 the force on Navy island to surrender, but 
 the border war continued until the close of 
 1838, when it was ended. 
 
 These outbreaks drew the attention of the 
 British government more closely to the 
 defective system of government in operation 
 ^ _^ in Canada. 
 
 The people 
 of Canada 
 addressed 
 petitions to 
 the crown, 
 praying for 
 a union of the 
 
 provinces. 
 This prayer 
 was granted, 
 and in 1841 
 the two prov- 
 inces were 
 united under 
 one govern- 
 ment, which 
 was modelled 
 upon the 
 British sys- 
 tem, and was 
 in every re- 
 spect a vast 
 improvement upon the former establish- 
 ments. The country was now styled the 
 Province of Canada. In 1849 a general 
 amnesty to all who had taken part in the 
 rebellion of 1837 was passed. 
 
 In 1849 a bill was introduced into the 
 Canadian parliament to indemnify certain 
 pei-sons for the losses sustained by them 
 during the rebellion. This measui-e was 
 bitterly opposed by the people of Montreal, 
 and gave rise to a formidable and disgrace- 
 ful riot, in which the parliament was dis- 
 persed and the parliament house burned 
 down by the mob. This riot induced the 
 parliament to remove the seat of govern- 
 ment to Toronto for the next two years, 
 and to Quebec for the four succeeding 
 years. In 1857 Ottawa was selected as 
 
FEOM FALL OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1207 
 
 the permanent seat of government, and 
 costly public buildings were erected there 
 for the use of the various departments of 
 the state. 
 
 In the spring of 1866 Canada was in- 
 vaded by the Fenians, an organization of 
 Irishmen dwelling in the United States. 
 This insane movement was met promptly 
 by the Canadian authorities, and the Pres- 
 ident of the United States sent General 
 Meade, with a sufficient force of troops, to 
 the Canadian border to arrest the Fenian 
 leaders and seize their supplies. General 
 Meade executed his orders with prompt- 
 ness and decision, and the Canadian author- 
 ities drove back the force that had entered 
 their country. The affair was over in a 
 few days. 
 
 In the meantime measures had been set 
 on foot for the union of all the British 
 provinces in North America. The initia- 
 tive was taken by the province of Canada, 
 and the scheme was pushed forward with 
 vigor and ability. On the 4th of Decem- 
 ber, 1866, delegates appointed by the 
 legislative assemblies of Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick met at London 
 to arrange the terms of a confederation. 
 This task was successfully performed, and 
 on the 7th of February, 1867, a bill was 
 introduced into the British parliament 
 
 creating the union. It passed both houses, 
 and on the 29th of March received the 
 royal assent. On the 22d of May the 
 queen issued her proclamation appointing 
 the 1st of July, 1867, as the day from 
 which the new confederation should date its 
 existence. The new state was styled the 
 Dominion of Canada, and was given the 
 right of self-government. The Governor- 
 General of Canada is appointed by the 
 crown, but all the other offices are filled by 
 the people or by their chosen delegates. 
 Canada is thus practically independent of 
 Great Britain, though constituting an im- 
 portant part of the British empire, and 
 owing allegiance to the British sovereign. 
 Besides the federal government, the seat of 
 which is fixed at Ottawa, each province of 
 the dominion has its local government, and 
 is independent of the others in the manage- 
 ment of its domestic affairs. 
 
 In 1870 Manitoba and the northwest 
 territorieiii were purchased from the Hud- 
 son Bay Company and added to the 
 dominion. In 1871 British Columbia 
 "oined the confederation, and in 1873 
 Prince Edward island did likewise. At 
 present (1878) Newfoundland is the 
 only British province in North America 
 which has not entered into the Canadian 
 union. 
 
 BOOiEC :k.:k.:k.x'v^. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE MODERN 
 KHSraDOM OF FERSI^. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PROM THE FALL OF THE PARTHIAN EM- 
 PIRE TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Extent and Situation of the Modern Kingdom— 
 The Persians Throw Off the Parthian Yoke and 
 Establish their Independence — Reign of Artax- 
 erxes — He Restores Magisni— Reigus of the Two 
 Sapors — Varanes V. — Khosru Nurshivan — His 
 Great Reign— The Endless Peace— Conquests of 
 the Persian King — Khosru Parviz Wrests the 
 Asiatic and African Provinces from the Roman 
 Empire— The Splendor of his Court— Moham- 
 med's Prediction — Last Years of Khosru— His 
 Fate— Siroes Becomes King— The Arabian Con- 
 quest — Magisra Exterminated— Persia Becomes 
 Mohammedan- Restoration of the Independence 
 -of Persia by Soffar— The Seljukiau Turks Con- 
 
 quer the Kingdom — Togrul Beg — Reign of Malek 
 Shah — Tlie Tartar Conquest — Ismail Re-estab- 
 lishes the Native Kingdom — Reign of Abbas — 
 Persia Conquered by the Afghans — Nadir Shah 
 Drives them Out artd Restores the Kingdom — His 
 Reign — Aga Mohammed Khan — His Successors 
 — Wars with Russia — Accession of Nasr-ed-Din — 
 War with England — The Shah's Visit to Europe. 
 
 iHE modern kingdom of Persia is 
 situated in western Asia, and lies 
 between latitude 25° 30' and 39° 
 50' N., and longitude 44° and 62"=* 
 E. Its greatest length from north- 
 west to southeast is 1,200 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth 850 miles. It 
 comprises an area of about 600,000 square 
 
1208 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 miles, and contains a population of between 
 six and seven millions. It is bounded on 
 the north by the Russian empire, the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and Khiva ; on the east by Bok- 
 hara, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan ; on the 
 south by the Indian Ocean and the Persian 
 Gulf; and on the west by the Turkish em- 
 pire. 
 
 The events of the history of the Persian 
 empire, from its foundation to its destruc- 
 tion by Alexander the Great, have been 
 related in Book IX. of this work. The 
 subsequent history of Persia under the Par- 
 thian rule is related in Book XIV. 
 
 The modern kingdom of Persia, as we 
 have seen, arose upon the ruins of the 
 Parthian empire, Arsaces XXX., the last 
 of the Parthian kings, began his reign in 
 A. D. 213. Shortly afterward the Roman 
 Emperor Caracalla renewed the war with 
 Parthia. In 216 he crossed the Euphrates, 
 and advancing through Mesopotamia to 
 the Tigris, took Arbela and forced the 
 Parthians back to the mountains. The 
 next year he was murdered, and his suc- 
 cessor, Macrinus, undertook to continue the 
 war, but was defeated in two pitched bat- 
 tles by Arsaces, and was obliged to pur- 
 chase peace by the surrender of all the 
 Roman conquests east of the Euphrates. 
 These successes restored the old limits of 
 the Parthian empire, and seemed to give 
 back to it its former vigor; but at this 
 moment it received its death-blow. 
 
 The Persians had long been restless and 
 discontented under the Parthian rule. 
 Although the Romans had been defeated, 
 the empire was distracted with the claims 
 of pretenders who disputed the crown with 
 Arsaces XXX. " Two branches of the 
 Arsacid family, both of them settled in 
 Bactria, were at feud with the reigning 
 prince ; and these offended relatives carried 
 their enmity to such a length as to consider 
 submission to a foreigner a less evil than 
 subjection to the de facto head of their 
 house. The success of Artabanus (Arsaces 
 XXX.) in the war against Rome had no 
 effect upon his domestic foes." This state 
 of affairs encouraged the Persians to throw 
 off their submission to the Parthians and 
 recover their independence. " The Persians 
 had, in the original arrangements of the 
 Parthian empire, been treated with a cer- 
 tain amount of favor. They had been 
 allowed to retain their native monarchs — a 
 concession which naturally involved the 
 continuance of the nation's laws, customs. 
 
 and traditions. Their religion had not 
 been persecuted, and had even in the early 
 times attracted a considerable amount of 
 court favor. But it would seem that lat- 
 terly the privileges of the nation had been 
 diminished, while their prejudices were 
 wantonly shocked." The tributary King 
 of Persia under Parthia at this time was 
 Artaxerxes, or Ardeshir, as he is called by 
 the native historians, the son of Sassan, 
 who claimed to be descended from the 
 ancient line of Cyrus. Encouraged by the 
 dissensions in the Parthian kingdom, he 
 took up arras against his sovereign in A. d. 
 220, or perhaps a little later, and in a short 
 while succeeded in establishing the inde- 
 pendence of Persia proper, or the modern 
 province of Faristau. Then turning his 
 arms eastward against Carmania (the 
 modern Kerman), he reduced it, and next 
 proceeded to overrun Media. The Parthian 
 king now took the field against his rebel- 
 lious vassal, but was defeated and slain in 
 the great battle of Hormuz, a. d. 226. The 
 struggle was continued by the sons of Ar- 
 saces, who were aided by the King of 
 Armenia ; but the Persians were everywhere 
 successful, and after a struggle of a few 
 years the old Parthian empire yielded, and 
 Artaxerxes was left in undisputed posses- 
 sion of the modern kingdom of Persia. He 
 at once proceeded to consolidate his king- 
 dom, and restored the ancient religion of 
 Zoroaster and the authority of the Magi. 
 The dynasty which he founded is known as 
 the Sassanidse. It held the throne for 
 more than four hundred years, and gave to 
 Persia twenty-nine kings. But few of 
 these are worthy of historic mention. 
 
 Sapor I., the son of the founder of the 
 kingdom, was a vigorous ruler. He be- 
 came involved in a war with the Romans, 
 and defeated their armies and took the 
 Emperor Valerian prisoner. Sapor II., 
 the ninth king of the new dynasty, was 
 born in A. D. 309, and reigned seventy-one 
 years, or from the day of his birth. As 
 we have related elsewhere, he waged fre- 
 quent and bloody wars with the Roman 
 Emperors Constantius and Julian. The 
 latter was defeated and killed, A. D. 363. 
 Varanes V., the twelfth king, reigned 
 twenty years. He was famous for the 
 splendor of his court and his generosity. 
 He drove back a Tartar horde which en- 
 deavored to overrun Persia. Chosroes, or 
 Khosru Nushirvan, the twenty-first king, 
 came to the throne in a. d. 531, and. 
 
FROM FALL OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1209 
 
 reigned until 579. He was one of Persia's 
 greatest monarchs, and is regarded by his 
 countrymen as a model of justice, wisdom, 
 generosity, and statesmanship. He found 
 his kingdom involved in a war with the 
 Roman empire. The Emperor Justinian 
 was anxious for peace, and purchased it at 
 the price of 11,000 pounds of gold, A. D. 
 533. The two sovereigns termed this an 
 endless peace, but in 540, Chosroes, who 
 had become jealous of the great successes 
 of Justinian in Africa, Sicily, and Italy, 
 
 peace upon condition of paying to Persia 
 annually the sum of 30,000 j^ieces of silver, 
 Chosroes, besides conducting these wars 
 with the Romans, carried his conquests 
 beyond the Oxus and Indus on the east, 
 and into Arabia on the south. His reign 
 is regarded as the golden age of modern 
 Persia. He "built or repaired a number 
 of caravansaries, bazaars, bridges, and other 
 public edifices ; founded colleges and schools, 
 encouraged learning, and introduced at his 
 coui't the philosophers of Greece." 
 
 VIEW OF TEHKRAN, THE CAPITAL OF PERSIA. 
 
 suddenly renewed the war, and invading 
 Syria and Palestine with a powerful army, 
 speedily conquered those countries. The 
 great general Belisarius was sent to com- 
 mand the Roman army, and in two succes- 
 sive campaigns (a. d. 541-542) compelled 
 the Persian king to retire to his own domin- 
 ions without striking a blow. Belisarius 
 was then removed from his command and 
 sent to direct the operations in Italy, and 
 the Persian arms were once more success- 
 ful. The war was continued until 561, 
 when the Romans were obliged to make 
 
 Chosroes was succeeded by his son Hor- 
 muz III., a weak and wicked prince, who 
 was put to death by one of his generals in 
 590. The Roman Emperor Maurice took 
 up the cause of Khosru Parviz, the son of 
 the murdered monarch, and secured to him 
 his lather's throne. Khosru, grateful for 
 this assistance, maintained the most friendly 
 relations with the empire during the lite 
 of Maurice ; but upon the assassination of 
 that monarch turned his arms against the 
 empire and wrested some of its finest prov- 
 inces from it. Syria, Palestine, Egypt, 
 
1210 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Carthage, and Tripoli were subdued, and 
 for a time were subject to the Persian king. 
 Jerusalem suffered severely. " The devout 
 offerings of three hundred years," says 
 Gibbon, " were rifled in one sacrilegious 
 day. The patriarch Zachariah and the 
 true cross were transported into Persia, and 
 the massacre of 90,000 Christians is attrib- 
 uted to the Jews and Arabs who swelled 
 the disorder of the Persian monarch. . . . 
 Egypt itself, the only province which had 
 been exempt since the time of Diocletian 
 from foreign and domestic wars, was again 
 subdued by the successor of Cyrus. . . . 
 His western trophy was erected, not on the 
 walls of Carthage, but in the neighborhood 
 of Tripoli. The Greek colonies of Cyrene 
 were fiually extirpated ; and the conqueror, 
 following the footsteps of Alexander, re- 
 turned in triumph through the sands of the 
 Libyan desert." In another campaign he 
 subdued the entire region between the 
 Euphrates and the Bosphorus, Chalcedon 
 was taken after a long siege, and for ten 
 years a Persian camp was maintained 
 withiu sight of Constantinople. Khosru is 
 also celebrated for the magnificence and 
 luxury of his court. " Six thousand guards 
 successively mounted before the palace 
 gate ; the service of the interior apartments 
 was performed by 12,000 slaves ; and the 
 various treasures of gold, silver, gems, silk, 
 and aromatics were deposited in a hundred 
 subterranean vaults. The voice of flattery, 
 and perhaps of fiction, is not ashamed to 
 compute the 30,000 rich hangings that 
 adorned the walls ; the 40,000 columns of 
 silver, or more probably of marble and 
 plated wood, that supported the roof; and 
 the 1,000 globes of gold suspended in the 
 dome to imitate the motions of the planets 
 and the constellations of the zodiac." The 
 *' Great King" was surrounded by poets of 
 rare skill, his stables held 50,000 horses of 
 the purest blood, and his harem contained 
 3,000 of the loveliest of women, the most 
 beautiful of whom was Shirin, or Irene, a 
 Greek Christian, whose beauty and whose 
 passion for the king constitute the favorite 
 theme of Persian poets. " While the 
 Persian monarch contemplated the wonders 
 of his art and power, he received an epistle 
 from an obscure citizen of Mecca, inviting 
 him to acknowledge Mohammed as the 
 apostle of God. He rejected the invitation 
 and tore the epistle. 'It is thus,' ex- 
 claimed the Arabian prophet, ' that God 
 will tear the kingdom and reject the sup- 
 
 plications of Khosru.' " The last years of 
 Khosru justified this prediction, which 
 seemed so absurd at the time of its utter- 
 ance. The Emperor Heraclius awoke from 
 the lethargy that marked the first years of 
 his reign, drove the Persians back from the 
 Bosphorus (a. d. 622), and in six years 
 stripped Khosru of all his foreign conquests, 
 invaded Persia, and captured, plundered, 
 and burned his famous palace at Dastagerd. 
 In the midst of his misfortunes Khosru was 
 seized by his eldest son, Siroes ; eighteen of 
 his sons were put to death before his eyes, 
 and he was thrown into a dungeon, where 
 he died five days later, A. D. 628. 
 
 Siroes, or Shirueh, at once mounted the 
 throne, and concluded a peace with the Em- 
 peror Heraclius. He reigned only eight 
 months, and in the four years which fol- 
 lowed his death nine kiugs successively 
 reigned over Persia. These " disputed 
 with the sword or dagger the fragments of 
 an exhausted monarchy. Every province 
 and each city of Persia was the scene of 
 independence, of discord, and blood." 
 
 In 632 Yezdegerd III. united the fac- 
 tions under him. It was too late to 
 save the old Persian system, however, for 
 the Mohammedan Arabs were already di- 
 recting their invincible armies against the 
 kingdom. Yezdegerd strove manfully to 
 beat them back, but in vain. He was de- 
 feated in a great battle at Cadesia in 636, 
 and again at Nehavend in 641, In the 
 latter fight 100,000 men are said to have 
 fallen in the Persian ranks. The battle 
 decided the fate of Persia. Yezdegerd was 
 forced to seek safety in flight ; he wandered 
 a fugitive in the eastern provinces until 
 651, when a miller, tempted by the richness 
 of his dress, put him to death, and threw 
 his body into the river. With him ended 
 the line of the Sassanidae and the religion 
 of the Magi. 
 
 The Mohammedans, upon becoming mas- 
 ters of the kingdom after the battle of 
 Nehavend, inaugurated a cruel persecution 
 of the Magi. The adherents to the ancient 
 religion were massacred without mercy, and 
 only a handful of daring souls ventured to 
 adhere to the faith of their fathers. 
 
 For two hundred years Persia was simply 
 a province of the empire of the khalifs, and 
 during this time the people became Mo- 
 hammedans in faith. Though they ac- 
 cepted the religion of their conquerors, the 
 Persians were by no means satisfied with 
 their rule. In 868 Soffar, an adventurer. 
 
FROM FALL OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1211 
 
 who had been a pewterer, and afterwards a 
 bandit chief, raised the standard of revolt. 
 The people flocked to him, and the viceroy 
 of the khalif was driven out, and the inde- 
 pendence of the country restored. The 
 successful leader founded a dynasty known 
 as the Soffarides, which embraced four 
 kings in all. These maintained their au- 
 thority only by constant wars with the 
 khalifs and the rebellious nobles of the 
 kingdom. About the beginning of the 
 tenth century this dynasty came to an end, 
 and Persia was divided between the houses 
 of Samani and Dilami. The first of these 
 reigned over eastern Persia and Afghanis- 
 
 generous king. His son, Malek Shah, suc- 
 ceeded him at his death in 1072. "Malek 
 Shah," says Gibbon, was, "by his personal 
 merit and the extent of his empire, the 
 greatest prince of his age." He died in 
 1092, and the next thirty years were passed 
 in wars between his sons. Sanjar, the last 
 of the house of Togrul, died in 1175, and 
 for nearly a century anarchy prevailed in 
 Persia. 
 
 In 1258 Hoolaku Khan, the grandson of 
 Zinghis Khan, conquered Persia and estab- 
 lished the seat of his empire at Maragha, in 
 Azerbijan. From this time the history of 
 the country is uneventful. 
 
 A PERSIAN TOWN. 
 
 tan ; the other governed the balance of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Thus divided Persia fell an easy prey to 
 the Seljukian Turks. In 1042 Togrul Beg 
 having made himself master of Khorasan, 
 declared himself King of Persia, and in 
 less than twenty years reduced the whole 
 kingdom to submission to him. The 
 neighboring countries were also subdued. 
 Bagdad was taken, and the Arabian khalif 
 made prisoner. The conqueror treated the 
 commander of the faitliful with honor 
 and reverence, and was vested by him with 
 the temporal rule of the Mohammedan 
 empire. 
 
 Togrul Beg was succeeded on the throne 
 of Persia by his nephew. Alp Arslan, who 
 was also a great conqueror, and a just and 
 
 In 1393 Timour or Tamerlane, the great 
 Tartar conqueror, burst into Persia and 
 speedily reduced the kingdom to submission 
 to. him, scattering ruin and desolation 
 through every part of it. The reigns of his 
 successors make up a period of almost con- 
 stant civil war, extending through more 
 than a century. 
 
 About 1503 Ismail, a descendant of the 
 famous saint. Sheik Suffi, summoned his 
 followers and claimed the throne. In four 
 years he made himself master of all Persia, 
 and founded the SufTavean dynasty. He 
 died in 1523, and his son Tamasp succeeded 
 him on the throne. This monarch reigned 
 fifty-three years — a period of great pros- 
 perity to the country. "Anthony Jeukin- 
 son, one of the earliest of English adven- 
 
1212 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 turers to Persia, visited the court of Tamasp 
 as an envoy from Queen Elizabeth ; but the 
 intolerance of the Mohammedan sovereign 
 drove the Christian from his presence." 
 
 At the death of Tamasp his sous disputed 
 the crown among themselves. At last his 
 
 NASR-tD-DIN, SHAH OF l^EKSIA. 
 
 grandson Abbas was proclaimed king in 
 1587. He was a great aud powerful mon- 
 arch, and successfully defended his king- 
 dom against the efforts of the Turks to 
 conquer it. During his reign a commercial 
 intercourse was established with England. 
 
 He tolerated all forms of religion, and was 
 especially friendly to the few Christians 
 who came into his kingdom. " His rev- 
 enues were spent on improvements. Car- 
 avansaries, bridges, aqueducts, bazaars, 
 mosques, and colleges arose in every quar- 
 ter. Ispahan, the capital, was splen- 
 didly embellished. Mushed was or- 
 namented ; and the ruins of the 
 palaces of Furrahbad in Mazunde- 
 ran, and of Ashruff in Astra bad, still 
 declare his taste and munificence." 
 In his administration of justice he 
 was severe, and in his later years his 
 punishments were sudden and sum- 
 mary, and were inflicted upon mere 
 suspicion. To his own family he 
 was a cruel tyrant; he put to death 
 his eldest son because he suspected 
 him of meditating a rebellion, and 
 put out the eyes of all the rest. He 
 died in 1628, and after his death 
 the SufTavean dynasty steadily de- 
 clined. For nearly a century the 
 history of Persia is little more than 
 a record of the names of her kings. 
 In 1722 the Afghans invaded Per- 
 sia, and reduced the country, cap- 
 tured Ispahan, and set up a dynasty 
 of their own. The first king was 
 Mahmoud Ghiljee, who began his 
 reign by a terrible massacre of the 
 male population of Ispahan, and 
 ended it a madman. The Afghans 
 ruled Persia for seven years, and 
 their reign is marked by the most 
 horrible tyranny. 
 
 At length, in 1730, Nadir Shah, 
 a chief of the Afft^har tribe, took up 
 arms and declared his determination 
 to drive every Afghan from the 
 soil of Persia. He revived the 
 claims of the son of the last Suf- 
 favean king, and the people flocked 
 to his standard. In a series of 
 vigorous campaigns he defeated the 
 Afghans and destroyed them almost 
 to a man. The last of the Afghan 
 kings was recognized while endeavor- 
 ing to escape from Persia, and was 
 slain. "Thus was destroyed the 
 grisly phantom which for seven 
 wretched years had brooded over Persia, 
 converting her fairest provinces into des- 
 erts, her cities into charnel-houses, and glut- 
 ting itself with the blood of a million of her 
 people." 
 
 In 1736 Nadir deposed the king whom 
 
FROM FALL OF THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1213 
 
 he had restored to his throne, and assumed 
 the sovereignty himself. He reduced Kho- 
 rasan, took Candahar, subdued Afghanis- 
 tan, and even invaded India, and captured 
 and phindered the great city of Delhi. 
 Under him the limits of Persia were the 
 Oxus, the Indus, the Caspian, the Cau- 
 casus, and the Tigris. To his people and to 
 his own family Nadir was a cruel tyrant. 
 Suspecting his eldest son of plotting against 
 him, he caused his eyes to be put out. " It 
 is not my eyes you have put out," said the 
 prince, " it is those of Persia." " The pro- 
 phetic truth," says Sir John Malcolm, 
 " sank deep into the heart of Nadir, who, 
 becoming from that moment a prey to re- 
 morse and gloomy anticipations, never knew 
 happiness, nor desired that others should 
 feel it." His barbarities at length drove 
 his people to despair, and in 1747 he was 
 assassinated by the captain of his guard. 
 His death was followed by more than fifty 
 years of revolution and disorder, caused by 
 the efforts of various claimants to secure 
 the crown. 
 
 About the last of the eighteenth century 
 Aga Mohammed Khan seized the throne, 
 restored order to the country, and founded 
 the dynasty of the Kadjars — the present 
 reigning family of Persia. He was a man 
 of extraordinary ferocity of disposition, 
 and treated his family with great cruelty. 
 " He was a sagacious and profound dissem- 
 bler, yet severely just, and although grasp- 
 ing and avaricious himself, a deadly foe to 
 peculation in his officers. To his soldiers 
 he was particularly indulgent, and they 
 repaid his kindness by their fidelity. In 
 the latter years of his reign his temper, at 
 all times p3evish and dangerous, became 
 ferocious. His countenance, which resem- 
 bled that of a shrivelled old woman, as- 
 sumed occasionally a horrible expression, 
 of which he was sensible, and could not 
 endure to be looked at. Even his confi- 
 dential domestics approached him trem- 
 bling, and their blood curdled at the 
 sound of his shrill, dissonant voice, which 
 was seldom raised without uttering a term 
 of gross abuse or an oi'der for punishment." 
 
 He was murdered in 1797 by two of his 
 attendants whom he had sentenced to 
 death for disturbing him with their noise. 
 
 Futeh Ali Shah, the nephew of the mur- 
 dered monarch, succeeded him. Soon after 
 the opening of his reign he became in- 
 volved in a war with Russia, in which he 
 suffered an unbroken series of reverses. In 
 1800 he was compelled to surrender Georgia 
 to the czar, and in 1803 Mingrelia was also 
 wrested from him by the Russians. Dag- 
 hestan and Shir wan were overrun by the 
 Russians, and in 1805 Karabang volun- 
 tarily submitted to them. The war was 
 brought to an end by the intervention of 
 England, and in October, 1813, the treaty 
 of Goolistan was signed. It fixed the 
 boundary between Persia and Russia so 
 indefinitely as to give cause for constant 
 disputes and a fresh war. This broke out 
 in 1826, and was closed by the treaty of 
 Turkomanshaee, February 21st, 1828. By 
 this treaty Persia lost still more of her ter- 
 ritory, and the Russian frontier was ad- 
 vanced to Mount Ararat and the left bank 
 of the Aras, the present boundary. 
 
 Mohammed succeeded to the throne in 
 1835, at the death of Futeh Ali. He 
 reigned until 1848, but his reign was un- 
 eventful. He was succeeded by Nasr-ed- 
 Din, the present shah, who was but eighteen 
 years old at the time. In 1856 Persia be- 
 came involved in a war with Great Britain. 
 After several victories of the English troops 
 in the southern part of the kingdom, under 
 the command of Generals Outram and 
 Havelock, Persia was forced to make peace. 
 The treaty, which was signed at Paris on 
 the 4th of March, 1857, conceded all the 
 demands of Great Britain. In 1860 a ter- 
 rible pestilence and famine swept over a large 
 part of the country, and in 1870 and 1871 a 
 still more serious famine scourged the king- 
 dom. Two millions of people are said to have 
 perished during the latter famine. In the 
 summer of 1873, the Shah Nasr-ed-Din 
 made a tour through Europe, visiting Vi- 
 enna, Paris, and London, where he was 
 magnificently entertained. Since then the 
 history of Persia has been uneventful. 
 
1214 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 book: -^.ik.'x.'v. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF CHINA.. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRES- 
 ENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of China— Early History — 
 Yii the Great— Early Sovereigns— Reign of \Vu- 
 Waiig— The Tsin Dynasty— The Great Wall of 
 China — The Han Dynasty — Division of the 
 Empire— Christianity Preached in China— In- 
 roads of the Tartars— They Conquer China — 
 Kublai Khan— Rise of the Ming Dynasty— The 
 Tartars Driven Back— Beginning of the Inter- 
 course of China with Europe — Rise of the Mant- 
 choo Dynasty — Reign of Kang-hi — The Jesuits in 
 China — The Protestant Missionaries — The Bible 
 Translated into Chinese — The Opium War — Its 
 Results— Treaties of China with the Western 
 Powers — Efforts of the Chinese Government to 
 Evade these Treaties — The Western Powers Com- 
 pel China to Keep Faith with them — Pekin Cap- 
 tured by the French and English — The Taiping 
 Rebellion — The Mohammedan Revolt — Change in 
 the Policy of China — The Burlingame Embassy — 
 The Massacre at Tien-tsin — Action of the Chinese 
 Government — The First Railway in China. 
 
 HE empire of China occupies the 
 larger part of southeastern Asia. 
 China proper, called by the inhab- 
 itants Chungkwoh or the Middle 
 Kingdom, or Chunghwa (the Cen- 
 tral Flowery Land), comprises the 
 most important portion of the empire. 
 It extends from longitude 98° to 123'' E., 
 and from latitude IS"" to 43° N. It com- 
 prises an area of about 1,500,000 square 
 miles, and contains a population estimated 
 at about 400,000,000. 
 
 The history of China dates back nearly 
 5,000 years, but the earlier portions of it 
 are entirely mythical. According to the 
 Chinese writers, Fuh-hi became the ruler 
 of the country about B. c. 2852, and 
 founded the Chinese empu-e. He is said to 
 have taught his people how to raise cattle, 
 and the art of writing, and to have intro- 
 duced the institution of marriage and the 
 divisions of the year. He was succeeded 
 by Shin-nuDg, who taught the people agri- 
 culture and medicine. Then came Hwang- 
 ti, who is said to have invented clocks, 
 weapons, ships, wheeled vehicles, and mu- 
 sical instruments, and to have introduced 
 coins and weights and measures. Ti-ku, the 
 next emperor, established schools, and in- 
 troduced the practice of polygamy. He was 
 
 succeeded in 2357 b. c. by his son Yau. 
 with whom the more certain history of 
 China commences. He reigned until B. c. 
 2258, and greatly advanced the civilization 
 and wealth of his country, and built many 
 roads and canals. His son Shun succeeded 
 him and reigned until b. c. 2207. He was 
 as good and wise a ruler as his father. In 
 2207 the throne passed to Yu the Great, 
 who founded the dynasty of Hia, which 
 held the throne until b. c. 1767. This sov- 
 ereign was the first to make himself the 
 head of the national religion as well as the 
 temporal ruler of China. His son's reign 
 was uneventful, but his grandson, the third 
 of the dynasty, lost his crown in a popular 
 revolution, which placed his brother, Chung- 
 kang, a vigorous ruler, on the throne. His 
 death was followed by a period of war 
 which was closed by the elevation of Shang- 
 kang to the throne. He governed the 
 country well, and was succeeded by his son 
 Ti-chu, the last of the great Hia sovereigns. 
 After his death the dynasty declined, and 
 in 1766 was overthrown by a revolution. 
 The Shang or Yin dynasty now came into 
 power, and held the throne from b. c. 1766 
 to B. c. 1122. It consisted of twenty-eight 
 sovereigns, whose reigns were uneventful. 
 With but few exceptions they were wicked, 
 cruel, and despicable. In B. c. 1122 Wu- 
 wang, a great general, headed a revolt 
 against Chow-sin, the last of the Shang 
 emperors, and reduced him to such straits 
 that he collected his treasures and women 
 in his palace, and placing himself in the 
 midst of them, set fire to the building, and 
 perished with them in the flames. 
 
 Wu-wang now mounted the throne, and 
 founded the Chow dynasty, which ruled 
 China for 873 years — from B. c. 1 122 to B. c. 
 249. Wu-wang was a great ruler, and in- 
 troduced many wise and useful reforms into 
 the empire. His successors were his infe- 
 riors, and the history of their reigns is 
 simply a record of the civil wars, conflicts 
 with the Tartars, and struggles with the re- 
 bellious princes which marked the period. 
 The power of the crown was never weaker 
 than under this dynasty. The reign of the 
 Emperor Li-wang (b. c. 571-544) is mem- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1215 
 
 orable principally as the period of the birth 
 of Meng-tse, or Mencius, the chief disciple 
 and expounder of Confucius. 
 
 In B. c. 249 the Chow dynasty gave way 
 to that of Tsin, a more vigorous race of 
 sovereigns. They curbed the power of the 
 great vassal princes, and made the emperor 
 once more the supreme ruler of China. The 
 Emperor Ching-wang, the second sovereign, 
 who reigned from b. c. 246 to B. c. 210, 
 erected the " great wall of China " for the 
 protection of the empire against the incur- 
 sions of the Tartars. " The great wall {wan- 
 li-chang, i. e., the myriad mile wall), on the 
 nortliern frontier of China proper, is the 
 most gigantic work of defence ever erected 
 by man. It runs from a point on the coast 
 of Liantung, latitude 40° 4' N., longitude 
 120° 2' E., in a westerly direction to the 
 Yellow river, in latitude 39J° N. and longi- 
 tude 11U° E. ; thence to latitude 37° N. 
 and again in a northwesterly direction to 
 its termination in longitude 99° E. and 
 latitude 40° N., making twenty-one de- 
 grees of longitude, and with its windings 
 a length of 1,250 or 1,500 miles. In some 
 places it is a single rampart, in others 
 a solid foundation of granite, while the 
 eastern section has a height of from fif- 
 teen to thirty feet, and a breadth such 
 that six horsemen may ride abreast on 
 it. There are brick towers on it at different 
 intervals, about forty feet high." Ching- 
 wang was the first to formally assume the 
 title of hwang or emperor. He resolved 
 that the history of China should commence 
 with his reign, and in order to efface the 
 memory of all former events, ordered all 
 the books treating of them to be burned. 
 In this way a vast mass of the earlier liter- 
 ature of China was destroyed, among others 
 the writings of Confucius and Mencius. A 
 few fragments of their works escaped, and it 
 is to them that moderns owe their acquain- 
 tance with the principles of these sages. 
 
 In B. c. 206 the dynasty of the Han suc- 
 ceeded that of Tsin, and ruled China until 
 A. D. 220. This was a race of great sov- 
 ereigns. The Emperor Wen-ti, who as- 
 cended the throne in B. c. 180, is known as 
 the restorer of the ancient literature. Wu-ti 
 (b. o. 1 41) was a liberal friend to science and 
 art, and made his court the home of scholars. 
 Siuen-ti (b. c. 73) conquered the Tartars, and 
 extended his sway over their country as far 
 as the Caspian Sea. In the reign of Ming-ti 
 (a. d. 58-76; Ho-shung, a Buddhist priest 
 from India, came into China and intro- 
 
 duced the Buddhist religion into that coun- 
 try. The Armenian Christians have a tra- 
 dition that the Apostle Thomas visited China 
 and preached the gospel there in this reign. 
 The Emperor Ho-ti, who reigned from A. D. 
 89 to 106, introduced the culture of the'grape. 
 
 CHINESE PAGODA. 
 
 In A. D. 220 tlie dynasty of the Han came 
 toan end, and China was divided into three 
 kingdoms. In A. d. 260 Wu-ti restored the 
 
1216 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 empire by the reunion of the three king- 
 doms, and founded the second Tsin dynasty, 
 which existed until A. D. 420. The Han 
 dynasty had held the Tartars firmly in 
 check, but now they managed to obtain a 
 firm lodgment in the northern part of the 
 empire, where, in A, D. 386, they set up an 
 independent kingdom. From this time 
 until A. D. 590 the southern part of the 
 empire was ruled by four successive dynas- 
 ties, the Sung, Tse, Liang, and Chin, in the 
 order named. This period was one of con- 
 stant civil strife and religious dissension. 
 This state of affairs was ended in 590 by 
 the Prince of Sui, who, having conquered 
 the Tartar kingdom, reduced the southern 
 empire also, and reunited China in a single 
 
 THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA. 
 
 monarchy. He made himself emperor, and 
 was one of the wisest and best of Chinese sov- 
 ereigns. He was untiring in his efforts to pro- 
 mote literature, science, education, internal 
 prosperity, and commerce. He died in 619. 
 The dynasty of the Tang now rose into 
 power, and lasted from A. d. 619 to 907. 
 In 636 the Nestorian monk Olopen came 
 into China and began to preach Christi- 
 anity. The Emperor Kow-tsung was the 
 most illustrious of the Hang sovereigns. 
 He was a great warrior, and carried his 
 conquests to the confines of Persia. His 
 son, Tai-tsung, who succeeded him, is the 
 great hero of Chinese romance. His 
 successors lacked the vigor of the earlier 
 monarchs of this house, and became the 
 subservient tools of their eunuch courtiers. 
 
 Chow-tsung (a. d. 890) was a more vigor- 
 ous monarch, and destroyed the eunuchs 
 and made a commendable attempt to re- 
 store the power of the crown, but too late 
 to accomplish anything. The empire was 
 plunged into civil war, and the Tartars 
 took advantage of this unhappy slate of 
 affairs to steadily increase their own power. 
 In A. D. 960 Tai-tsu restored order and 
 founded the dynasty of the Sung, which 
 ended in 1279. The sovereigns of this 
 house were liberal friends of the arts and 
 sciences, which flourished under them. They 
 were not able, however, to restrain the 
 growing power of the Tartars, and were 
 driven to the necessity of seeking aid from 
 one tribe against the others. The tribes 
 ^ thus admitted to the empire 
 
 '"^k made common cause with 
 
 their countrymen, and in 
 1215 the Tartars under Zin- 
 gis-Khan overran China and 
 advanced upon Pekin. The 
 success of these warlike 
 hordes was rapid, and all 
 China was obliged to submit 
 to them. In 1279 Kublai 
 Khan, or She-tsu, as he is 
 called by the Chinese, estab- 
 lished the first Mongol dy- 
 nasty in China. Pekin was 
 made the capital of the em- 
 pire, and Cochin China and 
 Tonquin were conquered and 
 added to it. The Mongol 
 conquerors wisely refrained 
 from attempting to change 
 the national customs or reli- 
 gion, and favored Buddhism. 
 Marco Polo, the famous Eu- 
 ropean traveller, visited China during this 
 reign, and was hospitably received by 
 Kublai. After Kublai 's death the Tartar 
 power declined in China. In 1342 a 
 famine broke out in the empire, and swept 
 away 13,000,000 people. This was followed 
 by a bloody revolution, which scourged the 
 country for several years. 
 
 In 1358 Chu Yuen-chang, a Buddhist 
 monk of humble origin, rose to the leader- 
 ship of the revolution. He overthrew the 
 Mongol dynasty, ascended the throne under 
 the name of Hung-wu, and founded the 
 Ming dynasty, which governed China from 
 1368 to 1644 — a period of 276 years. The 
 sovereigns of this house were sixteen in 
 number, and were mostly men of ability. 
 Towards the middle of the fifteenth century 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DA Y. 
 
 1217 
 
 the invasions of the Tartars were renewed, 
 but were successfully repulsed. During the 
 reign of the Emperor Shi-tsung (1522- 
 1567) the Mantchoos invaded China, but 
 were driven back. About the same time 
 the intercourse between China and Europe 
 was begun by the trading ventures of the 
 Portuguese with the neighboring islands. 
 In 1604 the Dutch endeavored to open a 
 direct trade with China by sending three 
 
 the former. At last the Emperor of China 
 caused the King of Mantchooria to be assas- 
 sinated, and this act so exasperated the 
 Mantchoos that they took up arms against 
 the emperor. 
 
 In 1635 a bloody civil war broke out in 
 China, and lasted until 1644. The impe- 
 rial party was defeated, and Li-tse-ching, 
 the leader of the insurgents, seized th^ 
 throne. The defeated imperialists appealed 
 
 A CHINESE TEMPLE. 
 
 vessels to that country, but these were re- 
 fused admittance to any Chinese port. In 
 1662 a second effort was made by the Dutch. 
 They were again resisted, and endeavored 
 to enter the empire by force, but were 
 driven off. They succeeded, however, in 
 effecting a lodgment upon one of the Pes- 
 cadore islands, which they subsequently 
 relinquished for Formosa. Several wars 
 had taken place in the meantime between 
 the Chinese and the Mantchoos, and the 
 latter had been reduced to subjection by 
 77 
 
 to the Mantchoos for aid, and the latter 
 espoused their cause, defeated the usurper, 
 entered Pekin in triumph, and made Sun- 
 chi, the son of their own king, Emperor of 
 China. This prince was the founder of the 
 present Mantchoo dynasty, which, though 
 hated at first by the Ch inese,'has by its tact and 
 good government succeeded in conciliating 
 the nation and winning its cordial support. 
 Sun-chi was a mere youth when he came to 
 the throne, and his education was conducted 
 by a German Jesuit named Adam Schall, 
 
1218 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 who was made by the emperor at a later 
 period Prime Minister of Chiua. This 
 reign was in the main a good and pros- 
 perous one. In 1653 the Dutch again at- 
 tempted to open a trade with China, but 
 were refused admittance. On the other 
 hand the Russians were granted permis- 
 sion to trade with the northern parts of the 
 empire. In 1661 the Emperor Kang-hi 
 came to the throne. His chief counsellors 
 
 INTERIOR OF A CHINESE TEMPLE, SHOWING THEIK IDOLS. 
 
 were two Frenchmen named Bouvet and 
 Gerbillon, and to them he owed much of 
 the success which attended his efforts to 
 govern China. He greatly enlarged his 
 dominions by the conquest of Formosa and 
 Thibet. He caused his empire to be sur- 
 veyed, and a map of it made by European 
 engineers, and established institutions of 
 learning, and greatly promoted science and 
 literature. He introduced wise reforms 
 
 into the financial administration of the em- 
 pire, and showed great favor to the Chi'is- 
 tian missionaries who had come into his 
 dominions. The city of Pekin was de- 
 stroyed during his reign by an earthquake, 
 in which 400,000 persons are said to have 
 perished. A different policy was pursued 
 by the Emperor Yung-ching, who came to 
 the throne in 1722, and reigned fourteen 
 years. His suspicions were aroused by the 
 haughty conduct of 
 the Christian mis- 
 sionaries, and he 
 broke up their 
 schools, and imposed 
 m any restrictions 
 upon them. He was 
 succeeded by his son 
 Kien-lung (1736— 
 1796), who con- 
 quered the greater 
 part of central Asia. 
 To his own subjects 
 he was on the whole 
 a just and good 
 ruler, but he shared 
 his father's dislike 
 of the Christians^ 
 and for a time per- 
 secuted them severe- 
 ly. He pursued the 
 narrow-minded pol- 
 icy of his predeces- 
 sors, and sternly 
 refused to allow the 
 European powers to 
 open commercial re- 
 lations with China, 
 making a solitary 
 exception in favor 
 of Russia, which 
 country carried on 
 an extensive com- 
 merce with the 
 northern provinces 
 of the empire. He 
 was succeeded by the 
 Emperor Kia-king, 
 
 (1796-1820). This was a cruel and lustful 
 tyrant, whose oppressions at length drove 
 his people into a rebellion which he was 
 unable to suppress. During his reign the 
 Bible was translated into Chinese by Mr. 
 Morrison, an English Protestant mission- 
 ary, A. D. 1807, who, together with Mr. 
 Milne, founded the Anglo-Chinese college 
 at Malacca. A better state of affairs was 
 brought about in 1820 by the accession to 
 
 J 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1219 
 
 the throne of the Emperor Tau-kwang, 
 whose reigQ ended with his deatli, February 
 24th, 1850. 
 
 Towards the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury the Chinese government, while refusing 
 to Great Britain, as a European power, 
 permission to trade with the empire, granted 
 that privilege to the British East India 
 Company. This company conducted the 
 trade with China until 1834, when its 
 charter expired. The British government 
 then sent Lord Napier to superintend the 
 trade with China, but he was refused per- 
 mission to communicate with the imperial 
 viceroy at Canton on terms of equality. 
 He endeavored to force his way to Canton 
 with two frigates, but after a spirited en- 
 gagement with the forts at the Bogue, Sep- 
 tember 11th, 1834, withdrew to Macao, 
 where he died about a month later. After 
 this the trade between the British mer- 
 cHants and the Chinese was carried on for 
 several years without the superintendence 
 of the British officials. One of the prin- 
 cipal articles of this traffic was opium, of 
 which large quantities were sold yearly in 
 China by British merchants. 
 
 The imperial government at first tol- 
 erated this trade, but, at length, becoming 
 alarra3d by the fearful evils which the use 
 of opium was fastening upon the people of 
 China, endeavored to put a stop to it. In 
 the autumn of 1837 Captain Elliot, the 
 English representative at Canton, Avas 
 ordered by an imperial decree to send 
 away the opium ships and discontinue the 
 trade in that article. This command was 
 disregarded and the trade went on. In 
 the early part of 1839 the imperial viceroy 
 Lin, acting under the orders of his govern- 
 ment, seized and destroyed all the opium 
 on hand at Canton, to the value of $10,000,- 
 000. An illicit trade in opium at once 
 sprang up, and was resented l3y the Chinese 
 government, which declared all commer- 
 cial relations with Great Britain at an end. 
 This led to the opium war, to Avhich we 
 have referred in The History of England. 
 The result was that China was forced to 
 surrender her exclusiveness, and enter into 
 more intimate commercial relations with 
 Europe. The war was brought to an end 
 by the treaty of Nankin, in Augu3t, 1842. 
 The island of Hong Kong was ceded to the 
 British, and the ports of Canton, Amoy, 
 Foochoo, Ningpo and Shanghai were thrown 
 open to the trade of the world, and made 
 the official residences of European consuls. 
 
 China was also compelled to pay to Great 
 Britain an indemnity of $21,000,000. In 
 1842 Caleb Cushing, who had been sent 
 out by the United States to China, arrived 
 in that country and readily negotiated a 
 commercial treaty between the two coun- 
 tries, July 3d, 1844. This was followed by 
 a treaty with France, signed October 23d, 
 1844. 
 
 The Chinese government never meant to 
 observe these treaties in good liaith, and its 
 treatment of the foreigners within its do- 
 minions was at all times marked by deceit 
 and an ill-concealed hostility. This feeling 
 led to constant disputes between the impe- 
 
 CHINESE MANDARIN. 
 
 rial authorities and the foreign consuls and 
 merchants. In October, 1856, matters were 
 brought to a crisis by the seizure of the 
 "Arrow," a British vessel built in China by 
 the Chinese officials. This act led to a de- 
 sultory war between China and Great 
 Britain, which lasted several years, and 
 in which the Chinese were as a rule the 
 winners. France had experienced similar 
 wrongs at the hands of the Chinese, and 
 made common cause with England. The 
 two powers now resolved to force China to 
 a settlement, and in 1857 sent a joint ex- 
 pedition to that country. Canton was 
 bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet on 
 the 28th of December, and the next day 
 was occupied by the English and French 
 
1220 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 land forces, which numbered less than 
 6,000 men. The viceroy Yeh was cap- 
 tured, but the Chinese government en- 
 deavored to offset this reverse by degrading 
 Yeh and appointing his successor. Russia 
 and the United States now joined England 
 and France in endeavoring to force China 
 to negotiate more liberal treaties with the 
 western powers. The action of the Chinese 
 government was unsatisfactory, and the 
 allied forces attacked and captured the 
 
 million dollars, and France a smaller sum. 
 China endeavored as usual to evade this 
 treaty, and the imperial authorities exerted 
 themselves by prescribing a most unusual 
 route for them, and imposing various and 
 vexatious delays upon them, to prevent the 
 foreign ministers from reaching Pekin. The 
 British minister thereupon ordered Admi- 
 ral Hope to force the passage of the Pei-ho. 
 That officer attempted to execute his orders, 
 but was driven back with great loss by the 
 
 VICTORIA, HONG KONG. 
 
 forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho, and pushed 
 on to Tien-tsiu, fifty miles above the mouth 
 of the river. The Chinese government now 
 yielded, and entered into treaties with 
 Great Britain, France, Russia, and the 
 United States, which stipulated for the 
 residence of foreign ministers at Pekin, for 
 the opening of several ports in addition to 
 those named in the treaty of Nankin, for 
 travel and trade under certain conditions in 
 the whole empire, for the free navigation of 
 the Yangste-kiang river, and the settlement 
 of the transit-dues question. Great Britain 
 was paid an indemnity of five and a half 
 
 forts at the mouth of the river. The Brit- 
 ish and French ministers then withdrew to 
 Shanghai to await the instructions of their 
 respective governments. The American 
 minister, Mr. Ward, concluded to accept 
 the Chinese programme, and submitting to 
 many inconveniences and indignities, at 
 length reached Pekin. He was denied an 
 interview with the emperor, except upon 
 conditions degrading to himself and his 
 country, and returned in disgust to Shang- 
 hai, where he joined his European col- 
 leagues. England and France resented 
 the bad faith of China by renewing the 
 
FBOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1221 
 
 war with that country. A joint expedition 
 was sent against the Chinese capital. The 
 Pei-ho forts were taken (August 21st, I860}, 
 and Tien-tsiu was occupied (August 24th). 
 The Chinese officials endeavored to stay 
 the progress of the allies by negotiation, 
 but their design being understood, the 
 Anglo-French forces pushed on, and on 
 the 6th of October arrived before Pekin. 
 The operations against the city were con- 
 ducted with vigor ; the emperor's " summer 
 palace," a magnificent structure, was plun- 
 dered and burned, and on the 13th of Octo- 
 ber one of the gates of the city was surren- 
 
 the last body of rebels was dispersed and 
 the imperial authority restored. In 1857 
 the Mohammedans of Yunnan rose in re- 
 bellion, and were for a time victorious. 
 This revolt extended over a period of fif- 
 teen years, but was suppressed in 1872. A 
 second Mohammedan rebellion broke out 
 in the northwestern part of the empire in 
 1862. It was suppressed in 1873. In 1871 
 China became involved in a quarrel with 
 Russia, and was obliged to cede to that 
 power the district of Kulja and the whole 
 of the basin of the Hi, a region embracing 
 an area of about 600,000 square miles, and 
 
 INTERIOR OF A CHINESE THEATRE. 
 
 dered to the allies. The imperial govern- 
 ment was now forced to yield, and the treaties 
 with France and England were renewed and 
 ratified. The allies then withdrew to the 
 coast. Since that time the policy of China 
 has been to keep faith with the western 
 powers. 
 
 During all this time China had been 
 torn by a rebellion of unusual magnitude. 
 This was the Taiping rebellion, which broke 
 out in the southern provinces of the empire 
 in 1850. At first the rebels were success- 
 ful, and overran a large part of southern 
 China. The war lasted until 186-1, when 
 
 containing a population of 2,000,000 people. 
 In 1861 the Emperor Hieng-fun, who had 
 succeeded the Emperor Tau-Kwang, in 
 1856, died, and his son T'ouug-che came 
 to the throne. He was but five years old 
 at the time. In 1873 he was declared of 
 age and assumed the government. In the 
 autumn of 1867 an embassy was sent by 
 the Chinese government to the various Eu- 
 ropean powers and to the United States. 
 At its head was Anson Burlingame, formerly 
 minister from the United States to China. 
 " It had its origin in the desire of the gov- 
 ernment to demonstrate to western powers 
 
1222 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 its friendliness, and to forestall demands 
 of an extreme character which it antici- 
 pated would be made during the revision 
 of the treaties of 1858 then about to take 
 place. Its chief seized the opportunity to 
 place before the world the indications of a 
 marked change of policy on the part of the 
 government, and to demonstrate that the 
 old system of recourse to local authorities 
 for the redress of grievances should be 
 abandoned in favor of representation to the 
 imperial authorities at Pekiu. The facts 
 
 some others. The French consulate, the 
 cathedral, and the missionary hospital were 
 destroyed. The outbreak was severely 
 punished by the Chinese government, and 
 an apology was made to France. 
 
 In 1875 the Emperor Kwang-liu, the 
 reigning sovereign (1878) succeeded to the 
 throne. On the 30th of June, 1876, the 
 first line of railway in China, from Shang- 
 hai to Woosung, a distance of eleven miles, 
 was opened. It was built by an English 
 company. 
 
 VIEW OF TIEN-TSIN. 
 
 of his (Burlingame's) appointmen to repre- 
 sent China, and of his being accredited to 
 western states on terms of equality, afforded 
 an indication of the marvellous change 
 which had ensued since the war, and a 
 more complete justification of the wisdom 
 of the allies in insisting upon residence at 
 the capital." 
 
 In 1870 the Chinese attacked the French 
 consulate at Tien-tsin and massacred the 
 consul, vice-consul, the interpreter of the 
 French legation at Pekin and his wife, a 
 Catholic priest, nine sisters of charity, and 
 
 The road was at first regarded with jeal- 
 ous hostility by the Chinese, and at one 
 time there was a probability that the gov- 
 ernment would cause the tracks to be torn 
 up ; but the vigorous protestations of the 
 English representatives compelled the Chi- 
 nese government to remain faithful to its 
 obligations, and to respect the rights of the 
 owners of the road. As soon as the trains 
 began running, the hostility of the Chinese 
 changed to delight, and they were loud in 
 their praises of this new means of loco- 
 motion. 
 
FB03I THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1223 
 
 THE HISTORY OF J^l>^isr. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Description of the Empire of Japan — Its Inhabi- 
 tants — Early History Fabulous — Establishment of 
 the Empire by Jimmu Tenno — His Successors — 
 The Empress Jingu-Kogo — Conquest of Corea — 
 Introduction of I?uddhism into Japan — Decline 
 of the Imperial Power — The Shogun — Origin of 
 the Office — Yoritomo — Eelations of the Shogun to 
 the Mikado — Nobunaga — He Persecutes the 
 Buddhists and Favors the Jesuits— Reign of 
 Hideyoshi — lyeyasu Becomes Shogun — The Policy 
 •of the Shoguns — A Perfect System of Tyranny — 
 Introduction of Christianity — Rapid Success of 
 the Jesuits — Mistakes of the Christians — Hide- 
 yoshi Resolves to Exterminate them — Persecution 
 of the Christians — Foreigners Expelled — Japan 
 Refuses to Trade with Europe — Reaction Against 
 the Shogun — The Mikado and the People — Expe- 
 dition of Commodore Perry — The Shogun Enters 
 into Treaties with the United States and the Eu- 
 ropean Powers — Action of the Mikado's Party — 
 Foreign Vessels Fired upon — The Western 
 Powers Compel Japan to Keep Faith — The Revo- 
 lution of 1868 — Downfall of the Shogunate— The 
 Mikado Restored to Power — The Mikado Enters 
 into Cordial Relations with Europe and America 
 — Great Change in the Policy and Civilization of 
 Japan — Growth of Western Ideas — The Feudal 
 System Abolished — The Japan of To-day. 
 
 [ APAN, or, as it is called by the na- 
 tives, Dai Nippon, or Dai Nihon, 
 is an empire, consisting of a group 
 of islands lying off the eastern 
 coast of Asia, between latitude 23° 
 and 50° N., and longitude 122° 
 and 153° E. It comprises the principal 
 islands of Yezo, Hondo, Kiushiu, Shikoku, 
 and an immense number of smaller islands 
 lying in the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of 
 Japan, off the shores of these principal 
 members of the empire. The total number 
 of islands composing Japan is officially 
 stated to be nearly 4,000. Of these many 
 are too small to be inhabited. The total 
 area of the empire is 157,447 square miles, 
 and the population in 1876 was 33,299,014. 
 In May, 1875, Japan ceded to Russia the 
 island of Saghalien, and received in return 
 the Kurile islands, which formerly belonged 
 to Russia. The island of Yezo contains 
 about 30,000, Shikoku about 7,000, and 
 Kiushiu about 15,000 square miles. Two- 
 thirds of the area of the empire is moun- 
 tain land. " There are few hisrh mountains 
 
 along the seacoast. The land slopes up grad- 
 ually into hills, thence into lesser peaks, 
 and finally into lofty ranges. . . . The rivers 
 on such narrow islands, where steep moun- 
 tains and sharply excavated valleys pre- 
 dominate, are of necessity mainly useless 
 for navigation. Ordinarily they are little 
 more than brooks that flow lazily and in 
 narrow channels to the sea. After a storm, 
 in rainy weather, or in winter, they become 
 swollen torrents, often miles wide, sweeping 
 resistlessly over large tracts of land, which 
 they keep perpetually desolate — wilder- 
 nesses of stone and gravel where fruitful 
 fields ought to be. . . . There are, however, 
 some large plains," in which are a few 
 navigable rivers. The country is rendered 
 fertile by means of an admirable and care- 
 fully conducted system of irrigation. It is 
 scrupulously cultivated, and is one of the 
 most productive regions upon the globe. 
 It contains many large cities, and a vast 
 number of towns of smaller size. "The 
 Japanese people are of middling size, in 
 general active and vigorous ; and in their 
 mental characteristics they resemble Eu- 
 ropeans more than the average Asiatic 
 peoples. Their skins range through all 
 colors from white to light brown, yellow, 
 copper color, dirty red, and almost black. 
 The average hue is a pale copper on the 
 body, and shades of yellowish brown in the 
 face. The color depends greatly upon the de- 
 gree of exposure." There is a great differ- 
 ence between the upper and lower classes in 
 the type of features, as well as in color. 
 "Amongtheupper classes, the fine, long, oval 
 face^ with prominent, well-chiselled features, 
 deep sunken eye-sockets, oblique eyes, long, 
 drooping eyelids, elevated and arched eye- 
 brows, high and narrow forehead, rounded 
 nose, bud-like mouth, pointed chin, small 
 hands and feet, contrast strikingly with the 
 round, flattened face, less oblique eyes, al- 
 most level with the face, and straight noses, 
 expanded and turned up at the roots. The 
 former type prevails among the higher 
 classes — the nobility and gentry ; the latter 
 among the agricultural and laboring 
 classes." 
 
1224 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The early history of Japan is purely 
 fabulous. Yezo and Hondo appear to have 
 been occupied by an indigenous, savage race, 
 known as the Aiuos ; Shikoku and Kiushiu 
 were peopled by mixed races from various 
 
 people the simple arts of civilization, and 
 subdued the savage inhabitants of the t\vo> 
 great northern islands. 
 
 We do not reach an authentic period in. 
 Japanese history until about B. c. 660^ 
 
 JAPANESE WARRIORS, OLD STYLE. 
 
 parts of southern Asia. The Japanese le- 
 gends relate that when the diviue ancestors 
 of the imperial family came to the southern 
 islands, they found them thus inhabited. 
 These and their descendants taught the 
 
 when Jimmu Tenno, the first mikado, or 
 emperor, having established his power over 
 the southern islands and conquered the 
 Ainos of the north, ascended the throne. 
 He was not only a great conqueror, buL 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT BA Y. 
 
 1225 
 
 was a wise and good ruler. He established 
 his capital at a place near Kioto, and gave 
 to his people a code of laws and a strong 
 settled government. He labored earnestly 
 to advance the civilization of his dominions, 
 and was greatly beloved by his subjects. 
 His descendants held the throne for many 
 centuries, bearing the title of mikado, and 
 claiming to reign by divine right, since 
 Jimmu was regarded as the fifth in descent 
 from the "sun goddess." The anniversary 
 
 came to the throne, and reigned until A. d. 
 30. He was one of Japan's greatest mon- 
 archs, and labored so earnestly to promote 
 the prosperity of his country, that he is 
 known as " Sujin the Civilizer." He im- 
 proved, if he did not found, the Japanese 
 system of irrigation, and was the originator 
 of the military system by which the empire 
 was governed for many centuries after his 
 death. Yamato-Dake, the son of Keiko, 
 the twelfth mikado, greatly enlarged his 
 
 BUDDHIST PRIESTS. 
 
 of Jimmu's accession to the throne is still 
 celebrated in Japan as a national holiday. 
 Under his successors Japan advanced 
 steadily in civilization and prosperity. 
 " Twelve mikados lived to be over one hun- 
 dred years old. One of them ruled one 
 hundred and one years. The reigns of the 
 first seventeen averaged over sixty-one 
 years. From the seventeenth to the thirty- 
 first the average reign is little over twelve 
 
 years. 
 In B. 
 
 c. 97 Sujin, the tenth mikado. 
 
 father's dominions by conquering the 
 Kuanto, or the region lying east of Ozaka, 
 which now comprises thirty-three provinces 
 of the empire. He died in a.d. 113, at the 
 age of thirty-six, and ranks as one of the 
 great legendary heroes of Japan. In A. D. 
 203 the Empress-Regent Jingu-Kogo sub- 
 dued Corea. Immediately afterwards she 
 was delivered of a son, whom she named 
 Ojin. He succeeded her, and was a great 
 warrior. At his death he was deified, and is 
 now worshipped as the Japanese god of war. 
 
1226 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The conquest of Corea was followed by a 
 social revolution in Japan of the greatest 
 importance. Emigrants from that country 
 came into Japan in great numbers, and 
 brought with them the Buddhist faith. The 
 new religion spread silently, and in A. D. 
 552 a company of doctors, diviners, astron- 
 omers, and mathematicians came from 
 Corea to live at the Japanese court. With 
 them came a band of Buddhist missionaries. 
 This Corean emigration, which had con- 
 tinued steadily from the time of the 
 Empress Jingu, introduced into Japan the 
 civilization of continental Asia, and brought 
 with it arts, sciences, letters, and written 
 literature, and the Buddhist religion, all 
 until then unknown to the island empire. 
 Thus were the character and history of 
 Japan forever changed. The emperor and 
 the people endeavored to suppress Buddh- 
 ism at first, but it grew in spite of all oppo- 
 sition, and in 593 the Empress Suiko 
 granted full toleration to the Buddhist 
 faith. Since then Buddhism has grown 
 with unceasing rapidity. At present it 
 divides with the Shinto — the anciei^t faith — 
 the allegiance of the Japanese. This em- 
 press was one of the great rulers of Japan. 
 She caused written codes of laws to be 
 drawn up, constituted a new and rigid 
 system of official grades, caused the empire 
 to be resurveyed, and fixed the boundaries 
 of the provinces with greater accuracy. 
 
 After the death of the Empress Suiko, 
 the imperial power began to decline, and 
 for the next five centuries Japan was torn 
 by the contentions of the rival families of 
 the Fujiwara, Taira, Minamoto, and Tachi- 
 bana. The mikado soon lost all real 
 power, and became the mere puppet of the 
 great nobles, who were prompt to advance 
 their own importance at the expense of the 
 crown. " The real origin of the decline of 
 the imperial power is found in the basis of 
 the system of succession. The looseness in 
 the marriage tie produced weakness in the 
 social structure and in the government. 
 The mikado was allowed twelve concubines 
 and one wife, so as to insure offspring ; but 
 no law existed defining the constitution of 
 a legal heirship, or the rights of an heir to 
 the throne. The succession did not depend 
 upon birth, but wholly upon the arbitrary 
 will of the sovei-eign. Every member of 
 the imperial family was, under these cir- 
 cumstances, left free to promote his ambi- 
 tious designs upon the throne as best he 
 could." The natural consequence was the 
 
 civil strife which followed, and which ex- 
 tended over centuries. At length, to 
 remedy these evils and bring back peace 
 and order to the empire, the mikado created 
 the office of shogun, or governor-generalis- 
 simo, and placed in his hands the civil 
 power of the realm. 
 
 The first person appointed shogun was 
 Yoritomo, one of the greatest of Japanese 
 heroes. He was the son of a Minamoto 
 noble by a peasant family. He rapidly 
 established his power over the empire, re- 
 ducing the rebellious nobles to submission, 
 and enforcing his orders with a sternness 
 and vigor that broke down all opposition. 
 He took into his own hands the full power 
 of the government, but at the same time 
 preserved to the mikado his hereditary rank, 
 dignity and sacred character. From this 
 time until the revolution of 1868, the 
 shogun was the real ruler of Japan, while 
 the mikado was the true source of power. 
 The office of shogun was made hereditary 
 in the family of Yoritomo, but eventually 
 passed to other houses. Yoritomo fixed 
 ius seat of government at Kamakura, about 
 thirty-five miles from Yedo, and set up a 
 magnificent court. " There were now two 
 capitals, Kioto and Kamakura, and two 
 centres of authority : one, the lawful but 
 overawed emperor and the imperial court; 
 the other, the "military vassal, and a gov- 
 ernment based on the power of arras. It 
 must never be forgotten, however, that the 
 fountain of authority was at Kioto, the 
 ultimate seat of power in the ancient con- 
 stitution. Throughout the centuries the 
 prestige of the mikado's person never de- 
 clined." This dual system of government 
 led foreigners to regard Japan as having 
 " two emperors, one temporal, the other 
 spiritual." This was never the case. The 
 mikado was always the sole emperor ; the 
 shogun, while he kept the mikado in retire- 
 ment, and was the real ruler of the empire, 
 always governed the country " as a vassal, 
 in the name and for the sake of the mikado 
 at Kioto." Yoritomo restored peace to 
 Japan, and died in 1199, after a reign of 
 fifteen years. At his death the shogunate 
 passed to the Hojo family, which held it 
 until A. D. 1333. "The Hojo were able 
 rulers, and kept order and peace in the 
 empire for over a century. They encour- 
 aged literature and the cultivation of the 
 arts and sciences. During their period the 
 resources of the country were developed, 
 and some branches of useful handicraft and 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1227 
 
 fine arts were brought to a perfection never 
 since surpassed. To this time belong the 
 famous image carver, sculptor, and archi- 
 tect, Uueki, and the lacquer artists, who 
 are the ' old masters ' in this branch of art. 
 The military spirit of the people was kept 
 alive, tactics were improved, and the 
 methods of governmental administration 
 simplified." Splendid temples were erected, 
 and the glory and prestige of the empire 
 were maintained at a high state. In 1274 
 an expedition, sent from China by the Tar- 
 tar conquerors of that country, attempted 
 the subjugation of Japan, but was routed; 
 and in 1281 a still more powerful Tartar 
 fleet and army were destroyed by a storm 
 and the desperate valor of the Japanese. 
 From that time no foreign power has at- 
 tempted to invade Japan. 
 
 In 1333 the mikado threw off the rule of 
 the shogun and asserted his power, but in 
 1336 he was again compelled to submit to 
 his great vassal, and the dual government 
 was restored. From 1336 to 1573 Japan 
 was ruled by thirteen shoguus of the house 
 of Ashikaga. Three of these are among 
 the greatest personages in Japanese history. 
 Nobunaga, the first of the three, was made 
 shogun in 1558. He began his reign with 
 the deliberate intention to reduce the whole 
 empire to submission to him. He partly 
 accomplished this by subduing the weaker 
 clans, but was killed by an officer whom he 
 had offended before he could bring the 
 greater clans into submission. Nobunaga 
 was a bitter foe to the Buddhists, whom he 
 hated cordially. He persecuted them se- 
 verely, burned their temples and monaste- 
 ries, and put thousands of them to the 
 sword. As a means of counteracting their 
 influence, he showed great favor to the 
 Jesuits, who were now in the midst of their 
 labors in Japan. 
 
 The next great shogun was Hideyoshi, 
 whom the Jesuit fathers call Faxiba (prop- 
 erly Hashiba),and who is also called Taiko 
 Sama by foreigners. After the death of 
 Nobunaga a period of disoi'der ensued, and 
 was ended in the course of a year by 
 Hideyoshi, who defeated his rivals, made 
 himself shogun, and obliged the mikado to 
 confirm him in this office. He was a great 
 soldier and a great statesman, and gave to 
 Japan one of its most useful codes, known 
 as "the laws of Taiko." Having firmly 
 established his authority in Japan, he de- 
 termined to conquer China, and in 1592 
 sent an army of 160,000 men into Corea. 
 
 The Coreans at once submitted, but the 
 death of Hideyoshi, on the 15th of Septem- 
 ber, 1598, compelled the return of the ex- 
 pedition to Japan. 
 
 Two parties now contested the suprem- 
 acy. At the head of the first was the in- 
 fant son of Hideyoshi ; the other was led by 
 Tokugawa lyeyasu, the greatest man in 
 Japanese history. The latter succeeded, 
 and in 1603 became shogun. His family, 
 the Tokugawa, held the shogunate from 
 1603 until 1867, and during this period 
 Japan enjoyed a profound peace. lyeyasu 
 made Yedo, until then a small town, his 
 capital, and in a few years it became a 
 magnificent and populous city. He per- 
 fected the system of dual government, and 
 though he did not dare to depose the 
 mikado, and professed to rule in his name 
 and for his benefit, the real power of the 
 empire was firmly held by himself and his 
 successors. Under him also the feudal 
 system of Japan was brought to perfection, 
 and the great nobles were made directly 
 responsible to the shogun. 
 
 The system adopted by lyeyasu and his 
 successors for the government of the empire 
 and the perpetuation of their power, was 
 perfect in its way. "According to their 
 scheme the intellect of the nation was to be 
 bounded by the Great Wall of the Chinese 
 classics, while to the hiei'archy of Buddhism 
 — one of the most potent engines ever de- 
 vised for crushing and keeping crushed the 
 intellect of the Asiatic masses — was given 
 the ample encouragement of government 
 example and patronage. An embargo was 
 laid upon all foreign ideas. Edicts com- 
 manded the destruction of all boats built 
 upon a foreign model, and forbade the 
 building of vessels of any size or shape su- 
 perior to that of a junk. Death was the 
 penalty of believing in Christianity, of trav- 
 elling abroad, of studying foreign lan- 
 guages, of introducing foreign customs. 
 Before the august train of the shogun men 
 must seal their upper windows and bow 
 their faces to the earth. Even to his tea 
 jars and cooking pots the populace must do 
 obeisance with face in the dust. To study 
 ancient history, which might expose the 
 origin of the shogunate, was forbidden to 
 the vulgar, and discouraged among the 
 higher. A rigid censorship dried the life- 
 blood of many a master spirit, while the 
 manufacture and concoction of false and 
 garbled histories which extolled the reign- 
 ing dynasty, or glorified the dual system as 
 
1228 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the best and ouly one for Japan, were en- 
 couraged. . . . One of the most perfect sys- 
 tems of espionage and repression ever de- 
 vised was elaborated to fetter all men in 
 helpless subjection to the great usurper. 
 An incredibly large army of spies was kept 
 in the pay of the government. . . . The 
 majority of the daimios who had received 
 lands and titles from the shogun believed 
 their allegiance to be forever due to him, 
 
 basis unchangeable, and the feudal system 
 in eternal stability. . . , The eight classes 
 of the people were kept contented and 
 happy. A fertile soil and genial clime 
 gave food in unstinted profusion. . . . As 
 there was no commerce, there was no vast 
 wealth to be accumulated, nor could the 
 mind of the merchant expand to a limit 
 dangerous to despotism by fertilizing con- 
 tact with foreigners. All learning and 
 
 A JAPANESE NOBLE PASSING THROUGH THE STREETS OF A TOWN. 
 
 instead of to the mikado, a belief stigma- 
 tized as rank treason by the students of 
 history. As for the common people, the 
 great mass of them forgot, or never knew, 
 that the emperor ever held power, or gov- 
 erned his people; and being officially taught 
 to believe him a divine personage, supposed 
 he had lived thus from time immemorial. . . 
 Under the firm rule of the shoguns the 
 dual form of government seemed fixed on a 
 
 education, properly so called, were confined 
 to the Samurai, to whom also belonged the 
 sword and privilege. The perfection of 
 the governmental machinery at Yedo kept, 
 as was the design, the daimios poor and at 
 jealous variance with each other, and ren- 
 dered it impossible for them to combine 
 their power. No two of them were ever 
 allowed to meet in private or to visit each 
 other without spies." Under such a system 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1229 
 
 it seemed that the shogunate was inde- 
 structible. 
 
 In the meantime Christianity had been 
 introduced into Japan. Vasco da Gama 
 had heard of Japan during his residence 
 in China in the thirteenth century, and 
 had given glowing accounts of it on his re- 
 turn to Europe. In 1542 three Portuguese 
 sailors came to Taneshima, and were kindly 
 received by the people. Three years later 
 Fernam Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese ad- 
 venturer, visited the country. His account 
 of it induced many Portuguese traders to 
 repair to it, and an active commerce with 
 Japan soon sprang up. The Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries followed close upon the traders, 
 and in 1549 St. Francis Xavier, " the 
 apostle of the Indies," came to Japan. The 
 missionaries were kindly received, and 
 made converts with great rapidity. Roman 
 Catholicism had many charms for the 
 Japanese ; it was a great improvement upon 
 Buddhism, and its gorgeous ceremonies and 
 scenic displays captivated the lively imagi- 
 nations of this impressible people. Some 
 of the most powerful nobles were among 
 the converts, and the native Christians of 
 Japan, in the course of a few years, could 
 be counted by thousands. In 1582 they 
 despatched an embassy to the pope to as- 
 sure him of their submission to the Roman 
 church. In 1598 the Dutch, who were 
 Protestants in religion, opened commercial 
 relations with Japan, and in 1609 were 
 granted a port on the island of Hirado 
 (called by the Hollanders Firando), where 
 they established a factory or trading settle- 
 ment. They were granted important privi- 
 leges. 
 
 Nobunaga, as we have seen, favored the 
 Portuguese and the Jesuits, regarding them 
 as useful allies in his attempts to destroy 
 Buddhism. Hideyoshi found the native 
 Christians refractory and inclined to op- 
 pose his ai'bitrary measures, and so became 
 their enemy. The missionaries and the Por- 
 tuguese drew upon themselves the anger of 
 the government by their haughty and in- 
 subordinate actions, their vicious habits, 
 and the encouragement they gave to the 
 native Christians in their fierce attacks 
 upon the native Shinto and Buddhist tem- 
 ples and religious observances. The Jesu- 
 its at length became so open in their inso- 
 lent defiance of the government, that Hi- 
 deyoshi issued an edict banishing them 
 from the empire. This edict was renewed 
 '" 1596, and the next year twenty-three 
 
 priests were killed in one day at Nagasaki. 
 The native Christians espoused the cause 
 of their teachers, and openly defied the 
 government. This led to a frightful per- 
 secution of the Christians, thousands of 
 whom were put to death; their churches 
 and schools were destroyed, and it was de- 
 clared treason to hold or teach the Chris- 
 tian faith. The Portuguese were stripped 
 of their privilege of free access to the em- 
 pire, and were confined to the island of 
 Deshima at Nagasaki. In 1622 a terrible 
 massacre of the Christians took place at 
 Nagasaki. Driven to despair, the surviv- 
 ing native Christians began to plot for the 
 overthrow of the empire. The plot was 
 discovered in 1637, and the persecution 
 was renewed with greater severity. The 
 Portuguese were forever banished from the 
 empire; and all natives and ships of Japan 
 were forbidden to leave the country under 
 severe penalties. In 1639, the Portuguese 
 having been driven out, their trade and 
 privileges were bestowed upon the Dutch, 
 who, being Protestants, were not included 
 in the hatred which the Japanese bore to 
 the disciples of the Jesuits. In 1640 the 
 native Christians rose in open rebellion, 
 but were subdued after a long and gallant 
 resistance. At the capture of their last 
 stronghold, 31,000 persons were put to the 
 sword. In 1641 the Dutch were ordered 
 to abandon their factory at Hirado and 
 remove to the island of Deshima, from 
 which point they were allowed to trade 
 with the empire under certain rigid condi- 
 tions. For the next two centuries they 
 enjoyed the monopoly of trade with Japan. 
 Christianity having thus been rooted out, 
 the Japanese devoted themselves with en- 
 ergy to their old faiths. The shoguns 
 favored Buddhism, which was inclined to 
 support their usurpation ; the mikado and 
 his court upheld the ancient historical re- 
 ligion of the shinto, which was always true 
 to the rightful sovereign of Japan. Thus 
 for two centuries Japan held herself rigidly 
 aloof from the rest of the world. 
 
 In the meantime there had been silently 
 but steadily growing up in the empire a 
 strong reaction against the rule of the sho- 
 guns. The mikado, as has been stated, had 
 never ceased to be regarded by the educated 
 classes as the only lawful sovereign of 
 Japan. As early as the opening of the 
 eighteenth century these began to draw 
 nearer to the mikado, and to discuss among 
 themselves measures for restoring the em- 
 
1230 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 peror to his true position, and compelling 
 the shogun to resume his proper place as a 
 vassal. Tlie second Prince of Mito is re- 
 garded as the originator of this movement. 
 He gathered about him a large number of 
 scholars, and under his guidance " The His- 
 tory of Japan " was prepared. The prince 
 died in 1700; but his son and successor 
 took up the work, and the great history was 
 finished in 1715, and immediately became 
 
 thinking men that a collision between the 
 parties of the mikado and the shogun was 
 inevitable. In 1840 the Prince of Mito, 
 thinking the time propitious, determined 
 to bring on the conflict. His efforts were 
 promptly suppressed by the shogun, and he 
 was taken prisoner and kept in captivity 
 for twelve years. This vigorous action put 
 an end for the time to open resistance to 
 the shogun ; but the southern clans went 
 
 INTERIOE OF A JAPANESE THEATRE. 
 
 a classic. It was read with avidity by the 
 educated. Its chief objects were to show 
 that the mikado was the true historical 
 sovereign of Japan, and that the shogun 
 was only a military usurper. This work 
 was followed in 1827 by " The External 
 History of Japan," the product of twenty 
 years' labor on the part of the great scholar, 
 Rai Sanyo, which had the same object in 
 view. The influence of these works was 
 very great, and it soon became evident to 
 
 on secretly with their preparations, in order 
 to be in readiness when the decisive mo- 
 ment arrived. The immediate occasion of 
 the revolt against the shogun did not pre- 
 sent itself until twelve years later. 
 
 Towards the middle of the present cen- 
 tury European and American vessels be- 
 gan to frequent the Japanese waters, and 
 after the settlement of California American 
 whalers pursued their trade regularly in 
 the home waters of the empire. Many of 
 
FEOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1231 
 
 these were wrecked on the coast of Japan, 
 and their crews were treated with great 
 harshness by the native authorities. In 
 order to put a stop to this, and to establish 
 friendly relations with the empire, the 
 United States government, in 1852, de- 
 spatched an expedition under the com- 
 mand of Commodore. Matthew C. Perry. 
 The American commander was instructed 
 to demand protection for American seamen 
 wrecked on the Japanese coast, and to 
 effect a treaty of commerce and good will 
 with the imperial government. In July, 
 1853, he entered the bay of Yedo with four 
 ships of war, and delivered to the Japanese 
 authorities a letter from the President of 
 the United States, setting forth the de- 
 mands and wishes of his government. He 
 then sailed for China. In February, 1854, 
 he returned with seven ships of war, and 
 anchored within a few miles of Yedo. He 
 managed by his skilful and judicious efforts 
 to induce the shogun to enter into the de- 
 sired treaty, which was signed at Kana- 
 gawa on the 31st of March, 1854, and which 
 opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate 
 or Hakodadi to foreign commerce, and 
 made them places of consular residence. 
 In September a British squadron, under 
 Sir James Stirling, entered the harbor of 
 Nagasaki and concluded a treaty with the 
 shogun, by which Hakodate and Nagasaki 
 were thrown open to foreign commerce. 
 The Russians and the Dutch then made 
 similar treaties with the shogun. On the 
 17th of June, 1857, Mr. Harris, the United 
 States consul to Japan, made a still more 
 advantageous treaty with the shogun, by 
 which the harbor of Nagasaki was also 
 opened to American commerce. In 1858, 
 in spite of the opposition of the Japanese, 
 Mr. Harris proceeded to Yedo, and con- 
 cluded a third treaty still more advantage- 
 ous to the United States. During the same 
 year Lord Elgin, escorted by a British 
 squadron, reached Yedo and negotiated a 
 treaty between Great Britain and Japan, 
 by which it was agreed that the ports of 
 Hakodate, Kanagawa and Nagasaki should 
 be opened to British subjects after July 1st, 
 1859. The arrival of Commodore Perry 
 was the beginning of the intercourse of 
 Japan with the nations of America and 
 Europe, an intercourse which has entirely 
 changed the destiny of the empire. 
 
 All the foreigners made the mistake of 
 regarding the shogun as the rightful Em- 
 peror of Japan. They looked upon the 
 
 mikado as the spiritual ruler of the empire, 
 who did not concern himself with its tem- 
 poral affairs. The shogun on his part en- 
 couraged this belief, and signed the treaties 
 without referring them to the mikado or 
 asking his consent to their signature. This 
 act was looked upon by the Japanese as a 
 fresh usurpation of power on the part of 
 the shogun, and aroused a strong reaction 
 in favor of the mikado. The nation was 
 opposed to the violation by the shogun of 
 the traditional policy of non-intercourse 
 with foreigners, and the country resounded 
 with the cry, " Honor the mikado and ex- 
 pel the barbarian." The shogun was re- 
 garded as a traitor, and the cause of the 
 mikado was greatly strengthened. 
 
 In 1858 the shogun died, and the prime 
 minister li, a man of great ability and un- 
 scrupulous character, became regent. He 
 set aside the true successor, and bestowed 
 the shogunate upon the infant Prince of 
 Kii, but kept the power in his own hands. 
 This arbitrary act aroused a strong opposi- 
 tion to him, which he suppressed by im- 
 prisoning and executing the leaders of the 
 movement. In 1859 he despatched an em- 
 bassy to the United States without consult- 
 ing the mikado, and so increased the hatred 
 of the people for him. On the 23d of 
 March, 1860, he was assassinated in open 
 daylight in the streets of Yedo. The party 
 of the mikado now grew with Avonderful 
 rapidity, and the shogun's followers, see- 
 ing the steady drift of popular sentiment, 
 sought to rega'in their lost ground by trying 
 to persuade the foreigners to close the ports 
 and leave Japan, but without success. 
 About this time the forces of the Prince of 
 Choshiu (Nogato), acting under the orders 
 of the mikado, fired upon the ships of the 
 United States, France, Great Britain and 
 the Netherlands. This act was punished 
 by the treaty powers shortly after, by send- 
 ino- a combined squadron to Shimonoseki 
 and capturing that port after a severe 
 bombardment. Japan was compelled to 
 pay an indemnity of $3,000,000. This 
 victory opened the eyes of the Japanese to 
 the power of the foreigners, and made them 
 more cautious in their conduct towards 
 them. 
 
 Though the Prince of Choshm had 
 obeyed the mikado in firing upon the for- 
 eign vessels, he had disobeyed the shogun, 
 and the latter, in 1866, marched to punish 
 him for his disobedience. The forces of the 
 shogun were armed au(f disciplined in the 
 
1232 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 old Japanese style ; those of the Prince of 
 Choshin were armed with European rifles 
 and artillery, and had been disciplined by 
 Dutch ofiicers. A campaign of three 
 months ensued, and resulted in the over- 
 whelming defeat of the shogun, who, worn 
 out with mortification at his failure, and 
 with disease, died on the 19th of September, 
 1866. He was succeeded by Keiki, the 
 last of the shoguns. The mikado's party 
 now proceeded to bolder acts, and in Octo- 
 ber, 1867, urged the mikado to abolish the 
 shogunate and resume the government of 
 the empire. This proposal received so 
 much support among the most powerful 
 princes and nobles of Japan, that on the 
 9th of November, 1867, Keiki resigned 
 the shogunate. 
 
 This was a great gain, but it was not all 
 the mikado's party desired. They deter- 
 mined to go further and restore the govern- 
 ment to the basis on which it had existed 
 prior to A. D. 1200. On the 3d of January, 
 1868, they seized the palace, drove out the 
 nobles, and created a government under 
 which the highest offices were filled by the 
 huge, or court nobles of the imperial family, 
 those of the next order by the daimios or 
 courtiers, and those of the third order by 
 men selected from the samurai. This 
 arrangement threw the whole power of the 
 state into the hands of the Satsuma, Choshin, 
 Tosa, and Hizen clans. The ex-shogun 
 was greatly displeased with this arrange- 
 ment, and took up arms to regain his lost 
 power. He was defeated in a three days' 
 battle, and fled to Yedo in an American 
 steamer. Seeing that further resistance 
 was hopeless, he surrendered to the imperial 
 forces, declared his resolution never again 
 to oppose the will of the mikado, and re- 
 tired to private life. This submission com- 
 pletely re-established the authority of the 
 mikado throughout the empire, and gave 
 peace to the country. 
 
 Up to this time the party of the mikado 
 had been the bitterest opponents of the 
 treaties negotiated by the shogun with the 
 foreign powers. There were a few among 
 them who had profoundly studied the 
 question, and had seen the folly of their 
 country in holding itself aloof from the 
 rest of the world. These now set to work 
 to promote the intercourse of Japan with 
 the treaty powers, and found this no diffi- 
 cult task, as the leaders of the imperial 
 party had by this time become convinced 
 of the immense srfperiority of the foreign 
 
 over the native system of war. They also 
 feared that the foreign powers would com- 
 pel the empire by force to observe the 
 treaties made with the shogun, and knew 
 that Japan was in no condition to offer a 
 successful resistance. They accordingly 
 invited the representatives of the foreign 
 powers to a conference at Kioto. Many of 
 the court nobles had never seen a foreigner, 
 and upon beholding them at the conference 
 at once abandoned the prejudices they had 
 cherished against them. The treaties were 
 cordially renewed, the foreign powers recog- 
 nized the mikado as the only rightful 
 sovereign of Japan, and the foundations 
 were laid upon which have been built up 
 the intimate and cordial relations which 
 now exist between Japan and the states of 
 Europe and America. Foreign ideas and 
 customs from this time made their way 
 steadily into the empire, and were rapidly 
 adopted by the Japanese. Since 1868 the 
 character of Japanese civilization has un- 
 dergone a profound change. The govern- 
 ment, the army and navy, and the finances 
 are administered upon a European basis ; 
 the European dress is driving out the old 
 native costume ; and large numbers of 
 young men destined for the public service 
 are sent to the schools of Europe and the 
 United States to be trained in the learning 
 and civilization of the Avestern world. In 
 all these measures the young Emperor 
 Mutsuhito (the reigning mikado), who came 
 to the throne in 1867, has taken an active 
 part, and has constantly endeavored to 
 promote the civilization of his country and 
 to render more intimate its intercourse 
 wath the western nations. 
 
 The changes which took place in the in- 
 ternal government of the empire after the 
 revolution of 1868 Avere very rapid. In 
 1871 the emperor abolished the titles of 
 kuge and daimio (court and territorial 
 noble), and replaced them by that of 
 kuazoku (noble families). This decree de- 
 prived the great nobles of their territorial 
 fiefs, which were reclaimed by the crown, 
 and at one blow destroyed the feudal sys- 
 tem of Japan. In the same year, in order 
 to place himself more directly at the head 
 of the new state of aflairs, the emperor re- 
 moved his capital from the old sacred city 
 of Kioto to the great city of Yedo, the 
 name of which was changed to Tokio 
 (western capital). The government granted 
 to the deposed daimios one-tenth of their 
 former incomes on condition of residing 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1233 
 
 permanently at Tokio. In December, 1871, 
 an embassy was sent to the nations of 
 Europe and America. Each was visited 
 in succession, and new treaties of commerce 
 and friendship were negotiated. The em- 
 bassy returned to Japan in September, 1873. 
 In 1874 Japan sent an expedition under 
 General Saigo to Formosa to chastise the 
 savages of that island for their outrages 
 upon Japanese sailors wrecked upon their 
 shores. The expedition was successful, but 
 involved Japan in a quarrel with China, 
 which power claimed Formosa as one of her 
 dependencies. A war was imminent, but 
 
 the firmness of the Japanese ambassadors 
 induced the Chinese government to enter 
 into a treaty and make reparation to Japan 
 for her losses. In July, 1G75, Japan ceded 
 the island of Saghalien to Russia, receiving 
 in return the Kurile islands. In 187G a 
 quarrel of long standing with Corea was 
 settled upon terms favorable to Japan. In 
 the same year the empire took part in the 
 International Centennial Exhibition, held 
 at Philadelphia, in the United States, and 
 gave unmistakable evidence in its superb 
 display of its success in the new career upon 
 which it has entered. 
 
 a I i i> *3SSJ ' 4 
 
 book: xixixiATii. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF MEXICO. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 
 PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Geographical Position of Mexico — Early History — 
 The Native Tribes— The Toltecs— Kise of the 
 Aztec Kingdom — The Civilization and Customs 
 of the Aztecs — Tenochtitlan — Reign of Monte- 
 zuma II. — Arrival of Cortes — The Conquest of 
 Mexico — The Spaniards Subdue the Neighboring 
 Tribes — Efforts of Cortes to introduce European 
 Civilization — New Spain — Mexico under the 
 Viceroys — Mistaken Policy of Spain — Character 
 of the People of Mexico — Revolt of Hidalgo — 
 The Revolution of 1820 — Mexican Independence 
 Proclaimed — Iturbide Establishes an Empire — 
 It is Overturned — The Republic Established — 
 Revolutions— Santa Anna becomes Dictator — The 
 Texan War of Independence — Its Results — War 
 ■with the United States — Fall of Santa Anna — 
 More Revolutions — Juarez becomes President — 
 Offends the Church Party— Trouble with the Eu- 
 ropean Powers — War with France — Mexico Con- 
 quered by the French— The Empire Established 
 — Maximilian — Withdrawal of the French — Cap- 
 ture and Execution of Maximilian — The Republic 
 Restored — Subsequent History. 
 
 /Mexico occupies the southwestern 
 portion of the North American 
 continent, and lies between latitude 
 15° and 32° 42' N., and longitude 
 86° 34' and 117° 7' W. It is 
 bounded on the north and north- 
 east by the United States, on the east by 
 the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, 
 on the southeast by Balize, on the south by 
 Guatemala and the Pacific Ocean, and on 
 the west by the Pacific. Its extreme length, 
 from northwest to southeast, is 1,990 miles, 
 78 
 
 and its greatest breadth, from east to west, 
 is 750 miles. It embraces an area of 761,- 
 640 square miles, and contains a population 
 of 9,276,079. 
 
 The early history of Mexico is unknown. 
 Until the end of the sixth century of our 
 era the entire subject is shrouded in mys- 
 tery, and all narratives concerning it are 
 fabulous. The native traditions and the 
 remnants of ancient structures, which are 
 still to be met with in the country, make it 
 evident that the primitive inhabitants Avere 
 possessed of a civilization equal, if not su- 
 perior, to that of the Aztecs, but Avho they 
 were or what was their story we cannot 
 tell. 
 
 About the beginning of the seventh cen- 
 tury the Toltecs entered the valley of Mex- 
 ico, and built the city of Tollan or Tula, 
 which they made their capital. Some wri- 
 ters regard them as having come from Gua- 
 temala ; according to others they were from 
 Asia. They are said to have been an agri- 
 cultural people, and to have understood the 
 mechanical arts. Their cities were cyclo- 
 psean in character, and they were the orig- 
 inators of the system of astronomy after- 
 wards adopted by the Mexicans. Early in 
 the eighth century a kingdom is said to 
 have been founded by Icoatizin. It laste(i 
 for five centuries, at the end of which time 
 it fell in consequence of a long period of 
 pestilence and civil war, and the greater 
 part of the Toltecs abandoned their country 
 
1234 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and migrated southward. Not long after 
 this the Chichi raecs, a fierce savage tribe, 
 who are said to have Avorshipped the sun 
 as their father and the earth as their 
 mother, came from the north into the 
 Toltec country. The few remaining inhab- 
 itants quietly submitted to them, and they 
 settled peacefully in the land, and became 
 amalgamated with the Toltecs. From this 
 union sprang a people known as the Col- 
 huisorCulhuaSjWho founded theColhuacan 
 monarchy. A number of other tribes came 
 into the country after the arrival of theChi- 
 chimecs. The most powerful of these were 
 
 ANCIENT MEXICAN TOWN. 
 
 the Tepanecs, who established their capital 
 at Atzcapozalco, and founded one of the 
 most powerful of the Mexican states. 
 Another tribe, the Techichimecs, founded 
 the TIaxcalan republic. All these tribes 
 spoke the Nohoa or Nahuatl language. 
 The Alcolhuis, another tribe, were regarded 
 as the most refiued. They were of the same 
 race as the Toltecs, and taught the Chichi- 
 mecs agriculture, the mechanic arts, and the 
 manners and customs of city life. They be- 
 came in course of time entirely blended with 
 the Chichimecs, and the two races founded 
 the kingdom of Tezuco or Acolhuacan. 
 
 The last of all the tribes to make a per- 
 manent settlement in the country were the 
 Aztecs or Mexicans. They had been in 
 the valley of Mexico as long as any of the 
 other tribes, but had not chosen *any per- 
 manent resting-place. They came from 
 Azatlan, an unknown region of the north, 
 and on their journey southward appear to 
 have made several prolonged halts. The 
 first of these seems to have been on the 
 shores of the Great Salt lake, in Utah ter- 
 ritory ; another appears to have been at the 
 river Gila ; and a third in the vicinity of 
 the Presidio de los Llanos. About a. d. 
 1195 they reached 
 Andhuac, or the val- 
 ley of Mexico. For 
 the next one hundi-ed 
 and thirty years they 
 led a nomadic exist- 
 ence, during which 
 they waged an al- 
 most continuous war 
 with the other tribes, 
 in which their num- 
 bers were greatly di- 
 minished. In 1325 
 they laid the founda- 
 tions of their city of 
 Tenochtitlan on the 
 islands of the lake 
 of Tezuco. The name 
 of this city was in 
 after ages changed to 
 Mexico in honor of 
 their god Mexitli. 
 The Aztecs were bit- 
 terly hated by the 
 surrounding tribes, 
 and had a hard strug- 
 gle to found their 
 state, but they per- 
 severed, and finally 
 increased in wealth 
 and power to an ex- 
 tent which enabled them to turn upon their 
 enemies and reduce them to submission. 
 The surrounding country was subdued, and 
 Aztec garrisons were established at com- 
 manding points. The whole of central and 
 southern Mexico, and a portion of the north 
 were embraced in the Aztec empire. As 
 they grew in strength the Aztecs enlarged 
 and improved their capital until it became 
 a city, the magnificence and extent of which 
 excited the surprise and admiration of Cor- 
 tes and his followers, who were familiar 
 with the splendors of the old world. 
 For twenty-seven years after the founda- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1235 
 
 tion of Tenochtitlan the government of the 
 Mexicans or Aztecs was administered by a 
 council of twenty nobles. In 1352 it was 
 changed into an elective monarchy, and 
 Acaraapitzia or Acamapichtle was made 
 king. The power of the crown was greatly 
 limited at first, but increased with the con- 
 quests and wealth of the nation. 
 
 The Mexicans advanced rapidly in civ- 
 ilization and soon became the leading na- 
 tion in this respect. Their civilization, 
 though peculiar, was of a very high order. 
 At the head of the state was the king, who 
 was elected by the nobles. It was indis- 
 pensable that the candi- 
 date for the crown should 
 be not under thirty years 
 of age, and should have 
 been a general in the royal 
 armies. Military service 
 was the basis of all rank 
 in the state, and the nobles 
 were naturally the officers 
 of the array. The au- 
 thority of the king was 
 very great, but was reg- 
 ulated by a fixed code of 
 laws. Next to the king 
 and nobles were the 
 priests, whose power was 
 confined to spiritual af- 
 fairs. As they had charge 
 of the education of the 
 young and were consulted 
 in domestic matters, their 
 influence was very great. 
 A system of rigid moral- 
 ity prevailed among all 
 classes; adultery was 
 punished with death, as 
 were also murder, theft, 
 and drunkenness. The 
 civil code of the Mexicans 
 was as mild as their penal 
 code was severe. A well-arranged system 
 of courts existed in the capital and the pro- 
 vincial towns, at which complaints were 
 heard and justice administered. Marriage 
 was encouraged, and the family relations 
 formed a conspicuous and favorable feature 
 of Aztec life. The right to hold property 
 was confined to the men. The revenues of 
 the crown were derived from state lands set 
 apart in certain provinces, and from a tax 
 upon agricultural products, and a tribute 
 consisting of articles of food and manufac- 
 tured wares. The army was regularly or- 
 ganized, and its discipline was firm and 
 
 well planned. The towns of the kingdom 
 were connected with the capital by well- 
 built roads, which the government kept in 
 good repair, and an active commerce was 
 carried on between the various portions of 
 the kingdom. The lakes were covered with 
 large fleets of boats engaged in this trafiic. 
 No beasts of burden were used, and when 
 the Spaniards brought horses into Mexico, 
 the natives regarded these animals with 
 wonder. Mining was carried on with great 
 success, and the Mexicans were skilful 
 metallurgists. They were also well versed 
 in astronomy, knew the true length of the 
 
 KTTINS OF AN ANCIENT MEXICAN CITY. 
 
 year, the nature and cause of eclipses and 
 of the ])eriod of the solstices and equinoxes, 
 and of the transit of the sun across the 
 zenith of Mexico ; and had a calendar 
 which was ingenious and accurate. Their 
 knowledge of medicine, surgery, botany, 
 and natural history was remarkable; and 
 at the time of the conquest they had car- 
 ried the science of geography to a prom- 
 ising point. Their agricultural and mil- 
 itary implements were made of copper, 
 bronze, and obsidian. Agriculture was car- 
 ried on by means of irrigation. 
 
 The Mexicans were a deeply religious 
 
1236 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 people, and were very zealous in the per- 
 formances of the rites and ceremonies of 
 their faith. " They believed in a supreme 
 Creator, invisible, yet omnipresent, but re- 
 quiring numerous assistants to perform his 
 will, each of whom presided over some 
 special natural phenomenon or phase of 
 human existence." The principal god — the 
 patron divinity of the nation — was Huitzi- 
 lopochtli, the god of war ; next to him was 
 Quetzalcoatl, the one "white god" of Mex- 
 ican mythology, who taught his people the 
 arts of peace and good government, and 
 forbade human sacrifices. All the gods 
 were represented by images of clay, wood, 
 
 MEXICAN INDIANS. 
 
 stone, or precious metals. Vast numbers 
 of priests Avere attached to the temples, and 
 the religious ceremonies were conducted on 
 a scale of great magnificence. "The tem- 
 ples were of two kinds : low and circular, 
 or high and pyramidal, on the tops of which 
 the sacrifices took place. Torquemada es- 
 timates that there were upwards of 40,000 
 throughout the empire. . . . There were 
 hundreds in each principal city, besides the 
 great temple with several smaller ones 
 within its precincts ; in each outlying 
 quarter of the city were other small courts 
 with as many as six temples ; and there 
 were temples on the mountains and at in- 
 tervals along the high roads. They were 
 
 solid pyramidal masses of earth cased with 
 brick or stone, many of them more than 
 100 feet square and of a still greater height. 
 The ascent was by flights of steps on the 
 outside, and on the broad flat summit were 
 sanctuaries containing the images of the 
 deities and altars on which fires were con- 
 tinually burning." Human sacrifices con- 
 stituted the chief religious ceremonial of 
 the Mexicans ; it is said that 2,500 persons 
 were annually sacrificed on the altars of 
 Tenochtitlan. These were chiefly prisoners 
 taken in war. 
 
 Tenochtitlan, the capital of the empire, 
 was at the time of the Spanish conquest a 
 
 ^__^__^ city of vast extent 
 
 and great splendor. 
 " The city was nine 
 miles in circumfer- 
 ence, and the num- 
 ber of its houses 
 was about 60,000, 
 and of inhabitants 
 probably 500,000. 
 Though a few of 
 the streets were 
 wide and of great 
 length, most of 
 them were narrow 
 and lined with 
 mean houses. The 
 large streets were 
 intersected by nu- 
 merous canals 
 crossed by bridges. 
 The palace, near 
 the centre of the 
 city, was a pile of 
 low, irregular stone 
 buildings of vast 
 extent. Another 
 palace, assigned to 
 Cortes on his entrance into the city, was so 
 large as to accommodate his whole army. 
 But the most remarkable edifice of the whole 
 city Avas the great teocalli or temple, com- 
 pleted in 1486. It was encompassed by a 
 stone wall about eight feet high, ornamented 
 on the outer side by figures of serpents in 
 basso-relievo, and pierced on its four sides 
 by gateways opening on the four principal 
 streets. Over each gate was an arsenal, 
 and barracks near the temple were garri- 
 soned by 10,000 soldiers. The temple itself 
 was a solid pyramidal structure of earth 
 and pebbles, coated externally with hewn 
 stones. It was square, its sides facing the 
 cardinal points, and was divided into five 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1237 
 
 city B 
 
 stories, each of which receded so as to be 
 smaller thau that below it. The ascent was 
 by a flight of 114 steps on the outside, so 
 contrived that to reach the top it was neces- 
 sary to pass four times round the whole 
 edifice, and the base of the temple is sup- 
 posed to have been 300 feet square. The 
 summit was a large area paved with broad, 
 flat stones. Oii it were two towers or sanc- 
 tuaries, and before each was an altar on 
 which a fire was kept continually burning. 
 The top of this remarkable structure com- 
 manded a superb view of the city, lake, 
 valley, and surrounding mountains. The 
 police of the city was efficient and vigilant, 
 and 1,000 men were daily einph)yed in 
 watering and 
 sweeping the 
 streets. As the 
 lake that sur- 
 rounded the 
 was extremely 
 brackish, pure 
 water for the sup- 
 ply of the people 
 was brought by 
 an aqueduct from 
 the neighboring 
 hill of Chapulte- 
 pec, where Monte- 
 zuma had a sum- 
 mer palace sur- 
 rounded by vast 
 and magnificent 
 gardens." 
 
 In 1502 Monte- 
 zuma II. was 
 chosen to succeed 
 his uncle Ahuitzotl 
 on the Mexican 
 throne. He was 
 an active and war- 
 like sovereign, and subdued the southern 
 country as far as Honduras and Nicaragua. 
 He made many changes in the internal ad- 
 ministration of the kingdom, and was noted 
 for the strictness and severity with which he 
 caused the laws to be executed. He was 
 liberal iu his rewards to those who served 
 him faithfully, and spent large sums on the 
 public works. His court was maintained 
 upon a scale of magnificence never before 
 equalled in Mexico. To provide for these 
 expenditures heavy taxes were imposed 
 upon the people, and these led to frequent 
 revolts. 
 
 In A. D. 1519, when Montezuma was at 
 the height of his power, Hernando Cortes, 
 
 at the head of 550 Spaniards, ten pieces of 
 artillery, and about a dozen horsemen, 
 landed on the coast of Mexico. He defeated 
 the natives who sought to prevent his land- 
 ing, founded the city of Vera Cruz, burned 
 his ships, and, leaving a small garrison to 
 defend his new conquest, advanced into the 
 interior. He defeated the Tlascalans in 
 four battles, and on the 18th of September 
 entered the city of Tlascala. The natives, 
 astonished at the fair skin and the martial 
 prowess of the Spaniards, supposed them 
 to be of divine origin, and the report went 
 abroad that the gods had undertaken the 
 conquest of the country. Cortes attempted 
 to persuade the Tlascalans to abjure their 
 
 STKEKT IN A MEXICAN CITY. 
 
 religion, though without success ; but in- 
 duced them to acknowledge themselves 
 vassals of the King of Spain. He remained 
 in Tlascala twenty days, and then resumed 
 his march upon Mexico, accompanied by a 
 force c? several thousand Tlascalans who 
 had espoused his cause. His route lay 
 through Cholula, the people of which were 
 induced by the Mexicans to attempt a 
 treacherous attack upon the Spaniards. 
 Cortes severely punished the Cholulans for 
 their proposed attack. He then resumed 
 his march, and arrived before the city of 
 Mexico on the 8th of November, 1519. 
 Previous to this Montezuma had sent am- 
 bassadors to the Spanish commander to 
 
1238 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 warn him not to approach the capital. He 
 now changed his course, received the Span- 
 iards with great pomp, and assigned them 
 one of the largest and strongest palaces in 
 the city as quarters. This they soon con- 
 verted into a fortress. The new-comers 
 were greatly surprised at the extent and 
 magnificence of the Mexican capital, and 
 from the first made preparations to con- 
 quer it. 
 
 The Mexicans strongly disapproved of 
 the course of the king in allowing Cortes 
 to enter the city with his followers, and 
 manifested their hostility to the strangers 
 on all possible occasions. At length a party 
 of seventeen attacked a Spanish detach- 
 ment. Cortes thereupon sought an inter- 
 view with Montezuma in the monarch's 
 own palace, and seized his person and con- 
 
 A MEXICAN FARM HOUSE. 
 
 veyed him to the Spanish quarters, threat- 
 ening him with instant death if he should 
 give any sign to the multitude that thronged 
 the streets that he was a prisoner. A rescue 
 would have been attempted by the Mexi- 
 cans had not Montezuma assured them that 
 he was going of his own free will to visit 
 the Spanish commander. Upon reaching 
 his quarters Cortes put the captive king in 
 irons, and captured and burned to death 
 the seventeen natives who had attacked the 
 Spaniards. He next compelled Montezuma 
 to swear allegiance to the King of Spain, 
 and to induce his nobles to do likewise. 
 Then he obtained from the king a sum of 
 gold equal in value to 100,000 ducats. 
 
 At this juncture Cortes learned that an 
 expedition from Spain had landed on the 
 coast, under Narvaez, who had come to 
 
 take the command from him. Leaving 
 200 men to hold the position in the city of 
 Mexico, he hastened with 70 men to Cho- 
 lula, where he was joined by 150 men he 
 had left there, and marched against Nar- 
 vaez, who, with 900 men, 80 horses, and 
 10 or 12 field guns, was encamped in one 
 of the Cempoallan cities. By a bold stroke 
 he captured Narvaez and his whole force. 
 The vanquished troops readily enlisted in 
 the service of the victor, and with this in- 
 creased force Cortes returned to Mexico. 
 Arriving there, he found the Mexicans in 
 open rebellion against the Spaniards. Mon- 
 tezuma was brought out and made to ad- 
 dress the people, but was received with a 
 volley of missiles, one of which inflicted a 
 mortal wound of which he died a few days 
 later, June, 1520. The Mexicans now 
 attacked the Span- 
 iards with great 
 fury, drove them 
 from their quarters 
 and out of the city, 
 and in their re- 
 treat across the 
 causeway leading 
 to the mainland 
 literally annihi- 
 lated their rear 
 guard. The retreat 
 continued six days, 
 but at length Cor- 
 tes halted on the 
 plain of Otumba. 
 Here he was at- 
 tacked on the 7th 
 of July, 1520, by 
 an overwhelming 
 Mexican force. He 
 inflicted a crushing defeat upon it. This 
 battle settled the fate of Mexico. Cortes 
 immediately proceeded to Tlascala, where 
 he collected an auxiliary force of natives. 
 He then rapidly subdued the neighboring 
 provinces, and on the 28th of April, 1621, 
 appeared once more before the city of 
 Mexico. Guatemozin, the new king, the 
 son-in-law and nephew of Montezuma, was 
 a man of firmness and decision. He held 
 the city against the Spaniards for seventy- 
 seven days, during which it was literally 
 reduced ito ruins by the Indian allies of 
 Cortes. The final attack was made on the 
 15th of August, and what remained of the 
 beautiful city was captured by the Span- 
 iards. Guatemozin sought to escape with 
 his family by the lake, but was pursued 
 and made prisoner. He was treated with 
 
FBQM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1239 
 
 great cruelty, and was finally put to death 
 with a large number of his nobles. Cortes 
 now proceeded to rebuild the city of Mexico 
 upon its present plan, employing a large 
 force of natives for this purpose. He rap- 
 idly subdued the remainder of the Aztec 
 empire, and exerted himself to introduce 
 the civilization of Europe and the Catholic 
 religion into it. He established a military 
 government, with himself as its chief. In 
 October, 1522, the Emperor Charles V. 
 issued a decree naming the conquered coun- 
 try New Spain, and appointed Cortes its 
 governor. The Indians were enslaved by 
 their conquerors, and were compelled to 
 work in the mines and till the ground. 
 
 In 1528 Charles V. suppressed the sys- 
 tem set up by Cortes, and established a 
 viceregal government, under which the 
 affairs of Mexico continued to be adminis- 
 tered during the period of the Spanish 
 dominion. There were sixty-four viceroys, 
 all but one of whom were natives of Spain. 
 The country continued to improve in spite 
 of the policy pursued by Spain, which 
 aimed at little more than extracting from 
 it as much treasure as it could be made to 
 yield. "At the opening of the present cen- 
 tury, society in New Spain consisted of 
 four classes of opposite tendencies and in- 
 terests : the pure-blooded Indians ; the 
 Creoles, or pure-blooded descendants of the 
 early Spanish settlers ; the mestizos, or 
 half-breeds, from the union of whites and 
 Indians ; and the Spaniards of European 
 birth. The condition of the Indians had 
 but little changed under the viceroys ; they 
 were compelled to' pay tribute, and were 
 held in a sort of tutelage which only ended 
 in the tomb. The Indian nobles or caciques 
 were exempted from the degrading restric- 
 tions which weighed upon the others. As 
 for the Creoles, whose numbers were contin- 
 ually increasing, a policy due to ignorance 
 of their real position in the community ex- 
 cluded them from all places of trust in the 
 government, and even from the higher 
 grades in the regular army. Upon sucli as 
 had amassed great wealth, titles of nobility 
 were conferred, while conciliatory crosses 
 were distributed to those of smaller fortunes ; 
 but the home government considered it 
 imprudent to allow them to take part in 
 the public administration, and placed it 
 exclusively in the hands of the Spaniards. 
 This, with other grievances, caused profound 
 discontent among the Creoles, who would 
 probably have resented it by open rebellion 
 
 had they not been restrained by the appre- 
 hension that the Indians, aided by the 
 mestizos, might avail themselves of that for 
 the destruction of all the whites." 
 
 The overthrow of the reigning house of 
 Spain, and the elevation of Joseph Bona- 
 parte to the Spanish throne, caused profound 
 discontent in Mexico. All classes resented 
 it. It became necessary to make certain 
 modifications in the government to suit the 
 altered state of affairs. On the 16th of 
 September, 1808, the viceroy, Don Jose de 
 Iturrigaray, was arrested and imprisoned 
 on suspicion of a design to seize the crown 
 of Mexico. This act greatly increased the 
 popular discontent, and the aspirations for 
 independence took, as it were, new life from 
 this moment. On the 15th of September, 
 1810, a formidable revolt broke out in the 
 province of Guanajuato, under the leader- 
 
 MEXICAN CACIQUE. 
 
 ship of Don Miguel Hidalgo, a priest. It 
 was suppressed the next year, and Hidalgo 
 and the other leaders were shot. This re- 
 volt was followed by a guerilla warfare of 
 several years, under the leadership of 
 Morolos, Victoria, Guerrero, Bravo, Rayon, 
 and Teran. The patriot forces were com- 
 pelled to cling to the mountains, but their 
 unceasing resistance kept alive the long- 
 cherished hope for independence. It 
 seemed, however, that the authority of 
 Spain was fully restored, and that the 
 patriot cause was hopeless. 
 
 The revolution of 1820 in Spain revived 
 the enthusiasm of the national party in 
 Mexico, and a new leader appeared. This 
 was Don Augustin Iturbide, a native Mex- 
 ican, who had distinguished himself in the 
 civil war as an officer in the royalist ser- 
 vice. On the 24th of February, 1821, he 
 issued a proclamation declaring Mexico 
 
1240 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 independent of Spain, and calling upon the 
 Mexicans to sustain him. The revolt was 
 successful. The whole country acknowl- 
 edged his authority, the royal government 
 was overthrown, and on the 27th of Sep- 
 tember the city of Mexico was surrendered 
 to him by the viceroy. A regency was 
 established, and on the 19th of May, 1822, 
 Iturbide was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico 
 by the army. This act gave gx'eat offence 
 to the other patriot leaders, and on the 2d 
 of December, Santa Anna, with the sup- 
 port of Bravo, Guerrero, and others, pro- 
 claimed the republic at Vera Cruz. A 
 civil war was averted by the abdication of 
 Iturbide on the 19th of March, 1823. A 
 national congress was at once convened. 
 Iturbide was condemned to exile, and 
 sailed for England in May, 1823. A pro- 
 
 A MEXICAN CATHEDRAL. 
 
 visional government was set up, and on 
 the 4th of October, 1824, the congress 
 adopted a constitution modelled upon that 
 of the United States. By virtue of this 
 instrument Mexico became a republic con- 
 sisting of nineteen states and five territor- 
 ies. General Victoria, one of the popular 
 leaders, was chosen president. Iturbide 
 now returned to attempt the recovery of 
 his throne, but Avas made prisoner, and was 
 shot on the 19th of July, 1824. In 1828 
 the election of General Pedraza to the pres- 
 idency over General Guerrero led to a re- 
 volt on the part of the followei'S of the 
 latter. The outbreak was successful. Pe- 
 draza was overthrown and driven from the 
 country, and Guerrero assumed the presi- 
 dency on the 1st of April, 1829. In the 
 
 same year the United States recognized 
 Mexico as an independent republic. In 
 July, 1829, a Spanish force lauded near 
 Tampico to attempt the restoration of the 
 rule of Spain. It was compelled to sur- 
 render on the 11th of September. The 
 troops were disarmed and sent to Havana. 
 
 Mexico, though independent, was not 
 destined to enjoy the blessing of a stable 
 government. Soon after the surrender of 
 the Spaniards, the vice-president. General 
 Bustamante, pronounced against Guerrero, 
 deposed him, and was himself elected pres- 
 ident, January 11th, 1830. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Pedraza, who, three months 
 later, was deposed by Santa Anna, who 
 became president April 1st, 1833. Busta- 
 mante and several leading men were exiled 
 by the new president. Congress now en- 
 acted a law abol- 
 ishing the compul- 
 sory payment of 
 tithes, and it was 
 proposed to confis- 
 cate the property 
 of the church and 
 apply it to the pay- 
 ment of 'the na- 
 tional debt. These 
 measures led to 
 several outbreaks,, 
 the result of which 
 was the repeal, in. 
 1835, of the consti- 
 tution of 1824, and 
 the change from a 
 confederation o f 
 states into a con- 
 solidated republic,, 
 with Santa Anna 
 at its head as dictator, though retaining the 
 title of president. 
 
 Texas, then a state of the republic, re- 
 fused to accept this change, and proclaimed 
 its independence. Santa Anna marched 
 against the Texans in 1836, but after gain- 
 ing some successes, was defeated and made 
 prisoner in the battle of San Jacinto, April 
 21st, 1836. 
 
 The captivity of Santa Anna brought 
 back the reign of anarchy in Mexico. 
 Bustamante returned from exile, and on the 
 19th of April, 1837, became president. 
 Later in the year Santa Anna returned to 
 Mexico, and the real power passed into his 
 hands. In March, 1839, a new revolution 
 broke out, and Santa Anna once more be- 
 came president. In July . he was over- 
 
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 1241 
 
 thrown by General Nicolas Bravo, who 
 held the office for one week. A period of 
 confusion followed ; the constitution was 
 suspended ; and a dictatorship, consisting 
 of Santa Anna, Bravo, and Canalizo, was 
 set up. lu June, 1843, a new constitution 
 was proclaimed, and Santa Anna became 
 constitutional president in 1844. A few 
 months later he was driven from power by 
 a revolution, and on the 20th of September, 
 1844, Canalizo became president, only to 
 be himself deposed in the following Decem- 
 ber by General Herrera, who was deposed 
 by a new revolution on the oOth of De- 
 cember, 1845, which 
 made General Paredes 
 president. 
 
 During Herrera's 
 administration Mex- 
 ico became involved 
 in a quarrel with 
 the United States, 
 growing out of the 
 annexation of Texas 
 by the latter power. 
 The events of this 
 war have been related 
 in The History of the 
 United States, to 
 which the reader is 
 referred. During the 
 struggle Santa Anna 
 returned from exile, 
 overthrew Paredes, 
 made himself presi- 
 dent, and took per- 
 sonal command of the 
 array. The war re- 
 sulted in the triumph 
 of the American 
 forces, and by the 
 treaty of Guadaloupe 
 Hidalgo, signed in 
 February, 1848, Cali- 
 fornia and New Mexico were ceded to the 
 United States. The result of the war was 
 fatal to Santa Anna. He was overthrown, 
 driven from the country, and was succeeded 
 by Herrera. A series of revolutions fol- 
 lowed the war, elevating first one leader 
 and then another to the presidency. On 
 the 11th of May, 1861, Benito Juarez cap- 
 tured the city of Mexico, and his authority 
 was generally recognized throughout the 
 republic. He was one of the best of the 
 Mexican presidents, and inaugurated a 
 series of useful reforms which rendered his 
 administration very popular with the mass 
 
 of the nation. Marriage was made a civil 
 contract, perpetual monastic vows and 
 ecclesiastical courts were abolished, and the 
 church property, which was estimated at 
 nearly one-half the real estate of the coun- 
 try, was appropriated to the service of the 
 state. A little later the union between 
 church and state, which had existed from 
 the time of the conquest, was completely 
 severed. 
 
 These measures, though popular with the 
 people, gave great offence to the church 
 party, which determined to destroy the 
 Juarez government at any cost. At this 
 
 A MEXICAN VILLAGE. 
 
 juncture Spain, France, and England pre- 
 sented to the Mexican government a series 
 of claims for losses sustained by their citi- 
 zens in that country, and failing to obtain 
 any satisfaction from the Juarez govern- 
 ment, despatched a joint expedition to Mex- 
 ico to enforce their demands. Early in 
 December, 1861, a Spanish force under 
 General Prim occupied Vera Cruz, and in 
 January, 1862, the English and French 
 forces arrived. The Juarez government 
 now proceeded to settle the difficulty by 
 negotiation, and agreed that the English 
 and Spanish claims should be paid by turn- 
 
1242 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ing over to them a certain proportion of the 
 customs receipts. This arrangement beiug 
 satisfactory to England and Spain, their 
 forces evacuated Mexico in May, 1862. 
 
 The church party had seen in the pres- 
 ence of the foreign troops in Mexico an op- 
 portunity for the destruction of the Juarez 
 government, and now resolved to put their 
 plan in execution, although they knew it 
 involved the loss of their country's liberties. 
 They began to plot with the French, whose 
 claim was the smallest, and induced the 
 French emperor to attempt the erection of a 
 monarchy in Mexico, which should make 
 that country in actual fact a dependency of 
 France, promising their active aid in over- 
 
 they entered the city of Mexico in triumph. 
 Juarez and his government withdrew to 
 San Luis Potosi. 
 
 The French and the church party at once 
 proceeded to carry out their scheme. A 
 regency was established on the 24th of 
 June, and on the 8th of July an assembly 
 of notables was held to decide upon the 
 future form of government for Mexico. 
 On the 10th this body declared that Mexico 
 should be a hereditary monarchy under an 
 emperor of the Roman Catholic faith. 
 The crown was offered to the Austrian 
 Archduke Maximilian, and was accepted 
 by him. He waived all claim to the thi'one 
 of Austria in the event of the death of his 
 
 VIEW OF PUEBLA FROM THE EAST. 
 
 coming the resistance of their countrymen. 
 Accordingly the French commander refused 
 to accept the arrangement which had proved 
 satisfactory to England and Spain, and on 
 the IGth of April, 1862, France declared 
 war against Mexico. The French army 
 was reinforced, and the advance into the 
 interior was begun. Puebla was attacked, 
 but the French were defeated and forced 
 back to the coast. In 1863 the French 
 army was strongly reinforced, and siege 
 was laid to Puebla, Avhich surrendered to 
 General Forey on the 17th of May, after a 
 gallant defence of three months. A num- 
 ber of other successes were Avon bv the 
 French, and on the 10th of June, "1863, 
 
 brother, the Emperor Francis Joseph, and 
 made farewell visits to the sovereigns of 
 France, England, and Belgium, and to the 
 pope, who gave him his special blessing. He 
 sailed for Mexico in April, 1864, and on 
 the 28th of May landed at Vera Cruz, 
 which was held by the French. After a 
 shoi't delay there he proceeded to the cap- 
 ital, welcomed all along the route with great 
 enthusiasm by the church party. He made 
 his formal entry into the city of Mexico on 
 the 12th of June, 1864. One of the first 
 acts of Maximilian, who was childless, was 
 to adopt as his heir the son of the Emperor 
 Iturbide. He addressed himself with energy 
 to the task of giving to Mexico a good gov- 
 
FBOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT BAT. 
 
 1243 
 
 eminent, and it is exceedingly probable 
 that had he been able to establish his throne 
 he would have done more for the country 
 than any of its former rulers had accom- 
 plished ; but from the first he had to en- 
 counter the hostility of the republican or 
 national party, and his failure to restore the 
 sequestered estates of the clergy and to re- 
 vive the old connection between church and 
 state, soon lost him the support of his only 
 partisans ; and he was kept on his throne 
 only by the presence of the French army. 
 The imperial troops drove Juarez and his 
 
 aid unless France should withdraw her 
 troops and leave the Mexicans to settle 
 their own affairs. The French government 
 was informed of this determination, and at 
 last agreed to withdraw its army. Upon 
 reaching this decision, the Emperor Napo- 
 leon sent General Castelnau to the city of 
 Mexico to urge Maximilian to abdicate, as 
 he could not possibly succeed in holding 
 his throne without the aid of France. Max- 
 imilian refused to entertain the idea of 
 abdication, and declined to see the French 
 envoy. His ministers supported him in 
 
 ENTBY OF THE FRENCH INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO. 
 
 adherents back by degrees, and in Sep- 
 tember, 1865, he reached El Paso, on 
 the Texan frontier. His forces maintained 
 a determined resistance, and early in 1866 
 the tide began to turn in their favor. On 
 the 25th of March they captured Chi- 
 huahua. 
 
 In the meantime the United States, 
 appreciating the designs of France, had 
 strongly protested against the establishment 
 of the Mexican empire. At length, the 
 civil war being ended, the American gov- 
 ernment determined to give Juarez material 
 
 his determination. The withdrawal of the 
 French army was immediately begun, and 
 the emperor soon found himself dependent 
 entirely upon the support of a few par- 
 tisans whose desperate fortunes were so 
 bound up with his own, that they could not 
 afford to desert him. The last French de- 
 tachment was withdrawn from Mexico on 
 the 16th of March, 1867. 
 
 The departure of the French was followed 
 by a strong reaction in favor of the repub- 
 lic The forces of Juarez were largely aug- 
 mented, and the emperor, thrown upon his 
 
1244 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 own resources, deemed it best to leave the I emperor, but the American government de 
 city ot Mexico, march northward, and offer | clined to interfere with the course of affairs 
 
 battle to the republican army. He reached 
 Queratero at the head of 5,000 men, and 
 was at once besieged in that place by a force 
 of 20,000 men under General Escobedo. 
 The place was betrayed by the imperialist 
 
 On the 16th of July Juarez returned to 
 the city of Mexico, and began the work of 
 reconstructing the government. The con- 
 stitution was re-established, and in 1871 
 Juarez was again elected president. He 
 
 THE EMPEKOR MAXIMILIAN. 
 
 governor of the city, and Maximilian was 
 made prisoner. He was tried by a court- 
 martial, and was shot by the republican 
 forces on the 19th of June, 18G7, together 
 with Generals Miramon and Mejia. A 
 strong effort was made to induce the United 
 States to intervene and save the life of the 
 
 died on the 18th of July, 1872, and was suc- 
 ceeded by the Chief Justice Lerdo de Tejada, 
 who was formally elected president on the 
 21st oi November, 1872. He was re-elected 
 in 1876, but was soon after overthrown by 
 General Porfirio Diaz and compelled to fly 
 to the United States. 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1245 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE SOXJTH 
 ^MiEHIC-A^ISr STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FROM THE DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTU- 
 GUESE AND SPANISH TO THE PRESENT 
 TIME. 
 
 History of Brazil — Discovery by Cabral — First 
 Settlements — Conflicts with the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish — Brazil made a Principality— Discovery of 
 Gold— The Royal Family in Brazil — The King- 
 dom of Brazil Established — Revolution of 1521 — 
 Brazil becomes an Independent Empire — Acces- 
 sion of Pedro II. — Events of his Reign — History 
 of Peru — The Kingdom of the Incas — Conquest 
 by Pizarro — Settlements of the Spaniards — The 
 Indians Enslaved — The Viceroyalty — Peru be- 
 comes Independent of Spain — The Republic — 
 Subsequent History — History of Chili — Conquests 
 of the Spaniards— Wars with tlie Araucanians — 
 Colonial History — Chili throws off the Spanish 
 Yoke — History of the Republic — -War with Spain 
 — Valparaiso Bombarded — Prosperity of Chili — 
 History of Ecuador — Becomes Independent of 
 Spain — Subsequent Events — The United States of 
 Colombia — Colonial History — Bolivar wins the 
 Independence of the Country — History of the Re- 
 public — History of Venezuela — Colonial Times^ 
 The Revolution — Independence Gained — Subse- 
 quent History — History of Bolivia — Becomes an 
 Independent Republic — History of the Republic 
 — The Madeira and Mamore Railroad — The His- 
 tory of Uruguay — History of the Argentine Re- 
 public — History of Paraguay — The Missions — 
 The Republic — War with Brazil — Subsequent 
 History. 
 
 ITH the exception of Brazil the 
 states of South America are re- 
 publics. Though they have not 
 kept pace with the nations of the 
 North American continent, their 
 history is interesting and instructive. 
 
 I. The History of Brazil. 
 
 The empire of Brazil is the largest and 
 most important country in South America, 
 and the only empire in the western world. 
 It occupies the northeastern part of the con- 
 tinent, and lies between latitude 4° 31' N., 
 and 33° S., and longitude 35° and 73° W. 
 Its extreme length from north to south is 
 about 2,600 miles, and its extreme breadth 
 from east to west is 2,470 miles. It com- 
 prises an area of 3,200,000 square miles and 
 contained in 1876 a population of 10,700,187. 
 
 On the 22d of April, 1500, Pedro Alvarez 
 Cabral, who had been sent by Portugal to 
 
 continue the discoveries begun by Vasco 
 da Gama in the East Indies, and whose 
 fleet had been blown out of its course by 
 adverse winds, discovered the shores of 
 Brazil, On the 25th Cabral anchored in a 
 large and excellent harbor, which he named 
 Porto Seguro. To the country he gave the 
 nameof Vera Cruz, which was subsequently 
 changed to Santa Cruz, and finally to Brazil. 
 He took possession of it in the name of the 
 King of Portugal, and having despatched 
 a vessel home with the news of his dis- 
 covery, resumed his voyage to Ihe Indies. 
 Upon the receipt of the news the Portuguese 
 king sent an expedition under Amerigo 
 Vespucci to visit and explore the new 
 country. Vespucci, upon his return to 
 Europe, published an account of the country, 
 together with a map, and from this time 
 the name of America began to be applied 
 to the whole of the new world. He brought 
 back also a cargo of dyewoods, of which he 
 said whole forests were to be found in Biazil. 
 An active and profitable trade in these 
 woods at once sprang up. Other nations 
 began to take part in it, and the King of 
 Portugal resolved to put a stop to this in- 
 trusion. Accordingly in 1631 King Joam, 
 or John III., caused a number of colonies 
 to be planted on the Brazilian coast. These 
 were termed Capitanias, and were founded 
 by Portuguese nobles, to whom the crown 
 granted absolute powers over their settle- 
 ments on the sole condition that they should 
 bear the expense of colonization. This 
 system worked well for a few years, but at 
 length produced such trouble that the Por- 
 tuguese government resolved to establit^h a 
 Sermanent colonial system directly depen- 
 ent upon the crown. In 1549 a governor 
 general was appointed, and was made the 
 direct representative of the king and given 
 unlimited powers of jurisdiction, both civil 
 and criminal. The first governor was Dom 
 Thom6 de Souza, and to his wisdom and 
 good government is due the success of the 
 new system. He founded the town of Sao 
 Salvador da Bahia, which he made the 
 capital of Brazil. In 1555 a number of 
 
1246 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 French Protestants made a settlement on 
 an island iu the bay of Rio de Janeiro, but 
 the colony proved a failure and the set- 
 tlers were expelled from the island in 
 1565. In 1567 the Portuguese founded 
 the city of Sao Sebastao, now called Rio 
 de Janeiro. 
 
 The forcible annexation of Portugal to 
 Spain by Philip II. in 1580 was very unfor- 
 tunate for Brazil, and drew upon the prov- 
 ince the hostilities of the numerous enemies 
 of Spain, of which country it now became 
 
 were masters of all Brazil north of that city 
 except Para. The Portuguese now renewed 
 their efforts ; by degrees drove out the 
 Dutch ; and by 1654 had entirely expelled 
 them from the country. In the treaty of 
 1660 Holland formally renounced all her 
 claims to Brazil. The independence of 
 Portugal had in the meantime been re- 
 stored by John IV., who ascended the 
 throne in 1640. Brazil was erected into a 
 principality, and the heir apparent to the 
 Portuguese throne was invested with the 
 
 THE emperor's PAIACE AT KIO DE JANEIRO. 
 
 a dependency. The settlements were re- 
 peatedly attacked by the French, English, 
 and Dutch fleets, and were plundered and 
 subjected to great loss. In 1612 the 
 French seized Maranhao, and founded the 
 city of Sao Luiz do Maranhao. In 1615 
 the Portuguese expelled them from the 
 town. In 1623 a Dutch fleet captured 
 Bahia, but in 1625, after the departure of 
 the fleet, the Dutch garrison was forced to 
 surrender. In 1629 Pernambuco fell into 
 the hands of the Dutch, who rapidly ex- 
 tended their conquests. By 1645 they 
 
 title of Prince of Brazil. In the meantime 
 the province had prospered steadily in 
 spite of its struggles with the Dutch and 
 the exactions of the home government. 
 Agriculture was the basis of its prosperity. 
 In 1696 gold was discovered in Brazil, and 
 near about the same time diamonds were 
 also found. These discoveries greatly in- 
 creased the wealth of the country, which 
 had found in agriculture a stable basis for 
 its prosperity, independent of them, and 
 poured a steady stream of wealth into the 
 Portuguese treasury. In 1763 the home 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 
 
 1247 
 
 government removed the capital of Brazil 
 from Bahia and established it at Rio de 
 Janeiro. 
 
 In 1807 Napoleon declared war against 
 Portugal, and sent an army into that coun- 
 try. The regent (afterwards Joara VI.) 
 and the royal family and court at once em- 
 barked upon the fleet and sailed for Rio de 
 Janeiro. This was a great gain for Brazil, 
 and was followed by important changes in 
 the government ; the ports were thrown 
 open to all the world, and trade was in- 
 vited from all nations. In 1815, upon the 
 overthrow of Napoleon, Brazil was erected 
 into a kingdom, and when Joara VI. came 
 to the throne in 1816 he took the title of 
 King of Portugal, Algarve, and Brazil. 
 He continued to reside in Brazil, and so 
 offended his Portuguese subjects. In Sep- 
 tember, 1820, as we have related elsewhere, 
 a revolution broke out in Portugal, and the 
 Spanish constitution was proclaimed. Rev- 
 olutionary disturbances occurred in Para 
 and Pernambuco, and the king fearing that 
 the movement would involve the whole of 
 Brazil, placed himself at the headof it, and 
 on the 26th of February, 1821, proclaimed 
 the constitution of Brazil. Soon after this 
 he returned to Portugal, leaving his son. 
 Prince Pedro, as Regent of Brazil. He 
 had scarcely sailed when a revolutionary 
 movement broke out, in April, 1821. Brazil 
 was declared an independent empire on the 
 12th of October, 1822 ; and on the 1st of 
 December, 1822, the regent Avas crowned 
 Emperor as Dom Pedro I. A constitution 
 was adopted in 1824, and on the 7th of Sep- 
 tember, 1825, Portugal acknowledged the 
 independence of Brazil. 
 
 In 1826 Joam VI. died, and Dom Pedro 
 became King of Portugal. He preferred 
 to retain his western empire, and resigned 
 the Portuguese crown to his infant daughter 
 Doiia Maria da Gloria. In the same year 
 a war broke out between Brazil and the 
 Argentine republic, which was seeking to 
 absorb Uruguay. Peace was made through 
 the mediation of England, and Montevideo, 
 or Uruguay, was constituted an independent 
 republic. 
 
 On the 7th of April, 1831, Pedro I., who 
 had been engaged in a long dispute with 
 the chamber of deputies, ended the quarrel 
 by abdicating his crown in favor of his son 
 Pedro II., the present emperor. As the 
 new sovereign was but six years old, a 
 council of regency administered the govern- 
 ment until 1841, when Pedro was declared 
 
 of age, and was crowned on the 18th of 
 July. 
 
 The reign of Pedro II. was prosperous and 
 highly beneficial to his country. He proved 
 a liberal and able ruler, and spared no 
 pains to advance the civilization and pros- 
 perity of Brazil. In 1831 a law placing 
 severe restrictions upon the slave trade was 
 enacted, and in 1850 the traffic was finally 
 abolished. In 1852 Brazil, in alliance 
 with Uruguay and the forces of Entre Rios, 
 waged a successful war against the Argen- 
 tine Dictator Rosas, who was defeated and 
 forced to fly to England. In 1865 Brazil, 
 Uruguay, and the Argentine republic de- 
 clared war against Paraguay, the cause 
 being the unprovoked aggressions of Lopez, 
 the Dictator of Paraguay, upon the allied 
 states. The war was long and costly, and 
 ended only with the death of Lopez, on the 
 1st of March, 1871. Brazil entered into a 
 separate treaty with Paraguay concerning 
 boundaries and a war indemnity, without 
 consulting her allies. This gave great of- 
 fence to the Argentine republic, and came 
 near leading to a war with that country. 
 The difficulty was settled in October, 1872, 
 by an agreement that the Argentine re- 
 public should negotiate separately with 
 Paraguay, as Brazil had done. In 1871 a 
 law was enacted by the Brazilian chambers 
 providing for the gradual extinction of 
 slavery throughout the empire. Since the 
 settlement of the Paraguayan war the his- 
 tory of the empire has been peaceful and 
 uneventful. In 1876 the emperor and em- 
 press made a visit to the United States, and 
 took part in the opening ceremonies of the 
 centennial exhibition, after which they vis- 
 ited Europe, and returned to Brazil in the 
 summer of 1877. 
 
 II. The History of Peru. 
 
 The republic of Peru lies on the western 
 coast of South America, between latitude 
 3° 20' and 22° 20' S., and longitude 67° 
 and 81° 26' W. It embraces an area of 
 about 500,000 square miles, and contains a 
 population of about three millions. 
 
 Peru was originally inhabited by several 
 tribes of Indians, under the rule of a sov- 
 ereign called the Inca. They were pos- 
 sessed of a high degree of civilization, a 
 simple but just code of laws, and a well- 
 arranged system of government. Education 
 was limited to the ruling class, and there 
 were laws which compelled a son to follow 
 the calling of his father, and prohibited his 
 
1248 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 receiving an education superior to his sta- 
 tion in life. The religion of the ancient 
 Peruvians consisted in the worship of the 
 sun, from whom the Inca claimed descent. 
 The person of the monarch was regarded as 
 divine. He had many wives, the principal 
 one of which must be his eldest sister, and 
 as many concubines as he wished. The son 
 of the principal wife was the heir to the 
 throne. When the Inca died he was sup- 
 posed to have been called home to the 
 mansion of his father, the sun. The gov- 
 ernment was mild, but despotic ; the great 
 
 coast of Peru, but returned without accom- 
 plishing anything. In 1531 he obtained 
 trom the King of Spain the titles of governor 
 and captain-general of all the countries he 
 should conquer, and with his four brothers 
 and a small force of men sailed for Peru, 
 which he reached late in January, after a 
 voyage of fourteen days from Panama. He 
 captured and plundered a town in the prov- 
 ince of Coaque, and was soon after rein- 
 forced by the arrival of 130 Spaniards 
 under Almagro, his second in command. 
 The adventurers then commenced to build 
 
 ANCIENT PERUVIAN TEMPLE OP THE STTN. 
 
 aim of the state being territorial expansion, 
 the military class were the most favored. 
 The civilization of the Peruvians was supe- 
 rior to that of the nations around them, but 
 inferior to that of Mexico. 
 
 In A. D. 1512 Vasco Nunez de Balboa, 
 Governor of the Spanish colony of Darien, 
 learned from the Indians that there was a 
 country to the south of the isthmus, where 
 gold was in as common use as iron with the 
 Spaniards. Balboa attempted to find this 
 country, but without success. In 1524 
 Francisco Pizarro made a voyage to the 
 
 a town in the valley of Tangarala, which 
 they named San Miguel. 
 
 The empire of the Incas was divided at 
 this juncture by a civil war. Huayna 
 Capac, the late Inca, had divided his do- 
 minions between his two sons, Huascar and 
 Atahuallpa. A war had broken out be- 
 tween them, and Atahuallpa had defeated 
 his brother and made him prisoner. He 
 was now encamped with his army at Caja- 
 raarca, to which place Pizarro repaired to 
 meet him in September, 1532, with a force 
 of 177 men. The Spanish commander was 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1249 
 
 received with great kindness by the Inca. 
 A few days later Pizarro treacherously 
 seized the Inca, and held him a prisoner. 
 The Peruvian array instantly became panic- 
 stricken, and fled. Atahuallpa was in- 
 duced to believe that he would be allowed 
 to purchase his liberty, and actually deliv- 
 ered to Pizarro an amount of gold equal in 
 value when melted down to $17,500,000. 
 The cruel Spaniard accepted the treasure, 
 but refused to release the captive Inca, and 
 had him burned to death on the 29th of 
 August, 1533. Pizarro now marched upon 
 Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Incas, and 
 as Huascar had been slain by order of Ata- 
 huallpa, he proclaimed Manco Capac, a 
 half-brother of Atahuallpa, Inca. At the 
 same time Pizarro determined to establish a 
 new capital near the sea, and on the 6th of 
 January, 1535, founded the city of Lima, in 
 the valley of the Rimac. 
 
 The Peruvians were treated with the 
 most barbarous cruelty by the Spaniards, 
 and at last, driven to despair, rose in a 
 supreme efibrt to recover their freedom 
 under the leadership of Manco Capac. 
 Cuzco was taken and burned, and such 
 Spaniards as fell into the hands of the 
 natives were put to death. To add to the 
 sufferings of the country, a war broke out 
 between Pizarro and Almagro. The latter 
 was taken and executed, and the Spaniards 
 proceeded to crush the outbreak of the 
 Peruvians. The natives were subdued, 
 treated with the most diabolical cruelty, 
 and reduced to abject slavery. Pizarro set 
 up a military government, and governed 
 the province with merciless rigor. 
 
 Reports of the tyranny of Pizarro 
 reached the King of Spain, and in 1540 
 Vaca de Castro was sent to Peru to ex- 
 amine into the matter. Before he reached 
 Lima Pizarro was assassinated, on the 26th 
 of June, 1541, by the followers of the son 
 of Almagro, who proclaimed himself gov- 
 ernor. Almagro took up arms to resist 
 Castro, who had orders from the king to 
 assume the governorship in case of Pizarro 's 
 death, but was defeated, made prisoner, 
 and put to death. Castro was recognized 
 as governor, and applied himself to a settle- 
 ment of the affairs of the country. He was 
 soon superseded by Blasco Nunez Vela, 
 who had been appointed viceroy by the 
 king. He came charged to inaugurate a 
 new and better system of government, and 
 especially to liberate the Indians from 
 slavery, and to impose upon them a fairer 
 79 
 
 system of taxation. These measures brought 
 on a civil war, in which the rebels were 
 headed by Gonzalo Pizarro, the last of the 
 family of the conqueror remaining in Peru. 
 It lasted several years, and resulted in the 
 defeat of the insurgents and the capture 
 and execution of Gonzalo in 1548. The 
 government of the country was then estab- 
 lished upon a more solid and enduring 
 basis, and for nearly three centuries Peru 
 remained tranquil under Spanish rule. 
 
 In 1820 the South American states rose 
 in rebellion against Spain, and proclaimed 
 themselves independent. Peru was the last 
 to take this step. General San Martin, 
 who had freed Chili of the Spaniards, en- 
 tered Peru at the head of an army of 
 Chilians and Buenos Ayreans, seized the 
 city of Lima, and drove the Spaniards into 
 the interior. On the 28th of July, 1821, 
 Peru declared herself independent of Spain, 
 and General San Martin was proclaimed 
 protector of the republic. Becoming un- 
 popular, he resigned on the 19th of August, 
 1822, and in February, 1824, General 
 Bolivar was made dictator. On the 9th 
 of December, 1824, the Peruvians inflicted 
 a decisive defeat upon the Spaniards in the 
 battle of Ayacucho, and in January, 1826, 
 expelled them from Callao, their last foot- 
 hold in Peru. In 1825 Bolivar resigned 
 the dictatorship, but before doing so, or- 
 ganized the southern and southeastern 
 provinces into a separate republic, which 
 took the name of Bolivia. 
 
 Although independent, Peru was not 
 tranquil. In 1826 a revolution occurred, 
 and the constitution proclaimed by Bolivar 
 was destroyed, and a new one adopted. 
 In 1836 President Santa Cruz, of Bolivia, 
 entered Peru with an array, and proclaimed 
 himself Supreme Protector of the Bolivio- 
 Peruvian confederation. The union be- 
 tween the two states lasted until 1839. A 
 series of depositions and civil wars now 
 ensued, but were brought to an end in 1844 
 by General Castillo, who made Menendez 
 president. Castillo was elected as the suc- 
 cessor of Menendez, and entered upon his 
 office on the 1st of April, 1845. He re- 
 mained in power until 1851, and gave to 
 Peru the best government it had ever 
 known. He was succeeded by General 
 Echenique, who was accused of gross frauds 
 in his administration. Castillo headed an 
 insurrection, drove Echenique from power, 
 and once more became master of Peru. 
 Several determined efforts to overthrow 
 
1250 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Castillo's government were made, but all 
 failed, and he succeeded in holding office 
 untii the expiration of his term. In 1855 
 he declared slavery abolished in Peru, In 
 October, 18G2, General San Ramon suc- 
 ceeded Castillo as president, but died in the 
 following April. General Pezet succeeded 
 him. During Pezet's administration the 
 Spaniards seized the Chincha islands, and 
 Peru declared war against Spain. Peace 
 was made in 18G5, Spain restoring the 
 islands, and Peru agreeing to pay a war 
 
 office and retire to Chili. On the 28th of 
 July Colonel Balta was proclaimed presi- 
 dent, but w'as assassinated in July, 1872. 
 Peace was restored in a few weeks, and on 
 the 2d of August Don Manuel Pardo was 
 almost unanimously chosen president. He 
 held office until the 2d of August, 1876, 
 and his administration was highly popular 
 and successful. The resources of the coun- 
 try were largely developed, its prosperity 
 was increased, quiet and good-will were 
 maintained, education was made available 
 
 VIEW OF LIMA. 
 
 indemnity of $3,000,000. This treaty was 
 denounced by the people, and brought on a 
 revolution which overthrew Pezet, and 
 made General Prado dictator. He con- 
 cluded an alliance with Chili in December, 
 1865, and in January, 1866, the two states 
 declared Avar against Spain. On the 2d of 
 May the Spanish fleet sustained a defeat at 
 the hands of the allies, and a few days later 
 withdrew from the Peruvian waters. On 
 the lOth of January, 1868, a successful 
 revolution compelled Prado to resign his 
 
 to all classes, the finances were reorganized, 
 railways were extended to various parts of 
 the country, river navigation was greatly 
 improved, and the telegraph was carried to 
 all the important points of the republic. 
 On the 2d of August, 1876, Don Mariano 
 Ignacio Prado was elected president. 
 
 III. The History op Chili. 
 
 The republic of Chili occupies the southern 
 part of the western coast of South America, 
 and lies between latitude 24° and 56° S., 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1251 
 
 and longitude 70° and 74° W. It comprises 
 an area of about 133,000 square miles, and 
 contained in 1875 a population of 2,068,447 
 souls. 
 
 The aboriginal inhabitants of Chili con- 
 sisted of a number of Indian tribes, de- 
 scended from a common source, and calling 
 themselves Alapu-che, or people of the 
 land. They spoke a common language. 
 About the middle of the fifteenth century 
 the Peruvian Incas succeeded in conquer- 
 ing the northern part of Chili, but could 
 never reduce the southern tribes to sub- 
 mission. 
 
 After the conquest of Peru by the Span- 
 iards, the victors, finding that a part of 
 Chili had been subject to the Incas, resolved 
 to conquer that country also. An expedi- 
 tion under Diego Almagro entered Chili 
 from Peru in 1535, and advanced as far as 
 Copiapo, without meeting with any opposi- 
 tion. Proceeding southward into the terri- 
 tory of the Purumancians, they were at- 
 tacked by the natives with such vigor that 
 they were compelled to return to Peru. 
 
 In 1540 a second expedition was de- 
 spatched from Peru against Chili. This 
 time the command was conferred upon 
 Pedro de Valdivia, an able and pru- 
 dent officer. He succeeded in over- 
 coming the resistance of the Indians, and 
 reached the river Mapocho, where he 
 founded the city of Santiago, named in 
 honor of the patron saint of Spain. The 
 Indians made a desperate effort to destroy 
 the town, but were defeated. Being rein- 
 forced from Peru, Valdivia proceeded 
 southward to the river Maule. Crossing 
 this stream he entered the country of the 
 Araucanians, who fell upon him, almost 
 annihilated his army, and compelled him 
 to retreat to Santiago. He returned to 
 Peru for reinforcements, and in 1550 came 
 back to Santiago with a large and well- 
 armed force. With this army he again 
 marched southward, and founded the city 
 of Concepcion, on the present site of Penco. 
 The Araucanians collected a force of 4,000 
 meu, and attacked Concepcion. They were 
 defeated with terrible loss, their chief being 
 among the killed. The war went on with 
 great fury, and in 1559 Valdivia was cap- 
 tured and put to death by the Indians, 
 who next took and destroyed Concepcion, 
 and even marched upon Santiago. They 
 were forced to retreat to their own country. 
 For more than a century after their arrival 
 in Chili the Spaniards persistently endeav- 
 
 ored to conquer the Araucanians, but were 
 never successful. At length they concluded 
 a treaty with the Indian tribes south of the 
 Bobio in 1665, by which they acknowledged 
 their independence. In 1723 the war was 
 renewed, and was continued with but brief 
 intervals of peace until about 1773. 
 
 Having established their power in that 
 country, the Spaniards organized Chili as a 
 viceroyalty, and divided it into thirteen 
 districts. Like all the Spanish provinces, 
 it was always misgoverned and the people 
 were grossly oppressed. In July, 1810, the 
 popular discontent broke out into revolu- 
 tion ; the Spanish Governor Carrasco was 
 deposed, and the government placed in the 
 hands of a junta. An outward loyalty to 
 Spain was maintained, but it was the real 
 design of the leaders of the movement to 
 break off all connection with the mother 
 country. In April, 1811, the royal troops 
 were attacked by the patriots and driven 
 from Santiago. General Can-era Avas ap- 
 pointed by the junta supreme president of 
 the national congress and commander-in- 
 chief of the army. In 1813 he won two 
 victories over the Spanish troops ; but the 
 latter were largely reinforced, and before 
 the close of the year Chili was compelled to 
 submit once more to the authority of 
 Spain. During the next three years the 
 tyranny of the Spanish officials was more 
 odious than it had been before the out- 
 break. The patriots now raised an army 
 in the neighboring province of La Plata, 
 and made General San Martin its com- 
 mander. He marched into Chili, and won 
 an important victory over the royalist 
 forces at Chacabuco on the 12th of Febru- 
 aiy, 1817. A provisional government was 
 set up by the patriots, and Don Bernardo 
 O'Higgins was placed at its head as su- 
 preme dictator. The Spaniards now rallied 
 and defeated the Chilians with heavy loss 
 at Chaucharayada ; but were themselves 
 utterly routed by the patriots at Chilenos 
 on the 5th of April, 1818. Not more than 
 500 Spaniards escaped from the field. This 
 victory entirely destroyed the Spanish 
 power in Chili, Peru, and Buenos Ayres, 
 and secured the independence of those 
 states. The Spaniards retreated to the 
 port of Valdivia, which they held until 
 1820, when they surrendered to the Chilian 
 forces. 
 
 The dictatorship of General O'Higgins 
 lasted until 1823, when, having become 
 unpopular, he was forced to resign his 
 
1252 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 power. A provisional government of three 
 succeeded him, but gave way in the course 
 of a few weeks to General Freire as dicta- 
 tor. In 1828 the first Chilian constitution 
 was adopted. It was revised in 1831-33. 
 
 Chili has been the most orderly of the 
 South American republics, but has not en- 
 tirely escaped revolution. The most serious 
 of these outbreaks occurred in 1851 ; one in 
 April and the other in September. The 
 latter was the more formidable of the two, 
 but both were at length suppressed. The 
 September revolt was caused by the effort 
 of General De la Cruz to overthrow the 
 
 INDIAN WO^HKN UK CUILI. 
 
 president of the republic, Don Manuel 
 Montt. It cost the government a sacrifice 
 of 4,000 soldiers for its suppression, and 
 greatly injured the prosperity of the coun- 
 try. At its close a general amnesty was 
 proclaimed to the insurgents, and President 
 Montt applied himself with energy to the 
 restoration of the prosperity of the country. 
 He was re-elected in 1856. His adminis- 
 tration was the ablest in the history of the 
 republic. It gave to the country a well- 
 arranged code of laws, established a tribunal 
 of commerce and a bank of discount and 
 deposit at Valparaiso, arranged the finances 
 
 on a securer basis, and negotiated treaties 
 of commerce and friendship with France, 
 Sardinia, the United States, and Great 
 Britain. In 1862 the Araucanians gave 
 great trouble to the government. Under 
 the leadership of a Frenchman named De 
 Tonniens, they endeavored to throw off the 
 authority of Chili and make themselves 
 independent. They were compelled to 
 submit. 
 
 When the war broke out between Peru 
 and Spain, in 1864, Chili warmly sympa- 
 thized with her sister republic. This sym- 
 pathy drew upon her the hostility of Spain, 
 and the next year the 
 coast of Chili was 
 blockaded by the 
 Spanish fleet. Chili, 
 late in 1865, declared 
 war against Spain. 
 On the 26th of Novem- 
 ber the Chilian steam- 
 er "Esmeralda" cap- 
 tured the Spanish 
 steamer " Covadonga," 
 with all the corre- 
 spondence of the Span- 
 ish admiral on board. 
 This event so mortified 
 Admiral Pareja that 
 he committed suicide. 
 He was succeeded by 
 Admiral Nunez. On 
 the 14th of January, 
 1866, Chili entered 
 into an alliance with 
 Peru, and on the 7th 
 of February the allied 
 fleets defeated a Span- 
 ish squadron. On the 
 31st of March, Ad- 
 miral Nunez, regard- 
 less of the protests of 
 all the foreign repre- 
 sentatives at that port, bombarded the city 
 of Valparaiso, destroying property to the 
 amount of more than ten millions of dollars, 
 and demolishing nearly all the public 
 buildings and many private edifices. Not 
 a shot was returned from the town. The 
 greater part of the loss fell upon the for- 
 eign residents. In the following month the 
 Spanish fleet took its departure from the 
 Chilian waters. The United States now 
 offered their mediation between Spain and 
 the allies, and on the 11th of April, 1871, 
 a treaty arranging an armistice and an in- 
 definite truce was signed at Washington. 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1253 
 
 In 1869 the Araucanians again endeavored 
 to throw off the Chilian rule, but in the 
 following year were put down, and their 
 country was permanently occupied by the 
 Chilian forces. Since then ihe history of 
 Chili has been peaceful and uneventful. 
 The energies of the people have been turned 
 to the development of the resources of their 
 country, and the republic has prospered in 
 a marked degree. The railroad and tele- 
 graph have been introduced, the mineral 
 and agricultural wealth of the country 
 have been largely developed, and an active 
 and growing foreign commerce has been 
 created. Chili is " proverbial," says a re- 
 cent writer, " for its steady progress in all 
 industrial enterprises, for the absence of 
 political perturbation, and for its punctual- 
 ity in meeting its financial engagements. 
 Its securities rank among the foi'emost on 
 the London Stock Exchange, being usually 
 held for investment ; it builds its own rail- 
 ways and its own telegraphs without much 
 foreign help ; and the money it borrows for 
 such purposes is secured by national and 
 private bonds." 
 
 IV. The History of Ecuador. 
 
 The republic of Ecuador, so called from 
 its situation under the equator, is situated 
 on the west coast of South America, north 
 of Peru, and lies between latitude 1° 50' N. 
 and 5° 30' S., and longitude 69° 52' and 
 80° 35' W. It comprises an area of about 
 252,000 square miles. The Galapagos 
 islands belong to the republic, and com- 
 prise an additional area of 2,951 square 
 miles. The population of Ecuador is esti- 
 mated at about one million and a half 
 
 The primitive inhabitants of Ecuador 
 were Indians, and the country was known 
 as the kingdom of Quito. It was subdued 
 by the Peruvian lucas, and was made a 
 part of their empire. It fell under the 
 dominion of the Spaniards, together with 
 Peru, and was made by them a presidency 
 or province of the viceroyalty of Peru. It 
 continued to be ruled by Spanish governors 
 from 1553 to 1822. It was one of the rich- 
 est and most productive of the Spanish col- 
 onies, and was ground down by the exac- 
 tions of the home government. This aroused 
 the discontent of the people, which grew 
 steadily, and in 1809 burst out into open 
 revolt. The outbreak was suppressed, but 
 was followed by several others. The 
 patriots did not despair, and finally in- 
 flicted a decisive defeat upon the royalist 
 
 forces in the battle of Pichincha, May 22d, 
 1822. This battle established the inde- 
 pendence of Ecuador, which became a part 
 of the republic of Colombia. Upon the 
 dissolution of that confederation, in 1831, 
 Ecuador became an independent republic 
 under its present name. This separation 
 was followed by twenty years of almost un- 
 interrupted civil war. Quiet had hardly 
 been restored when a war with Peru broke 
 out in 1852, and continued in a desultory 
 manner until 1858. On the 22d of March, 
 1858, Quito was destroyed by an earth- 
 quake. In 1862 and 1863 strong efforts 
 were made by the President of New Gran- 
 ada to restore the Colombian republic. 
 This led to a war between Ecuador and 
 New Granada, in which the forces of the 
 former state were routed. Peace was made 
 with New Granada, but the effort to draw 
 Ecuador into the Colombian republic 
 failed. In 1861 General Garcia Moreno 
 was elected president. He endeavored to 
 place the system of education exclusively 
 in the hands of the Roman Catholic clergy, 
 but was obliged by the popular discontent 
 to abandon the measure. In order to pre- 
 vent a civil war he assumed the dictator- 
 ship on the 30th of August, 1864, and by 
 his stern and merciless enforcement of the 
 laws preserved the peace unbroken. He 
 was succeeded by Don Geronimo Carrion, 
 who was elected president in May, 1865. 
 In August, 1868, a fearful earthquake 
 caused great destruction and loss of life 
 throughout the republic. In the province 
 of Imbabura the destruction was terrible. 
 Ibarra, the capital of the province, was 
 completely destroyed, and 30,000 persons 
 are said to have perished in the ruins. 
 Early in 1869 Garcia Moreno overthrew 
 the government and made himself presi- 
 dent. He at once closed all the schools 
 but those under the control of the Jesuits. 
 On the 16th of May he resigned and was 
 succeeded by Carvajal. A few months 
 later Moreno was elected president for six 
 years. In 1874 he ordered that ten per 
 cent, of the revenue of the church should be 
 remitted to Rome for the support of the 
 pope. 
 
 On the 6th of August, 1875, President 
 Moreno was assassinated in one of the cor- 
 ridors of the treasury building at Quito. 
 The cause was the tyrannical and brutal 
 manner in which he had exercised the 
 powers of his oflice. No disturbance fol- 
 lowed this event. An election was held. 
 
1254 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and Dr. Antonio Borrero was chosen presi- 
 dent of the republic. He was inaugurated 
 on the 8th of December, 1875. 
 
 V. The Histoky of the United States 
 OF Colombia. 
 
 The republic known as the United States 
 of Colombia occupies the northwestern 
 corner of the South American continent, 
 and a portion of the Isthmus of Darien, 
 and lies between latitude 12° 21' K and 1° 
 20' S., and longitude 68° 52' and 83° 5' W. 
 It comprises an area of about 500,000 square 
 miles, and contains a population of about 
 3,000,000 souls. 
 
 The primitive inhabitants of the Colom- 
 bian republic were Indians. The inhab- 
 itants of the lowlands and the coast regions 
 were pure savages ; the dwellers in the 
 uplands possessed a certain degree of civil- 
 ization. Their religiou was the worship of 
 the sun. 
 
 In 1499 the coast of Colombia was dis- 
 covered by Alonso de Ojeda, and in 1502 
 was visited by Columbus. In 1536-37 the 
 country was conquered by the Spaniards, 
 and in 1718 it was erected into the vice- 
 royalty of New Granada. Spanish rule 
 here as elsewhere bore very hard upon the 
 people, and finally resulted in revolution. 
 The first outbreak was made iu 1781, and 
 was suppressed. It was followed by another 
 unsuccessful attempt in 1795. The author- 
 ity of Spain was not contested again until 
 1811, when the people rose in rebellion and 
 drove out the Spanish forces. The victories 
 of Bolivar established the independence of 
 New Granada, and in 1819 the state be- 
 came a member of the republic of Colom- 
 bia. This confederation was broken up by 
 the withdrawal of Venezuela in 1829, and 
 Ecuador in 1830. In 1831 New Granada 
 declared itself an independent republic, and 
 in 1832 adopted a constitution. The chief 
 executive power was confided to a president, 
 who was to be elected for a term of four 
 years. From this time until 1860 the his- 
 tory of the republic was mainly peaceful 
 and uneventful. 
 
 Early in 1860 a revolution broke out, 
 headed by General Mosquera, the chief of 
 the liberal party. President Ospina was 
 overthrown, and Mosquera seized the gov- 
 ernment. A convention was held at Bogota 
 in 1861, and a new republic was organized 
 under the name of the United States of Co- 
 lombia ; a constitution was adopted, and 
 
 Mosquera was made dictator. The civil 
 war was brought to an end in December, 
 1862, by the submission of the conservative 
 party to the new republic. A national 
 congress then met at Rio Negro on the 4th 
 of February, 1863, and Mosquera resigned 
 his dictatorial powers to this body. A new 
 constitution was promulgated on the 8th of 
 May, 1863, and subsequently Mosquera was 
 appointed provisional president, to hold 
 office till April 1st, 1864, when he was to be 
 succeeded by a president elected by the 
 people. The new constitution contained 
 provisions confiscating the property of the 
 church, and establishing religious liberty. 
 These provisions aroused the hostility of the 
 priests and their followers, who, headed by 
 the Archbishop of Bogota, threw every ob- 
 stacle in the way of the government. 'These 
 disputes led to an attempt on the part of 
 Mosquera, who had again been chosen 
 president in 1866, to seize the whole power 
 of the government. He was defeated, and 
 condemned to two years of exile. The 
 pi'inciples of religious liberty and immunity 
 from imprisonment for debt remained un- 
 disturbed. In 1875 an outbreak in some 
 of the Atlantic states occurred, but was put 
 down. In 1876 an unsuccessful revolution 
 was begun by the clerical party, but was 
 suppressed in the following year. 
 
 The republic has steadily prospered of 
 late years. Several important treaties have 
 been entered into with the United States 
 of America for the construction of a ship 
 canal across the Isthmus of Darien. The 
 undertaking of this great work, which is 
 simply a necessity to modern commerce, is 
 merely a question of time. 
 
 VI. The History of Venezuela. 
 
 The republic of Venezuela is situated in 
 the northern part of South America, and 
 lies between latitude 1° 8' and 12° 16' N., 
 and longitude 60° and 73° 17' W. It 
 comprises an area of about 400,000 square 
 miles, and contains a population of nearly 
 two millions. 
 
 In the year 1498 Columbus discovered 
 the eastern coast of Venezuela, and in 1499 
 Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci explored the 
 whole coast. The latter explorers sailed 
 into Lake Maracaybo, where they found an 
 Indian village built on piles over the water 
 as a precaution against inundations. This 
 they named Venezuela, or Little Venice, a 
 name which was eventually applied to the 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1255 
 
 •whole territory of the present republic. It 
 soon attracted the attention of the Span- 
 iards, and was conquered by them. In 
 1520 the city of Cumaua was founded, 
 and in 1527 the settlement of Coro was 
 begun, these towns thus being among the 
 oldest in America. The colony grew rapidly. 
 In 1545 Tocuyo was founded ; Barquisemeto 
 in 1552, Valencia in 1555, and Caracas in 
 1567. Gold was discovered in the coast 
 range in 1540. 
 
 Venezuela remained under Spanish rule 
 until the early part of the present century. 
 It warmly opposed the accession of Joseph 
 Bonaparte to the Spanish throne, and on the 
 5th of July, 1811, threw off its allegiance 
 to Spain, and declared itself independent. 
 In 1812 the treaty of Victoria restored it to 
 Spain. The Spanish rule was hateful to 
 the people, and in 1813 Venezuela again 
 revolted under the leadership of General 
 Simon Bolivar. A long struggle ensued, 
 and in 1819 the independence of the coun- 
 ti*y was practically secured, and the republic 
 of Colombia, consisting of New Granada, 
 Venezuela, and Ecuador, was established. 
 The war with Spain did not close until 
 1823, but the result was assured from the 
 time of the formation of the republic. In 
 1821 a constitution was adopted. In 1829 
 Venezuela withdrew from the Colombian 
 republic, and became an independent state. 
 In 1830 Ecuador became a separate re- 
 public. The dissolution of the old confed- 
 eration was peaceful and amicable. For 
 the next fifteen years the history of Venez- 
 uela is peaceful and uneventful. In 1846 
 General Monagas became president. A 
 period of constant civil war noAV set in, and 
 lasted until June, 1863, when the accession 
 of General Falcon to the presidency re- 
 stored tranquillity to the country. Several 
 years of peace followed, and then a new 
 revolution broke out and resulted in the 
 establishment of a provisional government 
 under Guzman Blanco, in April, 1869. 
 The next year he convened a congress at 
 Valencia, and compelled that body to ap- 
 point him provisional president of the re- 
 public, with extraordinary powers. In 
 February, 1873, he was elected by the 
 people for a term of four years. He gov- 
 erned with a firm hand, and was practically 
 a dictator, but he ruled well ; and with a 
 sincere desire to promote the welfare of his 
 country, which under him enjoyed a degree 
 of prosperity it had not known since its 
 separation from Spain. 
 
 VII. The History of Bolivia. 
 
 The republic of Bolivia is situated on the 
 western side of South America, and lies 
 between latitude 12° and 24° S.,and longi- 
 tude 57° 25' and 70° 30' W. It comprises 
 an area of 677,228 square miles, and con- 
 tains a population of about two millions. 
 
 The primitive inhabitants of Bolivia 
 were Indians. After the Spanish conquest 
 of Peru the country passed under the do- 
 minion of Spain, and formed a part of the 
 viceroyalty of Peru under the name of the 
 presidency of Charcas, and at a later period 
 of Upper Peru. In 1767 it was made a 
 part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. 
 After the revolution of 1820 it became in- 
 dependent of Spain. In 1825 it was erected 
 into an independent republic by General 
 Simon Bolivar, and was named Bolivia in 
 honor of him. A national convention was 
 assembled, and General Bolivar was re- 
 quested to prepare a constitution. General 
 Sucre was chosen president, and continued 
 in office until 1828, when he was over- 
 thrown and expelled from Bolivia by Gen- 
 eral Gamarra. Shortly after this he was 
 assassinated. Sucre was succeeded by Gen- 
 eral Blanco, Avho, a few months later, was 
 overthrown and slain in a revolution headed 
 by General Balibian. In 1829 Mariscal 
 Santa Cruz was elected president. He held 
 office until February, 1839. In 1836 he 
 became the head of the state in Peru, styling 
 himself the Supreme Protector of the Bo- 
 livio-Peruvian confederation. This union 
 between the two states was broken in 1839 
 by the overthrow of Santa Cruz by a new 
 revolution. A period of confusion and civil 
 war followed in Bolivia. 
 
 In 1858 Dr. Linares became president, 
 and ruled with dictatorial power. He was 
 overthrown in 1861, and Acha was named 
 provisional president. In December, 1864, 
 General Melgarejo headed a new revolu- 
 tion, and in February, 1865, defeated the 
 government forces and became president. 
 General Belzu attempted to overturn him, 
 but was defeated and killed. Another re- 
 volt was put down in January, 1866. In 
 that year Bolivia joined the alliance of 
 Peru, Ecuador and Chili against Spain. 
 In March, 1867, a large district in the 
 northern part of the republic was ceded to 
 Brazil. In December a formidable revolu- 
 tion, having for its object the restoration 
 of Acha to the presidency, broke out. It 
 was put down early in 1868. In February, 
 
1256 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 1869, Melgarejo, with the unanimous con- 
 sent of the national congress, declared him- 
 self dictator. In May he restored the con- 
 stitution, but continued to exercise his dic- 
 tatorial powers. In October a new revolu- 
 tion broke out under the leadership of A. 
 Morales. The outbreak was put down, 
 but was renewed in July, 1870, only to be 
 stamped out again. In 1871 a successful 
 revolution drove Melgarejo out of the coun- 
 try, and Morales became president, for one 
 year. In November Melgarejo was assas- 
 sinated in Lima, by his son-in-law. Mo- 
 rales survived him a little more than a year, 
 and was murdered by his son-in-law on the 
 27th of November, 1872. In May, 1873, 
 Don Adolfo Balliviau became president 
 of the republic. Ill health soon compelled 
 him to withdraAV from public life, and Dr. 
 Tomas Frias was appointed to succeed 
 him, in February, 1874. On the 14th of 
 the same month General Ballivian died. 
 His death was followed by a series of revo- 
 lutionary disturbances, which were not 
 finally crushed until April, 1875. 
 
 Bolivia is naturally one of the richest 
 countries of South America, but its great 
 mountain chains cut it off from all commu- 
 nication with the sea or the rest of the con- 
 tinent on the western side, except by the 
 tedious and expensive process of mule trans- 
 port across the mountains. On the eastern 
 side this obstacle to the progress of the re- 
 public does not exist. The Madeira river 
 drains a large portion of the republic, re- 
 ceives the waters of the greater number of 
 its streams, and finally empties into the 
 Amazon. For about 150 miles it is ob- 
 structed by rapids. Below the rapids it is 
 navigable to the Amazon, which river gives 
 ready access to the sea. In 1872 it was 
 resolved to build a railway around these 
 rapids, and to bring Bolivia into direct 
 communication with the rest of the world. 
 The contract was undertaken by an Eng- 
 lish firm, and a liberal subsidy was granted 
 by the Bolivian government. The con- 
 tractors abandoned the undertaking in 1874, 
 and in 1877 an agreement was entered into 
 with a responsible firm in the United States, 
 and at present (1878) the work is being 
 pushed forward with vigor. The benefits 
 "which must result to Bolivia from this great 
 work are incalculable. 
 
 VIII. The History of Uruguay. 
 
 The republic of Uruguay is situated in 
 the southern part of South America, on 
 
 the Atlantic or eastern side, and lies be- 
 tween latitude 30° and 35° S., and longitude 
 53° and 58° 30' W. It comprises an area 
 of 63,300 square miles, and contains a pop- 
 ulation of nearly half a million. 
 
 The aboriginal inhabitants of Uruguay 
 were South American Indians. In a. d. 
 1622 the first permanent European settle- 
 ment was made by a baud of Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries on the river Uruguay. The Por- 
 tuguese, who had settled Brazil, were anx- 
 ious to extend their dominions to the Plata, 
 and planted several colonies in that region, 
 Colonia was settled by them in 1680, and 
 somewhat later a settlement was made by 
 them on the present site of Montevideo. 
 These efforts brought them in conflict with 
 the Spaniards, who claimed the country. 
 The war was settled in 1724 by the expul- 
 sion of the Portuguese. In 1776 Uruguay 
 was made a part of the viceroyalty of 
 Buenos Ayres, and was called the district 
 of Banda Oriental. It continued under 
 Spanish rule until the beginning of the 
 war for independence in 1811. It at first 
 sided with Buenos Ayres, which was in in- 
 surrection against Spain. The Portuguese 
 troops in Brazil took advantage of the war 
 to seize Montevideo. They were driven 
 from that city by, the republican troops, 
 chiefly through the exertions of Jose Ai-- 
 tigas, a famous gaucho chief. Artigas now 
 made himself Dictator of Uruguay, and 
 compelled Buenos Ayres to acknowledge 
 the independence of the new republic, A. D. 
 1814. He then undertook the conquest of 
 Buenos Ayres, but was defeated and driven 
 out of the country in 1820. In 1821 the 
 Portuguese again invaded Uruguay, and 
 forcibly annexed the republic to BraziU 
 Upon the erection of Brazil into an inde- 
 pendent empire, Uruguay was constituted 
 one of its provinces, with the name of Cis- 
 platina. In 1825 Uruguay threw off the 
 Brazilian yoke and proclaimed its inde- 
 pendence, which was recognized by Brazil 
 in 1828. As the price of this recognition 
 the republic ceded to Brazil its northern 
 territory, known as the Seven Missions.. 
 The new state took the name of " Repub- 
 lica del Uruguay Oriental." In 1830 a. 
 constitution was adopted. 
 
 The constitution had hardly been adopted 
 when the republic was plunged into a state 
 of civil war. In 1839 Oribe, an unsuccess- 
 ful candidate for the presidency, besieged 
 Montevideo. The siege was continued for 
 nine years. The war was brought to a 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1257 
 
 close by the intervention of England and 
 France, which powers compelled the com- 
 batants to cease a strife that was exhaust- 
 ing their country. Quiet was finally re- 
 stored in 1852, and for the next eight years 
 the republic was at peace. In 1860 Flores, 
 an ex-president, began a new revolution. 
 It was crushed in 1863 by the government 
 forces. In 1864 Uruguay became involved 
 in a war with Brazil, and the Brazilian 
 army espoused the cause of Flores, and 
 enabled him to enter Montevideo in tri- 
 umph, in February, 1865. He made him- 
 self provisional president, and renewed the 
 treaties with Brazil. On the 1st of May, 
 1865, Uruguay entered into the alliance of 
 Brazil and the Argentine republic against 
 Paraguay. In 1866 General Vidal be- 
 came president of the republic. In 1868 
 an insurrection broke out in Montevideo, 
 and during the disturbances General Flores 
 was assassinated. In March, 1868, Vidal 
 was succeeded in the presidency by Gen- 
 eral Lorenzo Battle. In 1870 a fresh 
 revolution broke out. It was brought to 
 an end by the election of Don Jose Ell- 
 uari to the presidency. In 1875 he was 
 deposed by his own party, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Pedro Varela, who was driven 
 from power in March, 1876. His successor, 
 Senor Latorre, declared himself dictator. 
 
 IX. The History of the Argentine 
 Republic. 
 
 The Argentine republic is situated in 
 the southern part of South America, and 
 lies between latitude 21° and 41° S., and 
 longitude 53° and 71° 17'. It comprises 
 an area of 841,000 square miles, and con- 
 tained in 1875 a population of 1,768,681. 
 The Argentines dispute with Chili the 
 right to the region south of the Rio Negro, 
 known as Patagonia, as far as Terra del 
 Fuego. The dispute is still unsettled. 
 
 In 1512 Juan Diaz de Solis, a Spanish 
 navigator, discovered the mouth of the 
 Rio de la Plata. In 1535 the first Spanish 
 colony was founded at Buenos Ayres. The 
 country was regarded as a part of the vice- 
 royalty of Peru, and so continued until 
 1620, when a new government was organ- 
 ized, the seat of which was located at 
 Buenos Ayres. The new government was 
 a dependency of Peru. In 1776 the vice- 
 royalty of Buenos Ayres was created. It 
 embraced the countries now known as the 
 Argentine republic, Bolivia, Uruguay, and 
 Paraguay. In 1806, Spain being at war 
 
 with Great Britain, a small British force 
 captured Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, 
 but was soon driven out by the inhabitants. 
 Another effort was made by a stronger Brit- 
 ish force to capture Buenos Ayres in 1807, 
 but was repulsed. 
 
 In 1810 Buenos Ayres threw off the 
 Spanish yoke, and proclaimed its inde- 
 pendence. The war was decided in 1812 
 by the surrender of the Spanish forces at 
 Montevideo. In January, 1813, a "sov- 
 ereign assembly" w-as convened at Tucu- 
 raan, then the capital of Buenos Ayres, and 
 the administration of the government was 
 confided to it. The independence of the 
 republic being established, an army was 
 sent into Chili, under General San Martin, 
 and aided the Chilians in driving the 
 Spaniards from that province. Peru was 
 next assisted, and the independence of that 
 country was secured in 1821. 
 
 In 1816 the new republic took the name 
 of " The United Provinces of La Plata," 
 and in 1817 General Puyerredon was made 
 supreme dictator. Somewhat later the city 
 of Buenos Ayres was made the capital of 
 the republic. In 1820 the dictatorship 
 was abolished, and a democratic form of 
 government was instituted, with General 
 Rodigruez at its head. In 1824, the prov- 
 inces along the Parana having joined La 
 Plata, the form of government was changed 
 to a republic, and Senor Las Heras was 
 made president. In 1826 La Plata became 
 involved in a war with Brazil, in the midst 
 of which a revolution broke out, which en- 
 tirely broke up the confederation. Peace 
 was made with Brazil in 1828, through the 
 mediation of England, and the independ- 
 ence of the r'epublic of Uruguay was recog- 
 nized by La Plata. In 1831 the Argentine 
 republic was formed by the confederation 
 of the provinces of Buenos Ayres, Cor- 
 rientes, Entre-Rios, and Santa Fe. A little 
 later some of the other provinces joined 
 the union. This was followed by efforts of 
 some of the leading officers of the army to 
 overthrow the republic and seize the su- 
 preme power. This unsettled state of affairs 
 continued until 1835, when Rosas, who had 
 been chosen president in 1833, was made 
 dictator. He held office until 1852, and 
 during this period governed the republic 
 with firmness and sternness. He made 
 repeated efforts to force Palfaguay and 
 Uruguay to join the Argentine confedera- 
 tion. These efforts involved him in a quar- 
 rel with Brazil, which was also seeking to 
 
1258 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 get possession of Uruguay. During this 
 contest Great Britain and France inter- 
 vened at the request of the Emperor of 
 Brazil ; their fleets seized the Argentine 
 fleet, opened the Parana, which Rosas had 
 declared closed, and gave protection to 
 vessels ascending that stream to Paraguay. 
 Peace was made in 1848. In 1852 Rosas 
 was defeated by the party opposed to him, 
 and was driven from power. He escaped to 
 England. Vicente Lopez succeeded him, 
 and five months later by a sudden stroke 
 made himself dictator. 
 
 In September, 1852, a revolution broke 
 out in the province of Buenos Ayres, which 
 withdrew from the confederation and estab- 
 lished a government of its own. This act 
 led to repeated quarrels and conflicts be- 
 tween the Argentine confederation and 
 Buenos Ayres. Ou the 17th of September, 
 1871, the Argentine troops were defeated 
 by the forces of Buenos Ayres under Gen- 
 eral Mitre. The Argentine confedera- 
 tion was now remodelled, with Buenos 
 Ayres as the leading state. The city of 
 Buenos Ayres was made the capital of the 
 republic, a constitution was adopted, and 
 General Mitre was chosen president. In 
 1865 the Argentine republic declared war 
 against Paraguay, and entered into an 
 offensive and defensive alliance with Brazil 
 and Uruguay. The struggle resulted in 
 the utter overthrow of Paraguay, the ag- 
 gressions of which state had provoked the 
 war, A. D. 1870. 
 
 The alliance of the Argentine confedera- 
 tion with Brazil and Uruguay gave great 
 offence to certain parties in the republic, 
 and led to several outbreaks. These were 
 suppressed. The peace of 1870 was fol- 
 lowed by a formidable rebellion in Entre- 
 Rios, which lasted a year, and was put down 
 only at the cost of an immense number of 
 lives. The revolt was renewed in 1873, 
 but was suppressed in the course of a few 
 months. In 1874 the contest over the 
 presidential election plunged the country 
 into a new civil war, wliich lasted several 
 months and caused much suffering. It was 
 settled by the acknowledgment of the pres- 
 ident elected by the people. Since then 
 the history of the republic has been peace- 
 ful and uneventful. Under the able ad- 
 ministration of President Avellaneda the 
 wounds of tfivil war have been healed, the 
 resources of the country have been de- 
 veloped, and a new era of prosperity has 
 dawned upon the republic. 
 
 X. The History of Paraguay. 
 
 The republic of Paraguay is the only 
 South American state that does not possess 
 a seacoast. It lies between latitude 21° 
 57' and 27° 30' S., and longitude 54° 33' 
 and 58° 40' W. It comprises an area of 
 about 63,000 square miles, and contains a 
 population of about 250,000. 
 
 In 1530 Paraguay was discovered by the 
 Europeans, but the first Spanish colony was 
 not planted in the country until 1536 or 
 1537, when the city of Asuncion was 
 founded. The colony prospered, and was 
 erected into a bishopric in 1555. The 
 Spaniards found the Indians mild and 
 friendly, industrious and intelligent, and 
 very willing to learn the civilization of the 
 whites. In 1557 the first missionaries 
 arrived, and were so successful in their 
 labors that they were soon followed by 
 numerous others, and in a short while a 
 number of thriving missions were estab- 
 lished in the country. 
 
 The name of Paraguay was given to the 
 entire basin of the Plata, and the country 
 was governed by lieutenants of the Viceroy 
 of Peru. In 1620 the King of Spain sepa- 
 rated Paraguay and Buenos Ayres into two 
 distinct governments, both remaining parts 
 of the viceroyalty of Peru. 
 
 In the meantime the Jesuits had pros- 
 pered beyond their hopes with the missions. 
 Their principal establishments, known as 
 " The Missions," were located in the region 
 between the Uruguay and Parana rivers, 
 and on the western bank of the Parana. 
 The converted Indians were " collected by 
 thousands into villages, where splendid 
 churches were built ; and finally, by a man- 
 date which the Jesuits obtained about 1690, 
 forbidding all other Spaniards to enter 
 their territory without their permission, 
 they were enabled to establish an almost 
 independent theocratic government. Before 
 the middle of the seventeenth century thirty 
 missions had been founded ; and in 1740 
 the number of civilized Indians was ascer- 
 tained to be upward of 140,000. Each 
 mission was built in a uniform style, with a 
 great plaza in the centre, and here were 
 erected the church, college, arsenal, stores, 
 and workshops of the carpenters, smiths, 
 and weavers, all under the immediate care 
 of the priests. Once a week the male in- 
 habitants went through military drill, 
 prizes being given to the best marksmen. 
 Church ceremonies were performed every 
 day, the children beginning with morning 
 
DISCOVERIES OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH TO PRESENT TIME. 1259 
 
 prayer, followed at sunrise by mass, at 
 which the whole population attended. 
 Baptisms took place in the afternoon ; 
 vespers were sung every evening ; and 
 holidays or festivals were chosen for the 
 celebration of marriages. The Indians 
 Avere excellent musicians and singers. . . . 
 The schools and workshops were admirably 
 managed, and the wood carving of the 
 artisans still elicits admiration. The 
 Spanish language was prohibited," the 
 Guarani, or native Indian, only being 
 used. Several books were printed in this 
 
 rated with Buenos Ayres. In 1811 the 
 Paraguayans threw off their allegiance to 
 Spain, and proclaimed their independence. 
 An army sent from Buenos Ayres to reduce 
 them to submission was defeated, and the 
 independence of the country secured. The 
 republic was at first governed by a junta, 
 but in 1813 the executive power was con- 
 fided to two consuls. In 1814 Dr. Francia, 
 one of the consuls, made himself dictator. 
 His powers Avere confirmed for three years, 
 and then for life. He governed Paraguay 
 with vigor and sometimes with cruelty, but 
 
 SCENE ON THE PARAGTTAY RIVER. 
 
 language by the Jesuit presses. The at- 
 tempt of the Jesuits to make their province 
 independent of the colonial government, 
 alarmed the Spanish authorities, and in 
 1767 an order was issued expelling the 
 priests from the missions. They made no 
 resistance, though they were well prepared 
 to do so. After their departure the mis- 
 sions fell into decay, the converts were dis- 
 persed, some taking to the woods again, 
 others being made prisoners by the Bra- 
 zilians and sold into slavery. 
 
 In 1776 Paraguay was again incorpo- 
 
 on the whole his rule was beneficial to the 
 country. He died on the 20th of Septem- 
 ber, 1840, and the government passed into 
 the hands oi a. junta. In March, 1841, the 
 consular system was revived, and two con- 
 suls were placed at the head of the state. 
 In 1844 the form of government was again 
 changed, and Lopez, one of the consuls, was 
 made dictator for ten years. In 1854 his 
 dictatorship was renewed for three years, 
 and in 1857 for seven years. His rule was 
 as arbitrary as that of Dr. Francia, but he 
 allowed foreigners^ who had been forbidden 
 
1260 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE WORLD, 
 
 by the first dictator to enter or leave the 
 republic, to come and go at will, and was 
 in other respects a more liberal ruler. 
 
 In 1853 the American war steamer 
 "Water Witch" was sent by the United 
 States government to survey the La Plata 
 river. The expedition was well received 
 by Lopez, and the surveys were carried on 
 with success until February, 1855, when 
 the steamer was fired upon by the Para- 
 guayan Fort Itapiru, and one of her crew 
 killed. The steamer returned the fire, but 
 being no match for the fort, was obliged to 
 withdraw. The United States government 
 sent a strong fleet to punish Paraguay for 
 this outrage, but the matter was settled 
 through the mediation of the Argentine 
 confederation, on terms consistent with the 
 dignity of the United States. In 1858 a 
 treaty was concluded with Brazil by which 
 the waters of the Paraguay were declared 
 free to all nations. The Paraguayan gov- 
 ernment, however, steadily discouraged 
 foreign emigration and trade. 
 
 Lopez died in September, 1862, and 
 was succeeded by his son, who is generally 
 known as Marshal Lopez. He pursued an 
 even more despotic course than his father. 
 He was ambitious of converting his coun- 
 try into a monarchy, of which he should be 
 emperor, and of enlarging his dominions by 
 foreign conquests. In November, 1864, tak- 
 ing advantage of a quarrel between Brazil 
 and Uruguay, he seized a Brazilian steamer 
 on its voyage up the Paraguay to Matto 
 Grosso, and held its crew and passengers as 
 prisoners of war. Shortly after he invaded 
 Matto Grosso and sacked Cuyaba, the cap- 
 ital of the province, and some other towns, 
 and captured the diamond mines of that 
 region. Being afraid that the Ai'gentine 
 republic would side with Brazil against 
 him, Lopez, on the 13th of April, 1865, 
 seized two Argentine war steamers in the 
 bay of Corrientes, and the next day in- 
 vested the town of Corrientes, set up a pro- 
 
 visional government, and declared the 
 Argentine provinces of Corrientes and 
 Entre-Rios annexed to the republic of 
 Paraguay. On the 18th he declared war 
 against the Argentine confederation. On 
 the 1st of May Brazil, the Argentine con- 
 federation, and Uruguay entered into an 
 offensive and defensive alliance against 
 Paraguay, "solemnly binding themselves 
 not to lay down their arms until the exist- 
 ing government of Paraguay should be 
 overthrown, nor to treat with Lopez, unless 
 by common consent." Hostilities began in 
 June, 1865, and the war lasted until 1870. 
 It was contested with desperate valor by the 
 Paraguayans, who were driven from strong- 
 hold to stronghold by the land and naval 
 forces of the allies. At length Lopez was 
 defeated and killed at Aquidaban, on the 
 1st of March, 1870, and Paraguay sub- 
 mitted to the conquerors, who had already 
 overrun the greater portion of the country. 
 Paraguay was compelled to surrender the 
 northern portion of her territory to Brazil 
 as a compensation for the expenses of the 
 war, and to make reparation to the other 
 allies. Peace was made on the 20th of 
 June, and on the 25th of November a new 
 constitution was adopted, granting religious 
 toleration, and encouragement and protec- 
 tion to foreign emigration and trade, and 
 providing for the summary punishment of 
 any person who should in future seek to 
 assume the dictatorship. In December, 
 1871, the provisional government which 
 had concluded the peace was succeeded by 
 the permanent establishment, with Senor 
 Jovellanos as president. Within a year 
 three revolutions were undertaken against 
 the government, which was obliged to ask 
 the assistance of Brazil. The Brazilian 
 troops suppressed the outbreaks in April, 
 1874, and since then Paraguay has been 
 under Brazilian protection, while nominally 
 independent. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 8EXUAL SCIENCE; 
 
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