SD 
 
 .t-5 
 
 nmi POLICIES AND mm mummi 
 
 i>f 
 
 GEEMAI^Y AND BETTTSII INDIA. 
 
 mUKCTOlt NKW iORK STATE VOLLKGE OF FOKE.STltX, VOKNELL UXIYEKl-llTT. 
 
 Ropiiiilc.l fnmi H. Doc. No. 181, 55111 ('(II1^■., :{»1 Scss, 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1899. 
 
Book 'F5 
 
^ ' » 
 
/ 
 
FOHiST P(iijii^:h m m 
 
 GEEMANY AND JJIMTISU INDIA. 
 
 T,y P.. E. VET?T^O'\\^. T,T.. r>.. 
 
 iiumcToH M:n' loim state vvllfme of fukestii\, vuknell i.\n la/.snT. 
 
 l!('liriii(c(l I'roiii H. Doc. No. IM. o'ltli (on;;.. :!il Scss 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTINCi oPFICE. 
 181)!). 
 

 ,AY 17 l%6 
 
1). FOKI-ST 1'()L1C11^:S OF RUROIMLVX NATIONS. 
 
 The coiKlitions wliicli ii huudred years a^o iiiliueuced the policies of the European nations— 
 namely, the necessity of lookin};- ont for continuance of doniestie supplies— are at present well 
 overcome, provided the supi)lies in other countries last and can readdy be secured. 
 
 In re^'ard to supplies, the European countries may be j^rouped into those whicli produce as 
 yet more than they need, namely: liussia, Austria-Hungary, Servia, Sweden and Norway, wliicdi 
 are, therefore, exporters; those which produce large ([uantities of forest ])roducts, but .not 
 sufticieut for their needs, Germany, France, Switzerland; those which depend largely or almost 
 entirely on importation, I':ngland, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Spain, rortugal, Italy, (ireece, 
 and Turkey. 
 
 Nevertheless, at least in Cermany, the desiraliility of fostering home production and advan- 
 tages of a general economic character, especially eniidoyment of labor in winter time which tlie 
 forest industries insure, have still an influence upon the policy of the (iovernment, even with 
 supply forests. 
 
 In this way may be explained the protective tariff against wood imports, which was enacted 
 in 1885 and increased later, especially to keep out competition fnnu the virgin woods of Austria- 
 Hungary and Kussia. The last revision of ISitL' has for its object not tiie discouragement of 
 importation, but the inducing of importation of only raw material to be manufactured at home, by 
 imposing a duty five times as high on lumber as on logs. 
 
 Tiie result, however, has been more satisfactory from the revenue point of view than in 
 protecting the forest owners, the AustroHungarian railroads e(iuali/.ing the duty charges by 
 lower rates. 
 
 The e.xistence of a State forest policy, such as most European States has e adopted, is based 
 at present mainly on the protective value of tlie forest cover and the re(;ognition that pri\ ate 
 interest can not be expected, or is insulHcent, to give proper regard to this feature in its treatment 
 
 of the forest areas. 
 
 It can not be said that a tinally .settled policy exists in any of the States, not even in Cerniany, 
 but only that it is in a, highly advanced stage of forin:ition, with the tendency of increasing 
 governmental activity and interference. 
 
 Such a policy is expres.sed in various ways, State ownership, State supervision of comnuinal 
 and private forests, restriction of cle;iring and enforced reforesting, establishment of forestry 
 schools, and experiment stations. 
 
 State ownership of forest areas, which in the. beginning of the century began to decrea.se 
 under the inlluence and misapi>lication of Aihim Snnth's teaching, and the doctrine «i' in<lividual 
 rights urged to its extreme con.se(|uenees, is now on the increase lu most States. Thus France, 
 which duringand after tiie Revolution, took the lead in this disnieinberment of the forest jiroperty 
 which the monarchy had maintained, sold during the years 1791 to ITil.") nearly one-half of the 
 State forests and continued to reduce the area until there remained in 1ST I but one-liftli of the 
 (n'iginal holdings. Since then a reversal of the i.olicy has been in practice, the area not only 
 being inca-eased but iinancial assistance iu reforesting on a large scale being given to private 
 owners and communities. 
 
 Thus in the budget for IS!).") of .■i!2,r>()0,00(l appropriated for the State forest department, 
 )jil,0()0,(IOO is set a.side for the extension of the. Stale forests and necessary improvenu'iit of the 
 existing ones. The State owns about 2,C0(»,(I0U acres— somewhat over Id ner cent of the total 
 
■JOi; FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULIURE. 
 
 uit'ii. Ill addition the private ])ioi)erty is controlled entirely as regards clearing-; that is to 
 say, 110 clearing may be done witliont notice to tlie Government authorities, or, in the mountain 
 districts, without sanction ot the same. 
 
 Tiiis control is especially stringent with rel'erence to the holdings of village and city corpora- 
 tions, which re|>resent over 27 per cent of the forest area. These must submit their plans of 
 management to the State Ibrc.st department for approval, and are debarred from dividing their 
 l)roi)erty, tlins msurnig continuity of ownershi]) and conservative management. 
 
 The necessity for such control became api)arent in the lirst quarter of the century, when as a 
 conseiinencc of reckless denudation in the Alps, (Jivennes, and Pyrenees, whole communities 
 became imiioverished by the torrents which destroyed and silted over the fertile lands at the foot 
 of the mountains. Some 8,()(t(),0()(t acres of mountain forest in twenty dei)artments were involved 
 in tliese disastrous consequences of forest destruction, with 1, 00(1, 000 a(^res of once fertile soil made 
 u.seless. The work of recovery was begun under laws of 18(i0 and 1S(!4, and a revised law, the 
 reboisemeut act, of ISSL*. Under this law the State buys and recuperates the'laud, or else forces 
 communities or i)rivate owners to do so with financial aid from the (loveniment. 
 
 Since the operation of this law the State has spent in purchases of worn out lauds and in works 
 to check the torrents and in reforesting, nearly $12,000,000, not including subventions to commu- 
 nities and private owners. It is estimated that $28,000,000 more will have to be expended before 
 the area whicii the State does or is to jiossess, some 800,000 acres in all, will be restored. 
 
 A forestry school at Nancy educates the otlicers, and is among the best on the Continent. 
 
 England, in (lie iiome country, has had little need of a ibrest iiolicy on account of its insular 
 |)osition and topography. Of the .'!,000,000 acres of wtxidlands, mostly devoted to purposes of the 
 chase or parks, 2 per cent are State forests, and .so encumbered with rights of adjoining cominouers 
 as pasture or for wood supplies that no rational management is possible. -Hut in India there is 
 a well organized forest administration with a very extensive area, namely, 00,000 square miles 
 reserved and 34,590 square miles i)rotected and under active control of the (lovernment. The 
 organization of the forestry service was begun in ISG.^ by (ierman foresters. (Sec pages 250-20.'!.) 
 At present special schools of forestry, one in i-aigland and one in India, supply the technical 
 education of the oOicers. 
 
 Italy has long sulfered from the etfccts of I'orest devastation by droughts and Hoods, but the 
 (ioNcrnment was always too weak to secure ettective remedies. The State owns only l.(> per cent 
 of 111), 000 acres of forest, the balance of 7,00(1,000 acres belonging to communities and corporations 
 or individuals. Vet by the laws of 1877, reviseil in 1888, the i)oliey of State interference is clearly 
 delined. Excellent though the law appears on i)aper, it has probably not yielded any signiticant 
 results or even general enforcement, owing to the linancial disability of tin; (iovei'iinient. This 
 law jilaced nearly half the area not owned by the State under (lovernment control, namely, all 
 woods and lands cleared of wood on the summits and slopes of tlie mountains above the upi)er 
 limit of chestnut growth, and those that from their character and situation may, in consecpience 
 of being cleared or tilled, give rise to land.slips, caving, or gullying, avalanches and snowslides, 
 and may to the [uiblic injury interfere with water courses or change the character of tlui soil or 
 injure local hygienic conditions. Government aid is to be extended where reforestation appeared 
 necessary. 
 
 Of the 70,000 acres which required immediate reforestation, for reasons of jmblic safety, only 
 22,000 were reforested in twenty years up to 1880, the (joverument contributing $85,000 toward 
 the cost. 
 
 In the revised law of 1888, as a result of the vast experiences preceding, a further elabora- 
 tion of the same i)lan was attem[)ted by creating further authority to enforce action. It is now 
 estimated that 5;!t,000 acres need reforesting at a cost of $12,000,000, of which two-tifths is to be 
 contributed by the State. 
 
 I'jxpropriation proceedings may be instituted where owners refuse to reforest, with permission 
 to reclaim in live years by paying the cost of work, with intei-est, incurred by the State. 
 
 In Austria, the disastrous consequences which the reckless devastation "and abuse of her 
 mountain forests by their owners has brought upon whole communities have led to a more stringent 
 and general supervision of private and communal forests than anywhere else. Since 1883 there 
 
lUUOrEAN FOUKST POLICIES. 2()7 
 
 lias lii'cii also ill ]irog'i'ess a work of i(H'ii|(eiatioii similar to i\w I'rcncli rchoistMiicnt work, in wliicli, 
 up to 18".I4, nearly 81,500,0(10 had bcfii spent, tlie yiate contiihutinij; variously t'roiii 25 lo 100 jier 
 cent toward covering the expeuse. A tiilly organized forest departineut luanagiss tlu^ (loverniiient 
 forests, 2,000,000 acres, which are gradually being increased l)y purchase, or T.'I per cent of the 
 wiiole forest area. One higher, and several lower schools piovide instruction. 
 
 Some 1.5(1,000 a(;res of waste laud wore reforested by the State between IMSl and 18!)(). 
 
 Even Russia, although one of tli(^ export countries, with jJ.'IO, 000,000 to s.ir.^ooo.ooo, and 
 largely in the pioneering stage, has a well devised forest iioli<',y, developed within the last thirty 
 or lifty years, which consists not only in maintaining (lovernnient forests to the extent of about 
 2.S0,000,000 acres under tolerably good management, and ,'50,000,000 of Crown forests, personal 
 property of the royal family, but in restricting private owners from abuse of their i)ro]>erty, where 
 the puiilic well'are demands, while in tlie prairie country in southern Itussia large amounts of 
 money are siieut by the ( lo\einmi'iit in planting forests and assisting ])riva(c enleipiise in the 
 same direction. 
 
 With the Siberian forests and ^,hosc of t\u- Caucasus addend, the area, of (lovernment forest 
 may reach the large ligure of ()00,000,()00 acres, which, though not yet all placed under manage 
 meiit, is sooner or lati'r to come under the existing forest admiiiistiation. 
 
 The restrictive policy dates from a. very elaborate law passed in IScSS, in which the dciiKKaalic 
 spirit in the constitution of the body controlling the exercise ol' profjcrty lights is interesting. 
 1'iie apjiroval of working iilans or of clearings on private property is placed in lln^ hands of a 
 specially constituted conimittee foi- each county, which includes the governor. Justices of the 
 l>eacc, tlu^ county council, ami sc\(nal forest owners, and the (loverninenL itself must secure the 
 ajiiu'oval of this committee for its operations. 
 
 r>y this law, throughout I'.uropean llnssia, woodlands may be declared " ineserved forests" on 
 the following grounds: That they serve as iirexentives against the formation t)f barrens and 
 shifting sands, and the encroachment of dunes along seashores or the banks of na\ igabh; rivers, 
 canals, and artilicial reservoirs; that they protect from sand drifts towns, villages, cultivated 
 land, roads, and the like: that they ])rofect the banks of navigable rivers and (%inals from land- 
 slides, overllows, or injuries by the breaking ui> oi- passing of ice; when growing (Ui hills, steep 
 places, or declines, they serve to cliecic laud ov rock slides, avalanches, and sudden freshets, 
 and all forests that protect the springs and sources of the rivers and their tributaries. 
 
 In these preserved forests, wiuking |ilans arc made at the expense of the Government, and 
 in the unpreserved forests at the expense of the owners. In each province the (ioveriiuient 
 maintains an iiispei;tor inslnu'tor, whose duty is to advise those who apply to him in forest 
 matters, and as far as possible he is to siii)erinteiid on the spot all forestry work. The ( io\ ('rnment 
 has established nius(!ri(^s from which Diivate owners can obtain young trees and seeds at a low 
 price. The owners are allowed to employ as managers of their forests tin; trained oflicials of the 
 I'orest administration, while medals and prizes are given yearly to jirivate owners for excellency 
 ill forest culture and management. Two higher and thirteen lower schools of forestry are also 
 maintained by the (iovernineut. 
 
 The country which has attracted most interest in all matters i)ertaiiiing to forestry, because 
 the science of forestry is there most developed and most closely applied, is (Ic^rmany. Tlu^ [lolicies 
 lirevailing and methods em[)loyed are fully described in another part ot this report. 
 
 Tt may, however, be interesting to trace somewhat the hist(nical d-'vclopmeiit both of the 
 apiilieatioii of forestry princijiles and of the existing forest policy. 
 
 AUIioiigh as early as (Jliarlemagne's time a con(u'])tion of the value of a Ibrest as a piec-e of 
 property was well recognized by that monarch himself, and crude prescriptions as to the jiroper 
 use of the same are extant, a general rc'ally well ordered system of forest managenient hardly 
 existed until the beginning of the eighteenth century. Spora<iically, to be sure, systi'inatiiM^are 
 and regular iiielUods of rei)roductioii were employed even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- 
 
 ries 
 
 To understand the development of the presiMit forest policy in Ciermany one must study the 
 peculiar conditions and development of ]iropertv rights that led to it. Cicrmany was originally 
 settled by warriors, who had to keep together in order to resist enemies and compierors on every 
 
20S FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTilENT OF AGKK'ULTUKE. 
 
 side, ready to move and cliauge domicile at auy momeut. Tlie soil which was conquered, conse- 
 quently, was not divided, but owned as a whole, managed by and ibr the whole tribe. It is only 
 in the sixth century that signs of private property in woodlands are discernible. Before that 
 time it was ns nnlliiis, or, as it is expressed in legal manuscripts, ^^ ([uia non res ponstssd scd de 
 ligno (Kjitny.''^ 
 
 Wood being plentiful and yet needed by everybody, it appeared a crime only to take wood 
 which had been already appropriated or bore unmistakable signs of ownership, such as being 
 cut or shaped. But severe punishments were in earliest times iiitlicted for incendiarism and 
 for damage to mast trees, since the seed mast for the lattening of swine was one of the most 
 important uses of the forest. 
 
 Tliere was not much need of partition, especially of the forests. The community, to which all 
 the land of a district belonged, and which was managed liy and for the aggregate of society, was 
 called the "mark," a communistic institution of most express character, and every "marker" or 
 shareholder was allowed to get the timber needed by him for his own use without control. 
 
 This early communal ownership of forest land undoubtedly explains the fact that even today 
 over 5 per cent of the forest is owned by communities, cities, or villages. Gradually the necessity 
 of regulating the cutting of the wood became apparent, as the best timber in the neighborhood 
 of the villages was removed, aTul we find (|uite early mention of officials whose duty it was to 
 superintend the felling, removing, and even the use of the timber. By and by even the firewood 
 was designated by officials. Manufacturers received their material free of charge, but only as 
 much as was needed to supply the community. Occasionally there were rules that each man had 
 to plant trees in i)rop(U-tion to his consumption. So that by the end of the fourteenth century 
 -(]uite a system of forest management had been developed. 
 
 Meanwhile the Roman doctrine of the regal right to the chase had also begun to assert itself 
 by the declaration of certain districts as ban forests or simply forests, in which the King exclu- 
 sively reserved the rigiit to chase. The Kings again invested their trusted followers and nobles 
 ■with this right to the chase in various districts, thus gradually dividing the control of the same. 
 
 While at first these reservations did not bring with them restrictions in the use of the timber 
 or pasture or other i)roducts of the forest, gradually these uses were construed as exercised only 
 by permission, and the former owners were reduced to holders of " servitudes," i. e., holders of 
 certain rights in the substance of the forests. The fact fiiat the feudal lords frequently became 
 the obermarkers or burgomasters of the mark community lent color of right to these restrictions 
 in the use of the ])n)i)erty, besides the assertion that the needs of maintaining the chase required 
 and entitled them to sucli control. 
 
 It is interesting to note that througli all the changes of centuries, these so called servitudes 
 have lasted until our own times, nmeh changed, to be sure, in character, and extending by new 
 grants especially to churches, charitable institutions, cities, villages, and colonists. Such rights, 
 to satisfy certain recpurements from the substance of an adjoining forest, were then usually 
 attached to the ownership of certain farms, and involved counter service of some sort, usually in 
 hauling wood or doing other forestry work. 
 
 Sometimes when the lordly owners of large properties exercised only certain prerogatives to 
 show ownership, these, in the course of time, lapsed into the character of servitudes, the forest 
 itself by occupation becoming tiie property of the community. With changes in value and other 
 changes in economic conditions, these rights often became disadvantageous and more and more 
 cumbersome to either or both sides. 
 
 The present century has been occupied with the difficult labor of relieving this state of things 
 and making equitable arrangements by which the forests become unencumbered and the bene- 
 flciaries i)roperly satisfied by cession of land or a money equivalent. 
 
 This chapter of the history of forest policy is especially interesting to us as a teiuleucy, nay 
 the practice exists of granting such rights to the public timber to the settlers in the Western 
 States, which by and by will be Just as diilicult to eradicate when rational forest management is 
 to be inaugurated. 
 
 '^ Over 5,(100, (HK) marks and several hundred acres of land were recjuired in the little Kingdom 
 of Saxony to get rid of the servitudes Iti the State forests. The Prussian budget contains still an 
 
ETROrEAN FOKKST I'OI.ICIES. 2(ti) 
 
 item ol" l,()()(l,()()(l marks aiiiuially lor this purpose; and aitlioiijjh ovci-l!i;,(K)0,(l(M) iiiaiks and nearly 
 lIOjOOO iunes of land iMve been spent Ibr tliis pnrpose in IJavaria, Mie State forests tliere art' still 
 most lieavily burdened w itli s(!r\ itudes. 
 
 The doctrine of the rej;al liglit to the eliase, as we have seen, led to the j^radiial assertion of 
 all property rights to the forest itself, or at least to the exclusive (^ontiol of its use. This right 
 found expression in a les^iou of forest ordinances in the lifteenth and sixteenth centuries, wiiich 
 aimed at the conservation and improvement of forest areas, abounding in detailed technical 
 precepts. 
 
 At lirst treating the private interest with some consideration, they gradually more an<l iTiore 
 restrict free nnmagement. Prohibition of absolute clearing, oi' at least only with the permission 
 of the government; the command to reforest cleareil and waste jilaces; to foster the young 
 growth; limitinj; the (juality of timber to \h\ felled; ])revciiting devastation by ])rohibiting the 
 l)asturiug of cattle in the young growl h, of the removal of the forest litter, of pitch gathering, 
 etc., were among these iirescrii)tions, and uuiiiy others, siu'li as prescribing the numncr and time 
 of felling, the division into regular felling lot.s, determination as to w hat is to be cut as lirewood 
 and what as building timber. Then, with the increasing lear of a reduction in sujiplics, followed 
 j)roliibitions against exportation, against sale of woodlands to foreigners, against spt^culation in 
 timber by i)roviding schedules of prictis, anil from time to time entire e\clusion from sale of some 
 valuable species. Even the consumei' was restricted and controlled in the nuiuner of using wood. 
 
 In media'val times, besides jjiivate fori^sts of the King and lords, only the communal forest 
 (allinende) was known, ami small holdings of farmers were comj)aratively rare until tlu! eml of 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 The thirty years' war and the .following troublesome times gave ris(^ not only to extended 
 forest devastation, but also to many- changes in ownership of woodhiTids. AV'itli the growing 
 instability of communal organization of the '• mark," division of thc^ common pioperty took i)Iace, 
 and thus private ownershij) by small farmers came about, reducing the comuiunal holdings. 
 Colonization schemes by holders ol' large estates also led to dismemberment. 
 
 A very large amount of the mark fon^st came into possesssion of the jirinces and noblemen 
 by force, and later possessions of the princes wen^ increased by the secularization of the pro[)(irty 
 of monasteries and churches. Until the end of the last century these domains belonged to the 
 family of the prince, Just as the right to the throne or the governing of the little dukedom, 
 contributing toward the expenses of government. 
 
 But when, as a conseipience of the Fi-ench Kevolution and the iSapoleonic wars antl 
 subse(iuent changes, the conceptioTi of the rights of the governing classes changed, and in some 
 kStates like Prussia nuich earlier, a division of domains into those which bi^longed to the prince's 
 family as private property and those which were State forests w-as effected, so that now the 
 following classes of forest property nuiy be distinguished: 
 
 (1) State forests, which are administered by the government for the lienelit of the common- 
 wealth, each State of the (Jon federation owning and administering its own. 
 
 (2) Imperial forests, belonging to and administered for the benefit of the Em])irc, situatcil in 
 the newly acquired province of Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 (3) ('rown forests (Fidci-commiss), the ownership of which remains in the reigning family, 
 administered by State government, but the revenues of which art^ in part applicable to government 
 expenses. 
 
 (-1) I'l'incely domains, wliich are the exclusive and private property of the prince. 
 
 (.5) Communal forests possessed by ;ind ailministcred by and for the benclit of village and 
 city communities, or even jirovinces as a whole. 
 
 (()) Association forests, the owners of the old •• marlc '" forests, possessed by a nuiid)ei- of 
 owners, the State sometimes being part ownei'. 
 
 (7) institute and cori)oration, school or bequest forests, which belong to incorpoiatcd institu- 
 tions, like churches, hospitals, and othei' charitable institutions. 
 
 (S) Private forests, of larger or snndler extent, the exclusive pi'opeity of priv;ite owners. 
 
 The proportions of these das.ses of property which «!\isted in the beginning ol' the century 
 11. Doc. ISl 11 
 
210 FORESTRY INVEtSTIGATK »NS i:. S. DEPARTMENT OF A(iRICULTUKK. 
 
 expt'iieuccd considerable cliaugets by the sale of State forests, the sales being dne partly to 
 financial distress, i)artly to a inistakeu application of Adam Smith's theories, which supposed that 
 fiee competition would lead to a better management and highest development of the forest 
 industry as well as of other industries. 
 
 This tendency, however, was checked when the fallacy of the theory became apparent, 
 especially with reference to a property that demands conservative treatment and involves such 
 time element as we have seen. 
 
 The hopes which were based on the success of individualistic ettbrts were not reali/.ed, and 
 although control of private action had been retained by the State authorities, this could not 
 always be exercised, and the necessity of strengthening the State forest administration became 
 apparent. The present tendency, therefore, is not only to maintain the State forests, but to 
 extend their area by ]iurchase, mostly of devastated or deforested areas and by exchange for 
 agricultural lands from the public domain. Thus, in Prussia, the increase of State forest area has 
 been at the rate of 11,000 acres per year siiu e lS(i7. 
 
 In districts where small farmeis own extensive areas of barrens a consolidation is effected, 
 the parcels of remaining forest and the barrens are put together, the State ac(|uires these and 
 l)ays the owners either in money oi- other property. 
 
 In Prussia, during the decade l.S8U-l<s;»l, ;!0,000 acres were in this way exchaiigeil Ibr 17,000 
 acres, and in aildition some 200,0(10 acres, waste or poorly wooded, ])urchased at an expense of 
 $.".,500,000, round numbers. During the same decade the refbiestation of SO, 000 acrc^s of waste 
 lauds was (^Ifected, while nearly To, 000 acres in the State's jjossession remained to be reforested. 
 
 The annual budget for tlies(^ reforestations of waste lands has been .•ii.~)00,000 for se\eral years. 
 
 The area of barieus ami i>oor soils, only lit for forest purposes in Prussia, is estimated at over 
 6,000,000 acres. 
 
 The present- distribution of th(^ properly chisses for the whole I'lmijiri^ of the 35, 000, 000 acres 
 of forest is about as follows, varying, to be sure, very considerably in the States of the Confed- 
 eration : 
 
 Vvv (ftiit . 
 
 Statd and down fiircsls I of wliirU (l](^ CioNvii iiwiis less tliaii U jmr cent) 82. 7 
 
 Iiiip<Ti:iI lores tw 1 
 
 {'(iirumnial forests (r.,0lll),0l)(l .-icri'S) 15. L' 
 
 .\HSociatioii forests -■•> 
 
 Iiistituto forests 1.8 
 
 l'iiv;itr forests IS. 3 
 
 The State and Crown Ibrt'sts aic all under well-organized Ibrest administrations, sometimes 
 accredited to the- minister of linancd, sometimes to the minister of agriculture. These yield an 
 annual net revc^nuc of from ¥1 to •'t'5 and *(! per acre of forest area, with a constant increase Irom 
 year to year, which will presently i)e very greatly advanced when the exi)enditures for road build- 
 ing and other improvements cease. 
 
 In the State management the constant care is not to sacrilice the economic siguiliciinct^ of the 
 forest to the tiiiancial benefits that can be (leriv(Hl, and the amount cut is most conservative. 
 
 The Imperial forests are of course maiuiged in the same spirit as the several State forests. 
 
 While the present communities, villages, towns, and cities are only political corporations, they 
 still retain in some cases in part the character of the "mark," which was based upon the holding 
 of x)roperty. 
 
 The supervision which the princes exercised in their capacity oi' Obermarker or as possessor 
 of the right to the chase, remained, although based on other princiiiles, as a function of the State 
 when the "nnirk" communities collap.sed, the piinciples being that the State was bound to protect 
 the interest of the eternal juristical person of the community against the present trustees, that it 
 had to guard against conflicts between the interest of the individual and that of the community in 
 this projierty, and secure permanency of a piece of property which insured a continued and 
 increasing revenue. The principle ui)on which the control of these communal holdings rests is 
 then mainly a fiscal one. 
 
 The degree of contnjl and restriction \aries in different localities. Sale and partition and 
 
EIROPEAN FOKK,^T I'OIJCIKS. 211 
 
 cleariug (iiiu mo.stly take phwe ouly by peiiiiissioii of tlie ytate autlioiitics, ami is usually discouu- 
 tcuaticed except lor good reasous (too luucli woods on agricultural soil). 
 
 With ret'ereuce to 5.G i)ei' cent ot cominunal forest property, this is the only control which is of 
 a fiscal luiture. The rest is more or less closely inllucuced in the character of its management, 
 either by control of its technicalities or else by direct management and administration on the part 
 of the Government. 
 
 Technical control makes it necessary that the plans of management be submitted to the 
 Government for sanction, and that proper officers or managers be emi)loyed who are inspected by 
 Government foresters. This is the most general system, under which 4'.l. I per cent of communal 
 forests are managed (as well in Austria and Swit/.erland), gixing greatest latitude and yet securing 
 conservative management. To facilitate the management of smaller areas sexeral properties may 
 be combined under one irutnager, or else a neigliboring government or ])ri\ ate forest manager 
 nniy be employed to look after the technical management. 
 
 Where direct management by the State exists, the State jicrfornis the management by its own 
 agents with only advisory j)ower of the communal authorities, a system under which 15 per cent 
 of the communal forests are managed (also in Austria and France). 
 
 In I'russia this system exists only in a few localities, but it is since ISTO |)rovided as penalty 
 for improper management or attempts to avoid the State control. 
 
 This system curtails, to bo sure, communal liberty and possilily linancial results to some 
 extent, but it has proved itself the most satisfactory Irom the standixiint of conservative forest 
 management and in the interest of present and future welfare of the communities. Its extension 
 is planned both in Prussia and liavaria. 
 
 Sometimes the State contril)ut(!s toward the cost of the numagenu'iit on the ground that 
 it is carried on in the interests of the whole commonwealth. A voluntary cooiieration of the 
 communities with the State in regard to forest protection by the State forest guards is in 
 vogue in Wurttemberg, and also in France. Institute tbrests are usually under similar control as 
 the communities. 
 
 The contnpl of private forests is extremely varying. A direct State control of some kind is 
 exercised o\er only L'!>.7 per cent of the |)rivate forest, oi' 1 t.(i per cent of tlie total area, mostly 
 in southern and middh^ tiermany. while 7(1.3 per (;ent of the ])rivate i)roperty, or ;>1.5 per cent of 
 tlie total forest area, is entirely without control, a condition existing in Prussia and Saxouy. 
 
 As far as the large laud owners are concerned, this lias mostly been of no detriment, as they 
 are usually taking ailvantage of rational managenn-nt; but the small peasant holdings show the 
 bad effects of this liberty tpiite tVeipiently in the devastated condition of the woods and waste 
 places. As a recent writer ])Uts it: "The freedom of ])rivate forest ownership has in Prussia led 
 not oidy to forest dismemberment and devastation, but often to change of forest into field. Gn 
 good soils the result is something permanently better; on medium and poor soils the result has 
 been that agriculture, after tlu; fertility stored u]) by the forest has been exhausted, has become 
 unprofitable. These soils are now utterly ruined ami must be reforested as waste lands. 
 
 Need, avarice, six-culation, and i)enury were developed into forest destruction when in tln^ 
 beginuing of this c(Mitury the indi\idualistic theories led to an ai>an(lonnient of the control 
 hitherto existing, and it was found out that the principle so salutary in agriculture and other 
 industries was a fateful error in forestry. 
 
 Where contrcd of private forests exists it takes various forms: 
 
 (1) Prohibition to clear permanently or at least necessity to ask iiermission exists in ^\■urttem- 
 berg, liaden, and jiartially in Pavaria. (Protection of ailjoiners.) 
 
 (li) Enforced reforestation within a given time after removal of tlu^ old growth and occasionally 
 on open ground where jndjlic safety requires. 
 
 (3) Prohibition of devastation or deterioration — a vague and undefinable i)ro\ ision. 
 
 (1) Definite jirescription as to the manner of cutting (especially on sand dunes, ri\er 
 courses, etc.). 
 
 (5) I'^nforced employment of qualified personnel. 
 
 In addition to all these measures of restriction, control and [lolice, and enlorcemenf, then^ 
 
212 FOKESTKV INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEI'AKTMENT OK A(iKl( TILTUKE. 
 
 should be iiieutioiied the iiieasuies of cMicourageuieut, which consist in the opportunity for the 
 ediicatiou of foresters, dissemination of information, and linancial aid. 
 
 In the hitter respect J'russia, in the decade l.S.SU-1802, contributed for reforestation of waste 
 phices by private owners ijs^J.jjOOO, besides large amounts of seeds and plants from its State 
 uurseries. Instruction in forestry to farmers is given at twelve agricultural schools in Prussia. 
 In nearly all States permission is given to (Government ofticcrs for compensation, to undertake at 
 the request of the owners the regulation or even management of iirivate forest proi)erty. 
 
 For the education of the low(^r class of foresters there may be some twenty special schools in 
 Germany and Austiia, while for the higher classes not only ten special forest academies are 
 available, but three universities and two polytechnic institutes have forestry faculties. 
 
 IScsidcs, all States have lately inaugurated systems of forest experiment stations; and 
 forestry associations, not of |>ro])agaiidists but of practitioners, abouiid. As a result of all this 
 activity in forestry .sciciice and practice, not less than twenty forestry journals in the German 
 language exist, besides many ollicial and association reports and a most jirolitic book literature. 
 
E. FORI^ST CONDITIONS AND METHODS OF FOREST MANAGE- 
 MliNT IN (^.I^:RMANV, WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT 01- l-OREST 
 MANAGEMENT IN RRITISH INDIA 
 
 Forest Area, Extent and OwNERsnip. 
 
 (icniiaiiy, as (•oiistitutcil ;it. presenf, has an area of 133,00(),(»(l(i acres— about one liCtccntli ol 
 (Mir .■oiuitiy— a population ofal.ont i7,(HHI,()0{), or less tlian ;i aeres per eapita, or only one-tentli ..I 
 our per capita average. Its forests cover ,34,7tl(),()00 acres, or L'G per cent of the entire land surface. 
 A large portion of the forests cover tlie poorer, eliietiy san(ly,.soils of the North (ierman plains, or 
 occupy the longii, hilly, and steei)er mountain la,nds of the numerous smaller mountain systems, 
 and a small iMution of the northein slopes of the Ali).s. They are distributed rather even'ly over 
 Ihe entire Kmpire. I'liissia, with (10 per cent of the entire land area, j.ossesses li.t.r, pei- cent of 
 forest land, while the rest of th(^ larger States have each over 30 per cent, except small, indus- 
 triotis Saxony, which lies intermediate, with -'7 per cent of forest cover. 
 
 (Umsidering th.' smaller districts of Prussia, ISavaria, and the smaller States, it is found Ihal 
 oiit of (;i iM-ovinces and distri.'ls, IS have less than L'O ].er cent forest: IS |,;,,v,, f,om '20 (.. -!) per 
 .•ent; L';!, including the greater pari of the country, have from .;() to .'I!) i)er cent, and ', of Ihe 
 smaller districls have from 40 to II j.ei' ceid of forest. The dislri.-ts conlaining less Ihan L'O prr 
 cent of forests are, as miglil be supposed, mostly fertile farming districts in winch (he jdow land 
 lorms over 10 per cent of the land, but they also include neglected districts lil«, Hanover and 
 Luneburg, where a former shortsighted, sellish, and imiirovident policy has led to the deforesfa- 
 
 """ "'I '•'""♦ l^ii.ds, which have gradually been transformed into l.eaihs, where an accumnlathiii 
 
 of bog iron or.', and other obstacles render the attempts at reforestation difticidt, ex))eMsivc, and 
 unsatisfactory. L.'ft to forests, these same lands, which now are unable to furnish sui)i.(nt lo 
 farmers or to i)roduce a revenue to their owner, .■oiild easily pay the (axes and inlerest on a 
 capilal of s.-)0 (o ¥100 per acre. To n-forest them now cos(s ^10 to *.-)0 per acre and recpiires a 
 lilefime before any reluins can be exiiected. 
 
 Since it is (me of th.- .•ommoii claims in the eastern United States that the land is all needed 
 for agriculture, and since it will be conce.led that in hardly any Stat.> east of the JMississippi 
 ninch land necessarily remains unfilled, it may be of inter.'st to note that in this denselv ].opulated 
 I'anpire of (Jermany cmt of (17 districts and provinces the plow land forms less than L'O i)ercent in 
 •1 districts, ,!0 to ;;!» ])er (wnt in 10 districts, 40 to I'.t per cent in 20 districis, .-.(I to r,!» ],er c((n( 
 in L'O distri.'is, and <;o to (lit i)er cent in 7 districts, in spite of (he fact that a large part of the 
 forests are in private hands ami would be cleared if the owners saw lit to do so. 
 
 In our country the total area in farms is only IS jjerceut at juesent. 
 
 Of the total of ;5l, 700,000 acres of forest land (an area about as large as the State of W is 
 cousin) 32.7 per cent beh.ngs to the several States as Stale i)roperty; lit percent belongs (o 
 villages, towns, and odier corporations, and 50 j.er cent to jnivate owners, a considerabh" part of 
 this being in large estates of the nobility. 
 
 2i:j 
 
214 
 
 FOKKSTUY INVKSTIOATIOXS V. S DEPART.MENT OF AGRICIXTIIRE. 
 
 Tlic lollowiiij;' tiguivs show these ownership rehitions for the eight linger States, which 
 involve '.»! per cent of the total area of the empire: 
 
 
 ropulatiiin. 
 
 Totalland 
 Miirlace. 
 
 Forests. 
 
 St:itc'. 
 
 Tr.t.al, 
 
 PerceDt. 
 
 Owned by the — 
 
 
 State. 
 
 Cor|iora 
 
 tiuDS. 
 
 Private. 
 
 
 47 
 
 21 ircrrs. 
 133, 392 
 
 21 at'n's. 
 34, 750 
 
 100 
 
 M floret. 
 11,360 
 
 M arres. 
 6,710 
 
 .1/ acres. 
 16, two 
 
 
 
 ., ■ 
 
 29.9 
 5.6 
 1.9 
 
 'l!(i 
 
 1.5 
 
 .9 
 
 .5 
 
 88. 000 
 18, 800 
 4, 800 
 3 7110 
 3,730 
 3, 600 
 1 , 900 
 3, 290 
 
 20, 210 
 6, 200 
 1.470 
 1. 0211 
 1.300 
 1,100 
 590 
 660 
 
 58 
 
 18 
 4.2 
 3 
 4 
 
 3.1 
 1.7 
 l.G 
 
 6,100 
 2,160 
 480 
 430 
 237 
 360 
 170 
 255 
 
 3. 2l0 
 890 
 470 
 
 60 
 667 
 520 
 220 
 
 85 
 
 10, 900 
 
 r.avari.T 
 
 3, 150 
 530 
 
 
 530 
 
 Ilail.i,' 
 
 447 
 220 
 
 
 200 
 
 AleoUlrnlmrt^-Schwcrii) 
 
 220 
 
 This same relation, expressed in per cent, becomes: 
 
 (itrni.'iny 
 
 T*rnsaia 
 
 n;iv:iii;t 
 
 Wiirlt.cnilHTi;; 
 
 SiiXniiv 
 
 iiil.lrn' 
 
 A1s;h-o Liu raiiie 
 
 H^^sst) 
 
 Mi'-clili^nlnirir-Si^Iiwrriii 
 
 Fi>teat 
 
 Fo 
 
 ests owiicd 
 
 by- 
 
 cover of 
 total area. 
 
 States. 
 
 Corpora- 
 tions. 
 
 Private. 
 
 Per cfnt. 
 
 I'er cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 25.7 
 
 32.7 
 
 19 
 
 48.3 
 
 23.5 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 53 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 52 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 37 
 
 1.1 
 
 49 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 47 
 
 21) 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 46 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 The condition of the forests to a great extent depends on tli(^ degree of supervision or control 
 exerci.sfd )iy the State authorities. It is best in all ca.ses in the State forests, is ecjually good in 
 the c(Hi)oration foresis under State control, and is poorest in the i)rivate forests, ])articnlaily those 
 of small holders. 
 
 STATE CONTROL. 
 
 The amount of State iuHueuce or control varies in the several States, and varies in some cases 
 even in one and the same State for dilVereut districts. Of the State f<u'ests, without exception, it 
 can be said that they are nearly in that form which, according to present knowledge and with 
 reasonable effort, is able to ])ro(iluce the greatest (juautities of wood material in those dimensions 
 and of such kinds as best to satisfy the demands of the markets and at the same time render the 
 management as profitable as possible. This does not mean that they are not improving, for as 
 forestry knowledge increases and the methods are jierfected the results are better. Friun what 
 follows it also ajipears that all State foiests as a whole ]>ay, and jiay handsomely, when the low 
 intrinsic' value of the land on which the forest stocks is considered. 
 
 The control of the cori)or;ition foiests is perfect only in a few of the smaller States, notably 
 Baden, Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine: al.so in .some districts in Trussia where the corporatiou forests 
 are managed by the State authorities, the wishes of the villagers or corporate owners being, however, 
 always duly considered. 1 n a large portion of Prussia, in Wurttemberg, and in ISavaria the corpora- 
 tion provides its own foresters; but these must be approved, as well as their jilans of operations, by 
 the State authorities, so that here the management is under strict control of the State, and favora- 
 ble fon^st conditions at least partially assured. In Wurttemberg the corporation is given the choice 
 of sujiplyiiig its own foresters or else joining their forests to those of the State. This has led to 
 State management of near 70 per cent of all corporation forests. Only the corporation forests of 
 Saxony and those of a small part of Prussia are without any supervision. Of the private forests, 
 those of Prussia and Saxony, involving (>9 per cent of all private forests of the Empire, are entirely 
 free from interference. They can be managed as the owner sees fit, and there is no obstacle to their 
 devastation or entire clearing and conversion into tiekl or i>asture. The remainder of the jn-ivate 
 forests are under more or less supervision. In most districts a State permit is required before 
 
CEWMAN FORKS'!' CkNOITIONS. 215 
 
 1:111(1 can he cleared. Devastatimi is an ollcnse, and in some Stiit(!s, notably Wiiittenibei j^-, a badly 
 neglected forest property may l)e rdbrested and manacled by State aiitiioi ities. hi nearly all 
 States laws exist with rei;ard to so-called "proteclive Ibresis" i. e., forests needed to |)reveiit Itoods, 
 sand blowing, land and snow slides, or to insure regularity of water snpi)ly, etc. l''orests proved 
 (() fall under this catcgorj- are under spe(;ial control, but as it is not easy in most cases to prove 
 lli(! i)rote(;ti\e iiniiortance of a ibrest. the la\\s an' dillicult to apjily and rarely iMiforec^d. 
 
 A partial return to the iState super\ision of ])rivat(^ forests has been attenipted in I'rnssia, by 
 the establishment of a law which renders the owner of a Ibrest liable for the da-ma<ie which the 
 (b'vastation or clearing- of his forest iiropcrty causes to his neighbor. This law, however, like the 
 Ibrmer, is so ditlicnlt to api>ly, and puts the plaintilf to j;reat expense, so that so far it has not 
 been enforced to any extent except where the (lovernment itself is tlie injured jiarty. 
 
 In th(^ followiiiij; statement the areas of forest are grouped according to the degrees of Htate 
 supervision iin<l manner of management: 
 
 Of the entire .> 1,7(10,000 acres of forest land, there are a-piiroxiniately — 
 
 (1) Managed by .State authorities as State ]iropcrty, 11,. {(lOjflOO acres, which is ;>2.7 ])er cent. 
 
 (-) Managed by tlu^ State authorities, but lln^ i»roi>erty of coriiorations, villages, towns, etc., 
 a little over 2,'JI2,0()0 acres, which is <'>..{ per cent. 
 
 (•!) Under strict (iovernm(^nt control, the plans of management and the jiermissiblecut havin'g 
 to he ai)i>rove(l by State authorities (corporation pro])erty), 3.S7."i,((tiO acres, which is 11.1 jter cent. 
 
 (I) I'lider super\ision of the State, not only as common property bnt as sjiecial ](roperty, 
 snbJcM't to insiiection and, in part, to control of State forest authorities; nearly all ])rivate prop- 
 erty and partl.\- belonging to Iarg(^ estates, 1,707, 000 acres, which is 1.3.7 per (;eut. 
 
 (5) Without any (iovernment control or supervision beyond tliat of coinmon property. Theses 
 forests may be (li\ itled, sohl, cleartid, and mismanaged, except under the cc-rtain cases l>elbl■c^ men- 
 tioned. Here belong all private Ibrests of Saxony and l*i-nssia and part of thi' eoiporation forests 
 of I'russia and all those of Saxony, 11,41)0,000 acres, which is .1.') per cent. 
 
 CIIAUACTKR nv FORKST GROWril. 
 
 The greater part of the (leiinan forests is stocked with c(uiifers, chielly i)inc (the Scotch pine, 
 a pine similar to our red or Norway jiine) and s])ruce. The pine prevails on the sandy areas of 
 North (ierniany, anil occupies about (iO jier ciMit of the Prussian and .'!0 per cent of the IJavariaii 
 forests. I'he spruco is tlii^ cliief conifer and jirincipal timber tree of Saxony and southern tier- 
 many. The hard woods, chietly beech, some oaks, with small amounts of ash, maple, elm, etc., 
 are most abundant in the valley of the Rhine. Lorraine, ami Wurttemberg, but good beech forests 
 occur in nearly all parts of the Empire. 
 
 The greater part of all forests of (ierniany are " timber forests,'" where the trees are (ait at an 
 age of over SO years (generally 00 to IL'O years).' Timber forests form over !)0 per ceut of the State 
 forests of all larger Staters, ar<^ the iu-(!valent Ibrm in t'he tbrests of corporations, and are commoii 
 in those of private owners. The other two common forms, the "coppice" and "standard coiipice," 
 where the trees are cut at an age of less than .'iO years (usually 15 to 2."> years, and in the standard 
 coppice a small i)art only is allowed to i-each better age and size), are most abundant in i)rivate 
 forests and to a less extent in corporation projierties, but tbiiii only a very small part of the 
 State woods, wluM-e th(\v are steadily diminishing in importance. The cojipice is a hard wood 
 forest, depends on the sprouting (^apa(;ity of the trees, and furnishes small poles, firewood, and 
 tanbark. lioth tbrms of the cop|)ice and standard coppice reipiire a smaller amount of standing 
 timber, furnish quicker returns, but do not furnish those, kinds of jnoducts which the market 
 d(Mnaiids in largest (luantity. 
 
 In the timber fonsst the trees of any ])articular tract or division are supposed to be of about 
 the same age, ditrering not over L'O years in the extreme, so that for a rotation of one hundred 
 years, i. e., a management where the croii is harvested at the age of 100 years, one fifth, or 130 per 
 cent, of all the forests should be 1 to 20 years old; another 20 ])er cent, 21 to 10 yeai-s old, etc. 
 In sjute of the great difliculty of attaining this regularity of distribution in the forests of an 
 entire State without disturbing the yearly cut of timber, this regularity is already attained very 
 closely in most of the State Ibrests. Thus in the State forests of Prussia, of the total area of 
 
 ' For fuller dcscriiitiou of the systems of muuageuient, see pp. i!20 to 2'j'J of this report. 
 
•21(1 
 
 FORKSTRY INVESTIGATIONS 11, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 timber t'luest (00 i)pi- cent of all State forests), the age of the timber is as follows: On 13 per cent 
 of the area, over 10(1 years old; on 13 per cent, 81 to 100 years old; on 14 per cent, 61 to 80 .years 
 old; on 18 per cent, 41 to GO years old; on 10 per cent, lil to 40 years old; on 10 ])er cent, 
 1 to 20 years old, and about 4 per cent are clearins'S, where the timber has been cut lately. In all 
 forests the ground is at once reforested, if cut clean, or else the cut is so arrangeil that a natural 
 seeding goes on as the harvest progresses, this latter consisting of several fellings, separated by a 
 uuinber of years. 
 
 EXPLOITATION. 
 
 The cutting in all State forests is generally done by the cord or by the cubic foot (really by 
 the stere, festmeter, or cubic meter). In rare cases the timber is cut and moved by the jmrchaser; 
 nearly always it is cut and moved by the forest authorities and sold and delivered at the main 
 roads. The logs are not cut to uniform lengths, but care is had in the forest to cut to best advan- 
 tage. Long, straight timbei s are left long, if possible, and sold as long, round, or sometimes hewn 
 pieces; saw timber is cut in even k?ngths; ])ol(^s are cut to suit local markets; wagon and coopers' 
 stock', eti'.,aie cut to suit, or left in round timbers, while puli) wood, cord wood, and branches, and 
 sometimes even stumps, are W((rked up in customary manner, graded, and sold by the cord 
 (really ''stere'' or " rannimeter"). 
 
 In the conversion of the logs into lumber there are more complications in dimensions than 
 with us. The measure is generally the meter and centimeter; edging is not done by even numbers. 
 Lunil)cr is sold by cubic measure, and the handling is thus generally not so simple as in America. 
 
 As far as practical means and methods in felling and logging operations go we can learn but 
 little from (ierniany, except that more care in the utilization of the timber would be ])rolitable 
 here as it is abroad. Yet it may be of interest, and not entirely devoid oi' suggestive value, to 
 briefly recite the ])ractices followed in most (lovernment forests. 
 
 The location of fellings for the year having been determined with due consideration, the 
 rangers engage anil control, under supervision of the distric^t manager, the crew of wood choppers 
 under a foreman, who are mostly men living in the neighborhood of the range or district and 
 accustomed to all kindsof forest work.' A contract, which contains conditions, regulations, and 
 a scale of prices, is made with them, which they sign. The men are paid by the .job, the ])rices 
 jier unit dilfering, of course, in (liH'erent localities and being graded according to the kinds of 
 timber, size, etc. 
 
 To cite one cxam])le we may take the schedule prices jiaid at the forest belonging to the (^ity 
 of Goslar, as this will interest us further on. There are 40 men nearly permanently em[)loyed 
 either in wood chopping, planting, or otherwise, ami their average earnings during three years 
 have been about SO cents i)er working da.y. The prices for cutting spruce, including moving to 
 roada and barking, and the average prices obtained for ten years were as follows: 
 
 ('ost of cutliiij; 
 
 Saw tinihor, ahiivn 5 inclios in dijinioter (T) clasMfs), 85 cciiIm pi-r 100 inbic feot. 
 
 LoiiK |>oli'>i Ci rliissrsi. IViiiii S^l ci-iit.s tii$l.liS i»t1()I) culiir. Irel 
 
 SiiKill |i(il.» (4 iljasrs). from $l.;i7 to.f:!.()7 jiiT KlU cilliir. fei-t 
 
 Fin- wood. Mpl it, Til cents to $1 per <-onl 
 
 l-'irfwood, linisli, $1.10 per nird 
 
 Avera;;o 
 
 jirice ob- 
 
 tained 
 
 in tlK> 
 
 wo 
 
 Kls. 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Higliest 
 
 class. 
 
 class. 
 
 .$9. 50 
 
 $10. 20 
 
 0. '.«> 
 
 7.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 5. HO 
 
 3. (iO 
 
 4.30 
 
 
 1.60 
 
 In Prussia the average cost of lumbering (wood cutting and bringing to roads) for all kinds 
 and dimensions is 05 cents per 100 cubic feet; that is to say, tlu^ wood-choppers' bill on the 
 300,000,000 .solid cubic feet of wood harvested annually in the Prussian tlovernnient forests 
 amounts to $1,050,000. It will appear from the prices lor wood cited that often the harvesting is 
 more expensive than the price obtained, as, for instance, for brushwood, which will hardly sell for 
 half the cost of cutting, but its removal is necessary from cultural considerati(uis. The wond 
 choppers are also sometimes expected to move th(! cordwood at least to the neighboring roads, so 
 as to obviate the driving of teams through the woods or young growth. 
 
 ' In the census of Geniian.v I'm' 1SS1-S2 I hero wcni reported as eiii^a^cd in I'lirestry, hunting, and fishing 384,637 
 perHiins. IJnfbrtiniately, no division of tlie tliree oconpafioiis was made. 
 
(JKRAFAN I'OIlKsr MANAUKMENT. 
 
 217 
 
 If tUe fellins' is to hv n ciciiriiij;-, ;i strii) is ;issij>iic(l to eacli H'iug of ■> incii, 1 with ;iii ax ami 13 
 witii saws (fellins' "itli tho saw, of course, is the rule); if a rcuciicration ciittiii',' or thinning, tiie 
 trees to be taken are carefully selected liy the ranger or inaTiaucr and marked with a iiiarkiiig 
 liaimner. As a rule, all fellings are done during winter, and all trees, except in tiie co|)|iice and 
 small ])<des, are felled with the saw close to the ground. In the pineries of the North (rciniau 
 plain, where the root wood is salable, they are even dug out and then sawed off close to I he root, 
 thus saving a. good piece of log timber, which in Saxony increases the wood valu(> of the harvest 
 by fully .'5 per cent. Which i)arts of the log are to be cut into firewood and which into lumber 
 wood or special timbers, and the length of the same according to the best use that can be nnide 
 of the stick, are determined by the forenuin, or in valuable timber by the ranger or manager 
 himself. A scale of sizes and classes of timber (sortinuMit) exists; in general, all wood over .'i 
 
 inches diameter is called Derhholz (coarse w 1 or luml)er wood), all below •"> inches is brushwood 
 
 (Keisholz), with which root wood (Stockluil/,) is classed. These last two grades are useil as lire- 
 wood, with which is also classed body wood or split wood (8cheitholz), split from i)ieces over 
 inches diameter at the smkiII end, and lound billet wood (Kniippellndz) of 3 to (! intthes diameter. 
 
 The wood to be used in the arts, called timljer wood (Nutzholz), may appear either in bolts, 
 corded, oi- in logs. The diameter measurement of logs is made by the ranger, with calipers, at 
 the middle of the log. Every cord and every log is uundjered and tiie diameter and length Ti()t<?.d 
 on the log, and a list prepared in which the cubic contents are cahulated. From this list the 
 manager checks off the result of the felling, marking each ]nece or cord with the marking hammer, 
 and after advertisement sells at public auction, in the woods or at son'e public place, the single 
 pieces or cords to the highest bidder over and above the (roverunient rate, which for the different 
 grades is established every three years on the basis of, but below current market jirices. The 
 sale of logs is made ])er cubic foot, and the size of the log inlluences the rate or pri(;e, heavier logs 
 being disproportionately higher iu price. 
 
 rUICE OF WOOD IN TIIE FOREST. 
 
 During the years ISS1-1S.S7 the Ibllowing ])rices were obtained by the I'lussian forest adminis- 
 tration lor wood iu the forest. This is practically tor stumpage, cut and marked, the buyer hauling 
 
 it from the woods; 
 
 Price per imi ciihie feel of wood in Prussia. 
 
 rifi-.s cmitriiniiiL' 18 3(1 rwliic feet. 
 
 TiiiilH-r: 
 
 Oiik 
 
 Ucfch. asli. fllii. iiialilo 
 
 S|inHM' 
 
 I'ini. 
 
 Kiri'winid : 
 
 KctM-li, :isli. i-Iin. tiiaplo 
 
 SpriK'o 
 
 I'iiw 
 
 L(iwi-at Highest 
 l»rii-o. prire. 
 
 ifl7.:io 
 12. -jr. 
 
 11.00 
 
 .75 
 .40 
 
 . 4ri 
 
 1, 
 
 A 
 
 venis; 
 
 H 
 
 
 pn 
 
 •e. 
 
 00 
 
 *I-' 
 
 on 
 
 M 
 
 7 
 
 r.o 
 
 H 
 
 r>o 
 
 7 
 
 00 
 
 « 
 
 00 
 
 '' 
 
 '2'> 
 
 H 
 
 :!5 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 SO- 
 
 
 90 
 
 To gain an idea of the ajipreciation of the wood product, without reference to kind, size, and 
 quality, the ibllowing series of figures will serve: 
 
 Average jirice iiir loo eiiliiv fel of wood reiili:e<l hij llir I'ritssion (Uirerinninl for i/.v eniire trop (alioiil .1oofioo,oo0 
 
 eithic feet). 
 Year. Trico. 
 
 ■ 1850 $;i. :i7 
 
 isr>r> '. :i. 6i; 
 
 isiio :{. (i!) 
 
 isor. 1.71 
 
 1870 i.:i.') 
 
 1875 n. 21 
 
 1S80 1. 17 
 
 iss^' 1. :!ii 
 
 18il0 1. 10 
 
 Tlu^ highest price Ibr any district was obtained in IS.SS, being >iS.4!t, while the lowest was 
 •S2..S2. The lower prices in later years are explained 1)\' the large impurlations ol' wood, es]iecially 
 from Hungary, K'ussia, and Sweden: for while our misinformed tbrestry Iriends ])oint to (Sermany 
 as the Hldorado of fonistry and iiroclaim the proportion of forest area there maintained, namely, 
 
21S FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 about '2r> per cent, ;is the ideal and necessary for self-sui)i)ort, and therefore to be maintained also 
 in this country, they overlook the fact that Germany imports not less than §(i(),000,()0(» worth of 
 wood and wood manufactures, mostly of the same kind as yrown or manufactured in that country. 
 This re])resents about 10 per cent of the total consumiition of (iermany, while tln^ importations 
 of the United States, which imports from (Jaiuida only competing classes of forest products, 
 represent not more than 1 per cent of our probable consumjition. 
 
 The exports of forest products from Germany, on the other hand, are, to be sure, nearly .">(» 
 per cent of her imports, but they represent mostly manufactures, while in the United States the 
 reverse is the case; that is to say, the United States exports twice as mucli as it im])orts, and tliat 
 mostly raw material, namely, twice as mu(-h in value of raw material as of manufactures. 
 
 Th(i countries from which (iermany imports raw or i)artly manufactured wood are mainly 
 Russia, Austria Hungary, and Sweden, which furnish nearly five sixths of the total importation, 
 while Holland, England, Denmark, Uelgium, France, and Switzerland draw about .fl4,()( )(),(•( 10 
 worth of raw material from Germany. (See tables further on.) 
 
 To protect the forest owners of tiermany, a tariff on importations was imposed in 1885 and 
 increased later. (Jf the effects of this last measure a governnient report says that as a financial 
 measure these tariffs have had excellent success, for the revenue from these duties increased from 
 s(l4(!,000 ill ISSO to •i'^T.'WjOOO in lS8(i. But for the forest owner the hoped for results did not 
 become apparent; the Austro-IInngarian railroads and ship]>iiig interests lowt-red their rates so as 
 to largely equali/.e the duty charges. Tiie duties on unmanufactured materials being very low. the 
 lack of results in the market of tliese is still more noticeable. Yet a salutary effect is stated to 
 be a j)revention of still lower prices, and l)(^cause otherwise there would have been a lack of useful 
 occiii)ation for labor finding remunerative emiiloyment in the manufacture of the raw material, 
 which, withonf the increase in duties, would have been imported in manufactured (;onditioii. 
 
 I'lJlCK (IK MANUFACTURED HTJIBER. 
 
 The following sani])les of schedules for manufactured lumber, always delivered at the raih-oad 
 station, may serve to give an idea, to our lumbermen how nearly piictes compare with those 
 prevalent in our country. We choose those of eastern provinces, which are in sharpest (;ompetition 
 with b'ussian and Hungarian imports: 
 
 i^ror'nifc, of roKftt. 
 
 'I'imiici- (7-S.5 inrli si|u:iri-): 
 
 I'iiK^ per cubic foot.. $0.20 to ^0.22 
 
 Spriico do .10 
 
 I'iiie (Solcli): 
 
 l'l;inl< {2-1 incli), :i eliisses per 1,000 feet li. M.. 27.00 :iS. 00 
 
 I'liuilv (U-i;; incli), ;{ classes do 26.00 :U.OO 
 
 Flooring (l-iuch), 3 classes do. . .. 17. 00 22.00 
 
 )'"looriiig (l.l-incli), 3 <'lasse.s do 20.00 20.00 
 
 S|iriice, rough boards, not edged H-^ iueh) do.. .. 12. 00 
 
 Spnici^ (li.incli), edged, 12-l.S feet do 20.00 22.00 
 
 Dfln-crdl III Ilerliii. • 
 
 O.ak (clear), 82 cents per cubic foot, or $0S per 1,000 feet I!. M. 
 
 Elm, 78 cents per cubic foot. 
 
 R.ailroad (ios — pine, l."i ((-nts; oak, ilO-l)5 cents. 
 
 It will be seen that prices for some grades are as high as and higher than in New York. The 
 manager is expected to secure at least the government rate, and has discretion in conducting the 
 sales to the best advantage of the government. Under certain circumstances sales by contract 
 without aui-tioneering, and, lately, selling on the stump, are permitted. 
 
 The transportation from the woods, as stated before, is usually left to the buyer; rarely does 
 the administration float the timber or cord wood out, or carry it to a dejiot or wood yard to be sold 
 from there, or engage in milling or other operations. On the other hand, it has been recognized 
 during the last twenty-flve years that good roads and other ready means of transportation increase 
 the price of the wood disproportionately. A good road system is, therefore, considered the most 
 n(!cessary eipiipmeut of the administration, and an extension of permanent and movable logging 
 railroads is one of the directions of modern improvement. The interesting, important, and 
 practical features to us iu the logging railroads are their movable character, being divided into 
 
ROADS IN' (IKIIMAN KOKESTS. 
 
 21!) 
 
 sets of pairs of sbort (2 to 5 yard) rails (12 to l(i poiuids i)er yard) attaclied to iVoin two to four 
 cross-ties, wood or metal, tlie li.tilit sets wt'ijjlnni;' "•") to 10(1 [xmiids (lica\y sots up to Hid i)ounds), 
 so that one workman can readily carry tlieni; the ready (connection of sets, one hooking at once 
 into the other without separate mechaidsm, forming a sufticiently satisfactoiy joint; the sirajjle 
 "climbing switch,'' which is ajipiied on top of the track, ])ermitting ready transfer from side track 
 to main track and ready rehication. Tln^se roads (;an ho readily laid down witliont much or any 
 substructure ami readily leltuMted. The cost is shown in the following statement: 
 
 For a liilly ciiiniijiril ruail, L'l tn L'S incln^s wiiltli, 11 iiiili^K Icngtli, I'or rails anil ties $!t, (1(10 
 
 For oarthworU. if any, ami layiiif; 50 to oOO 
 
 For rolliun stocU and aiiparatus li, oOO 
 
 V>, (MIO 
 Or $2,00(1 ptir m\U' at tlip lii^'liest. 
 
 Upon a basis of .S()(),0()(» cidjic feet (about 7,()0(I,()0I» feet 1'.. M.) to be transportt^d, it is calculated 
 that t\w cost of trans])ortatiou by raih'oad, stone road, and dirt road will be about as 1 :2:(!, the 
 cost on the first lieing ai)out .'! ccMits jier 1,(100 feet 15. M. per mile as against IS cents on dirt roads. 
 
 (Jomparing the cost of construction it is stated that the ratio between corduroy, gra\(d road 
 (13 feet wide), niacadani, and niovabh^ track is as 1 : l.LT): l!.,'!."i : 1.17, placing tiie last among tiie 
 cheapest. 
 
 A most instinctive exliibit at the World's I'^aii', in mariy ways, especially at the present time, 
 since the movement for better roads in this (toniitry lias begun, was theinodel of the city forest of 
 (loslar, a small town (1.'!.,'500 inhabitants) in the llaiz iMonntains, whose citizens, from this piece 
 of ])roi)erty, a spruce forest of 7,.3(iS acres extent, derive not only tiieir pure drinking water, 
 healthful enjoyment in hunting, and re/'reshing coolness in Rummer, but also a Tiet income, 
 amounting in round uumbers to .'Jur),0(l0 (s.t.io per acre), toward payment of city taxes. This 
 is the result of careful management, which permits an annual cut of .J.'iO.OOO cubic feet of wood. 
 Of this only r)0,000 cubic feet goes into firewood, and l(i per cent, or 1(10,000 cubic feet, is saw 
 timber, which sells at 10 to 10 cents i)er cubic foot; whihc smaller dimensions, poles, etc., sell all 
 the way down to below t cents, and firewood at ^l.fiO for brush to *1.;'.0 for si)lic or round wood 
 \)er cord. Until 1S7.^) the district was without proper roads. iJy an effort of the competent 
 manager the city fathers were jjcrsnaded to locate and build a rational system of roads on which 
 altogether, until is'.tl, there was spent for building and maintenance about $25,000. 'i^ie greatest 
 interest attaches to the statistics carefully gathered by the district manager, Mr. JJenss, since it 
 is always diflicult to determine the money value of such an ex|»enditiire in dollars and cents. 
 
 The i)ropi'r location of the roads is the most important feature. The roads are ranked 
 according to tlu'ir imiiortance; the width and manner of finish depend on their rank. Main roads 
 are macadamized ; roads of third rank, which are used for occasional hauling of wood, are dirt roads. 
 
 These statistics were exhibited in a neat table, as follows: 
 
 STAiisTics (IF i:oAi> svsTKM IN KouEsr ni.sTiacT oi'' CITY i>v oosi.Aii (OAHZ iMi )tr\TA I Ns, 1 :ki:m A N Y ) . 
 
 Properly looatcil, jirailnil, ami bnilt roads rcdiico cost of lo^fjinj; .nid liaulin};, and advanir tlie priic for wood. 
 Area, 7,!!l)S acn^s s]iriiiMi fon'str; annnal cut, HoO.OOO ciihio feet; road hnildiiii; liei;nn in IST"); total nulcaj^c of 
 improved roads in ISDl, III miliw; cost of road system and maintcn.ancc until ISltl, $25,000. 
 
 Cost of hiijijhiii yidiirtil hi/ ijooil }oij(jinij rotid-s. 
 [Daily \va;;f.s rt-niainin;; foiistant at 60 ii-nts ] 
 
 Year. 
 
 Leimili "f 
 wi-ll limit 
 
 roads, 
 
 12 
 
 :{7 
 111 
 
 r»ii 
 
 hi 
 
 Cost ..(■ 
 lnirj;iii{r iHT 
 
 lllOrllllii- 
 let , 
 
 1877 
 
 !fl,o:i 
 
 1878 . . . 
 
 l.UI 
 
 
 1,54 
 
 1880 ... . . 
 
 I.4,'> 
 
 1881 
 
 1. 1.^. 
 I.'JII 
 1, V, 
 
 1,-j:; 
 
 1882 
 
 18H3 
 
 1881 
 
 
 Savini; per 100 cubic Hie-t »" "0 
 
 Saving ou annual cost of 350,000 cubic Icot 2, 450 00 
 
220 
 
 FOKES'IKY TNVESTIG.VTIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ACUICULTURE. 
 
 Cofft of InniUqir reduced hij ijood iraijint roads. 
 [Price jior load miinininL: con.sl.'uit at $3.60. Full liiad. lieforo iiiiino\ iim-nt. 85-lilil ciiMc feet,; after iinproveinent, 175-250 cubic feet.) 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1871-1877, before road improvements . 
 
 187S-1H84 
 
 1885-1891 
 
 Cost of 
 
 haulage 
 
 per 100 
 
 cubic feet. 
 
 $1.52 
 .98 
 .80 
 
 S.ivinj; per 10" cubic fc-ct $0.72,0.1 
 
 Saving' oil aiiiiiial cut of 350,000 cubic feet 2,520.00 
 
 I'ricf of ii'iiod iufliiciufd hij road imiiroreiiicnts. 
 [Oompariaoii of prices paid at (loslar and at other Ilarz di.stricte.] 
 
 Yi.ar. 
 
 Lenfftli of 
 
 iiupnucd 
 
 wagon 
 
 roads. 
 
 Prices for wtiod per 100 cubic feet. 
 
 At (ioslar. 
 
 At otiier 
 Har/. dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 Difierence 
 
 in favor of 
 
 Goslar. 
 
 $0. 07 
 .61 
 1.15 
 1.35 
 1.27 
 1.02 
 1 , 02 
 1 99 
 
 .i;4 
 
 .20 
 1.41 
 1.14 
 
 .8) 
 .82 
 1.33 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 34 
 42 
 55 
 64 
 68 
 71 
 77 
 7K 
 79 
 81 
 82 
 8:i 
 85 
 87 
 
 $8. 25 
 
 8, (i.'i 
 9.59 
 a 79 
 
 9. 05 
 8.45 
 8.65 
 
 10.17 
 
 8. 8S 
 
 9. 59 
 11.12 
 11.12 
 11.39 
 11.72 
 13. 13 
 
 $8.18 
 8. 01 
 8.44 
 8.44 
 7.78 
 7.43 
 
 7. 03 
 
 8. 18 
 8 24 
 9.39 
 9.71 
 
 9. 98 
 10.58 
 10,92 
 11,80 
 
 1H78 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 1K82 
 
 18ft3 
 
 1881 
 
 
 1886 ' 
 
 1887 
 
 
 
 
 1891 
 
 .\vciai;e for fiftci'ii years 
 
 
 9.91 1 8.98 
 
 .93 
 
 Increase in iiricc <oi total cut of' 350,000 cubic, feet $3,2.55 
 
 Total lu-otil Ironi iiiipr4>ve)i roail system in reduced cost of lo;:iiiiig aod liauliiiti, aiol in atUanee of price received for wooil, per aliliuiu 8,225 
 
 Or nearly 33 per ciuit on invcstnuuit. 
 
 Sarinij Ihi'ir rosi in lini //crtr.v. 
 
 Cost, of iiiail, iiiacuduiiiizccl in l.s.S.'i, $(l,!lilil; iiiaititcii.nir<( foroiui year, .f ISO; ti>t;il, $7,440. Hiiriiif; l.ss.'.-.sf, liaiiliiif; 
 -170,000 ciihic f,...| rciiiiiiiiij; oti old rotul 1,27:{ liia.ls of 110 cnliic, t'fvt :t\via'ir, at $:H.tiO, $I5,1'!S2.M0 (or .$-'.70 jut 1,000 
 IVi't I'.. M. ) ; on iniproviul road, -'.(ir.'J load.s of 177 .uliic Icct average, a,t $:!.«), $9,,"'i47.L"0 (or $1.70 i><t 1,000 L t li. M. 1, 
 savini; of $1 for rxevy 1.000 feet B. M. 'I'olal .saving- in Iiaiilaoe, .$.">, 7M.").<;0, or 77 por ocnli on cost of road in oiio yc'af. 
 
 YlKLl) I'Ki; ACRE. 
 
 Tlic luiiiiniit <)1' f iiiihor cut \tor acre is very large as compared with average yields in wild woods. 
 Of late the average yitild has varied from about 5,500 cubic; feet per acre in Prussia to 9,000 cubic 
 feet for the Saxon State forests. The yield has been steadily increasing since the beginning of 
 this century, and in most States it lias been nearly doubled through better nianagement. At that 
 earli<'r t\mo much land was badly stocked or devoid ol' any cover, much timber was injured and 
 stunted by continual rtunoval of the litter and coii.sequent impoverishment of the soil, and in most 
 forests th(^ young timber occupicil much more than its share of ground, and thus less timber grew. 
 In every one of the States and districts these coiiditiims have been changed materially for the 
 better, the cut was incn^ased from year to year, the wood capital or standing timber grew in total 
 amount, and the jiroductive ctipacity of tlit^ foic^st soils has generally improved. The cut for any 
 given province or State is generally given as so much per acre of total area. Tiius the cut for 
 Saxony is placed .at '.to cubic; feet per at^re of total forest area, though, of course, the yield of those 
 tracts actually cut was about 0,000 cubic feet per acre (;ut. Jii the following table the figures 
 relating to the State forests are from recent ollicial records, also those of the corporation forests 
 of Baden, Alsace-Lorraiiu;, Havaria, and jtarts of VViirttemberg, while the ligures for private 
 forests and most of the <'orporation forests are estimates based on the experience of former yeans 
 and of only part oj' the provin(;es. 
 
VIKLI) OK (iKKMAN KoKKS'l'S. 
 
 Yfarhl cut pry am- in fin Sf((t, tint! ofher/nrr-^ls <»/' t'.rrmanij iin million <i(hirf'tit.) 
 
 221 
 
 Usin 
 lollows: 
 
 <'ii), per iicrc uf IViri'sli'il ;irfu. 
 
 riiMl.iT 
 iihI IioII 
 
 For tlit^ I'll t in > Km pin- 
 
 Stall' fi.n-.slsnf - 
 
 rnit^Mui 
 
 H;iv;iri;l 
 
 W urtlriM IxMj; 
 
 SuMinv 
 
 Huiliin 
 
 AlNiiCf-Ijnriaine 
 
 Hc-.ssi. 
 
 Mt'-cklriilMii i; Siliwerin 
 
 Tlie fill in- Km I lira 
 
 ('oipKraliim Corrsts iiC the ciitiro Kminri' a. 
 l*riv;itf forcslH ut the entire lOmpire h 
 
 lotal lill 
 eliliilll" ... , 
 ^tiiiiip:iii.l ■,,,,,.1.,.^ 
 lii:iiieli .•nun. N size unite 
 
 w„..,l (iH.Ntnnip, ,.|,, ,,„„, 
 
 wli.ie , " "■ ' tin wneil). 
 
 ll.seil), J 
 
 51 
 
 42 
 
 la 
 
 72 
 
 Ti* 
 
 24 
 
 SI 
 
 li" 
 
 :ni 
 
 7i 
 
 V, 
 
 .'.4 
 24 
 
 ."iT 
 
 41) 
 
 22 
 
 7f, 
 
 5J 
 
 ii; 
 
 lil 
 
 ."»(l 
 
 ll.r, 
 
 o;j 
 
 43 
 
 22. .^ 
 
 Mi 
 
 41 
 
 lit. (i 
 
 .'ill 
 
 :iii 
 
 12 
 
 a Partly tinni niH(i;iI n-i-<'r<lN, |iart istimati-- 
 
 b (ii^uorally cHtiiualfii. as im ari uralr data an .n ailaMt- rnr aii\ ♦■iitiii- Statf, 
 
 X the ;ibnvt' basis, tiie total animal ciil i>i' I lie (*(iuiilry (in million cubit', i'ct't) is about- as 
 
 State. 
 
 Tntal 
 <iit 
 
 1 II I III- fi'ie>*t3 Ix-Iongin^ to— 
 s.. t . I ^''^rpora I Imlivid- 
 
 Kiitiii- Knipict^ 
 
 IMussi.'i . - .1 1, 054 
 
 l!;i vurin 
 
 \Viirtt(5nibiT^ 
 
 Saxiinv — 
 
 i:a<lin" 
 
 Alsare-I.olTaint^ 
 
 H.-.s«e 
 
 Mi<kli'nlmr;i-S<-liweriii 
 
 UIO 
 
 710 
 
 370 
 
 830 
 
 054 
 
 :i:si 
 
 178 
 
 545 
 
 354. 5 
 
 153 
 
 44.5 
 
 1,57 
 
 89.5 
 
 3S 
 
 25 
 
 2(). 5 
 
 tu.^ 
 
 37. 5 
 
 3.3 
 
 26.5 
 
 «5. il 
 
 ]fi.B 
 
 47 
 
 22.3 
 
 ii5. :{ 
 
 21.3 
 
 33 
 
 11 
 
 34. H 
 
 12.7 
 
 12. 1 
 
 10 
 
 ;iO 7 
 
 15 
 
 4.7 
 
 U 
 
 CONStrMrTlON OF WOOD MATEKIAI.S. 
 
 'J'liii.s (k'niiaiiy lia.s :i stctidy and iiicrctisiiii,' supitly of over 1, '.>()() iiiillidii ciihic Icct of tiiiilxT 
 \n'v year (alxmt diic tt'iith of our con si i in [it ion) from (lu^ Itinds wliicli in most otlitT coimfrU's rcMiiain 
 hari-eii wastes. ( )f tlu-sc l,!t(tO,0(IO,(M)0 there are near (;(M»,()(M),()(Ht culiie feet of .saw timber and the 
 like, tlie rest beina eord wood and mostiy firewood. From this il would aititear that Ciermatiy 
 Itrothices about 40 eiiltic feet of wood per head of i)o|iuhitioti, aud that of this about lli cubic feet 
 are saw timber, etc., as against .'>.")(> anil •")<> cubic feet for our (Mtnsumption. I>ut in spite of tlie 
 great economy of wood this amount of homtvraised mtiteritil doi^s not satisfy tlie demand of the 
 home markets, and Ciermauy with its l,!l(lO,(IOO,(ltl(l cubits feet is tothiy the second greatest importer 
 of wood, jiarticularly of saw timber, in the world. 
 
 The im])oit in this ease means the excess of import over export, siiu-e naturally in all countries 
 an ex[ioit of soim^ timber takes jtlace. 
 
 C'nisii mptlon uf woint [Htilliint cithir fei t). 
 
 "•■''■ iiiH.oiiie. '"'I"""'-' Prudiuea' 
 
 (iftnianv - 
 f raiu-r . .. 
 
 2,000 
 
 1.010 
 
 5!ll 
 
 140 
 
 1,17,-. 
 
 •1.075 
 
 1811 
 451 
 11)0 
 
 42 
 
 200 
 
 hnpi.rteil 
 
 IHO 
 451 
 100 
 
 Per eent 
 imported. 
 
 U.laliv 
 iinpnr- 
 laiiee a; 
 inijiurt 
 er.H. 
 
 24 40 
 
 90 I 100 
 
 33 I 22 
 
222 
 
 FOKKf^TUY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF A( UtK ULTUKE. 
 
 IVt head of populiitioii, and coiiipariiijj^ with the cousuiuptioii in the United States, this 
 becomes: 
 
 Von.-iiimptwH of ivoodptr capita of population {cnhicfeet). 
 
 Country. 
 
 Gertiiany 
 
 Kiijil;iTnl 
 
 Francti 
 
 Uuited Statea. 
 
 
 Pnidiu^rd 
 
 Iiiipiirt 
 
 Lou tim- 
 
 Kelative 
 wood cim- 
 
 
 at home. 
 
 L-xport. 
 
 ber. 
 
 tiumption 
 I)er head. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 44 
 
 40.5 
 
 :!.8 
 
 15 
 
 12.7 
 
 15 
 
 3.6 
 
 11.5 
 
 13 
 
 4.3 
 
 32 
 
 ■M 
 
 '> 
 
 8.3 
 
 9 
 
 350 
 
 34'J.7 
 
 0.3 
 
 a5u 
 
 100 
 
 a This lel'iTti to lumber or sawed material alone. 
 
 Since the coii.siiiuptioii by sawmills of lar^e timber, i)artifnl:irly coniferous material, is still 
 iucreasijij;', it is clear that Germany has not nearly as much forest land as it needs, or else must 
 still improve greatly its methods of production. At present L't! per cent of its saw timber, etc., 
 is imi>orted. 
 
 The following ligures give an idea of the extent and distribution of the German trade iu 
 woods and wood manufactures: 
 
 (lennanii's trade in wiiuil and wood maiiiifarfiircK, lS!):i. 
 
 Tiiited States 
 
 Kii.ssia 
 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 
 Sweden .'. . 
 
 Fnmc-.- 
 
 Einhmd 
 
 Holland 
 
 Norway 
 
 lieliiioTn 
 
 IM-nnnirk 
 
 Humbnrg 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 East India 
 
 Sjiam 
 
 Argentina 
 
 lira/.il 
 
 Torto Kico and Cuba. 
 
 Total . 
 
 Imports 
 
 a*2, 
 
 ;. 2f., 
 
 ria 
 
 (i5, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 el, 
 ./■I 
 
 u 
 
 h 
 
 ilA, 000 
 UOK, 000 
 
 :i(i3, uuo 
 
 222. 0011 
 790, 0011 
 
 :ii:). 000 
 
 XL'2, 1100 
 840, 000 
 
 7:io, 000 
 
 50, 000 
 124, llOO 
 2211, 000 
 114,000 
 302. 000 
 359, 000 
 
 68, 000 
 352, 000 
 
 60, 016, 000 
 
 Kxiiorla. 
 
 $1,504,000 
 741. OOO 
 
 1, 946, OOU 
 305, 000 
 
 3, 405, 000 
 13.449,000 
 
 2, 546, 000 
 176, 000 
 
 1,469,000 
 067, 000 
 1.551,000 
 1, 822, 000 
 174, 000 
 354. 000 
 129. 000 
 384, 000 
 
 30, 922, 000 
 
 (iLiuuIier. 
 ;>Pine Io;,;s 
 
 cOali, ete., loffa. 
 d Sawed lumber. 
 
 e Largely rattan. 
 /Nearly" all eork. 
 
 </ Largely quebracho. 
 h Maho{;auy, etc. 
 
 The prices paid by Germany have so far been very reasonable. Thus her im(>orted lumber 
 cost in 1892 only lis..'!!) per thousand feet; firewood only ."fe(i.50 per cord; hue hevvn timber 
 (mostly hard pine iu long pieces) .$30 per thousand feet, etc. 
 
 With the enormous resources in European Russia and Sweden, part of whicdi are not even 
 organized as yet, there is no apprehension of rapid advances in prices and no likelihood of 
 scarcity of sujiply. 
 
 FINANCIAL RESULTS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 
 
 (Jonceming the tiiiancial results of forest management only the records of the State forests 
 are accessible. It is clear that the income depends on the amount of timber cut and the prices 
 obtained. If, therefore, the yearly cut has been increased, in some cases doubled, by good inan- 
 agenieut since the beginning of this century, the income naturally is doubled. To this increase iu 
 amount of salable material there was added a general advance iu prices, partly due to the 
 dei>reciation of money iu general, but vastly increased by the improvements in transportation, for 
 which large sums have been expended, especially during the last tifty years. 
 
 The tinaucial results of the various Government forest administrations vary considerably, as 
 is natural, since market conditions vary much. It is believed that all these administrations are 
 less profitable than they might be, being managed with great conservatism, and less for greatest 
 tinaucial result than for desirable ecfinomic results. 
 
 The following table exhibits in a brief manner the results of -this kind of management, the 
 figures referring to conditions in IS'JO or thereabout. The record for the city of Zurich is added 
 
FINANCIAL IIESUI/I'S OK GEK.MAN FOIIES'I'S. 
 
 2'23 
 
 to sliow liow an iiit(uisiv(^ly mauag»',(l small foivst i)r()|)eity uiuU'r tavoralih- coiKlitioiis of market 
 compares with tlie more extiMisively maiiaseil larger forest areas: 
 
 Fuirslii/ .iliilisl'm uf icilaiii lUrmaii furcst adiiuiii>'lr(iliiiii\, shoiiimj Hrirnijr fn.tt nf (itfniiin.slniUnii. i/ni-oi (tiid nrt imoine 
 
 per lien-, JSOO. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Haviuia 
 
 M'urttfiiibcri; . 
 
 Saxony 
 
 liadeii 
 
 City of Zurich. 
 
 Foii-Ht 
 area. 
 
 T.ital ex- 
 
 AcrPS. 
 
 6,(11111,111111 I.S, 000, 0011 $14,000,0(10 
 
 ,300,000 
 470, 000 
 4 Hi. 000 
 
 i:tb. 000 
 •:. TOO 
 
 ;i, i.w, 0(jo 
 i.o:'5, 000 
 
 1,040, OOO 
 
 404, (100 
 
 14,000 
 
 5, SKO, 000 
 2. 260, OOO 
 •>. T.'lo, 000 
 1,000.000 
 '.'0, 00(1 
 
 Ni-I. 
 
 KxprluUturoS ami revcnms prr ;l<Tf of forest, 
 Kxptiulituits. 
 
 ■og 
 
 4- o 
 
 $0 
 
 000 
 
 j 
 
 000 
 
 
 7:i(i 
 
 00(1 
 
 1 
 
 'j:i') 
 
 (100 
 
 I 
 
 710 
 
 .'lUO 
 
 
 OK(i 
 
 000 
 
 
 12 
 
 000 
 
 $i.:i3 
 
 1 . ;i7 
 
 2. 17 
 'J. .*'(1 
 1..''.4 
 
 li. 00 
 
 4(1 
 51 
 
 c ^ 
 
 d 
 
 c - 
 
 O 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■5£ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 S-^ 
 
 rt 
 
 < § 
 
 <« 
 
 $0. 4K 
 
 1 
 fo. ;!o 
 
 .04 
 
 . ;{7 
 
 ..S7 
 
 . 02 
 
 . ti.'i 
 
 .m 
 
 .:i; 
 
 .81! 
 
 l.U 
 
 2.10 
 
 $0. M 
 , 11 
 
 . ll 
 .15 
 .16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 M 
 
 'A 
 
 .fid. 00 
 
 $0. 06 
 
 . 11 
 
 1. Ul 
 
 .;i:! 
 
 2.C3 
 
 .21 
 
 4.11 
 
 .12 
 
 2. 00 
 
 l.M 
 
 4.40 
 
 The latest ligures (1S07) show a considerable iuerease in all (lirectious, expeiulitmes, ^ross, 
 and net income, over those iirevailiu;; ten years ago, and, as we will see further on in the diseussiun 
 of the conditions in the single States, these increases have been steady tor a long i)eriod. 
 
 The IbHowing ligmes represent the income and expense for State forests of the entire Enii»ire 
 and for the princi[)al States as at present: 
 
 Financial rei^nlts, /.v'v?. 
 [MilUt.M .l.illars.l 
 
 SI;iti^ fi)rusts. 
 
 iii^miany a 
 
 I'nissia 
 
 i;:iva.ria 
 
 Wurttt-nibtMj; 
 
 SaxiPiiv 
 
 liaai-n" 
 
 A Isacu- Lorraiiio 
 
 Ilesse 
 
 AU-ckU-nburg'ScbwLTiu . 
 
 ■ I.„^^ 
 
 Tc.lal 
 
 Not 
 
 '■"""•• 
 
 uxpcllscs. 
 
 n-vrime. 
 2(1, 528 
 
 :io. :i6l 
 
 18. 8:i:i 
 
 17.41.'-. 
 
 0, 070 
 
 .^. iifiti 
 
 S Kill 
 
 :i. .S.SI 
 
 4.210 
 
 :i, (110 
 
 1,224 
 
 1.705 
 
 2. Htifi 
 
 l,o:i2 
 
 1 . K:i:i 
 
 I,:i;i7 
 
 OIK 
 
 71'J 
 
 1.522 
 
 7.',2 
 
 770 
 
 8411 
 
 40.". 
 
 4:t5 
 
 liOO 
 
 3.".(; 
 
 253 
 
 If This ittiii is a trilir bflow fh.- truth. ;is tlio ^iiiall iiriini|>;ililits ;in- her.' 
 (T Sl;itrs. 
 
 «■(! Ir. liavf no hir;;i-r inrome than tin- avfra;:i' of tin. 
 
 From this statement it apjiears that (ieimaiiy has a yearly j^ioss iiicoiiie of nearly •'$4(1,000,000 
 from its State forests, i. e., from one-third of its total forest area alone, while the value of its forest 
 prodiiets from the entire forest area (.■')."),()0(),(H>0 acres) may bo estimated to sum up the handsome 
 total of over ><107,()0t),()()0, or round $.'! gross income for every acre under forest cover. 
 
 The following table illustrates the results of forest mana.iiement iu the several States. I<'or 
 I'.omparisou the (igiires represent the yearly income and outlay i)er acre of total forest area, so that 
 for instance the gross income of .$3.47 per acre for (Jermany means that the German State forests 
 yield each year about that sum for every acre of State forest, or •'!'.'}!>,.'500,U00 on the whole. 
 
 Yiiirli/ iiicumc ami tj-pinsia per lurv uf furcsled ((rid. 
 
 Kxi.cns.-H. 
 
 As a |.rr 
 
 in. (Hue. 
 
 (icniiniiya 
 
 I'liissia 
 
 1 
 
 Wiirlti-MiilKM' 
 
 Savon 
 
 llaili^n' 
 
 Alsac LoiriiiiiL- 
 
 llossf 
 
 Mc(kh-uh((rii-Schu'L-riu 
 
 a This fit;iiri- rcpri'sinits tho avt-.iagti t'or 00 j.cr wut ot' a 
 font wero acci'ssihlo. 
 
 .i3. 47 
 2. lil'i 
 3.71 
 0. 50 
 0. !10 
 5. 82 
 4.24 
 4.05 
 
 MOO 
 l.:w 
 1.78 
 2. (i4 
 2. 311 
 2. 60 
 2. 00 
 2.37 
 1.47 
 
 48 
 40. 5 
 34 
 46. 2 
 49.4 
 48 
 
 Net 
 ruMiiiif. 
 
 $1.81 
 1.28 
 1.S3 
 3.86 
 4. 54 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 12 
 
 •) 
 
 58 
 
 1 
 
 05 
 
 Stall! forests, anil would l.i' liltl.' ilikn.uml if ilata for Ihr other 10 jier 
 
224 
 
 FORESTRY INVE.STIGATIUNS U. S. l)EPAKTMi:NT OF AGKICLLTURE. 
 
 From tbe.se fiymes it appeal's that tlie several goveruuients expend on an average about 
 sl.OG per acre per year on their forest i)roperty, and that they obtain thereby a gross ineoine of 
 .'}!.!.47 per aere and a net revenue of sSl.Sl, or 52 i)er eent of the gross income per acre per year. 
 Considering the Ji^ 1.81 as the interest on the value of tlic forest lands, and using the .'5 per cent 
 interest rate as (uistoniaiy for large investments, these figures show that by proper inanagemeut 
 the German States keep their poorest lands at a. capital value of over AGO per acre; in other 
 words, that the C.erman State forests pay A10,0()(),00() for labor and taxes, and in addition pay 
 interest at .'! per cent on a capital of $(!0 per acre. A large part of this land if deforested would 
 not support a. farmer and would rapidly degenerate into mountain pasture and heath, which at 
 best could not be sold at over $."» per acre, and even then would prove more a detriment than 
 advantage to the community. It also ai)pears from the above tigures that the revenue is largely 
 in proportion to the expenses, that the forest wliich is best cared for also pays the best. The 
 same conclusion is reached by a study of the past. In IS-fJO, when tiie total expenses per acre in 
 the rrussian forests were only .">7 cents, the net income was only 4(1 cents; to-day it is .•JL.SS and 
 the net income $1.2S, and the .same holds for other States. Thus Saxony expended SO cents 
 an acre per year in tlie beginning of tliis century and received !•.-) cents net inctmie: to day she 
 spends s2..j(! and receives $4.54, or nearly tivefold. That these advances are not merely the 
 expression of higher prices for wood is clear from the fact that the average price of wood Ibr the 
 Prnssian cut (;)(i(l,(M)(),(t()(» cubic feet) has advanced sincte IS.jO from >^3:27 per 100 cubic feet to only 
 !{!4.40, or .''>7 per cent, while the net income rose from 4(i cents to *1.2S, or 176 per cent. 
 
 Since so much has been argued as to the impossibilities and impracticability of enijiloying 
 these better forestry methods elsewhcne, and especially since the idea of sowing or planting tbrests 
 has at all times been ridiculed in the United States, it uuiy be of interest to note Just how Ge^many 
 expends her money in the woods. 
 
 The tbllowing ligures present the various large items as i)er cent of the gross income. Tiius 
 the total expenses in the Prussian forest use up 50 i)er cent of the gross in(-ome, tlie logging alone 
 14.8 i)er cent, etc. 
 
 The cxi)euses represented tlit^ following luoportions of the total inconu' in per cent: 
 
 StJitt^ forust of- 
 
 I'nissi.a 
 
 Uavari.'i 
 
 WiirttembtT'^ '.. 
 
 Saxony 
 
 r.adeii 
 
 Alsace Lorraine 
 
 Hi-asf. 
 
 Mcnklenbur^i Scliweriu 
 
 Total ex ■ 
 ]ienses- 
 
 4H 
 ■III.E 
 
 :u 
 411. ■- 
 411. 4 
 4K 
 47 
 
 Adiiiinia- I I'lautiug, 
 
 trationaml Cnttiiigan<l' sowing, 
 [iroti'ction I nioviu^i till: I (h'ainagt: 
 (mostly timlior. .work, wood 
 
 .salaries). roads, etc. 
 
 •-•1 
 •J4 
 IL' 
 12 
 9.4 
 17 
 lil 
 17 
 
 /Vr cent. 
 14. S 
 211 
 14.6 
 14.. ') 
 17.7 
 l->. 2 
 21 
 17.5 
 
 0.6 
 8.6 
 6.4 
 II). 4 
 8.4 
 'J.7 
 9.2 
 
 Tlie aliove tigures are doubly interesting, since they show that in Saxony, the very State wliere 
 the timber is usually cut clean and the land restocked entirely by jilanting it with nur.sery stock, 
 the item of planting, etc., uses up the smallest per cent of the total income — ().4 per cent. 
 
 l''rom this brief outline it will be ai)parent that forestry in its modern sense is not a new, 
 untried experiment in (lermany; that the accurate oflicial records of several States for the last 
 one hundred years prove conclusively that wherever a systematic, continuous etibrt has been made, 
 as ill the case of all State forests, whether of large or small territories, the enterprise was successful ; 
 that it proved of great advantage to the country, furnished a handsome revenue where otherwise 
 no returns could be expected, led to the establishment of permanent woodworking industries, and 
 thus gave op])ortunity tor labor and cai)ital to be active, not spasmodically, not speculative, but 
 continuous and with assurance of success. This rule has, fortunately, not a single exceiition. To 
 be sure, isolated tracts away from railroad or water, sand dunes, and rocUy promontories exist in 
 every State, and the management of these poor forest areas costs all the triujt can bring and often 
 more: but the wood is needed, the dune or waste is a nuisance, and the State has found it jjiotit- 
 able to convert it into forest, even though the ilirect revenue falls short of the expense. 
 
 c 
 
CEK.MAN I'OKEST MA.NAGEMliliT — I'KUSSIA. 225 
 
 I'OUEST A1)"MINIST1;ATI0N. 
 
 The care and a(;tive legislative consideration of tLe forest wealth dates l»ack fnlly three cen- 
 tnries. The so called " Forstordnnngen" (forest ordinances) of t-lie sixteenth and seventeenth 
 ceutnries laid the foundation for the present system, and in some States, lik(> Wurttemberg, were 
 uever re|)ealed, but merely moditied to adapt them to modern views of politic'al ecronomy. The 
 end of the seventeenth century brought much discussion into the subject of forest legislation, as 
 in all other public alfairs, and even conservative (Jennaiiy was led beyond the point of e(iuilibriuni, 
 and in most States tin? State supervision, ('specially of private forests, was ab;indone(l. This led 
 to the division aiul parceling of forest properties, and with tlie diminutive holding canu', nusman- 
 agemeut and to considerable extent tin' complete devastation. This condition never alfected any 
 of the State forests nor the majority of cor(>oration forests, so that these properties continued on 
 their way to imi)rovenient. The wretched condition ol' nnuiy of the private forests is deplored, 
 exiiosed, discussed, but so far those States which gave the ])rivate forest free have been unable to 
 do nunc than to teach by example and to encourage, both means entirely inetlective when, as is 
 usually the case, the owner is too poor to handle a forest. What remains to be done is being done 
 as fast as means and opportunity offer. The State buys these half wastes, restocks them at great 
 expense, and thus public nu)uey i)ays for ])ublic folly. 
 
 To provide for a suitable and ellicient forest service Germany has expendeil large sums in 
 promoting forestry education. At nine sejjarate colleges men are ])r('pared for this work, and the 
 forest manager ("Oberfoerster," '•Kevierforrster") in any of the State forests is a college bred 
 man with a general education about equivalent and similar to that loading to a degree of bachelor 
 of science in our better uni\ersities. The organization in all (ierman States is similai- — a cential 
 ollice at th(^ seat of govt^rnment, manne<l by expcricm-eil foresters, acts as advisor to the govern- 
 ment, shapes the forest policy of the State, introdiu-es all large nuMsuresof reform, etc., and acts 
 as court of api)eal in important forest cases, in each luovince, if the State is large (If not, the 
 central ollice acts), a provincial forest ofiice sees after the work of the province. This ottice 
 cooperates with the forest managers in preparing jdans for every piece of forest land, in deter- 
 mining the cut of the year, and it also examines the work as well as the records of every district, 
 and acts as tribunal for the province in forest matters. l>ut the real nninagers of the forests are 
 the "Oberfoerster"' or '• Uevierfoerster," each of wb(un has on an average about 10,000 acres of 
 f(U-est land for which he acts as responsible director. He lives in the forest, keeps himself 
 informed as to all details, i)lans tor every i)iece of ground (his idans must be approved by his 
 superiors), and executes all plans. lie determines where and when to cut, to plant, to build roads, 
 and it is he who sells the forest products, lu all cases he has a number of assistants and guards 
 who act as jiolice, and at the same tinu", as foremen to the laborers, directing their work and 
 keeping their time, or measuring their cut oi- work. Tiie district which the ( )l)erfberstcr numages 
 forms the unit in all records and transactions. All forest ollicials of any responsibility are 
 employed for life or good behavior, their reipiirements, duties and rights, rates of ]iay, iiension, 
 etc., are all clearly set forth in the forest laws of every State. 
 
 In the following pages the conditions ami results of forest management in the leading States 
 are fully set forth, based upon the latest official data available. 
 
 Forest Management of Lkaihng States. 
 
 PKUSSIA. 
 
 The Kingdom of Trussia, with its .■!0,000,000 people and an aica of nearly <»0,0(IO,000 acres of 
 land, re]nesenting all natural <'onditions from the low coast plain to the precipitous nu)untain 
 system, with its busy centers of nninufacture and commerce and its distant rural provinces, 
 stands out to dayas the strongest example of the great benefits of scientific forestry. 
 
 The forests of Prussia cover S,H)i;,."".0.") hectares (about :i(V;00,(tOO acres), or '2:\.'> ])er cent of the 
 total area. This proportion of lorest varies for ditlerent parts of the Kingdom from Hi per cent to 
 ;>!) per cent: it is below the aveiage of 2'> per cent in seven pro\inces, of which only Schleswig- 
 IIolst(^in falls below l(i per cent, and is above the avtnage in six ])rovnices, .sonu; of which, like 
 Brandenburg, belong to the densely populated portions of the Kingdom. The area relations 
 n.Doc. 181 ir> 
 
22('> FORESTRY INVliSTIGATlON.S II. S. DEl'ARTMEN'l' OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 have remained piaetieally coustaut for about thirty years, there beiug then as now in forest 
 20,000,000 aeres; eultivated 42,000,000 aeres, or about twice as much cultivated laud as forest. 
 
 Of the fon^st area, 8 per cent belongs to the crown, 30 to the state, 12.5 to villages or 
 municipalities, 1 to Stiftungen (Fonds), 2.7 to corporatious, and 52.'J to private owners. This 
 ownership relation has changed a trifle during the last twenty years, the state and municipal 
 forests having gained a little over 1 per cent at the expense of the private and corporation forests. 
 
 iSituated between latitude 49° to 55° N. and longitude 23-' to 40° E. and occupying portions of 
 the extensive coast plain along llaltic and North seas, as well as covering parts of nine separate 
 mountain chains, the forests of Prussia naturally display considerable variety. Of the total 
 20,0110,000 acres, about half falls to the plain, one-fourth to the hilly, and one-fourth to the regular 
 mountain districts. The climate is moderately cold; the mean or average temperature for summer 
 IS about GO to 05'' F., varying but little for the diflereut parts of the Kingdom, and being ([uite 
 uniform for all three summer mouths. Spring and fall, the hitter a trifle warmer and more even 
 than the former, have a mean temperature of about 45'' F., while that of the winter months is 
 generally near the freezing point, the coldest weather for any one place and month being rarely 
 below 25° F. 
 
 Prussia is a moderately humid country. The records from thirty to seventy years indicate an 
 even distribution of precipitation, varying generally between 22 and 28 inches, reaching a height 
 of over 32 inches, and only 3 out of about 10 stations. With regard to the manner of management, 
 the kind of timl)er raised, and the financial results of the work, tiie State forests, for which ahme 
 exact statistics exist, may serve as examples, though the results are somewhat better in these 
 than in the Ibrests of municipalities and iirivate owners. 
 
 The total area of State forest in 1893 was 2,404,757 hectares, or about (!,750,00O- acres, 'fhis 
 total area has remained almost unchanged for over thirty years. During this time many large 
 and small tracts have been sold or exchanged to round off the State holdings and to satisfy 
 private rights, many of whicli had become extremely troublesome and proven a grtsat hindrance 
 in the proper management of the woods. These sales and exchanges were fully balanced by 
 purchases, especially of poor, unproductive private forests and heath lands, for which purpose 
 of late the State apiiropriates annually the large sum of 1,000,000 marks ($250,000), the [tolicy of 
 increasing the State holdings having been steadily pursued for more than fifty years. About two- 
 thirds of the State forests are situated in the North German plain, though some occur in e\ery 
 province of the Kingdom. 
 
 Of these State forests 07 per cent are regular timber forest, mostly i)ine and spruce, where 
 the tinal crop is intended to furnish saw timber, and every particular j)arcel is supposed to be 
 stocked with trees of nearly the same age. Only one half of 1 per cent is managed as " i'liMiter- 
 wald" with the method of selection wlnue trees of all sizes and age mingle together on the same 
 parcel and the logging merely involves the selection of suitable sizes. One-half of 1 per cent is 
 standard coppice, where the bulk of the trees, commonly hard woods, are cut off while still small, 
 15 to 30 years old, while a small portion is left over to grow into larger sizes; and 1.7 i)er cent is 
 managed as coppice, largely oak coppice for tanbark, where the trees (only the sprouting hard 
 woods) are cut down every ten to twenty-five years, the wood being utilized chiclly as poles and 
 fuel. Of the timber forests, G2 per cent is stocked with pine, almost entirely Scotch pine {Pin us 
 sylvcstri.s), furnishing hard i)inc similar to our red or Norway pine, ItJ per cent is beech, 12 per cent 
 spruce, and nearly per cent oak forest. Thus about 75 per cent of all Prussian State forests are 
 coniferous woods and only about 25 per cent stocked with hard woods, principally oak and beech. 
 
 In general the trees of the timber forests are cut at an age of about 100 years (a 100-year 
 rotation). At present 13 per cent of the area is stocked with trees over 100 years old ; 13 per 
 cent, 81 to 100 years old; 14 per cent, 01 to 80 years old; 18 per cent, 41 to CO years old; 19 per 
 cent, 21 to 40 years old; 19 per cent, 1 to 20 years old, and about 4 jier cent are cut clean (recent 
 fellings) to be reforested at once. 
 
 SAXONY. 
 
 If Prussia, may be regarded the best example of the success of rational forestry in a largo 
 country, and Wurttemberg can be cited as proving the great value of a very conservative, almost 
 paternal, atliliide of the State with regard to its forests, surely Saxouy deserves the credit of 
 leading all other countries in the intensity of its forest mauagemeut. 
 
(iEUMAN FoliKST MAN'AGIOMENT SAXONV. 
 
 227 
 
 Tlic total area of tli(; State is ;J,700,000 aciL's, and its poimlatioii ;;,182,()()(t, and its total forest 
 area about 1,020,000 acres, or 27 per eent. Of tliis I'orest area, I 73,.S.S'.) lieetares, or nearly i;JO,000 
 aeres, e(inal to ahout -1.:; i)er eent of all forests of the eonntry, belong to the State. The aceiirate 
 records for these State forests Inive been kept for more than eighty years, and fully illustrate the 
 develoi)meut and firowlli of forestry in the Kingdom. The bulk of the forests are inountain forest; 
 !)l i)er cent in eonifers, mostly spruce, and only pin- cent in bard woods, most of which is beech; 
 while only about 1 per cent is nonproductive lock and water area. 
 
 As early as 17(i4 the State of Saxony began the improvement of the then rather dilapidated 
 forest jiroperties. The real systematic work of forest survey ami manayenuMit, however, did not 
 bejiin until lleinrich Gotta ((iften culled the father of modern forestry) bcyan his noteworthy 
 etforts in ISIl. Tliough the (iovernnient never appropriated special funds for the increase of its 
 forest holdings, the money which accrued from the sales of other State lands, as well as roadways, 
 building sites, etc., sufliced to increase the area during the past eighty years by fully 10 ]>er cent, 
 the growth being a slow, steady one, fully illustrating the policy of the (iovernment. 
 
 Thus the growth was: 1830 to 18Hi, r.,000 acres; 1810 to 1853, 5,000 acres; 185;! to 18(;;5, 5,000 
 acres; 1SG3 to 1873, 17,200 acres; 1873 to 1883, 17,200 acres; 1883 to lSi)3, 12,500 acies. 
 
 As in all (iernian States, nearly every piece of State forest was burdened by rights of jjrivate 
 l)ersous ami corporations, for which Saxony has paid, almost entirely in (-ash, the handsome price 
 of $1,300,000. 
 
 During the last sixty years the area stocked with i-onifcrs has steadily grown from about 
 310,000 to over 385,000 acres, and the area, of beech and other hard woods except oak has been 
 l)roportionately dimiiuslied, the hard woods all told covering at present only about 14,000 acres, or 
 a little over 3 per cent of the forest area. The condition of the forests, though, of course, very 
 good at the start, if comi)ared to ordinary wild woods, has steadily improved since 1817, in spite 
 of the fact that each decade a larger amount of wood was cut. 
 
 The following ligures serve to illustrate this important fact ami at the same time show that 
 there has not only been a steady increase in the total amount of wood standing and the amount 
 cut, but that the larger sizes form today a much greater per cent than formerly: 
 
 Years. 
 
 amount of 
 wood rut. 
 ouch year 
 (avorajio 
 tor oarh 
 Uueailc). 
 
 I'oraoro of torestod arofi. 
 
 Amount cut. 
 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 Wood ovor 
 
 3 inches 
 tliioli (oord 
 
 wood and 
 timhor). 
 
 Timlior 
 
 (not oord 
 
 wood). 
 
 i'itbic ftct. 
 7 
 
 10 
 11 
 H 
 
 37 
 47 
 04 
 
 Amount 
 s(audin;i 
 por.icreoii 
 total uroa. 
 
 1817-1820 
 
 1 827- 1 .s:w 
 
 18:!7-184ti 
 
 1S47 IS.Vi 
 
 1854 186;i 
 
 2I.cub.rt. 
 21, 4UI) 
 21,800 
 20. 400 
 2:1, .'■.Oil 
 26, 000 
 :i 1,600 
 36, 600 
 :i7.400 
 
 Cubiv/iul. 
 ' tiO 
 CI 
 .06 
 64 
 70 
 82 
 00 
 90 
 
 Cldiic f't-t'f. 
 40 
 
 ;i6 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 60 
 66 
 68 
 
 Cubic J\;-t. 
 
 
 
 2. 120 
 2, 280 
 2. 180 
 2. 650 
 2, 620 
 
 18(i4-187.'i 
 
 IS74 1883 
 
 1884-18113 
 
 
 Trom these ligures it ai)pears that the cut on the whole has increased from 21,000,000 cubic 
 feet to 37,000,000, or by fully 57 i)er cent, and the cut i)er acre and year of total forest area from 00 
 cubic feet to 00 cubic feet, or exactly 50 per cent. lAloreoNcr, of the IKt cubic feet i)er acre in 1803 
 there were 08 cubic; feet, or 75 per cent, wood over 3 in(!hes (excluding stump wood), while from 1817 
 to 182(; only 0(5 i)er cent was over 3-iiicli stutf. P>ut what indicates even more strongly the ellect 
 of better mauagemeiit is the fact that more than half of the cut of 1803 was sold, not as cord wood, 
 but as timber (.saw timber, etc.), while even as late as 1805 only a fourth could thus be utilized, 
 though the manner of selectiou (inspection) has changed but little since that time. That with all 
 this intense utilization of the forest the standing timber shttuld increase instead of becimiing 
 exhau.sted is perhaps the strongest (^xamide of the success of scientitic forestry and one which in 
 this country would scarcely be believed possible by nmst of the lumbermen and woodsmen. 
 
 Practically, all State forests are tindier forests and the prevalent method of treatment has Ibr 
 a long time been the '• kahlsdilag" method of cutting, where all trees are cut at the harvest and 
 the bare area is at once planted with nursery stock. The expenses for cultural work all told. 
 
228 
 
 FOKESTUY IXVESTRiATlUNS U. S. DEl'Aia'MENT OF AGEICULTUKE. 
 
 iiicludiii},^ iiiaiuteuaiice of nurseries, sood and plant iiurchases, as well as plautluj;-, amount to oidy 
 12 cents an acre per year, or 1.8 per cent of the gross income, while for the last twenty years more 
 than t\vi(-e this sum has been expended for coustructit)n and iiniirovement of roads, the great 
 value of whii'h arc nowhere more fully recognized than in bii.sy Saxony. 
 The linaucial results are exhibited in the following table: 
 
 Oeniral Jinanrhil i-esiiltx in the Slatr forests 0/ .S(i.ror!i/. 
 
 Vrari^. 
 
 Anniiiil 
 (gruss). 
 
 .•\iinnal 
 
 rxpt'USf. 
 
 Annual 
 net in- 
 come. 
 
 $352, 000 
 
 371,000 
 
 419. 000 
 
 588, 000 
 
 925,0110 
 
 1,42.'., 00(1 
 
 1,749,000 
 
 1,894,000 
 
 Per ocrti a 
 
 nil yoar ol total forest 
 an-a. 
 
 Income 
 (gross). 
 
 Expense. 
 
 Net in. 
 come. 
 
 1817 18''rt 
 
 $649, 000 
 
 092,000 
 
 761,1100 
 
 970. 000 
 
 I.IIO.S, 000 
 
 1, 986. 000 
 
 2. 024. 000 
 2, 890, 000 
 
 $297, 000 
 321.000 
 342, 000 
 388, 000 
 443. 000 
 5ii3, [100 
 875. 000 
 990, 000 
 
 $1,75 
 1..S0 
 2 02 
 
 2. 51) 
 
 3. 53 
 i 91 
 6.23 
 6. CO 
 
 $0. 80 
 .86 
 .90 
 1.02 
 1.14 
 1. 39 
 2.08 
 2. 29 
 
 $0. 95 
 1.00 
 1.12 
 1.54 
 2.39 
 3.52 
 4.15 
 4.37 
 
 1827-lH:iG 
 
 
 lS5-t-lHC.;i 
 
 18ti4 187:{ 
 
 1874 1WN3 
 
 1884-1893 
 
 The extraordinary results indicated in the al)ove table can not entirely be credited to the 
 increase of wood prices and tiie general depreciation of money during this century; they are 
 primarily the monetary expression of the improvements indicated in the previous tables; they 
 mean increased sales, and sales of older, larger, and better material. 
 
 When it is considered that Saxony has taken iu about ^lOl^OOOjOOO during the last fifty years 
 from a small area of rough lands (left waste in many countries, even in Eiiiope), a tract of laud 
 half the size of a good county iu Wisconsin, the great advantage of a careful treatment of forest 
 areas must become clear to everyone. (Jousiilering the net income as the interest of the value of 
 the forest lands at the prevailing 3 per cent rate, the table .shows that scicintificcare lias increased 
 the value of these ixior mountain lands from $100 to $150, whereas their deforestation would (juickly 
 convert them into poor alpine iiastures which would bankrupt their owners at >*10 an acre. The 
 table also shows clearly that it is not accident, not merely a general improvement of the country, 
 but that it is careful, systematic work which lias led to these imiiiovements. When Saxony sjjent 
 only 81 on each acre of forest land she received only «1..')4 net income; when she sjient $2..'5il, her 
 net income was more than doubled, reaching during the ten years ending Ib'.lS 8^.37. 
 
 The following figures illustrate the nature and relative importance of the expenses per acre 
 as compared with the iucome, as well as the prices obtained for the material: 
 
 iJecade eniliu^— 
 
 Criee lier 
 
 eilbie tool 
 
 ot wood 
 
 o\ei 3 
 
 Ccnlt. 
 4.2 
 4.7 
 5.0 
 6 
 7.4 
 8.1 
 9.4 
 9.9 
 
 Wood 
 cut. 
 
 CuMc/eet. 
 00 
 61 
 56 
 64 
 70 
 82 
 90 
 90 
 
 G roas 
 iucome. 
 
 Total. 
 
 For ad- 
 minjstra. 
 ticui and 
 
 ]iroUc- 
 tion 
 
 Felling 
 
 find 
 movili;^ 
 tnubcr, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Planting 
 
 and other 
 
 <uifuial 
 
 worli. 
 
 Koa(l«. 
 
 18*>G 
 
 $1.75 
 1.86 
 2. 02 
 2. 50 
 3.53 
 4.91 
 6.23 
 6.6B 
 
 $0.80 
 86 
 90 
 1 02 
 !.14 
 1.39 
 2. 08 
 2.29 
 
 Cents. 
 38 
 40 
 44 
 47 
 49 
 54 
 77 
 93 
 
 Cent.i. 
 30 
 31 
 31 
 37 
 45 
 62 
 92 
 95 
 
 Cents. 
 8 
 8 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 10 
 13 
 14 
 
 Cents. 
 
 5 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 11 
 24 
 26 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 1863 . 
 
 1873 
 
 1883 
 
 1893 
 
 
 From the above it ajipears that the jjiices of wood have doubled since 1817, but that during 
 the last twenty-five years they have rt^mained practically constant. Part of this ailvance is due 
 to the general advance of iirices, but part also to the improvement of the material sold. The 
 advance in the expenditure for administration since 1S4(> is due both to the advance in wages and 
 salaries generally (seen also m the advance of cutting cxiienses), but is also due to the greater 
 competence of the administration. Saxony, unlike Michigan and other States of this Unoin, 
 prefers to spend the money iu protecting its forest rather than saving the expense and losing the 
 jn'operty. Of special interest is also the fact that even in this intensive management, where 
 almost every acre is reforested by planting with nursery stock, the cultural ojierations, including 
 drainage and kindred expenses have varied only within a few cents per acre, involving during 
 
GF.R:MAN FOIiEST MAXAGE.Mi:Nr — I'.AVARIA. 
 
 22!) 
 
 the Inst tliirty years <;eii('ral]y less tliaii L' per cent of tlic yross iiicoine. To many in tliis land of 
 forest fires it may |icrliai>s be reniaikalile tliat: Miis t;cn('i;il enemy and its destructions have not 
 been of suili(tient eonseciuenee to deserve eomi)ila(ion lor (liis -general statenienl. Tliese nioiindiin 
 forests of s|)rn('e and pine are simply not allowed to burn u|). 
 
 The manai^ement of the forests of Saxony is similar to those, of Prussia. While those of the 
 State arc under eonservativo and most eltieient eare, those of jirivate persons and eorporations 
 aie praetieally free; the only tiling the State authorities (h) is to yive .ii'ood examI)l(^, assist private 
 individuals, etc., by furnishing- cheap |)lant. material fioni the forest nurseries and to pre[iare i)lans 
 for the management of forests if such plans are asked and \r.ut\ for. 
 
 r.AVAKIA. 
 
 The kinjidom of I'.avaria has a total area of about IS.S million acres, or little more than halt 
 that of the State of Wisconsin, sujiportiui; a population of about r(,,">S!l,(l(((t peojjle. It eomiirised 
 al)out 1(», .■)()(), 0(1(1 ncres, or.")!) per cent, of fields and tjardens; 7."i(t.(tO(l acres, or I i)er cent, of ]iasture 
 lands; (i,.'!ri((,(i()() acres, oi' ;'.l per cent, of forest; l,:2()(),()(t(t acres, or (! per cent, of unproductive 
 land, largel.N' mounlains, roads, and water surfaces. 
 
 On the whole, this relation of areas has not, changed matcaially in o\cr thirtyfive yeais, so 
 that in IS'.i;! the total area of forest lands is t;iven at about (),l,'(H !,()()( I acres, or at. .'l").l per cent of 
 the entire land surface. 
 
 Of tliese (J,L'0(».(l(l(l acres there are: State fon'sts, 2,l(;(),0()(l acres, or .It.S per cent: corpoia- 
 tion forests, 78(1,0(10 acres, or l'J.(> per cent; poud foicsts, 1 10,000 acres, or 1.7 jier cent : juivate 
 forests, .■>,ir)0,000 acres, or .">0.!» pei- cent. 
 
 The forest laws and forest organization resemble those of IJadeii and ^\'urttemb<>^J;■. The 
 l)rivate forests ar(! under State supervision, dealing of forest lands recpiires a iierinit. the mis- 
 management or devastation of a forest ])roperty is forbidden, and devastated forest areas are to 
 \h\ reforested by the State and the expense charged to the forest. All ci>ri)oration and Fonds 
 forests are under direct control of or are managed under control of the State foiest authorities, 
 so that fully one-half the forest area of Jlavaria is under careful treatment. As with all (lerman 
 States, I'.avaria constantly (Mideavors to incaease the State holdings, and deteriorated and other 
 forest properties are bought uj) as oii])ortiuiity offers. During the tilty years emling 18'.t.f, the 
 State purchased about 1 ll,(!00 acres, at a cost of •s.">,.J77,000, or about •'<.3S ])er acre. Besides this 
 increase of territory, the State has, during t^his same period, expended about -■?.!, 800,000 in the 
 ])urchase of easements or servitinle, iii\'olving 10,71() separate cas(!s of pnvih-ges to timber and 
 firewood. Neveitli(^less, ther(^ ai-(^ still uiany of these privileges or servitiules, which requires an 
 animal outlay of over -s 100,000 and thus represent a capital value of over .'^10,000,000. 
 
 The distribution of the forests over the kingdom is rather an even one. Six of the eight 
 l)rovinces have over .'50 i)er cent, the lowest 1313 jier cent of forest area, while the highest .'?.S per 
 cent. Of the entire forests area about 00 per cent is <!overed by timber forest, where the timber 
 is cut usually at about 100 to 120 years, and only 9.1 pei' (tent as cop|)ice and standard coppice. 
 
 Forty years ago the same was stocked as follows: 
 
 Odpnico ' r. , ,■ 
 Timbrr .nn,l ^'•^'-'•'"" 
 fon-Hts. sl;,t,.lar.l , ,""''';''' 
 
 St a to forests 
 
 ('en j)rir:ili(ni ri»r«'.-.lj* 
 
 Pri\;ito tnre^ts 
 
 Tnu- av<i:i;;t- for ilio whul 
 
 Pi'r enil. Pfr < 
 
 I'tr i-rnt. 
 
 j;'1 
 
 :;5 
 
 3 
 
 -.. 
 
 
 78 5 
 
 rj.7 
 
 8 4 
 
 
 The princii)al forest trees are the conifers, chiefly sjjruce. Of the total, about Ki.l.' per (-ent is 
 spruce and fir. ;!0 ])er cent jiine, 0.7 per cent beech, 1 per cent oak (two-thirds oak-bark co|)picc), 
 2.3 iier cent other hardwood tiuiber, (i..s jx'r (-ent other hard-wood coppice. 
 
 Thus, conifers represent about 77 [wv cent, the hard woods 2.'> per cent. The conifers are 
 primarily the trees of the mountains, the hard woods, beech iiarticnlarly, being most abundant in 
 
280 
 
 FORESTRY INVESTKiATIONS TI. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULUURE. 
 
 the valley of the Rhine, the Palatinate, and Lower Franconia, where the beech forests cover as 
 high as SO i)er cent of the forest area. 
 
 In 1800 the total cut for the l;in;;«lotn was liTH million cubic feet of stem wood, '■'>') million cubic 
 feet of branch wood, 3(1 million cubic feet of stump wood, making a total of 340 milliou cubic feet, 
 aiul was divided as follows: 
 
 Slalo forests 
 
 (/orponttioii t'orcsts 
 I'rivate lurosts 
 
 -r''"^;'«^'''^ 
 
 :;9 
 U 
 
 Cuhic It. 
 fiB 
 
 47 
 
 TutuI . 
 
 SI 
 
 For the State forests alone the cut in 1804 of wood over 3 inches, excluding branch and stump 
 wood, was ri") cubic feet i)er acre, and iTicluded saw and other tim1)er, 5") million cubic feet; cord 
 wood (exclusive of branches and stuHi])s), M million cubic feet. 
 
 The financial results for the 2.1G milliou acres of Htato lorests were, in 1804: Total income, 
 .*S,1 00,000, or $3.71 per acre; total expense, $3,881,000, or $1.78 per acre; net income, $4,210,000, 
 or $1.93 per acre. 
 
 Compared to otliei' small States of Germany, particularly Saxony and Wurttemberg, the net 
 revenue per acre of forest is decidedly low; but it must not be forgotten that a. (tonsidcrable jtart 
 of these State forests is situated in the high Alps, where the difficulties of removing the timber 
 liave so far been very great, and the value of tiudjer conse(|uently very small. Thus, flue tinil)er 
 trees, worth $.">0 to $100 on the markets of the lower Ifhiue, arc worth little over $1 apiece in these 
 Alpine districts. 
 
 As might l)e exiiected, the ])evmanent improvements of the forests, particularly the construc- 
 tion of highways and roads, still require large sums every year. Thus, in 1894, Bavaria spent 
 over 1,000,000 marks ($250,000) on road construction. 
 
 The management of the forests is quite similar to that of the other German States. The 
 llevierforstcr, corresiionding to the Prussian Oberforster, is the responsible manager of each 
 district. Tlie districts are quite large; they include usually about .'>,000 acres of State forest, so 
 that one IleviertVirster is usually t! to 10 miles from his neighbor. 
 
 For all State and cori)oratioii forests, an area of a little over 3 nullion acres, there are 000 
 lievierforster or managers, 1,589 guards and assistants, besides 175 accountants and 107 sui)erior 
 oliicials. Tiui manager or HevieriVirster makes and executes the plans and keeps the records for 
 the woods of his district. 
 
 As in Wurttemberg, rational measures for the proper use and treatment of forcwts of Bavaria 
 date back to the beginning of the seventeenth century. As early as KJK! a^ forest law was 
 ])assed whi(!h embodied all that seemed at that time desirable. This law was moditicd, some 
 complications arising from the change of size and form of the kingdom, and also through the 
 radical views pronuilgated during the second half of tlu! eighteenth centuiy. On the whole, 
 however, Bavaria remained conservative, which in view of its large mountain forests must bo 
 regarded as particularly fortunate. 
 
 The establishment of the forest school at Munich took place about 1780, when a general 
 reorganization occurred, utkI the functions of the forester changed from those of a hunter to those 
 of a producer of timber. 
 
 WURTTEMBERG. 
 
 This little State, with an area of about 4,820,000 acres, or about oneseventli that of 
 Wisconsin, and a population of little over 2,000,000 peo])le, ranks among the most conservative as 
 well as the most successful among the commonwealths of Europe. In matters of forestry this 
 State began proper measures as early as 1014, when laws were inaugurated for the proper 
 treatment of forest properties, wliich remain fundamental to this day. These early laws, which 
 mad(; the proper care of forests obligatory to all and forbade both forest devastation and clearing 
 (the latter possible only on permit), were i>r()i)erly enforced and maintained even through the 
 
GKRMAN- l-OUI'.KT MANAGEMENT WUKTTE.Mr.El.'O "_'.'> I 
 
 tronbl(>soii»o Miiios of tlic onil of llio cinlitcoiith century. Tlicy wcrii reiiiodolcd and ]»ci rcetcd to 
 suit, inodcru conditions in IST") and ISTil tlic law of Mic former date, dealins' witli tln^ forests of 
 public (iorporations, the, latter witli 8tate and jirivate lorests in ^'•eneral. 
 
 The " forest iiolict^ law"' of 1S7!) reijuires: 
 
 {a) Clearing;- of forest re(|uires a State permit; ill(><;al clearing' is ])unishe(l with a fine. 
 
 (/*) A neglected iiiece of forest shall not hecnme waste land; the State antliority sees to its 
 reforestation, with or without help of owner, the expenses to b(^ charged to the forest. 
 
 ((■) If the forester is convinced that a i)rivate owner cuts too much wood or otherwise 
 mismanages liis forest, he is to warn tlie owner, and if this warning is not hci^ded the forest 
 authority may ta,ke in hand and manage the particular tract. 
 
 ((/) Owners of small tracts of forest can combine into associations and can place their 
 in-operties with municipal or even State forests for i)rot(^ction and management. In the latt(>r 
 case tliey share the advantages of part of the municipal or conunuual forests which are managed 
 by State autliorities. 
 
 The law of 1^75 relating to the management and supervision of forests belonging to villages, 
 towns, and other public corporati(nis places the forests under this category all under direct State 
 supervision; there being a special division of corporation or muiiici[)al forests in connection with 
 the State forest bureau. The law demands that all cor])oration forests l)e managed in atuiordan^e 
 with the principles of a continued supply, the same as the State forests. The corjioration may 
 employ its own foresters, but these must be approved by the forest bureau and are responsible for 
 the proper ex(!cution of the plans of nianagemcTit. These plans are itrepared by the foresters and 
 must be ai)proved by the State forest authorities. If ]>referred, the corporation may leave tlio 
 management of its forests entirely to the State authoriti(^s. This is always done if a corporation 
 neglects to lill the jjosition ol'its forester within a certain period alter it becomes va(!ant. Where 
 the State forest authorities manage either corporation or private forest, the forest is charged with 
 8 cents per acre ainl year for this administration. This fe(\ is generally less than it (losts, so that 
 the State really has been making a sacritice so far in providing a satisfactory management for 
 these forests. 
 
 As in all other German States, nearly every piece of forest land was formei'ly encumbered 
 with certain rights which entitled the holders to certain lixed amounts of firewood, timber, to 
 pasture live stock, etc. The law of IStS obliges the holders of these rights to pait with them if 
 the projjrietor i)ays the value of the rights, the manner of ascertaining the value being set forth 
 in the law itself. Thus, lor the riglit of cutting his supply ol' lirewood in a forest the holder of 
 the right is paid a sum which if phuuMl at I per cent interest will purchase as much wood as the 
 holder of the right used per year, the average of twelve seasons being tlu^ criterion. Of the 
 dil'ferent rights or i)rivileges, those conci^rning pasturage and the cutting of hay in the forcvsts 
 are ])ra(;tically settled, and th(^ State jiaid between IST.'! and ISSO about 1.', II. ").(•( 10 marks, or 
 $() 1 1,000, tor these rights. For ]n-ivileges of (uitting wood and timber the State has expended 
 large sums. I'lven ])rior to 1818, betwc^en 18U."> and 18.50, forest land valueil in the aggregate at 
 about 8.!.0it(t,(l0i), anil between 1850 and ISSO over .'j!.-.0(l,0()(» more have been paid out to rid the 
 woods of tlH\se pestiferous rights, and yet as late as isTii these rights were worth >«;>li,000 per 
 year, or a capital (at 4 per cent interest) of .ssod.doo. 
 
 In matters of taxation all forests are assessed according to the net revenue which they 
 ])roduce. Of the total area of the land, about tii per cent is ])low laiul, 18 per cent meadows and 
 pastures, ,'Jl per cent forest, ."5 per cent gardens and viueyanls, and 2 per cent roads. In its 
 distribution over the State the forest forms I'T per cent of the area of tin; Nekar Kreis, .'50 per 
 cent of the area of the Schwar/.wald Kreis, ,'51 per cent of the area of the Jaxt Kreis, and '2~> per 
 (;ent of the area of the Donan Kreis. 
 
 Of the total of about 1,170,000 acres of forest. 480,000, or .'II' i)er cuMit, belong to the. State; 
 170,000, or .^2 per cent, to coriiorations, and r».'50,000, or .'$(» per cent, to individuals. 
 
 Of the corporation forests, nearly .'i(i(),(IOO acres are mainiged by State foresters: of the i)rivate 
 forests, 2(M(,(i(>0 acres are held by the nobility, including the royal family. 
 
 Accurate statistics have been prepared so far only for the State forests and of late also I'or the 
 cori)oration forest, so that a more detaileil description of these classes must serve as illustration 
 for the whole. 
 
232 
 
 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Tlie State forests of 4SO.OnO acres occupy parts of all four provinces of tlie eomitry. About 
 92 per cent lie between !KK) antl li,4()0 feet altitude; 42 per cent are stocked on level ground, 2!1 per 
 cent on gentle slopes, and about the same amount on steep declines. Over 40 per cent of these 
 foiests are situated on sandy soils, and tlie rest are largely on the poor limestone soils of the Jura, 
 and only a small part on the drift formation slcirting the north side of the Alps. 
 
 Of the State forest area there is covered by a pine growth of s])ruce, 28 per cent; beech, 20 
 percent; tir, per cent: pine, 7 per cent; mixed growth of conifers, 14 ](er cent; conifers and 
 hardwoods, per cent; mixed liard woods with oak, 7 per cent; mixed haidwoods without oak, 2 
 per cent. Tlius about 00 per cent is (-oniferous growth and only .'!0 per cent hardwoods, with about 
 !) per cent mixed timber. 
 
 Fully 07 per cent of the State forests are managed by the timber Ibrest system. The rotation is 
 for timber forest, 100 years for 74 i)er cent of the area; SO years for 24 per cent of the area, and 
 120 years for 2 per cent of the area. 
 
 At the present (1.S!I4) the areas containing timber over 100 years old cover 11 per cent of the 
 area: 81 to 100 years old cover 15 per cent of the area: Gl to 80 years old, 15 per cent; 41 to 00 
 years old, 17 per cent; 21 to 40 years old, 19 per cent; I to 20 years old, 2.'! per cent: so that a 
 fairly regular distribution for a lOOyefir rotation exists. 
 
 These timber forests yield about 50 ' cubic feet per acre of timber from the main cut or haivcst 
 and 11 cubic feet per aci-e from thinnings, making in all 07 cubic feet i)er acre and year for the entire 
 area. The 3 per cent managetl in coppices and standard coijpice cut only about 14 cubic feet per 
 acre and year. 
 
 The total cut for 1894 was. for wood over .? inches thick : Oak, 1,200,000 cubic feet, or .3.9 per 
 cent; beech and some other hard woods, 7,900,000 cubic feet, or 20 per c^ent; conifers, 21,500,000 
 cubic feet, or 70 per cent. 
 
 This cut was composed of — 
 
 A. — Timher ijrnfrallii orer (i iiiclies at (lie lop end. 
 
 
 Amounl. 
 
 1 o.ik . 
 
 Cubic /(■/(. 
 Still, 000 
 
 
 421), lion 
 
 
 13. .soil. 000 
 
 Total 
 
 14, 7Sll, OOU 
 
 :i. « 
 
 2 K 
 94 
 
 B. — Poles -i-G inches, :T feet from butt end. 
 
 
 Amount. 
 
 IVr cent. 
 
 Oak 
 
 Oxtbic feet. 
 1,500 
 6,400 
 
 r>8r>, 000 
 
 0.2 
 99 
 
 Ri'i'cli ami otlier Iianl woods 
 
 Xotal 
 
 602, 900 
 
 100 
 
 
 C. — C'ordwood. 
 
 Onk 
 
 lieefh anil other li;ir(l woods 
 Conil'ers 
 
 For 
 wooden iFor drowood. 
 ware. 
 
 Cvhirfeet: Ctihir frft. 
 
 46, (ioO 5110' 000 
 
 78, 000 7, 400, 000 
 
 295, 000 0, 450, OOO 
 
 The above figures, esjiecially tiiose for tlie yield in saw and other timber, clearly point out the 
 great advantage of the conifers over the liard woods. The same is also clearly illustrated by 
 the fact that the material sold as lirewood forms only 40 per cent in conifers, but 91 per cent in 
 
 ' This means that if the tiinl>or is 100 years olil, as most of it is, earh acuo of forest cuts .5,(100 cnl)ic feet of wood 
 at time of harvest. 
 
GERMAN roKEST MAWllEMENT WrUTTEMDEKG, 
 
 2;',3 
 
 boocli ,111(1 other hard woods, h'aviiiji out the. oak, Mori>ov(T, (he yiekls liavc been much .urcatci 
 lor coiiirer.s than beech. 
 
 Tims the yield lor iiiateiial over ;'. inches thick in tiic hard woods was only •">! enliic feet per 
 acre and conilers 71 ciibie I'eet per acre, whih' tiie averafte value ot the I wo is about as .". lor beech 
 and other hard woods, leaviii;;- out oak, to 8 lor couU'erous wood, so that tlie yield in money per 
 acire foi- the two was more nearly 2.1 times as jireat for conifers as for hard woods. 
 
 Tile iiriecs obtained for wood, jjenerally delivered at the main road,s, was: Timber, oak (white 
 oak), 13."> cents per ciibie foot; conifers, 11.7 cents iier cubic loot. Cord wood, beech, 4.'.» cents per 
 cubic foot, or .$().;!0 per cord; conifers, ;>.() cents jier cubic foot, or *4.(i(> per cord. 
 
 Tiie money results were for 1S!)4 as follows: 
 
 $rt, Ol'.t, (Hid, (.1- 1(1(1 per cent. 
 
 (ir(is,s income. 
 Total cx])ensc 
 Net inconio . . 
 
 1,L'LM, (1(1(1, oi- 1(1 p(!i- cent 
 I,7!I5, OtiO, (11- (111 pel' eout 
 
 per acre of forest area 
 
 (Jross iiiconie . 
 Expenses.... 
 Net iiieoiiK! ... 
 
 $3. 2i) 
 
 2. r.i 
 :t.(;:t 
 
 this latter fonniug 5!) per cent of the gross revenue. 
 Amonii' the expenses w(>re coiispieuous: 
 
 Fellinj;-.)!- tiiiil>cr .t:!;!", 000 
 
 Adniiiiistratidn and pniteetioii 3.iil, 000 
 
 Roads, new, and lepair !(!:>, 000 
 
 Taxes l<«-0'» 
 
 riantins, sowing, etc !'l.'l™' 
 
 The following- tioiires illustrate tlu^ iirogress of the last ei.uhty years, and at the .same time 
 indicate how steadily this small area of otiierwise almost valueless laud has been made to furnish 
 an ample supiily of timber and a liandsoiiie revenue: 
 
 Hcxulls of forest mnnagemeiit in Ihi- SInlcfnirfit.t of U'lnilrmhrnj. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Koroat 
 arou. 
 
 Wood over 
 
 tliick cut 
 v.icU ye.ir. 
 
 Ucuhirfret. 
 
 Price per 
 eiiliieliiot, 
 
 ('cuts. 
 
 I'er nCTTU 
 
 Net 
 
 incointv 
 
 $0. :io 
 
 .42 
 
 l(i4 
 
 .K5 
 
 1. 78 
 
 l.llli 
 1.11 
 
 1.42 
 ;i. 22 
 :i, 54 
 
 2. (12 
 4.21 
 2. (10 
 2. 90 
 3.:i:i 
 :). ii!! 
 
 (1(1 .\erir.o 
 
 Cut wood 
 ever 3 
 inches. 
 
 
 M acres. 
 
 Ctihicfeet. 
 
 
 472 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,5, 20(1 
 17,2(10 
 17,70(1 
 25, 000 
 25, 411(1 
 2:i, Slid 
 20, 00(1 
 2H, 40(1 
 25, :!(K1 
 2(1 OOll 
 2H. SIIO 
 2.^, 700 
 20, 400 
 
 :i(i. 200 
 ;io. 0(10 
 
 
 :« 
 
 
 4(ia 
 445 
 447 
 
 4'52 
 4,55 
 457 
 4fili 
 405 
 407 
 471 
 474 
 47i; 
 4,S(1 
 
 
 :i7 
 
 
 
 ;i'.i 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 ]^Y> 
 
 4.:_i 
 7. 5 
 0.7 
 7.5 
 10.7 
 K. U 
 8.1 
 H.7 
 9. :i 
 
 58 
 
 1H611 
 
 01 
 
 
 54 
 
 1870 
 
 57 
 
 
 (H 
 
 
 Oil 
 
 ]H85 
 
 fil 
 
 
 r.3 
 
 
 6:i 
 
 
 
 I) Kcfcra ti> onlire forest area— swamp, water, surlaccs, aud all. 
 
 .Most of the logging is done by the cubic foot or cord, and tln^ jirices are about (10 to 05 cents 
 per 100 cubic feet of cotiifeious and Sd cents per lt»(t for hardwood timber, while cord wood is 
 generally worked up for about $1 \h'v cord, iuchidiiig piling at roadway. All cut over land is 
 at once reforested. During 1S!»4, 27;") acres were thus iTtroveied by seeding and about (i,(lt)l) acres 
 by ])lanting, the latter being thus generally the rule, especially in the coniferous districts. The 
 total expenses of cultural work were .■<8S,()()(t, or less than .5 per cent of the gross income. 
 
 The thinnings of tlie dense sa|)ling timber involved during the year about L'o.doo acres and 
 
 furnished aliout 21(1 cubic feet of wood per acre. Most of (his material in (he liard-w I district 
 
 has to be cut into inferior lirewood, but tlie siuuee, (ir, and pine can usually be sold as poles and 
 pulp stnlf, etc. 
 
234 
 
 FOKESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Tlioiig'li largely stocked on sandy soils and composed of pine and other conifers, tliere are no 
 forest fires re|)orted for the year. Tlie administration of forests is in the hands of "Ilevierfoerster," 
 corresponding to the Prnssian "Obcrfoerstcr," who prepare the plans and execnte them, being- 
 assisted by a body of subalterns. Tiie district of a Uevierfoerster covers about 1(),()()0 a(ues of 
 forest, while the range or "hut" of the forest guard is generally about one-tenth of this. These 
 guards also serve as foi-emen in all (iultural and felling operations, but the Uevierfoerster is 
 su))poscd to keej) fully informed on all details and preserve accurate record. I'>esides their duties 
 as State forest oflicers, it is e\pect(>(l that these men also keep themselves informed as to the 
 condition of private and other forests. 
 
 r.ADEN. 
 
 In this intensively cultivated little State, with a total area of only about 8,720,000 acres, 
 supporting a populat ion ol' 1, (>.")(>, 000, the forests occujjy over .'i7 i)er cent of the entire land surface. 
 The forest area lias increaseil between 1880 and 1805 by over r)0,000 acres, lieing in the latter 
 year 550,891 hectares, or about l,.">(iO,000 acres. These forests were owned as follows: 
 
 
 Owner. 
 
 1895. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Stntd .. , 
 
 .1 rrt'x. 
 
 '2'M. Olio 
 fCi), 000 
 47, oiin 
 
 147.1)00 
 
 :;io, 000 
 
 Acres. 
 2:i'J, 000 
 (510,000 
 ,':3, 000 
 
 147,000 
 '28,T.O0O 
 
 Vilbi^f.-A :imi tnwns. 
 OtlitT rorjinr.atioiis . 
 I'rivfLlt' ptTsonN: 
 ^■„l,iIitv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The forest jiolicy ol' r.adeu has been conservative and there is no »St;ite in Oermany where the 
 general comlitions of tlu^ forests are better. Since all municipal and coijioration forests are under 
 direct State contiol, being mnnaged by the State forest authorities, about !1 1 0,000 acics, or over 
 OO per cent of all forests, enjoy a (lareful, conservative treatment, which insures to them the largest 
 possible return in wood and money. Hut even the private forests are under the supervision of 
 the State authorities, ami though the i)rivate owner may use his forest very much as he pleases he 
 can in no way devastate or seriously injure it. Olearing requires a. i)ermit, also a comjilete clear- 
 ing cut, which latter is permitted only if the owner guaraute(^s the r(>for(vstation of the denuded 
 area within a given time. Bare and neglected spots in forests must be restocked, and failure of 
 |)rivate owners to comply with the forest rules and laws leads to temjiornry management of the 
 forest by the State authorities, such managemcTit never to continue less than ten years. Of the 
 State forests ther(^ are about 03 per cent timber forest with a rotation of eighty to one hundred 
 and twenty years and only 7 iier cent coppice and standard coppice intended to jiroduce tanliark 
 and tirewood. * >f th(^ corjioration forests about 8.'! jxa' cent are tind)Ci- forest, so that of all the 
 forests Tinder State management about- 85 per cent are timber forest managed on long lotations 
 and furnishing large returns. 
 
 Of the State forests, L'l jier cent are hardwoods, with little or no conifers; '■>() per cent are 
 mixed forests, hardwoods, and conifers in about ecjnal ]iarts; 10 i)er c.o.ut are coniferous forests, 
 the bulk being stocked with s])rucc and lir, while only about 1 i)er cent of the total is stocked with 
 pine alone. 
 
 h'ull and accurate statistics existing only for the State forests, and, as far as the annual cut 
 is concerned, for cori)oiation forests, the following figures apply only to about 00 per cent of the 
 forests of the country. 
 
 The cut for 1801 was in — 
 
 A. Fnini timlicr forests: 
 
 Mam (TOji 
 
 'I'll ill Mill ^a 
 
 Stiiiiilis 
 
 r.- Frniii (-oiiiiK-i^ and slanilanl crtjipi 
 
 Main rrop 
 
 'riiiiililii;is 
 
 Slumps 
 
 S(al 
 
 (' r.. 
 
 rests. 
 ferl. 
 
 CtiMc 
 
 n 
 
 101) 
 
 OOll 
 
 4 
 
 fillO 
 
 (IIK) 
 
 
 \M 
 
 ODD 
 
 
 -m 
 
 (100 
 
 
 ;m 
 
 OIK) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii; 
 
 5(i0 
 
 000 
 
 (Corporation 
 IVocsts. 
 
 Ciiliir.frrt. 
 
 '23, 100,0(111 
 
 0, 800, 000 
 
 aLlO, Olio 
 
 7, 60O, 000 
 120, 00(1 
 50, 000 
 
 47,000,0110 
 
OF.IOIAN FOKEST MANAGEMENT — BADEN. 
 
 2.",;-) 
 
 This same cut per acre of total forest area is — 
 
 TimbiT fon^st: (!ul>ii- fV-.t. 
 
 State ■^ ' 
 
 Corpora tidii "' 
 
 (!o]>J>i(•(^ mill staniliinl coiijiicd: 
 
 Slato ''^ 
 
 Cor|i()iation •''' 
 
 This cnoniious yiehl of nearly 04 million ciiljie leet of wood lladeii has obtained from this 
 small area for many years without in (he least decreasinj;- the amonnt- of standing- timber or wood 
 capital. In the State forest the cut per acre since 1SG7 has never been less than ~>~ cubic feet per 
 year, or since ISS.") has never fallen below 71 cubic feet, while twice since ISTO it has been over 85 
 cubi(! feet i)er acre and year. 
 
 Of the total of nearly Gt million euliic feet, 10,200,000 cubic feet are timlx^r and other wood 
 not sold as lire or cord wood, and L'9,100,000 cubic feet are cord wood over :'> iiu-lies. 
 
 The Ibrests of r>aden are .generally well located, and the State has long; reali/.ed the great 
 importance of jiood highways, so that the lU'ic^es for timl)er are generally good and tiu' income 
 from the woods correspondingly high. 
 
 The following prices in the woods were obtained in 1S!)4: 
 
 I'Vr roinid thiilK'r Ioii<; lengtlis and saw Iop;s ([ici- ciibic. foot) : 
 
 0„,k - *"■ "' to*il.:'!" 
 
 iie<^cli • '•• 
 
 Asli and iiiaplo • -' 
 
 ISinh -OS 
 
 Al.1,-1- -23 
 
 Otiii r ha nl woods • "' 
 
 (/'onifiTs, li)"S stoiiis "" '" ■ ''^ 
 
 Coiiil.Ts, sa.w lo>;s " '" ■ '• 
 
 CoMifcis, railway lies • '*^' 
 
 For cord wihkI ( per cord ) : 
 
 Ij,,,,,.], C. no 1o S. 10 
 
 O-il; 5. SO to 10. SO 
 
 Otlicr hardwoods C. oO to 7. SO 
 
 ConilVrs ■!• OO to J. SO 
 
 Tlic financial results in the Slate forests were as follows: 
 
 For l.h(^ year 1S'J4— 
 
 Total iiicoiiio 
 
 Total cNpciisos 
 
 Not incoiiic. 
 
 Or per acre of forc^st slocked area — 
 
 Gross iiicoiiie $:>.X2. or 100 per cent 
 
 Expenses -•''■!'. or lli. 2 per cent 
 
 Net inc(Mno "■■!:!. or 5:!. 8 percent 
 
 Flow steadily this handsome revenue has been received may be inferred from the fact that 
 during the tweiityeight years ending IS'.ll the gross income has ww.r been beh)w i?4.L'l i)er acre; 
 that for thirteen out oi' tiie twenty-eight years it varied between ^l.l'l and *.'); that twelve years 
 it was between 8."i and •*(!, and three years almve *•'> per acre. 
 
 The ibllowiug ligiires show this relation for the jieriod LSSl to 1894: 
 
 Production and cost jicr acre of forested area. 
 
 $i,r>:!7, 000 
 
 CilS. 000 
 710.000 
 
 Yn.ir. 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Annual 
 iuroruo 
 (fjross). 
 
 Annual 
 cxpeuse. 
 
 Annual 
 
 net 
 inconio. 
 
 Tile ox- 
 
 lienso !.>+ 
 
 of the 
 
 Incmiie— 
 
 ISSl 
 
 1H82 
 
 (hihicfcH. 
 
 5n 
 Ci 
 
 67 
 C." 
 71 
 71 
 
 8r> 
 
 711 
 
 an 
 
 71 
 73 
 
 if 1.08 
 4.41 
 
 4. fO 
 4.S7 
 .1.15 
 5.2:1 
 
 .1. :i:! 
 .1. 10 
 :,. 48 
 n, 8,1 
 
 5. n.'i 
 r. 7:! 
 
 11, 07 
 
 .1. S2 
 
 <;3. 13 
 'J. 17 
 •J. '.'I 
 2. ::i' 
 2. 34 
 2.47 
 2. fill 
 2 ;'0 
 2. :.!> 
 2 .fill 
 
 2. r.8 
 
 2. (15 
 2. fi4 
 2. fill 
 
 $1.94 
 2. 24 
 
 2 8(1 
 2. 7fi 
 2. 7:1 
 
 2. fi.') 
 2.88 
 3.2r. 
 
 3. IIR 
 :i. 08 
 3.42 
 3.13 
 
 7'(T cent. 
 
 49 
 47 
 47 
 
 i:< 
 47 
 49 
 49 
 47 
 
 41 
 4r. 
 41; 
 43 
 4fi 
 
 ISKt 
 
 !*<«.■> 
 
 1HS6 
 
 lgS7 
 
 
 
 
 
 1832 
 
 \m! 
 
 1894 
 
236 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Considering the fact that these forests, in tlie aggregate only abont as large as ten townshijts, 
 are scattered over considerable area, and thus their protection and management is rendered much 
 more costly tlian if in more comjtact foriii, these results are certainly most remarkable. 
 
 Of the exi)enses, those of si)ecial interest are: 
 
 Lnssinn- (oouerally) $221,000 
 
 Admiiiistratiou i:!2, 000 
 
 I'roteotioii 51,000 
 
 Koatis, iK^w and repair '''?. f'^O 
 
 Sowing, planting, cf(- -l-- 000 
 
 As stated before, wherever the forest is cut, reforestation is at once begun. As in other 
 States, part of this is carried on by the process of natural regeneration, where the old trees are 
 never entirely removed until they have been made to seed the ground, but part is also done by 
 artilicial sowing ami planting. In 1S!H about 125 acres were seeded anew; (15 acres were seeded 
 to correct failures of former years; 7G0 acres were planted for the lirst time, and about 850 acres 
 of former failures were corrected. 
 
 Tiie work of seeding costs sll.05 per acre, the planting All.l.'! per acre, which shows that it 
 is not by a penny-wise and pound loolish system of retrenchment that the most extraordinary 
 results of the Baden forest management are attained. 
 
 ALSACE AND LORRAINE. 
 
 These two small provinces, formerly under French rule, have an area of about .1,000,000 acres 
 and a population of about 1,. 500,000, and are uiuler the Imi)erial (ioverument. The existiug forest 
 laws of these provinces were left in force on their transfer to (Jernmny, so that now, as in former 
 times, the French "code forestier" of 1S37 and some subse(|uent dates decide in all affairs 
 concerning the forests. The laws in the main are like those of r.adcn; they restrict the right 
 of the private owner to a proper use of the forest and forbid all devastation; any clearing requires 
 a .State jjermit, .and with regard to protection against lire, insects, etc., they are subject to the 
 ordinary forest police regulations. As in Iladon, the forests of cori)orations are managed by State 
 authorities, so that a wellplaiined forestry system applies to all forests except tho.se of ju-ivate 
 owners, anil even these are under rigid supervisiim and partial contnd. 
 
 The total area, covered by forest is 444,160 hectares, or about 1,100,000 acres, forming about 
 .30 per cent of the entire land surface. Of this forest area there belong to the State 340,000 
 acres, or 31 percent; villages and town.s, 400,000 acres, cu- 45 ])er cent; private owners, 220,000 
 acres, or 20 per cent. Besides these there are about 4(i,000 acres of laud behui.uing Jointly to the 
 State and villages and 0,000 acres belonging to corporations other than municipalities. 
 
 Since all forests, except those of private owners, are under the nuimigement of the State 
 fin-est autlKuities, fully SO per cent of the forests of these provinces are in most excellent condition. 
 Though the exact proi)ortion has not been ascertained, it may bo said that about CO ])er cent of 
 the forests are hardwoods, largely beech and oak, and only 40 per cent conifers. 
 
 The total cut for 1801 was— 
 
 Cubic foet. 
 
 For State forests 21, 100,000 
 
 For (.-orporation 3S, 000. 000 
 
 Tot.al 5t, 100,000 
 
 of which about 17,500,000 cubic feet was nutzholz, or timber not sold as cord wood or firewood. 
 Of the 21,000,000 cubic feet of wood cut in the State forests there were in 1891: 
 
 Kind of wdikI. 
 
 Tiiiilior 
 (iiiitzliolz). 
 
 CcM-(] .and 
 
 ntiuir 
 lirt'wood. 
 
 Totfil nC 
 wood. 
 
 Per crnt 
 
 of total 
 
 cut. 
 
 (Ink 
 
 Cubic fert. 
 
 I, Olio. 0(10 
 
 SOO 000 
 
 .""i, rioo, 000 
 
 Cvljir- feet. 
 2, 1011,000 
 8. :iOO. UOO 
 2. 700, 000 
 
 Cubic fcrl. 
 :\. 7011, 000 
 9, 100,000 
 8, 200, 000 
 
 18 
 4:i 
 30 
 
 Jii'orli wil li otluT litIl(^ li.inlwouds 
 
 
 
(iKKMAN FIMJEST .MANAtJEME.NT ALSACK-LUKKAINE. 257 
 
 The average price per cubic loot was: 
 
 I'or timlicr or worU wiiod — Cinis. 
 
 Dak 17 
 
 Ht;irli 11 
 
 Colli fors ^. 5 
 
 For lirenood — 
 
 Oak r,. 5 
 
 I '.ecch ti. 7 
 
 Couifers I . L' 
 
 Oil the whole tiie 8tate received 7."-! cents per cubic loot lor all its tiiiil»er and firewood. 
 Among' the iinproNeiuents made duriiii; the year the items of roadmaldni;- ami i-elorestation are 
 most conspicuous. 
 
 In the State forests ahme about 1,500 acres were seeded, i;'e"e'i>l',V at a cost of ^tl to *.'5 per 
 acre, the lowest beinj;' <iO cents; whil(! in lew cases the cost exceeded ■'ii4 iier acre. About.!, 200 
 acres were planted, 1,1,'SO acres for the lirst time, the icst bcini;;' corrections ol' former failures, 
 rianting largely with hardwoods cost on an average about •'<•"). oO jier acre. Iloadmaicin}' is 
 vigorously pursued, as much of the land is (|uit<' rough, and well jilanned. permanent, macadamized 
 roads have pro\cn to be among the best investments. In some of the districts forest railways 
 have also been constructed. 
 
 The tinal results during 1801 were as follows: 
 
 huoiiie from wood $1. 'I'J'.l, 00(1 
 
 ()tU<T iirodiicis I'L', 000 
 
 t'haso 1:^,000 
 
 Total 1, 500, 000 
 
 Of this $51,000 is llgured for wood, which was given to persons holding ser\itude rights. 
 The exi>enses were: 
 
 Iviiiuiiiif; cxppiisrs — 
 
 Coiitial fori^st, liurcan $21 i, 000 
 
 OliiM-lbersteis >J1, 000 
 
 Guards UG. 001) 
 
 Lousing I'ln, 000 
 
 Ho:idiiiakiiif,' 47,000 
 
 Planting, Bowing, drainage,, etc 47, 000 
 
 ( ithiT rnnniiif; expenses V2X, 000 
 
 I'ormanent expenses liO, 000 
 
 Total expenses I't'J, 000 
 
 Keal gross iix'onie 1, 522, 000 
 
 Net iueonio 770. 000 
 
 The following figures present the course ol these relations for the decade ending ISDl: 
 
 Financial resiitls far thv Slali forcsln in Alaace-Lorraiiie. 
 
 
 
 Cut piM- acre uiiil 
 yi':ir. 
 
 P.r a 
 
 ■re 1.1' Icil 
 
 llan:,. 
 
 I'D. ,- ol 
 
 \\-m: 
 
 cimie. 
 
 uvor;i 1 Total, 
 iiiclic's. 
 
 (IroMs in- 
 conn-. 
 
 pt'iise.-*. 
 
 Net in- 
 edllic. 
 
 i 
 
 lllllio 
 tool. 
 
 
 
 Cnhicfn-I. CiiliU- let. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Cenlx. 
 
 ISSJ 
 
 $1.:::17. iHio 
 
 ■4:1 :..'•. 
 
 $:i. ;■' 
 
 .f 2. ■Jll 
 
 .■fl..'-..'-. 
 
 (1, 1 
 
 1 S.S3 
 
 
 
 :!. 8fi 
 
 •J, 114 
 
 l.Sl 
 
 
 1.SS4 
 
 1 . 4-J'.). DUO 
 
 4:1 111 
 
 4.ii:i 
 
 2.114 
 
 1 1. !I7 
 
 (i. 2 
 
 
 l.:!iii,iiiio 
 
 1,-.',S4. OUII 
 
 4;. ' .')9 
 
 4r. ;,ii 
 
 :! (i7 
 ;!. 1)2 
 
 2. 1)1 
 
 1 l.lil 
 1. f)'.) 
 
 .'). « 
 
 I.SS(i 
 
 1HS7 
 
 l.Stis. 0(m 
 
 1. ICt.'j, IKK) 
 
 I.:j7l.uiKi 
 
 in tii 
 a:, ' :>i 
 41; .'.8 
 
 3 Ii7 
 
 :;. 74 
 :i.K4 
 
 2. IHi 
 l.'.l.s 
 2 OS 
 
 I..'i9 
 1. 74 
 
 ' 1.74 
 
 
 1 sss 
 
 (> 11 
 
 18S1I 
 
 li. 2 
 
 Lsill) 
 
 l,47T.UOO 
 
 4'.) 1 la 
 
 4. 1:; 
 
 2. oli 
 
 2- 04 
 
 C. 5 
 
 18U1 
 
 1 , 5'JJ. 1X10 
 
 4ii ;u 
 
 4.-.;4 
 
 2. m 
 
 2. 12 
 
 ^■'1 
 
238 FOllESTEY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT (»F AGKICULTUKE. 
 
 The iiel iiicitiiu!, in spite of large yields in wood material and a fairly good market, is com- 
 paratively small, though slightly improviug. In 188t!, wheu tliis income was still lower, a special 
 investigatiiiii was undertaken, to set forth the reasons of this small net revenue and to suggest 
 improvement. All oberfoersters of note contributed their opinions, and on the whole good results 
 seem to have come from their suggestions for im()rovement. The chief trouble evidently lies iu 
 the great proportiou of hardwoods, which leads to a large production of lirewood and a small 
 proportion of tiud)er or work wood. Thus 0(! per cent of all oak, 91 per cent of all beech, and 83 
 ])er cent of all other hardwoods had to be sold as cord and tire wood, bringing generally about 5 
 cents i)er cubic foot solid, or about Ar> per cord, wliile for the coniferous woods only .'i(> per cent 
 has to be sacrificed as cord wood, the rest being sold as tiudjer for just twice the amount obtained 
 lor firewood. 
 
 This condition of alfairs is materially aggravated by the general use of coal as fuel and the 
 rejection of beech as tie tind)('r on railways, etc. This condition of affairs in Alsace-Lorraine is of 
 great interest in considering the forest conditions of the United States. It shows evidently that 
 it is the coniferous timbers which iriust be looked to as the important ones, and that even large 
 supplies of hardwoods can not be exi)ected to reidace such stai)les as white pine or spruce. 
 
 Methods of (Iekman P(ii;est JIanagement. 
 
 'J'he following brief description of the methods of German forest management, by wiiich the 
 results described have been attained, was originally prepared in connection with an exhibit at the 
 World's Fair, which the chief of the Division of Forestry collected and installed upon the invita- 
 tion ami at the expense of the (!ernian Governnu^nt, and is mainly reprinted with additions from 
 his annual report for 1S9.">. The description having been based upon the objects exhibited no 
 attempt has been made to alter the form. 
 
 MAP WOKK and FOREST DISTIMCTING. 
 
 The first requirement in the management of any property is that all its conditions should be 
 known and recordcul; lieiu-e a toi)ographic survey of the forest district to be i)laced under num- 
 agement is the first re(|uisite. Such snr\ey refers not only to the boundaries and topographical 
 features of the district itself, but also to the surroundings, es])ecially with reference to connef-tious 
 with markets. Finally, for government forests, the geographical position of the forest areas in 
 general should be grouped according to ownership. JNIaps of the latter description were exhibited 
 from the Governments of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg. 
 
 These show iu three different colors the forest areas belonging to the (Government, to commu- 
 nities and institutions, and to private owners. From these it could be seen not oidy that the three 
 classes of proprietors share about equally iu the ownership of the forest area, but that the 
 Government owns mainly the forests on the mountains, where forest management must be carried 
 on not for profit, but for indirect benelits iu the preservation of favorable soil and water conditions, 
 which therefore makes the permaiumt, well-organized management "by and for the people" 
 necessary. Contrary to the notion to which currency is so often given in the United States, the 
 various governments of (ierraauy do not own more than :i~j per cent, exercising jiartial control (so 
 as to prevent destruction aud waste) over only 15 per ceut iu the hands of communities and 
 institutions, and leaving the balance of .'")l) per cent of the forest area in private hands almost 
 entirely without restriction. 
 
 Sometimes the contours of the country are also indicated on the maps, which serve the useful 
 economic purpose of permitting ready reference of the forest areas to the topography. As an 
 instance of such work there was shown a relief maj) of llesse. On this the forest areas were 
 indicated in green color. 
 
 For the sake of orderly administration, tiie wh-ole country is separated into forest divisions or 
 inspections (sometimes both), each of which forms a se))arate unit of admiuistralion. 
 
 It is to be understood that we are now speaking ouly of the Government forests, which are 
 under a uniform general administration. 
 
 The administration of the Government forests is usually assigned either to the ti nance 
 
GKlt.MAN FOREST MANAGEMENT SUliVEY. 239 
 
 (lepin-tineiit (as in llavaria) iir to tlie (k-partmciit of ayricuKuic and (brcstry fas in I'nissla), with 
 onci dii(!ct()f and coiincil directly in cliar,!;c under the. .siiiieivision of tiie ininistcr or .sccietary. 
 TIh" position of tiio director (Obi'ilaudtbistnicistcr) corresponds soniewiiat (o that of our Com- 
 niissioner of the (leneral I.and Ollice, except that, an extensive technical kuow'ledye heinj;- needed 
 in the position, the incumbent ia promoted througli all i)ositions IVom the h>\ver f;rades. Aj^ain, 
 each tbi-est division is ]ilaced under a separate! administrative bo<ly consistin.i;- of an administrator 
 (Olierforstnieister) with a council of forest inspectors (I'^orstmeisteri, ea(;h of whom has supervision 
 of a nund)er of the- linal units of administration, the forest districts (( )berfoersterei, Forstamt). 
 Tlie district olticer (Oberfoerster, Jtevierfoerster, etc.), with a nnndier of assistants, I'angers 
 (Foerster), and fiuards (Schut/.beamte), is then the manai;er and executive olticer in the, forest 
 itself, while the liij;her su])ervisiu};- and iusjjectinj;- oflicials are located at the seals of fi'overument. 
 
 SURVE\' OF TIIJ-; FOKEST IHSTIMOT. 
 
 The survey of each forest district is carried out to the utmost minutia'. 
 
 In I'russia the nuips of the distiicts are made on tliescaleof 1 :5,()0(l in poitfolio shet^ts, re|)ie- 
 sentiny a careful survey by tlieodolite of the boundarh'S of the district, the permanent dilferences 
 of soil and occu])ancy (roads, waters, lields, meadows, moors, etc.), and the division of the district 
 into sandier units of management. This kind of nuip, of whicii only three copies are made, is 
 then, lbri)urposes of use in daily routine, reduced to a scale of 1 :!.'."),()()(» on oneslieet, and printed. 
 The first matter of interest that strikes us on these blank or base nuijis is the division lines by 
 which the district is divided into i)arcels or oompartments. In the plain these lines divide the 
 district into re.i;idar oblong compartments (.lagen) of about (ill to !'> acrc^s each, with sides of 1(10 
 and 200 yards, r(!si)ectively, separated by openings or avenues wliicli we may call "rides" (destell, 
 Schueisse), so that the whole makes the appearance very nuu'h like the maj) of an American city 
 regularly divided into blocks. The rides (from S to 40 rods wide) ruuning east and west and north 
 and south are lettered, the former, broader ones (main avenues) with capital letters, the latter 
 (side avenues) with small letters, while the compartments are numbered. In the forest itself at 
 each corner a monument of wood or stone indicates the letters of the rides and nnnd)ers of the 
 compart tnents, rendering it easy to tiud oner's way or direct any laborer to any place in the forest. 
 The rides are often used as roads and serve also the purpose of checking tires, etc. 
 
 In the hill and mountain districts this regular division becomes impracticable and the lines of 
 compartments conform to the contour, while (he opening of the aveinies is restricted to those 
 which can be leadily transformed into roads; roads, indeed, determining the division lines 
 wherever practicable. 
 
 In hdl or mountain districts tojxigraphic or contour nni))s become necessary, especially for the 
 l)urpose of rational roa<l constinction, a matter on which in modern times great stress is laid and 
 to whicli we shall ri'fer latei' on more in detail. Such contour ma[)s are sometimes executed in 
 l)apier inache or gypsum models for readier refereiu-e. 
 
 1'1MNC1I'I>KS Ol' MANACKMENT. 
 
 The fundamental principles uimn which the German Government forests and most of the 
 communal and private forests are managed is brietly expressed in the idea that the forest growth 
 is to be treated as a croit to be reproduced as soon as harvested, involving contiuuity of crops. 
 Tocarry this luincijile into etfect mostad va;itag«ously the management must take care tohusbaiul 
 the natuial forces and <'<Hulitions upon which thrifty forest growth relies, which leads to the 
 second principle, that of highest elhciency of crops, or the two leading ])rinciples combined, to 
 produce the largest amounts of nuiterial (or revenue) in the shortest tinu' without impairing the 
 condition and caiiacity for reproduction of the forest. peri)etuating valuable forest growth wher- 
 ever this is the best crop or where soil conditions make a forest covei- desirable, in government 
 forests in addition the linancial principle prevails of treating the forest as a i)ernninently invested 
 capital, from which only the interest is to be used, making tlu! amount harvested or the revenue 
 derived to be as Tiearly alike from year to year or from ix'iiod to period, and as nearly correspond- 
 ing to the annual accretion, as it is possible to nud;e them. 
 
240 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The preseut Obeihuidforstnieister, or diieutor, of the I'nussiau forest department uses tlie 
 following language in laying down the principles upon which tlie (loverniuent uiauages its forests: 
 
 Tlio Pnissiuu State forest admiiiistnitiou does not accede to the iiriuciples of a coutinuous liij;licst soil reut 
 based iipou compouud iuturcst calculations, but believes, ill coutiadistinction to private forest maiiageiiieut, that it 
 can not avoid tlie obligatlun in the inanagenieut of the State forests of keeping in view the welfare of the whole 
 coniuuinity of citizens, and therein taking into consideiatiou the neeil for continued supply of wood and other forest 
 products as well as the other objects to whieli in so many directions the forest is subservient. The ailministration 
 does not consider itself entitled to pursue a one-sided financial poli<-y, least of all to submit the Government forests 
 to a pure money-making management strictly based on capital and interest calculations, but considers it its duty to 
 so manage tlio forests as a patrimony belonging to the whole nation that th(^ preseut generation may bobenelited by 
 the Iiigliest jiossible usufruct in satisfying its wants and deriving the protection which the forest renders, and that 
 to future generations may lie secured at least as large usufruct of the same kind. 
 
 To carry out these principles the iutiuiale knowledge of the couditions of the property, 
 referred to above, is necessary and is obtained by a careful forest survey as a basis for a systematic 
 adniiuistratiou and forest regulation. 
 
 These data of this forest survey are not only recorded in writing but such as can be readily 
 uoted are liually placed upon the blauk niajjs described above, together with the results of the 
 forest regulation described further on, so that the manager can readily overlook the details of his 
 district and the propositions for its manageinent.' This information — after further subdivision of 
 the compartments where needed on account of differences in soil conditions or growth— is given by 
 means of different colors, difference in shade, numbers, figures, marks, and signs. These maps, 
 which are pre] tared after a most |)aiustaking forest survey, and which we may call " manager's 
 map" (Plate XXXII), show at a glance not oidy the nature of soil conditions and what the prin- 
 cipal kind of timber and its admixtures are in each compartment or subdivision, but also bow old 
 the growth; whether it is to be treated as a^ coppice, standard coppice, or timber forest; at what 
 period in the rotation it is to be cut, aiul such notes as the manager him.self may add from year 
 to year, as, for instance, the yearly fellings, plantings, movable nurseries, new road projects, etc. 
 
 One of the most instructive exhibits in this direction was that showing the changes in Timlitz 
 forest, iSaxony. The mai) of the district in 1822 presented about the condition of one of our 
 mismanaged Michigan forests of jtine and hard woods mixed, from which all the good timber had 
 been culled, leaving it to inferior kinds with few groups of straggling pines and more valuable 
 hard woods, without symmetry or system in the distribution of kinds or age classes. At the same 
 time a map was constructed showing ideally how the forest was to look after eighty years' well- 
 planned )iuinagement. We can then follow in the maps made every ten or twenty years the 
 changes in appearance under the hand of the forester. During the management new information 
 and exi)ericnce liave dictated modilications of the original working plan, giving rise to a new 
 manager's map, the apjjroach to which appearing in the timber map lor 1SS5 leaves no doubt that 
 at the end of the period of regulation we will have a well-grown pine forest, with deciduous trees 
 mixed in or confined to the more suitable situations, so disposed over the area that annually or 
 periodically the .same amount, or nearly .so, of valuable material can be harvested. 
 
 The painstaking methods of surveying, describing, measuring, calculating, planning, book- 
 keeping, and repeated revising of all the work from decade to decade were shown in the regulation 
 work of the district of Ilinteruah, Prussia, contained in six large folio volumes of manuscript, 
 continued from the year 1S22 to the last revision in 1890. We can only briefly indicate what this 
 work involves, which was brietly summarized in the following exhibit: 
 
 EouEsT Regulation. 
 
 ri!0(iI:KSS (IF W(1I!K UKijriKKli T(l ItHI.NIi I'llKKSr AREAS 1:NUEK UATIONAI, K(ll;K.sr ,MANA(iK,MENT. 
 
 I. iii'odetic (ind topogrdphic tutrrei/ und iiittppinfi. 
 II. Fuifst siii-vey in connection with I, noting all areas disliiiguished by c|uality of soil, eomposition, and age of 
 timber; general description of forest conditions, of climatic conditions, of surrounding couditions, of 
 possible dangers, of market couditions, means of transportation, etc. 
 
 'Each State government jiursues somewh.it different methods of mapping. Sometimes two sets of maps are 
 m.ade, one to show tlie conditions, whieli might then be called a timber maji, the other to .show the working plan; 
 but tliese are now mostlv combined into one. 
 
(iKKiMAX F0I;EST MANAOEMENT — FOREST KEGl'LATK (N. 211 
 
 III. lon.l dMncIbi,,. Division of forest into ,,aT.',.|s ,„■ 1„(h ;„„[ ;,-.rog,iti,.n of lots Into MorUs mi.l rMv.s In tl„. 
 
 l.l;nn,re,'ta,i,.i;nlaiMots,,llvid,-(ll^v.-tonMllin,.Hrallnlil,Irs((o.strll),M,n>rnstoi,,arv; in liill v ami monntainoiis 
 ronntry division linrs follow tlic c.nfi-uiatioii of soil. I lilfm.ncrs of soil or rbaiartrr of i;i oivl h «illiin lots 
 ,u;iv(i rise to fonnjil ion of siililots. 
 
 IV. FonsI iiUld nihiulUm ( asse.ssni.'Ul ). Ascertaining aiiioinits of tiinl.er stanilln,^. ralo of -n,wll, ,„, varn.iis .-.itt-s. 
 
 (Ietciiiiinin,n- i-ipiihility of ]in)(liiction and future yield in material .iiid ni,Mi(v\-. 
 
 V. Ilctrrmiiiii,;, iihii, of ,i„i,ia;in,i(:„t ( workinj;- jilaiis). (;(,iiera,l |da,n for all time; speei.il plans lor period ol (e 
 
 twenty years. Detormininj; length of rotation; amounts .Miiiiially to I.e ,-iit, desi;;natinj,' lots I,, l,e, ,iit 
 will, a view toolit.ainin- favorable distribution of a-e elasses; tliiiini,i;;s to l.emadc; methods to !.,■ nsed' 
 HI lelliii}; and cultures. 
 
 .METJlnlJS Ul' I'OK'EST KlOtUILATK )iN. 
 
 Ill I'nissia it wa.s Kicdeiick tin- (ircat wlio lirst oideml a n-ulakMl admiiiisdalinn df tlic 
 Governiiieut forests soon itCtcr the bcoinnjno- „f hj.s leiyii. Tlic liist .simpl.. luo.siiipij.ins of 
 dividing tlif foiest.s into im[Iui1 areas and cutting every yotir a propoition;it(^ ;nca weic followed n|i 
 witli more elaborate ordinaiiees, liaving in view a closer eciiializatioii of tlie ;uii'jtiiits of iii;iteii;il 
 li;ir\csted and revenues olttttined, besides other considerations of inaiiagement for coiitinnilv, until 
 tiii;il!y tlie basis for present methods of regulatiou was reached in tlie ordiiKinee of is;;(;,'.since 
 nioditied in its details, under which "the preservation, revision, and jierfection of the wiirk of 
 forest valuation ;iiid regulation " is carried on. 
 
 The modus ojierandi, siniil;ir in princiiile in ail (lovernment forest ttdministrations. is :ib..iii ;i.s 
 follows: 
 
 Let us assume that tlie (iovernmeut has purchased' a new foiest district, coniprisino, sav, 
 10,000 acres, the ;iverage si/.e of the existing districts. The necessary sin veys ;im| bl;iiik"iii;ip.s, 
 as explained, have been nnide and the bound;iries carefully established in the Held, the divisioii 
 into compartments Of ]>;ircels, larger or smaller according to the iiceil of a more or less intensive 
 management, have been noted on the maiis and marked on the ground (the avenues jn'rliaps 
 partially opened), ;ind for the sake of satisfactory administration a niimlier of the piircels have 
 been combined into subdistriets, " block.s," or ranges; and thus the Hrst— purely geometrical- 
 basis for a rational administration has been established. Now the ;irithmetical basis is to be 
 ascertiiined. For this, in the lirst place, :i general description of the district in its present 
 condition is desiniblc, parts of which, however, cau be furnished only after the more thorough 
 measurements de.scriiied later. Such a description recites all needful knowledge regarding t?ie 
 extent, the manner of division, the boundaries, and the legal rights. Next follows a'^Ie.scription 
 in general terms of topography, climate, and .soil conditions, aud of the forest growth, heing a 
 conden.s;!! ion of the special de.scrii.tioii by parcels. The manner of treatment hitherto, the market 
 conditions, current market jirices, and usual wages are noted. Then, alter recital of the processes 
 and methods by which the iiiforniatioii in the following detail work has been obtained, the jirinciples 
 adopted for the maimgement and its motivation are staled, forming a gi^neral guide for the manager 
 for all time. 
 
 These principles are formuhited by a comnii.ssion after sutlicicnt general knowledge of the 
 condition of the district is obtained. In this important part of the general descrijitioiMiot oiil\ 
 the territorial partition of the district into couipartmeuts and blocks or ranges is determined, anil 
 reasons given for it, but also the system of management for e;ich block or i)arts of blocks, whether 
 
 I Prices for forest soil vary, of course, according to tbeir bication and condition, jiist as in our country, in ISI',1 
 Bavaria, sold 27,(Ml(> acres of \wr State forests at ^tlS j.er acre. In Prussia tlio (lo\ ernnient lias lately ( lss|-lss7) jiaid 
 prices ranging from .+.■. to $t)0 ])or aero, ami for a round 70,000 acres tlie jirice per acn^ w as .$21 aviTanc 'I'beso were 
 mostly devastated waste lands in the nortbern plain. In Tlinrinyia, where |irices for wood and lamr.are bi-hcr the 
 price for forest land is from $20 to $00 and as high as $80. These prices do not, of coiirs.', include any tiiiiljci"i;To\vtb 
 the value of which, if present, is calculatoil according to well-known careful methods of det,enuiniiig "cxiK'ctation 
 values." According to a calculation by Dr. .1. Leiir, liased on tbi^ net income as represonling intcrest'at a i; iicr cent 
 rate, and assuming a ninety-year rotation of the forest growth for the entire (ieinian Emiiire, the forest laud was 
 worth $1'.") pir acre and the wood on it $151) per acre. 
 
 U. Doc. 181 10 
 
242 FORESTRY INVEi^TIGATIOXS U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AORICULTUKE. 
 
 coppice, standard coppice, timber forest, etc.,' and the Ien.ntb of rotation — i. e., the time within 
 wliich a block is to be cut over and reproduced; furthermore, the principles according to whicli 
 the fellinijs are to progress, reprocbiction is to be secured, thinnin};s are to be made, the annual 
 yiehl to lie ex))ected, and the time witliin which the forest is to be brought into a regular system 
 atic order of management — in .short, all the general framework of the management as far as 
 determining a s(^t jjolicy into which the si)eeial working i)lans should lit. liefore this report can 
 be made tinal, however, the work of the valuator or examiner njust have |)roceeded to some extent. 
 
 VALUATION WORK. 
 
 The valuator or estimator, upon whose work as a basis the general and special working i)lans 
 depend, begins by exaunniTig and descrildng brielly the conditions of the soil, its productive 
 cai)acity, and the kind and ai>pearaiice of the growth in each compartment (or subparcel, if con- 
 ditions of growth or soil make such subdivision desirable). In the descripticui the dominating 
 kind of timber, or, if mixed in e(iual propt)rtions, that upon which the management i.s to be jaond- 
 
 ' Note. — Timlier forest (Hochwiild, high Ibn'st) i.s a foroBt In wliirh trees are allowed to grow to niatiirity, and 
 reprodiietiou is etlei'tcd eitlier hy natural seeding Ironi tin' old growth in various ways, or by jilanting or sowing 
 after removal of tlu) old growth; it is usually managed In rotations of 70 to I'.'O years. 
 
 C'opi>ice (Niederwalil, low forest) is a forest in whiih reprodiietion is expeeted li,\ spronls from the stumps; 
 this is usually managed In rnt.atioiis of Id to 10 ye.irs. 
 
 .Standard eopjiiec (Mittelwald, middle forest) Is a eomlilnatimi of the two former, Ihe st:ind.irds lieing allowed 
 to grow to maturity .■in<l reproduetion hiding seinred liolli by seeil and sjiroul lug. 
 
 Delenniniiitj Ihe rotation. — Onr friends wIjo are attempting to bring about a. nion^ rational tri^atnient of onr 
 forests have often a mistaken notion as to when timber should be cut, when It is re.idy for tl](' li;irvest. This eau 
 not be determined by any set period, as in the ripening of fruit In agrieulturi-, or liv any more or less itellned age, 
 nmeh less by any diameter measure. 'I'lie iletenniuation of the " felling age'' ( llaiil>arUellsalter) or (d'tho lenglli of 
 " rotation"' (IJmtrleh) depends on the us(^ to whieli the. ei'op is to be put, 11n^ manner in which it is to bo reproduced, 
 and the amount of material that can bo iiroduei^d, or the. amount id' jiiidit tli.it can be diuived I'roin it. This 
 ileterminatiou is inu' of the most dillicult, rei|ulriug both careful linancial caleulatlon and knowledge (d' I'orcst 
 teclini<{Ue. 
 
 The " silvlcultnrul rotation " is that wlilcli considers mainly tlu'. fiucst tcidinic|ni', being the time u hen jierfect 
 natural reproduction is nn>st surely attainable — i. e., fullest .seed produ<-tion in tliuber forest, highest sprouting 
 ea)>ai-ity in eoppiee I'orest; or when preservation of the productive eajiai-ity of the soil, avoidance <d' daruage from 
 windfalls, di.soases, ete., are uppermost c(msiderati<ius. These considerations of i-onrscwilso iutlnenci^ In part the 
 dcterminaticMi of any of tlio following rotations, which we may call " econonne rotations." 
 
 The "rotation of greatest nniterial juodnetion " is that \\ liicli allows the fon^st to grow as long .as tlu' average 
 annual aeeretion is at a maximum. This dilf(Ts of course with species, cliuuite, s(nl, etc. If for the mass of 
 
 material we substitute its mom^y value and strive to so arrange tliat the- tinu' i<{ rotati ■oineidcs with the largest 
 
 money returns, wii have a " tinancial rotation." 
 
 Various points of view lead to different kinds of linancial rotations: 
 
 " Rotation of the highest harvest value," en- " technictal relation," which attempts to ]>roduee eertain desired 
 sizes ami (inalities in largest (juantity with a view of obtaining thereby the largest nu>ney n^tiiru for the crop uiuler 
 the circumstances (luanagcnmnt for t(d(^graph poles, fence posts, osier holts, tan-oak cojipici!). 
 
 " Rotation of the highest forest revenue," when the growth is to be harvested at the tinui of Its maximum average 
 annual net money value; this tone is inlluenee<l Iioth by the aujount of material and tlie jiricc jiaid for better sizes 
 and iinality <d' wood. In this rotation lui reg.-ird is pa.ld to the original cajiital invested in the soil ; when this Latter 
 factor is introduced into the calculation we arrive at the true " linancial rotation" or " rotation of the highest soil 
 (or ground ) rent,'' in which the forest is to bo cut at a time when the capital invested in soil, stock, and management 
 furnishes the highest interest rate. This capital, as far as the soil is concerned, nuiy he represented by its actual 
 cost or by its market value, or else liy its capacity fin' jiroduction ( Uodenorwartnngswertli ; soil-expectation value), 
 which is found liy adding the values of expected returns at harvest discounted to the ]iroscnt time and deducting 
 the expenses incurred up to the time of harvest, similarly discounted. 
 
 To deteruune this value experieuce tables nnist give the data. Local conditions and prices and the rate of 
 interest applied of course inlluence the length of thii linancial rotation. It is shortest for a tirewood management 
 (in Germany, say (iO to 70 years), for spruce and pine at an interest late of 2 to 3 per cent a rotation of 70 to tlO years, 
 with oak IL'I) years, appear as iirotitablo rotations; where sm.i.ll sizes, nnuing timber, jiosts, poles, etc., are bringing 
 good i)rices, the most proti table linancial rotation may be shorter. It stands to reason tliat the length of this rotation, 
 as well as of all others, can be only approximately calcnlatc^il. The forestry literature of (Jermany is most prolific 
 just now with regard to determining fiuaueial rotations, and the highest nuithematical skill is employed in the 
 discussion. 
 
 Growth ( liestand, stand) is here and furthei- on used in the collective sense of the word to denote an aggregate 
 of trees, for which also the word '■stand" nia\ be employed. 
 
GERMAN KOREST MANAGEMENT RllOUEATING A FOREST. 
 
 13 
 
 neiitly based, is named first, and tlie average age of the giowtii witli special relerenec to tiic 
 dominating tind)er is ascertained (or the ])ii!|)ose ot ranging tiie parcel into an "age class," which 
 comi)rises usually twenty yi'ars, so that (he growdi of I to I'O, '21 to 10, tl (o 'iO years, etc., I'orm 
 each an age class or period. 'IMie densKy ol' the growth and larg(^r openings devoid of tree growth 
 are specially notcnl. The valuator at the same time is expected to form, from general a])pearances, 
 an opinion as to the Ijest treatment of each parcel in the neai- future, and note it, and especially 
 whether (he giowdi is to be, cut during an earlier or later period than its age would warrant, 
 considering the likelihood of its thrifty or its unsatisfactory growth. Ue also estimates the amounts 
 to be taken out in thinnings for the next twenty years. 
 
 With this informatiiui established a table may be constrnciiMl, in which the arc^aof each jiarcel 
 is enteied, according to its average age or "age class," modilied by considerations of j>roductive 
 capacity, and from (his a "tindicr ma|)" is nuide, showing the piesent conilitioiis of the forest, 
 the kind of (b)niinating tiinl)er in each jiarcel being denoted by a color, intermixed timbers by 
 signs, and the age by the shade of Uw color in 1, .T, or (i gradations, according to the number of age 
 classes, as shown in the accompanying ideal map. 
 
 ARRANUEIMKN'r ol' A(iE CLASSES. 
 
 Now follows tlie dcleiriiination of th(! future arrangement of age classes, the objccti of which 
 is to have, when the forest is regulated, in cacli period of the rotation an api)roxiinately eipial or 
 e(iually i>rodncing area to Ixi cut. It therefore becomes inn-essary to shift the distribution of age 
 classes, in order to attain the eiiuality of the sum of areas in each [leriod. In addition to t-ht! in(!re 
 e(|Uali/.ation of areas, (heie are s<'Veral other considiu-ations guiding the valuator in arranging the 
 age classes. The oldest timber, as well as that which tor sonu; reason has (teased to make 
 satisfactory growth, is of coui'se to be cut- first; hence the conditions of these areas are more 
 s[»u'ially examini'd regarding health, density of cover, soil, vigor, etc. In (Niniferous growths, 
 especially in the (ilain, the danger from wiudliills, if one parcel is cut and thereby (he other 
 exposed to the ])revailing slorms, necessita(es such an arrangement in the location of the fellings 
 (or age classes) that the removal of an old growth will leave l)ehind it a young giowtli which is 
 less liable to be thrown. This local distribution of the age classes by which, in the direction of 
 the prevailing winds, no two neighboring growths aie assigned to the same period is also desirable 
 from other considcrat i()ns. Uy avoiding a series of extensive fellings side by side the danger from 
 tires is lessened and liability to spread of diseases and insect attacks, danger from frost, and 
 drought to young growths is confined or reduced. Hence an arrangement of the age classes as 
 near as j)ossible after the following scheme has been generally adopted, in which the Itoman figures 
 denote tlu! age classes, I standing for the oldest growth, containing, if the rotation has been set 
 at lot) years, timber of SO to 100 years, to be felled within tln^ first twenty years; II for that to be 
 felleil within twenty-o!ie to forty years from the iireseut, and so on; V to be felled in from eighty 
 to one hundred years. 
 
 I'rcvailiii;^' wiiiils- 
 
 III 
 
 I 
 
 IV 
 
 It 
 
 V 
 
 III 
 
 I IV 
 
 11 
 
 V III 
 
 I 
 
 Tic. 2:1. lll:ii;i:i 
 
 : .tri .(ULiiiiniit (if .'iiir classf'S. 
 
 In mountainous districts, where the topograi)hy influences the expense of transportation, 
 fellings are often more (concentrated and (he higher parcels used and rei>rodiiced bcl'oie the lower, 
 in order (o avoid injury to tlu^ young growth by a rtjversed ('ondition when the material from above 
 would have to jiass through the young growth below. Various minor points may also dictati; 
 exceptional arrangement. In coppice growth, needed j)rotection of the stocks against cold north 
 
244 
 
 FORESTl.'Y IXVESTIGATIONS U. S. UEPARl'MENl' OF AGKICULTLKE. 
 
 winds makes it desiiable to liave the lVlliiii;s ])n)gress IVoiii tlie soiiMi and west toward north and 
 east. Altogether it will have become apiiarent that the distribution of successive fellinss is an 
 important matter, not only lioni the standpoint of regulated administration, Imt also of sneeessfnl 
 culture. 
 
 In the aueonipanying map (I'l. XXXll) we have attempted to give an idea of the matter on 
 whicli a "manager's map" is constru(te<l, and how ideally in a forestof the jilain the arrangement 
 of age classes wouhl ajipcar when the forest regulation is |)erlected. 
 
 VIKLM ('ALOI'LATII)NS. 
 
 When the distribution of areas has been effected in accordance with the considerations set 
 forth, the yield calculations are made. These are computed after carefid measurements and by 
 various methods of <'alculation, which have been (le\eloped after niiicli experience during more 
 than one hundred years. 
 
 Since the ditVeren! '•ompartnients are cut at ditleient times, not only the i)resent '-stoik on 
 
 HUNDRED 
 
 CUBIC FT. 
 
 180 
 
 100 
 
 140 
 
 i:;o 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 60 
 
 40 
 20 
 
 
 ,S 
 
 prucc. 
 'ir. 
 'ine. 
 leech. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 r 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -- 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 
 ^ u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 / 
 
 >' 
 
 / 
 / 
 / 
 
 
 
 rl3> 
 
 J' 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 *3 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 :. ; 
 
 ...»•'•• 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ••"'" 
 
 I?'' 
 
 5 
 
 rx^ 
 
 /S 
 
 
 
 
 / •** 
 
 
 '■■/- 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 5?'3 
 
 - " 
 
 
 .y 
 
 / 
 
 
 > 
 
 ^< 
 
 
 ^inr- 
 
 T 
 
 Pel 
 
 >•'*'••* 
 
 
 ^--- 
 
 ^' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 0r 
 
 ■^' 
 
 I--- 
 
 "' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HUNDRED 
 CUBIC FT. 
 
 180 
 
 160 
 
 14.0 
 
 - 120 
 
 >^ - 100 
 
 80 
 
 GO 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 :;o ;!0 
 
 w 
 
 fiO 
 
 GO 70 80 90 100 110 120YEARS 
 
 La — Dhi'^ram slmwin;; <iiiii|i;irnli\ '• lirn; 
 
 III' yiilil^ iif Mlinirf, fii-, pini-. ;i!iii Iicoili mi liisl .'iiul jmort's: silt^ 
 
 hand" needs to be measured, but also the accretion foi' each age class from the present to the 
 middle of the period in whicli it is to be utilized as to total (piantity (decreasing in arithmetical 
 proportion as the stock on hand is diminished by fellings), when by adding the two quantities and 
 dividing the total by the number of yeais in the rotation or time of regulation the eipialized 
 yearly (juota to be utilized, or " felling budget" (Ilaubarkeitsertrag or etat), can be calculated. 
 
 The determination of existing stock is made by measuring diameter breast high by means of 
 calipers, estimating the average height, and calculating contents with the. aid of tables which give 
 the corresponding volumes of timber wood (above 3 inches diameter). These tables are coustrncted 
 after numberless detail measurements, from which the " factor of shape" for each siiecies, soil, or 
 climate is derived, for, since the tree is neither a cylinder nor a cone, which could be calculated 
 from the base and height, the moditicatiou from either of these two forms, the " factor of shape" 
 must be determined ex])erimentally in order to arrive at tiie approximately true contents. In 
 very irregular growths and with skillful valuators a simple estimating of contents or the use of 
 so called normal yield or " experience tables," which give for the various sjiccies, soils, and climates 
 the aiuount of wood that would normally be i>roduced per acre at a given period, is not excluded. 
 
(lEK'MAN KORF.ST MANAGEMENT — FOK'KST KKCULATION. 
 
 •245 
 
 XoriiKt! i/itht tiihir for sitvitrr. 
 I Mam i: row 111 (rx elusive (.T t liiniiinuN) j-i r arn'.| 
 
 Sitr tUtiS I. 
 
 10 years.. 
 •JOyi-ars . 
 ;iO yeni.s.. 
 40 yeurs . 
 'jO yt'ars. . 
 (iO years. . 
 70 vrars.. 
 Hll years. . 
 !H» V»^ar>t.. 
 
 lot) \e;iis.. 
 Ilnyears.. 
 11!!) ve;ir-(. . 
 
 N 
 
 III) 
 
 Iv 
 
 ■es. 
 
 , 
 
 ri9i 
 
 SI'.tiuM 
 illCil c^|• 
 
 iill in-i's 
 
 l>II>ilal 
 liinh. 
 
 '■;■ 
 
 .S'|7.' rlills II. 
 
 10 yearn. 
 20 vcara. 
 ;«) vi-!iis. 
 
 411 ywlra. 
 
 50 years. 
 
 60 yi'ars. 
 
 70 years. 
 
 >*0 year« . 
 
 '.10 years. 
 100 \.-ars. 
 110 years, 
 rjo years. 
 
 1.700 
 
 1 , llfi.'. 
 
 724 
 
 515 
 
 :iao 
 :«1 
 •JliO 
 ■ZVi 
 2'J'.I 
 J'Jti 
 
 2. :it.» 
 
 l.Ol'.l 
 1, 161 
 
 «rj 
 6:i:) 
 iU 
 :i5ii 
 .■ioi 
 2'.i:-i 
 
 411. i 
 
 II4.4 
 1.5'.l. 5 
 188.4 
 2III1. 7 
 223. S 
 2:i7. 1 
 244.11 
 2.io. II 
 •iW 1 
 
 \\fr- 
 he'iKht. 
 
 r.rl. 
 4.11 
 10.7 
 211. 2 i 
 47.6 
 02. 6 
 76.7 
 «S. 2 
 
 w 
 
 onil 
 
 ali< 
 
 >vi* 11 
 
 10 
 
 lies 
 
 liai 
 
 le.er. 
 
 Wood, 
 total 
 
 n" 
 
 4 
 
 105 
 
 :i 
 
 112 
 
 *i 
 
 117 
 
 7 
 
 121 
 
 4 
 
 fl. 
 
 80 
 101 
 003 I 
 748 ' 
 
 200 
 
 0.'i5 
 
 2!l!t 
 071 
 580 
 
 ft. 
 715 
 174 
 204 
 378 
 623 
 025 
 198 
 213 
 043 
 715 
 272 
 
 A(,'e. 
 
 S,l,' ,1,1-1 III 
 
 10 years 
 
 20 VeaiB 
 
 30 years 
 
 40 i'ears 
 
 50 years 
 
 60 years 
 
 70 yeiirs . . 
 
 80 years 
 
 Oil veil IS 
 
 100 years 
 
 110 sears 
 
 120 years 
 
 S,lf ,-tnu I V. 
 
 Niiiii 
 tier of 
 
 Cniss- 
 .se. tiiill 
 area of 
 all trees 
 lire.-ist, 
 liii^li. 
 
 3, 732 i 
 
 2,412 
 
 1 , 5H0 
 
 1,II.''0 
 
 724 
 
 500 
 
 424 
 
 380 
 
 340 
 
 320 
 
 3, 
 
 201 
 
 151.1 
 1811. 
 •JOO. 
 213. i 
 
 2,31. 
 230. 
 216 
 
 115 
 21. 
 35. 1 
 47.2 
 511,7 
 71. s 
 83. 
 01.5 
 117 7 
 103.0 
 100,0 
 
 315 
 
 1. 1S7 
 
 2, 502 
 4,170 
 6,220 
 7,808 
 0, 205 
 
 111. 330 
 II, 125 
 11,710 
 12,200 
 
 415 
 1,2111 
 2, 4011 
 4,018 
 5, 791 
 7,851 
 0,481 
 10, 725 
 11,083 
 12, ,308 
 13,013 
 13,585 
 
 ill years. .. 
 
 20 years. .. 
 
 30 year.s. - - 
 
 40 years . . 
 
 50 \ears . 
 
 00 years 
 
 70 years. . . 
 
 80 years. . . 
 
 00 \ears . . 
 100 '\ ears... 
 110 years . . . 
 1211 years... 
 
 804 
 018 
 5.''4 
 500 
 404 
 
 . ft. 
 
 F.; 1. 
 
 18,3 
 
 1.0 
 
 53. 7 
 
 0. 
 
 80. 
 
 15.7 
 
 130, 1 
 
 25. 
 
 154.0 
 
 30,7 
 
 171.8 
 
 48.2 
 
 185, 3 
 
 511. 
 
 1110.2 
 
 07. 
 
 205 2 
 
 74.1 
 
 211,0 
 
 711. 4 
 
 tJd o 
 
 .fl. 
 
 11.3 
 36. 5 
 
 107.0 
 130. I 
 143.5 
 151.11 
 102 
 172, 3 
 181,5 
 187.0 
 191.4 
 
 
 140 
 
 1 
 
 287 
 
 ■» 
 
 231 
 
 ;i 
 
 080 
 
 3 
 
 7110 
 
 4 
 
 301 
 
 4 
 
 848 
 
 
 305 
 
 200 
 
 772 
 
 1.617 
 
 2, 700 
 
 4, 247 
 
 5, 034 
 fi, 893 
 
 7, 094 
 
 8, 801. 
 
 9, 038 
 10,200 
 10,725 
 
 1,57 
 
 500 
 
 1,044 
 
 1,8.30 
 
 2, 788 
 
 3, 701 
 4,519 
 5, 248 
 
 5, 763 
 
 6, 249 
 6, 7117 
 7,150 
 
 
 I 
 
 III very n'siiliu- -n.wtlis liiiil ■.w.\^ only arc iiicasiircd. The more usual inanner of deter- 
 iiiiiiiiiir the' rate (if accn'tioii, liowc.ver, for purpoae.s of yield calciilatioii, is l.y felling sample tree.s 
 (if e;icli class, dissect inji- and iiieasiiiius the accretions of jiast periods. 
 
 In modern limes tlie exact measurenicnts are mostly conliiied to the -rowtlis tliiit are utilized 
 during- the lirst (ir lirst two periods nf twenty years. 
 
 I'KI.LINC lU!n(;KT. 
 
 After all these data for each compartment iiav. heen hooked, and the yi( Id of liranehwood 
 and roots— for even the.se ari^ mostly utilized— as well as tli<^ prohahie amouurs Co he taken out in 
 tliinninss, have heen estimated ■uid recorded, and after the likelihood of decreased accretion 
 in the (fiffereiit comi.artnients has also been determined from measurements and experience, the 
 "felliui;- hudiiet" is dclermined as a, sum of the stock on hand and the amount of annual accretion 
 mnllipried hy the time, duriiifi- wlii( h it is allowed to .urow, i. e., in the average to the middle of 
 
 tlu' period in which the c partmenl. is placed, divided hy the period of rotation. Thus a f,rrowtli 
 
 of eighty live \ ears, wlii(di showed a stock on hand of .^Sl-ri cnhic feet per acre, and hence had an 
 avera-e accretion hitherto of ;',,S2r. ^ Sr, -= .ir, cnhic feet |)er year, which is likely to h(^ reduced ou 
 aeconutof fji-adual reduction in sto(dy and other untoward condili.uis t.. .'.Ocuhic, feet, would yield 
 durin- the tirst period .'..SL'.-. + .!() x W = I,!--'.") cubic feet. And if the comiiartmeiit contained .".(> aeie.s 
 it should he credited in the working plan in tlu; column for the period I with t,]'-'.") x o(l = L'(l(;,L'r.O 
 ciihic feet, r.y adding up the amounts of the yield of all the compartments placed in the tirst 
 period and dividin- hy lit* ith(^ leii^lh of the period) the amiiial hudt;et which should he felled 
 durinu- the period is found. If, however, it is desired to ei(ualize the fellings mure or less through 
 a, l()im"er jieriod— for instance, the tim(^ of rotation— then the amounts in all the periods must be 
 siimiiMMl up. and these sums as nearly as possible e(,uali/.ed by shifting the position of the com- 
 partments fn.m one period into another (necessitating always new calculati(ms of the accretion) 
 until th(^ (M|iializati(in in the jieriodic sums is elfeeted. 
 
 Even then, however, before linally determining the annual budget, acalciilation is made to 
 see whether tiie area contains as much timber as it normally should; if more, the budget may be 
 
 increased: if less, a saving must I adc in order to bring up the stock on hand to the normal. 
 
 If, for instance, we know IVom the experience tables thai our forest should normally yield oO cubic 
 feet per acre a year in a UHt year rotation, then the normal stock would be KiDx ■".0-^L' = LV".t)<» cubic 
 
246 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 feet per aci-e. This is the average amount of wood per acre which we should strive to keep in 
 stock in order to get the full benefit of tlie productive capacity of the soil and insure an equal 
 growth and equal annual cut for all time. In reality this ideal is, of course, never reached, but 
 this so-called normal forest, coiK^eived in ideal condition, serves as a guide in the working ]>lans, 
 and the conception Ls a most useful and important one. To i)ut it into practice we must either 
 save at tirst on the annual cut until normal condition is attained, or we may increase the cut if 
 more old timber than necessary for normal stock is on the ground. Additional reserves may also 
 be provided for to avoid any unforeseen shortcomings in tlie budget due to insect ravages, mis- 
 takes in calculations, etc. 
 
 We can not licie enter into the details of all the work of the valuator, being satisfied with 
 having indicated in general the methods jtursued. In coppice management, of course, all these 
 tine calculations become unnecessary, and the i)eriodical or annual cut is determined by area mainly. 
 
 I'^rom the general i)lan thus elaborated the special i)lan for the first period or half period of 
 the management is worked out in detail both for fellings, cultures, and other work, road building, 
 drainage, etc. This special plan, then, is the basis on which the loital manager finally makes out 
 the annual plans of work, which are submitted for revision and api)roval to the controlling otticers. 
 Thus, while the gtMieral and s])ecial working jjlans lay down the general principles, the annual 
 lilans, into which enter considerations of immediate nei'ds and linaiicial adiustnients, jiermit such 
 deviations from the general plans as may appear needful from year to year. J'^very ten or twelve 
 years, or at other stated ]H>riods. a careful revision of the whole regulation work is made, in which 
 the caiefuUj' noted experieiu'es of the manager are utilizeil to correct and iierfec^t the plans. 
 
 FOKKSr I'ROTKOTION. 
 
 In this country the greatest danger to the forest, besides the indisc^riminate cutting, is to be 
 found in fires. How little this scourge of American forests is known in (ierman.y may ajjpear 
 from the statistics of tires in the (lovernnient forests of Prussia (lei)resenting fit) i)er <'ent of the 
 Cierman forest area), 5(J i)er cent of which arc coniferous, wliicli show tiiat railroading may be 
 carried on without the necessity of extra risks, if jirojier ])recautions are i)rovided. During the 
 years 18S2-lS!tl there had occurred 150 larger conflagrations — !t(i from nt^gligence, 5.'! from ill will, 
 3 from lightning, and only 4 from locomotives. Seven yt^ars out of ten are without any record of 
 fire due to this last cause. 
 
 From 1884 to 1887 fires occurred in Pinssia on .'J.IOO acres, but only 1,450 were wholly 
 destroyed, i. c., .580 acres per year, or 0.005 per cent of the total aiea of (ioveinment forests. In 
 Bavaria during the years 1877-18S1 only 0.007 i)er cent of the forest area was damaged by fire, 
 and the loss represented only 0.02 per cent of the forest revenues. During the unusually hot and 
 dry summer of 1802 only 49 fires, damaging more or less 5,000 acres, occurred. 
 
 Besides the thorough police organization and tlu^ comi)artment system, whi(!h jiermits not only 
 ready patrolling but also ready control of any fire, the system of safety strips, described in the 
 report of this division for 1892, where a fuller discussion of this subject nuiy be found, prevents 
 the spread of lire from locomotives. 
 
 A much more fruitful cause of damage to the cultivated foiests of Germany is found in insect 
 ravages. The annual expenditures in fighting and preventing these in the Prussian Government 
 forests in ordinary times amount to about .'j<50,000. daferpillars and beetles eat the leaves, and 
 thereby red lU'e the amount of wood produced and the vitality of the tree; l>ark beetles follow and 
 kill it; borers of all kinds injure the timber. Hence entomology, the study of life habits of the 
 injurious insects and the metliods of chei-king their increase, forms j)art of the forester's work. 
 
 Fungus growth and decay kill the standing tree and injure the cut tind)er. The study and 
 methods of counteracting this injury form, therefore, part of the work of the forester. 
 
 FOREST CROV rRoDrCTION OR SILVICULTURE. 
 
 While we have so far considered mainly the administrative and managerial features of German 
 forestry practice, we come now to the most important and truly technical biauch of the art, 
 namely, the forest <to}) prodiuition or forest culture. This part we may call forestry pro])er, for 
 while the metliods of forest regulation, forest utilization, and forest protection, which may be 
 
(;KRMAN FORKS'!' i\rANA(;i;MKNT SILVTCTn.TtlllE. 
 
 247 
 
 c()iiii>iisi'(l ill the one n;im(', '•lores! ('(•(iiidiiiiis.'" ;ir(' iiicidcMlal, and iii;iy dill'er oven in ininciplo in 
 various coiiiiti'ics and conditions, llic iiiclluids of (nop produ(^tion or Ibrest <!nllur(\ bciiifi; based 
 on (lie, natural laws of the. iiilcrrclatioiis of jihuifs la soil and cliniatc, must, af ItMst in ])rin('iple, 
 1)0 aliko all over Mio world. Ilciti pure forostiy scionci^ linils its application and dcvoloiiniont. 
 
 Tlicso principles liavc lieen elucidated more fully in tlie next clnipt(^r. We will, tlieicfore, 
 here only hrietly restate the more iiM|iortanl ones witli some ot' tlieir ap|>licatious in (It^rnniii 
 ]tra('tice. 
 
 ri.ANTINii. 
 
 Seeminfjly the simidest and easiest way of reproducinji" the c,ro|i is that practiced in av:ricnl- 
 tur(>, namely, icmovinji' (he entire mature crop and sowing' or jtlantin};' a new clop. l!ut this 
 method, whicdi has heeu so larjiely practiced in tairopc and admired hy our countryiiuMi and 
 writers on forestry, has its j^reat drawhacUs, which have of late beciuue more and more apparent, 
 and the Icndeiicy now is to return more and more to th(i "natural reproduction.'" VVMiile the 
 simplicity of the method of clearinu' ami plaiitini; recommends itself for a routine or stereotype 
 imMianemeiit, it has not always piovcd as successful as would hi' <'\i>ected. The lar^e clearinu's 
 which the younj;' planted se<>(lliiii;s are, unable, to protc<'t. from th(^ dryin;;' inlliieiuu's of sun and 
 
 hMilfttei»»il.i. 
 
 Ill'l^" ''. -J' *•>■■ J - VI '•'■"■■f ■■.*■■ ■,'■■■ 
 
 Km. *jr>,— Irnii (tilililf usfil in .si-ttin^ mit aiuall pilii- tict-dliii^s. 
 
 wind brini,' about a desiccation and deterioration ofihe forest soil and an enormous iuci'easeot'in.sect 
 ]U'sts, while other daiijicrs in later life from wind and disease, have Ix'cu larfjely the result of these 
 uniforin jirowthw. And when it is understood that to secure a desirable, stand the plautiii};s must 
 be <;()iie over au<l fail ])laces re|dauted ti\e, six, and more times, it becomes apjiarent that the 
 method is extremely expetisiNc. and hence the proper treatment of tlie natural crop with a view 
 to its reproduction liy natural seediiii^' is tlm most imitortant ])art of forest cultnn^ Vet uiidt^r 
 (M'.rtain ('(Uiditions, and where no natural croj) to manage is found, ])laiitiii.i;' or sowiiii;- becomes a 
 necessity, atnl various methods and tools liave been develoju'd to nu'et various conditions. 
 
 It would exceed the limits ot' this rejiort to (lesciib(^ these various methods; we can refer to 
 only one of the sinii>lest, aiul che;ipcsl with which eveiy year many millions of small 1 or '2 year 
 old pine seedliiiiis ar(^ set out in soils which do not need or do not ailmit of preparation by plow 
 or s|)a(le. The instrument used is an iron dibble, (tiy;. 2.">); the shoe, with one i-ounded and one, tiat 
 side, in sliajie lilai a half cone, s inches lonff with ;iA inch base: the handle, a livetugliths-imdi rod, 
 '■U feet lon<;, is screwed into the base of the sho(> and carries a wooden crossbar, by which the 
 instruiiient is handled. The 7nodiis o])eraiidi is to thrust this ir(Hi dibble into the };roiiiid; then 
 by movinj; it lij;iifly back and forth to soimwiiat enlar{;e the hole and withdraw it; a boy or girl 
 
■24S FORESTRY IXVESTIGATloNS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRKT'LTrRE. 
 
 puts tlie i.laiitlct ill the liole to the Ihit side; the dibble is thrust again into the ground 1 to 1.^ inches 
 back of the lirst hoh' somewliat slantingly toward the bottom, and jiressed forward to fasten the 
 l)liiiit in its stand ; then by irregular thrusts the last made hole is obliterated. Two jilaiitcrs with 
 a boy, carrying the plants in a mixture of loam and water to keep the roots moist and also heavy 
 for better di-opiung, may set r>,00(» plants in a day. 
 
 INTKOmOTlON OF EXOI'ICS — AVHITK TINE YIELllS. 
 
 The \aiua!)lc species of trees indigenous to (iermany which are subject to special consideration 
 ill foi(>st management are but few. The most important forest I'orming ones are 1 pine, 1 spruce, 
 1 lir, 1 lurch, 1 oak. 1 beech, 1 alder. In addition we tind of broad leaved trees a blue beech, 1 
 ash, .'! kinds each of <'1im, maple, and jioplar, in some parts a chestnut, and 1! kinds of birch and 
 linden, and several wiUows, together with some 8 or 10 kinds of minor importance, while of 
 (■onirers in certain regions 4 other species of pines are found. Some years ago the attention 
 of Ihiropean foresters was forcibly turned to the richness of the American forest flora, and a 
 movement set in to introduce exotic tree species which might be more productive or show better 
 (pialilies than the native. Our white pine, a good-sized section of which was exhibited, had been 
 (piite extensively jilanted in the beginning of this century, and the.se plantations, some So or '.»(> 
 yeais old, are now coming into use. The (luality of the wood, however, has not as yet found niiich 
 favor, but the (punitity iier acre exceeds that of any of the native species, liecords aie extant 
 which show, at 70 years of age, a yield of 1 1,000 cubic Icet of wood containing about 7(),(i()() feet 
 of lumber 15. M. i)er acre. 
 
 On moderately good Ibrest soil in Sax(my a stand 7S years old contained over 400 ti'ces per 
 acre, of whi(^h threetburtlis were white i>ine, the rest si)ruce, larch, beech, and oak. ( )nly '< white 
 |piiie trees were under 70 feet high, the majority over SO. Notwithstanding the crowded jiosition, 
 only IT) trees were under S inches diameter, the majority over \- inches, the best L'S inches. The 
 total yield was lL',SS(»cubi(^ feet of wood jx-r acre, besides the ])roceeds of jirevious thinnings. The 
 rate of annual arcretion in cubic feet of wood for white pine in the last years amounted to 2.r> ]wr 
 cent of tlie total contents of the trees, or about 0.4 cubic foot jier tree. Of the trunk wood at 
 least '.)() Iter cent could be utilized for lumber, sincc^ the shajte of these trunks was so nearly 
 cylindrical as to be cfjual in contents to one-half a perfect cylinder of the height and diameter of 
 the ti'ees taken breast high. 
 
 A stand SL' years old on poor land produced li;,500 cubic feet of wood, indicating an average 
 yield for the eighty-two years of -I'J cubic feet of wood per annum, of which about 700 feet of 
 lumber 15. M. could be calculated. On very i)oor soil and planted very thick without admixture 
 of hard woods it produced trees L'4 feet high and 5 inches thick in twenty years; and on fairly 
 good soil trees '>l feet high, ll.i inches thick, in thirty to thirty-tive years, excelling in either case 
 tiie native spruce (7'. r.trrlsd) both in height and thickness. 
 
 it is also of interest to mention in this connection that a plantation of about 7 acres in the city 
 forest of Fiaiikfort-on the-Main during the eighteen years ending ISSl brought $115 rent per year 
 for the ])ri\ilege of seed collecting alone: failing to produce seed only three out of the eighteen 
 years and yielding a maximum of ^'>(W rent during one of the eighteen years: much of the seed 
 linding a market in the United .States. 
 
 Ilesides the white pine, the black locust has also for quite a long time found a home in the 
 plantations of Europe, but the species which are now propagated in large quantities, having after 
 trial shown suiterior advantages in behavior and growth, are our I'acitic coast conifers, the Sitka 
 siu'uce, the Douglas spruce, the Lawsoiis cypress, and the Port Orford cedar, sections and jthoto- 
 gra])hs of which, grown in (iermany, were exhibited, as well as of black walnut and hickory. These 
 trees are now used to plant into fail places or openings, in groujts or single individuals, and are 
 especially jirized for their soil-improving (pialities and their rapid growth. 
 
 The methods of management for natural reproduction are generally divided into three classes, 
 Jiamely, the coppice, when re])roductioii is expected from the stumps; the standard coppice, when 
 ])nrt oi the growth consists of sprouts from the stunq) and another )>ait of seedling trees; ami thi' 
 timber or high forest, when trees are grown to maturity and, unless haivested and replanted, 
 r(q)id(luction is elfected entirely by natural sowing. 
 
LIEIIMAN F( IRKST MANAGKMKNT: — SlLVlC'l'LTUKi:. 
 
 COIM'U'K INIANAOKMENT. 
 
 249 
 
 This i.raclicf is ciiiiilDyed toi- tiic prodiKtioii ut lircwood. t;iiili:u-k, (■li;u<'();il, ;iii(i wood uf 
 siiKili diiiicnsioiis, ;ind is mostly applicahh' only to deciduous Irecs. Tiif <-,a,]iacity of rciirodiictioii 
 from the stump is jiosscsscd hy diffi-reiit species in ditfercnt de.>;rees, and depends also on climate 
 and soil; shallow soil produces weaker Imt more numerous shoots than a deep, rich soil, and :i 
 ndld climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power. With most trees this 
 cai.acity decieases after the iieriod of sif^ife^t lieiRht growth ; they should therefore be cut before 
 the thirtieth year, in oi(h'r not to exhaust the stock too much. The oak coppices for tan bark art; 
 mauased in a rotation (d' from ten to twenty years. K'e.i^ard to the preservation of reproductivity 
 makes it neces.sary to avoid cuttin-- during "heavy frost, to mak.- a smooth cut without severing- the 
 bark IVom the stem, ami to make it as low as possible, thus reducing liability to injuries ol' the 
 slump and inducing the formation of indei)endent roots by the sprouts. 
 
 It will be found often that on poor and shallow soil tre.'s will cease to thrive, their tojis dying. 
 In such cases it is a wise policy to cut them down, thus getting new, thrifty shoots, for whicdi the 
 larger root system of the old tree can more readily i)rovide. This practice may also be resorted to 
 in order to get a (piiek, straight growth, as sprouts grow more rapidly than seedlings, the increased 
 proportion of root to tlie part above ground giving more favorable conditi<Mis of food snpi>ly. It 
 must not be forgotten, however, that this advantage has to b(> compensated s<imewheie else by a 
 disadvantage: sprouts, tlumgli growing fast in their y<iutli, cease to grow in height at a compara- 
 tively early jieriod, and for the [.roductiou of long tiud)er su(di (iracticc woidil be detrinuMital. 
 
 K'egard to the preservation of favm-able soil conditions, whi(di suffer by oft repeated clearing, 
 rec|uires the planting of new stocks where old ones have failed. Mixed growth, as everywhere, 
 gives the best result. ( )aks, walnut, hi<'kory, chestnut, elm, nmples, birch, (herry. linden, catalpa, 
 and, the locust also, with its root sjironting habit, can be used for sncli imrpose. 
 
 If when cutting oil' the spi-outs, at tlie^ age of from I(> to L'l) years, sonu- trees -.ivv. left to grow- 
 to larger size, thus coinbiuing the coppice with tindier forest, a management results which the 
 ('..•ilnans call " .M it telwald," ami whi.-h we may call standard coppice management. 
 
 ST.\Nl)Ai;i> I'OI'l'li'lO. 
 
 This is the MU'thod of management which in our country deserves most atteuliou by farmers, 
 especialh' in the Western juairie Stales, where the |iroductiou of fiicwood and timber of small 
 
 dimensions is of lirst importance, while the tindier forest, forthe |.rodm-ti f larger and strcmger 
 
 tiud.eis, can alone s;itisfy the lund)cr market. Th(^ advantages u\' this nielhod of management, 
 (rondiiiiiug those of the coppi<-e and of the tindier forest, are: 
 
 I I ) A larg.'i- \\rU\ ol' w.Miil per uci,- In ii >liitil liiiir. 
 
 f2i \ l>i-tti-r c|iialit.v ol' w.hmI. 
 
 iiil A pmdiutii.ii c.r Ui.oil uf \:,Im:iI.1.' :iui\ \ arioiin .li.nnisioiiH ni 111.- Klioit.-at liiin- willi lianlly :iiiy :Ml.liti..ii,-il 
 
 ro.st. 
 (1,1 Tlic l»)s^iUility .it ■,'iviii,- .■l"S.T Mlirulioii t„ 111,, urowth :niil iv,|ini .■tiiriits ..r sinj^lr lu.ln kI.k.N .111. 1 .it 
 
 .■;ii ll s|i.'.'ii-s. 
 (.'ii A I'.-a.ly :iiiil .■.•ihiiii r<(|ir.iiliirl i.m. 
 ii;i 'rill' ii.issil.ilil Y ..f .■.ill.-.-tiiiu .11- u-iiiK tor rflViiesliition, m .-Hl.til ion to the .■o].).i.« sto.-ks, tin- sn-.tn ot tlie 
 
 slan.liir.lN. 
 
 The olii<'cti.ins lo this mode of treatment are the production of branches on the standards 
 whi'ii freed ti-om surrouiidiug growth, ami the fact that the standards act more or less injniionsly 
 on till' uiidiMWood which ihey overtop. 
 
 The lirst objection can be overcome to a> certain extent by iirnning. ami the second by proi)er 
 selection and adjustment of coiipice wood and standanls. The selection of standards— w hudi 
 pieleralilv should lie seedlings, as coppice shoots are more likely to deteriorate in later lif( — must 
 be mit only from such species as by isohition will grow into more useful timber, but if possible 
 
 IV those whi(di have thin foliage, thus causing the least injury by theii' co\er to the underwood. 
 
 The latter should, of course, be taken from those kinds that will best endure shade. Oaks, ashes. 
 
 ma|iles, locust, h y locust, larch, bald cypiess. a few biivhes, and perlia|is an occasional aspen. 
 
 answer well for the standards: tin' stdection for such should nat iirally be from t he best grown 
 
2f>0 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 straight trees. Tlie number of staudaids to be held over for timber depeiuls upon the species 
 and upon tlie amount of undergrowth wliicli the forester desires to secure. Tlie sliadier and the 
 more numerous the standards tlie more will the growth of tlie coppice be suppressed. From a 
 first plantation one would naturally be inclined to reserve and hold over all the well-grown 
 valuable sa])lin.<;s. The cop])iee is, of course, treated as described above. 
 
 As before mentioned, on account of the free enjoyineiit of light wliich the standards have 
 they not only develoi) larger diameters, but also furnish quicker-grown wood (which in deciduous 
 trees is usually the best) and bear seed earlier, by which the re|irodiu',tion of the forest from the 
 stuiii[) is sui>plemented and assisted. Any failing plantation of mixed growth, consisting of trees 
 capable of reproduction by coppice, may be recuperated by cutting the laiger jiart back to the 
 stump and reserving only the most promising tre(>s for standards. 
 
 If cijually well-grown coppice and standards are desired, a regular distribution of the standards, 
 mostly of the light lU'cdiiig, thin-foliaged kinds, should be made. If ])rominence is given to the 
 jirodnction of useful sizes, the standards 7iiay be held over in groujis and in regularly distributed 
 specimens, in whicli case those of the shade-enduring kinds are best in gronjis. 
 
 THE TIMHKR FOREST. 
 
 In the timber forest management we may note various methods: The method of selection 
 (Plenterwald), in accordance with which only trees of certain size are cut throughout the whole 
 forest, and the openings are expected t" till u]) with an after growth sown by the remaining trees. 
 This method jirevailed in former ages, but wns tin;illy almost everywhere^ abandoned because of the 
 difficulty of organized administration and I'ontrol of such an irregular forest containing trees of 
 all ages, and because the after growth is ajit to jirogress lint slowly with fore-grown trees sur- 
 rounding and overshadowing it, or may <-onsist of worthless kinds. Of late a rtnival of this 
 method with various modifications designed to meet the oliiections is noticealile; the advantage of 
 kee])ing the soil constantly shaded and thereby pics(>i \ ing tln^ soil nuiisture also recommending 
 this method. Morc^ uniform growths, more regular dislribnt ion of age classes, and a more regu- 
 lated administration was possible by various "regeneration methods," by which a certain area — 
 a eomi)artiiient— would be taken in hand and the cutting so systeniatically directed that not only 
 a uniform young growth would sjiring up through the whole compartment, but by tiie gradual 
 removal of the mother trees light would be given to the young growth as needed for its best 
 develoiunent. Tliis method (Femelschlag) is jjracticed almost exclusively in the extensive beech 
 forests, somewhat in the following manner: 
 
 I!E(iENF,i;ATI(1N MFTIIOTIS. 
 
 In the lirst place it is necessary to know the period at which a full seed year may be expected. 
 This differs according to locality and kind. One or more years before such a seed year is expected 
 the hitherto dense crown cover is broken by a ])re|)aiatoiy cutting of the inferior timber, enough 
 being taken out to let in .some light, or rather warm sunshine, which favors a fuller development 
 of seed, the increased (arculatioa of air and light at the same time hastening the decomiiosition of 
 the leaf-mold and tliiis forming an acceptable seed bed. 
 
 As soon as the seed Ims dropped to the soil, and perhaps, in tlu^ case of acorns and nuts, been 
 covered by allowing pigs to run where it has fallen, a second cutting takes ]ilace unitbrraly over 
 the area to be regenerated, in order that the seeds may have the best chance for germination — 
 air, moisture, and heat to some degree being necessary — and tliat the seedlings may haveai)roper 
 enjoyment of light for their best development and yet not be exiioseil too nuwh to the hot r.ays of 
 the snn, which, by producing too rai)id evaiioration and drying up the uctMlful soil moisture, would 
 endanger the teiuler seedlings. This cutting requires the nicest adjustment, according to the 
 state of the soil, climatic conditions, and the requirements of seedlings of different kinds. 
 
 While the beech reciuires the daikest shade, the pine tiibe and the oaks demand more light, 
 and should, by the successive cuttings, be early freed from the shade of the mother trees. Beech 
 seedlings are more tender, and only by the gradual removal (often protracted through many 
 years) of the shelter of the parent trees can they be aceiistomed to shift for them.se!ves without 
 
OF.RIMAX FOREST MANA(iF.MF,XT — sIf.VICIILinRE. 2r)l 
 
 liability of being' killed by Irost,. Tlie (inal cntf iiiii' of liic. roniicr fr(>ii(Tut,ii)ii nl' trees leaves many 
 tlionsand little seedlinjis closely coveriiii;' the soil with a dense sh;ide. 
 
 That the method of nianaseintMit must diller accordin.n' to s|i('e,ies and local conditions is 
 evident; and in a mixed fol•(^st especially are the b(^st. skill and indf^menl of the forestm' re(inired 
 to insure favorableconditions for ea(di kitnl to be re|)rodueed. It is to be ex])ecfed that sm'h 
 seedlinjis are. rarely satisfactory over the whole area, and that i):irc phu'esof too larfjc extent ninst 
 be artilieially sown or planted. 
 
 Another method is the " niana,L;einent in c(;helons" ((!onlissen, Sannisehla.i;), which consists 
 in making the clearings in stri]>s, and await inji' the seeding of the clcarini; from the ncij;hborin}i 
 jjiowth. Jt is apitlicable to spc-cics with li.nlit scimIs, whit'h the witnl can carry over the area to be 
 seeded, snch as larches, lirs, sprnccs, most jiines, etc. 
 
 The cnttinj;s arc made as tniuili as jiossible in an oblonu' sha])e, with the lonjjest sidt^ at rij;ht 
 angles to the direction of the jirevailing winds. The lircailth of the clearing, on w hieli occasional 
 re.serves of not too spreading crou ns may be left , depends of course on the distance to which t he 
 wind can easily carry the seed which is toco\<'r thech^ared area. ( )bservati(Mi and ex])erien<(^ 
 will determine the distances In (lermaiiy, for spriwe and l)ine, this lias bc^en found to be twice the 
 Leightof the tr(^e: for lart'.h, live or six times the height; for lir, not more than one shaft's length. 
 From 200 to .">(iO feet is ))erhaps tli<> rangeoxcr which seeding may b(> thus expected. (^neNcar 
 rarely sutlices to cover the <'lea,red area with young growth, and it takes limger in |)roportion to 
 the breailth of the cutting. This method is v<My much lesseerfaln in its forestal results than the 
 next named, and more often lequires the helping hand of the planter to till out barc^ placivs left 
 uncovered by the natural seeding. IJutit is the one that seems to interfei'e least, with oui' pi'csent 
 habits of lund)ering. and with it eventually the lirsl elcnu^nts of forestry may be intidduced into 
 buubering operations. 
 
 To be sure, it requires from thice to eight limes the area usually brought under opeiation, but 
 instead of going over the whole area ever.s yc^ar it, may be operated in a number of small camps 
 systeunitieally i)laced along a ceidral road conru'cl ing the ditferent camps or cuttings with the mill. 
 
 As a rule tlu^ ])ine foriists in (birnuuiy are repioduced by artificial plantations, the spruce 
 forests by cither natural or artificial regenc^ration. lU' both (Munbined, while the beech forests are 
 entirely reproduced as described above, oaks and other hard woods being usually i)lant(^d, although 
 a return to a more extended use of natural reproduition is noticeable. 
 
 IMPROVKMKNT ( 'rTTIN( ;S— TH INNIiSitiS. 
 
 The principles which underlie the practice of thinning out young growths in oi'der to accel- 
 erate their development have been theoretieally well de\elo]>ed, but tin; jjractice in (iermany 
 remains behinil the thetny. The dilliculty of disposing of the material taken out in the thinnings 
 discourages the practitioner, and the tinancial value of the opeiation in the a(^celeratioii of the 
 remaining crop is not fully appreciated. 
 
 A few results of (lerman i)ractiee in thinning may serve to give an indication of its value. 
 
 A natural growth of i>ine (Scotch) which wasJhinned when six years old showed an increased 
 rate of accretion three times as great as tliat of the jiarf not thinned, which was also delicient in 
 height growth. 
 
 A 50-year-old spruce (Norway) growth, having been t wicc thinned, showed an average accret ion 
 '2'2 ])er cent greater than the i)art not thinned. 
 
 A growth of spruce (naf iiral sowing), slightly mixed w ith maple, aspen, willow, and ironwood, 
 when 1.5 years old was opened to the ])oor ])opulafion to take out firewood; thus one-half of the 
 growth for a few years was thinned out irregularly. The jiarf thus thinned eighteen years later 
 contained foiii' and one half times more wood than the unilislurbed jiarf; the former contained 
 trees of from I to inches in diameter and l."» to <i5 feet in height; the latter did not produce any 
 above 5 inches in diameter and 48 feet in lieight. 
 
 Another experinuint, made upon a [tine growth .">() yeais old. showed that by interlucation tlu^ 
 rate of growth within eleven years stood fhrr-e tooneand three tbiirfhs in lavorof the thinned jiart. 
 
 Another writer planted Scotch pine (i feet apart; two years later he planted the same ground 
 
2r)2 
 
 FORESTRV INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to briny the stand to '■'> fct-t :ii):ut; he thinned when lifteen years old, and caietuUy measured 
 contents when twenty years old. Although the ])laiitation was stocked on ]ioor soil, yet the 
 averajie annual accretion was found to be 'JtA.i cords (Austrian) per acre, a yield "which is 
 unexcelled." The writer adds that "if in such growths the number of trees is reduced in the 
 lil'teenth to twentieth years to -'Sd trees per acre, the yield in sixty years might equal that 
 obtained in one liundred or one hundred and fifty years in the old manner."' 
 
 A i)lantation of Norway si>ruce, made with seed, was when thirty-three years old still so dense 
 that it was impenetrable; hardly au.\ increase was uoticeable and the trees were (covered with 
 lichens. When thirty-five years old il was thinned, and again, when forty-two years old the 
 condition of the growth was such as to make a thiniung appear desirable; between the two 
 thinning.s, within seven years, the accretion had increased by KiO per cent, or 27 per cent yearly 
 in the average, and the ai)pearance of the trees had changed for the better. 
 
 A coiipice of tanbark oak was thinned when lifteen years old on half the area: when twenty 
 years old both i)arts were cut, and it was found that the thinned part yielded more wood and more 
 and better bark than the unthinned part, and yielded in money 1 1.5 per cent more, although no 
 higher ])rice was asked for the better bark. 
 
 An area of 12 ames was planted, one-half with 2 yeai- old pine seedlings from the ibrest, the 
 other half with seed. 
 
 Three thinnings were niaile with llie l'i>lli>wing yield of round firewood (cut to billet length 
 and over L'-f inches in diameter) and brushwood (less than L.' ,' inches in diameter). 
 
 The phinte<l i)art yielded at the thinnings: 
 
 Wheli- 
 
 FireWDod. Brush. 
 
 Cords. I Cunts. 
 
 lllVL-nrnnM I 1.4 i 1.1 
 
 !.. \e!ira.ilil 4.0 I 2.8 
 
 l.s y.'Jirs i>Iil 4.5 | 2.8 
 
 Totill 10.8 7 
 
 The sowing was lirst tliinned when S years old, yielding: 
 
 
 WIk-u- 
 
 Firewond. 
 
 1 
 
 Ilrusli. 
 
 
 
 Cords. 
 
 Cords. 
 
 :;. (i 
 1.4 
 
 7.S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.2 
 
 Tohil 
 
 
 3.2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 In twenty-four yi'ars the total yield, inclusive of thinning, was: 
 
 I'l;nit<Ml |i;iil. 
 
 Si>wcm1 part, 
 
 Ill I'livor iif |>l:iiiti'(l |i:n't 
 
 Ciihif IVeti.f 
 .sniid \VO(«l. 
 
 :i, 495 
 
 1,!)98 
 
 1,497 
 
 Thinnings are usually made for the following piu'iioscs: 
 
 (1) Improvement cuttings, to improve the comjiosition of Ihe forest and give advantage to the 
 better kiiuls. 
 
 (2) Interlucations, to iminove the form and hasten development of young tind)er. 
 
 (,3) Itegencration cuttings, to jiroduce favorable conditions for seed formation and reiiroduc- 
 tion of the forest. 
 
 (1) .\ccretioii cuttings, to improve rate of diameter growth in older timbei-. 
 
 Thinnings are to open the crown-cover, giving access to light and air, their object being to 
 accelerate, decomposition of the litter .ind turn it into available jdant food: to improve the form 
 and hasten the development of the remaining growth. The degree of thinning depends on soil, 
 species, and age, and is best, determined as a projiortion between the present growth and that 
 which is to remain with r(^leri^nce eitluM' to erowncover, mass, or diameter. 
 
CKKMAN FOl;i;Sl' MANAtiEMKXT SILVKULTUKli. 
 
 253 
 
 Since it is ohservcd that in (lie strii-j;le fur existence ainonu tlie individual trees liie|-e are 
 (|Mitc early sonic trees j^cltin;; (lie, advantaj;e ami lieconiing dtMiiiiiant, it is intericd that thinnings 
 are most cl'lective in I lie earlier |jerio<l ot the cro|>. 
 
 in discussing; tlie dc^iree to wliicli the thinninjj;- is to he made, a, classification of the I ree.s 
 accordini;- to the character of their dc\elo|)iiieiit is maih'. by (Icrman I'oresters as follows: 
 
 I Cliixx i.— I'roiliiiiiniMiil lies with lii;;hl.v ilevrlojinl cniwiis. 
 
 I Class .'. — CiMliiiiiiiKuif tici'H Willi ti)Icr.ililv well ilevi'ldiicd riowiis. 
 lluiiiiiiaiit or MiMiii loi "iciulli. , ,,, T c 1 1 ■ 1 i 11 i' , , , , 
 
 ' ' l<iss ,j. — .Subil(>iinii:iijt tn-es with iKiiiiial iimhus, Iml ] rl\ c1i'V(1ii|mi1 and ciciwded 
 
 I a Iio\ f. 
 
 Class I. — Hoiiuiiatod tvvct, Willi ciuwiih iiiii)rl\ di'Mlnprd and ciuwdcd laterally. 
 
 («) Crowns wc'd;r|.d ill lalpially, ,vr.t nnl omm topiicd. 
 
 (fi) Crowns lamipresscd, parMy (ivcrtnppi'd. 
 
 Dominated or int'ei ior ;;iowtli. 
 
 (lass i.— SnppresM'd tici's, cntiifly o\ eitop)>ed. 
 
 (11) Crowns still lia\ iiii; \ itality (sliade cniliinnf; spi-eiesi. 
 i/>! Crowns dyiui; or dead. 
 
 The followiiiu illustration of the apiicaiance of these tree classes will lie found serviceable in 
 iinderstamlinu these relations. 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II )2 IJ I* 15 16 !7 18 19 20 
 
 Klo. Jl). -'riiT claasc's; Clasailicatioii .iiTiiriliii;; 111 I iiiwiidrvrliiiMii'iil. Siliniiutii' CLi^.i 1 (|ip'iloiniiiaiil ) : .Nii>. 1, :i. li. 1 1, Ifi.Uii. i lass 
 2 (.iMloiiiniant); No.s. K, i:i, IS; .•las.'i .1 (sMliilunuMaul I : Xi.s.l), U. 17; ila..,s I {u|iiirf.i.si.-i|) ; ^u,.,',, 7, IJ; chl.->a 5 (su|i|ilc's.scil, a I : Xu.s. L.', C.J; <l;i.-.,, 
 5 (sii])]ii<'.s^ciL h) ■- Xos. 4. Pi, 1,'.. 
 
 The decrees of thiuniny usually resorted to are the followinji: 
 
 ( 1 ) ISIijiht thinniiif;' takes out trees of class .">. 
 
 (1!) Moderate thinning takes out tribes of class 5 and 4h. 
 
 {'■'>) Severe thinning takes out trees of class .">. I, and soinelinies •!. 
 
 The time when the lirst thinning should take jilace is generally determined by the jiossiliility 
 of marketing the extracted material at a jnice which will cover at least the cxiiense. of the 
 operation. Tiiis is, however, not always jiossible, and th(^ consideration of the increase in value 
 of the remaining growth, or rather of the detriment to the same by omission of timely thinning, 
 may then be conclusive. 
 
 On good soil and on mild exposures interlucation may take place earliest, because here the 
 growth is rankest and a dillereiice in the dvvelopment of the dilferent stems is soonest noticeable. 
 
2r)4 
 
 FOKKSTKY INVESTKiATKJNS U. S. DEPAKTMi:NT UF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Li^ht-ueediiis' iiml <iiiickei-g'iowiii,i; kinds sliow siiiiilar conditions to those grown on good soil, 
 and lit're, tlierefoic, early tiiinnings are desirable. In these eases the thinnings have also to he 
 repeated ot'tenest, espeeially dnring the period of prevalent heiglit aeeretion. Absolute rules as 
 to the time for iiiterliieations and their periodical repetition evidently can not be given. The 
 peculiar conditions of each individual case alone can determine this. The golden rule, however, 
 is early, often, moderately. The right time for the Ijcgiuning of these regular and periodical 
 iuterlucations is generally considered to have arrived when the natural thinning out before 
 mentioned coniiiiences and shows the need of the oi)eration. This occurs generally when the 
 crop has attainc^d the size of hop i)oles. At tliis stage the well marked difference in size of the 
 su|>|iressed trees will i)oint them out as having to fall, and tliere will not be much risk of making 
 any gross mistakes. Until the trees have attained their full height the thinning should remain 
 moderate. From this time forward it will prove ex|)edient to open out the stock more freely 
 without ever going so far as to thin severely. Within the last few years new and revolutionary 
 ideas regarding principles aud methods to picvail in thinnings are gaining ground, which we have 
 not space here lo discuss. 
 
 UNDKU I'LANTlNli. 
 
 All these manipuhitions ex|)eriencc iiiodilications according to circumstances, difl'erent si)ecies 
 and soil conditions re(|uiring ditferent treatment. One of the most interesting modifications, the 
 lesults of wiiich in ai given district were fully e\hil)itcd, is the v. Scebach management in beech 
 Ibrests. Such a. management, -vhit'li contemplates the pioduction of heavier timber in the siiortest 
 time, tries to taiic advantage of the increase in accretion due to an increase of light which is 
 secureil by severe thinning, and in older to prevent the drying out of the soil by such severe 
 tiiinning a covei- of some shady kind is established by sowing or ])lanting. This cover gradually 
 dies oil' under the shade of the old timl)ei', the ci'owns closing again afti'r a iiumbei' of years. The 
 rates of growth in a stand of 71) to SO years was thcrelty increased fiom 51 cubic feet per acre and 
 year to 77 cubic- feet per acre and year, while a iKUghboring stand, otheiwise tiie same but not so 
 treated, iucnsased by only (JO cubic feet, distributed o\er a largei' number of trees. 
 
 The same method is ajijilied to the production of heavy oak timber. In this case the oak 
 giowth is thinneel out when about <i() years old antl "under])lanted" with beech. It may also be 
 applied to older growths with advantage, as api)ears from the following results: 
 
 A stand of oaks IM) U> KID years old in I.SK; was thinned to 'M'> trees per acre, averaging 
 37 cubic Icet of wood per tree, tin; cleared sjiace being ''underiilanted"' with beech and spruce. 
 In 18S7 the oaks, now I'.tO to 200 years old, of which .5!t trees only were left, contained .■")() cubic 
 feet in the averagts, thus growing during the last forty years more than one half as much as 
 during the one hundred and lifty to one hundred and sixty years i)revious to the ojjcration, i. e., 
 doubling the rate of growth. In this case, under the light foliaged oaks, some of the beech and 
 spruce develoi)ed sulliciently to furnish marketable material. 
 
 With iScotch pine it- has been found in one case that while the average accretion of a stand 
 IL'Oyeaisold undei' ordinaiy condition was about 5!! cubic feet i)er acre and year — the yield by 
 thinning included — a stand un(leri)lanted with lieecli showed an accretion of 100 cubic feet per 
 acre and year, besides much lietter log sizes and earlier supi)ly of saw timber. 
 
 Translated into money an cxamjile fiom IJavaria may be, cited as follows: 
 
 On 1 ;iiTi' of piuo SO ycui.-- old, iiiiderpluiitiHl .il ;i fo.st of $2.sr> pir aiii- witli Ijuoili now 10 years old, there 
 wei'c found — 
 
 I Avtirafie 
 Tiohl Iff j aniiiijtl 
 wood. ai'(Teli(»n 
 per acre. 
 
 Cubic.ll 
 
 lo.'i |iiin-.« 'Xi 
 
 •J,3UU liei^cli \U\ 
 
 Total 478 j 
 
 Cubic ft. 
 40 
 
 Snppo.iini,' tlii.s .sland to bo lel't, foity yiars longer, il ni:iy he linnrcd lliat the pine would briug .$8.30 and the 
 licccli $1L'0; total \ivv aiie, $770, of wliirli .fill was yitddod iu thiuniug.^. White piue without iindrrgrowiugs is 
 expected to i)roduco ouly $j-U ptr acre when I'M years old. 
 
GKKMAN KOKP:sT MAXAGEJIENT — ADMlNISTItATION. 255 
 
 FORESTERS, KOK i;STR V EDUCATION, AND FOUESTRV LITERATURE. 
 
 T(i b(3 .sure, (lie liij;lily I'hiboratc system of forest iidiniiiistratioii and forest iriaiiajLjeineiit here 
 outlined could not he developed or maintained witliout ii special liif;li-,t;rade education of those 
 who direct the work. This education is iirovided for in the m<jst anii)Ie nuinner, and consists not 
 only in theoretical studies at schools, acach^niics, and universities, hut, also in practical studies in 
 the forest itself under th(^ j^uidance of competent and experienced lorest nianajicrs. 
 
 The course which applicants for positions in the higher administrative forestry service are 
 expected to follow, with more or less modilication in the different states, may be briefly outlined 
 here : 
 
 After promotion from college the student goes into the woods for a short period (one half to 
 one year) to actpiaint himself, under the guiilance of a district manager, with the general features 
 of the business he proposes to engage in, and thereby tests his probable fitness for it. lie then 
 visits for two and one-half or three years a forestry school (called academy when by itself, when 
 at a university it is connected willi the '"faculty" for national economy), where theoretical studies 
 with demonstrations in the forest are pursued. 
 
 After examination aud promotion the applicant is bound at his own expense tooc<-upy himself 
 for two years at least in studying the piactice in various districts, changing from ])laci' to place. 
 If occupation can be fouml for him he is employed at small daily wages on some scientific or 
 administrative work, always keejting an oftieial diary of his doings and observations, certified to 
 by the district manager with whom he stays, and wkich forms part of his final examination. l'"or 
 nine months during this time he must continuously jicrlbrm all tiie duties (»f a lowei' official — a 
 ranger — for a whole or jtart of a. range, ami sometimes also for a gi\en time certain liuurtions 
 of a district manager. Then, alter two years of law studies at a university, he enters into a 
 close and dilficnll exaniinatinn for a. jiosition as district manager, lasting eight to ten days. IJy 
 passing this lie is jilaced on tlit^ list of eligibles, and has tliereliy secured a riglit, eiilbrcible in 
 the courts if need be, to a position when a vacan(^y arises and his minu', is reached in fla^ oriler 
 of the list. This, in I'russia, may now be within eight or fen years alter listing. Huiing the 
 interval he may be, and mostly is, employed on daily wages in vaiious suits of scient ili(; and 
 administrative work, such as r(!vising and making new \alnations, laying out roads, acting as 
 tutor at the aca-demies or as assistant to district managei's. or else taking the jilace of a. nnmager 
 temporarily, cU-. 
 
 The liigher administrative ollices are filled by select i(Uis from the managers, length of service 
 counting only wheu special titness for the kind of work reijuired accompanies it; so that, as in the 
 army, the highest officer has been through all the gi-ades below, and is conversant with <n"ery 
 detail (jf the service. The pay is small, graded in each kirul of position accoiding to length of 
 service and somewhat according to the cost ol' living in different ]>laees. The honor of the. position, 
 to which usually other honors are added, its permanency, aiul the assurance of a [xMision, graded 
 according to length of ser\ ice, in case of disability oi- age, make up tor small s.ilaries. The 
 salaries, subject to change fiom time Id tinu\ u ilhout adding the salne of per([uisites like houses, 
 farm lands, (^tc., range about as follows in I'russia: 
 
 I (linH-tc)i- (OhiTliiiKlI'dist-iiii'istfr) :f:i, fWO 
 
 t forest coiiiicilorH ( f^;ni(l foist imiHter) $I,S(KI l<i L', 400 
 
 :i:i cliief iiispiicl.ors (OlKsrlbrstiiieistrr) (witli iidditioiis I'or lioiisc ;iii(l travi-liii^ ii|i t()$l,t(lOi I,n."i0 l.'M) 
 
 S!l ins]ii'ctors ( i''orst.in<iisU'r) (with iulditioiis for lioiiso ;niil tr:i\cliiiK "p to -MJUO) !K)() 1, ."lOO 
 
 ti7!l ilistrii-( iiiaiiaiiois (OlicTfocrslcr) ( witli :iililitioiis up to .■fsi',". mnl Imusi' uiid lirld i 500 1)1)0 
 
 '■': >!)!) niu^ers ( I'ocrstci) (wilfi fiims« :iii(t mlditioiis iip to .ft 10) '.'(ill lifJO 
 
 :J1!) guards ( Wiildwaerler) lOli L'OO 
 
 The rangers (foersterj follow different courses of instruction, [lart of which they lectMve in 
 subordinate positions iindi'r district managers; while ser\iiig in the army in special battalions 
 (cliasseiirs) they receive also theoretical instruction, which is supplemented in special schools. 
 When finally promoted to the responsible position of rangers, in which much discretion and 
 latitude arc given them, their pay amounts to from ^I'UO to ••?3G0, with a house and field, with the 
 assurauce of pension on withdrawal. 
 
256 FOliESTUY INVESTKiA'lIONS V. t>. DEl'AHTMENT OF AURICLLTUUK. 
 
 Tlie t'olluwiii.i,' sc'liiMils r.rc ])r(nidL'(l I'm- the liii^lier },Mades <il' loii'stiT.s: 
 
 HiijJtcr I'oifslnj mliDtih in ticniiiiiiii I'lir lite iilinalKiii of funxi mnuaijira. 
 [A U8tri;i, and Svvilzt'l'hind imluilirl. j 
 
 At universities ; 
 
 (liesNtii HesHe 
 
 Tii liiiiKBii '. WiirttcmlxTi; 
 
 Muniih liavaria 
 
 Al (Milvtei liniiimi: 
 
 K arlsnilii' Haili-n 
 
 Zuricll SwitziMlallil 
 
 \'lo[ina Austria 
 
 Sf'paialo aratletuifs : 
 
 AaibatlVulpur^ Bavaria 
 
 'I'liaraiult Saxon v 
 
 Eisi-nai'li Saxi- Wcunar 
 
 Elii-rsu alilc I I'russia 
 
 iliinden *lo 
 
 ■\VImui 
 loulul.il. 
 
 1818 
 1878 
 
 18:i2 
 18:..". 
 1875 
 
 18U7 
 1811 
 18:ai 
 i«;ii 
 
 1868 
 
 T.fiiKlii 
 
 l.f I-MU1.SI 
 
 (\rars). 
 
 (M 
 
 lustlMifors 
 111 r..r.-str> 
 lirancbfs 
 
 T..I1I I '^ ' T-IPP 
 ' , all.-u. lance 
 
 nu.nb.r .,1 „| ,,„.,.,, . 
 
 (.11 
 ('0 
 
 n IS 
 Ifl 
 
 1:1 
 
 111 
 8 
 14 
 1:! 
 
 4(i-r.ii 
 
 r.ii-iio 
 
 ,;)U-U)ii 
 
 15-aii 
 i.i-:jii 
 nii-uu 
 
 !II)-1»U 
 
 li.»-i:;r, 
 li.". 7.". 
 
 uu-ir.u 
 
 4U-60 
 
 n Til.' .-Mtin- . ur]is nl |.i i.li-ss..i ^ nl IIm univ. r^il.\ . 1 11 Muiiic i. IS pnilessius an' inuai;.'.! in l.'.tiirinL; ..n sul.jpils wliii li ('..ni-ein I'.ir 
 entry studi-nls, in Zinii I.. Jn pnilessnrs. In Miini.li all slnili.s ran li.' tulle. « iil in air\ y.ar, as tlii' sluil.nls Tiiay aili-rl. Tin. altenilaiiro 
 varies, of ronrsp, wiilel.v in tlill'. rent years, lia\ in;; lii.-n .is liiuli as ■Jill in Kl.erswalile ami IJl in Miiuilin. The alii.vi- t'muns are ti.r 188.i 8C. 
 
 h Ni.t [.Tescril.eii. 
 
 rDurin^ tlie winter el IHIIM llieie were 1411 stiiilents .it Miiiiiili nut i.l .'iJ7 loiistr\ sinilerits at all tme.tn selii.uK. 
 
 The Hillowiiij; lalili- will soi\ >■ to give an idea of wiiat instruction is to \w liail at tlii'.sc 
 institutions; 
 
 I'liiil 0/ sliidiis (il /'nnsl .trifilnn;/ F.hii«uiiltlr. 
 
 Siil.j.iis 111" iii,lnietn. 
 
 Kf.Mi.V.MIiNr.M. ,Si-IKNI-I> 
 .Vil/in-.l/ffir'H.v.v. 
 
 WIii.I.' 
 iMiuiIier 
 lit' hours. 
 
 tieueial anil t lin.ret ie e!ieinistr\' 
 
 S|ierial inori;anie anil oreaiiie 1 lieinisl r,\ a|i]ilie(i 
 
 I'liysies ami nieteiiroli.;i,\' 
 
 Mine rail iji,\ ami ;ieoenosy 
 
 Delinition ol inimials ami ri.eks 
 
 lie views tin- or.uauie nat oral seienees 
 
 Ilotaiiy in eeneral and li.rest hotaiiy in iiartieular 
 
 Auatii'uiy of jilaiits, \'egetal.le j.liysioloyy ami pathology ... 
 
 Mieroscopy 
 
 Ill itan leal reviews 
 
 iliitaniial exeureions, eaih '2A liours 
 
 Oelieral y.ooioiiv 
 
 \- ertel .1 a tea . . .1 
 
 I overt el. rates, with special relereiiee to forest in.seeta 
 
 /ooli.;:ii al preparations 
 
 /iiiiloeical ie\ iewa 
 
 Zooloeieal excursioua, each 3 hours 
 
 Total mil oral ai ienii a 
 
 Mullti iiiiilics. 
 
 lleoilesy 
 
 I nteiesl and rent account 
 
 W 1. 1 III ineaaiirintx 
 
 Matheniat il :il review a and exercises 
 
 SuiM-yiiii; anil lev'elinu e\ercises, each 4 lioiira 
 I'lan drawing exercises. ■J.', hours 
 
 Tot al nia theniatica 
 
 Eronniiiii' Kcicin-t^k. 
 
 I'll I.l ie 11 iniiuiiy and linalleea 
 
 Total siini 111 hoina loi tiinil.iiiii ntal sciences 
 
 Suliieclsi.f instnii til 
 
 I'KlNril'.vi. srit':Ni Es. 
 
 Cultivattoti of forests 
 
 Forest iniplenielits 
 
 :12 ; (ieographii al forest botany 
 
 SO Protection of toreals 
 
 61} I Forest usufruct ami tecbm.lof;y 
 
 Go I l''oreat surveying 
 
 -0 , Aj.praiaini; foreata 
 
 16 I Cillculation of the value of foreata ami foreat statistics . 
 
 1)4 Administration of forest and bunting 
 
 00 j Keileinptiou of rielits of iisaeo 
 
 ■JO ] Forest history 
 
 ■Jo 1 1 Forest statistics 
 
 80 Keview- of various forest niattei s 
 
 Ui I Kxani illations - 
 
 80 Forest excursions, each 4 hours 
 
 80 
 
 10 I Total 
 
 20 
 
 90 I sliCi.Nl.AltV srli.;Nct':s. 
 
 840 i 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 r.o 
 
 102 
 80 
 
 J iiriisiiriidcncr. 
 
 Civil law 
 
 Criminal law 
 
 Civil and criminal lawsuits and const it utiimal rights 
 Jurisprudi'Ucu 
 
 Total 
 
 Construction of roads 
 
 HuntiDK 
 
 Sliootiuf; i.xcrciscs, 2 hours eacb. 
 
 Total sum of hours for secondary scienccs- 
 ( iraml t "tal 
 
 Fundamental sciences . 
 
 I'l incip;il sciences 
 
 Seeondar\ sciences . . . . 
 
 AA-hole 
 number 
 of hours. 
 
 80 
 20 
 48 
 32 
 80 
 20 
 80 
 32 
 4i< 
 32 
 40 
 20 
 
 r.o 
 
 40 
 352 
 
 32 
 40 
 36 
 
 180 
 32 
 32 
 96 
 
 340 
 2,048 
 
 I'ur cent. 
 
 50 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 Averaiic pel instruction w. ck (21 w ceks in winter, 17 durin^i sinnniei \ J w inter courses, 3 suinnu'r contaes) : 
 
 — 28.5 hours, or per ila\, t.O liours. 
 93 . 1 . . 
 
svs'i'iai ()]•' F()i;estuv knowi.edof,. 257 
 
 If we were to codify info :i .systeiu the .science nf foiestry as (lcvelo4)e(l in (ierinany wo might 
 come to the following .sclieme, which exhibits tiie various biauches in which a well-educated 
 forester must be versed : 
 
 8v.sri:M di.- I''(ii;i;stiiv Know i,|.;iMiK. 
 
 1. l-OltKST rol.ICV — KCDNIIMIC I'.ASIS ii|' l'ul:HSIl;\ (Till': (/ONDITION). 
 
 .I.v//tr/.v. 
 
 1. Foimlin Htiilhlics. (Ato;i^, forest coiiilitions ; iirmluctH. liy-|>nMliicl,s : I'nido; siipiil.y ;iik1 (lriu;uid; prices; 
 
 ■substitulos.) 
 
 2. Jutretilrif eroitfitnicn. 
 
 (.■I. Study uf rcl.itidii (if forests on cliiiialc, soil, wator. Iicaltli, ethics, die. 
 
 li. Study of i-oimiiercial ]M'ciili:irities and position of forosts, and forestry in political economy.) 
 .'i. Ilisloyi/ t>J'forfsfri/, 
 
 ^ipplialtinll. 
 
 4. Forcstri/ pdlilics. ( l''oruinlation .if rij;lils and dn lies of the State iinil (d' its nietUods in developing forestry; logi.s- 
 
 latioii, .State forest adniiniNtration. education. ; 
 
 11. roitivsi cnouccrioN — i kcii.nuai. dams m.- i-okksiuv itiik ciuir). 
 
 .Isllivtx. 
 
 5. Foresl. biitiiini. ( .Systciiiatie Ixitany ol' ailjorcseeut llora; forest f;«^",t!i'''i|'li.V ; plant and climate; liiolof;y ol' tree.s 
 
 in tlicir individual and aj^^re^iito life; forest weeds. 
 fi. ,S',>i/ pliiisiis ami xoil tkcmisir!/ witli special reference to fon^st n'routli. 
 7. rimhcr jihiinirs. ( An.itomy of woods; clieinieal physiology and physical i>roperties of wooils. Inllncnces ileter- 
 
 luininj; same ; diseases and I'anlls.) 
 H. T(rliniil(i;iii. ( A|)pIieation of wood intlK^arts; re(|niiemeut» and Imliavior; lueehanical and working iiroperties; 
 
 dnraliilit.N ; .special needs of consumers; uses of liy -products, waste materials, minor forest products.) 
 
 Ajtplicatiiiii. 
 !•. Silriciilliii' . (, Methods id' j;rowiii^ the crop, i 
 
 a. Natural reforestation; i-nttiiin tor re|uoduelioii. 
 
 h. Artiti<dal al'forestation; proinrcmenl of plant material; nnrscuy praidioe, elioiee of jilant material, methods 
 of soil preparation, of forest plantiiii;. 
 
 c. lnii)rovinf; and aeeeleratiiiK the <-idp. Cultivation, tilliiij;. Ihinniiif;, pruninj,', iinderKiowiiig. 
 
 d. Systems of manageinent. Timber forest, standard co])]>iec, co]iplce, id.e. 
 
 10. ForrKi prntei-tioti. (Against insects, climatic injuries, liri\ lattlo, etc.) 
 
 11. Fuirxl impruitmeiit and mi/hud-iiKj. (Treatmcut of denuded mountain slopes, shiftiiij; sands. Iiarrons, swamp 
 
 and moors, road building, etc.) 
 1'2. i'oresi uliliutlhii. (.Methods of harvesting, transport iiig, preparation tor markid.) 
 
 III. KOUKsr OltliAM/.ATtON — ADMlM.STKAinK AN1> I'lNANCIAl, liA.SlS (Tni! KKVENUE). 
 
 .Ixj)c<ls. 
 
 i:i. Foresl .luni-i/. Ascertaininj; arc'a and condition ot' the forc'^t; ascertain in:; rate of accretion, yield. 
 II. Foi-tsl ralmtliDii uiiil .■iliilir.t. Ascertaining money v.aluc of forest soil ainl forest growth as cajiital of the manaf^o- 
 ment and eomiiaring linaueial results of various kinds of nuiuagement. 
 
 .tfiftUrutunl. 
 
 15. FiircxI i-(i/ul<il(i>ii. Ivstaldishing units of manai,'eiueut and .Klmiiiistration ; ileti-rmininf,' workinj,' plans, distri- 
 
 butinji yearly or pi'riodi<'aI cut. et<-. 
 Hi. Forc.sl adiiiiiiistruliuii. Koutino methods, business practic^e, ]icrsonmd, organization of service and mechanical 
 
 opl^ra,tion8. 
 
 LITKUATlUi:. 
 
 In tiddiiioti totlie live tciiciiiiii;s, wiii(;li an tiliie corps of piol'cssors iiii[iart at the.sc, institutions 
 and that wliich coiiii.cteiit managers are ready to iaijiart to tiic young students in the forest itself, 
 ii large number of weekly, moiithly, (|u;irterly, and tmnual Journals :iud piildicatioiis are kee|iing 
 the foresters and forestry studeuts <ii( couidiit witii the progress of forestry science and forestry 
 techni<itie. Adding the i)iiblications of this nature which api)e;ir in Austria and Switzerlaml in 
 the (lerman language, and which h;ive their constituency in Germany as well, we can make the 
 U. Doc. ISI 17 
 
2r)S 
 
 FORKSTKY INAKSTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Ibllowiii^- respectable list, not eountinji- the Journals of the lumber trade and other related 
 I)ul>licati(»n.s. Those marked with an asterisk {*) are to be found in the libiary of the J>ivisi(m of 
 Forestry; those niarl;ed (t) are considered the best or are most comprehensive; those marked ( ?) 
 
 base been discontinued. 
 
 (iermau forvsiry periodical f<. 
 
 Xaiiie of iiubli<-;iliini. 
 
 I'ubliahcil at^ 
 
 Issued- 
 
 AlI;^fiiiriiio Korst-u. Jayd/cirniif; * t ! Frankfort nn tlu^ Main Monthly 
 
 A 118 <l«'in W'alilo ' Hanover ' Irregularly . 
 
 Ana iliMu Walilc I Frankfort, on llie Main Wt^ekly. ..'. . 
 
 Dfiitsrtif FoiHtu. Jagdzeituiig 
 
 For Nt I i.-hc. nia.^Uer 
 
 Fnrsllirli-nalurwisHi'nschaCtlicliH Zi^it-sclirift ' I . 
 
 For.st.wiMMciisrliaftli<'lM-H < '<-Titrall)Iatt. -t 
 
 JalircslHTiclit. i\i-A Hrlili'sisi'ln'ii Fiiistrereins . .. 
 Jahrt'slnMiclit di-r preiisHischin K. u. J. ilesetzljejjunj^ 
 
 -do . 
 IJerlin . . 
 Munich. 
 Berlin . . 
 liresLiu . 
 Berlin . . 
 
 Land- II. Forst-whtliscliaftlicho Zoitsclirift Vienna .. 
 
 MiiendciitT forstliobf Ht'fte* Berlin . . . 
 
 OestiTD-iihisilji.' Fcust zeitiinj; * \'ieinia . . 
 
 U«T inaktisihi' Forstwirt fut'r din Schueiz \ Davos ... 
 
 Schweizer /citsrlirift fuer Fors! wescn Ziirich... 
 
 Tharaiidtrr loratliches Jalirluich ' Dresden . 
 
 Verhandliiiiiiicn der Forst\'(Tuinn "N'arious . 
 
 BorirJit ih-Imt die Versamuilunfi deiitscher Forstinatmner do . .. 
 
 Zeit.sclintt iinr Forst-u. da^idweM-n f j Berlin .. . 
 
 Zeiitralld^itt fner das {fesamiute Fnrstwesi'ii ' t Vienna . . 
 
 Zeitschrift di-r deutscbeu Foislheamteu 
 
 Semininntbl\' , 
 M<.ntlilv-..'.. 
 
 do .* 
 
 do 
 
 Aniiuallv 
 
 ...do.; 
 
 1j)iiarterly 
 
 IriT-fularly .. , 
 "Weekly 
 
 (?) 
 
 Quarterly 
 
 Amiiiallv 
 
 do ..■ 
 
 do 
 
 Moiitlilv 
 
 do ." 
 
 Estah 
 lislied. 
 
 IKL'4 
 1865 
 
 (') 
 
 lH6:i 
 
 IHS'J 
 1856 
 1311 
 1868 
 1886 
 18<I2 
 1882 
 
 (0 
 
 ISt^l 
 1875 
 
 (') 
 
 Should the reader wish to collect ;i library of the most modern thouiiht on any or aH suhjecfs 
 pertaiiiiiifj' to forestry in (rermany tlie list of books contained in the library of the Deiiartinent of 
 AjiTiciiltiire, acatalojjaeof which has been published, with over 1,200 iimnbers and probably li,(iOO 
 volumes, would give liiiu a good selection. 
 
 KOliESTKY ASSOCIATIDNS. 
 
 Foi(fstry associations tlirive Ix'tter in (ierniany than in the Ifnited States and are of a different 
 chaiacter; they are associations of foresters, who jiractice what they preach. There is no more 
 lU'cil of a ]iroi)agaiida for forestry than there would lie here for agriculture, and the discussions, 
 therefore, are moving in technical, scicnt:lic, and economic directions. Besides some thirty or 
 forty larger and smaller local associations, there is held every year a forestry congress, at which 
 the leading foresters discuss important (juestious of the day. 
 
 FOUKST EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 
 
 In addition to all these means of education and of advancement of forestry science, and in 
 addition to the demonstration forests connected with the various schools of forestry, theie has 
 been developed in the last twenty years a new and most important factor in the shape of forest 
 experiment stations, which are also mostly connected with the Ibrestry schools. If forestry had 
 a strong and well-supported constituency before, this additional force has imparted new impulses 
 iu every direction. 
 
 The first incentive tor the establishment of these stations came from the recognition lliat the 
 study of forest influences upon climate could be carried on only with the aid of long continued 
 observations at certain stations. At^cordingly, during the years 1802 to 18(17, forest meteorological 
 stations were instituted iu Bavaria, which, uuder the efficient direction of the well known and 
 eminent Dr. Ebermayer, for the lirst time attempted to solve these and other climatic ijuestions 
 on a scientific basis. The results of these and other observations have been fully discussed in 
 Bulletin 7 of the Forestry Division and are briefly recorded in this report. 
 
 While these stations were continued and others added in all parts of the country, an enlarge 
 ment of the programme was soon dis(uissed with great vigor, leading (between the years l.s7n-IS7<:) 
 to the institution of fully organized experiment stations in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Thuringia, 
 Wurtcmberg, Baden, Switzerland and Austria following in the same direction; all of these finally 
 combining into an "association of German forest experiment stations," similar to the association 
 of agricultural ex])eriment stations in our country. Thus the science of forestry, which liithcrto 
 had been dcvelojied eiii|iirically, has been jdaced upon the basis of exact scientific investigation, 
 the fruit of which is just beginning to ripen in many branches. 
 
KOl.'KST MANA(!I;M1;NT in lilMI'ISII IN'IHA. 259 
 
 W'c ill llic ITiiitcd states aw rortuiiatL', in that wi; can learn from the ex|iei'iencc an<l piolit 
 from the assiduous work oltliosc, careful investijiators. While we may never adopt the admirable 
 administrative methods that (it the economic, social, and political conditions of (Jerniany, wo shall 
 ever follow them where the re.coj;nition and utilization of natural laws lead to the ])raetical 
 acknowledgment of j^'eneral priiu-ijiles and to desired economic results in forest culture. 
 
 I<Y)UKST M ANAGEMKNT UN KlMTlSlI INDIA. 
 
 In order to show how the transfer of (iernian melliods may work advantaj^eously, even in a 
 country (^ntiri^ly differently conditioned, the results obtained by the forest, niaua,t;'enient in i>ritish 
 India arc here brielly stated. 
 
 India, with a total area, of nearly l,.">(it>,(l()0 sipiare miles or !l.'ii;,(i(iO,Oli(t acres (an area about 
 one-half that of the United States without Alaska), has a jioimlation of about l.'7(),(IO0,(HH), or four 
 times as great as that of the United States. 
 
 Of the entire area about !l.")(),(K)(l sipiare miles, or (>.'! per cent, are under I'.ritisli rule, the 
 remaining ."iSO.ObO sipiare miles, with a ])(ii)ulation of about ."»;',.((()(), 000, being divided among a 
 largo number of more or less indei)endcnt native Slates. 
 
 Of the (uitire population about 70 jiei- cent are farmers and farm laborers, who cultivate about 
 •JOO.OOO.OOO acres dl' land, •iOjOOO.OOO of which is irrigated. The greater part of the main peninsula 
 is a high plateau with steep <lesc(Mits to the ocean, both on the western and eastern coast. 
 
 T(j the north of this plateau is a broad, fertile, river j)laiu oxtendiiig from the upi)er llrainah- 
 putra to the mouth of tiic Indus, a distance ol' nearly 2,000 miles, without rising more than 900 
 feet above sea level. North ol' this large and densely settled Indotiangetic jilain, and forming 
 the barrier between India and Thibet, is the great Himalaya ilountain system, drained by the 
 tliree great river systems of nortlunn India. 
 
 More than hall" of India lies within the Tropics and over 00 percent is fartht^r south than New 
 Orleans, the latitude of which is .'>0 . I'rom this it is apparent that the climate is generally hot, 
 but, owing to diversity of elevation and iieculiarities of the distribution of rainfall, it is by no 
 means uniform. 
 
 The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or •'monsoons," and their distribution 
 is regulated by the, topography of land and the relative iiositioii of any districts with regard to 
 the mountains and the vapor-ladon air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes the coast 
 line! along the Arabian Sea to about latitude I'O^ N., and still more tlie coast of liower lUirmah, and 
 to a lesser e\tcnt also the delta of the Oanges and the southern slope of the Jlinialayas. A mod- 
 erately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying the large 
 lieninsula and the Lower Ganges Valley, whih^ a rainfall of less than l."i inches occurs over the 
 arid regions of the Lower Indus. In keeping with this great diversity of climate, both as to 
 temperature and humidity, there is great variation in tlie character and de\ cloiunent of the forest 
 cov<'r. The natural dilferonces in this forest cover are emphasized by the action of nuin, who for 
 many conturies has waged war against the forest, clearing it permanently or temporarily for agriiml- 
 tural purposesor else merely burning it over to improve grazing fat-ilitiesor for purposes of the cluise. 
 Tims only about -!."> jter wmI of the entire area of India is covered by woods, not over -O per cent 
 being under cultivation, leaving about Tm ]>er cent either natural desert, waste, or grazing lands. 
 The great fbi'ests of India are in lUirmah: extensive woods clothe the foothills of the Himalayas 
 and are scattered in smaller bodi(?s thioughont the more humid portions of the country, while the 
 dry northwestern territories are juactically treeless wastes. In this way large areas of deii.sely 
 settled districts are so completely void of forest that millions of people regularly burn cow dung as 
 fuel, while e(pially large districts arc still inipcmetrable. wild woods, where, for want of iruirkel, it 
 hardly pays to cut even the best of timbers. 
 
 The great mass of forests of India are stocked with hardwoods (i. e., not conifers), which in 
 these Iroi)ical conntiies are largely evergreens, oi- nearly so, and onl.\- a small portion of the forest 
 area is covered by conifers, both i)ine and cedar, these pine forests being generally restric^ted to 
 higher altitudes. The hardwoods, most of whicdi in India truly deser\o this name, belong to a 
 great variety of plant families, some of the most im|)ortant being the Leguminosa', \'erbenaeea', 
 Dipterocarpea', Combretacea', Uubiaeea', Ebenaeea', Euphorbiacea', Myrtaeea', and others, aud 
 
260 KOliESTUY INXESTIUATIOXS r. S. DEl'AltTMENT OV AGRICULTURE. 
 
 hut :i relatively small iiortioii of them represent the ("upulifera- and other iiiii)ortant liar(l\vo»)d 
 timber families so eliaracteristie of our woods. 
 
 In thi^ i;Teater part of India the hardwood forest consists not of ii few species, as with us, hut 
 is made n\t of a great variety of trees unlike in their habit, their growth, and their pi'oduct, and 
 if our hardwoods otfer on this account considerable dil'liculties to profitable exjiloitation, the ease 
 is far more complicated in India. In addition to the largo variety of tind)er trees there is a 
 multitude of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in most tbrest districts also a dense under 
 growth of giant grasses (band)oos), attaining a height of 30 to 120 feet. These bamboos, valuable 
 as they are in many ways, prevent often for years the growth of any seedling tree, and thus Ibrm 
 a serious obstacle to the regeneration of valuable timber. The growth of timber is generally 
 (juite rapid; the bamboos make large, useful stems in a single season. Teak grows into large-size 
 saw tindier in fifty to sixty years. But in sjute of their rajiid growth and the large areas now in 
 forest cajjable of reforestation, India is not likely to — at least within reasonable time — raise more 
 timber than it needs. In most parts of India the use of ordinary soft woods, such as pine, seems 
 very restricted, for only durable woods, those resisting both fungi aiul insects (of which the white 
 ants are specially destructive), can be employed in the more permanent structures, and are there- 
 fore acceptable in all Indian markets. 
 
 At present teak is th(^ most important hardwood timber, while the deodar (a true cedar) is the 
 most exlensi\ely used conifer. Teak occurs in all moist regions of India except the mountain 
 countries, never makes forests by itself (])uro forests), grows nnxed with other kinds, single, or in 
 clumps, is girdled two to three years before felling, is generally logged in a primitive way, com- 
 monly hewn in the woods and shipped — usually floated — as timber, round or hewn, and rarely sawn 
 to si/e. Tc'ak is as heavy and strong as good hickory, has little sa[)wood, stands well after 
 seasoning, and is remarkably proof against decay and the still more dreaded white ants, ami is 
 really the only important export timber of India, about $13,500,000 worth having been shipped in 
 lS9I-9.">, bringing about 81 per cu})ic loot, or more than four times as much as good pine timber 
 in th(^ market. 
 
 As will be seen from tlu^ following lignres tindicr forms only about 20 |icr <'ent of the export 
 of fonsst products, which consist chielly of lac, the basis of shellac (really the product of an 
 mseet) and of tanning materials: 
 
 K.flnirts o/ ff)rr.-<t in-inhiflN from litilia, ISUJ~!l'>. 
 
 E;ic (l.asis of sh.'llac) $7.(1011,01111 
 
 'I'cnlv 2, SOI), 000 
 
 My 1 ciba laiis 2, WO, 000 
 
 Ciikb and Kamliicr 1,450,000 
 
 ('aonti-Uoiic 550,000 
 
 Fancy wooils — sandal, I'liony, rosewooil. - 2110, 000 
 
 Cardamoms 110, (X)0 
 
 lotal - 14,5;M,000 
 
 The imports of timber into India have so farbeen very insignificant. Attemi)ts at introducing 
 American coniferous timber (pine, spruc^e, larch, and hemlock) from the I'acific coast have not 
 been successful, though it would seem that some wood goods, such as boxes, sash and door, and 
 cheap furniture, should find a favorable and extensive market if once the trade is established. 
 Perhaps a trciitmeut of thcst^ materials with some of the new lireproofing substances could be 
 made to render them at the same time more resistant to white ants and other insect borers, 
 and thus jirocure for them several imi)ortaiit advantages at once. 
 
 In the past the people of India, as far as known, never reali/.ed the importance of their 
 forests. They were cleared, destroyed, mutilated at all times and in all places, and the use of 
 wood never seems to have formed an important factor in Hindoo civilization. 
 
 With the advent of foreign conunerce the exploitation of the forests for the more valuable 
 ex])ort timljcrs received a new stinuilus and the forests were culled regardless of the future, (dther 
 of forest or ])eople. This matter was aggravated by the construction of railways, which, in 
 themselves large consumers, also offered a jiremium on all that contributed to increased traftic. 
 When, finally, it uas noticed that tlie demands of tindier for public works in some localities could 
 
INDIAN PoKl.sr MANAGExMKNT 261 
 
 110 louger be sapi)li('d witlioiil (M)stly tiaiis))()rtatii)ii, tlic iiialtcr at. last ifccivcd juililic allciition. 
 
 111 18511, \)v. I>. I'.iaiidis was a|)]«iiiit((l su))ciintcii(l('iit nf fbrcsts lnr rejj,ii; in l^i;:,' li(> was cliarjiCMl 
 with the duty of or.uaniziiif'' a forest d(^|)a^tlllOIlt for all India, and in 18(11 lus was apiiointcd the 
 first iiis[)ec.torgcm'ral for the forests of India. Dniinn' the thirty-four years of its existence this 
 (h'jtartuient has steadily and lapidly j;rown in tln^ area niana.u'ecl, fll(^ nnnilier of tnen employed, 
 and the revenue derived for the State. In 18'.tt-!)."> this forestry deiiartinent had control of about 
 I IL',0()(l s(piar(> miles of forest, nearly half of all the forests, and aliout lli iier cent of tlie entire 
 area of India. Of thes(^ State forests, 7 I, OlH I square miles are " reserve" or peruiauent State forests, 
 while the rest are held as " i)rot(K!ted" and "unelass(Hl,"a lar.ue jtortion of which will beeoinc 
 reserve or ])ermaiient forests as fast as the necessary surveys and settlement can be niaih'. 
 
 With t lie irrej;u la !■ distribution of forests, the peculiarities of Indian affairs, and the iin surveyed 
 wild, and dillieultconditioiis of tlu^ forests tlieiiiselves, it is but natural that the work thus far 
 has been chiefly one of (U',i;aiiizatioii, survey, and iirotection, and to a far less decree an attempt 
 at improvement both by judicious cutting and reforestation. 
 
 Over 3.'^i,(l()() s(piare miles have be(>n surveycil for forest [iiirposes siiicc^ 1S7I. and over 1,000 
 sipiare miles were added duriiiL;' the year 18'.)l-!l.">. at a. cost of o\cr si.>(l(),0()((. 
 
 Work of eslalilisliinj;' and maintaining boundary lines, which is often a \eiv dilliciilt and 
 costly matter in tlii^ dense trojiical Jungles, involved during the saini^ year an expense of oyer 
 •* 10,000, and tlu're are at jireseiit about (id, 000 miles of such boundary lines maintained. ]>e.sides 
 this .survey work projier, there is a large force constantly at work to ascertain the anioniit and 
 condition of timber sniiiilies and to pieiiaro suitable plans for tlieir e\|)loitation and improvement, 
 so that about 12 ])er cent of the entire forest area, or over riT(l,000 acres, is by this time managed 
 with defiiiite working plans as to amount of tinilx'r to be cut, what areas to be thinned, retbrested, 
 etc. The work of |nolci'tion is I'hii^lly <ui(^ of preventing and fighting tires. This ]irotection with 
 present means <'aii not be (iairied on o\er the elltir(^ tbrest areas, of w hic^h large tracts are not even 
 crossed by a foot|)ath, and in a land where the regular tiling of the woods has become the custom 
 of centuries, and where, in addition, intensely hot and dr.\- weather, together with a most luxuriant 
 growth of giant grasse-;, render these Jungle tires practically iiiimanageable. In all forests near 
 S(ittlements the forest iiinst be i.solated by liroad '-tire traces" or otherwise. In the jungle forests 
 these traces must lie broad; the grass, often taller than an elephant, must lie cut and burned 
 before the grass on either side is dry enough to burn. Similarly, the traces in the long-leaf pine 
 fbrc'sts must be very wide and first converted into grass strips, cut or kept clean by burning. In 
 spile of the nnnsnal dillieiilties there were in 18il4-0."j over .'t-'l, 000 S(|uare miles ])rotected against 
 lire, and ou only 8 jjer cent of this area did the element succeed in doing any damage. In this 
 work, too, great progress has been made during the last twenty years; the elliciency has steadily 
 increased, and the expense, about 810 ])er square mile in 188."), has been n'lluced to less than half. 
 
 lu the protection against unlawful felling or timber stealing and grazing, the ( iovernmeiit 
 of India has shown itself fully eipial to the occasion by a liberal ])olicy of siqiplyiug villagers 
 in |)idximlty to the forests with fuel, etc., at reduced ]irices or gratis. Over •*L'.(MIO,000 worth wa.s 
 thus disposed of in 1801-',)."), tlii^ incentive to timber stealing being thereliy materially reduced. 
 A reasonable and Just permit system of grazing, where again the ni'cds of the neighboring 
 villagers ar(wuost carefully considered, not only brings the (Iovernmeiit a yearly n^venueof nearly 
 .'4800,000, but enables the people to graze about ;>,OO0,OO0 head of animals in the State forests 
 without doing any material damage to tree growth. 
 
 Though the fbrcsts of India ar(^ now, and will continue tor some time to lie. little more than 
 wild woods, with .some jiroteetioii and a reasonable system of ex]>loitation, in place of a mere 
 roiibing or <uilliiig system, yet tlus work of actually impro\ iiig the Ibrests steadily iiiin-eases in 
 amount and perfection. 
 
 In the large teak forests of Ibirnia, as well as other iirosinees, care is had in helping this 
 valuable timber to iirojiagate itself; the useless kinds of trees are girdled, huge ciiiidxns are (uit 
 olf, and a steady war is waged against all siiecies detrimental to teak regi'iieration. Where the 
 teak has entirely disappeared, (n'e.n [ilautiiig is resorted to. 'I'liiis in Ibirma over o.j, 000 acres 
 have been restocked with teak liy means of taungyas. or plantations, wh<M-e tlie native is allowed 
 to burn down a piece of woods, use it lor a few years as field (though it is never really cleared) on 
 (touditioii of iilauting it with teak, being jiaid a certain sum tor e\crv linndred trees in a thiil'iy 
 
2r.2 
 
 l-'ORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 condition at the time of giving up his land. Similarly, tlio dopartnicnt has expended large sums 
 in estal)lishing forests in ])arts of the iirid regions of ISelnehistan, and on the whole has expended 
 about $1.')(»,0()() during 1804-05 on cultural operations, which uj) to that time involved about 
 7(>,0(H) lu-.res of regular plantations and .''>(i,0()(> acres tauiigyas (mostly teak), making a total of 
 112,000 acres, besides utimerous hii-ge areas where the Avork consisted merely in aiding natural 
 rei)roduction. 
 
 In disposing of its timber the Government of India employs various methods. In some of 
 the forest districts the people merely i)!iy a small tax ami get out of the woods what and as much 
 as they Tieed. In other cases the logger merely pays for what he removes, the amount be fells 
 being ueither limited in quantity nor (piality. The prevalent systems, however, are the permit 
 system, where a permit is issued indicating the amount to be cut and the price to be paid for the 
 same, and the contract system, where the work is more or less under control of government officers 
 and the material remains government jiroperty until ])aid foi'. To a limited extent the vState carries 
 on its own timber exploitation, as appears from the following tigures, where the cut for lSOi-05 for 
 the entire country is given : 
 
 Kinil :uh1 quantity "1' protliict. 
 
 KLflrioved by — 
 Stiili'. I Vnrnh.i.ser. 
 
 Tinilier (1,0i)n ciilup fwtl I S, 7(i(i r!9, 900 
 
 Filial (1,000 ciihi.- ti'et) I 'Jg, ooo 09,000 
 
 l!iiiiiliii(>s (1,000 pieces) I l.WIO ITJ.'JOO 
 
 Minor jirodiicl.s ($1,000) 90 l,.'.0l) 
 
 In spite of the many difficulties, a poor market (no market at all for a large number of woods), 
 wild, unsurveyed, and ]ira(;tically unknown woodlands, requiring unusual and costly methods of 
 organization and protection, the forestry department has succeeded, without ciu'tailing thi^ timber 
 output of India, in so regulating forest exi)loita(ioii as to insure not only a permanence in the output, 
 but also to improve the woodhmds by favoring the valuable species, and thus prejjare for an 
 increase of output for the future, ami at the same time has yielded the (ioveriiment a steaddy 
 growing revenue, which bids fair to rank beloie long among the important sources of income. 
 
 The growth of both gross and net revtiiuie is illustrated by the following figures: 
 
 iliiriiiU tlin |ii-ri"il- 
 
 Oross in- 
 cimir. 
 
 1870-1874 $:;.8UI,000 
 
 1 87."i-i 879 :i, :i:io. Olio 
 
 1880-1884 ' 4, 408, 00(1 
 
 1885-1889 .5, 834, 000 
 
 1890-1 894 7, 974, (100 
 
 
 l'ni|iurtiim 
 
 Kxi)eilSrS. 
 
 ot ex]teiiae 
 
 
 lo inroine. 
 
 
 Pt'y cfiit. 
 
 $1,900,000 
 
 70 
 
 2, i;88, 000 
 
 09 
 
 2, Hdii, 000 
 
 04 
 
 :i, 7i;i, 000 
 
 04 
 
 4, 200, 000 
 
 54 
 
 From this it is clear that in India as in Europe not only the gross but also the net income has 
 become greater in juoportion as a better organization is permitted lo expend more money on the 
 cai'e of the forests. 
 
 During the year lS0i-0r» the income from State Ibrests was distributed as follows: 
 
 Wood ^\\ 170, 000 
 
 Minor ])roiluct.s 670,000 
 
 G razi n s 7S1), 000 
 
 Other i)icomes 750, 000 
 
 Total income 8,370,000 
 
 The exp(Mulitures for the same .year were: 
 
 For adiiiiiiistratioii (pay of oflioi-rs, foresters, ctr.) $2, 200, 000 
 
 l''or rutting tinilicr and reinovinf;- it 1,350,000 
 
 ( )ther worli 7G0, 000 
 
 Forest silnxd 4(), 000 
 
 Total recurring expenses 4, 356, 000 
 
 For survey and other extraordinary work 300, 000 
 
 Total rxpenditiirc 4,656,000 
 
 leaving a net revenue of $3,714,000, or 41 per cent of the gross income. 
 
w_ 
 
 INDIAN FORKST MANAGEMENT. 2G3 
 
 It is of special inteii'st to note tliat the expense of fire i)i()leetioii aiiioiinted, iiiidei- tliese most 
 extraonliiiary cin iinistanees, only to $ !.'!(). (M)(i, or l.(i per eent of tlie gross income, and that for 
 cultural work, tire horror of the American anti-forest pioclaimer, only $150, OOO, or l.S per (-ent of 
 the gross income, was paid. 
 
 The forest laws of India were hke those of most countries, a matter of growth and adaptation, 
 with the iinpoitant difference, however, that the well detined object of preserving to this great 
 and ]ici-iiliar peoi)lc a continuous sup])ly of the :ill essential timber was steadily kept in mind. 
 The principal acts ;ire those of ISli."), lS(i'.l, and especially thc^ "Indian forest act " of 1S78, with 
 secondary legislation ajiplying to particular localities, such as the act of ISSl for LJurma, and IS.SU 
 for Madras and others. 
 
 in general these forest laws jirovide for the establishment of iiernianent or •'reserved" State 
 foi ests, to ])e managed according to modern forestry i)rineiples. They jirovide for a suitable force of 
 nun; give the foiest ollicers certain |>olice jiowers; prohibit unwarranted removal of forest 
 ])r()ducts, the setting of lires, or otherwise injuring the for(\st pioixaty. The, laws also regulate 
 grazing and the chase by permit systems, anil i)rescribe rules iiy which the work of the depart- 
 ment is carried on, as well as the manner in which ollicers are engaged, promoted, etc. Since the 
 jieculiar circumstances required men specially lifted and trained, schools were established to 
 furnish the recruits for this steadily growing service. The one at Coopers Hill, I'^ngland, where a 
 thorough course is intended to piepare men for ihi^ su[)erior stall' iiositioiis, and the Imperial 
 school at Dehra Dun, which is to su|)ply the great number of the executive staff, the young men 
 starting in usually as guards or rangers at a pay of about ■*-.") per month, working their way up 
 to jilaces worth *7() per month, aTid if well suited, eligible for fuither i)iomotion. In the Dehra 
 l>nn school ami the executive staff the native element is fast making itsell' felt, and there is little 
 doubt that the men of India will soon be able to manage the forests of their own native land. 
 
r> 
 
 ■09