2c5c? Class Rook ■ (^ %2^ Copyright )J^. COPYRrCHT DEPOSnV /f/^ ^*^; SAMUEL B. GREEN Late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR BEGINNERS AND AS A TEXT BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. BY SAMUEL B. GREEN PKOFESSOK OF HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. Author of "Vegetable Gardening," "Amateur Fruit Growing," "Forestry in Minnesota," "Principles of American Forestry," "Farm Wind-Breaks and Shelter Belts," Etc. FOURTH EDITION, Revised. .^^v c-^t^^' Copyright, 1909, 1910 By SAMiQEL B. GREEN. Copyright, 1912 By MRS. ALICE H. GREEN. \,.,x'V 'Cl.fl3(l!»17L^ PREFACE. The development of the teaching of Agriculture has made necessary, and has been largely dependent on, the making of text- books of various kinds adapted to the special technical work for which our best agricultural schools stand. When these agricultural colleges started there were no text- books adapted to their special lines of work, and the demand necessitated the hasty preparation of text-books which are now being replaced by those that are more complete and better adapt- ed in every way for teaching purposes. This book is the result of the development of the teskchlng of Fruit Growing in the University of Minnesota and Is, in a way, a compilation of lectures on Fruit Growing given to the students which have been carefully revised and considerably extended. At the end of each chapter are suggestive questions on the mat- ter presented. An appendix is added which contains formulas for fungi- cides, insecticides and grafting waxes, etc.; lists of fruits recom- mended for special typical states and rules for naming fruits. The fruit lists are from the professors of Horticulture of the various Agricultural Colleges and from secretaries of the va- rious Horticultural Societies. In the preparation of this work I have had the earnest and Intelligent assistance of Miss Jeannette Foster. I am also under obligations to my assistant in Horticulture, Mr. A. R. Kohler, who prepared the pages on Spraying and Spraying machinery; to Mr. Elvln Peterson, student of the College of Agriculture, who has made many of the drawings; to Prof. Frederick Wash- burn for cuts which he has loan-ed; to Prof. E. M. Freeman for many suggestions embodied in the chapter on Plant Diseases and to Mr. A. G. Ruggles for suggestions In regard to the chapter on Insects Injurious to Fruits. I am also under obligations to those who have assisted by furnishing data for the fruft list and in other ways aided in its preparation. SAMUEL B. GREEN, St. Anthony Park, Minn. March 1, 1910. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH REVISED EDITION. The large use of Popular Fruit Growing in all sections of the country and the ever-changing horticultural conditions have made it seem best to revise some portions of the book before this, the Fourth Edition, goes to press. Some rearrangement of the subject matter has been made in order to conform more closely to the usual plan of teaching fruit growing in American schools and colleges. In a number of cases, additional matei'ial has been incorporated where conditions have c"hanged or experi- ence has shown that the subject was not discussed at sufficient length in former editions. It is but fitting at this time to add to this preface a short biography of tile teacher and scientist who originally prepared the work. Samuel B. Green was born in 1859 at Chelsea, .Mass., and died July 11, 1910, in Itasca Park, Minnesota. In 1S79 he graduated from Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege at a time when agriculture was not looked on very favorably as an occupation for one to follow. The independence of purpose shown in the selection of this course was characteristic of Pro- fessor Green througliout his life. "\;\T3enever possible, he did the thing that appeared to him to be riglit, regardless of what others thought or said. Ten years following graduation were spent in practical nursery and farm work, gradually gaining the experience that would be of value to him in later life. In 1888 he came to Min- nesota as Horticulturist of the Experiment Station and Professor of Horticulture in the University, which positions "he held till his death. There were very few students and practically no equipment in the Department of Horticulture at the time of Pro- fessor Green's coming. He not only built up a strong Horticul- tural Division and very greatly advanced the horticultural inter- ests of the state, but also helped to establish fhe School and Col- lege of Agriculture on the solid foundation on which they exist in Minnesota today. He also found time to serve the state in many other ways, as a member and for nearly four years as President of fhe State Horticultural Society, member of the American Pomological Society, Society of American Foresters, and other similar organizations. During the later years of his life he took up work in forestry with enthusiasm, establishing a strong course in forestry in the University and developing a system of summer training for foresters in Itasca Park. Early in 1910 he was made Dean of the College of Forestry. Professor Green was the author of many bulletins and books along horticultural lines. He is perhaps best known as author of Vegetable Gardening, Amateur Fruit Growing, Popular Fruit Growing, Forestry in Minnesota, Principles of American Forestry, and Farm Hedges and Windbreaks. Thus much of his work is preserved in permanent form and will live after him. LE ROY CADY. St. Anthony Park, Minn., November 25, 1911. CONTENIS. CHAPTER I. Desirable Factors in a Fruit Growing Section. — Accessibility. Location. Soils. Topography. Business Aspect. CHAPTER II. Principles of Plant Growth. — Parts of Plant. Parts of Flower. Pollination. Hybrids. Assimilation. Transpiration. Rest Period. Classification of Plants. Varieties. CHAPTER III. The Planting and Care of the Orchard. — Selection of Varie- ties. Selection of Nursery Stock. Preparation of Land. Laying Out the Orchard. Setting the Trees. Cultivation. Mulching. Cover Crops. Plant Food. Manuring. Irrigation. CHAPTER IV. Pruning. — Reasons for Pruning. Effect of Pruning. Pruning the Young Tree. Starting the Head. When to Prune. How to Make the Cuts. Tools. Training the Apple Tree. Renewing Old Trees. CHAPTER V. Orchard Protection. — Injuries. Frost Protection. Foretell- ing Frost. Orchard Heating. CHAPTER VI. Insects Injurious to Fruits. — State Inspection. Chewing In- sects. Sucking Insects. Root Insects. Beneficial Insects. Par- asites. Predaceous Insects. Apple Insects and Remedies. Pear Insects and Remedies. Peach Insects and Remedies. Plum Insects and Remedies. Insect Enemies of the Grape. Insect Enemies of the Bush Fruits. Strawberry Insects and Remedies. CHAPTER VII. Diseases Injurious to Fruits. — Apple Diseases and Remedies. Pear Diseases and Remedies. Quince Diseases and Remedies. Plum Diseases and Remedies. Peach Diseases and Remedies. Cherry Diseases and Remedies. Grape Diseases and Remedies. Strawberry Diseases and Remedies. Blacliberry Diseases and Remedies. Raspberry Diseases and Remedies. Gooseberry Dis- eases and Remedies. Currant Diseases and Remedies. CHAPTER VIII. Spraying and Spraying Apparatus. — Dust Spraying. Liquid Spraying. Spraying Apparatus. CHAPTER IX. Harvesting and Marketing. — Picking. Peddling. Associa- tions. Pacldng. Packages. Package Laws. Barrels. Packing Barrels. Grades of Fruit. Cold Storage. CHAPTER X. Propagation of Fruit Plants.— Seed. Stratification. Offsets. Cuttings. Budding. Grafting. Inarching. CHAPTER XI. Pome Fruits. — Apples: Classes of, Propagation, Apple Or- chards, Trees, Seedlings, Root Grafting, Planting, Heeling In, Cultivation, Pruning, Mulching, Varieties. Pear: Origin, CTii- nese Sand Pear, Standard Pears, Dwarf Pears, Propagation, Soil and Cultivation, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varie- ties, Packing. Quince: Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. CHAPTER XII. Stone Fruits.— Plum: Origin, Propagation, Stocks, Soil, Planting, Insects, Varieties. Cherry: Origin, Soil, Planting, Time of Planting, Age of Trees, Cultivation, Propagation, Prun- ing, Picking and Marketing, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Peach: Origin, Groups, Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Soil, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Nectarine: Origin. Apricot: Origin, Stocks, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. CHAPTER XIII. Grapes.— Origin, Propagation, Soil, Planting, Training and Pruning, Single Post Method, High Renewal Method, Kniffen Method, 4-Cane Knift'en Method, 2-Cane High Renewal Method, Munson Method, Tying Material, Thinning, Manuring, Girdling. CHAPTER XIV. Small Fruits. — Strawberry: Origin, Location, Soil, Manuring, Planting Methods, Trimming, Protection, Renewing, Burning, Picking and Marketing, Varieties. Currant: Origin, Soil and Planting. Pruning, Protection, Marketing, Varieties. Gooseberry: Origin, Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Marketing, Insects, Dis- eases. Raspberry: Origin, Classes, Propagation, liocation, Soil, Manuring, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning, Thinning, Mulching, Protection, Picking, Marketing. Blackberry and Dewberry: Groups, Propagation, Soils, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning. Cranberry: Location, Soil, Cultivation, Drainage, Planting, Pick- ing. Juneberry: Origin, Propagation, Cultivation, Varieties. Sand Cherry: Distribution, Propagation. Bullberry or Buffalo Berry: Distribution, Propagation. Mulberries: Origin, Propa- gation, Varieties. Persimmon: American Persimmon, Where Found, Value of Fruit, Method of Propagation, Japanese Per- simmon, Value of Fruit, Propagation. CHAPTER XV. Nuts. — Pecan: Origin, Soil, Harvesting, Marketing, Insects, Grafting. Chestnut: Groups. Chinquapins: Propagation, Plant- ing, Insects, Diseases. English Walnut: Propagation, Harvest- ing, Marketing, Japanese Walnut. Black Walnut. Almond: Soil, Planting, Propagation, Marketing. Hazel: Origin, Flower. APPENDIX. Appendix. — Spraying Calendar. Fungicides. Insecticides. Grafting Waxes. Rules for Naming Fruits. Lists of Fruit Rec- ommended for Different States. Distances Apart for Planting Fruits. List of Horticultural Books, Periodicals and Bulletins. Popular Fruit Growing. CHAPTER I. FACTORS THAT MAKE UP A GOOD FRUIT-GROWING SEC- TION. Accessibility. — One of the first requisites for success in fruit growing is ready communication with a good market. This may be obtained by nearness to the market itself, or to shipping facili- ties where transportation to the market centers may be had at reasonable rates. Water communication is often better than rail, especially for those kinds of fruits that are easily injured by rough handling. Two or more competing lines of communica- tion generally tend to give the shipper better service than when one road has the monopoly. Accessibility is of the first impor- tance though it vvill not entirely take the place of suitable soil conditions; however, it may sometimes make it profitable to use an inferior soil. The distance which fruit can be hauled with safety or profit depends largely on the nature of the product itself. The apple grower can afford to be farther from shipping facilities than the peach or berry grower, as his fruit is less likely to be damaged in hauling. Growers of perishable fruits should not be more than two or three miles from a shipping station. Good wagon roads make it easy to get to market quickly ■with large loads of produce in good condition and form a very important factor in the development of any fruit section. If the location is so far from the consumer that the produce must be shipped by a common carrier it is important that enough fruit be raised in the section to make the business of handling and shipping it one of sufficient importance to command special attention from the carrier and the buyers, so as to make it a place where buyers will go for fruit. In starting a fruit industry 14 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. in a new place the pioneers often labor under the disadvantage of not having enough of their product to make it worth w"hile to ship it. This difficulty can be overcome in new sections by- starting the Industry on a large scale so that shipments may be made in carload lots and by co-operation in selling. Soils. — The only sure way of determining the value of a soil for a particular fruit is by field-trial, because so many factors enter into the makeup of a good fruit soil that it is easy to make mistakes, and yet tie best fruit soils have many evident points in common. There is hardly any soil but which under favorable conditions will be found adapted to some class of fruits. For instance, the pear prefers a rather heavy clay soil; the peach and cherry quite open and porous soils. The strawberry and blackberry will often do well on soil too sandy for other fruits although either one suffers from drought on a heavy soil. The currant and gooseberry prefer an open clay loam but will adapt themselves to almost any location. Then there are locations, such as the lands adapted to the Yellow Newtown or Albemarle Pippin apple in Virginia, so wondrously fitted to special fruits that it seems impossible to raise these in perfection elsewhere. In the case of apples rjid many other tree fruits the condition of fhe subsoil is generally of niore importance than the surface soil, although the condition of the latter must not be overlooked. It is desirable to have a surface soil that can be cultivated easily and will not bake hard after rains. Soil that is extremely rich in plant food is usually undesirable for apples, pears and peacTies, especially if too rich in nitrogen. On such land the trees generally grow large and frequently do not bear until quite mature. Tbe unripened buds and wood, common under such con- ditions, kill back in winter and the vigorous growth of early sum- mer seems to be predisposed to fire blight or similar diseases. Loess loam is the name given to an open clay soil which is made up largely of clay and small shells. On such land we generally find in the North a vigorous growth of maple, hack- berry and white oak. It is perhaps the best kind of an all around fruit soil and any of our fruits will do well in it. A limestone soil, where the roots can reach the underlying lime rock or soil and which has much lime in its makeup, is especially favorable for all our fruits and comes next to or may FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 15 equal in value tlie loess loams. In parts of Florida the coral rock and the old shells in the sand help to make good fruit soil. Heavy clay loam may be better adapted to agriculture than to fruit raising, but if such soil is thoroughly underdrained and given a proper rotation of cover crops, manure and general cul- tivation, it will often be found adapted to a goodly number of fruits and especially to applt;s, pears, currants, gooseberries and the sweet cherries. Such a soil requires a very careful manage- ment in order to get the best results from it. Sandy loam underlaid with a good, open clay subsoil is almost ideal for any of tlie small fruits and grapes. It is the easiest kind of soil to handle and can be cultivated shortly after a rain without becoming lumpy or sticking to the tools, and it easily forms a dust blanket. Implements scour in it very read- ily, which is no small convenience. Altogether, it is the most pleasant kind of soil to cultivate and well adapted to a long list of fruit plants. Sandy soil dries out so Quickly that crops on it suffer from drought. This is especially true where the soil particles are coarse. It gives quick returns from manure applied to it but does not liold soluble manures. In general it is not adapted to any of the fruit crcps unless it can be irrigated, or is located where the water table is within the reach of the roots. Under such conditions this soil may. with proper management, give good results with strawberries, blackcap raspberries, plums, sour cherries and peaches, and wifh many of the subtropical fruits. Mucky soil is not well adapted to fruits of any kind but some kinds of strawberries and blackberries will occasionally yield enormously on such land where it is well drained. When muck is applied to sandy or clay land, it is often beneficial. Flat, black prairie soil is seldom sufficiently adapted to any kind of fruit to become the foundation of an important fruit industry, although many kinds of fruits may do well enough on it to make them desirable for planting in the home garden. Clay soil, underlaid with gravel at a depth of from two to four feet, may be used for sour cherries, peaches and plums, but crops on it are liable to suffer from dought and such lands 16 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. should generally be avoided for fruits. It dries out easily and yet the surface soil, being of clay, becomes lumpy unless care- fully handled. It has most of the disadvantages of both a stiff clay and sandy soil. Topography. — The topography of a country is the "lay of the land;" i. e., whether hilly, rolling or flat. A rolling country gives good water drainage and our cultivated fruits, with the exception of the cranberry, are intolerant of surplus water in the soil. A rolling country also gives many high slopes where there is com- parative immunity from unseasonable frosts. Its various slopes are adapted to a variety of crops. For these reasons good fruit sections are generally located where the land is hilly but land that is quite flat may sometimes prove valuable for fruit when near large water areas so that there is secured comparative immunity from frosts and when sufficiently elevated to secure good drainage. As a rule, however, flat land is not well adapted to fruit growing. The direction of the slope is an important matter, but one which is so influenced by local conditions and by the class of fruits which is to be grown that no definite rule can be given. In the Northern states, a northeast slope is generally regarded as best for the tree fruits, as it warms up slowly in the spring and the trees are less likely to start early and suffer injury from late spring frosts and the hot. dry winds of summer. Locations near large bodies of water, especially fhose so situated that the pre- vailing winter winds blow across this water and are tempered by it, are particularly favorable for fruit growing, as the danger from frost injury is greatly reduced. The peach belt along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, which is as far north as south- ern Minnesota, is a familiar example of the tempering effect of water. It is possible to grow fruit in that locality, owing to the freedom from frosts, which could not be produced some distance farther south, in Indiana and Illinois, in districts where there is no protection from cold northwest winds. BUSINESS ASPECT. Fruit Growing as a Business. — Success in any business is largely a personal matter and success in fruit growing likewise FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 17 depends much on fhe individual and his adaptability. The demand for fruit is on the increase and the consumption of fresh fruits per capita is now greater than a few years ago. With the introduction of improved methods of storing and shipping, fresh fruit is destined to play a more important part in the diet of every American. Comparatively a few years ago fresh fruit was regarded as a luxury but now it is looked upon as a staple article of diet with special hygienic values. Overproduction of Fruit. — There is occasionally an overpro- duction of fruit in some districts, but it is rare that there is an overproduction of good fruit. Our chief trouble is that our methods of distfibution are faulty and our people do not get the fruit they want. Fraits that can be readily used for canning or drying purposes are most stable in price because, when low in price, it is easy to dispose of the surplus. Fruits which keep over a considerable period, as winter apples, are more stable in price than these that are perishable, as berries or peaches. The tendency is certainly toward cheaper good fruit, but there is also a growing discriminating taste for fruit of the best quality and the number of consumers who are willing and able to pay a fair price for a good article is fast increasing. As wealth increases this discrimination in favor of the best will become even more pronounced than it is today. The successful fruit grower must be well grounded il2 the principles of growing fruit and the many problems that are sure to present themselves in the course of the annual round of dtties. Not only is it desirable that he know how to grow fruit but he must know how to market 'it. In other words, he must be a good business man. Some of the most successful fruit growers and horticulturists have been men who were not raised in the work but have taken it up late in life and succeeded largely because of their business training and ability. This is not to say that farmers' sons do not make good farmers, but they often fail to get the most out of their farm practice owing to the lack of business training. In this respect another man may perhaps excel, although he may not understand the practice of liandling the land. The fruit industry is especially suited to the man of 18 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ready resources who can quickly adapt himself to changes of situation. Choice of Locations. — Most people who are making a spe- cialty of fruit growing, and most farmers who contemplate a change to fruit growing, are held fast by social ties, by land holdings or in other ways, so that they cannot easily change their location even if they wished to do so, therefore the choice of location for them is a settled fact. If they engage in fruit growing at all it must be in their present surroundings. To them it is a selection of crops and methods of management best suited to their conditions. If fruit growing cannot be made profitable where they are they had better devote their land to other purposes. On the other hand, there is a small class of people who wish to grow fruit of certain kinds who do have the opportunity of changing their location. For such, it would be a good plan to visit the principal fruit sections and thoroughly study their conditions and probable future before locating permanently. In making such a study it is not well to be too quick to form an opinion as there are many factors to be considered. Rarely, indeed, is it desirable for a grower to change from a line of fruit growing that he is thoroughly acquainted with to one that is very different. Occasionally it may be desirable or necessary to do so, but in any case the change should be made with great caution. The successful apple grower of Missouri may make a successful California orange grower after he has had experience, but he will have much that is new to learn before he can do this. The man who is starting anew in the growing of fruit of any kind will generally find it best to start in a small way and not risk too much on a single venture. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER I. 1. What is meant by accessibility? 2. What are the characteri.stics of a good fruit growing section? 3. What soils are best adapted to different fruits? 4. What is the composition of limestone soil? Of clay loam? Of sandy loam? Of sandy soil? Of mucky soil? Of prairie soil? Of clay soil? 5. What is meant by the topography of a country? 6. What is the best location for fruit growing? 7. What are some of the things upon which the success of fruit growing depends? 8. What is the result of an overproduction of fruit? 9. What are some of the problems with which a fruit grower has to contend? CHAPTER II. SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. The roots of plants are made up of several distinct parts. The main central root is termed the tap root when it extends directly downward into the -earth, as in the roots of Bur Oak and Black Walnut. When a plant has several spreading roots It is said to have surface roots, but such roots may sometimes divide and go deep into the ground; for example, the roots of th« Red Oak and White Pine. Root fibres or rootlets is the term used for the smaller division of roots. The foregoing roots have hard bark and do not feed the plant. They do little more than anchor it in place. The roots feed through what are known as the root hairs, which are soft, fresh, young roots, generally white in color. The collar or crown of a plant is that portion where the roots and top unite. It is close to the surface of the ground. This portion of the tree is frequently injured by borers, by ice and in other ways. It is a good plan, especially in the case of young trees, to protect them in winter with a bank of earth around the collar. The stems of plants may be annual, as in the case of many garden plants; biennial, as in the case of the raspberry and blackberry, and perennial, as in the currants, gooseberries and fruit trees. Runners are creeping stems, as in the case of the strawberry. Suckers are stems springing up from roots or underground stems. Thorns are modified branches and live for indefinite periods while prickles, like those on the gooseberry, are modifications of the bark and live but one year. The bark covers the whole exterior of the trunk, branches and roots and serves as a protection. It is made up of two parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark, and the in- ner, or live bark. These vary much in appearance and thickness on different kinds of trees. For instance, on the White Birch the corky layer is pure white, very thin and tough, whil-e on our White Pine it is very dark brown and often an inch or 20 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. more in thickness and quite brittle. This covering of bark is quite impervious to disease where intact, but there are gener- ally many small breaks in its surface through which disease may enter and once inside the bark it is well protected. Cracks in the live bark are most common in early summer when growth is rapid. Diseases may also enter through some wound, and hence the desirability of covering large wounds with some impervious material to keep disease out of the plant. Buds are the portions of plants which always tip new growth. They are often opposite, as in the case of the Maple, or alternate as in the apple, pear, plum or peach. Adventitious buds are those that start apparently without system. Theoreti- cally, botanists say that any cell may grow into a bud so that buds may appear in almost any place on the trunk, roots, or branches, and in the case of the orange a single seed may grow three plants, one of which is the result of ordi- nary sexual union while tho other two may be looked up- on as being adventitious. Buds may produce leaves or flowers. The former are termed leaf buds and the lat- ter flower buds. These are illustrated in Fig. 1. They vary in shape, time of forma- tion and location in different plants. Flower buds are more liable to winter injury than leaf buds. Plants that are growing fast are quite liable to form only leaf buds and often fail to form flower buds. When growth is rather slow naturally or when checked by artificial means, fruit buds are formed. In the case of some trees that do not come into bear- Fig. 1.— Fruit buds of b. — Plum. c. — Peach indicate fruit buds. -Apple. The crosses FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 21 ing readily, girdling is sometimes practic-ed in order to throw the plant into bearing. This may be done in a variety of ways but should not be attempted except in the case of trees that seem hopeless otherwise. Girdling may be done successfully as follows: With an ordinary cross-cut saw, cut in a spiral direction around the trunk or branch to be treated and have the cut end just under where it commenced but several inches below. In this way the circulation of sap Is only sufficiently impeded to cause flower buds to form. Such wounds seldom cause serious injury to vigorous trees. This work should be done in June if at all, but is seldom a desirable practice. The leaves of plants are made up of loose, open tissue enclosed in a thin mem- brane. This membrane has openings in it through which the plant takes in carbonic acid gas, i. e. carbon dioxide from the air, and throws off large quantities of water. It Is through these openings, called stomata, that diseases frequently enter the plant. Such openings also occur in the young twigs of some plants. It is in its green por- tions that the plant absorbs and assimilates food, and since this gre-en portion is formed almost exclusively in our fruit plants only in the presence of direct sunlight, the im- portance of lots of sunlight for best develop- ment of these plants is evident. The flower is the portion of the tree designed for the production of seed. All the parts of our fruit plants in a natural state seem to facilitate this object. Flow- ers are often imperfect, as in the case ot some forest trees, but in our com- mon cultivated fruit plants the flowers are generally perfect and only such flowers are referred to here. But flowers that are perfect may be self-sterile, that is, may not be fertile to their own pollen but need to be cross fertilized. Fig. 2. — Trunk of apple tree two inches in diam- eter one year after girdling with saw. 22 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. The parts of the flower and the purpose of each. — The parts of the flower are modified leaves. The outside covering of the flower of our common fruits is termed the calyx. Its purpose is to protect the more tender organs and it is generally green in color. The next row of modified leaves of the flower is called the corolla. This is generally white or of some conspicuous Fig. 3.— Flower of Duchess of Oldenberg apple. color. It serves as a protection and also by its coloring at- tracts insects which assist in pollination. The next row of modified leaves are the stamens. They are of various forms, generally tipped with a small pouch-like vessel in which the male element, known as pollen, is formed. The stem is called the filament and the pouch the anther. The pistils are the fe- male organs made up of ovary or seed pod, style or stem, and stigma, wTiich latter is the part that receives and holds the pollen which grows through it to the seed. The bright colored por- FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 23 tions and the nectar attract insects that aid in transferring the pollen from one flower to another. The edible portions of the fruit attract birds and other animals, including man, who aid in distributing the seed. Fruit. — A true fruit as defined by botanists is the ripened seed vessel and its contents. This agrees with the horticul- Fig. 4. ^Diagrammatic drawing showing how pollen grains grow down the pistil of the strawberry and unite with the contents of the ovary in the act of fertilization; At the right, cross section through flower of strawberry, showing its parts. turists' definition so far as fruits such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, gooseberries and currants are concernea, out in the case of strawberries, blackberries and mulberries, this definition would allow us to claim only the single grains on the sides of the berries as fruits, while in these fruits, we com- monly consider the fleshy center a part of the fruit. These lat- ter fruits are in structure much like an ear of corn with an 24 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. edible cob. The word fruit as used by the fruit grower had a certain definite, well understood significance before the dawn of scientific botany and the botanists should not attempt to change the significance of the word. Pollen. — Pollen grains vary in form but are cell-like in structure and have the power of making a root-like growth into the tissues of the pistil to the ovary where the contents of the pollen grain unites with and fertilizes th^ ovule. Without this process taking place, seed is not produced and it is seldom that fruit is formed at all. Pollen from, one distinct kind of fruit will not fertilize the ovule of another of a different, distinct kind but each is restricted to a very close limit. For instance, the pollen of one variety of the apple will fertilize other apples but will not fertilize the plum. When varieties of the same or nearly allied fruits are fertilized with the pollen from one or another, they are said to be crossed and the operation is termed crossing. The results from this work are seldom well marked in the crossed fruit although the skillful operator may sometimes be able to see it. But the results of the cross will show in the seedlings from the crossed fruit and it must not be expected that the seedlings will partake equally of the nature of each, for we know from much experience that the results of such crosses are uncertain and irregular. Pollination. — Under natural conditions flowers are pollen- ized in various ways, but chiefly by wind, in the case of plants that have inconspicuous flowers such as corn, pine, spruce and poplar; and by insects in our cultivated fruits and most other plants which have conspicuous flowers. Some flow- ers are probably pollenized in both ways. Hybrids. — Where a cross is made between very unlike forms, as between the sand cherry and the plum, the result is generally termed a hybrid. The difference between crosses and hybrids is only one of degree and of late years there has been a tendency to do away with the use of the term hybrid altogether. There is a very common impression that hybrids are exceedingly rare and of more value than ordinary crosses but such is far from being the case, as they are frequently of little valu-e for any purpose and often fail to form seed and even to set fruit. FUNDAMEJMTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 25 Fruit Plants from Seed.— While our wild plants come nearly true from seed, our cultivated fruits, which have come from them„ will not come true but will show a decided tendency to resemble the wild, inferior forms. Although an occasional seed- ling may be a decided improvement over the cultivated kinds there is not one chance in a thousand of getting better fruits than those we now have by saving seed. This comes from the fact that we do not grow our fruits from seed but by grafting, budding, etc. If they w-ere grown for many generations from Fig. 5.— Showing variation in sizes and shapes of plums grown from the same lot of seed. seed it would undoubtedly be possible to get them to come as true to type as our garden vegetables. It must be noticed that as there are no two plants exactly alike the strongest ten- dency in plants is to be unlike. Some cultivated fruit plants that come nearly true from seed are a few local varieties of the peach, the Wyant plum and such strawberries as the Alpine and St. Anthony de Padua. The yearly round of life in plants consists of a rapid growth In the spring, during which time the plant is using up ■36 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the store of food accumulated the year befor-e. After this rapid growth has passed comes a period of slower growth in which the wood is said to ripen. That is, it becomes hard by reason of its cells becoming filled with starch or other plant food which Is used to start growth in the spring. When this is completed active growth stops, but plant food is probably being stored up as long as the leaves still remain green. When we have warm, moist weather late in autumn, active growth sometimes starts again and some of this plant food is changed to unstable comipounds which may result in winter killing. Some varieties are much more liable to start in this way than others. No characteristic of hardiness in plants is more certain than ear- ly maturity of wood. Assimilation. — Plants are made up of various tissues and these are composed of numerous cells. The material of which the cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is de- rived from the carbon dioxide of the air which enters the leaves, and, under the action of light, air and water is decom- posed; the oxygen is given off and the carbon is retained and, combining with water obtained from the roots, forms starch, sugar, gum and other plant foods. This process of food mak- ing is called assimilation and can be carried on only in the green parts of the plant and in these, only when exposed to light and air. Hence foliage, air and light are essential el-ements for plant growth, and the greater the quantity and better the de- velopment of foliage and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work the more vigorously will the tree grow. In general, therefore, the growth of the fruit and wood may be reduced -either by the removal of foliage, which reduces the working surface, or by shading, which somewhat checks the activity of the foliage by hindering light action. Transpiration. — The flow of sap in trees is not well un- derstood. In a general way it may be said that the sapwood transmits the water from the roots to the leaves, where a part enters into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant, and the r-emainder, which is by far the greater part, passes off as vapor. The amount thus transpired varies greatly with the species, age of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 27 light at its disposal, climatic conditions and the condition of tree growth. The amount of water transpired is so large in comparison to the amount retained in the tree that while an acre of forest may store in its trees 1000 pounds of carbon, 15 or 20 pounds of mineral substance and 5000 pounds of water Fig. 6. — Abnormal flower of strawberry with seven petals; not unusual. 28 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. in a year, it may have taken from the soil and given off to the air from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water or from one- quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops. It has been es- timated that the leaves of deciduous trees transpire one-sixth to one-third as much water as an equal surface of water. Large deciduous trees undoubtedly give off as much as a barrel of water a day in dry summer weather. Coniferous trees transpire much less water than most deciduous trees, frequently not over one- sixth as much. Mineral substances are taken up by plants in small quanti- ties and consist mostly of lime, magnesia, potash and phos- phorus. They are carried to the leaves where they are used, (perhaps also on their passage through the tre«), with a part of the water in food preparation. The main part of the mineral substances taken up remains, as the water transpires in th-e knaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed. Rest period of plants. — With very few exceptions, all plants require an occasional rest period for their best development. Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by be- ing frozen. Even when plants are kept under growng condi- tions the year round, they hav« periods of rest and of active growth. During the rest period plants undergo very few changes, and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during mild weather in winter, and as evaporation must be going on most of the time from twigs and buds water must be supplied from the roots. Classification of fruits. — The commercial fruits of the world may be grouped under the following heads, of which only the more important Northern grown fruits are referred to here. Class I. Orchard culture or tree fruit culture. Sub-class I. Pomaceous fruits: Apple, pear, quince. II. Drupaceous or stone fruits: Plums, peach, cherry. III. Citrus fruits: Orange, lemon, lime, etc. IV. Moraceous fruits: Mulberry, fig. v. Anonaceous fruits: Pawpaw. VI. Myrtaceous fruits: Guava. VII. Sapotaceous fruits: Sapodilla. VIII. Anacardiaceous fruits: Mango. IX. Ebenaceous fruits: Persimmon. X. ^Leguminous fruits: St. Johns bread, tamarind. XI. Nut fruits: Nuts of various kinds. XII. Palmaceous fruits: Cocoanut, date etc. XIII. Miscellaneous tree fruits: Olive, pomegranate FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 29 Class II. Vine fruit culture. Sub-class I. Viticultural fruits: Grape. II. Passifloraceous fruits: Granadilla. Class III. Small fruit culture. Sub-class I. Bush fruits: Group (a) Rubaceous fruits: Raspberry, blackberry. (b) Ribaceous fruits: Currants and goose- berries. (c) Miscellaneous fruits: Juneberry, buffalo- berry. II. Strawberry culture: Strawberry. Ill, Cranberry culture: Common cranberry. Class IV. Non-woody or herb-like fruits. Sub-class I. Musaoeous fruits: Banana. II. Pineapple. III. Cactaceous fruits: Prickly pear. It has been estimated that there are more than ten thou- sand varieties of our commonly cultivated fruits in America. In order to study these satisfactorily some method must be found to classify them. This matter will be found worlved out In the various books on systematic pomology. Botanists have found it convenient to group plants under the head of class, or- der, genus, species, varieties. The same classification, of course, applies to the larger groups in horticulture; but the horticultur- ist has gone farther than the botanist with his classification and has divided his plants into varieties. A variety is made up of a group of individuals which differ from the rest of its species in certain recognizable particulars which are transmitted from generation to generation without material modification. The horticulturist makes into groups more or less definit-e the varieties having certain important traits in common, as, for instance, when he groups certain va- rieties of vegetables or fruits together. New varieties of fruits ar« being continually offered by the trade, and, although not one in ten of those sent out is as good as those commonly grown, yet from time to time marked improvement is made. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER II. 1. What is the root system of plants made up of? 2. Of what value are these parts to the plant? 3. What is meant by "collar or crown?" 4. Why does this portion of the tree need protection? 5. When are plants annuals? biennials? perennials? 30 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 6. What are runners? suckers? thorns? prickles? 7. Of what use is the bark? 8. What is it made up of? 9. How do these parts vary in different plants? 10. What are the buds? 11. What are adventitious buds? 12. What are the characteristics of the leaf? flower? bud? 13. How are fruit buds formed? 14. What is meant by girdling? 15. How is it accomplished? 16. What are leaves made up of? 17. How are they constructed? 18. What functions do the leaves perform for the plant? 19. What functions do the flowers perform for the plant? 20. What are the different parts of the flower? 21. How is each constructed and for what purpose? 22. What is a fruit as defined by botanists? by horticultur- ists? 23. How is it constructed? 24. What is pollen? 25. What are its characteristics? 26. How are plants crossed? 27. What is meant by the term "hybrid?" 28. How are flowers pollinated? 29. To what extent do fruit plants come true from seed? 30. What is the cause of this? 31. What local varieties come true from seed? 32. What course of growth does the plant take throughout the year? 33. What is meant by the process of assimilation? 34. How is it carried on in plants? 35. What Is the result of removing foliage from a plant? 36. What is meant by transpiration? 37. What approximate amounts are transpired from the leaves of deciduous trees? 38. What minerals are taken up from the ground by plants? 39. How is it returned to the soil? 40. What is the need of a rest period for plants? 41. How should they be cared for during this period? 42. How may commercial fruits be grouped? 43. What is the most convenient way of classing fruits? 44. What is a variety? CHAPTER III. THE PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. Selection of Varieties. — When a decision has been reached as to the kinds of fruits which are to be grown and a location has been selected, it is necessary to choose the particular varieties which are best suited to the purpose in mind. Those which are grown for home use or for a special nearby market may be quite different from those grcwn for shipment to a distant market. It often happens that varieties of the very best quality do not carry well or are not of attractive appearance; these should be grown for home use or for the special market where quality is the first consideration, while for the distant market the only varieties which should be grown are those which ship well and are attractive. Quality is rather a secondary matter in a mar- ket fruit, ttough discriminating buyers are often willing to pay a premium for varieties of particularly good quality. Varieties of fruits to grow. — The varieties of fruits best adapted to a given location cannot be named without special and careful study. Some varieties are very profitable in one local- ity but close by, in another locality, they may be a failure. The matter of selection of varieties for profitable culture is one of the most important subjects the fruit grower has to consider. There are many new varieties of fruit introduced each year and only a few of them are any better than old standard sorts, while the greater part have very serious faults. Among the varieties of fruit in cultivation, we may distin- guish two general classes: (a) Varieties of great vigor and productiveness, adapted for a wide range of country. These are oftentimes somewhat infe- rior to the best in quality but are of good appearance and good enough in quality for the average market. Among such vari- eties may be named the Duchess of Oldenburg, Talman Sweet and Ben Davis apples; Bartlett and Anjou pears; Lombard and Quackenboss plums; Crawford and Elberta peaches; Concord 32 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and Niagara grapes; King and Marlboro raspberries; Snyder blackberry, and Dunlap, Splendid and Bederwood strawberries. These varieties do well over a large extent of country. Some of them may not bring the highest prices in our markets but they sell- well and are the popular standards. (b) Varieties that are very particular about location and are not generally successful, but, where they do well, produce fruit of very superior quality. Among this class of fruits may be mentioned the Yellow Newtown, Gravenstein and Williams apples; Green Gage plum; Bosc pear; Columbia peach; lona grape; Herstine raspberry; Lawton blackberry and Jucunda strawberry. In selecting varieties for growing the fruit grower sTiouldi choose those that are adapted to his market for it is there they are to be finally tested. The fruit grower's success is depend- ent on how the market regards his product, and he should not expect to change the prevailing desires of people very much. There is, however, much in the power of a good example and there is a growing number of people who are particular as to the quality of their food and are willing to pay a fair price for it. The fruit grower should not try to sell white strawberries, raspberries or currants, for the general markets demand that they be red in color and blackberries must be black and not red or white. It is not worth while to attempt to change prevailing opinions in such matters for the sake of pushing some new vari- ety, no matter how good its quality. By this it is not meant that the market will not use the unusvial kinds but it does not desire them. In general, the market wants large size, bright, warm colors and at least fair quality in fruits. The fruit grower should not select varieties because they are doing well elsewhere but should become familiar with the expe- rience of fruit growers in his section and get in touch with the officers of the experiment station of "his state and advise with them in these matters. The reports of his local horticultural society should be very helpful and they must be poor indeed if he cannot get some benefit from them. Choose varieties that will pollenize well together. — It should be more generally known that there are some varieties of fruits PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 33 that are self-sterile and will not be productive unless near other similar kinds. The following partial lists show varieties that are both self-sterile and self-fertile but it is quite possible that some of these may be self-sterile at one time and self-fertile at another time or in another locality. Fruit Plums Self-sterile Miner Wild Goose Mariana Itasca Grapes Brighton Wilder Apples Winesap Gravenstein Northern Spy Self-fertile Robinson De Soto Forest Garden Cheney Concord Niagara Agawam Delaware Ben Davis Duchess Baldwin Red Astrakan Pears Bartlett Anjou Nelis Flemish Beauty Clairgeau Kieffer An experiment with the Kieffer pear at the Michigan Agri- cultural College during the summer of 1907 seems to indicate that the Kieffer ought sometimes to go on the self-sterile list. A Kieffer tree was enclosed in a canopy of muslin with one brancli left outside the canopy. The air within the canopy was made to circulate daily by artificial means during the blossom- ing period so as to insure pollination of at least some of the flowers. Not a fruit set under the canopy, while the branch that. was left outside and was free to receive foreign pollen set fruit freely. Preparing the land. (a) The land on which the fruit plantation is to stand should be in as good condition as possible before the fruit plants 34 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. are set out. Do not leave this work to be done after the plants are set for it costs more to do it then and the plants will very likely be injured in the process. (b) New land sbould be thoroughly cleared of stumps and' roots before the orchard is planted, and better results will be obtained if the land is cultivated for a year or two before the trees are set. (c) Old land should be in good physical condition and should contain a good supply of humus. While heavy fertiliza- tion is not necessary, the soil should be rich enough to enable the trees to make a good growth, but must not be too rich in nitrogen. (d) Fall plowing is almost always desirable, whether the trees are to be set in the fall or the spring. If the planting is to be done in the fall, the plowing should be completed several weeks previous, to give the soil time to settle. Deep plowing is usually best, as it is desirable to have the soil mellow and easily penetrated by roots to a considerable depth. If the subsoil is a hardpan clay it is often desirable to explode dynamite in the holes to loosen the lower layers. Time to Plant. (a) In severe locations and with the more tender kinds of fruits early spring is undoubtedly the best time for planting. It is also the best time for the beginner, as there is less liability of failure in spring planting. (b) For the hardy fruits, such as apples, plums and pears, in sections where there is little danger of winter injury, autumn is possibly the best season for planting. (c) It is often desirable to plant in autumn even though extra care is required in order to save the crowding of work in the spring. In severe locations autumn planting may often be practiced successfully, providing the stems of plants are laid fiat on the ground after planting and covered with a few inches of earth, and afterwards mulched on the approach of winter. In doing such work the location of the top of the tree should be marked with a stake so that it may be found easily in the spring when it is to be uncovered. Autumn planting is often a convenient practice and may save the necessity of doing such work in the spring when fruit growers are generally crowded. PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 35 Where to Buy. — As nursery stock cannot be fully judged by its appearance as easily as many other lines of merchandise, buyers are very dependent upon the representations made to them by the parties from whom they purchase. As a rule, it is desirable to buy of the nearest reliable man who will furnish what is wanted at a fair price. Purchasers will often find it advantageous to deal directly with the principal instead of through his agent. Expect to pay a fair price and be suspicious of bargain counter nursery stock, for the buyer in any case is greatly dependent upon the honesty of the seller for the genuine- ness of his stock. You cannot always tell what it is by its appearance. It may not even be true to name. Selecting the Tree Nursery Stock. (a) It is important to secure vigorous, thrifty nursery stock that is free from scale insects, root lice or other injurious insects or diseases. (b) Select trees that have their bark green and smooth and that have made a thrifty growth the year before. (c) In the case of grafted fruits the fruit grower should insist upon having his stock worked on roots adapted to his location. This feature does not need so much attention in the best fruit sections, but in cold, northern climates, in the extreme South and in some other locations it is a matter of first impor- tance. This matter is discussed under the propagation of each fruit. (d) In order to make early autumn delivery it is customary in some nurseries to strip the leaves from the trees. This is not the best practice and such trees should not be selected. Age of Nursery Stock to Buy. As a rule young, thrifty nursery stock is to be preferred. The tendency among beginners is to use stock which is too old. Old plants are much more injured by moving than those that are young and often give poorer results. Shapes of Trees. (a) The general public wants a tree that is of good form and the nurserymen prefer to grow that kind. 36 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. (b) Some of our best varieties are so crooked that they do not look well and hence have not been pusTied by our nursery- men. p7^4#^-.T>':'.-^-''/-':ffl^^^ ^'^n;iv./-.,;:'/'-''.v<4 P^ig. 7. — Young- apple ti'ee-s of different forms. (c) The difference in the habits of trees can be easily seen in any orchard of many varieties. The upright form of the Tetof- sky apple is in marked contrast with the spreading form of the Roxbury Russet. The spreading form of the Wild Goose plum is very different from that of the Lombard. A person who is very familiar with the appearance of certain varieties of pears or apples can easily separate them from other kinds by the appearance of the tree even when devoid of foliage. From this the impression sliould not be taken that all fruit trees may be distinguished from each other by their forms, color of bark and other characteristics, for while a person of much experience in this line may thus distinguish many kinds, it is quite out of the question to separate the members of all our long lists of fruits in this wav. PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 37 Planting the Orchard. There are a number of systems of setting trees. The ones most generally used are the square, quincunx and hexagonal systems. The lay of the land and the size of the orchard will influence to some extent the choice of a system. Trees are more often set too close than too far apart. This, in fact, is the danger in using fillers. (The use of fillers is discussed on page 46.) One does not like to remove a tree, once it is grown, even tiiough it is injuring other trees. It is always important that the rows run straight both ways since the orchard looks better and is cared for more easily. The first thing to do is to establish a base line and work from this. It is usually safer to have a surveyor establish this line than to trust to a road or fence unless the road is known to be on the proper line. Having the base given, it is an easy matter to establish the two perpendiculars to this and the fourth side par- allel to the base. TTiis gives the outside trees of the orchard. Then, by using the outside trees as sight stakes the other rows may be made straight both ways. If the land is laid off with a marker one way and a plow the other, the trees are quite easily put where they belong by sighting to the trees set at the ends of the rows. Square System. — Of the systems named above the square system is the most often used. It does not permit of so many trees per acre, but is easily laid out, permits of easy cultivation and allows systematic thinning of trees later in its life when the trees crowd. F F F F F P P P F P F F F F F P P P Square System P F P F P Square System with Fillers 38 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Quincunx System. — This system permits of planting many more trees per acre than the square system. It also permits the use of fillers and provides for a well laid out orchard when the fillers are cut out. P P P P F P F P P P F P F P F P P P P F P F P P P F P F P F P P P P F P F P Q^ln.uiix S,.'.-tnu Quincunx S\;, tlie second year's growth. / /ff Z ^f- 3 ^^ Fig. 13. — Forms of tree before and after pruning. 1 and 1a, at plant- ing time; 2 and 2a, at beginning of second year; 3 and 3a, begin- ning of tliird year. In the second year these scaffold branches should be cut back to one-half or two-thirds their length (figs. li-2a and i^-ci). This will cause two or three strong laterals to develop from near the extremity of each stub. With the third season, the laterals which have developed from the previous season's cutting back will again need to be headed in about one-half tlieir growth. Shoots which are growing inward, and those tending to cross or rub, should be removed or corrected. The regulation of a shoot is governed by the position on the tree. Note the designated ones and the position of the buds in figure 14, and the suggestions broug"ht out in figure 13, .? and oa. How to Make the Cuts. — In all formative pruning tlie cuts are made slanting and just back of the bud which has been grown on the proper side of the branch to throw the resulting shoot in the desired direction. The uppermost bud left on the PRUNING. 59 stub usually throws the strongest branch. In many instances an otherwise dormant bud can be found to throw a strong shoot to fill up an open space in the top by cutting ,.- — 'v a notch in the main branch just above the bud in question. The method of cutting back to a bud Is shown in figure 15; a and b are cut too far above the bud and will leave an excess of dead wood to be pinched off or covered over by the growing callous; c is cut too close to the base of the bud, a proceeding that is liable to cause the bud to be killed by drying; d shows about the right position for making the cut. Fig. 13, 1 and la, show a properly set one-year-old tree and the same tree pruned to start the "head about 18 inches high; in 2 this tree is shown after a summer's thrifty growth, while 2a shows the same tree pruned to form the head; 3 suggests the growth that might result the ensuing season and 3a embodies some suggestions for cutting back to form a desirable head. It should always be borne in mind that that pruning is best which is moderate. The severe cutting back of a tree once or twice in its life-time, as Is so often the practice, can scarcely help but have serious results. Pruning should be done yearly from fhe time the tree is set until it is mature; it will then never be necessary to remove any great amount of wood at one time. Espalier or Cordon. — The espalier method of training and pruning is followed in Europe very largely with the apple, pear and peach. It can be used there to advantage since labor is cheap and land is high in price. In America skilled labor is too expensive to use on this work and with our abundance of land the method would be of no value except for ornamental purposes. Espalier training consists of forming the tree into various gro- tesque shapes, or in training it flat along the side of a building Fig. 14. — a. Dia- gram s li o w 1 ng limbs of tree at beginning of sec- ond y e a r 's growth; b, branches pruned before third year's growth starts. 60 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. or fence. It is a common method of growing the pear in Eng- land on the south side of buildings. Renewing Old Trees. — This is a difficult matter and the best method is probably to cut out the trees entirely or else to cut back the tops in winter very severely and train the new growth the same as young trees are handled. If the varieties are not good, top-working with better varieties may often be done to advan- tage. Trimmings. — 'AH trimmings from the or- chard should be burned at once to prevent the spread of insects or disease that may be on thom. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER IV, 1. What are the principal reasons for prun- ing orchard trees? 2. When is an open headed tree objectionable? 3. When is an open head desirable? 4. When should the work of pruning com- mence? How severe should the early pruning be? 5. Why is a low head desirable? How far from the ground should it be to the first branches? 6. When should pruning be done? 7. Describe the method of making cuts in re- moving small and large limbs. 8. What is the danger if a long stub is left? "Why should the larger .wounds be painted? What tools are ordinarily used in pruning? What is a desirable form for the young Fig. 15. — Methods of r e m o V i ng buds, a and b, stubs too long; c, cut too close to bud; df prop- er method of cutting. 12. How may certain buds? 13. How may 9. 10. 11. tree? the growth of the tree be influenced by pruning to old trees be renewed? CHAPTER V. ORCHARD PROTECTION. Throughout the whole life of fruit plants there is danger of injury frona a variety of causes. At no time can we say that our fruit plants are safe, and we must be continually on the lookout to head off some injury. Among the more common of these injuries may be mentioned the following: sunscald, win- ter killing of the twigs, roots and fruit buds; injuries from birds and live stock, from wind, rain and frost in the growing season, from ice on the branches in winter, from girdling by mice and rabbits, from label wires, injuries from cultivation and from insects and diseases. Sunscald is the name given to the condition of the bark of trees which probably comes as a result of exposure to the sun under cer- tain peculiar conditions. Its ef- fect is usually to kill the bark on the south and southwest sides of the tree; later on, this bark peels off, leaving the wood exposed which soon decays and permanent injuries result. It is found that anything which shades the trunk will pre- vent this, hence one of the com- mon remedies is to shade the trunk with burlap, corn stalks or simi- lar material, especially during the time when the branches are not protected by leaves. The en- couraging of branches on the south side of the tree to protect the trunk from the sun, and the inclining of the trees to the southwest, are also remedies. This injury is most liable to occur during severe droughts and in the early spring or late winter before growth has fairly started. It is supposed to be caused by the warm sun of the Fig. 16.— Apple tree injured by sunscald. 62 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. middle of the day starting active life in the portion of the trunk exposed to its direct rays. Later, when a cold spell comes, the protoplasm is destroyed and the soluble compounds formed by the renewal of active life are decomposed. The trees most liable Fig. 17. — Apple trees in trial orchard protected from sunscald by corn stalks. to this injury are those that are newly set and weak, those with smooth bark such as Hard Maple and Basswood, those trees with the trunks inclining to the northeast and thos-e on dry land. ORCHARD PROTECTION. 63 The philosophy of this disease should come in for more than passing notice. It is well known that one branch or portion of a dormant plant may start into growth independent of the con- dition of the rest of the plant. Thus a branch from a grape vine Fig.18. — Apple tree with trunk protected by boxing. Such treatment protects from sunscald, from severe freezing, and from cultiva- tion injuries. or other plant, brought through an opening into the greenhouse in M'inter, will soon start into growth while the rest of the vine is frozen out doors. So the portion of the trunk of an applf 64 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. tree that is exposed to the direct rays of the midday sun may start into growth independently of the rest of the tree. Injuries from birds. — Birds are often very injurious by eating cherries, raspber- ries and some other fruits. At times they become so exceedingly injurious that it may be necessary to use the shot gun, but as a rule the birds that commit these depre- dations ar-e very helpful in destroying large numbers of injurious insects and the toll they take in fruit is not more than they are justly entitled to. The Yellow-belly Sap- sucker is a bird that often girdles the larg- er branches of our choicest trees. He should be destroyed. Partridges and perhaps quail will sometimes eat the buds of our fruit trees in winter. They may be kept off by giving them a shock of grain to work on instead. Injuries to trees by cattle. — In remote sections deer will browse the twigs off fruit trees and break them down. Farm stock Is also occasionally injurious in the same way. Reasonable precautions will prevent this. Injuries from wind. — Wind often causes TeUy^lap-^Juckerr ^"^^ ^"J"^^' to trees heavily loaded with fruit by shaking off the fruit or even break- ing the trees. The remedy is the use of windbreaks, the support- ing of branches by stakes or by tying one branch to another on the opposite side of the tree. Attention to these precau- tions will often prevent serious injury. Young trees in exposed places are often injured by being blown about. This is th« case for the first year with trees that are newly set and especially those that are set out in autumn and not properly staked or laid down. Such trees are liable to be blown about very much in windy spring weather when the ground is soft, and the tree is then easily loosened and killed. Autumn-set trees should al- ways be staked if they are large enough to take the wind; a Fig. 19. — Bark of ap- ple tree injured by the sap-s u c k e r ORCHARD PROTECTION. 65 pile of soil about a foot high around them will often be very helpful in holding them in place. In staking, the method of tying the tree so that it will not be scraped by the stake is very important. It would be better not to use stakes at all than not to tie th-e tree to them properly. It is generally best to tie trees to two stakes, using one on each opposite side. Mice and rabbits. — Mice and rabbits eat the bark off the trees and where this injury is not more than three or four inch- es wide and only extends around a portion of the tree, it will often heal over in one or two seasons. But it will be greatly hastened in healing by covering the wound with grafting wax or, better yet, piling up the soil over it if near the ground. When the injury extends completely around the tree and is wide, the tree may be saved by setting some cions in the live bark, above and below the wound, which will carry over the sap until the wound is covered. In such a case, however, the wound should be entirely covered with grafting wax or clay after the cions are put in. Cultivation injuries. — Cultivation is frequently done in such a rough way that it results in serious injuries. These can be largely prevented by the use of narrower singletrees and by protecting the ends with leather, or, better yet, using leather traces that go completely around the end of the singletree, so that when a tree is struck it is not injured. The best way of treating wounds of this kind is by covering them with grafting wax or grafting clay and then covering the whole with burlap. Root galls result from the presence of low forms of life known as Nematodes and possibly also from a bacterial disease. Their life history is not well known. They are often exceedingly injurious but some of them do little harm. Prevention is bet- ter than cure and it is a good plan to refuse to receive nursery stock having such blemishes. They are sometimes prevented by using stocks that are resistant to such injuries. Winter killing may be confined to the twigs and roots or flower buds of fruit trees. Any of these injuries may occur in deep valleys, when comparative immunity is secured on the higher land. Winier injury to twigs and trunks. — This is due to the use of 66 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig.20. — Twigs of young cherry trees that have been pulled nut by settling of snow crust which had piled in over them. varieties too tender for the locality and the most successful remedy- is to secure hardier sorts if possibl-e. But this is not always possi- ble and the varieties grown may be most profitable if the trunk is protected in winter. Thus, in northern Min- nesota the best authori- ties recommend that the trunks of young ap- ple trees be surrounded with a box six inches square up to the branch- es and that the same be filled with soil to furnish protection against winter injury. It is well known that even though the smaller branches may be seriously injur- ed in the winter, they stand a good chance of recovering, pro- viding the trunk is vigorous and uninjured. Such protection also prevents scald, injuries from mice and other animals. In Florida some of the orange growers protect their tree trunks by piling up the soil about them as far as the branches. Winter injury to the buds of fruit trees. — This is a common source of loss to growers of cherries and peaches at the North. The fruit buds of these trees are liable to start a little in warm winter days and then to be killed by a low temperature, al- though the leaf buds may not be injured at all. Various reme- dies have been tried for this, among the most successful of which is the bending of the trees to the ground in autumn and covering with corn stalks. The tops are sometimes tied to- gether and covered with corn stalks or matting in winter. Ex- periments have also been made in covering the trees with va- rious paint compounds for the purpose of giving an -extra cover- ing to the buds, but without good results. One of the most ORCHARD PROTECTION. 67 ingenious ways of furnishing protection to peach buds has been tried by Prof. Whitten of the Missouri Experiment Station who work-ed on the well known principle that dark colors absorb r/^^f^f^r:i^^-r'7'mM Fig. 21. — Protection of young trees . a. — Trunk protected by wooden box. b. — Trunk protected by lath screen, c. — Trunk protected against mice by mound of earth. more heat than the lighter ones. He found th^at light colored peach twigs were slower about starting into growth and con- ceived the idea of spraying peach tr-ees with lime wash to pre- vent their starting on mild days in winter. He claims to have been very successful in this practice. The roots of fruit trees may be seriously injured in winter.— This may result from the use of a root stock too tender for the section in which the tree is grown. For instance, in Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota the best root to use for the plum is the Prunus americana, but when they are scarce the nurserymen there often use the Mariana, Myrobalan or even 68 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the peach for stocks. The plum takes well on thes€ and they are commonly used in milder sections, but with such roots, trees are often injured or killed out entirely in severe winters in those sections. The same is true of some other trees. It is important to have them on hardy roots in order to prev-ent root killing. Fig. 22. — Tree gnawed by mice and the wounds bridged over with cions. Heavy mulching about the roots of trees that are on tender roots will often make them safe against winter injury. Deep planting of trees on tender roots bring the roots deep in the ground where they are not injured and the cion above will generally send out hardy roots. As stated above, it is not un- common to have the tender stocks on which trees are worked killed out, and if the cion has rooted the effect is seen in a weakened growth until a new root system has formed. If there are no roots from the cion the tree dies. Protection from frost. — Freezing affects different plants In various ways. We can therefore divide plants into two classes: (a) Frost tender plants, such as the asparagus, ash, oak, spruce and various other plants whose young foliage is easily injured by severe frosts, (b) Frost hardy plants, such as the apple, peach, willow, poplar and birch whose foliage is not destroyed by even a se- vere frost. The flowers of many plants will stand a severe freeze with- out injury providing they are not open when it occurs. This is ORCHARD PROTECTION. 69 the case with th« apple, pear, strawberry and most cultivated northern fruits. We also have fruit plants like that of the Buffalo Berry and Juneberry whose flowers are seldom injured by severe frosts, even if fully expanded at the time it occurs. The pistils are the parts of flowers most easily Injured. — Thus, in the strawberry, after a severe frost in flowering time, we will often find the pistils ruined but the stamens apparently uninjured. When Injurious frosts are most likely to occur. — Injurious frosts are most likely to occur in places where the air is still, especially in low spots where the air is not only still but where the cold air from the surrounding elevations drains in. If the air moves rapidly, the warm air is mixed with the cold air and does not separate. Such frosty places are evident at the time of the first severe autumn frosts, especially if this comes early. It will then be seen that the frosty air fills certain hollows, as water might fill it. In such places, often called warm sheltered nooks, winter killing is frequently serious. A windbreak may also make a frost pocket on the side hill by interfering with the free circulation of the air. The locations where injurious frosts are least likely to oc- cur and hence afford the best location for fruit growing are high elevations tipping to the north or east where growth is rather backward in spring. Other locations that are comparatively exempt from injurious frosts are such as are near lakes or streams which tend to produce an equable climate. Foretelling of frosts. — Frosts may be foretold some hours in advance by means of the wet and dry-bulb thermometers, the readings of which are compared. The difference between the readings is due to the evaporation from the wet bulb ther- mometer which produces a degree of cold in a direct ratio ac- cording to the dryness of the air. If the air is very dry, the wet bulb thermometer may record ten or fifteen degrees lower than the dry bulb. If the air is saturated with moisture they will read exactly alike. The basis for the calculation is the fact that we seldom have injurious early autumn or late spring frosts after the dew begins to fall. By referring the difference H) POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. between the readings of the two thermometers to a table, the dew point may be determined and if it is several degrees above the freezing point, no injurious frost need be expected. The psychrometer is an instrument made up of a wet and dry-bulb thermometer attached to a board or frame for determining the humidity of the air. One adapted for this purpose may be purchased at a reasonable price from instrument dealers or it may be made as follows: For the frame, take a board eighteen inches long, two inches wide and one-half inch thick with a hole bored in one end to hang the apparatus up with when not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers with cylinder bulbs and the degrees Fahrenheit engraved on the stem. Cover the bulb of one thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, fastening it securely by a thread. When the cloth covering is wet with water and exposed to evaporation in the air it constitutes the wet bulb thermometer; the other thermometer has no coverihg on its bulb, is not wet at any time and constitutes the dry bulb thermometer. The following extract from Bulletin No. 23 Fig 23 Pscyro- meter for fore, of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of telling frosts. Agriculture, entitled "Frost," explains the meth- od of using a psychrometer to foretell frost. To make an observation. — The bulb of the so-called wet bulb thermometer is thoroughly saturated with water by soaking it in a small cup or wide mouthed bottle until the covering is thoroughly wet. The thermometers are then whirled rapidly for fifteen or twenty seconds, stopped and quickly read. A mental note of the reading is made when they are again whirled and read. Subtract the reading of the wet thermometer from that of the dry. Find this difference in the column at the side of the following dew point table. Follow the horizontal line under this figure until it intersects the column under the reading of the dry bulb thermometer at the top of the column to the right. The number at the intersection is the dew point ORCHARD PROTECTION. 71 reading. If this comes above thirty-two degrees there Is no danger of a frost, but if below there is danger, although frost may not occur owing to wind, clouds or other phenomena. DEW-POINT TABLE. Difference of reading of dry and wet bulbs. Temperature i 15 20 25 of Air In Degrees 30 35 40 45 50 (Fahrenheit). 55 60 65 70 1 11 16 22 27 24 21 17 13 7 1 32 30 27 24 20 16 11 5 38 35 33 30 27 24 20 16 11 4 43 41 39 36 33 30 27 24 20 16 11 4 48 46 44 42 40 37 34 31 28 25 21 17 11 5 53 52 50 48 46 43 41 39 36 33 30 27 23 18 12 58 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 40 38 35 32 28 24 63 69 2 6 12 18 62 67 3 . 4 , 7 14 1 10 60 66 59 64 5 4 57 62 6 55 61 7 53 59 8 51 57 9 49 65 10 47 53 11 45 51 12 42 49 13 40 47 14 37 45 15 34 42 First Example. Dry bulb thermometer = 60 degrees Wet bulb thermometer 47 degrees Difference ■ 13 degrees Dew point from table 32 degrees Probably no frost. Second Example. Dry bulb thermometer 47 degrees Wet bulb thermometer 39 degrees Difference 8 degrees Dew point from table, between 24" and 31° or 27 degrees Probably a severe frost. Protection from injurious spring and autumn frosts may be given in various ways according to circumstances: (a) By covering up the whole plant and thus retarding its period of bloom until danger of frost is past, as may be done with strawberries and other small fruit. For this purpose th-ey may be covered with earth or mulch. Peach trees are some- times covered with corn stalks or hay to retard flowering. They 72 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. may also be laid on the ground and successfully carried through the winter when covered with corn stalks. (b) By smudges which make a cloud of smoke over the land and thus prevent -evaporation. This is effective when there is sufficient wind to spread the smoke. The material used for this purpose is wet straw, tar, resin, etc., or a combination of such material. It may be carried about the orchard on a stone boat or the smudges may be located in various places. (c) By heating the air directly by means of fires, as Is done in parts of Florida where wood is piled ready to be set on fire whenever frost threatens. (d) By cultivating the lacd; moist soil is exposed, which furnishes considerable protection by the evaporation of the mois- ture from the freshly exposed soil. (e) By spraying the plants; the air is brought near to dew^ point and also warmed. In order to make this effective the spraying must b-e repeated during the night when frost is ex- pected. (f) By irrigating the land; the air is brought near to dew point and it is also warmed. This is frequently resorted to in the case of cranberries. (g) By covering with tents, as practiced in Florida and other places and even by using stoves in tents. (h) Covering the fiowers with straw mulch at night Is practicable in the case of strawberries. Where the mulch is kept between the rows to protect the fruit from dirt, it may be thrown over the plants when frost threatens the fiowers. If the weather continues cold, it may remain on the plants for a few days without injury, otherwise it should be promptly re- moved. Protection against frost. — In the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1907, G. H. Powell has the following to say in regard to frost protection in California, which is of very general application: "There are few districts in the citrus belt of California that may not be visited by frost in December, January, or February. The prevention of injury by frost may be infiuenced to a large extent by the location of groves on lands over which there is a sufficient air drainage. The new groves established during ORCHARD PROTECTION. 73 the past few years have been located on the higher lands with this factor prominently in view. To protect them against the extreme cold, many of the groves on the lower lands are equip- ped with wicker coal baskets, briquets of shavings, crude oil, and asphaltum, or sheet-iron stoves in which the same material is burned. Oil smudges (in tin receptacles) or other materials, which are located at definite intervals in the spaces between the trees, are sometimes burned. It is a common practice, also, to run the water in the irrigation furrows between the trees on cold nights, in order to make use of the latent heat in the water Fig. 24. — Form of smudger for use in protecting orchards from frosts. It is used with a protected stone boat. as a means of frost protection. The materials employed in this protection against frost injury are used to cause a circulation of air over the grove in order to mix together the strata of differ- ent temperatures or for the production of a cloud of smoke over the grove in the morning in order to exclude the direct sunlight and thereby prevent the rapid thawing of the fruit when it has been frozen during the preceding night. It is the rapid thawing, rather than the freezing, of the tissues, that causes most of the injury to citrus fruits that have been subjected to ordinary frost temperatures. 74 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. "A general idea of the operation of frost fighting may be gained from a brief description of the work observed in a grove on a cold night. There were twenty-five perforated sheet-iron stoves scattered over each acre of grove, one stove being placed in the center of the square between four trees. Tliese stoves were filled with a prepared mixture of shavings, asphaltum, and crude oil. When it was determined to light the fires a force of men appeared, each one carrying a can of oil and a torch. A small quantity of oil was poured over the smudging material and was then quickly lighted with the torch. As soon as all the fires were burning, the men returned home, except one man to about 5 acres, who kept the fires replenished and in good, burning condition. "Just how much benefit is derived from these various devices it is difficult to estimate, as the experience of the growers is conflicting and the experiments that have been conducted have not always been comprehensive. There seems to be no doubt, however, that the judicious use of the various devices used in frost protection has been of great commercial value. One who has had an experience of many years and who has large finan- cial interests involved writes: " 'We have been able to protect against the severest cold we have had since we secured the coal baskets. Several times the temperature has been around 24° or 25° until we got our coal baskets under way, but we were usually able to make a change of from 3° to 5° when our baskets were lighted and were giving off a good heat' "Aside from the injury to the fruit and the young wood by frost, continued cold weather causes the wood of the lemon trees to mature and the fruit to develop a coarse, rough texture and to ripen prematurely." QUESTIONS— CHAPTER V. 1. What is sunscald and how can it be prevented? 2. What injuries to trees are caused by birds? By cattle? Ey wind? By mice and rabbits? By cultivation? 3. WTiat are root galls? 4. What effect does winter injury have upon orchard trees? 5. How may twigs, trunks, roots and buds be protected from winter injurj'? 6. Into what classes may plants be divided, considering their susceptibility to frosts? 7. When are injurious frosts most likely to occur? 8. By what means can frosts be foretold? Explain each. 9. In what ways may trees be protected from frosts* 75 CHAPTER VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. The work of the fruit grower is not only one of tillage, prun- ing and fertilizing the crop, but he must be ever on the watch to ward off or kill the insects and diseases that injure or destroy his crop. None of these treatments can be neglected with im- punity, yet if the crop has good cultivation and manuring it will overcome insect injuries and adverse conditions much bet- ter than if neglected. However, spraying will not take the place of manuring, nor manuring of spraying. The great growth and wide specializing in fruit growing has led to the increase of troublesome pests. In some sections where the natural food of the native insects has been destroyed by cleaning the land, they have attacked the introduced plants. Then, too, new and exceedingly injurious insects and diseases have been introduced from other countries and have spread rapidly within recent years and these often need extremely dras- tic measures for their prevention. Good illustrations of the latter are peach yellows and root galls among diseases, and San Jose scale, Gypsy and Brown Tail moths among insects. By the introduction of insects and diseases some of the old standard varieties have been driven out of cultivation, even in sections where they formerly grew, or else can now only be grown when they are given much more care than was former- ly necessary. The presence of these pests and the discovery of methods of checking their injuries has worked for the interests of the careful, painstaking grower who now has a decided ad- vantage over the slovenly cultivator. In other words, it takes more brains and application to raise fruit now than formerly. Comparative exemption from pests is often the case in new fruit areas but this exemption seldom lasts more than a few years, as is shown by the history of the new fruit areas in the Pacific Coast states where exceptional immunity from insect pests was enjoyed for many years, which might have been continued indefinitely had there been a suitable inspection law 7<^ POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. properly enforced. The codlin moth and the plum curculio and other Insect pests have come in and are now extremely trouble- some and much care is required to hold them in check. State Inspection. — Much has been said in favor of and against State Inspection laws for the prevention and suppression of insects and diseases. They have accomplished much good in some sections although they have been unquestionably used at times to restrict trade between the states. One of the great- est things that they have accomplished has been to cause peo- ple to think about insect pests and diseases and to impress upon them the importance of subduing them. Laws for the suppression of noxious insects and diseases vary much in the different states but there is a tendency today for all the states to bring their laws to the same standard. These laws generally provide for the appointment of a state entomologist who is required to inspect all nurseries in his state and to furnish a suitable certificate if he finds them worthy. There is also a rule providing that no nursery stock shall be shipped from one state to another without a copy of this, or a similar certificate, being attached to the parcel containing It and that badly infested nurseries and orchards must be prop- erly treated. Suitable penalties are provided for those avoid- ing the provisions of the law. In a few of the states and Canada the law requires that all nursery stock must be fumigated at the destination before its delivery to consignee. It would be hard to say now just what is a fair law for all concerned, and it ought perhaps to vary in different sections of the country ac- cording to crops and climate. A national law is needed to regulate interstate commerce in nursery stock, fruit and other products that might carry noxious insects and diseases from one state to another. The intelligent fruit grower should be familiar with the life habits of the insects in which he is most interested and should not work blindly by "Rule of Thumb." Insects. — Noxious insects are held in check in various ways and from this standpoint we conveniently class them in groups: Chewing insects. — Examples of these are grasshoppers, cat- erpillars, beetles and their grubs, etc. These are quite easily reached by arsenical and other poisons which may be placed INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 77 on their food. The great problem in dealing with this class is to find something which will hold the poison on th-e leaves for a reasonable length of time and will at the same time prevent the arsenical poisons from burning the leaves. This is particu- larly true of plants belonging to the plum family, including plums, peaches and apricots, which are easily injured by ar- senious acid even when present in such small quantities that it would not be injurious to the foliage of apple, pear, currant or gooseberry. This burning is especially bad when its application is followed by several days of bright, dry weather. Another important problem which we have not solved Is how to apply these poisons so that they will not wash off from the leaves. Among the insecticides commonly used for this class of insects are Paris Green, arsenate of lead and hellebore. Some of the chewing insects may be destroyed by the acrid or oily applica- tions which are commonly used for the destruction of sucking Insects, such as tobacco water and kerosene emulsion. Insects that work in the wood of the tree belong to the class of chewing insects. These vary in their habits and nearly as various are the remedies used against them; each must be con- sidered in the light of its life history. When borers are In their holes and can be reached easily by gas fum-es, perhaps as satisfactory a remedy as any is to squirt a small amount of carbon bisulfide into their holes with a common oil dropper and stop up the holes with a little putty. In the cas-e of borers that tunnel just under the bark, the location of which can be seen by the discoloration of the surface bark (as with the borer of the peach), the best remedy is probably to look over the trees in the early spring and again in the late summer and dig them out with a sharp knife. Sucking Insects Examples of this class of insects are plant lice, scale insects and chinch bugs. These do not chew, but their food is the juice of plants. They obtain it by sucking. As they do not bite they cannot be destroyed by internal poisons, such as arsenic and hellebore, but they must be r-eached by something that will affect their respiratory organs. All such in- sects breathe through small pores in their sides and may be de- stroyed by a covering of a film of oil or soap (whale-oil soap 78 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and kerosene emulsion). The bodies of leaf lice, which form a considerable portion of this class of insects, are covered with a thin skin and are injured or killed by astringent solutions, such as tobacco water, and also by hot water. Fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas in case of scale or other sucking insects is a good remedy. Fumigating with tobacco smoke will kill most kinds of leaf lice. In fact, it would seem that fumigation, be- ing so sure a remedy, is destined to be more largely used in the future. The use of strong compounds, when trees are dormant, for the destruction of scale insects, must continue to gain in popularity. Among the best of the compounds used for this purpose are the lime and sulfur mixture and the soluble oil preparations. Insects that attach themselves to roots generally are of the sucking class and are extremely difficult to destroy. Among the worst of these pests is the woolly aphis or root louse of the apple, and the phylloxera or root louse of the grape, the latter having been extremely injurious to the roots of the European "Wine Grape in France. In the case of the woolly aphis the trouble is largely avoided by planting trees that are known to be exempt from it. If the trees are once well started there is little danger of injury, since the pest is seldom harmful to large trees. Fumigation of stock insures the removal of the root louse. In the case of the phylloxera on the European Wine Grape the only satisfactory remedy has been to graft on the roots of some resistant stock such as the American Frost Grape (Vitis riparia). So common has this practice become in Europe that the result is the European wine industry stands on Ameri can roots. Beneficial insects. — In a state of nature, each species of the animal kingdom is held in check so there is a nicely balanced relation between them, but occasionally even in nature some one species becomes too numerous and breaks the bounds that are ordinarily strong enough to hold it. Among the natural agencies that destroy insects may be mentioned heavy rains, sudden changes to a freezing temperature, winds, predaceous and parasitic insects, and fungous and bacterial diseases. Parasites. — A most important factor in checking the spread INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 79 of Insects is th-e numerous parasites to which they are sub- ject. These may be either animal or vegetable. Any one who has had much experience in gardening may have seen many instances of the increase of animal parasites until certain kinds of insects were no longer injurious. This is common in the case of the cabbage worm, the tent caterpillar, grasshoppers and many others. Animal Parasites. — The mQst common of animal parasites that destroy Insects are small wasps and some two-winged flies which deposit their eggs in or on the -eggs and larvae of the in- jurious insects on which the growing wasps feed. These destroy enormous numbers of insects and should be regarded as among the greatest aids to the fruit grower. Among vegetable parasites that destroy insects may be mentioned the diseases which destroy the chinch bugs, and which the states of Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota attempted to introduce on a large scale for the subjugation of this pest. Another instance is the disease which often destroys cabbage worms and -even house flies. A good illustration of this oc- curred recently in the experience of a Minnesota gardener. He found the Cabbage Plusia getting very numerous in his twenty acr-es of cabbages and got a spraying outfit to kill them with, but had hardly started when he found the worms dying naturally, as the result of a fungous disease. He put up the machine and the disease successfully did the work for him. Predaceous insects search out and destroy their prey. In this class of insects may be included the Preying Mantis, Tiger beetles, ladybugs and some wasps and dragon, flies. The Cottony Cushion Scale was first noticed in California in 1872 and was greatly feared on account of its spreading so rapidly and protecting itself from insecticides by -excreting a waxy substance which completely covered the insect. The pest was finally destroyed by a lady bird (lady bug) import-ed from Australia. Insects Injurious to the Apple. Affecting the Fruit: Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonclla). — The Codlin Moth is the common cause of wormy apples and makes the infested 80 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 25. — Injury caused by the lar- va of the CodHn Moth. fruit ripen prematurely and fall to the ground. The moths deposit their eggs in the calyx (or eye) of the apple just as the blossoms fall. On hatch- ing, the worm eats into the fruit where it lives until it is ready to change to the moth stage. It then leaves the fruit and spins a cocoon in which it undergoes its changes. There are two or more broods in a season. The worms that are in the late apples leave them in the winter and find places to spin their cocoons nearby, which is often be- tween the hoops and staves of the barrels holding the fruit. Remedies. — The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and destroyed. Keeping hogs in the orchard is very bene- ficial as they destroy the worm-infested fruit; but it should be remembered that when too much stock is pas- tured in the orchard and the grass becomes scarce, they are liable to bark the trees. If bands of burlap, or even paper, six Inches wide, are fastened around the trunks 1 x|t y :^' i 1 1^. 1 r ■ Fig. 26 —Flowers of the apple: the proper stage for spraying to control Codlin Moth. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 81 not later than the first of June, many of the worms and chrysa- lides of this moth will be found under them and may be easily destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in ten days until the last of August. The most common way of protecting against this insect is by spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the ap- ples still stand upright, with Paris Green and water at the rate of one pound to one hundred and sixty gallons. When the trees are sprayed to prevent scab, the Paris Green may be added to the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of the mixture. Plum and Apple Curculio. — These are snout beetles which cut small holes in the fruit as they feed, and also use the fruit as a place for laying their eggs. The latter soon hatch into a small grub which, at maturity, is about one-half inch long. The spe- cial injury to the fruit from this insect comes from the hard knots that form where it has been stung, which makes the apple gnarled and of poor quality. Remedies. — These insects breed mostly in the wild plums, haws and wild crab apples, and destroying these generally results in lessen- ing the damage to the apples in their vicinity. The windfalls should be destroyed, and pasturing hogs in the or- chard is probably the easiest way to accomplish this. Clean culture has proven most satisfactory in ridding orchards of the curculio as they winter over in grass and rubbish. Spraying the fruit with Paris Green, lime and water, as recommended for the tent caterpillar, has sometimes proven satisfactory. Affecting the foliage: Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma amei-icana). — The character- istics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 28^ which shows the Fig-. 27. — Showing- the way in ■which apples are injured by the Plum Curculio. 82 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. caterpillars resting on the outside of the tent-like structure in which they live, and also a twig on which a bunch of eggs is fastened. The habit of this insect is about as follows: The eggs are laid on the smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like clusters during the first two weeks in July. Two or three hun- dred eggs are laid in each cluster and they are firmly cemented together. These hatch out early in the spring just as the leaves open. The young caterpillars soon commence to make a tent by extending sheets of silk web across the nearest forks of the twigs and this tent or nest is enlarged as more room is needed, it has holes in it through which the caterpillars enter and they re- treat to the nest at night, in stormy weather and usual- ly when not feed- ing. They gener- ally come out of their nest once in the morning and once in the after- noon to feed. They are very voracious and soon strip the infested tree of its foliage. They change to moths in June and soon com- mence laying eggs. The eggs of the Western Tent cat- erpillar are not laid around the twig but in bunches Fig. 28.— Tent Caterpillar. a. — ^Web iiouse of tent caterpillar much reduced. Caterpillar nearly full size. b. — Eggs nearly natural size. c. — Moth natural size. on the sides of the twigs. Remedies. — The tents are readily seen. They should be gathered and destroyed early in the season when the worms are within them. The egg masses are also easily seen against a cloudy sky when the trees are leafless, and can be gathered and destroyed in winter or at any time before they hatch. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 83 Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria cunea). — This is often mis- taken for the Tent Caterpillar from which it is quite distinct. It appears later in the season, generally in July or later. Its webs are larger and loose or open and the caterpillars stay in them and feed. Th-e web is extended to include other foliage as that enclosed is eaten. The remedies should be the same as in the case of the Tent Caterpillar. Leaf Lice or Aphis (Aphis mail). — The leaves of the apple are frequently attacked by plant lice which, by sucking the sap, cause the leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural appearance. They work almost entirely on the lower side of the leaf and are most abundant on the new and tender growth which generally becomes distorted as a result of such attacks. Similar lice attack the foliage of the plum, currant and other plants. The eggs are laid on the branches of apple, plum and other tr-ees in autumn. They are yellowish in color when first laid, but become a glossy black by winter. These hatch in the spring and locate themselves on the small, young growth and feed by sucking sap. All hatch- ed at this time are femal-es and reach ma- turity in ten or twelve days, when they com- mence to give birth to living young, pro- ducing about two daily for two or three weeks, when they die. The young ones soon commence to produce live young and their, increase is very rapid, in fact so fast that the new growth is kept covered with them. As the season advances, some of the lice acquire wings and found new colo- nies on other trees. On the approach of cold weather males appear and the season closes with a stock of eggs for the con- tinuation of the species. Remedies. — The lice should be destroyed in the spring be- fore they become numerous. The eggs hatch about the time the buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear, they should Fig. 29.— Eggs of Plant Lice on twig of young apple tree. 84 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. be sprayed wth strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or tobacco water. If the lice are allowed to get very numerous before spraying is commenced, the work will have to be repeated sev- eral times. Where trees are heavily infested, smoking may be the most desirable treatment. (See reference to this under the head of Insects Injurious to the Plum.) Climbing Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.) — When the foliage or buds are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing cut worms should be searched for. If present they will be found in the day-time buried in the ground near the base of the trees and occasionally do much damage. They are closely allied to and resemble the common cut worms so well known to gardeners. Remedies. — They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage 9S recommended for the Tent Caterpillar and by jarring the trees after dark and then gathering the worms. Insects Attacking Trunks and Branches. Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothris femorata). — This borer is quite abundant in some sections but generally does not cause serious losses here. It prefers to work in trees that are newly trans- planted, or weakened by some disease, making its borings in the trunks and larg- er branches and often completely girdling them. It is the larva of a beetle that is oblong, flatfish in form and of a shining greenish-black color about three-eighths of an inch long. The beetles emerge from the borings in the trees in the early summer. They are very active in the middle of warm days and may be found in the hot sunshine running up and down the trunk of the tree, whence they fly quickly if an attempt is made to catch them. They lay their eggs, which are yellow, under loose scales on the bark or in cracks and crevices. The young soon hatch and eat their way through the bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the borer approaches maturity, it usually bores into the more solid wood Fig. 30— Flat head- ed Apple Tree Borer, a. — Borer full grown, b. — Pupa. c. — Reverse side of head. d. — Mature borer. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. Bl and finally out to the bark where it changes into the beetle form. This insect also attacks the pear, plum, peach and cherry. Remedies. — All trees should be examined early in autumn; If there are borers present, they may be detected by the dry ap- pearance of th-e bark or by the exudation of sap or sawdust-like castings. When such signs are seen the parts should be at once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. As a pre- ventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to coat the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft soap reduc- ed with a solution of washing soda to the consistency of a thick paint, and if a little car- bolic acid is added, it will bo even more repulsive to the beetles. This should be kept on the trees during the summer months when the insect is in- jurious. Twig Borer (AmpMcerus hi- caudatusj. — A dark colored, cyl- indrical, small beetle that bores into the twigs of the apple, grape and some other fruits. It is seldom extremely injurious. Remedies. — The remedy is to cut out in early summer the in- fested twigs which contain the borers and to burn them. Buffalo Tree Hopper (Ceresa huhalus).' — An active, jumping, ridiculous looking creature about one-third of an inch long, re- sembling a beech nut more than any insect. Its eggs are laid in slits cut into the bark of apple trees by the female. Their presence seems to seriously injure the adjoining wood and bark and causes numerous irregular wounds which often seriously check growth and are sometimes taken for hail injuries. It feeds on the foliage when young, but does little injury in this stage. Fig. 31.— Buffalo Tree Hop- per; showing scars on old wood as the result of its injuries; also mature in- sect. 86 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies. — The best ti'eatmeut is to prune away and burn the infested wood in winter, but this is seldom entirely practicable and we have largely to depend on natural remedies and on high cultivation to enable the plant to resist the pest. San Jose Scale (Aspidlotus perniciosusj. — This is perhaps the most insiduous and destructive of all our insect pests. In appearance, it is nearly circular, about one-six- teenth of an inch in diameter, dark brown in col- or, with a darker spot in the center. It lives on the bark of nearly all of our garden and lawn plants. It is a sucking insect and moves only when very young and then only for a short time, after which it becomes fixed in place. Several generations are produced each year. At the North many of the scales die in winter but those left breed ^o fast that they soon cover their host. It is probably spread to young trees by the feet of birds, etc. When this pest is discovered for the first time some good expert in such matters should be con- sulted. Remedies. — The best remedies now known are the lime and sulfur wash and some of the soluble oils specially prepared for this purpose, the formula for which will be found in the Appendix. Scurfy Bark Louse (Chionaspis furfurusj affects the apple and pear. The life history of this insect is similar to that of other scale insects. The fe- males are larger than the males, and oval; the males are very small and slender. A branch in- fested with this pest appears to be covered with whitish scurf or dandruff. It is seldom very injurious. Remedies. — The remedies for the San Jose Scale are effective here but covering the branches with whitewash or lightly brush- ing them with kerosene oil is extremely satisfactory. The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Lepidosaphes uli) is about the color of the bark on which it grows. It is very injurious where it occurs in great numbers. In appearance each scale is long and shaped somewhat like an oyster. Its life history Fig. 32 - Oyster Shell Bark louse in place on twig. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 87 and remedies are much like those for other scales. It generally yields readily to the whitewash treatment, bat where many trees are badly infested they should be treated with some of the solu- ble oils, or lime and sulfur wash should be used. Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigera); branch form. — When fully grown, this insect is dark colored and covered with a cottony coating. They may be found covering the new bark about wounds and in the axils of leaves and buds and they may cause serious wounds when neglected. It comes from small eggs laid near the base of the twigs. Remedies. — They are easily destroyed by painting with kero- sene. Where very numerous, it may be best to use whal-e oil soap mixture, on account of the danger to the tree from using kerosene. Insects Attacking the Roots of the Apple. Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigera)', root form. — This insect attacks the roots as well as the branches of the apple. On Fig. 33. — Woolly Aphis, a. — Mature insect, b. — Swelling's on the root as a result of its injuries. 88 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the roots it causes warty swellings and may kill the trees. It is one of the most dangerous of all insect pests affecting the apple. Remedies. — The best remedies for it when occurring on the roots are as follows: Remove the earth about the crown for a distance of about two feet and put on from four to seven pounds of tobacco dust. Put back the soil and irrigate where practicable to do so. Removing the soil from about the roots and apply- ing hot water has been satisfactorily practiced. Bi sulfide of carbon poured into holes made with a bar about the trees has also been successfully used. In doing this, make the holes about ten inches deep near the infested roots and then pour three ounces of the bi-sulfide into each hole. Three or more holes should be made about each tree. Young trees are often destroyed by the woolly aphis but the old trees are seldom hurt by it. Insects Injurious to the Pear. Any of the foregoing insects referred to as attacking the apple may also attack the pear except the woolly aphis, and the same remedies should be used. In addition to these, the pear is attacked by the fol- lowing insects: Pear Tree Slug (Eriocampoa cerasij. — These slimy look- ing insects are hatch- ed from eggs laid in the tissues of the leaves by a glossy, black fly soon after the leaves expand in spring. When first emerging from the egg they are white but soon become cov- ered above with a slimy brown matter Pig. 34.— Pear Tree Slug, a.— Mature in- |rj„4. oo7e;^lS^'l*''^^■'|),^^'^'^/'''7^Sil Fig. 92.— Some of the peculiar -ways in which pear trees are com- monly pruned in French gardens. otherwise. Dwarf pears need to have their new wood shortened each year if they are to be kept in compact form, otherwise they get too rangy. About twelve feet is the proper distance between them. The Duchess pear is the most popular sort for growing on quince roots. 194 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Thorns, (Crataegus), Mountain Ash and even Shad Bush (Amelanchier canadensis) have been used as pear stocks with fair results. The Mountain Ash is occasionally used for this purpose in Sweden, where ordinary pear stocks are tender. The Kieffer pear is sometimes grown from cuttings in the South and used as a stock for other pears. Propagation. — The pear is grown in practically the same ways as the apple, that is, (a) by crown-grafting in the field, (b) by root-grafting in the house in winter on whole roots — in this case the growth is generally quite slow the first year, (c) by budding in summer. Soil and cultivation. — The pear needs a rich, retentive soil but thrives on a variety of soils and especially likes a rather hard sub-soil clay. It is short lived on soils of a loose, open texture. Fire blight is especially troublesome on soils where the trees make a very rapid growth and it is the practice of some growers to keep the land in sod to prevent too rapid growth of wood. Yet the pear orchard must not be allowed to become so firmly bound in sod that the trees are prevented from making a reasonable growth. Nitrogenous manures and the use of nitrogenous cover crops should generally be avoided in the pear orchard and most attention given to the use of potash and phosphoric acid. Trees and planting. — Young, thrifty trees, about two years from the bud or three years from the root graft, are best for planting. Standard pears are generally planted 16x16 or 20x20 feet apart, according to the form and size of the varieties. Pears generally bear paying crops younger than apples. This quality, however, varies with the different kinds. Pruning. — Pears need more pruning than apples when young. During the first few years after planting, the few central shoots that often seem to occupy all the attention of the tree when young should be pinched or shortened except the strongest cen- tral shoot, which should be preserved through the life of the tree. Proper attention to this when the trees are young will develop a head that will need but little training after the trees commence to bear. Fruit. — Pears vary greatly in size, quality, color and form, and also in season of ripening, from early summer to late winter. QUINCE. 195 Some are valuable only for cooking, others are of finest dessert quality. The fruit should be protected by spraying and should be picked when full grown, even if very hard, as they are im- proved by being ripened under cover. Some varieties that water core badly on the tree are exempt from it when the fruit is ripened under cover. Fruit allowed to hang long on the trees in autumn does not keep well. The fruit is marketed as fresh fruit, dried, canned and used for making pear cider known as "perry." Insects and diseases commonly attacking the pear are much the same as those attacking the apple. The pear is, if anything, more liable to fire blight than the apple. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases. The varieties of the pear that are most popular include the Bartlett, Kieffer, Clairgeau, Anjou, Howell, Sheldon, Seckel and Nells. The Duchess is the most popular dwarf kind. By the proper selection of varieties the season for the pear may be extended from early summer to late winter, but the very early, and especially the very late, pears are not of the best quality and are generally supplanted by the apple which is more easily grown. Quince. Origin. — The quince (Cydonia vulgaris) is a fruit of com- paratively little importance. It is a native of Asia and South- eastern Europe. There are not many varieties of it and few of these are much known. The plant is a shallow rooted shrub, seldom over twelve feet high, and is sometimes trained to the tree form. It is chiefly grown in New York, New England and on the Pacific coast. It prefers a cool, rather moist climate and is uncertain elsewhere. There is a demand for it in most of the markets of the Northern states. Flowers. — The flowers of the quince much resemble those of the apple but are larger and more open, are white, shaded to pink, are produced singly at the ends of the twigs and are very ornamental. They are supposed to be self-fertile. Propagation. — The quince is easily propagated. The most common ways are as follows: (a) Cuttings of the new wood planted in autumn (com- mon) and from cuttings of the surface roots (uncommon). 196 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. (b) Mound layering, i. e., by piling the soil up among the stems which causes them to root, after which they are sepa- rated and set out. (c) Budding or grafting the cultivated kinds on the free growing Angers Quince (uncommon). (d) By grafting long quince cions on pieces of apple roots, perhaps one or two inches long, which are broken off in one year and the plants then obtained on their own roots. This method is generally successful and especially desirable with some kinds that do not grow easily from cuttings. It is customary to use the short pieces of apple root commonly wasted in root-grafting the apple, for this purpose. (e) The quince grows well from seed which starts readily. The fruit of seedlings may be either pear or apple shaped. Soil and planting. — Rich, retentive, not moist soil is best. Sandy goils are not so desirable as clay soils. The bushes should be planted out about twelve feet apart each way. Avoid cultivation of the soil as much as possible, especially in late sum- mer, and avoid stable manure, as these have a tendency to en- courage fire blight. Nitrogenous fertilizers and nitrogenous cover crops should be avoided. Fertilizers containing potash and phosphoric acid are best. Pruning. — Little pruning is required, except to keep the suckers off from the roots and trunks. The trees should branch close to the ground. Picking. — The fruit should be picked when it begins to turn yellow and it must be handled with great care, as it bruises easily. If stored in a cool place the fruit will keep a month or more. It is used only for cooking when it has a peculiar and delicious quality quite its own. Most of it is pre- served in the form of jelly or marmalade but when baked it makes a desirable dessert. Insects and diseases. — The quince is attacked by nearly the same Insects and diseases that affect the apple and pear and is especially liable to leaf rust, fire blight and leaf blight. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases. The varieties of the quince commonly grown are the Orange, Champion, Rea and Meech. QUINCE. 197 QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XI. Apples. 1. Into what classes may apples be divided? 2. Characterize each. 3. Into what groups of varieties may apples be divided? 4. What terms are applied in descriptions of apples? 5. How are apples propagated? 6. What stocks are used in different localities? 7. How are dwarf apples formed? 8. What is meant by "top-working?" 9. What is the best location for an apple orchard? 10. What is a poor location for an apple orchard? 11. Of what advantage is a windbreak to an orchard? 12. What soil is best adapted to apple growing? 13. With what kind of trees should the orchard be started? 14. How are seedlings grown and for what purpose? 15. How is apple seed obtained? 16. How is it cared for and planted? 17. What are the merits of root-grafted trees? 18. What are the merits of budded trees? 19. How should apple trees be set out? 20. What care should be taken in planting? 21. When is the best time to plant trees? 22. When should autumn planting be practiced? 23. What is meant by "heeling in?" 24. How are plants heeled in? 25. What depths should trees be set? 26. How far apart should trees be planted? 27. What cultivation do orchards require? 28. What pruning should be done? 29. In what case should sprouting from the roots be encouraged? 30. WTiat are the advantages of a mulch in the orchard? 31. When and how should a mulch be applied? 32. What varieties are best adapted to the North? To the South? 33. What varieties are most grown for commercial use? Pear. 34. In what sections of the country is the pear grown? 35. Of what country is the pear a native? 36. What are the characteristics of the Chinese sand pear? 37. What is the origin of the Le Conte and Kieffer pears? 38. What are Standard pears? 39. What are dwarf pears used for? 40. What are their characteristics? 41. What trees are used as stock for the pears? 42. How is the pear propagated? 43. What cultivation and soil is best for the pear? 44. How should young trees be planted out? 45. What pruning do the trees need? 46. What are the qualities of the fruit? 47. How is the fruit marketed? 48. What insects and diseases are injurious to the pear? 49. What are some of the common varieties of the pear? 50. How are pears packed for market? Quince. 51. Of what country is the quince a native? 52. What are the characteristics of the quince? 53. In what ways mav tne quince be propagated? 54. What soil and cultivation is best for tlie quince? 55. MTiat pruning does the tree require? 56. When should the fruit be picked? 57. For what is it used? 58. What are the common varieties of the quince? CHAPTER XII. THE STONE FRUITS. Under the head of stone fruits we include peaches, plums, cherries, almonds, nectarines, and apricots, all of which are classified under the genus Prunus. This is one of the most im- portant groups to horticulturists and contains some very valu- able fruits and ornamental plants. The almond is an impor- tant fruit that belongs under this head, but its cultivation is not referred to in this chapter as it is included under the head of nuts. The Plum. There are more species of the plum cultivated in a large way in this counti'y than any other of our common fruits. In the Northeastern states and on the Pacific coast the European or Domestica plums are much at home and commonly grown. In many of the Central states the Japanese plums are widely grown and are increasing in popularity. Even as far north as southern Minnesota, they are grown successfully in the best plum localities. In the great Mississippi Valley, extending from far north to the south, the most popular varieties of plums are those that have sprung from the native sorts. These have been developed within less than half a century. The different species. — There are several species from which the cultivated sorts have come. They are as follows: (a) European or Domestica plum group (Prunus domes- tica). This plum is a native of Europe and Western Asia and includes most of the finest plums of commerce. Its most com- mon color is red or purple, but it is also found with yellow or green skin. In Europe it is cultivated far into the north, but the same varieties that are successfully grown in the cold north there have failed in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley. Popular varieties in this cla»ss are Lombard, German Prune, Vic- toria and Bradshaw. (b) The Myrobalan or Cherry plum group (Prunus cerasife- ra). This plum is native to southeastern Europe. It is a favor- PLUM. 199 ite stock on which to bud varieties of the P. domestica. The De Caradeuc and Mariana plums, which are supposed to have sprung from species native to this country, are probably close- ly related to this species. (c) ^pan plum group (Prunus triflora). This plum comes to us from Japan, whence it was introduced about thirty years ago. It is probably a native of various parts of Asia and is closely allied to our American plum. The fruit is of large size and brilliantly colored in red, yellow and purple. It does es- pecially well in good plum sections and has a wider range than the Domestica class of plums. Many varieties flower so early in the spring that their crops are uncertain. It seems quite probable that crosses with it and some of the native kinds will give rise to very valuable varieties adapted to a wide range of conditions. Examples of this class are Kelsey, Burbank and Abundance. (d) American plum group (Prunus americana). This is the common wild plum of the Northern states and Canada, ex- tending from the Rocky Mountains eastward across the continent and well to the south. It is admirably adapted to the severe conditions of the northern Mississippi Valley and the plains, and from it have come a large number of varieties, including such well known kinds as De Soto, Wyant, Wolf, Weaver and Rollingstone. A form of this, sometimes known botanically as Prunus nigra and having some quite evident characteristics of its own, is found somewhat north of the range of the typical Prunus americana. Good examples of this are the Cheney and Aitkin, both of v.'hich flower early and mature their fruit ear- ly. Plums of this class seem to do best in northern Minnesota, northern North Dakota and Manitoba. (e) The Wild Goose group (Primus hortulana), represents a group of plums that seem especially adapted to southern Iowa, Missouri, southern Illinois and adjacent sections. Among these are such well known popular varieties as Wild Goose and Way- land. (f) The Chickasaw group (Prunus angustifoUa or P. chica- sa) are native to the Southern states and include such varieties as Newman, Pottawatomie and Lone Star. 200 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Bailey classifies the various varieties of the Prunus domes- tica substantially as follows: Prunes. — These are known by their sweet, firm flesh, which contains enough sugar to permit of their being dried and made a commercial product. As a rule a good prune should contain not less than 12 per cent of sugar. Many plums that are grown as prunes on the Pacific coast and elsewhere are cultivated in the Eastern states as plums. The Damsons represent a small class of plums having very firm flesh, the fruit of which is borne in clusters and the foliage is small. These are commonly seen along fences and in various wild places in many of the Eastern states. They are generally grown from seed and not grafted. The fruit is valuable prin- cipally for cooking. Gages. — In addition to these there is a class known as Green Gages, which are round and generally of good table quality. The variety known as Green Gage is typical of this group. Large, yellow plums, such as Coe's Golden Drop, may be used to represent another group. Large purple and blue plums repre- sent another section, and some of the most important under this class are Lombard, Bradshaw and Quackenboss. Propagation. — The plum is propagated in a variety of ways. The American sorts are sometimes grown from root cuttings. In this case the trees used are on their own roots. Cuttings for this purpose consist of pieces of the smaller surface roots that are cut up in autumn, about four inches long. They are then mixed with sand in boxes or nail kegs and stored in a cold cellar until spring, by which time they will be calloused and very likely will have started buds. These cuttings are general- ly sown thickly in drills about three feet apart and covered about three inches deep. Growing plums from suckers. — The American plums are also grown from suckers which are encouraged by cutting the surface roots about trees that are growing on their own roots. This method is a favorite one for many small growers and amateurs. Some horticulturists consider trees grown on their own roots much superior to those that are grown in the usual way. PLUM. 201 The European, Japan and American plums are mostly grown by budding or grafting on seedling plums. Crown-grafting in spring on well established seedlings, is a common practice. Root-grafting on whole roots in winter is practiced the same as root-grafting the apple, and is successful but not as reliable as crown grafting in early spring, and the plants start slowly when grown in this way. Stocks for the plum. — The Myrobalan plum is in common use as a stock for the plum. The Mariana, a nearly allied stock, is also used and both make good stocks for the plum in the milder sections. For the colder sections, as in Minnesota, the Dakotas, northern Iowa, Wisconsin and adjacent states, seed- lings of the native Primus americana are much to be pre- ferred. Seedlings of the Wild Goose type of plums, as well as those of Prunus americana, make excellent stocks for southern Iowa, Missouri and Kansas. Peach seedlings are largely and successfully used as stocks for the plum in mild- er plum-growing sections, while for the colder states they are to be avoided. The apricot has been tried as a stock for the American varieties of the plum but fails to make a per- manent union with it. The soil for the plum should preferably be one that is thor- oughly well drained and rea- sonably retentive of moisture, but it will succeed in any good agricultural soil. The trees hold on well, even on quite gravelly ridges, but in such situations in dry years the fruit is exceedingly small and the trees make but little growth and are short lived. Trees and planting. — It is best to set only young trees, that Fig. 93. — Sprout of a plum root taken off with a piece of a parent root; the best way. 202 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. is, those under three years. Plums that have made a strong growth may be set at one year old. Most planters prefer them at this age as they are cheaper and easier to plant out than older trees. Plums are generally planted from 16 to 20 feet apart each way and for some dwarf varieties the smaller dis- tance may be suflBcient, but for the stronger growing kinds twen- ty feet is little enough between them. As a rule a better plan than planting equi-distant apart each way is to plant the trees Fig. 94. — Old plum tree pruned in order to renew the top. 16 to 20 feet apart in rows forty or fifty feet apart and grow some other crop between. Mixing Varieties. — There is some uncertainty as to the flowers of the plum. Some varieties are generally, if not al- ways, self-fertile, while others are commonly, if not always self- sterile. These qualities seem to vary more or less, according to location and soil. Much disappointment has arisen from the PLUM. 203 planting of self-sterile kinds singly, as, notably, the Wild Goose. It can be laid down as a general rule, and it will apply espe- cially to the native kinds, that varieties of the same time of flowering should be mixed in orchards. Cultivation. — Good cultivation is as essential in the plum orch- ard as with other kinds of fruit. The best growers agree that spring plowing, followed by shallow cultivation during the sum- mer, and the planting of a cover crop in July or August will give best results. Growing the trees in sod will lessen the size of the fruit. Frequent cultivation during the spring months will keep down the sprouts which are likely to come up around plums which are on Americana roots. Pruning. — The European plums usually make good heads and need little pruning. On the other hand, many varieties of Amer- ican and Japanese plums are of a very sprawling and awkward habit of growth and require severe heading in to keep them in gocd shape. Pnining should be done regularly, so that it will not be necessary to remove large limbs. The larger wounds are quite likely to become diseased if they are not painted or cov- ered with grafting wax. Broken or split branches, which are often found on plum trees unless the fruit is properly thinned, should be removed at the first opportunity. Thinning. — Proper thinning is even more essential with plums than with most other fruits. Nearly all varieties have a tendency to set many more fruits than the trees can mature properly. Thinning increases the size of the individual fruits and their market value, and saves many broken limbs. Over- bearing may even shorten the life of the tree, particularly in the Japanese varieties. The fruit should be thinned after the June drop, the proportion of the fruit which is removed being a mat- ter which the grower must settle for himself. The fruits should not be less than five or six inches apart on the branches. Picking. — The European plums should be picked with the stem on; the American plums naturally become detached from the stem at maturity. The fruit may be either a free stone or a cling stone and examples of eacli are found among the differ- ent classes of the plum. (The word "prune" is applied to a class of plums having firm flesh and a larger per cent of sugar 204 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. than the ordinary plum, which dries readily.) Some of the best plum growers practice thinning the fruit. The time when the different varieties come into bearing depends much on the pecul- iarities of each sort. The different classes of plums usually bear fruit in three years. Packing and Marketing. — Plums are sold either in berry boxes, in ten-pound baskets, or in special boxes or baskets. The usual method of marketing Americana plums is in quart boxes or in half-bushel or bushel baskets. Only the fancy fruit should be put in boxes. The ten-pound grape basket is a common pack- age in the East for the European varieties. Western plums and prunes are usually shipped in small baskets or flat boxes, the individual fruits often being wrapped in paper. Insects. — The insects most injurious to the plum are the Curculio, Peach Borer, Tent Caterpillar and Leaf Lice, which see in chapter on Insects. The diseases especially injurious to the plum are Brown Rot, Plum Pocket and Leaf Curl. Plum Knot and Shot Hole fun- gus are discussed under the head of diseases. The varieties of the plum are many and various. In the great plum growing sections of the Pacific Coast the principal kinds grown are Burbank, Climax, Clyman, Satsuma, Wickson, Yellow Egg, Grand Duke, Washington, Blue Damson. In the Northeastern states the principal varieties grown are Lombard, Abundance, Wildgoose, Burbank. The varieties best adapted to Minnesota and the surround- ing states are Wyant, De Soto, Wolf, Stoddard, Surprise, Cheney and Forest Garden. Cherry. The cultivated kinds of cherries probably came from the two species known botanically as Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus., both of which are natives of Europe and Asia, but in the centuries in which they have been under cultivation they have been crossed and recrossed until it is impossible to sep- arate the varieties into their species. The Different Classes. — The cultivated sorts are divided for convenience into two classes: CHERRY. 205 a. Kinds with sweet juice, including what are known as Maz- zard and Hearts cherries. These are generally tall, rather erect growing trees. They do best in a somewhat moist climate, notably in coast states where the winters are not severe. b. Kinds with sour or sub-acid juice, including what are known as sour and morello cherries, of which the Montmorency and Early Richmond varieties are examples. These types are usually low-headed, with spreading branches. They include the hardiest known varieties, some of which do well even in dry cold climates. Prunus maJialeJ), a slender, small tree bearing small, dark red austere fruit, a native of southern Europe, is sometimes found in cultivation. It is used for stocks upon which cherries are propagated. The wild American cherries include the sand cherry (Prunus besseyiij; the large choke cherry of the Western states (Prunus demissaj, and the bird cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica). Location and Soil. — The cherry will succeed on a drier soil than most other fruits. It must have good drainage in both soil and air if it is to be successfully grown. In wet places or water- soaked subsoils it soon perishes. The best locations are on high land tipping to the north, as in a location of this sort growth does not start as early in the spring and the buds are not so apt to be injured by frost. A rise of even a few feet above surround- ing land is desirable, if high land cannot be obtained. Cherries do best on a rather light sandy or gravelly loam. If the soil is very rich they tend to produce too much wood. The subsoil should be porous and well drained, neither clay hard pan or dry gravel. A good cherry soil should contain plenty of moisture early in the spring montlis and up to the time of ripening of the fruit, but after that only enough to ripen the wood slowly. Planting. — The soil should be thoroughly prepared and in good working condition before the trees are set. The distance between trees will vary with the variety, climate, soil and rain- fall. The sweet cherries on rich soil in a good location require from thirty to forty feet distance, while the sour cherries under the same conditions require about 400 square feet of soil or to be set 20x20 feet. If the soil is not very rich and is rather dry 206 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. a distance of from 25 to 28 feet for sweet cherries is sometimes used and of 16 to 20 for sour cherries. The cherry should never be used as a filler. It requires different cultivation and attention than the apple or peach and hence should be by itself. Fig. 95. — Sour cherry tree of good form. Either the square or hexagonal system of planting are desir- able. The square system gives a little more land to each tree and consequently less trees per acre than the hexagonal plan. Time of Planting. — In mild sections where spring comes early and there are no late spring frosts, or where the rains con- tinue late, planting may be done in the fall. In the colder sec- tions, and in fact generally, early spring planting will be found to give best results. Stock may be purchased in the fall and carefully heeled in over winter ready for early spring planting. The holes should be dug large enough so that the roots will go into them without CHERRY. 207 crowding. All bruised or injured roots should be cut off and the top cut back to correspond to this trimming. In severe climates it is well to set the trees from four to six inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In some good cherry districts they are set only two or three inches deeper fhan they originally grew. Put in some rich black loam and lean the tree slightly to the direction from which the prevailing winds come. Tramp the soil firmly about the roots. Then add more soil and tramp it ligTitly, finally filling the hole and raking the top soil or leaving it loose and fine on top. Some water may be used in the bottom of the hole to help pack the earth if desired. Age of Trees. — Good strong first-class one-year-old or low headed two-year-old trees sliould be used in planting. In the West one-year-old trees are preferred. In some other sections, two-year-olds with a good root system are used. Cultivation. — For the first five or six years at least the orchard should be thoroughly cultivated. After that a grass or mulch system may be followed, thougli it is a question if cultiva- tion is not better. Some vegetable crop may often be raised though it is not desirable to crop the ground too much. Cultiva- tion should start as soon as possible in the spring and continue until the last of July or middle of August, when a cover crop should be sown. If the trees are not making a good growfh Canada peas or a vetch may be used; if the growth is too rapid and too much wood is being produced, rye may be sown. A bearing orchard should not be permitted to grow too vigorously in late summer, as late growth is made at the expense of fruit. Propagation. — The cherry, in common with ofher fruits, does not come true from seed, though the seedlings are often of good quality. The seedlings are generally used as stocks on which to work named varieties. The pits should be managed as rec- ommended for plum pits. Named varieties are propagated by grafting, budding or suckers. Cherries may be grown on a num- ber of different stocks, but the Mahaleb (Prunus mahaleh) and the Mazzard, a strong growing variety of Prunus avium, are most often used. These are imported from France. Cions should be taken from healthy bearing trees, and if grafting is employed, the work 208 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. must be done early in the spring before growth starts. Budding is usually done in August. The Mahaleb stock is hardier than the Mazzard, especially in a dry climate, and is used almost entirely as a stock on wliich to bud the sour cherries. It is too tender for severe climates. The Mazzard is a native of eastern Europe and is used as a stock for sweet cherries. It is not hardy enough for severe locations. It may be used for root grafting, but budding is the method usually employed. Where the cherry is on its own roots, suckers may often be taken and planted to advantage. It is a poor plan to follow with grafted or budded stock, "however, as the quality of the plant is usually not known. A few varieties may be grown by cuttings, but it is a rather uncertain method and is seldom used. Top-working. — In some sections where the body of the tree is apt to suffer from sunscald or other trouble, varieties may be grafted on resistant trees to advantage. The work must be done early in spring before the buds start. Pruning. — The cherry needs only enough pruning to keep fhe tree in shape. In Russia it is grown in bush form and when it becomes too old to be profitable the old parts are cut away and new sprouts take their places. The important thing to remem- ber in connection with this, as well as all other stone fruits, is that they should be trained low. Picking and Marketing. — Cherries must be picked by hand as soon as they begin to color in order to have them ship well. They require very careful liandling, although tEere is a difference in varieties in this respect. They must not be poured from one receptacle to another. They should be packed immediately after picking, precooled and shipped at once. One day lost in starting or in transit may mean a considerable loss when the fruit is put on the market. Cherries are usually packed in ten pound boxes, or in the case of sour cTierries, in quart boxes or market baskets. Insects and Diseases. — The insects and diseases affecting the cherry are much the same as those affecting the plum. PEACH. 209 Among the worst of these pests are the curculio, which stings the fruit; the leaf slug, which injures the foliage; borers which work in the trunk; and brown rot, wTiich is often very destructive to the fruit just as it is ripening. These and other pests affecting the cherry will be found described in the chapters on Insects and Diseases. Varieties. — Among the sweet cherries Lewelling, Napoleon, Royal Duke and Windsor are probably the best. Montmorency, English Morello and Early Richmond are good varieties of sour cherries. Fig. 96. — Eng-lish Morello, one of the best cherries for the North. Peach. The peach is one of the most uncertain of our cultivated fruits. It is highly esteemed and is used almost entirely as a luxury by the greater part of our people. It is nowhere adapted to great areas, although widely grown in a small way. It is grown in a large commercial way in a few favorable sections, among wliich may be mentioned: 1. TLa section along the south shore of the Great Lakes, including portions of southern Michi- 210 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. gan, New York, Ohio and southern Canada; 2. Long Island and portions of Connecticut, southern New York, New Jersey, Dela- ware and Maryland; 3. Further south there is a great peach section in the highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, etc.; 4. Southern Illinois, Missouri, and portions of Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska; 5. Parts of Texas; 6. Parts of eastern Colorado; 7. A large part of California. The northern limits of successful peach growing in New England is perhaps central Massachusetts, and even in southern New Hampshire peaches are raised in favorable years. In the Mississippi Valley peaches are raised as far north as southern Iowa. However, as the northern limits of peach raising are reached, the crop becomes uncertain, owing chiefly to the kill- ing of the fruit buds in winter, which will gener- ally stand a temperature of over 25 degrees below zero if the wood is well- ripened in autumn. The flower buds are much more tender than the leaf buds and are often killed with- out injuring the growth of the trees. On rich soils, especially on those that are liable to be moist, the peach grows too late in autumn and the flower buds will kill in such loca- tions even when uninjured on higher, drier, and perhaps poorer, soils. In central Iowa the planting of the hardiest kind of peaches has been attended with some success. Laying the peach trees down in winter. — In northern Iowa and southern Minnesota a few peaches are grown each year by Fiff. 97. — Protecting peach trees. Peach tree tied up, ready for winter covering. (After Wliitten.) PEACH. 211 bending the trees to the ground in winter and covering the tops with corn stalks, marsh hay or similar material. The wood of the peach is exceedingly brittle but the roots are very tough and the trees are bent in the roots by digging a hole at the side of the tree deep enough to reach the pliable portion of the root. Forked roots are preferred on peach trees that are des- tined to be treated in this way, as their roots are smaller, and hence do not get stiff as quickly as these grown to one central shoot. Origin. — The peach is native of Asia, but was introduced into America at a very early date, and in the last century was spontaneous over a large area of country in the mountainous section of the Southern states. While there are many forms of the peach, they are all classed as coming from the same spe- cies, Prunus persica. Pro- fessor R. H. Price, in the report of the American Pomological Society for 1903, classifies the various kinds of peaches under five heads, although he says that some varieties cannot be placed in either, and that the practical ap- plication of this classifica- tion lies in the fact that the grower should not be concerned so much about what varieties he has as about having the varieties he plants of the proper group for his location. The following classification is taken from this article; Fig. 98— Protecting peach trees. Peach tree covered with corn stalks. (After Whitten.) 212 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. (a) Peen-to group. This is distinguished by its vigorous willow-like branches. Flowers appear very early; fruit flattened and much like an oblate apple; stone flattened in an opposite way from that of the ordinary peach; leaves narrow and long and hang on in winter. They are adapted especially for the Southern states and near the coast. Angel and Waldo are varie- ties of this group. (b) South China group. The parent of this race is the variety Honey, which is supposed to have come from South China. The tree is smaller than the Peen-to. Valuable seed- lings of this group are Climax and Coleman. Pig. 99. — ^Leaves and pits of the different types of peaches. 1. — Per- sian. 2. — North China. 3. — Spanish. 4. — South China. 5. — Peen- to. Pits numbers 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are of the same type as the leaves over them. (After Price.) PEACH. 213 (c) Spanish group. The tree is the largest of all supposed to have been introduced by the Spaniards; leaves small, flat, and hang on late in autumn; fruit ripens late and nearly always downy; tinged with yellow; nearly always acid and of low quality. This variety bears heavily in the district to which it is adapted, which includes the Southern and South Central states. Among the varieties belonging to this group are Gal- veston, Guadaloupe, Onderdonk and Victoria. (d) North China group. The parent of this group is the Chinese Cling which is supposed to have originated in North China. The tree is of medium growth; flowers large; fruit large and white with a red blush. Such varieties as Elberta, Mamie Ross and Carmen belong to this group. These are raised in enormous quantities on the high lands of the Southern states. (e) Persian group; of unknown parentage, but is supposed to have come from the high altitudes of Persia. Tree is medium in size; flowers varied in size; foliage nearly al- ways crimped, trough shaped and fall off the tree early in au- tumn. This tree needs a long period of rest. Well known varieties of this group are Crawford, Alexander, Mountain Rose, Oldmixon Free and Oldmixon Cling. This group includes most of the varieties that are successful in the North. Propagation, — The peach is sometimes grown from seed. Some varieties come so nearly true from seed that they are propagated in this way, but it is an uncommon method with commercial varieties. Budding is the common and almost ex- clusive method used in growing the peach although success often attends grafting, which is of convenient use for working over in the spring those budded plants on which the buds failed to take. In the South the peach stocks are commonly budded in June and make large, full sized trees by the end of the first autumn. In the North the peach is usually budded the first year in August when the seedlings will be about two feet high, and the stocks are cut back the following spring. June budding at the North is not popular, as the resultant plants are too small. The seed must be stratified over winter and then cracked in the spring, if not already open, and the kernels planted. Va- cancies in the nursery row may be filled from the seed bed 214 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. when the seedlings are very young. Seedlings from natural fruit are preferred for stocks from sections where the peach is healthy and free from yellows. A favorite place for ob- taining peach seed is from Tennessee and Kentucky where the peach grows in thickets. Plum stocks are sometimes preferred for the peach where it is grown in heavy, moist soil but are seldom used in commercial peach growing. Planting. — The trees for planting out should be one year old from budding, small but not weak. They should be trimmed to a straight shoot one to three feet high and all side branches removed at planting, making them appear as a mere whip stick. This facilitates forming the head. It saves freight and packing if they are to be shipped long distances, to have this done before they are shipped. Trees more than one year old are not desirable for orchard planting. At the North peach trees should be set out in the spring. The distance apart will Fig. 100. Pruning peach trees, a. — Before nrunlng. b.— After pruning. PEACH. 215 vary with the locality, soil and variety. In a general way it will be found that 15x15 feet apart is about right. Some grow- ers put out twice as many trees as can grow well to maturity. In such cases they must be thinned out when they commence to crowd one another. Pruning. — On inferior soils, such as those of parts of the peach region of Michigan and the Maryland peninsula, it is customary to do but little pruning and the trees are allowed to branch close to the ground and form rangy heads. On better soils it is quite customary to cut back the new wood severely after the tree is formed, cutting off from one-third to one-fourth of the new growth and the weak wood out of the interior of the tree. This thins the fruit by removing many fruit buds and keeps the tree in compact form. When the trees are injured Fig. 101. — The proper method of pruning peach trees injured in win- ter, a.— -Before pruning, b. — After pruning. 216 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. in the winter, they recover most quickly, if at all, by being cut back severely. Location and soil. — The peach grows well even in quite poor soil. In very rich soil it is liable to grow late in autumn and the buds kill in winter. Some of the best orchards are on very poor soil. It does best on high ridges, especially in loca- tions exposed to the north and west. Southern slopes are liable to start the buds too early. Where late spring and early au- tumn frosts are prevented by proximity to water, as in Michi- gan, the peach does well at the north, but as the northern limits of peach growing are reached, extra skill is required to grow it. Thinning the fruit. — If the close pruning referred to is fol- lowed, many fruit buds will be cut off and thus the crop is thin- ned, but in addition to this, special thinning is most important with the peach. If it sets fruit at all it generally sets too much, and if all is allowed to grow the tree is weakened and the fruit becomes small and poor. Trees that are thinned generally yield as much fruit in quantity and that of much better quality than trees not thinned. In thinning, take out all curculio-stung and imperfect fruit as they are of no value. Thinning should be done as soon as the imperfect fruit can be determined and after the natural fall of small fruit has taken place. Thin to from four to six inches apart on the branches. It often requires much will power to do this, as such thinning will seem excessive at the time it is done. Peach trees bear young, not infrequently at two years old. The fruit of the peach is used fresh, for canning, evaporating and as a kind of cider which yields brandy by distillation. Insects and diseases. — The trunk of the peach tree is fre- quently injured by the Peach Borer, and the fruit by the Cur- culio. The diseases of the peach are as follows: Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Scab, Postular Spot, Yellows, Rosette, Little Peach. Varieties. — There are many varieties of the peach. Grow- ers must study the conditions in their own localities and the adaptation of varieties to them. The most important varieties in the North are Elberta, New Prolific, Kalamazoo, Smock and Triumph. Those most important in the South are Alexander, Carmen, Elberta, Greensboro, Mountain Rose and Sneed. APRICOT. 217 Nectarine. The nectarine is a smooth-skinned peach. It is interest- ing to know that peaches have been grown from the seed of nectarines and nectarines from the seed of peaches. The fruit is usually inferior to that of the peach in size, quality and ap- pearance. It is grown the same as the peach hut not nearly as successfully, and is liable to the same insects and diseases. It seems to do best in the Pacific Coast states. Apricot. The apricot is a fruit somewhat intermediate between the peach and the plum. The bark resembles the peach but the leaves are very broad and almost circular. Origin. — The apricot commonly cultivated in Eastern and European gardens is a native of Asia. Botanically, it is known as Prunus armeniaca. The Russian apricot is a hardy form of this species having small fruit. There are a few varieties cultivated that belong to other species but they are of poor quality and of little importance, except the so-called Chinese apricot plum (Prunus simoni) of Asia which is referred to un- der the head of plums. The apricot is as hardy as the peack and thrives under the same soil and climatic conditions but pre- fers a rather heavier, although well drained soil. The apricot is grown in Europe and in a large way in the Pacific Coast states. In the Eastern and Central states it has not been much planted because its early period of flowering makes it sus- ceptible to injury from frost and the liability of its being in- jured by Curculio has made the crop so uncertain that the peach, has taken its place. Stocks. — The apricot may be grown on seedlings of the European plums and on the peach. It is said that apricot stocks are not as good as either of these, especially on land that is liable to be very wet in the spring. Some experience seems to show that the apricot does not work well on the Prunus armeni- aca. Planting and pruning. — The apricot requires about the same care in planting and pruning as the peach. However, it does not need quite such close pruning but only enough to keep it in good form. 218 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Picking and marketing is much the same with the apricot as with the peach. However, it is generally looked upon as a dessert fruit and is generally marlceted in small packages. Insects and diseases affecting the apricot are practically the same as those that attack the peach but it is more liable to injuries from the Curculio, which must be carefully held in check by jarring and clean cultivation. Arsenical sprays can- not be recommended as the foliage is too susceptible to injury from them. Varieties. — The most popular varieties of the larger apricots are Moorpark and Royal. Of the Russian apricots the best are the Gibb, Budd and Alexander, but they are little grown. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XII. Stone Fruits. 1. What fruits are included under the head of stone fruits? 2. What Is the distribution of plum growing in the United States? 3. What is the origin and distribution of the Domestica plum? 4. What varieties belong to the class and what are their char- acteristics? 5. What is the origin of the Myrobalan plum? 6. What varieties belong to this class? 7. What is the origin and distribution of the Japan plum and what varieties belong to the class? 8. What is the origin and distribution of the American plum? 9. What varieties belong to the class? 10. What is the origin and distribution of the Wild Goose class of plums and what varieties belong to the class? 31. What is the origin of the Chicasaw group of plums? 12. What varieties belong to this class? 13. Into wliat groups does Bailey classify the plums? 14. What are the characteristics of each? 15. In what ways may the plum be propagated? 16. What is the common way of propagating the American sorts? The European? The Japanese? 17. What stocks are used for grafting the varieties? 18. What kind of soil is best for the plum? 19. How should the trees be set out? 20 Why should varieties be mixed in an orchard? 21. How and when should plums be picked? 22. What insects are injurious to the plum? 23. What varieties are grown in the Pacific Coast states? In the Northeastern states? 24. What varieties are best adapted to Minnesota? 25. What are the general classes of cherries? 26. What soil and location are most suitable for cherry growing? 27. How far apart should cherries be planted? 28. When and how should cherries be planted? 29. What care slioiild be given a cherry orchard? 30. How is the cherry propagated? 31. How should cherries be picked and marketed? 32. What are the most important varieties of cherries? STONE FRUITS. 219 33. In what sections of the United States is the peach grown commercially? 34. How far north is the peach grown successfully? 35. Vv'hat is the effect of good soil for peacii growing in the North? 36. How are peaches protected in winter? 37. ^V^hat are the characteristics of peach wood? Of peach root? 38. What is the origin of the peach. 39. Into what groups may peaches be divided? 40. What is the origin and characteristics of each class? 41. How is the peacli propagated in the North? In the South? 42. How and when is the peach budded? 43. How are peaches set out in the orchard? 44. What pruning of peach trees is necessary? On poor soil? On jood soil? 45. What location and soil is best adapted to peach growing? 46. How should the fruit be thinned? 47. For what purpose is the fruit used? 48. What insects and diseases are injurious to the peach? 49. What are the important varieties grown in the North? In the South? 50. Fiom what did the nectarine originate? 51. How is it grown? 52. Where did the apricot originate? 53. Over what territory is it distributed? 54. What are its characteristics? 55. What tices are used as stocks for the apricot? 56. How are apricots planted? 57. What pruning do apricots require? 58. How is the fruit picked and marketed? 59. For what is it used? 60. What Insects and diseases are injurious to the apricot? 61. What are the most popular varieties? CHAPTER Xm. THE GRAPE. Origin. — There are about twenty species of wild grapes in America and but few of them have been fully tested under cultivation. No part of habitable North America is found with- out some native species and in many sections these are im- portant fruits in their wild state. The grapes commonly cul- tivated in this country east of the Rocky Mountains are of native origin but in the Pacific Coast -states the best European grapes are grown in great perfection. They are also grown under glass. The species commonly grown in vineyards in this country are as follows: (1) Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labruscaj, the species from which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. Ex- amples of these are Concord, Worden, Moore's Early and Lady. As found in its native state, it has a large purple fruit, thick skin, and very pulpy meat surrounding the large seeds. Tho flowers are either perfect or staminate; the leaves are large, with whitish down on the underside. It is found occasionally in the southeastern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in states farther east and south and in parts of Canada. The Con- cord grape resulted from the selection of seed from a wild vine which had been cultivated for two generations by Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts. Seedling Labrusca grapes are fre- quently white or greenish in color. The cultivated grapes of this class have perfect flowers with well developed stamens. They also cross readily with the European wine grape, the River Bank and several other native grapes. (2) River Bank or Frost grape (Vitis riparia), the com- mon wild grape found far north in Canada and in the northern United States, is as yet scarcely cultivated, but it is probable that some of its hybrids wUl prove valuable for cold locations. This grape has thin, smooth foliage, green on both sides; short jointed wood and perfect or staminate flowers. The vines bear- ing the staminate flowers generally make an extremely rapid GRAPE. 221 growth and produce a great number of delightfully fragrant flowers but no fruit. This species, when crossed with the Y. lahrusca, has given us Beta and Janesville, two varieties of great hardiness. From this source will probably come the hardy grapes for the colder portions of the United States and Canada. European Wine grape (Vitis vinifera). — To this species belong most of the cultivated grapes of Europe and Asia. Its flowers are either perfect or staminate. It has been cultivated since the remote past and has given rise to a large number of kinds having widely varying characteristics, but none of these have been successfully cultivated in the open air in the portion of North America lying east of the Rocky Mountains, although they have been grown successfully in California and some adjacent states. The reason for this is undoubtedly the susceptibility of the roots of this species to attacks of the grape vine root louse (Phylloxera) which is abundant over a large part of eastern North America, but to the attacks of which the American vines are largely immune. This pest has of recent years been introduced into both California and Europe, so that many vineyards in these sections have been of necessity graft- ed on American roots to stem its ravages. Hybrid American grapes. — The poor success attending the introduction of varieties of European grapes led to early at- tempts at crossing them with native Fox grape (Y. labrus- ca). Among the first and most successful of these were the crosses made by E. S. Rogers of Salem, Mass., who originated and distributed a large number of varieties, some of which still remain in cultivation. These are known as Rogers' hybrids and include such well known and productive sorts as Lindley, Aga- wam, Aminia, Herbert, Barry and Salem. These have been largely replaced by the pure labrusca sorts of more recent in- troduction which are nearly or quite as good in quality and less liable to disease in ordinary locations. Prof. T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas, has paid special at- tention to the development of varieties of grapes adapted to the Southern and Southwestern states and has sent out a large number of good varieties. Among them are the following: Car- man, Headlight, Brilliant and others. In his work he has used 222 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. a large number of little known species in addition to those men- tioned. Among them are the following: V. rupestris, V. solonis, V. doaniana, Y. Champini, V. candicans, V. bouguiniana, V. lincecumii, V. aestivalis, V. herandieriana and V. rotundifolia. Flowers of the grape. — In the wild state some species of grapes produce some plants that have perfect flowers and others that have staminate flowers. Our cultivated kinds, that are not the result of crossing distinct species quite uniformly, have perfect flowers and no crossing is needed to make them produc- tive. The sorts that have originated from the crossing of two or more species, such as Brighton and Lindley, often have flow- ers in which the stamens are reflexed. Such stamens seldom if ever produce germinable pollen and hence must be supplied with pollen from other vines. When this is not supplied the flowers generally fail to set fruit, or if they set fruit at all it is very small and seedless. Fig. 102. — Flowers of the grape, a. — Flower just opening, with cap pushed off. b. — Perfect flower, c. Staminate flower, d. — Flower with reflex stamens. Propagation. — The grape is increased from cuttings and lay- ers and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. In California it is considered good practice to graft the Eu- ropean kinds on American roots to avoid the phylloxera. By seed. — Propagation by seed is used for growing stocks and to obtain new varieties. If vines are to be grown in' this way the seed should be at once sown in boxes of rich soil, or in a flne seed-bed. (The seed should be saved from ripe ber- ries). Cover it half an inch deep and protect by a mulch in winter. The plants will make a growth of one or two feet GRAPE. 223 the first season and will show blossoms about the fourth year. Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, while others will have flowers with reflexed stamens; not one seedling in a thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances for obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli- gent hybridization is resorted to. By cuttings. — Grape cuttings are of three kinds — long and short hard-wood cuttings, and soft-wood cuttings. The pro- cesses by which they are rooted vary greatly in details but the general principles are the same in every case. Long hard-wood cuttings. — These should be made in the fall from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It is best to make them about eight inches long, if wood is abun- dant. The length will necessarily depend somewhat on the distance between the buds on the canes, and when three-bud cuttings are made of some varieties they may be ten inches long. They are often made six inches or less in length, but as short as this they are more liable to fail from drying out than if longer. They will send out roots best if cut just below a bud, but this is not necessary. These cuttings should be put up in bundles of about one hundred each. Bury them in some well- drained place with the tops down, and cover with about six inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure the soil is packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that they cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut- tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary to insure their rooting, and they should never be planted out until well calloused. The same object may be secured by covering the cuttings with a box and sash, which will confine the sun's rays ana so warm the roots that they will start a callous. When the soil is settled and warm they should be planted out six inches apart, in rows two or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down to the top bud. They should be put at least seven inches deep in most locations. The land for cuttings. — The land selected for growing grape cuttings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be 224 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. greatly improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times and has a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. When planting on a large scale the land may be marked off with a line, and a sub-soil plow run eight inches deep in the mark to loosen the soil, after which cuttings can easily be pushed into place by hand. The after-cultivation consists in continually working the top soil and keeping it loose and open. In the fall, if the plants are weak, they may be covered with earth and left where they are for another season's growth; but if strong, they may be dug and used for vineyard planting the following spring. It is customary to dig all the vines late in the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in outdoors for win- ter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the spring the strong vines may be used in the vineyard and the weaker ones be set out in the nursery to grow another year. (See p. 152 on growing cuttings in chapter on Propagation). One-eye cuttings. — The wood for these should be ctit in the fall and wintered over in a cold cellar buried in moss, sand, sawdust, or other similar material, or it may be buried outdoors. In the spring, generally in Feb- ruary or early in March, these can€s should be cut up into pieces having one inch of wood below and half an inch above the bud. Boxes about the size of an ordinary soap box, but only four inches deep and having holes for drain- age, should be prepared by putting in one and a half inches of rich soil and then about the same amount of clean sand on top of it. The cuttings should be set deep enough in the sand to just cover the bud, putting them two inches apart each way. The boxe3 Fig. 103. — One year old from one- bud cutting. grape vine GRAPE. 225 may now be put in a gentle hot-bed, or on a greenhouse bench, and kept moist. They should be rooted in about six weeks. When they have made a good root growth they should be plant- ed, after the soil is warm, in rich soil outdoors. The time for this will be as late as the latter part of May in this section. Very nice plants may be grown in this way, but they do not make as strong a growth the first year as plants from long cut- tings, and often need a second year in the nursery before they are large enough for transplanting to the vineyard. Soft-wood cuttings. — These are made from the green wood taken off while the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand in much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums, fuchsias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very valu- able, and as a means of increasing new varieties. Plants grown this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well start- ed, and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood can be obtained. Layering. — This is the simplest, surest and easiest method of increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow it where but few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, called spring and summer layers from the season in which they are made. Summer layers are made in the summer, generally the last of July, from a branch of the same season's growth. They are likely to be weak for several years, and do not make as good plants as spring layers. In making them the wood should be slit for an inch or so near the buds that are covered. Bury about one foot of the cane four inches deep in the ground and it will be rooted by late autumn, when it may be treated as recommended for weak year- ling vines grown from hard- wood cuttings. Spring Layers. — These may be made by laying down any cane early in the spring. It will root in one season and by „,„,_. , , fall will have made a good Fig. 104. — Ordinary layer of a grape ., „ . , ., vine. growth of roots, when it may 22fi POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. be cut from the main cane, and if strong enough may be divided into two plants. By a little different treatment of the spring lay- er, a vine may be grown from each bud on the layered cane. For this purpose some thrifty cane should be selected in autumn, pruned of its laterals and buried. In the spring it should be uncovered and only one shoot permitted to grow from each joint. After the new growth has started about six inches from each bud, the whole cane should be layered about four inches deep, handling it carefully so as not to break the new growth. Pig. 106 shows such a layer after it has rooted. It is a good plan to cover it not more than three inches at first and to fill up the trench as soon as the shoots grow. It covered four inches deep at once, the young growth will sometimes rot, though this seldom happens, and some skillful growers fill the trench full at once. In the autumn roots will be found growing from each joint and these may be cut apart and treated as recommended for weak vines grown from cuttings. If this method of propagation is to be used to some consider- able extent, vines should be grown especially for the purpose. It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to any great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way. For directions as to grafting the grape see chapter on Propaga- tion. Fig. 105. — Ordinary layer of grape cut apart and made into two plants. Fig. 106. — Layering grapes. Showing how to get a plant from each bud of the cane layered, GRAPE. 227 Location of the vineyard. — Some of the hardy, early ripen- ing but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but the better kinds need a warm exposure and free circulation of the air about them to insure their ripening each year. High southern slopes generally offer the best locations; in such places there is the greatest amount of heat in summer, very general immunity from the late frosts of spring or the early frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at all times; all of which are important matters in growing grapes. Other slopes, and even level land, may be successfully used for this purpose, but on northern exposures, the fruit will be later in ripening than if in situations where the plants receive the direct rays of the sun. However, excellent fruit may often be grown on a northern slope if it is near some large body of water, which will help maintain an equal temperature, and especially to keep off the early frosts of autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in so that the foliage of the vines does not dry off quickly after summer showers, it will be found very difficult to grow many of our better kinds of grapes on account of the prevalence of fungus diseases in such places. The cutting away of a belt of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to allow a free move- ment of air through the vines at all times, has often been the means of making the difference between failure and success in growing grapes. Soil. — The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or sandy loam, with an open clay sub-soil; but a somewhat clayey loam will do very well if sufficiently drained to remove excess of moisture. Before planting, the land should be thoroughly prepared by plowing and harrowing until in the best condition. Where there is not good surface drainage, as on some prairie farms, it will be found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges made by turning six furrows back to back. In other locations the land should be kept smooth. A limestone soil or loess loam is almost ideal for the grape. The best vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those hav- ing a good root system should be used. Plants more than three years old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon out- 228 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. grow those that are old and large when transplanted. It mat- ters little about the direction of the rows; they should be laid out so as to prevent erosion as much as possible. The proper distance between the plants will depend some- what on the vigor of the kinds planted, the manner of pruning, and the soil; but the strong growing varieties, which are most desirable, should generally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, or in some cases eight feet apart in rows ten feet apart, to al- low for the growth of roots and a good circulation of air be- tween the vines. When the vineyard is much shut in it will be found advantageous to Increase this distance, but when lo- cated in an airy position and on retentive soil the plants may be set eight by eight feet. Planting. — The most rapid way of planting grape vines is to furrow out the land one way and mark the other, putting the vines at the intersection of the furrows. Before planting, the tops of the vines should be cut off so as to leave only two or three buds, and if the roots are very long it will facilitate plant- ing to cut them back to twelve inches in length; shortening the roots to this extent does not seem to injure the growth of the plant. On light soil and on hillsides it is exceedingly important to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should be made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about fifteen inches below the surface. The top loam should be put around the roots, but the plants should not be covered at once more than two inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. The soil should be gradually worked in around the vines as they grow until the holes are full. On heavy soils, especially those quite moist, it is not safe to plant deep, and eight inches will probably be found about the right depth in most locations. In planting vines to be pruned on the one-cane system, it is best to incline them somewhat in the direction in which they are to be trained on the trellises. This should be in the direction of the prevailing summer winds. Cultivation. — Soon after planting, the vines should be well cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may be grown between the rows for the first two years. After this the vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of GRAPE. 229 a shallow plowing early each spring and during the summer. The top soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultiva- tion. Deep cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is not desirable in a vineyard, and it may cause serious injury by encouraging a late growth. If the land is lightly plowed each spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; but if this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will get started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines. Pruning and training are the great bugbears to amateurs In grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar meth- od has done more than anything else to discourage the growing of this fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact, vines will grow and bear fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done simply to get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, and for practical purposes it is a very simple matter. There are, however, many systems described in books, and occasionally used in practice, that are quite complicated and difficult for a beginner to understand and even for the experienced to carry out in practice. The practical points to have in mind in pruning grapes are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once never bears again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season produces the bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the new wood is left on the vine it will bear ten times more clusters than it can properly develop, and they will be small and imper- fect. (4) If nine-tenths of the new wood is cut away, leaving only from thirty to fifty good buds to each vine, the yield of good grapes will be much increased. (5) It is desirable in severe climates to train the vine so that it can ^^IVunel^'lnr cov! ^e laid down on the ground with but lit- ered for winter at tie resistance, for in such locations it is the end of first , ^ ^ .^ , . ^ year. With extra necessary to protect it each winter. strong vines the jj tjiggg points are borne in mind formation of the ^ vines is started it matters not so very much what sys- the first year. ^^^ .^ pursued in pruning. However, it will be found most convenient to adhere somewhat clearly to some simple system of pruning. But whatever plan for after- 230 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. training is adopted, tlie care of the vine for tli-e first two years Bliould be about the same. The first year no support or pruning is needed. The vines will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as If tied to stakes, but it will be more convenient about cultivat- ing if they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year, all of the vines should be cut away except three or four buds as shown in fig. 107, unless the wood is exceedingly firm and ripe, in which case it may be practical to start forming the vine the first year. The vine should be covered with a mound of earth four or five inches deep. Later on, before severe weather sets in, it Is a good plan in the more northern states to apply a covering of mulch two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some sort. This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the winter- ing of newly transplanted vines. Trellis. — The following spring, a trellis should be built un- less stakes were set the first year, when they may be used again and the work of putting up a trel- lis be deferred until the opening of the third year. The most desirable kinds to use will depend upon the method of training fol- lowed. Spur is a term used to indicate the short stubs of the lateral canes that re- main on the main cane after pruning, from which the new growth starts. It is generally desirable to keep the spurs as short as possible. Systems of Training and Pruning the Grape. There are two fundamental systems used in training the grape, which underlie all methods in common use. In one sys- tem the shoots are trained upward from the cane. This is call- ed the upright system and embraces a large number of method«s. In the other, or drooping system, the shoots are allowed to hang Fig. 108. — Spur of a Grape Vine. GRAPE. 2-^1 naturally from the cane from which they grow. The upright methods have been more widely used than the drooping meth- ods although they are more expensive in practice, since they gen- erally require a more elaborate trellis and the labor of pruning and training is much greater. Further, some of our strong grow- ing vines produce more fruit when trained on the drooping than on the upright system, but there is still quite a difference of opinion among commercial growers as to the relative merits of each, so it is certain that good results are obtained by both of them. The single post method is the simplest method of pruning the grape on the upright system. In this, generally two canes Fig. 109. — Pruning grape vines. Vine treated on high renewal system at end of the season. are selected and wound about the post, each in opposite direc- tions and tied in place. In pruning in after years these canes are preserved and the canes that grow from them are shortened back to two or three buds. The advantage of this method con- sists in the fact that it permits cultivation of the vineyard both ways and in the cheapness of the support. Its disadvantages 232 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. are that probably the vines are too crowded and the foliage and fruit do not have the best chance to develop. This crowding also encourages disease. High renewal method of training is a form of the upright system that is extensively and successfully employed on a large scale. It starts the branching of the vine at about twenty-four inches from the ground, which is the height of the lower wire oi the trellis. A single stem is carried up to the wire where it branches and its two arms are trained in opposite directions along the wire. In this style of training, the end of the second season will find the vine with two well developed canes extended on the lower wire of the trellis. These should be cut back at pruning time to firm, strong wood. At the beginning of the third season, the buds on this wood will start and form canes that should be trained upward and be tied to the second wire. The third wire is generally put up during the second season, although it is very likely that it will not be needed until the following year. Some of the upright shoots will bear a little fruit the third season but unless the growth is very strong, this should not be permitted. At the end of the third season, all the vine is cut away except two strong canes nearest the center of the vine, which are merely cut back to firm wood and extended along the lower wire. It is from these canes that the vine starts the next year. The subsequent training of the vine is a continued suc- cession of preserving the two best central shoots and the cutting away of all the rest of the vine. If the two central shoots are not strong enough, the nearest strong shoots are preserved. Fig.llO. — Vine in Figure 109 after pruning. GRAPE. 233 In the case of strong growing varieties of grapes like the Concord and Worden, it is customary to leave more than two canes in pruning; often four and occasionally six are left. When four are left, two are often tied together along the bottom wire. If six are used, the two extra caneis are tied along the second wire in the same manner. The amount of wood that should be left on a vine after prun- ing will depend upon the vigor of the variety grown. In the cane of the weak growing sorts, like the Delaware, from twenty to thirty buds should be left on the vine after pruning. This means that all the buds left on the new wood shall not be more than this number on the whole vine and these shall be on two or more canes. In the case of strong growing kinds like the Concord, as many as ten or twelve buds may be carried on each cane and four canes may be left. In other words, such vints may safely carry from forty to fifty buds each year. In any case, a weak vine should have fewer buds left than a strong vine. As the vine acquires age, the spurs at the top of the trunk get weak. It is customary then to encourage a shoot from near the ground and treat it much the same as if it were a new young vine and from it form a new top. The second year after it is well started, i. e., when it is in good bearing condition, the old cane may be cut away and the young vine allowed to take its place. A top will retain its vigor six or eight years under ordi- nary treatment but seldom much longer, although the roots will still be vigorous and will form several successive tops. The high renewal method requires much more tying than any of the forms of the drooping system of training. In doing this, the vine should be firmly tied to the trellis and the new growth, as it reaches it, should be tied to the second wire and later to the third wire. It will be necessary to go over the vineyard sev- eral times each season to accomplish this. All shoots do not start with the same vigor, but after they have reached the up- per wire and are well tied they are allowed to hang down and need no further pruning or tying. In the case of the drooping method of training the only tying that is ordinarily practiced is that of tying the main cane very strongly to the wire. In this method, the vines are trained un- 234 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. til the canes reach the upper wire, after which no further train- ing is given and the summer shoots are allowed to hang from the upper wire. In tying the canes, and especially in tying the main arms, allowance should be made for their growth or they may be gir- dled. They should be tied loosely and for this purpose it is cus- tomary to use roping, cotton warp, green Kentucky Blue grass or even willow twigs. The One-Cane Spur Renewal Method. The one-cane spur renewal method of pruning is a form of the upright system that is adapted to sections where vines must Fig. 111.- mm -Method of formin vine trained on one cane spur renewal system. be laid down in winter, although some of the Labrusca sorts seem to fruit better when they are not pruned so close as is necessary in adhering to this system. Its chief advantage is that the vine is trained close to the ground where it may be easily laid down and covered with earth in winter. Trellis. — A form of trellis well adapted to the upright and fan methods may be made by eetting posts sixteen feet apart in the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, putting the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and those GRAPE. 235 above ten inches apart. The wires should be securely fastened to one end post passing through the other end and through sta- ples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the wires free play- through them. This method allows loosening of the wires in autumn and tightening of them in summer. The form of trellis best adapted to the Kniffen and Munson methods will be found described under those heads. The second year after planting and as »soon as the weather Is settled the vine should be uncovered, using a garden fork, which is the best tool for this purpose. Permit only one cane to grow, and that the strongest which starts. Rub off all the other buds that show while they are small. Tie the cane, as it grows, to stakes or wires and if it grows rapidly, pinch off the top once when it reaches the upper wire. The pruning in the fall of the second year should consist in cutting off all the laterals — in other words, in cutting off all tne Fig. 112 — Pruning grape vines. Old vine trained on one cane spur renewal system. 236 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. side branches close to the main cane. In pruning the main cane, leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made but not more than four feet long. The vine should then be buried as directed for the previous year, and it will be found convenient to bend it as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage, take away a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the bend to come near the ground. As the vine gets older and stiffer, it will bend most easily and safely below ground. Third season. — The third spring the cane should be tied along the lower wire (fig. 112). If it has wintered well two shoots will start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four inches long the weakest should be broken off i^nd only the strong- est ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. In selecting these shoots preference should always be given to those coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these shoots push upwards they should be carefully tied to the wires, and when they have reached the top of the trellis each of them should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will check the growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed nearer the main cane than they would if not checked. Further pinch- ing is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit are wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning is followed. If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to kill the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of the leaves on the vine. Where one has but few vines it is best to wait until there is danger of the ground freezing hard before laying them down, but in large vineyards it is not practicable to wait so late, and the work must commence earlier. In pruning the third fall, first select a cane near the extremity of the main cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the next vine on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire the following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent main cane, fig. 114. The rest of the pruning this fall will con- GRAPE. 237 sist of cutting away all but from three to six buds of the other shoots that have grown from the main cane. In pruning do not cut nearer than within one inch Qf any bud, to avoid winter kill- ing. Bury as directed. The following spring each of the buds left will start shoots; two vigorous ones should be selected from those nearest the main cane and the others rubbed off. The pruning in after years will be a repetition of this cutting of the canes back to several buds in autumn and allowing two shoots to start from each spur each spring. The Kniffen Method of Training. The Kniffen method of training the grape is a form of the drooping system. This is a method of training which originated in the Hudson valley, perhaps fifty years ago, and which is now widely used since it gives good results and requires less expense, in the items of support and tying, than any others. It is especial- ly adapted to strong growing varieties of grapes and to those of drooping habits. In this method a trellis with two wires is com- monly used and these are respectively ^Vz and 514 feet from the ground. It is especially important to have the end posts set sol- id in the ground and well braced. The intermediate posts are generally driven and they usually stand about twenty feet apart, which allows for a post between every other vine, if they are set ten feet apart — the common distance between them. Vine- yardists often grow their vines two years on stakes before put- ting up the trellis when following this method. Four-cane Kniffen system. — In this method a single cane is carried up the trellis to the top wire and two canes are trained outward from side spurs at each wire. The vine has then four horizontal canes tied to two Avires. These are far enough from the ground so that the drooping new growth is pretty well out of the way in cultivation. The pruning of vines on the Kniffen system is much the same as in the case of the High Renewal system. Each year all the tops are cut away except the four best canes nearest to the trunk and these are cut back to sound, firm wood, extended on the wires and tied the following spring. In case the canes nearest the trunk are not strong enough for main canes, these may be cut back to one or two buds (i. e., to 238 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. spurs), and the nearest strong cane used to form the vine. The following season the shoots growing from these spurs will prob- ably be strong enough to be used to renew the vines. As the vines become well established, it is customary to leave the upper renewal canes longer than the lower. Under this method a <0^ 113. — One form of the four cane Kniffen system of training the grape. strong growing variety, like Concord, should be allowed ten buds for each of the canes on the upper and five buds each for those on the lower wire or a total of fifty buds for each vine, while such varieties as Delaware should not bear more than thirty buds. There is no summer pruning practiced in the Kniffen method although the young, superfluous, summer shoots should be broken out when they start, as is necessary for best results in any system. Two-cane Kniffen system. — Since the greater part of the fruit under the four-cane Kniffen system is borne on the upper canes, a modification of this system, in which the lower canes are dispensed with and the upper canes left longer, has come into practice in some sections. In this case the lower trunk is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing ten to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. Sometimes the lower wire is not used at all. GRAPE. 239 The Munson Method of Training. The IMunson trellis is referred to by its author, Professor T. V. Munson, as the Three-Wire Canopy Trellis and is a form of the Kniffen system of pruning. It is described by its author as follows: "The posts should be of some durable, strong wood. The end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate posts, which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in the ground, with twenty-four foot spaces between posts, which will take three vines eight feet apart or two vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are set a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored though each, four feet from the surface of the ground in the direction in which the rowos run, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole. These holes are to admit the middle, lower wire of the trellis. For each end post prepare a cross arm of 2x4 hard pine or oak, two feet long; at one inch from either end, and one inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit hole to pass the lateral wires through, and in the middle of the lower side saw a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate post prepare a board of similar wood and likewise bore and notch." "Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, fasten at one end, tighten at the other end with a wire stretcher and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when the young vines are trained up a string tied from the vine to the wire and along it. "The arms and the two lateral wires which they bear need not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. "Each end cross arm is placed inside the post, and against It, on top of the wire with notch side downward, straddling the wire to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of the .same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the bit hole in one end of arm and fasten the cross arm thoroughly in place. The wire will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the arm as do nails or bolts, and will be longer lasting, 240 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. quicker, cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no dam- age. "Likewise place the cross arms on the intermediate posts, leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening. Then fasten a piece of wire about twenty-four feet long to each end of the cross arm at either end of the row and draw both tightly around the next post from the end near the ground and fasten so as to hold the arm at right angles to the middle wire. Then fasten the lateral wires firmly with the above mentioned six inches of wire left after fastening the in- termediate posts, as may be seen in fig. 114. This will prevent the arms from slipping out of position. "Pruning and training on this trellis is very simple and easy, with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned for example. The first season the vine is allowed to grow up on the middle wire by a string about which it is coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine iis upon the wire, after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. By getting on to the trellis the first year one strong shoot, and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop may be had the second year with- out damage. On all weak growers, like the Delaware, this should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first regular pruning, (all pruning should be done in November, after leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire. "If the vines are strong growers, cut back to six or eight Lnd post ^'"'■' ** Z*^' bta.rina a^e, four arms «icA, pruned ind /ic/ I ft. -t/t i,n ibovc oTouncf Fig. 114. — The Munson method of pruning; a modification of th« Kniffen system. GRAPE. 241 buds each on two arms, one going each way along the lower wire, from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower wire, along which it is gently coiled. These two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the arms push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging thereto with their tendrils and hang over like a beautiful green drapery, shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural habit. Buds that push on the body of the vine are rub- bed off as they appear, and after blooming the tips of all the bearing shoots are clipped off with a quick stroke of a sharp knife. This causes the growth to concentrate in the fruit, great- ly increasing the size of the berries. The four or five ^shoots pushing nearest the crotch of the vine should not be tipped, but the flower clusters, if any, on them picked off and the shoots allowed to grow in freedom along the trellis above the bearing shoots, to better shade the fruit and develop themselves ready for cropping the next year. This is known as the 'long arm re- newal system,' in contradiction to the spur system of pruning and gives much better results, "At the second year's pruning and others following, the old arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the new arm and the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with fruit and mature well. In this, critical judgment and knowledge of capabilities of different varieties are more required in the pruner than in any other part of the training work. Some vari- eties, such as Delaware, cannot carry more than three to four arms, while Herbemont can more easily carry four arms, each eight feet long. Hence the Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while Herbemont and most of the Post Oak hybrids should be twelve to sixteen feet apart. In other words, each variety should be set far enough apart so that it will fill the trellis with fruit from end to end and mature it well so as to better economize space and not be crowded. "By the third year, the vines should come to full bearing and be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along the lower wire of the trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should be of about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn, / 242 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need — that is, two ties to each vine — the least required by any trellis system, and the pruning is also simplest and the results every way the best. "Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, its simplicity, bringing the work up breast high so that pruning, harvesting, tying, and spraying can be done in an erect position, saving back strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air to foliage, fruit and soil, yet protecting body of vine and fruit from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and easy pas- sage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready pas- sage from row to row, without going around, thus getting larger and better crops at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and the pleasure of taking care of it." Training vines against buildings or walls is a good plan, and such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and protect from early and late frosts. Of course, the southern exposure is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be about one foot away from the wall or building. In such locations it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes where otherwise they would be a failure. It is doubtful if there is a habitable section of northern United States where fairly good grapes will not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every farm offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The soil close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can easily be improved, or entirely removed and a better kind sub- stituted. And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for many other crops is just what is needed for the grape. There are many cases where in such locations single vines have borne several hundred pounds of grapes in one season. Pruning neglected vines — When vines have been neglected for several years it is often a difficult matter for the beginner to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on this account allowed to go unpruned and unproductive. Some- times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting away nine-tenths of the wood and then carefully thinning out and pinching the young growth that may start. At other times. GRAPB. 243 again, it may be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of the ground. If this is done at the proper season for pruning sever- al sprouts will start from near the root, but only one, or at most two, should be saved. These sprouts should be trained the same as a newly planted vine, except that in one season they will make a vine large enough to bear a good crop of fruit the following year. By either method only one fruiting year is lo^t, but as a rule the greatest success attends the latter method. Time of pruning. — The best time to prune the grape is late in the fall or early in the spring. If the \rines are to be laid on the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in au- tumn, as doing it then will greatly facilitate the laying down process. If for any reason the vines have not been pruned until the buds have started, it is far better to do it then than not at all. The so-called "bleeding" of vines does not appear to serious- ly injure them, though pruning when the sap will run from the cut surfaces is a bad plan and generally causes the bleeding wood to die back. Spring pruning of the grape should consist only in pulling out the extra shoots that start from each spur that have been left to produce bearing wood. No matter what training method is followed, the vme is liable to produce a number of weak shoots that are of no help to it and should be removed if not needed to carry out the plan of training. Removing foliage. — Under no circumstances should any con- siderable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing. The notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at fault. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speak, both lungs and stomach to the plant and anything that injures them prevents the ripening of the fruit. The tying materia! commonly used in tying vines consists of raffia which can be purchased from the dealers in garden and florist supplies. Many vineyards are tied with green rye or even with green bluegrass. Thinning the fruit. — Under almost any system of pruning, some varietie.s will set more fruit than they can properly mature. Where this is the case, the poorest bunches should be cut away 244 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. as soon as the berries are well formed. As a rule, the improved appearance of the remaining fruit is so great, as the result of this thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one. Manures. — Ordinarily new soils contain an abundance of plant food. Grapes do not require much manure, and the best kinds for them are those which have but a small amount of or- ganic matter, such asi wood ashes, or acid phosphate and potash. Yet on gravelly or sandy lands, they may be much benefitted by the liberal use of stable manure. Never apply manure as long as the vines are making a satisfactory growth without it. A very rapid, long growth is not nearly as desirable as that which is firm, well matured and moderate in quantity. Bagging grapes. — In sections of the country where black rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the grapes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occa- sionally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But in growing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is wanted, it will often be worth undertaking, as the expense for labor and material need not exceed a half cent per pound. The bagged grapes have a little thinner skin than those not bagged, are free from dust and spiders' webs, and are not so liable to be caught by the first autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen more evenly when bagged. Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size of small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For this purpose ordinary two-pound manila paper bags should be used, such as may be obtained from any grocery store. They should be cut down about two inches on each side, and a small hole made in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners, to let out any water that might collect in them. They are then ready for use. A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the branch, and securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be left on until picking time, when the bag and bunch may be taken off together. If the fruit is to be stored it will be found that it will keep longer in the bags than without them. Gener- ally the bags remain on the whole season without trouble, and some growers use the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags made especially for this purpose will last about four years. In France a wire bag is used to some extent for this purpose. GRAPE. 24c Keeping grapes. — The keeping quality of grapes varies much with the different kinds; some varieties will hardly keep a week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for two or three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold cellar is a very good place to keep them. The bunches should first be relieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid one tier deep on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may cir- culate freely among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry when put in the cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed for use some ice may be put in it in a tub and the windows kept shut in the day time and opened at night. If the grapes are packed in dry saw dust or cork bark they will keep even better than on trays. Where cold storage is accessible they may be packed in baskets before being stored, but in any case great care should be taken to remove any injured berries, or they will rot and spoil those near them. Girdling the grape to advance the period of ripening is prac- ticed to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of opin- ion regarding the ultimate effect of the operation on the health and vigor of the vine. It seems, however, to be pretty generally conced- ed that it can be done to a limited extent without seri- ous, if any, injury; that it generally advances the peri- od of ripening from seven to ten days, and that the fruit from girdled vines is considerably larger than from vines not girdled and of just as good quality. The operation consists in taking out a ring of bark on-e- fourth inch or more in width at any time during the growing season but gener- Flg. 115. — Girdling the grape. French girdling tool whicii removes a section of bark about one-fourth Inch wide. Branch of grape vine showing where girdling can be safely done on the portions of the cane that are pruned away. 246 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ally soon after the berries are well set. For this purpose a spe- cial tool is often used which makes two cuts and takes out the bark with one movement. If the whole vine is girdled at the surface of the ground, it will soon show great weakness, so when practiced at all it should be confined to girdling the lateral canes that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned. In sec- tions where early autumn frosts are common, it is frequently de- sirable to try this method of advancing the period of ripening. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XIII. The Grape. 1. Where did the grape originate? 2. Describe the Northern Fox Grape. 3. Describe the River Banl< Grape. 4. Describe the European Wine Grape. 5. Describe the flowers of X.he grape. 6. How is the grape propagated? 7. What are long hard wood cuttings of the grape? 8. How should they be cared for? 9. How should the land be prepared before planting the cuttings? 10. What are one eye cuttings? 11. How are they planted? 12. What are soft-wood cuttings? 13. How are they grown? 14. What is layering? 15. How are summer layers made? 16. How are spring layers made? 17. What is the best location for a vineyard? 18. What soil is best for a vineyard? 19. How should grapes be planted? 20. What cultivation do they need? 21. What points should be remembered when pruning the grape? 22. What pruning is needed the first year? 23. WTiat is meant by a "spur?" 24. Explain the two "systems" of training. 25. What is the single post method? The high renewal method? The Kniffen method? One-cane spur renewal method? 26. What pruning is needed the second year? 27. What pruning is needed the third year? 28. Explain the Munson method of training? 29. What pruning is required the first year, second year and third year In this system? 30. Describe a method of pruning. 31. What effect does training vines against buildings or walla produce? 32. How should neglected vines be pruned? 33. When should grape vines be pruned? 34. What material is commonly used in tying vines? 35. To what extent should the foliage and fruit be thinned out? 36. What fertilizers do grapes require? 37. What is meant by "girdling?" How should it be done? CHAPTER XIV. THE SMALL FRUITS. The strawberry is the most important of small fruits. It is found growing from the far North to the hot South and around the world. Is is easily grown, stands transportation moderately well and is almost universally admired. Origin. — The cultivated varieties of strawberries have come from the following species: Chilian strawberry (Fragaria chilo- ensisj. This South American species evidently enters most largely into the parentage of our cultivated kinds, although this fact was not generally acknowledged, and until recent years it was thought that the native North American strawberry was the parent of nearly all our cultivated kinds. American strawberry (Fragaria virginiana). — This species enters in a small way into some of our cultivated kinds. It was formerly believed to form the large heeled in, or kept in a cold cellar, but the plan recommended should be followed when practicable. It is not considered good policy to plant the layers in the fall as they are very liable to winter injury when disturbed in autumn. In digging the layers about ten inches of the cane should be cut off with the roots to facilitate handling. It is generally believed that unprotected plants are much hardier when the layers remain attached to the plant dur- ing winter than they are if the canes are cut loose in the fall. Location and soil. — The common varieties of the raspberry succeed admirably in any good soil, but the suckering class, which includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather more abundantly than the black-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the latter do best in a sandy loam. A northern slope is generally better than a southerly one as it is less liable to injury from drouth, which frequently shortens the fruiting season in bad situations; but It is well known that some varieties withstand dry weather and other climatic troubles far better than others of the same species. Manure and preparation of land. — All varieties need high cultivation. The land should be heavily manured, if of inferior quality, and thoroughly plowed and brought into the best con- dition for corn or other gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer is well rotted barnyard manure. Raspberries, especially the black cap kinds, will produce very well even on quite poor soil, but rich land and thorough cultivation is necessary for the best success with any variety. Time of planting. — The suckering kinds may be planted in autumn or spring with safety. When the work is done in the autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protec- tion against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in au- tumn, since at that season they can give the work more careful attention than in the spring. Then, again, the new sprouts from sets (suckers) start very early, and if the work is delayed in the spring the new growth is often broken off or injured in the work of planting. Black caps and other tip-rooting kinds should never be set in the fall, as they are very liable to be winter- RASPBERRY. 269 killed if moved at that season. They should always be set in the spring. Selection of plants. — Since the canes are biennial there is no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees when we refer to the stems; but the roots may be of any age, as they are perennial. Plants of one season's growth are best to begin with. Sucker plants are largely used in the case of varieties increasing in that way; but plants from root cuttings are generally considered fully as good, or even better, when well grown. The old stools from raspberry plantations may be broken up and the parts planted, but such sets have few fibrous roots and often fail. With the tip-rooting kinds plants obtained by breaking up the old stools are not so good as those from the suckering kinds obtained in the same way and should not be used, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of care. It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from perfectly healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries fre- quently become diseased and plants from them are often worth- less, consequently much care should be exercised in buying plants. Care should also be taken to avoid using sets that are affected with root galls. Planting. — After the land is thoroughly prepared the plants should be set out in rows seven feet apart and at three-foot intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. The dis- tance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are plant- ed, but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when the bushes are loaded with fruit. It allows sunlight to readily reach the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for profit they should never be set any nearer; while for some of the strongest growing varieties the hills should not be nearer than five feet in the row. At the time of planting the canes should be cut off close to the ground and no fruit allowed to form the first season. A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot way and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the plants in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, and afterwards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with 270 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the feet at the same time. The rows should preferably run north and south, for planted in this way the fruit is shaded by the new growth during the hottest part of the day during the period of ripening. Some garden crop may be grown between the rows the first year. Depth to plant. — Black cap raspberry plants should be set about the same depth in the soil as they naturally grew. The roots should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over them. The suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper than they naturally grew and be well firmed in. Cultivation. — The soil should be kept loose with a horse cul- tivator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard the one-horse plow may be used but the land should be kept flat and as free from ridges as possible. Frequent shallow cultivation, especially in a dry time, is important. Pruning and thinning. — Not more than two shoots should be permitted to grow from each root the first year. The second and succeeding years the suckering kinds will produce a lot of sprouts all around the hill; four or five of those nearest the hill should be allowed to grow and the rest treated as weeds. If a great lot of these suckers are allowed to remain, but little fruit will be produced. Black cap raspberries will this year send up a half dozen or so of sprouts at the base of the old plants, and enough of these should be removed to allow the re- mainder to properly develop. All these sprouts should be pinched once when from twelve to eighteen inches hign, if they are to be grown without a trellis. As soon as the fruit has been gathered the old canes which have borne fruit the current year should be cut out and destroyed. In the spring the suckering kinds need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the black cap varieties should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches, and the main cane shortened perhaps one-third its length. This is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender that they will bend to the ground and break under the weight of fruit unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than they can mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this manner the fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield fully as much fruit as if all the canes were left their whole length. RASPBERRY. 271 Mulching. — The first year no mulching is needed; but the second season, as early as the middle of June, the rows should be mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, or with what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom and put on two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable because it lies close, and as it rots in one season and is very rich in plant food it makes a good manure. TTiis material keeps the land moist, the berries clean, and kills out weeds. After putting on the mulch as recommended there will still be a space two and a half feet wide between the rows where the cultivator should be run to keep the soil loose. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of mulching this fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a good profit and a big loss. Support. — It is desirable in severe climates to have the canes supported in some manner. In milder sections, where winter protection is not necessary, the bushes may be so fre- quently pinched as to make them form little trees that support themselves; but this kind of treatment is not desirable where the plants have to be covered in winter, as it makes them so very stocky they cannot be easily laid down. A very good sup- port for raspberries and blackberries is made by running a No. 12 galvanized iron wire on each side of the bushes, attached to a good solid post at each end of the row and tied together at frequent intervals. This wire should rest on nails driven in stakes set twenty-five feet apart. Such a support permits the plants to mo\e gently in the wind but not sufficiently to break them by its violence. It keeps the fruit off the ground and is cheap and convenient. Winter protection. — Winter protection of some sort may be necessary for raspberries that are growing in severe loca- tions. A good windbreak may be sufficient to make the differ- ence between success and failure in growing this crop on our western prairies, hut in many places in the extreme Northern states and in many parts of Colorado it is necessary to bury the canes to protect them from winter injury. This is espe- cially true when tender kinds are grown. To do this, the bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground 272 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost In the canes. The best covering is fresh earth. In laying them down commence at the north end of the row, remove the soil from the north side of the hill, about four inches deep, with a garden fork; gather the branches together with a two-tined fork, press gently to the north, at the same time place the foot firmly on the base of the hill and press hard, bending the bush ,1 . ...«■- P'ig. 122. — Uncovering- ra.spberry bushes in ilie spring. In the root as much as possible and as little as may be in the canes, until nearly flat on the ground and hold it there until the second man covers with soil sufficient to hold it down. The top of each succeeding hill will lie at the base of its predeces- sor, making a continuous covering. It will be found that a lit- tle mulch put on the canes first after laying them down will hold the soil put on, and much less soil will be required than if no mulch is used. After laying them all down turn a furrow against each side of the rows, covering as much as possible, and draw a little over any canes that may J)e left exposed. It is only necessary to use enough to barely cover the canes. There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the Gregg, that on rich land are very difficult to cover. With them it will do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe and cover the tops only with enough soil to hold them in place. RASPBERRY 2T3 While it would be better to cover them all if it were practicable, ■yet treated in this way enough snow will generally lodge in the canes to cover them, and if this is supplemented with a light covering of coarse litter or straw so much the better. If mice are numerous they must be poisoned or they will eat the canes under the mulch. A machine has been originated in Minnesota that covers raspberries and blackberries quite successfully and it is there used on a large scale. It requires four horses to operate it. However, it often breaks many canes in operating and some growers prefer to take their chances of winter injury to cover- ing with it. Lifting canes in the spring. — The canes should be raised In the spring soon after the land is dry and well settled. To do this use a round-tined fork and after carefully removing some of the earth raise the plants slightly to a slanting posi- tion. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes are shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when raised up straight. The fruit. — The fruit is found in red or yellow colors in the red raspberry class and in black, yellow and purple in the cap class. The varieties vary in size, fruitfulness and vigor as well as in color. The red kinds are most popular but the black caps are much used. The purple and yellow varieties do not sell well in most markets but are often very satisfactory In the home garden and for drying. All kinds are used for drying in years when prices are low. Picking and marketing. — Avoid picking when fruit is wet. If possible, and pick fruit clean. Do not leave any overripe fruit on the plants. Keep picked fruit in a cool, shady place; transport small fruit in a good spring wagon. Red raspberries are generally marketed In pint boxes, (24 pints in a case), and black cap raspberries in one quart boxes, but some growers find the pint box best for all kinds of rasp berries. In the west the gift package only is used, but in the Eastern states the return package is generally preferred. This subject should receive the most careful attention of growers. For further notes on picking, marketing, diseases and in- 274 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. sects affecting raspberries see special chapters on these sub- jects. The Blackberries. The cultivated blacltberries may be grouped under five heads as follows: (a) The high bush of the clearings and fence rows of the Northern states, with long clusters — as those of the Ancient Briton. (b) The type with lower growth and short clusters such as those of the Snyder and Badger. Both of these groups are probably forms of the Ruhus villosus. (c) The trailing dewberries such as the Lucretia and the Austin, known botanically as RuWs canadensis. (d) The forms that are intermediate between these species are probably hybrids between the two species above mentioned. Among these are varieties such as the Wilson and the Rath- burn. (e) The cut-leaved or evergreen blackberry (Ru'bus lacinia- tus) is probably a form of the European blackberry (Rubus fruticosus). This kind is cultivated on the Pacific Coast where it remains green all winter and is very prolific and highly es- teemed. Propagation: (a) The high bush blackberry is propagated by suckers and root cuttings in the same way as the suckering raspberries. (b) The dewberry is propagated by layering the growing canes, which root readily about midsummer. Varieties of this group are not generally cultivated with success, but in some locations they fruit abundantly. Soils: (a) The best soil for the high bush blackberry is a heavy clay loam, but it grows on a wide range of soils. (b) The dewberry does best in a warm, sandy or gravelly soil, but is not nearly as reliable as the blackberry. Planting, Cultivation and Pruning: (a) Plant and cultivate the same as the suckering rasp- berry. (b) It is considered important by many growers to pinch DWARF JUNEBERRY. 275 the high bush blackberry canes at least once when two feet high, as this encourages the low setting of the fruit buds. (c) Spring pruning should not be done until the blackberry canes are in flower and the amount and location of bloom is seen, otherwise too many fruiting canes may be removed and thus no fruit left. As a rule, about one-half of the bloom should be cut off in the pruning. (d) It is desirable to have a trellis for blackberries and dewberries. Dwarf Juneberry. Dwarf Juneberry {Amelanchier canadensis, variety oblong' ifoliaj. — This is also called shad bush, service berry and suscu- tan berry, native of the Northern states and far into western Canada where in thickets it reaches the height of 16 feet and produces heavy crops of large fruit that is much prized by the settlers and Indians. There are several so-called varieties of it found in the Northern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is bet- ter known in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from the tree form as to seem quite worthy of being made a separate species. This latter form is quite abundant and occasionally very productive. It is the selected kinds of it that are cultivat- ed for fruit. It generally grows from four to six feet high; is covered with a profusion of white flowers early in the spring, and ripens its fruit in July with the raspberries. The berry is of a purplish red color, often nearly one-half inch in diameter. Figure 124 shows its size and form. Like the blueberries, the quality of the fruit is sweet though rather tame, but by the ad- dition of a little lemon juice it makes an excellent pie or sauce. It is readily cultivated and yields regular and abundant crops. However, when grown in a small way the fruit must be protect- ed from the birds or they will take it as fast as it ripens. Mos- quito netting, or the coarse wire netting — such as is used for chicken yards, is useful for this purpose. When grown on a large scale, the depredation of the birds is not so apparent. The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured by our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from insect pests. On account of its many good qualities, it should 276 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. find a place in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated for the near market at a profit. Propagation and cultivation. — The plants are readily in- creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly around the old plants unless they are cut back. These should be set out at about four- foot intervals in rows five feet apart, on rich upland. They com- mence to bear in two years, but will not pro- duce a full crop until the fourth year. They need clean cultivation, and in dry situations should be mulched to protect from drouth. They require but little pruning, though the suckers should be thin- ned out if they become abundant. Varieties. — T here are but few varieties of this fruit offered by nursery- men, and these are the result of selections made from plants growing in the wild state. They are, however, much superior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the plants commonly found in the fields, although these latter are greatly improved by cultivation. It is very probable that by growing seedlings, new varieties much superior to those now known will be originated. The kinds now grown require several weeks in which to ripen their fruit. The only variety of importance is known as Success and probably originated in Kansas. It is pro- ductive of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading in habit, with pendulous fruit clusters; earlier than the others Fig. 123. — Dwarf .Tuneberry. Flow- ers. SAND CHERRY. 277 mentioned, ripening with the early currants. Probably as good as any if not the best for general cultivation. Aside from its fruit-producing qualities the Dwarf June- berries make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very pretty when covered with their profusion of graceful white flow- ers, which appear early in the spring. Sand Cherry. Sand Cherry (Prunus pumila). — This fruit plant Is found In northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and elsewhere. It frequently fruits prodigiously on dry, gravelly Fig. 124. — ^Dwarf Juneberry. Foliage and fruit. embankments where scarcely any other plant can find exist- ence. In fact, it seems to be better adapted to a very dry rather than to a moist location. Plants on rich, moist land will often flower profusely but fail to set much fruit. It seems quite prob- 278 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. able that where the rainfall is light this plant will do well on rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is best adapted to sandy or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly on the sandy land of northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich land of the Dakotas. Description. — Some plants will reach a height of four feet and spread five feet on the ground, while others attain only half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. It is generally of a reddish — almost black — color when ripe. Fig. 125^^Sand Cherry. Foliage and fruit. The ripe fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five- eighths of an inch or more in diameter. In some, the pit is small, while in others it is very large. The quality is generally too as- tringent to be relished uncooked, but this quality varies greatly in the different plants. When cooked, its astringency disap- pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows abundantly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which BUFFALO BERRY. 279 is said to be very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit plant, but a clean, strong growing shrub, and well adapted to severe locations on the lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part of July and first of August. It seems to be much more like a plum than a cherry, and perhaps the name sand plum would be more appropriate for it. Propagation. — It grows freely from seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways. They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections the wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. Plants may be increased by layers, suckers and root cuttings, and by budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native plum. The easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots around the plants about eight inches away from the main stem sometime when the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces will sprout and form new plants. If the roots are cnt into pieces about six inches long and these treated like willow cut- tings, they will grow nearly as readily. When budded on the plum, peculiar-looking, interesting trees are formed, which are quite fruitful. Tlie plum may also be worked on the sand cher- ry and it forms a good union, but the roots are so flexible that the trees are liable to blow over unless the union is set very deep. The common cherry does not take freely on it. At present only seedlings are offered by nurserymeru there having been no nam- ed kinds introducd. A form of this, called the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry, has recently been sent out from Colorado, but has not been suffi- ciently tried to warrant conclusions as to its value here. It is, however, ex- _ .„„„„, ^ ■^, tremely doubtful whether Fig. 126.— Buffalo berry. Flowers. ... a.— Pistillate, b.— Staminate. it IS any better than 280 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fij 127. — Buffalo Berry. Foliage and fruit, a. — ^Fruit, natural size. the best of our native kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry some- what resembles this but has a more erect habit. A quite limit- ed experience seems to show it is much inferior to our best na- tive kinds. D iiu n rr 1 r, Bullberry, or Buffalo Berry. Bullberry, or Buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea). — This plant is found abundantly along the river banks and coulees of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though but sparing- ly, if at all, in IMinnesota or the more eastern and central states, yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the northern states. Description. — A small tree or shrub with light colored foli- age, young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistil- late and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to have both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flow- ers appear very early in the spring before the leaves and are small and inconspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abun- dance — often so thickly as to conceal the branches on which it grows — and when ripe gives a scarlet appearance to the MULBERRY. 2S1 whole plant. Occasional plants have yellow fruit. It is about the size of red currants, and contains one oval, quite large seed. The quality is much like that of rather sour red currants. It makes a fine jelly, but on account of the large seeds it is not so desirable for a sauce as red currants, and it is doubtful whether it will ever be popular for fruit where the red currant Is productive and reliable, but it is of use as an ornamental shrub, and it will probably be used to quite an extent for this purpose. Propagation. — This plant suckers readily if the roots are cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readi- ly if not allowed to dry and are winter covered with earth and sown in the spring. An easy way to winter it is to cover the seed on the surface of the ground with an inverted sod. Mulberries. The mulberry is seldom grown in this country and then Is generally limited to two or three trees. This is probably on account of its lack of keeping qualities and its peculiar flavor which is not generally highly esteemed. It is classfied by Prof. L. H. Bailey as follows: 1. The White Mulberry group (Morus alba). a. Russian Mulberry (Morus var. tartaricaj. b. Nervosa Mulberry (Morus var. venosaj. 2. The Multicaulis group (Morus latifolia). 3. The Japanese group (Morus japonicaj. 4. The Black Mulberry group (Morus nigra). 5. The Red or Native Mulberry group (Morus ruhra). a,. Lampasas Mulberry (Morus var. tomentosa). The best variety of the mulberry for growing in the north Central states is known as the New American but it is not hardy in the more northern states where the Russian Mul- berry takes its place. This latter is known as Morus alha var. tartarica and is described in Amateur Fruit Growing as follows: "The Russian mulberry was introduced from Russia and is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The Mennonites of Nebraska were among the first to introduce it into this coun- try and they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree but is much better adapted to being grown in the form of a 282 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. hedge or windbreak. In this form, it will often attain the height of twenty feet and becomes very close and pretty if given an oc- casional pruning. It is of a rapid growth and very hardy in southern Minnesota and southern Dakota, Nebraska and Kan- sas, and even north to the latitude of St. Paul, it stands fairly well. Occasionally in very severe winters, it will lose a part of its new growth but it quickly outgrows this injury and is less liable to winter killing when old than when young." Its fruit. — With few exceptions, all trees of this species now growing in this country have been propagated from seed, and as with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred produces fruit of much value. Most seedlings have very small fruit, while others are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite frequently some trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized blackberry, and occasionally considerably larger. The quality of the fruit varies nearly as much as the size of the berries; some being insipid and even unpleasant, while others are sweet and agreeable, but like all mulberries, they lack high quality. They are quite soft when ripe and quickly fall to the ground, which should be kept smooth so that they may be readily gath- ered. It is at its best Just as it falls from the tree and generally commences to ripen just before the first currants, and con- tinues ripening for a week or more. It re- sembles the blackT)erry In appearance, but the fruit of some seedlings is nearly white in color, though the latter are sel- dom, if ever, as good eat- „ ,. ing as the blackberry. The Fig. 128. — Russian Mulberry. Foli- ^ , . , age and fruit age at which plants com- CRANBERRY. 283 mence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six years old, they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they grow older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it probably has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. Children generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit alone to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this purpose something should be added to it for flavor. Propagation. — The seed grows readily if sown as soon as ripe. For this purpose, the berries may be crushed in dry sand and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. In two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the perma- ment location, but seedlings vary in their productiveness, and while for a windbreak they may answer as well as any, yet when plants are wanted for fruit, they should be grown from cuttings or layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling stocks. For this purpose, the cuttings should be made in the fall, about twelve inches long of the old wood, and be deeply planted in rich land, with not more than two buds above the surface. The branches root easily when layered, and if the earth is drawn up around the sprouts until they root they make good plants. Varieties. — There are no named kinds offered by nursery- men, and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. How- ever, if any large windbreak is looked over in the fruiting sea- son one or more trees can generally be picked out that bear fruit of exceptional value, and such may readily be increased. The flowers are of two kinds; sometimes both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) are on one tree, and sometimes a single tree is limited to one sex. On this account some care is neces- sary in selecting a variety to get one with both kinds of flowers, or else plant the pistillate kind near a tree having staminate flowers. The Cranberry. Cranborry fVaccinium macrocarpon). — This is the low trail- ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states. The form and habit are well illustrated in Fig. 129. The so-called high bush cranberry (ViUirnuyn opulus) is a tall shrub and much more widely distributed than the trailing cranberry. The 284 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. latter has one flat seed in each fruit, while the former is a many seeded berry. This plant is not adapted to general cul- tivation, and seldom, if ever, does well on the prairies of the West. It may be laid down as a general rule that it cannot be successfully cultivated except on the granitic soils of the north- ern states, and that it will be a failure on the limestone drift soils, such as are common to the prairies of Minnesota, Iowa and the Dakotas. In Wisconsin and eastern and northern Min- nesota it is often very productive, either wild or cultivated, and is an article of much importance in the markets of those sec- tions each year. Where this fruit can be cultivated it is often the most paying crop that can be grown. Best location for cranberry beds. — In a wild state this plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is ^/^ within eighteen inches of the surface. It seems to be rather Indifferent about the soil, some- times growing on sand and then on peat mud or moss. As a rule the best locations are low meadow lands sloping down to ponds, or watered by brooks or creeks, somewhat sheltered but shaded. On uplands, it has been successfully cultivated, but in such situations in is gen- erally unprofitable and fre- quently an entire failure. It may be laid down as a rule that the soil in which this plant is to thrive must be liberally supplied with water, and yet the land must be so drained that the water can be drawn off to at least ten inches be- Fig. 129.— Common cranberry. Foli- low the surface. The best ag-e and fruit; about one-half cranberry bogs are so ar- CRANBERRY. 285 ranged that both the flowage and drainage can be controlled at will. Land that has been covered with stagnant water for a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not fit for the growth of this plant until it has been cultivated and exposed to the air for a year or more. Soil adapted to it. — Wherever the cranberry Is growing nat- urally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed prop- er location, it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of the most favorable portion of it as an experiment before spend- ing much time or money on improvements which may prove to be futile. With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, with control of the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit is assured for almost every year, if the work of preparation Is properly done. Yet there are many wild and cultivated bogs that have yielded very profitable crops for many years where the flowage has not been controlled, and hence if that factoi- cannot be directed at will, it is not necessarily a sufficient rea- son why an attempt should not be made to plant suitable land, providing the work can be done at small cost. The returns from natural cranberry bogs may often be greatly Increased by a little judicious expenditure. Preparation of the land. — The flrst steps should be directed to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The proper method of doing this will vary according to the location and condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by flooding the land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallow- ing, and It may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface of the bog, with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But in some way the surface of the land must be cleaned of its growth and made level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If It is to be flowed, it should be made perfectly level, as it will then take much less water for flowage than if uneven. This matter is especially Important where the water supply is limited. Supplying sand. — It is of great advantage to have the sur- face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, and this should be done even if at considerable expense. The sand used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be free from clay or loam, as anything that encourages the baking 286 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. of the surface of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good place for the plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience shows that it is conducive to fruitfulness. Yet there are many very fruitful peat beds that have never been sanded. If a peat bed is to be used without sand, the surface should be exposed to frost one year before planting or it will be likely to bake hard, but after one season's frost it becomes loose and fine. Drainage and flowage. — The method of securing these con- ditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open Fig. 130. — Cranberry bog newly planted, showing ditch and dike; also portion of bed not yet covered with sand. ditch four or more feet wide through the center of the land. A smaller ditch should completely enclose the land, which should be divided into beds by lateral ditches about five rods apart. Where springs are met with they must be connected with a ditch. Importance of water. — The flowage may sometimes be con- trolled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek run- ning through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons: (1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, and occasionally peat or moss bogs get on flre and burn up, destroying all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom be saved except by flooding. (2) The water kept over the CftANBERRY. 287 plants in the spring will serve to retard the blossoming until danger of frost is past, and will protect the fruit from early frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that are kept under water until late in the spring are seldom seriously injured by insects. (4) Beds do best when protected by a water covering in winter. If not thus protected they may be seriously injured. When there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary to finish it at several grades and to put in as many dams, but where there is not more tha-n two or three feet of fall one dam Is quite sufficient. Dams should be made strong and have sluiceways large enough to let off all the water liable to drain through them. About flowing. — All that is required in flowing a bog is sufficient water to cover the vines. They should be covered about the first of November, and as deep as they are to remain covered during the winter. The freezing of the vines in the ice does not hurt them, but raising the level of the water in the bed after they are frozen, and thus raising the ice and tearing the vines out of the ground, is where the great dan- ger lies. To avoid this, the sluice- ways should be kept suflBciently open to allow any surplus water to pass off. The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in con- dition to bear, the water should be kept on until the last of May or first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is to prevent injury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit worm and fire worm which are the worst foes of the cranberry. If the fruit is covered with water in warm weather, it is very liable to be ruined, but the vines are uninjured by such flowage. Throughout the growing season the water should be about twelve inches below the surface of the bed. Fig. 131. — Cranber- ry plants, one, two and three years after set- ting. 288 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Plants and planting. — In selecting plants great care should be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost barren. There are very many named kinds, and they vary great- ly in size, growth, time of ripening and productiveness, but it is doubtful if any of the named kinds, the most of which ori- ginated in the East, are adapted to the climate of this section, and it is probably better for the present to depend on getting plants from the most fruitful wild cultivated beds near at hand. The kind most esteemed in the East is called the Early Black. It is very early and productive, though not a vigorous grower. Propagation. — The cranberry plant grows very readily from cuttings, and on this account some growers cut the plants in a hay cutter, sow the pieces broadcast and harrow them in with a disc harrow, but that method of planting is not advisable. The most common way is to make cuttings of the younger parts of the vines about ten inches long, and plant one in a place, but sometimes longer cut- tings are used which are doubled when planted. The cuttings may be car- ried over a whole season with good success if they are kept covered with running water, but in stag- nant water they would be likely to spoil. On this account they may be set at almost any season of the year if the flowage is con- trolled, but the spring of the year is generally pre- ferred, and if there is no chance to flow at will it is by far the surest time to plant. Before planting is commenced, the hed should he marked off each way at about eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a Fig-. 132. — The two kinds of cran berry rakes In common use. PERSIMMON. 289 wooden dibber is used having an incurved or reversed wedge- shaped point, with which the cuttings are crowded through the sand down into contact with the bog beneath at one operation, without first making a hole as is customary in the ordinary use of a dibber. After the cuttings are planted the water should be raised in the trenches sufficiently to keep the surface land a little moist to encourage the rooting of the cuttings. The after- cultivation consists in keeping the soil moist and giving clean cultivation. Some of the best cranberry growers apply each year a coat of about one inch of sand to their bogs and find that it is profitable to do so as it acts much like a fertilizer. Picking. — If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the vine they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but where there is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries should be picked as soon as they commence to color, though when picked so early, they will seldom keep well after the mid- dle of January. If severely frozen the berries are ruined, but they are not injured by a "white frost." Picking is generally done by hand, though some few growers "rake" them oft the vines. The berries keep well in a dry, cool place, and are more easily kept if covered with water. The Persimmon. There are two distinct forms of the persimmon in cultiva- tion, which are commonly known as the Native or American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the Asiatic species (Diospyros Jcaki) which has been chiefly developed under cul- tivation in Japan, and is known commonly in America as the Japanese persimmon. The wood of most of the species of this tree is hard, close-grained and takes a light polish. Some of the tropical species give us the ebony of commerce. The native persimmon is found growing wild in the South- ern states and as far north as latitude 38, that is, to central Indiana. The tree, when grown in the forest, is sometimes 75 feet high but usually 20 to 30 feet high. It will ripen its fruit as far north as northern Indiana. Its use is largely local, al- though it is occasionally offered in the larger markets. The wild fruit varies in size from one-half to two inches in diameter, depending largely upon the number of seeds it contains. Seed- 290 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. less varieties an inch in diameter are known. The fruit is very astringent until ripe and some seedlings never lose this quali- ty. There is a general impression that frost is necessary to sweeten this fruit but this is a mistake, as some varieties are sweet without being touched with frost and others are made more edible. It ripens from August 1st to December in the Cen- tral states. It is easily propagated by seeds which should be stratified over winter and planted in spring the same as the peach pits. The seedlings do not come true from seed. This is especially so with the selected kinds, which are propagated by budding and grafting when two or three years old at the collar in the spring, as soon as the bark will peel easily. This tree is very difficult to transplant and if its tap root is cut off, it is liable to die. The top should be severely pruned when the tree is transplanted. The persimmon will grow in any good agricultural soil, but thrives best on a good, rich, warm soil. As yet, little attention has been paid to originating good named varieties of this native fruit but some of those produced are of fine quality and destined to be widely grown in favorable localities. The Japanese persimmons were introduced into America In the early history and have proven well adapted to the more southern states and parts of California, and are regularly to be seen in our markets and are growing in popularity. There is quite a difference in the hardiness of different varieties. Few of them can stand a temperature of zero and, as a rule, do best south of the 32nd degree of latitude. It is considered by the Japanese as their best pomological product. The trees of the different varieties attain a height of ten feet while others are compact and dwarf in habit and do not grow more than 5 or 6 feet high. This latter class bears youn?, often a good crop at three years old. The fruit is very pretty, usually bright orange red or vermilion, and round or oblong in shape. They color up when far from being ripe and should not be gathered until just before the frost or when they be- come soft, as in the case of the early kinds. The round varie- ties ripen first and the oblong ripen later. The latter, if picked before being ripe, should be allowed to ripen in the house to remove the slight astringency. PERSIMMON. 291 Seedlings of the Japanese persimmon have a tendency to produce male flowers only during the first three years of flow- ering. After that, a few female flowers appear but they are few in comparison with the male flowers. A large proportion of the seedlings produce fruit that is small and too astringent to eat. There are a number of varieties offered by the nursery trade. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XIV. SMALL FRUITS. Strawberry, 1. From what species of strawberry have our cultivated vari- eties originated? 2. How may the strawberry be propagated? 3. What location and soil is best for strawberries? 4. How should the land be prepared? 5. "When should strawberries be set out? 6. Explain the Hill system — the matted Row system. 7. How should the plnnts be trimmed and set? 8. What protection should be given strawberries In winter? 9. How may old strawberry beds be renewed? 10. Into what two classes may strawberries be divided? 11. What are nubbins? 12. How should strawberries be picked and marketed? 13. How may they be protected from frosts? Currant. 1. What Is the origin of the red currant? Of the black cur- rant? Of Crandall's currant? Of the Missouri currant? 2. What soil is best adapted for currant growing? 3. How should they be planted? 4. How often and in what way should they be cultivated? B. When do currants need mulching? 6. What is a good mulch for currants? 7. How often should currants be pruned? 8. What pruning is necessary? 9. What are "tree currants?" 10. How are they formed? 11. Of what value are they? 12. In what ways may currants be protected from winter injury? 13. How is the fruit marketed? 14. For what is it used? 15. What varieties are best for the home garden? Gooseberry. 1. What Is the origin of the American gooseberry? Of the European gooseberry? 2. What are the crosses of the two varieties? 3. How is the gooseberry propagated? 4. When is the best time to plant gooseberries? E. What pruning is necessary? 6. How are gooseberries marketed? 7. What insects and diseases are injurious to the gooseberry? Raspberry. 1. What varieties belong to the European raspberries? 2. What varieties belong to the American raspberries? 3. Into what two classes are raspberries divided? 292 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 4. How are they propagated? 5. How are raspberries raised from seed? From root cuttings? From layers? 6. What location and soil is best adapted to each class of rasp- berries? 7. How should the land be prepared for the raspberry? 8. When should they be planted? 9. How should the plants be selected? 10. How far apart should the plants be set? 11. How deep should raspberries be set? 12. What cultivation is necessary for the raspberry? 13. How much pruning and thinning is necessary the first year? The second year, etc.? 14. What mulching is best for the raspberry? 15. How and when should it be applied? 16. How can a good support be made for the canes? 17. In what ways may the canes be winter protected? 18. How are the canes laid down and covered? 19. How are they taken up in the spring? 20. What are the characteristics of the berries of the two classes? 21. How are they picked and marketed? Blackberry and Dewberry. 1. Into what groups may the blackberries be divided? 2. What are the characteristics of each? 3. How is the blackberry propagated? 4. How is the dewberry propagated? 5. What soils are best adapted to each? 6. How is the blackberry planted and cultivated? 7. What pruning does the blackberry require? The Cranberry. 1. What are the characteristics of the high and low bush cran- berries? 2. How is the trailing cranberry cultivated? 3. What is the best location for a cranberry bed? 4. What soil is best adapted for the growing of cranberries? 5. How should the land be prepared? 6. Why is sand important in the cranberry bog? 7. By what means can the bog be drained? 8. Why should tlie drainage and flowage be controlled? 9. How should the l^owage be controlled in the fall? 10. What harm comes from freezing the plants in the Ice? 11. How long should the water be kept in the bog in the spring? 12. What care is necessary in selecting the plants? 13. How are they propagated? 14. When should the plants be set? Why? 15. How should the beds be made? 16. What cultivation is necessary? 17. How are cranberries picked? Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, Sand Cherry and Mulberry. 1. Wliere is the Dwarf Juneberry found most commonly? 2. What are its characteristics? 3. How are they propagated? 4. What cultivation do they need? 5. What are the characteristics of the varieties most common- ly cultivated? 6. What is the distribution of the Sand Cherry? 7. What location and soil is best adapted to them? 8. What are the characteristics of the Sand Cherry? 9. How are they propagated? 10. How are they used in grafting? 11. What is the Dwarf Rocky Mt. Cherry? PERSIMMON. 293 12. Where is the Buffalo Berry commonly found? 13. What are the characteristics of the plant? 14. For what is the fruit used? 15. How is the plant propagated? 16. Into what classes may the Mulberry be divided? 17. What variety is best for the Northern states? 18. What are its characteristics? 19. What are the characteristics of the fruit? 20. How is the Mulberry propagated? 21. What care should be taken in selecting plants? Persimmon. 1. Where is the American persimmon found native and what la Its value for domestic use? 2. Of what country is the Japanese persimmon native and what is Its value as a commercial fruit? CHAPTER XV. THE NUTS. Comparatively little attention has been paid to the growing of any of the nut trees in this country, with the exception of the English walnut. Most of the American nuts, except the English walnut, that reach our markets are the chance productions of the wild groves. It is undoubtedly true that there is a large sec- tion of this country where nuts of some kind might be grown to advantage. This is especially true of rough land in some of the Middle and Southern states. Nearly all of the cultivation of nuts in this country up to the present time has been done by the growing of seedling trees, and little attention has been paid to grafting, which for many years was regarded as a very difficult matter with all nuts. Now that successful grafting methods have been discovered, there is less excuse for planting seedlings. The leading nurserymen now offer named varieties of the principal nut trees, or else of trees grown from selected seed. The Pecan. The pecan (Hicoria pecan) is an important native nut that is used largely and gaining in popularity. It is a near relative of the hickories, several of which produce edible nuts. In its native habitat, the tree grows to a large size and the wood is highly esteemed for the same purposes as the hickory. It is native to a large part of the Mississippi Valley, Eastern and Central Texas and a portion of Mexico. It is cultivated through- out most of this section south of Central Illinois and also in the Southern states south of the Potomac river. Further north it is occasionally grown, but not profitably, and Central Iowa may be regarded as its northernmost limit. The fruit of the pecan is borne on the new growth. The male flowers are at the base of the shoot and the female flowers near the end. The flowers appear with the leaves and are seldom injured by spring frosts. Trees from seed generally bear when PECAN. 295 about ten years old, and at full bearing age they have been known to yield over twenty bushels to a tree. Soil requirements. — The pecan does best on the open, porous clay loams of river bottoms and especially on those that are likely to overflow at high water. It is also grown successfully on the sandy soils of southern Georgia and northern Florida, and even on rich uplands it frequently produces well. The most successful growers plant the trees from 40 to 50 feet apart. If the trees are grown from seed, it would be an advantage to put them nearer together and then remove the unprofitable ones. In transplanting the pecan it is desirable to save as much of the tap root as is possible, but it may be shortened somewhat with- out seriously interfering with its growth. The root is often very long and it will be found a great convenience in transplanting to have it somewhat shortened. Very often a one-year-old tree will have a root far longer than the stem. The soil should have the best of cultivation, as the trees are gross feeders and should be kept growing rapidly, especially when young and not fully es- tablished. Harvesting and marketing. — It is common to harvest the nuts after they have fallen to the ground. When they are raked together the leaves are shaken out and the nuts dried off before being stored. The highly polished surface of nuts which are seen in our markets is attained by polishing them in revolving barrels where they are polished by rubbing against one another. The great demand today is for larger, thinner-shelled nuts, and there seems to be an almost unlimited market for them. Those who have pecan trees in good locations find them very profitable. Comparatively few of the best nuts are sold at present, as they are in demand by nurserymen for planting. Insects. — There are a number of insects that injure the pecan trees. Perhaps the most serious of these is known as the shuck worm, which penetrates the hull and causes the young fruit to drop prematurely. The remedy is to gather and burn the infested nuts. A web worm is occasionally injurious to the foliage, but this may be destroyed in the same manner as rec- ommended for the common web worm. The twig girdler sometimes girdles the twigs of the pecan, 296 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. causing them to he blown off. The worm will be found in the part that falls. If these twigs are raked together promptly and burned soon after falling, this enemy is easily held in check. Grafting the pecan. — The most successful method of grafting the pecan seems to be crown grafting of the seedlings, when they are only an inch or less in diameter, early in the spring with terminal bud cions and without wax. The stalks should be cut off smoothly, close to the surface of the ground, and a side cleft graft or whip graft used. When this is done, the earth should be drawn up to the top bud of the cion to prevent it drying out. In order to grow seedlings, the nuts are generally planted in autumn in well drained soil, which is sufficiently loose so that it does not bake badly; or, where mice and squir- rels are abundant, a much better plan is to stratify them in the same manner as recommended for peach pits and plant out in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, putting them about eight inches apart in rows four feet apart and covering three inches deep. Rich, deep garden soil should be used for the seedlings. The Chestnut. The chestnut is one of the most popular of our native nuts and is widely sought after. In some sections in Europe, where the nuts are especially abundant, they are ground into flour and used for bread making. The American chestnut (Castanea americana) forms a large tree as far north as southern Vermont, and west into Indiana. North and west of this range, it is very uncertain. It has, how- ever, been fruited in southeastern Minnesota and occasionally it is grown successfully in Illinois and Iowa. The wood of this tree is very durable in contact with the soil and of rapid growth, hence is in demand for railroad ties and telephone poles. It is one of the most promising trees for use in new timber plantings within its range. There are few varieties. Its nuts are the best in quality of all known species. The other species of chest- nut graft readily upon it. The European chestnut (Castenea sativa) is a native of the cooler portions of central and southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. The foliage of this tree is thicker and more CHINQUAPIN. 297 abruptly pointed than that of the American chestnut. Its burrs are very large and its nuts are larger but not so sweet as the Ameri- can chestnut. The skin enclosing the nut is bitter and tough. This species is variously known as European, Spanish, French, Italian and Sweet Chestnut. Among the best of the European varieties are Numbo and Paragon. The latter is most widely planted and the most successful of all cultivated introduced chestnuts. It is sometimes classed as a hybrid. Both of these nuts originated in the United States and are of good quality. Japan chestnut (Castanea crenata). — This tree is said to reach a height of fifty feet in Japan but the varieties that are grown for fruit are dwarfish in form and slender, with a close head. Its leaves are much smaller than those of the American or European chestnuts and the burrs are small with a thin, pa- pery lining and short spines. The nuts are large and glossy, but inferior to the other chestnuts in quality as a rule, though good when cooked. A few varieties are of good quality when fresh. Among the best of the Japanese chestnuts are Parry and Reliance, both of which are of fair quality. Chinquapin (Castanea pumilaj, (C. alnifoUa). — The Chinqua- pins are dwarf chestnuts, extending, in their native range, from Massachusetts south to Florida and Texas. The fruit of the Chinquapins is edible and used in a local way throughout their range. Propagation. — The different species of the chestnut are usu- ally propagated from seed, which may be sown as soon as gathered in autumn, or stratified and sown in the spring in rich, porous soil. They may be whip-grafted in the nursery when one year old. This should be done by using dormant cions after the buds have swollen and covering with wax in the or- dinary way. Top-working of large trees has not been successful except where it has been practiced on the young sprouts. Great care should be taken to secure a good union, and if possible the cion should unite with the stock on both sides. The flowers of the chestnut open in early summer and the long, conspicuous, light colored, male catkins are quite ornamen- tal. The pistillate flowers are inconspicuous and grow from 298 POPULAR PRUIT GROWING. the axils of the leaves on the new growth. Some growers think it necessary to have the pollen of different trees intermingle in order to get the best results. This idea is borne out by the fact that solitary trees often fail to set fruit. Planting and care. — Ordinary seedlings of the American chestnut commence to bear when from eight to fifteen years old, while those that are grafted will frequently bear inside of five years. On account of this, some growers follow the practice of grafting all of their seedlings. It is probable that seedlings would bear as quickly as grafted trees if they were girdled as recom- mended for the grape. Where natural groves are used for grow- ing nuts, the reproduction will often come from sprouts. If de- sired, these may be grafted and cared for the same as seedlings. In any case, however, the sprouts should be thinned out so that the trees can take on their natural form. Where the ground is overgrown with brush, it will be found a good plan, when the trees are once fairly started, and out of reach of stock, to pas- ture the land with sheep. This will destroy much of the brush and the lower leaves on the chestnut trees, giving them a healthy pruning. It will also have a tendency to prevent the spread of fire, as the sheep mix the fallen leaves with the soil and thus pre- vent the collection of large masses of leaves about the stems of the trees. If the trees are to be planted out, the American spe- cies should be set from 40 to 50 feet apart each way. The for- eign kinds do not grow so large and they may be planted nearer. The nuts are prepared for market by putting them in a suit- able vessel and then pouring scalding hot water over them as soon as gathered. By this means the eggs and larvae of the in- sects in them are destroyed. The nuts should be gathered promptly after falling and the scalding done at once, otherwise the eggs of the weevil in the nuts will have a chance to de- velop and will injure their sale. The nuts should stand in the hot water for about fifteen minutes, after which they should be taken out and carefully dried. There are several insects and diseases that affect the chest- nut. The most harmful is probably the weevil, whose eggs are laid in the nut, but no satisfactory remedy has been found for it. The leaf diseases are subject to control by Bordeaux mixture. ENGLISH WALNUT. 290 English Walnut. The English walnut (Juglans regiaj is cultivated to some ex- tent in the Eastern states south of Connecticut and west into Texas, but in the section east of the Rocky Mountains, it has not attained commercial importance. In southern California, however, it Is grown very successfully within a short distance of the coast where the water table is near the surface of the Boil. Back from the coast, it may also be grown in favorable locations, but the shucks do not separate from the nuts so well and hence the product is not nearly so valuable as the product from sections where the climate is somewhat humid. The flowers of the walnuts are monoecious, the male flow- ers being produced in catkins and the pistillate flowers at the ends of the short branches appearing with the leaves. Propagation.^Most of the trees in the Eastern states are grown from seed; the same is true of a large portion of the or- chards in southern California, although in the last few years there has been a large number of grafted trees planted. When grown from seed, it is customary to select the largest, thinnest shelled nuts from trees that are hardy and productive, and that start late in the spring. These are stratified over winter in the same manner as peach pits. They are generally allowed to sprout in the spring before planting, when they are set about one foot apart in rows four feet apart. For this purpose rich, open, porous soil should be used. They are generally large enough for budding the first season. If they are to be planted in an orchard without budding, it is customary to leave them for two or three years in the nursery. The trees are generally bud- ded by the shield or ring method. Cleft-grafting and whip-graft- ing have also been successfully used. Harvesting and marketing. — In the best localities for the English Walnut, the shucks open on the trees and the nuts fall to the ground, where they are easily gathered once or twice a week, and taken to the drying house. Sometimes it is necessary to jar the trees in order to get the nuts in season. It is not de- sirable to beat the trees with poles, as it frequently destroys many of the fruit buds. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun or by artificial heat. 300 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Japan walnut. — The Japan walnut (Juglans sieioldiana) is now cultivated in an experimental way and is much hardier than the English Walnut which it somewhat resembles, although not so hardy as the Black Walnut or Butternut. This tree gives promise of being productive even as far north as central Minne- sota. The nuts are small and more like the Black Walnut than the English Walnut, and probably of little importance commer- cially. The Black Walnut and Butternut are prized for their timber and shade as well as for their nuts. These are frequently gather- ed and marketed in considerable quantities and there is generally a good demand for them. The shucks should be removed and the nuts dried before they are marketed. Black Walnuts have been planted in considerable quantities in Minnesota and Iowa for fence posts and for their nuts. The Almond. The Almond (Prunus am.ygclalus) resembles the peach in habit of growth, flowering, etc. The nut is really a peach in which the flesh portion is obliterated. It is divided into two classes, the bitter and sweet almond. The sweet class is di- vided into the hard and soft shell types. The hard shell type is scarcely grown, but the soft shell type produces the edible al- monds of commerce. The bitter almond has a hard shell and its chief use is as a stock for the cultivated kinds. It is also grown in the Mediterranean district for the bitter kernel, which is used In the manufacture of flavoring extracts and prussic acid. The Almond is cultivated in a very limited area confined mostly to a few small districts in California, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. The tree is nearly as hardy as the peach, but on account of the flowers opening so very early, they are almost always destroyed by frost, except in a few favored districts. The tree comes into bear- ing from two to four years after budding, and is generally at its best when from six to nine years of age. Five pounds of hulled al- monds per tree is reported as a good average crop in California orchards. The nuts begin to ripen about the middle of August. It is desirable to have varieties mixed in order to secure good pollination. Much disappointment has been occasioned by plant- ing the almond in situations not suited for it, or possibly by the planting of only one variety in a large area. HAZEL. 301 Soil and planting. — The soil for almonds should be light, warm and well drained. The trees, like the peach, will stand much drought but will yield good crops only on rich, productive soil. It Is, however, impatient of too much water in the soil. The trees are generally planted about 24 feet apart each way. It is customary to do considerable pruning to the tree in order to get It in good form while it is young, after which little pruning is done. Propagation. — The almond is grown almost entirely by bud- ding on seedlings of the sweet or bitter almond, though it is sometimes worked upon peach stocks. The seedlings are han- dled in very much the same way as those of the peach and the trees are planted in an orchard when one year old from the bud. The peach and the prune D'Argen are also successfully grown on the almond. Marketing. — Where the summer air is very dry, the hulls open readily and the unstained nuts are in good condition for marketing and require no further care. In some sections, how- ever, the nuts are more or less stained by rains and then recourse is had by bleaching them with sulfur fumes. As the sulfur fumes do not penetrate to the kernel, the nuts are not injured by this treatment. The only advantage is that it gives them a little better appearance. If the hulls do not separate readily from the nuts it is customary to use what is known as an almond huller, by means of which the hulls are pulled off. Nuts that are so badly stained that they cannot be made marketable are generally sold for confectioner's use. The Hazel. The European hazels are known botanically as Corylus arel- lana, C. pontica and G. maxima, and in Europe, are cultivated on an extensive scale and yield the most filberts of commerce. The species ordinarily grown in Europe have shown themselves quite liable to disease in this country and have not been successfully cultivated here. Our two native species have a wide range and are quite variable, some plants bearing fruit of very good size and quality. The American hazels are known botanically as Corylus amer- icana, C. rostrata and C. californica. They are of dwarf form and 302 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. can perhaps be cultivated to advantage on open, loose soils of moderate or poor fertility, in rows eight feet apart, although this has not proven encouraging in the few experiments tried. Some of the foreign species are quite large and grow to the height of 12 or 14 feet. The plants are generally propagated by seed lay- ers and sometimes budding is practiced. The flowers. — The flowers are monoecious and form on the new wood. The male flowers are grouped in the form of small catkins that may be seen on the bushes all winter. In the spring, these elongate and the pollen is distributed by the wind. The female flowers are inconspicuous and form a star-like tuft of crimson stigmas that push out from the rather large buds at the time the male flowers elongate. These flowers open early in the spring. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XV. Nuts. 1. Of what country is the pecan a native? 2. What soil is best for pecan growing? 3. How should they be planted and cultivated? 4. How are pecans harvested and marketed? 5. What insects are injurious to tlie pecan? 6. How are pecans grafted? 7. How are they propagated from seed? 8. What are the characteristics and distribution of the American chestnut? Of the European chestnut? Of the Japanese chestnut? 9. To what extent are they grown? 10. What are the Chinquapins? 11. How are chestnuts propagated? 12. How should chestnuts be planted and cared for? 13. How should chestnuts be cared for before marketing? 14. Wliat insects and diseases injure the chestnut? 15. Over what territory is the English walnut distributed? 16. How are they propagated? 17. How are the walnuts harvested? 18. How are they marketed? 19. What are the characteristics of the Japanese walnut? 20. What are the characteristics of the almond? 21. What soil Is best adapted to it? 22. How should the almond be planted? 23. How Is the almond propagated? 24. How is It harvested and marketed? 25. How is the hazel grown in Europe? 26. How is It propagated? 27. What are the characteristics of the Hazel flower? APPENDIX. SPRAYING CALENDAR. This spraying calendar is taken almost entirely from Bul- letin 89 of the Iowa Experiment Station, by Prof. S. A. Beach and E. E. Little. The changes made from the original are noted. General Treatment For The Apple. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1. When the green tips of the first leaves burst the buds. May be omitted if insects and scab are not abundant. Bordeaux mixture for scab, canker and leaf spot diseases with Paris Green or other arsenical poison for bud moths, case bearers, tent caterpillars, canker worms and other leaf-eating insects. 2. Just before the blos- soms open. Bordeaux mixture for diseases men- tioned under 1. Paris Green or other ar- senical poison for curculio and the in- sects mentioned under 1. The most im- portant single treatment against the scab! 3. Just after the blos- soms fall. Bordeaux mixture for diseases mention- ed under 1. Paris Green or other arseni- cal poison for codlin moth, curculio and leaf eating insects. The most important treatment in fighting codlin moth! 4. Ten to twenty days ■after 3. Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot and other diseases. Paris Green or other arsenical poison for codlin moth curculio and leaf-eating insects. 5. Late July or early Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot, August. fly speck, sooty blotch and other diseases. Paris Green or other poison for second brood of codlin moth. Important! Special treatment early Lime-sulfur wash for oyster shell spring before buds break, scale and other scale Insects. 304 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. General When to Spray. 1. Just before the blos- soms open. 2. Just after the blos- soms fall. 3. Ten to fifteen days later than 2. 4. Just after fruit Is picked. 5. From 2 to 3 weeks after 4. 6. When cherry slugs are first seen on leaves. Treatment For Cherries. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. Ammoniacal copper carbonate for fruit rot and leaf spot. Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 4. Dust or spray with Paris Green or other poison. General Treatment For Plums When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1. About ten days be- fore growth starts. 2. Just before the blos- soms open. 3. Just after the blos- soms fall. 4. About 15 days after the blossoms fall. 5. Soon after the mid- dle of June. Copper sulfate solution (2 lbs. to 50 gallons of water) for Plum Pocket. (S. B. G.) Arsenate of lead for curculio. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot on blossoms. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf-spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. (Dilute the Bordeaux about one-half for Japanese varieties.) Repeat 2. Repeat 2. 6. Late July or early Ammoniacal copper carbonate soap or eau celeste soap for fruit rot and leaf spot. Arsenate of lead for web worms and other leaf-eating insects. August. 7. On first appearance of insects. General Treatment For Peaches. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1. Before the buds swell; surely before April first. Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur wash (or copper sulphate solution, S. B. G.) for leaf curl and fruit rot. APPENDIX. 305 General Treatment For Pears. When to Spray. Same as for the apple. When twig blight first appears, and during the dormant season wlien the leaves are off. What to Spray With and What For. Treat same as for apple scab, leaf spot and insects. Cut affected branches back to sound wood and burn them. Keep tools disin- fected by wiping with cloth saturated with kerosene or other disinfectant after each branch is cut. Before buds open in spring spray with lime-sulfur wash. General When to Spray. 1. Just before growth starts. 2. When the leaves are one-third grown. 3. Just before the blos- soms open. 4. Just after the fruit sets. 5. 10 to 20 days after 4. 6. 10 to 20 days after Treatment For Grapes. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture or sulfate of cop- per solution (1 pound to 25 gallons of wa- ter) for grape rot. (S. B G.) Bordeaux mixture for mildews and blacli rot. IMPORTANT! Repeat 2. Repeat 2. IMPORTANT! Repeat 2. Repeat 2. General Treatment For Currant and Gooseberry. When to Spray. 1. When worms first appear. 2. When fruit is about half grown. 3. After fruit Is pick- ed. 4. About 2 weeks aft- ar 3. What to Spray With and What For. Paris Green or other arsenical poison for the "worms." Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 1. Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 3. General Treatment For Strawberry. When to Spray. When growth begins and later as often as necessary. After picking the fruit. At first appearance of the leaf roller. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture for "rust" or leaf spot. Cut and burn foliage on windy day. Arsenical poison every week if neces- sary, but not after fruit Is half g-rown. 306 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. General Treatment For Raspberry, Blackberry and Dewberry. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. When orange rust ap- Dig plants at once and burn, pears. Note. — This dis- ease Is easily recognized by the bright orange col- or on the under side of the leaf. The whole cane looks sickly. When anthracnose and After leaves drop In fall or In early other cane diseases are spring, cut and burn over the whole af- doing serious damage. fected patch. General Treatment For Potato. When to Spray. Begin when plants are about 8 inches high or when beetles first appear and spray at intervals of from 10 to 15 days till growth stops. Spray more frequently In hot, damp weather and less often in dry weather. Soak seed potatoes two hours. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture combined with Parla Green or other poison for early blight and late blight and rot, also for flea beetles, blister beetles, and Colorado po- tato beetles. Make strong Bordeaux mix- ture, using at least one pound of cop- per sulfate to make 3 gallons of the mixture. To prevent potato scab, use commercial formalin (40 per cent solution) 1 pint to 30 gallons of water. This is enough for twenty bushels of seed. General Treatment For Cucumbers, Squashes and Melons. When to Spray. When young plants come through the ground; repeat trequently. About 1 month after planting. Repeat at In- tervals of 10 day What to Spray With and What For. Tobacco dust for striped beetle. Spray with Bordeaux mixture for blight, flea beetles and striped beetles. General Treatment For Cabbage and Cauliflower. When to Spray. When "worms" appear. Repeat when necessary. Lice or aphis. What to Spray With and What For. Paris Green or other arsenical poison In dust, or in resin-lime mixture. Do not apply poison after heading begins. Bury the affected plants. APPENDIX. 307 General Treatment For All Kinds of Plants. What to Spray For. What to Spray With and When. All leaf-eating Insects, Paris Green or other arsenical poisons such as slugs, caterpillars, when insects first appear, beetles, etc. Sucking insects, such as Tobacco dust or tobacco Infusion with plant lice and true bugs. whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion. Small plants or ends of twigs are best treated by dipping. Scale insects, such as Spray with the lime-sulfur wash in oyster shell scale, scurfy spring before the buds open, bark louse and San Josa scale. FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES. Sprays are preventive and not curative and therefore must be ap- plied before the injury becomes apparent. After a fungus has gained entrance to the fruit or foliage it cannot be reached, but the infection may be prevented by coating the parts with a fungicide such as Bor- deaux Mixture, which prevents the germination of the spores of the fungus. Fungicides. Bordeaux IVIIxture: Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) 5 pounds. Quicklime (not slaked), not less than 2y2 pounds or more than 5 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulfate and dilute to from 25 to 35 gallons. Slake the lime and add enough water to it to complete the required 50 gallons; then pour the two solutions together. Lastly, add any arseni- cal poisons wliich are to be combined with the Bordeaux mixture. This IS a general fungicide for all fruit plants. Testing Bordeaux iVIixture. To determine if the Bordeaux mixture IS safe to use on tender foliage, one of three simple tests may be u=ed- (a) Insert the tip of a knife for at least one minute, when if me- tallic copper forms on it, i. e., the tip is the color of copper, more hme should be added. If on the other hand the steel remains un- changed it is safe to conclude the mixture is all right. _ (b) Pour some of the mixture into a shallow dish; then blow into It for at least one-half minute, when, if properly made, a thin scum- like oil will form on the surface. _ (c) Pour a few drops of a solution of ferrocvanide of potassium into the Bordeaux mixture. If there is not enough lime present a dark reddish-brown substance will form. Ferrocvanide of potassiurn is known as yellow prussiate of potash. It is a very deadly poison. To prepare it for use add about ten times its bulk of water. Bordeaux mixture should always be well stirred before it is tested. Bordeaux Dent's. Don't use Iron or tin vessels for mixing; don't use air-slaked lime; don't pour in the coarser particles of lime; don't make more than can be used in one day— it should be mixed fresh every day. Eau Celeste and Soap: Copper sulfate, 1 pound. Ammonia, strong (26° Baume), 3 pints. Soap, 1 pound. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water. In a separate vessel, not Iron or tin, dissolve the copper sulfate In 40 gallons of water 308 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and add the ammonia; stir well and add the soap. This Is a good fungicide to use in place of Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is full grown. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate and Soap: Copper carbonate, 6 ounces. Ammonia, strong, 3 pints. Soap, 1 pound. Water, 50 gallons. Dilute the ammonia with water and use as much of It as Is necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate; add water to make 40 gallons. Dissolve the soap In 10 gallons of water and pour into the copper carbonate solution. The dissolved copper carbonate loses strength when left exposed to tlie air, but it may be kept all right In stopped bottles or jugs. This is used when the fruit is nearly ripe because it shows less than the Bordeaux mixture. Potassium Sulfide or Liver of Sulfur: Potassium sulfide, 3 ounces. Water, 6 gallons. Dissolve the potassium sulfide in the water. Apply at once. This mixture deteriorates rapidly and should not be prepared un- til ready for application. This is an effective spray for mildew on gooseberries. Lime-Sulfur Wash: Lime, 15 pounds. Sulfur, 15 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Place the lime in a kettle and slake it with hot water so that It forms an even white paste, then add water until it makes a thin whitewash. Blend the sulfur with water into a thin paste and add to the whitewash and mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, stirring frequent- ly to keep fiom calling on the sides of the vessel, and adding water from time to time to replace that which has boiled away. Dilute to 50 gallons and bring to the boiling point again. Strain it boiling hot into the spray tank through wire screen and apply as hot as possible. It should be boiled until it is a brick red color and until the sediment, when it has settled, is brownish or yellowish green. Salt is recom- mended to be added to the sulfur pound for pound, but it may be omitted with no material disadvantage. Use good fresh stone lime which slakes free from grit and dirt. Either flowers of sulfur or light or heavy flour of sulfur may be used. The flowers of sulfur goes into solution most readily. In orchard practice this wash is mostly used against insects which are found on the trees when they are dormant. It has proved very effective against the San Jose Scale, oyster shell scale, the scurfy scale, the case bearers and other insects which pass the winter on the trees. It was formerly customary to add salt to this wash in order to make the wash more adhesive, but later experience seems to show that is not effective. Copper Sulfate Solution: Copper sulfate at the rate of one pound to twenty-five gallons of water is used for the prevention of grape rot, plum pocket and peach leaf curl. Some experiments seem to show that good results will fol- low from an application of this kind on apples, cherries, and some other trees and plants. This solution should only be applied to dor- mant plants, and it is probably best to apply it early in the spring, at least two weeks before there is any sign of vegetation. If applied after the plants have started, injury will result. Its object is to de- stroy the spores of injurious diseases that may be on the plants. APPENDIX. 309 Insecticides. Paris Green: Dry Paris Green — Flour, 20 pounds. Paris Green, 1 pound. Mix the two and dust tlie plants when they are moist from dew or rain. Wet Paris Green — Paris Green, 1 pound. Bordeaux mixture or water, 30-300 gallons. For apples or pears use 1 pound to 150 gallons of Bordeaux mix- ture or water. If water is used add 2 pounds of fresh slaked lime to prevent injury to the foliage. For cherries or plums use 1 pound Paris Green to 300 gallons oi Bordeaux mixture or water. ^ „ , For potatoes use 1 pound Paris Green to 75 gallons of Bordeaux mixture or water. , „ . ^ ^ on i For cabbages and cauliflowers use 1 pound Pans Green to 80 gal- lons resin lime mixture after the plants begin to head. Arsenlte of Soda: White Arsenic, 1 pound. Sal Soda, 4 pounds. Water, 1 gallon. Mix and boil about 15 minutes or until the arsenic Is all dissolved. Add just enough water to make up for that lost in boiling, then put in jugs or bottles until needed. Two quarts of this solution may be used in the place of 1 pound of Paris Green by adding about 4 pounds of fresh slaked lime or by combining with Bordeaux mixture in which there is an excess of lime. This spray forms a cheap substitute for Paris Green, but is liable to burn the foliage of tender plants. Arsenate of Lead: Lead acetate (sugar of lead), 22 ounces. Sodium arsenate, 8 ounces. Water or Bordeaux mixture, 100 gallons Dissolve each separately; then mix the two together and pour this mixture into the required amount of water, or if it is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture, pour it into the lime wash before that is mixed with the copper sulfate solution. The sodium arsenate dissolves In water quite readily. Dissolve It In about a gallon of water. Into It pour the dissolved lead acetate to the required amount and let it settle. Then take a small quantity of the liquid in a cup to test it. This Is done by adding to it a little more of the lead acetate solution. If a white substance then forms, It signifies that not enough of the lead has been used to combine with all of the arsenic, and therefore more lead acetate should be added to the mixture. Then pour this mixture into the lime wash if it Is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture. While arsenate of lead may be made at home by the abov» form- ula, yet it is commonly purchased in a paste form in sealed packages. The home made article is more finely divided and stays in suspension longer than the commercial form; yet the difficulty of getting re- liable materials with which to make it oft-times prevents Its bemg a success Arsenate of lead has the merit of adhering well to and being harmless to the foliage. As a rule, about three pounds of arsenate of lead are required for fifty gallons of water, while of Paris Green, Its most popular competitor, about one-third to one-half pound would be required. This would make the arsenate of lead cost for spraying purposes from two to two and one-half times as much as Paris Green. On the other hand, the arsenate of lead adheres so tenaciously to the foliage that less applications of it are usually necessary. This Is es- pecially true in rainy weather. This feature of it, together with lt» 310 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. harmlessness to the foliage, makes it a very desirable insecticide. It Is especially effective against the codlin moth and the curculio. Soap: Whale Oil Soap, 1 pound. Water, 6 gallons. Whale oil soap or other cheap soap is used for plant lice and other soft bodied insects. When the leaves are off the trees it may be used as strong as 2 pounds to the gallon of water. It is sometimes used in treating scale Insects. Hellebore: Hellebore, 1 pound. Water, 25 gallons. Hellebore may be mixed with three or four parts of flour and dusted on the insects, or it may be mixed with water and used as a spray. It is especially useful in combating worms on currants and gooseberries while the fruit is ripening, because it may be used with- out serious danger of poisoning the fruit. Pyrethrum: Pyrethrum powder, 1 ounce. Water, 3 gallons. For dry applications, mix thoroughly one part by weight of In- sect powder with four of cheap flour and keep in a closed vessel for twenty-four hours before dusting over the plants. Pyrethrum, If fresh and pure, can be made to do very effectual work. It should be kept in tightly sealed cans. If the best pyrethrum cannot be obtained It would be better to use some other insecticide. Resin Lime Mixture: Pulverized resin, 5 pounds. Concentrated lye, 1 pound. Fish oil or any cheap oil except tallow, 1 pint. Water, 5 gallons. Place oil, resin and a gallon of water in a kettle and heat until resin is softened; add lye solution made as for hard soap. Stir thor- oughly, add remainder of water and boil for about two hours until the mixture will unite with cold water making a clear amber colored fluid. Replace the water which has boiled away by adding boiling water to make the 5 gallons. This gives a stock solution which may be kept until needed. In using it, add to the 5 gallons, 80 gal- lons of water, 15 gallons of thin whitewash, and 1 pound of Paris Green or its equivalent. Resin Lime mixture is used in spraying smooth leaved plants, like cabbage and cauliflower, to which other mixtures do not stick well. Kerosene Emulsion: Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons. Rain water, 1 gallon. Soap, % pound. Dissolve the soap in water by boiling. Take from the fire and while hot, turn in kerosene and churn briskly for five minutes. It can be easily churned by pumping. Dilute before using with 6 to 9 parts of water. For scale insects and all sucking insects. Lime: Dry slaked lime is often used In combating Insects having soft, sticky bodies, such as those of the rose slug, cherry slug and asparagus beetle. Tobacco Dust: Tobacco dust may be obtained from large manufacturers at a comparatively small cost. In addition to its value as an insecticide, it has the advantage of acting as a fertilizer. It is useful in fight- ing striped beetles which infest cucumbers, squashes and melons. APPENDIX. 311 and in keeping plant lice and other insects from the garden plants. It is also used against root lice, particularly the woolly aphis. For this purpose, it should be worked into the ground in liberal quantities. Tobacco and Soap: Tobacco (waste stems), 1 pound. Boiling water, 4 gallons. Add the hot water to the tobacco and let it stand until cold. Strain and add 1 pound of whale oil soap or 2 pounds of soft soap to each 50 gallons of infusion. Used for plant lice. WAXES FOR GRAFTING AND FOR WOUNDS. The following recipes for waxes are taken from the Horticultur- ist's Rule Book: 1. Common Resin and Beeswax Waxes: a. Reliable wax. — Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. Melt together and pour into a pail of cold water. Then grease the hands and pull the wax until it Is nearly white. One of the best waxes, either for indoor or out- door work. b. Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 1 pound; tallow, 1 pound. c. Resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; linseed oil, 1 pint. d. 6 pounds resin, 1 pound beeswax and 1 pint linseed oil; apply hot with a brush, one-eighth of an inch thick over all the joints 2. Alcohoh'c Waxes: Lefort's Liquid Grafting-Wax, or Alcoholic Plastic— Best white resin, 1 pound; beef tallow, 1 ounce; remove from the fire and add 8 ounces of alcohol. Keep in closed bottles or cans. 3. Waxed String and other Bandages: Waxed String for Root-Grafting. — Into a kettle of melted wax place balls of No. 18 knitting-cotton. Turn the balls frequently, and in five minutes they will be thoroughly saturated, when they are dried and put away for future use. This material is strong enough, and at the same time breaks so easily as not to injure the hands. Any of the resin and beeswaxes may be used. When the string is used it should be warm enough to stick without tying. Waxed Cloth. — Old calico or thin muslin is rolled on a stick and placed in melted wax. WTien saturated it is allowed to cool by being unrolled on a bench. It is then cut in strips to suit. Waxed Paper is used to a large extent in some nurseries for covering root grafts. It is made by painting tough paper with hot wax, which is then hung up to dry. LISTS OF FRUITS ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO CERTAIN TYPICAL STATES. The list of fruits given for different states must be looked upon as only directive. The states given are selected because they represent certain typical areas adapted to fruit growing. Lists of this kind, however, are often misleading to the beginner, and the inexperienced should be cautious how they follow such lists for the reason that soil and climate may change in some sec- tions of the country within very short distances; for instance, 312 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. parts of California are well adapted for orange raising, and with- in a short distance, on a considerably higher elevation, the country may be well adapted to the growing of apples. Those who are intending to begin planting in any section should aim to get in touch with the Experiment Stations and obtain from them a list of fruits especially adapted to their location. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting In Alabama. By R. S. Mackintosh, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Agri- cultural College, Auburn, Ala. North half of state. Apples — Red June, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Family, Wine- sap, Yellow Transparent, Horse, Yates, Terry. Apples, Crab — Not planted to any considerable extent. Apricots — Not planted. Blackberries — Dallas. Early Harvest. Cherries — Not planted. Currants — Not planted. Gooseberries — Not planted. Grapes — Bunch: Delaware, Niagara, Concord. Muscatine type: Eden, Memory and Scuppernong. Peaches — Greensboro, Carman, Hiley, Family Favorite, Belle, El- berta, Solway, White Heath. Pecans — Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst. Pears — Kieffer. Plums — Red June, Burbank, Abundance. Raspberries— Northern part of state: Gault, Springfield, Cuthbert. Cardinal. Strawberries — Lady Thompson, Klondike, Hoffman, Gandy, Dunlap. Figs — Celestial, Brown Turkey. Oranges — Coast region only: Satsuma. Japanese Persimmons — Hachiya, Okame, Hyakume, Tane-Nashl. Pomegranates — Sweet, Acid. Varieties Recommended for Planting in California. By E. J. Wickson, Dean of College of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. There is practically no differentiation as yet between varie- ties for amateurs and commercial varieties. The leading varieties used commercially are selected by amateurs so far as their char- acters agree with individual desires. The following list of varieties is especially recommended for the coast region of California: Apples — Newton, Pippin, Belle Fleur, Gravenstein, R. I. Greening, E. Spitzenberg, Mo. Pippin, W. Astracan, Red June. Grapes — Muscat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson, Emperor, Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Sweet Water, Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, Alicante, Sultina. Peaches — Muir, Phillips, Solway, Lovell, Early Crawford, Tuskena, Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna, Nich- ols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary's Choice, Hale, Alexander, Heath. Pears — Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, Du Comice, Doyenne D'Ete, Clapp's Favorite, Glout Morceau, Barry, Comet. Plums — Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Tragedy, Wash- ington, Satsuma, Burbank, Jefferson, Climax, Grand Duke, Clyman. APPENDIX. 313 Blackberries — Crandalls, Mammoth, Lawton, Kittatinny. Currants — Cherry. Gooseberries — Berkeley, Houghton. Quince — Apple, Orange, Paragon. Raspberries — Logan berry. Phenomenal (Hybrids) Black — None grown. Red— Cuthbert. Strawberries — Dallas, Arizona, Melinda, Thompson, Brandywlne, Gandy. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Colorado. By W. Paddock, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, Fort Collins. Colorado. For Arkansas Valley. Apples— Jonathan, Gano, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes, Colo. Orange, Wealthy, Duchess and Haas for early. Apples, Crab — "Whitney. Blackberries — Earlj' Harvest, Lawton, Snyder. Cherries — Montmorency, Morello, Richmond. Currants — Cherry, Fay, Red Cross. Gooseberries — Smith, Downing, Houghton. Grapes — Concord, Niagara, Moore's Early. Peaches — Only grown by laying down in winter; Crawford, Elberta. Pears — Not much grown. Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel. Plums — Wyant, Cheney, Pfeffer, Premium, Moore's Arctic in the north. Lombard, Bradshaw, Italian Prune in Arkansas Valley. Quince — Not grown. Raspberries — Black — Kansas. Red — Marlboro, Strawberries — Capt. Jack, Jocunda, Bederwood. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Iowa By S. A. Beach, Professor of Horticulture, Iowa Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Ames, Iowa. Apples — In selecting stocks upon which to top-work less hardy va- rieties, much yet needs to be learned. In the light of our present knowledge of this subject. Hibernal and its kin appear to be suit- able for the most northern parts of the state, while in southern Iowa, Plumb Cider and Haas appear to be especially desirable for this purpose. Northern Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Patten Greening, Wealthy, Ani- sim, Longfleld, Hutchin's Red. Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Delicious, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Central Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Anisim, Longfleld, Fall Orange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Roman Stem, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Southern Iowa — Yellow Transparent. Lowland (Lowland Raspberry"), Red June, Oldenburg, (Duchess), Dyer, Wealthy, Benoni, Fall Or- ange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Roman Stem, Iowa Blush, Windsor. Allen Choice. Stayman, Ralls Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. 314 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Pears — On account of the prevalence and great destructiveness of pear blight in Iowa, pear culture is precarious in all parts of the state. The varieties named below have shown a good degree of hardiness and resistance to blight in some localities in Iowa: Fluke, Bloodgood, "Warner, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bezi de la Motte, Longworth, Kieffer, Anjou. Peaches — Because of their lack of hardiness peaches are seldom fruited north of central Iowa and only the hardier varieties can be recommended for planting in any portion of the state. The varieties named below are among the best of those which have been fruited successfully in different portions of central and south- ern Iowa: Sneed, Greensboro, Champion, Lone Tree, Russell, Hill Chili, Crosby. Plums — ^Northern Iowa — Forest Garden, Ocheeda, De Soto, Cheney, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brlttlewood (?), Hammer (?), Miner. Central Iowa — Forest Garden, Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer. Miner. Southern Iowa — Forest Garden, Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Michigan. By Prof. L. R. Taft, East Lansing, Mich., Superintendent of Farm- ers' Institute. Apples — Red Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Baldwin, Maiden Blush, Jonathan, Hubbardston, Grimes, Wagener, Red Canada, Golden Russet. Apples, Crab — Transcendent, Hyslop, Martha, Whitney. Blackberries — King, Wilson, Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor. Cherries — Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Gov. Wood, Black Tartarian. Currants — Victoria, Red Dutch, London, White Dutch, Perfection. Gooseberries — Downing, Smith Improved, Keepsake, Industry. Grapes — Moore, Worden, Concord, Delaware, Niagara, Diamond, Brighton. Peaches — Triumph, Dewey, Engle, Elberta, Kalamazoo, or New Pro- lific. Pears — Clapps, Bartlett, Howell, Seckel, Anjou, Kieffer, Lawrence. Plums — Abundance, Burbank, Bradshaw, Lombard, Grand Duke, Mon- arch. Quince — Orange, Rea and Champion. Raspberries — Black — Kansas, Gregg, Cumberland. Red — Miller, Marlboro, Eaton, Cuthbert. Strawberries — Excelsior, Haverland, Clyde, Sample, Dunlap, Aroma, Pride of Michigan, Dornan, Brandywine. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting in Minnesota. By Minnesota State Horticultural Society. Apples — First degree of hardiness — Duchess, Hibernal, Charlamoff, Patten's Greening, Okabena. Second degree of hardiness — Wealthy, Tetofsky, Malinda, Peerless, Anisim. Most profitable for commer- cial planting in Minnesota — Wealthy, Duchess, Patten's Greening, Okabena, Anisim. Varieties for trial — Salome, Eastman, Yellow Sweet, Brett, Milwaukee, TTni\ersity, Lowland Raspberry, Iowa Beauty, Jewell's Winter, Gilbert. Valuable in some locations — • Wolf River, McMahon, Yellow Transparent, Longfleld, Northwest- ern Greening. Crabs and Hybrids — For general cultivation — Florence, Whitney, Ear- ly Strawberry, Minnesota, Sweet Russet, Virginia, Transcendent. Varieties for trial — Lyman's Prolific, Faribault, Shields. APPENDIX. 315 Plums— For general cultivation— DeSoto, Surprise, Forest Garden. Wolf (Freestone), Wvant, Stoddard. Most promising for trial — New Ulm, Brittlewood, Compass Cherry, Terry. Grapes— First degree of hiardiness— Beta, Janesville. Second degree of hardiness— Moore's Early, Brighton, Delaware, "Worden, Aga- wam, Concord, Moore's Diamond. Raspberries — Red Varieties— King, Turner, Marlboro, Miller, Brandy- wine, Loudon. Black and purple varieties — Palmer, Nemaha, Gregg, Older, Columbian, Kansas. Blackberries — Ancient Britain and Snyder. Currants — Red Dutch, White Grape, Victoria, Long Bunch, Holland, North Star, Pomona, Red Cross, Perfection, London Market. Gooseberries — Houghton, Downing, Champion, Pearl. Strawberries — Perfect varieties — Bederwood, Enhance, Lovett, Splendid, Glen Mary, Clyde, Senator Dunlap. Imperfect varieties— Crescent, Warfield, Haverland. Native Fruits — Valuable for trial — Dwarf Juneberry, Sand Cherry, Buffaloberry, High Bush Cranberry. Varieties recommended for Planting in Missouri. By J. C. Wliitten, Professor of Horticulture, Columbia, Mo. Apples — Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Grimes, York, Winesap, Ingram, Rome Beauty, Maiden's Blush, Wealthy, Early Harvest. Apples, Crab — Florence, Wliitney, Hyslop. Apricots— Alexander and Budd (Even these do not thrive, and I know of none that are well adapted). Blackberries— Snyder, Taylor, Lawton, Early Harvest. Cherries — Early Richmond, English Morello, Montmorency. Currants— Red Dutch, White Dutch, Red Cherry. Gooseberries — Downing, Smith, Houghton. Grapes — Moore's Early, Worden, Concord, Woodruff Red, Wyoming Red. For wine— Cynthiana, Elvira. Peaches — Champion, Carman, Family Favorite, Elberta, Crosby, Salway. Pears- Kieffer, Garber, Dwarf Duchess, Anjou, Keull. Plums — Wild Goose, Wayland, Gold, Dawson, Chabot, Burbank. Quince — Missouri Mammoth, Orange. Raspberries — • Black — Evans, Kansas, Hopkins, Gregg. Red — Turner, Cardinal, Loudon. Strawberries — Aroma, Excelsior, Warfield, Bubach, Haverland, Gandy. Varieties Recommended for New York. By S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., leading nurseryman and fruit grower. Apples — Garden Royal, Gravenstein, Oldenburg, Mcintosh, Esopus, Spitzenburg, Northern Spy, Boiken. Apricots — Acme, Montgamet. Blackberries— Early Bagnard, Eldorado. Cherries — Sour: Richmond, Morello, Montmorency. Sweet: Rockport, Windsor, Schmidt. Currants — White Imperial, Wilder. Gooseberries — Downing, Columbus. Pears — Bartlett, Anjou, Lawrence, Washington. Plums — Reine Claude, Burbank, German Prune. The varieties espe- cially valuable for home use are very few. Raspberries — Black — Diamond. Gregg, Cumberland. Red— Cuthbert, Loudon, Golden Queen. 316 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. List of Fruits for Northern New England. By W. M. Munson, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, Orono, Me. Apples — Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Baldwin, Spy, Hubbardston, Stark, Tolman, Fameuse. For home use, add— Astrachan, Williams, Mother, Paradise, Winter Sweet, Mackintosh. For extreme northern parts of Maine and Vermont, except Grand Isle County, hardier sorts are required; for example — Wealthy, Dudley, Oldenburg, Alexander, Rolfe, Arctic and some local varieties, like Stowe and Hayford. Apples, Crab — Hyslop, Martha, Transcendent. Blackberries — Agawam and Snyder. Cherries — Richmond. Windsor, English Morello. Currants — Fay, Wilder, White Imperial. Grape — Moore's Early, Campbell's Early, Green Mountain, Worden, and possibly. King. Gooseberries — Downing. Peaches — Not commercially grown. Pears — Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett, Bosc, Clapp, Diel, Lawrence, Sheldon, Vermont Beauty. Plum— Bavay, Burbank, Bradshaw, Grand Duke, Imperial, Gage, IMoore's Arctic. Quince — Not commercially grown. Raspberries — Black — Cumberland, Gregg. Red — Cuthbert, Loudon. Purple— Shaffer. Strawberries— Dornan, Dunlap, Glen Mary, Warfield. List of Fruits Recommended for New Jersey. By M. A. Blake, Horticulturist, Experiment Station, New Bruns- wick, N. J. Apples — I would suggest Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Red Astrachan, William's, Starr, Summer Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden's Blush, Fall Pippin, Jonathan, Stayman's Winesap, Winesap, York Imperial and Rome Beauty. These varieties are recommended for south Jersey. North Jersey has practically the same conditions for fruit growing as New York State, and such varieties as Northern Spy, R. I. Greening, Baldwin and INIackintosh can be included in the list. All varieties that are adapted to New York state can be grown in northern Jersey. Such varieties as Baldwin and R. I. Greening are practically fall apples in southern Jersey. Crab Apples — Hyslop and Transcendent. Apricots — Harris Hardy and Moorpark. Blackberries — Ward. Cherries — Sweet — Governor Wood, Yellow Spanish, Black Tartarian, Windsor. Sour — Early Richmond and May Duke. Currants — Wilder, Fay and Cherry. Gooseberries — Downing, Columbus and Red Jacket. Grapes — Commercial varieties for south Jersey — Concord and Ives. Some grapes are sold from south Jersey for eating purposes, but the larger quantity is now made into grape juice. The two va- rieties named are the ones almost exclusively grown. Green Moun- tain, Niagara, Brighton, Worden, Moore's Diamond, Delaware and others can be grown for dessert and home use, however. Peaches — Greensboro, Hiley, Carman, Waddell, Mountain Rose, Ear- ly Crawford, Niagara, Reeve's Favorite, Elberta, Late Crawford, Belle of Georgia, Old Mixon, Steven's Rareripe, Salway. APPENDIX. 317 Pears — Kleffer and La Conte for market. Bartlett, Clairgeau and such varieties can be recommended for the home orchard, but are Hkely to be severely attacked by bhght. Clapp's Favorite is es- pecially susceptible. Plums (European) — Lombard and Fellenburg. (Japanese) — Red June. Quinces — Champion and Orange. Raspberries — Black — Cumberland and Kansas. Red — Herbert and Cuthbert. Hybrids — Columbian and Haymaker. Strawberries — Gandy, Tennessee Prolific, Nettie, Glen Mary, William Belt, Success. The conditions for fruit growing in northern Jersey are about the same as those of New York and New England. Some of the soils there are well adapted to apples. Some of the high quality varieties of pears could be recommended for this section in addition to those given. Pear blight is very severe in south Jersey, however, and Kieffer and La Conte are becoming the varieties most grown. Southern New Jersey has much the same conditions for fruit grow- ing as Delaware and parts of Maryland. Varieties Recommended for Planting in North Carolina. By W. N. Hutt, Horticulturist, Agricultural College, West Raleigh, N. C. Apples — In Mountains — Red June, York, S^ayman, Winesap, Grimes and Bonum. In Cotton Belt — Horses, Winesap, Stayman, Shock- ley, Ben Davis. Apricots — None grown. Blackberries — Dewberries in sandy region only Lucretia. Cherries — Little grown. Sour type grown in mountains. Currants — In Mountains, Red Dutch and Fay. Gooseberries — Downing and Houghton. Grapes — Niagara, Concord and Delaware. Scuppernong and James on coast. Peaches — Greensboro, Carman, Salway. Pears — Kieffer, La Conte, Seckel, Early Harvest. Plums — Abundance, Red June, Burbank, Wild Goose. Quince — In mountains, Meech. Raspberries — Black — In mountains — Gregg. Red — In mountains — Loudon, Cuthbert and Miller. Strawberries — Lady Thompson, Heflin, Gandy, Bubach, Clenoa. Figs — In coast and lower Piedmont — Brown Turkey. Celestial. Pecans — In coast and lower Piedmont — Stewart, Van Deman, Frot- schen, Schley. Mulberries — White English, Black English, New American. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Ohio. By W. J. Green, Professor of Horticulture of Experiment Station, Wooster, O. Apples — Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Sweet Bough, Maiden's Blush, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Hubbardston, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, Northern Spy. Apples, Crab — Transcendent. Blackberries — Early Harvest, E. King, Eldorado, Snyder. Cherries — Dydhouse, Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello. Currants — Victoria, Wilder, White Dutch. Gooseberries — Downing, Pearl, Portage, Josselyn. Grapes — Worden, Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton. Peaches — Mountain Rose, Greensboro, Champion, Elberta, Smock. Pears — Wilder, Bartlett, Angouleme, ■ Seckel. 318 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Plums — Bradshaw, Field, Reine Claude, Lombard, Grand Duke. Quince — Orange. Raspberries — Black — Cumberland, Hunger, Conrath. Red — Cuthbert, King, Loudon. Strawberries — Fairfield, Dunlap, Haverland, Bubach, Latest. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Oregon. By C. J. Lewis, Professor of General Horticulture, Agricultural Col- lege, Corvallis, Ore. Apples — E. Spitzenburg, Yellow Newtown, Jonathan, Baldwin, Ben Davis, Gano, Yellow Imperial, Gravenstein. Apples, Crab — Martha, Transcendent. Apricots — Blenheim, Moore Park, Royal. Blackberries — Lawton, Kittatlnny. Cherries — Royal Anne, Lambert, Bing, Black Republican. Currants — Fay, Cherry, White Grape. Gooseberries — Champion, Downing, Industry. Grapes — Concord, Niagara, Tokay, Malaga, Muscat. Peaches — Alexander, Crawfords, Foster, Muir, Salway, Hale's Early, L. Cliny. Pears — Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc, Howell, W. Nells. Cornice, E. Beurre. Plums — Italian, Petite. Quince — Champion, Apple or Orange, Rea's Mammoth. Rasnberries — Black — Gregg, Cumberland, Kansas, Mammoth Cluster. Red — Cuthbert, Marlboro, Loudon. Strawberries— Clark's Seedling, Niagara, Warfleld, Clyde, Hopkins, Oregon Everbearing, Excelsior, Dunlap. List of Fruits Recommended for the State of Washington and Adjoin- ing Fruit Districts; Revised and Corrected by Professor W. S. Thornber, Pullman, Wash. Varieties recommended for western Montana, Idaho, eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Nevada, eastern California and adja- cent parts of British Columbia: Apples — Early — Bough (sweet), Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Jefferis, Oldenburg, Yellow Transparent, Maiden Blush, Gravenstein. Midseason — Fall Pippin, Fameuse, Mcintosh Red, Rambo, Wealthy, Tompkins King, Bailey. Late — Grimes Golden, Arkansas Black, Blue Pearmain, Esopus Spitz- enberg, Jonathan, Monmouth, Northern Spy, Wagener, White "V\''inter Pearmain, Rome Beauty, Staymen Winesap, Yellow Bellflower, Wine- sap. Crab Apples — Hyslop, Transcendent, Grant. Pears — Early — Bartlett, Tyson. Midseason — Beurre d'Anjou, Flemish, Seckel, Howell. Late — Sheldon, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis. Plums — • Early — Columbia, Bradshaw. Midseason^ — Agen or French, Peach Golden Drop, Imperial Gage. Late — Shropshire, Damson, Italian Prune. Peaches — Early — Alexander, Early York, Greensboro, Mountain Rose. Midseason — Early Crawford, Foster, Lemon Cling, Muir, Susque- hanna. Sweet Cherries — Napoleon (Royal Anne), Lambert, Black Republican, Windsor. Sour Cherries — Late Duke, May Duke, Morello, Olivet. APPENDIX, 319 Apricots — Jloorpark, Royal, Gibb. Grapes — Early — IMoore. Brighton, M'^inchell. Midseason — Worden, Delaware, Concord. Late — Niagara. lona, and Alexandria or Muscat and Black Hamburg in warm valleys only. Currants — Cierry. Red Dutch, White Grape. Gooseberries — Industry, Houghton, Pale Red. Strawberries — Early — Dubach, Crescent, Excelsior, Warfleld. Midseason — Hood River, Parker Earle, Sharpless. Late — Gandy. Red Raspberries — Marlboro, Cuthbert, Shaffer. Black Raspberries — Gregg, Kansas, Palmer. Blackberries— Ancient Britton and Kittatinny. Quinces — ]Mech and Missouri. Dewberries — Lucretia. The following varieties are recommended for the Coast region of western Oregon, western Washington, and adjacent parts of British Columbia. Apples — , „ Early— Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Benoni. Midseason^Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Rambo. Late — Baldwin, Belmont, Esopus Spitzenberg, Jonathan, Northern Spv Talman Sweet, Grimes Golden, Yellow Bellflower. Crab Apples— Hyslop and Transcendent, Whitney. Pears — Early— White Doyenne. Clapp, Bartlett, Tyson. Midseason— Beurre D'Anjou, Bosc, Louise, Seckel, Gray Doyenne and Sheldon. ,.„■,-, Late— Easter Beurre, Comice, Winter Nelis, Dana, Hovey and Lawrence. Plums — Early— Columbia. Jefferson. ^ , ^ ,^ -r. „ Midseason— De Soto, French, Golden Drop, Peach Golden Prune, Sugar, Imperial Gage. Late — Shropshire, Damson, Italian. Earh — Alexander. Charlotte, Mountain Rose, Triumph, Hale. Midseason— Early Crawford. Foster, Muir, Oldmixon Free. Late— Late Crawford, Heath. Sweet Cherries— Bing, Republican, Royal Anne, Lewellmg, Lambert, Tartarian. , ,, „ ^,- ^ Sour Cherries — May Duke. Richmond, Morello, Olivet. Apricots — Moorparli, Royal, Gibb. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Saskatchewan. By Angus Mackay, Superintendent Experimental Farm, Indian Head, Saskatchewan. Apples, Crab— Siberian Crab (P. baccata) and crosses on this variety. Cherries — Prunus tomentosa. Currants — . „ , ^ ^ , Red— Fay's Prolific, Victoria, Red Dutch. , White — White Grape, White Imperial. Black — Lee's Prolific, Black Naples. Gooseberries — Smith's Improved, Houghton. Plums— Manitoba Native, Aitken, Weaver. Raspberries — Black — Older Black and Hilborn Black. Red — Dr. Reider, Marboro, Turner, Herbert. Yellow — Caroline. Strawberries— South Dakota No. 1 (Seedling of Jessie fertilized with pollen from Manitoba Wild Strawberry). S20 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS. In the naming and describing of new sorts, tliere is chance for much confusion by duplication of names and in otlrer ways. In order t;) simplily this matter, rules liave been adopted by the American Pomological Society as follows: Rule I. No two ^arieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been ap- plied in violation of this code. (a) The term "kind" as herein used shall be understood to ap- ply to those general classes of fruits that are grouped together in common usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship; as, apple, cherry, grape, peacli, plum, raspberry, etc. (b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer or in- troducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this code, is recognized and emphasized. (c) Where a variety name, through long usage, has become thor- oughly established in American Pomological literature for two or more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified for either sort, except in oases where a well-known synonym can be ad- vanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties bear- ing identical names should be distinguished by adding the name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding some other suit- able distinguishing term that will insure their identity in catalogues or discussions. (d) Existing American names of varieties, which conflict with earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but which have become thoroughly established through long usage, shall not be displaced. Rule II. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single word. (a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to ex- isting varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has been determined to perpetuate it by bud propagation. (b) In selecting names for varieties, the following points should be emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation, and spelling, indication of origin or parentage. (c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the rules that control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from which it was derived. (d) A variety imported from a foreign coimtry should retain its foreign name svib.iect only to such modification as is necessary to conform to this code or to render it intelligible in English. (e) The name of a person should not be applied to a variety dur- ing his life without his expressed consent. The name of a deceased horticulturist should not be so applied except through formal action by some competent horticultural body, preferably that with which he was most closely connected. (f) The use of such general terms as. seedling, _ hybrid, pippin, pearmain, beurre. rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not admissible. (g) The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible, (h) The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, should be considered only as temporary expedient while the variety is undergoing preliminary test. (i) In applying the various provisions of this rule to an exirting varietal name that has, through long usage, become firmly imbedded in American Pomological literature, lio cliange shall be made, which will involve loss of identity. Rule ITI. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name of the author who first puVjlished it shall be given. Publication. Rule IV. Publication consists (1) in the distribution of a printed description of the variety named, giving the distinguishing charac- APPENDIX. 321 ters of fruit, tree, etc., or (2) in the publication of a new name for a variety that is properly described elsewhere; such publication to be made in any book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue- or periodical, providing the issue bears the date of its publication and is generally distributed among nurserymen, fruit growers and horticulturists; or (3) in certain cases, the general recognition of a name for a prop- agated variety in a community for a number of years sliall consti- tute publication of that name. (a) In determining the name of a variety to which two or more names have been given in the same publication, that which stands first shall have precedence. Revision. Rule V. No properly published variety name shall be changed for any reason, except conflict with this code, nor shall another va- riety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. Usual Distances Apart for Planting Fruits. Apples 25 to 40 feet each way Apples, Dwarf 10 to 15 " " " Pears 20 to 30 " Pears, Dwarf 10 to 15 " Plums 16 to 20 " Peaches 16 to 20 " Cherries 16 to 25 " Apricots 16 to 20 Nectarines 16 to 20 " " " Quinces 8 to 14 " " " Mulberries 25 to 30 " " " Japanese Persimmons 20 to 25 " " " Pecans 35 to 40 " Grapes 8 to 12 " " " Currants 4 x 5 " " " Gooseberries 4' x 5 " " " Raspberries, Black 3 x 7 " " " Raspberries, Red 3 x 7 " " " Blackberries 4x7 to 6x8 feet Cranberries 1 or 2 feet apart each way Strawberries 1 to 3x3 to 4 feet Oranges and Lemons 25 to 30 feet each way Number of Plants Required to Set an Acre of Ground at Given Distances. 1 ft. X 1ft 43,560 12 ft. X 20 ft 181 1 ft. X 2 ft 21,780 12 ft. X 24 ft 151 1 ft. X 4 ft 10,890 12 ft. X 30 ft 121 1 ft. X 6 ft 7,260 12 ft. X 36 ft 86 1 ft. X 7 ft 6,223 15 ft. X 15 ft 193 2 ft. X 2 ft 10.890 15 ft. X 20 ft 145 2 ft. X 3 ft 7,260 15 ft. X 24 ft 121 2 ft. X 4 ft 5,445 18 ft. X 20 ft 121 2 ft. X 6 ft 3,630 18 ft. X 24 ft 100 3 ft. X 3ft 4,840 20 ft. X 20 ft 108 3 ft. X 6 ft 2,420 20 ft. X 24 ft 90 4 ft. X 4 ft 2,722 20 ft. X 30 ft 72 4 ft. X 5 ft 2,178 20 ft. X 42 ft 51 4 ft. X 6 ft 1,185 30 ft. X 30 ft 48 4 ft. X 8 ft 1,361 30 ft. X 36 ft 40 5 ft. X 6 ft 1,452 30 ft. X 42 ft 34 5 ft. X 8 ft 1,089 40 ft. X 40 ft 27 12 ft. X 12 ft 302 40 ft. X 50 ft 21 12 ft. X 15 ft 242 50 ft. X 50 ft 17 12 ft. X 18 ft 201 100 ft. X 100 ft 4 322 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING HORTICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. The following list of books, papers and bulletins on fruit growing is appended as suggestive material for supplementary reading for the student and fruit growei. BOOKS. William Briggs, Toronto, Ont. The Canadian Apple Growers' Guide. Dewey & Co., San Francisco, Cal. California Fruits and How to Grow Them, E. J. Wickson. Doubleday, Fage & Co., Garden City, N. Y. How to Maive a Fruit Garden, 8. W. Fletcher. Orchard and Fruit Garden, E. P. Powell. The Fruit Grower, St. Josepii, Mo. The Fruit Grower's Guide Book, E. H. Favor. Ginn & Co., Chicago, 111. Fungous Diseases of Plants, B. M. Duggar. Orange Judd Co., New York, N. Y. The American Apple Orchard, F. A. Waugh. The American Fruit Culturist, J. J. Thomas. Foundations of American Grape Culture. T. V. Munson. Fruit Harvesting, Storing and Marketing, F. A. Waugh. Grape Growing and Wine Making, Geo. Husmann. Plums and Plum Culture, F. A. Waugh. Systematic Pomology, F. A. Waugh. J. B. Dippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa. Insects Injurious to Fruits, Wm. Saunders. Macmillan Co., New York or Chicago. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, edited by L. H. Bailey. Bush Fruits, F. W. Card. Farm and Garden Rule Book, L. H. Bailey. Fruit Growing in the Arid Regions, Paddock and Whipple. The Nursery Book, L. H. Bailey. The Principles of Fruit Growing, L. H. Bailey. The Pruning Book, L. H. Bailey. The Spraying of Plants, E. G. Lodeman. W. T. Seibels, 242 N. Clark St., Chicago, 111. Produce Markets and Marketing. John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. American Horticultural Manual, two vols., Budd and Hansen. PERIODICALS. The following periodicals are devoted wholly or in part to horti- cultural subjects: Better Pruit, Hood River, Ore. The Country Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa. The Chicago Packer, Chicago, 111. The Fruit Belt, Grand Rapids, Mich. The Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mo. The Fruit Magazine, Vancouver, B. C. The Fruitman and Gardener, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. The Fruit Trade Journal, New York, N. Y. The Market Growers' Journal, Louisville, Ky. The National Horticulturist, Council Bluffs, Iowa. The Rural New Yorker, New York, N. Y. The various local farm papers usually maintain horticultural col- umns or publish more or less matter relating to fruit growing. HORTICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 323 The reports of the state horticultural societies contain many valu- able /Suggestions, and as they are based very largely on the actual experience of local growers, they are usually very practical and useful. BULLETINS. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has published a number of bulletins on fruit growing which may be obtained free of charge by writing to the Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The bulletins which are now available include the following: Farmers' Bulletin 113, The Apple and How to Grow It. Farmers' Bulletin 11&, Gi-ape Growing in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 154, The Home Fruit Garden, Preparation and Care. Farmers' Bulletin 156, The Home Vineyard, with Special Refer- ence to Northern Conditions. Farmers' Bulletin 157, The Propagation of Plants. Farmers' Bulletin ITii, Cranberry Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 181, Pruning. Farmers' Bulletin 198, Strawberries. P'armers' Bulletin 21.3, Raspberries. Farmers" Bulletin 238, Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. Farmers' Bulletin 245, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits. Farmers' Bulletin 284, Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky IMountains. Farmers' Bulletin 29], Evaporation of Apples. Farmers' Bulletin 293, Use of Fruit as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 332, Nuts and Their Uses as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 401, The Protection of Orchards in the Pacific Northwest from Spring Fro.sts by Means of Fires and Smudges. Farmers' Bulletin 404, Irrigation of Orchards. Farmers' Bulletin 426, Canning Peaches on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin 440, Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab and Curculio. The various state experiment stations have issued a large num- ber of publications on fruit growing. Those published in your own state can be obtained from the Director of the Experiment Station free of charge. These bulletins are also usually sent free to applicants outside the state as long as the supply lasts. INDEX Accessibility to market, 13 Adventitious buds, 20 Age of trees for planting, 35 Agitation in sprayers, 124 Alabama, Varieties for, 312 Alcoholic waxes, 311 Almond, 300 Altitude and frosts, 182 Analysis of fruit, 48 Anthracnose, 115, 120 Aphis, 83, 93, 100 Apparatus, Spraying, 123 Apple, 178; blight, 106; classifica- tion, 178; curculio, 81; descrip- tion of varieties, 179; diseases 106; forming the tree, 56, ISS grading, 146; grafting, 173 insects. 79; mulching, 189 origin of, 178: packing, 140, 144 picking, 132; planting. 185 propagation, 180; scab, 108; soil for, 182; species of, 178; spray calendar. 303; stocks, 181; tree borer. 84; varieties, 190. Apricot, 217 Arsenate of lead, 309 Arsenite of soda, 309 Assimilation, 26 Associations, 137 B Bagging grapes, 244 Bark, 19 Bark louse, 86 Barrels, 143 Barrel press, 145 Baskets, 139 Beeswax, 311 Beneficial insects, 78 Birds, Injuries from, 64 Bitter rot, 106 Blackberry. 274; diseases, 119; insects, 100; propagation, 274; spray calendar, 306 Black knot, 112 Black rot, 107, 111, 116 Blight, 106. 110 Books on horticulture, 322 Bordeaux mixture, 105, 307 Borer, 84; currant, 99; flat-head- ed, 84; peach, 90; peach twig, 89; raspberry, 100 Brown rot, 113 Buds, 20 Buds, Winter injury to, 66 Budding, 157; forms of, 163; June, 163; time for, 158 Budstick. 158 Buffalo ben■J^ 280; propagation, 281 Buffalo tree hopper, 85 Bulletins on fruit growing, 323 Bushel basket. 139 Bushel box, 139 Business aspect, 16 Butternut, 300 Buying trees, 35, 184 California, Varieties for. 311 Callousing, 154 Cane rust, 120 Caterpillar, Tent, 81 Cedar apples, 107 Cellars, 150 Chart of frost, 71 Chemical elements in fruit, 48 Cherry, 204; classification, 204; cultivation, wOo; diseases, 115; grafting, 174; insects, 95; mar- keting. 208; planting, 205; propagation, 207; soil for, 205; spray calendar,304; varieties, 209 Chestnut. 296 Chinese sand pear, 191 Chinquapin, 297 Choice of locations, IS Cion, 156, 164, 168 Classification of fruits, 28 Clay soils, 15 Cleft grafting, 166 Clogging of spray nozzles, 127 Codlin moth, 79 Cold storage, 147 Collar, 19 Colorado, Varieties for, 313 Commission dealers, 135 INDEX 325 Cooling rooms, 147 Copper carbonate and soap, 308 Copper sulfate solution. 308 Cordon pruning, 59 Corn in orchards, 45 Cover crops, 43, 45 Cranberry, 283; drainage, 286; location of beds, 284; picking. 289; planting, 288; soil for, 285 Cricket, Snowy tree, 101 Cropping the orchard, 45 Crossing, 24 Crown, 19 Crown gall. 113, 114. 119 Cultivation. 40, 188 Curculio. 81, 91 Currant, 258; borer. 99; cuttings 260; diseases, 120; insects, 97 origin, 259; propagation, 259 spray calendar, 305; worm, 97 Cuttings, 153. 154 Cut worm, 84 Dewberry, 274 Diagonal pack, 140 Digging the holes, 38 Direction of the slope, 16 Diseases of fruits, 105 Distances for planting, 321 Downy mildew, 116 Dust spraying, 123 Eau celeste. 307 Effect of pruning. 53 English walnut, 299 Espalier pruning. 5S Fall web worm. 83 Fillers, 46 Fire blight. 106 Flat-headed apple borer, 84 Flower, 21 Foot rot, 114 Forming the apple tree, 56 Forming the head, 54 Frost. 68; foretelling, 69; killing. 68; protection, 68, 71 Fruit, 23; analysis. 48; classifi- cation. 28; diseases, 105; grades. 145; laws, 137; lists, 311; pack- ages, 135; plants from seed, 25; propagation, 25, 151; scald, 109; rules for naming, 320 Fungicides, 105. 307 Girdling, 21, 245 Gooseberry, 263; diseases. 120; insects, 97; spray calendar, 305 Gouger, Plum, 92 Grading fruit, 141. 145 Graftage. 156 Grafting, 164; cleft, 166; root. 168; side. 171; tools, 165; wax formula, 166, 311; whip, 168 Grain in orchards, 45 Grape. 220; bagging, 244; culti- vation. 228; cuttings, 223; dis- eases. 115; flowers, 222; gird- ling, 245; grafting, 175; hybrids, 221; insects, 95; Kniffen method of training, 237; layers, 225; location for. 227; Munson meth- od of training, 239; origin, 220; phylloxera, 96; planting, 228; propagation, 222; pruning, 229; soil for. 227; species of, 220; spray calendar, 305; thinning. ,243; training, 229; trellis, 230; vine leaf hopper, 95 Growing trees in sod, 41 Grub. White, 102 H Hardwood cuttings. 154 Harvesting, 132 Hazel, 301 Heeling in, 186 Hellebore, 310 Hexagonal system, 38 Hogs in orchards. 80 Holes for trees. 38, 185 Hopper, Leaf, 95 Horticultural publications, 322 Hose for spraying, 128 Humus, 41 Hybrids, 24 i Inarching, 175 Injuries, 64; frost, 68; spraying, 110 Insecticides. 309 Insects. 75; beneficial. 78; chew- ing, 76; parasitic, 78; preda- ceous, 79; sucking. 77; on the roots. 78 Inspection laws, 76 Iowa, Varieties for, 313 Irrigation, 51 326 INDEX JunebeiTy, 275; cultivation, 276; propagation, 276; varieties, 276 June budding, 163 Kerosene emulsion, 310 Kniffen system for grapes, 237 Ladders for picking, 133 Layers, 153 Laying out the orchard, 37 Leaf blight, 110 Leaf curl. 111, 114, 119 Leaf hopper, 95 Leaf lice, 83 Leaf roller, 101 Leaf rust, 107, 118 Leaf slug, 88 Leaf spot, 118, 119, 121 Leaves, 21 Lice, 83, 100 Lime, 310 liimestone soil, 14 Lime-sulfur wash, 308 Liquid spraying, 123 Loam, 14, 15 Location for fruit grovi^ing, 13, li Loess loam, 14 Louse, Woolly apple, 87 Low-headed trees, 54 M Manures, 47, 50; application, 49 Marketing. 132 Methods of packing, 140 Mice, 65 Michigan, Varieties for, 314 Mildew, 109, 116, 120 iVTineral substances, 28 Minnesota, Varieties for, 314 Missouri, Varieties for, 315 Moisture loss, 26 Mountain ash as stock, 194 Mulberry, 281; groups, 281; prop- agation 283; varieties, 283 Mulching, 42 N Naming fruits, Rules for, 320 Nectarines, 217 New England, Varieties for, 316 New Jersey, Varieties for, 316 New York, Varieties for, 315 North Carolina, Varieties for, 317 Nozzles, Spray, 127 Number of plants to the acre, 321 Nursery inspection, 76 Nursery selection, 35 Nursery stock, 35 Nuts, 294 Offsets, 152 Ohio. Varieties for, 317 Open-headed trees, 54 Orange rust, 120 Orchard cultivation, 40 Orchard protection, 61 Oregon, Varieties for, 318 Outlook for fruit growing, 17 Overproduction, 17 Oyster shell bark louse, 86 Packages, 136, 139, 143 Packing, 135, 140 Painting wounds, 55 Papers, Horticultural, 322 Parasites, 78 Paris green, 309 Parts of the flower, 22 Peach, 209; borer, 89, 90; classi- fication, 212; diseases, 113; distribution, 209; grafting, 175; insects. 89; leaf curl, 111; loca- tion and soil, 216; origin, 211; planting, 214; propagation, 213; protection, 210; pruning, 215; rosette, 115; spray calendar, 304; thinning, 216; varieties, 216; yellows, 115 Pear, 191; Chinese sand, 191; diseases, 110; dwarf, 192; in- sects, 88; psylla, 89; spray cal- endar, 305; standard, 192; tree slug, 88 Pecan, 294 Peddling. 135 Periodicals, 322 Persimmon, 289 Phylloxera, 96 Picking fruit, 132 Plant food, 46, 48 Plant growth, 19 Planting, 34. 37 Plum, 198; classification, 200; cultivation, 203; curculio, 81, 91; diseases, 111; gouger, 92; grafting. 173; insects, 91; leaf aphis, 93; marketing, 204; mix- ing varieties of, 202; planting, INDEX 327 Plum — Cont'd. 201; picking, 203; pocket, 111; propagation, 200; pruning, ,203; soil, 201; species, 198; spray calendar, 304; stoclis, 201; thinning. 203; varieties, 204 Pollen, 24 Pollination, 24, 32 Pome fruits, 178 Potassium sulfide, 308 Powdery mildew, 109, 117 Preparing the land, 33 Pressure in spraying, 124 Press, Barrel, 145 Principles of plant growth, 19 Propagation, 151 Protection, Orchard, 61, 68 Pruning, 39, 53; effect of, 53; how to make cuts in, 55, 58; method of, 55; reasons for, 53; the young tree, 54; tools, 56 Publications. 322 Psychrometer, 70 Psylla, Pear, 89 Pumps, Spray, 126 Pyrethrum, 310 Quince, 195; as stock, 192; dis- eases, 110; insects, 196; prop- agation, 195 Quincunx system, 38 Rabbits. 65 Raffia. 160 Raspberry, 265; classification, 265; diseases, 119; flat-headed borer, 100; insects, 100; market- ing, 273; mulching; 271; pick- ing, 273; propagation, 266; pro- tection, 271: pruning, 270; rust. 120; soil, 268; spray calendai-, 306; support, 271; thinning, 270 Rate of seeding cover crops, 44 Reasons for cultivation, 40 Reasons for pruning, 53 Red orange rust, 120 Renewing old trees, 50 Resin lime mixture, 310 Rest period of plants, 28 Return package, 142 Root cuttings, 153 Root galls, 65, 107 Root grafting, 168 Root killing, 67 Rose chafer, 97 Rot, Bitter, 106 Rot, Black, 107. Ill, 116 Rot, Brown, 113 Rules for naming fruits, 320 Runners, 19, 152 Rust, 107, 118, 120 Sand cherry, 277; distribution, 277; propagation, 279 Sandy soils, 15 San Jose scale, 86 Saskatchewan, Varieties for, 319 Scab, 108, 113, 115 Scald, Fruit, 109 Scale insects, 86 Scurfy bark louse, 86 Seed, 25, 151 Seedlings, 25, 184 Selection of trees, 35 Selection of varieties, 31 Shape of trees, 35 Shot hole fungus, 113 Side grafting, 171 Slope, Direction of the, 16 Small fruits, 247 Smudger, 73 Snowy tree cricket, 101 Soap, Whale oil, 310 Sod culture, 41 Soils, 14 Solar pit, 155 Sorting table, 143 Sprayers, 124, 129 Spraying^ 123; calendar, 303; injuries, 110; outfits, 129 Square system, 37 Stems, 19, 139 Stock, 156, 181. 201 Storage buildings, 146 Storing, 132, 146 Stratification, 151 Strawberry, 247; diseases, 118 hill system, 251; insects, 101 marketing, 257; origin of, 247 picking, 257; propagation, 248 renewing beds, 254; row sys- tem, 251; rust, 118; setting plants, 252; sexuality of plants, 255; soil, 24S; spraying cal- endar, 305; time of planting, 249; varieties, 258; weevil, 102; winter protection, 253 Stone fruits, 198 Success in fruit growing, 17 Suckers, 19. 189 Sunburn, liS Sunscald, 61 Systems of planting, 37 328 INDEX Tent caterpillar, 81 Thermometer, 70 Thinning fruits. 203, 216 Thorns, 19 . ,„o Thoroughness of spraying, IZb Time to apply manures, 50 Time to pick fruit, 133 Time to plant, 34 Time to prune, 54 Tobacco dust, 310 Tobacco soap, 311 Tools for pruning, 56 Topography, 16 Top-working, 173 Transpiration, 26 Tree currants, 262 Tree hopper, Buffalo, 85 Trellis for grapes, 230 Twig borer, 85, 89 Varieties, 29. 31 Varieties for various states, 31^ W Walnut, 299, 300 Washington, Varieties for, 318 Waxed string bandage, 311 Waxes, Grafting, 311 Web worm, 83 Weevil, Strawberry, 102 Wet and dry bulb, 70 Whale oil soap, 310 When to prune, 54 Whip grafting, 168 White grub, 102 Windbreaks, 182 Wind injury, 64 Winter injury to roots, 67 Winter killing, 65 Woolly aphis, 87 Woolly apple louse, 87 Yellow, Peach, 113 STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS Published and Sold By WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green. This book covers the factors in successful fruit growing, with list of fruits adapted to each state; orchard protection, injurious insects, diseases injurious to fruits, spraying, harvesting, propagation of fruit plants, etc., etc. It is prepared es- pecially for beginners and as a text book for schools and colleges. 30-0 pages, 120 illustrations. Price, postpaid. .$1.00 AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green, a practical guide to the growing of fruit for home use and the market, written with special reference to a cold climate. Illustrated. 134 pp. Price, 12 mo Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. VEGETABLE GARDENING, by Samuel B. Green. 10th edition. A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and the market, profusely illustrated. 252 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, by J. H. Sheppard and J. C. 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FARM WIND-BREAKS AND SHELTER BELTS, by Samuel B. Green. A manual of tree planting for wind-breaks and shel- ter with description of the most suitable trees hardy enough to stand Northwestern conditions. Practical cultural direc- tions from seed to maturity. Illustrated, 69 pp. Price Paper, 25 cents. HARDWOOD LANDS, by D. A. Wallace, describes the character- istics of Minnesota and Wisconsin cut-over timber lands heretofore overlooked as suitable for agriculture. Illustrat- ed. Price Paper, 25 cents. THE GOLD MINE IN THE FRONT YARD, by C. S. Harrison. A bock about flowers, both for ornamentation and commer- cial culture, written with special reference to Northwestern conditions. Illustrated, 280 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.00 POULTRY. POULTRY MANUAL, by Franklane L. Sewell and Ida E. Tilson. A safe guide to successful poultry culture in all its branches, fancy and practical; breeding and feeding; diseases and remedies; how to make farm poultry pay, etc., etc. (40th Thousand. 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Price Paper, 25 cents SIMPLE POULTRY REMEDIES, by competent authors; de scribes the symptoms of the leading diseases of poul try and tells how they may be cured or prevented by simple methods. This book should be in the ha.nds of every poultry man. 80 pp., fully illustrated. Price, postpaid 25 cents. rURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE, by H. A. Nourse, latest and most complete and reliable information on breeding, hatch- ing, rearing, fattening, developing, showing, and selling for pleasure or profit. 128 pp., fully illustrated. Price, postpaid 50 cent*. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS LIVE STOCK. FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK, by Thomas Shaw. A series of lectures on the principles covering se- lection, feeding, breeding, management and marketing of cattle, sheep and swine. 100 pp. Price, 8 mo Cloth, $1.00; stiff cover, 50 cents. FIVE HUNDRED QUESTIONS ANSWERED ABOUT SWINE, by L. H. Cooch. This manual is practically a complete vet- erinary book for swine breeders. 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Stevens, gives all the quick ways of tanning in from ten minutes to six weeks. Also complete receipts for making your own solutions. Pre- pared especially for farmers. Price Paper, 25 cents. VACANT GOVERNMENT LANDS, locates all available govern- ment lands that can be secured free by entry and tells how to get them. All about irrigated lands and how obtained free. (1908 Edition.) 112 pp. Price Paper, 25 cents. THE DOMINION OF CANADA, by Moses Folsom. All about free government land in Canada and how to get it. 155 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. THE COUNTRY KITCHEN. Nine hundred tried and tested recipes suited to the country and contributed by readers of The Farmer. The most popular and practical cook book on the market. 154 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. THE "BUCKEYE" COOK BOOK, by Mrs. Wilcox. A careful compilation of tried and approved recipes for all branches of the household. 1288 pp. with complete index. Price, postpaid $2.50 STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS. FARM BOOKS. SHORT TITLE LIST. Farmers' Account Book and Farm Record, net $2.25 Bookkeeping for Farmers. Clark Atkeson 25 Barn Plans and Out Buildings 1.00 Cottage Houses. S. B. Reed 1.00 Homes for Home Builders. D. W. Wing 1.00 A. B. C. and X. Y. Z. of Bee Culture. A. L Root 1.50 Mysteries of Bee Keeping Explained. L. C. Root 1.00 Veterinary Elements. Arthur G. Hopkins 1.50 Diseases of Horses and Cattle. D. Mclntosli 1.75 Feeds and Feeding. W. A. Henry 2.00 Diseases of Swine. D. Mcintosh 2.00 Swine in America. F. D. Coburn, net 2.50 Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. R. Wallace, net 5.00 Profitable Dairying. C. L. Peck 75 Judging Live Stock. John A. Craig, net 1.50 Creamery Accounting. J. A. Vye, net 1.00 Cattle Breeding. William Warfield 2.00 Practical Forestry. A. S. Fuller 1.50 Beautifying Country Homes. J. Weidermann 10.00 Garden Making. L. H. Bailey 1.00 Practical Floriculture. Peter Henderson 1.50 Spraying Crops. C. M. Weed 50 Spraying of Plants. E. J. Lodeman, net 1.50 Agriculture with Some of Its Relations with Chemistry. F. H. Storer (3 volumes), net 5.00 Pruning Book. L. H. Bailey, net 1.50 Field Notes on Apple Culture. L. H. Bailey, net 2.00 The Potato. J. J. H. Gregory 30 Gardening for Profit. Peter Henderson 1,50 The Soil. Franklin H. King 1.00 Principles of Agriculture. L. H. Bailey, net 1.50 Physics of Agriculture. F. H. King, net 1.75 How To Make a Garden Pay. T. Greiner 1.00 Soiling Crops and the Silo. Thomas Shaw 1.50 Forage and Fibre Crops in America. Thomas Hunt 1.75 Fertility of the Land. I. P. Roberts, net 1.50 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors. J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase, net 2.00 Manual of Corn Judging. A. D. Shame! 50 Cereals in America. T. F. Hunt 1.75 Alfalfa, Book of. F. D. Coburn 2.00 WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA FEB 13 1912 One copy del. to Cat. Div. fEB 12 19)2 i;S'^^voF