'• ■'" NSv ■■■■:■■: • Sow ''■•■' ''' ; '' : ''.•'■:•:«:••■ - ,: ■ ;.;.■.,.;::;.■; •'•''' 3wy ':['.': &SS§§»8& 8§§§8«? Kg LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ^ — Chapi-hir.. Copyright No.. Shell. J-2S / UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. School Management INCLUDING A GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORK OF EDUCATION, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES FROM THE TEACHER'S POINT OF VIEW : ORGANIZ- ATION : discipline: and moral training / JOSEPH LANDON ' on School Management, etc., in the Training College, FEB j^r of Cjg^^ SYRACUSE, N. Y. C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLI^Eft^CQPY, ' l8 97 1898. Copyright, 1897, by C. W. Bardeen \ v«t»*>^» 4325 PREFACE. It is hoped that the present volume will prove use- ful to students of the subject upon which it treats, more particularly to those in their second year of residence in training colleges, and to such of the general body of teachers as wish to have at hand, in a compact form, something beyond the bare outlines so often presented. An attempt has been made in the first part to give such a sketch of the Intellectual Faculties, and of the bearing of the facts of Mental Science upon the work of the teacher — especially his general methods — as will serve for a foundation on which the succeed- ing portions of the work may be built. Of the three great divisions of the teacher's work — Organization, Discipline, and Teaching — the first two are more particularly dealt with in this book. While, however, the systematic and detailed treatment of the scientific laws by which Teaching should be governed, together with the complete description of methods and special devices, is left for a future volume, the elucidation of a great number of points respecting this department of the work will also be found scattered through the present treatise. 1 1 See under 'Teaching' in Index. iv Preface. Invention or novelty has not been my aim. Still, I trust it will be found that some portions of the work are new, and that, though I have not scrupled to make use of any facts of value within my reach, these have not been adopted without careful examina- tion, and their points of connection with the general subject realized. I have done my best also, wherever I have borrowed any one's peculiar property or the special form of an idea, to acknowledge my indebted- ness. That I have succeeded in doing this in all cases I dare not hope. Throughout I have tried to give such information upon the various subjects treated as to the teacher is worth knowing, and, where possible, to bring each important point to the test of experience. This has led me to dissent strongly in several places from very commonly accepted opinions. My object in such cases is rather to lead to further observation and ex- periment than to lay stress upon my own views. In conclusion I have to express my sincerest thanks to the Rev. F. W. Burbidge, M. A., for his kindness and help in so carefully reading through the proof-sheets, and to several other friends for a similar favor, or for suggestions during the progress of the work. J. L. Saltley : November 27, 1882. CONTENTS. PART I. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORK OF EDUCATION, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. CHAPTER I. THE MEANING AND SCOPE OF EDUCATION. PAGB Knowledge of the work of education important to parents and teachers i Foundation facts to be sought in the sciences which deal with the mind and the body 2 Development of the faculties depends upon their proper and regular use . 3 Broadly viewed, education includes two kinds of influences . 4 Specific education has two essential functions — (a) The strengthening and extension of the human powers — humanistic or disciplinary view ..... 5 (b) The preparation of the individual for the active work of life — realistic or utilitarian view .... 6 What education includes — variations of meaning ... 9 Great importance of education during the early period of life . 10 Education is not responsible for all differences of character . 1 1 Importance of a realization of the meaning and scope of education i2 VI Contents. CHAPTER II. THREE LINES OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. PAGS Threefold division of the work — relations and interdependence of the several parts 14 (a) The Education of the Body 15 Professor Bain's opinion respecting this . . . 15 To what extent the teacher is concerned with physical education 16 (b) The Education of the Intellect . . . . . . 17 Mind properly not a mass of separate faculties . . 17 Convenience of treatment under faculties . . . 17 The three fundamental properties of mental action . ' 18 Approximate order of the development of the faculties. 19 (c) The Education of the Emotional Hatnre and the Will . 20 The necessity for moral strength and power of will . 20 Need of religious training 20 Considerations in training to right action ... 21 The discipline of consequences 22 Motives and reason both to be used .... 23 CHAPTER III. SOME LESSONS TO BE LEARNED FROM A BRIEF CONSIDERATION OF SENSATION, PERCEPTION, CONCEPTION, AND ATTENTION. (a) Sensation, Perception, and Conception .... 24 The senses and their organs 24 The mechanism of transmission of nerve force . . 25 How an impression becomes a sensation and finally a perception 25 The formation of simple ideas 26 The processes of simple generalization and abstraction 27 The complex nature of conception .... 27 Language is useless without the underlying ideas . 28 Necessity for the education of the senses ... 29 Qualities of perception which should be fostered . 29 The place of ' object lessons ' and similar exercises . 30 Contents. vii PAGE (b) Attention 31 Attention a co-ordinating and controlling force — the means of focussing the mind, as it were, upon an object 31 Its necessity and importance with reference to the other faculties 31 Rest afforded by change of object .... 32 Qualities of attention: (1) vivacity (2) intensity (3) con- tinuity 32 Attention controlled in two ways — from within or from without 33 Means of engaging the attention of children . . 33 The relation of punishment to attention ... 34 Influence of physical surroundings .... 35 Evils of hurried work 35 CHAPTER IV. MEMORY IN EDUCATION. What is meant by memory 36 Variations in its action 37 (a) Apprehension . 39 Upon what correct apprehension depends ... 39 Memorizing a form of words. Position of cram . 40 Points to be borne in mind in presenting facts to the memory : 1. Discrimination between important and unim- portant facts 41 2. Judicious selection . . . . . . 42 3. Classification and arrangement ... 42 4. Principles and laws 43 5. Logical sequence of ideas . . . . 44' 6. Sufficient time to obtain clearness . . 45 7. The cultivation of habits of observation, in- quiry, comparison, &c 45 {b) Eetention 46 The retaining or recording power. Differences of en- dowment 46 The holding power of the memory probably at a maxi- mum about the age of ten. Practical conclusions . 47 The probable conservation of mental force . . 48 VI 11 Contents. Conditions tending to depth of impression and so to power ofretentio?i : i. Original force of the idea Attention. Action of sympathy Interest. Curiosity in children Repetition — how made use of Force of attendant emotion 6. State of the health, &c. . {c) Eeproduction Conditions affecting the reproduction of ideas I. Association of Ideas, &*c. The tendency of ideas, &c, to link themselves to- gether Mode of action of association The two fundamental laws of association : (i) law of contiguity; (2) law of similarity Branch laws of association. Facts suggest one another by the action of association when they are united in the mind by : 1. Immediate succession or juxtaposition in time 2. Immediate succession or co-adjacency in space . . . (a) Useful aids to this (b) Mnemonic systems (c) Faculty of localization 3. Cause and effect. Means and end 4. Contrast ..... 5. Direct similarity or analogy {a) Affords foundation for inductive and deductive reasoning [b) Great value in teaching 6. Natural affinity .... 7. Logical affinity or dependence . II. Practice in Reproduction How automatic or organic memory arises Value of review courses .... Importance of reproduction in studies Practical helps The province and value of examinations 5o 5i 52 54 56 57 59 59 60 60 61 64 64 66 67 6 7 68 69 70 7i 72 73 73 75 75 75 76 7 6 78 79 Contents. ix CHAPTER V. THE CULTIVATION OF THE IMAGINATION, JUDGMENT, AND REASON. PAGB (a) Imagination 80 Definition. How distinct from fancy . .. . . 81 Mode in which the imagination may be made to serve the purposes of culture. Dangers to be avoided . 81 Difference between memory and imagination . . 82 Imagination of two kinds : (1) reproductive ; (2) creative S3 Methods in which the imagination may be cultivated 84 Influence of books. School libraries ... 85. Pictures and the ' picturing out ' method in teaching 86 (d) Jndgment .88 What is meant by judgment, How it differs from reason 88 The products of judgment 89 Necessity for attending in teaching to both words and ideas ......... go How words should be explained to children . . 90 ' Common sense ' and its value 91 How ' habits of thought ' are formed. Prejudices . 92 The importance of early training in judgment . 92 First steps in training the judgment .... 93 Two processes in judgment — comparison and decision 94 Mode of making use of ' lessons of comparison ' . 95 Comparison of conceptions. Classification . . 96 The child must be led to judge for himself . . 97 Dangers to be avoided in training the judgment . 97 (c) Seasoning Processes 98 Reasoning inductively and deductively ... 98 The process of induction and the names given to its results 99 Points to which attention must be paid in induction . 99 Induction a more complete process than simple gene- ralization 100 The process of deduction 100 Deductive reasoning traces causes into effects, but tells us nothing of the causes . . . . . . 10a The syllogism 101 Considerations in teaching children to reason . . 101 Contents. PAGB Inductive training must be based on exact and ready observation. Value of experimental lessons . . 103 How many arithmetical rules are best taught . . 103 The teaching of the ' parts of speech ' in grammar . 103 Deductive training for children 104 The question ' Why ? ' Its use and abuse . . 105 Deductive exercises in grammar . . . .106 The teaching of Euclid to children .... 107 Defects and errors in reasoning. Cautions to the teacher 107 CHAPTER VI. THE SCHOOL WORK OF THE TEACHER. (a) Organization 109 Definition of organization, and what it includes . . 109 Organization must not be confused with education . in (o) Discipline iii Discipline gives the law to the school, and concerns itself mainly with conduct . . . . . 112 Points needing attention in discipline . . . 112 The child must be gradually led to self-control . . 112 {c) Teaching 112 Teaching includes the consideration of (1) the person taught ; (2) the materials for teaching ; (3) the methods to be used 113 I3ook knowledge cannot compensate for the want of careful daily observation of the pupils . . . 113 The subjects of instruction. Necessity of adequate knowledge on the part of the teacher . . . 113 The teacher should never give up his private reading 114 Knowledge of the methods of teaching . . .114 Distinction between teaching and education . . 115 The difficulty of teaching well 116 Contents. XI PART II. ORGANIZATION. CHAPTER I. SYSTEMS OF ORGANIZATION. both (a) The Individual System Historical notes respecting the individual plan Characteristic features of the system . Its advantages Its defects {b) The Mutual or Monitorial System Short history of the origin and progress of the plan at home and abroad Names given to the system and its varieties Sketch of the life of Dr. Andrew Bell Sketch of the life of Joseph Lancaster Characteristic features of the system, with a comparison of schemes of Bell and Lancaster The advantages of the plan Its defects and shortcomings (c) CollectiTe Systems i. The Training System . Origin and spread of the plan Sketch of the life of David Stow Leading features of the plan as developed by Stow The advantages of the scheme Its defects 2. The Simultaneous or Class-room System The establishment of the system on the Continent Its principal characteristics The advantages and defects of the plan Dr. Rigg's opinion of the system (d) Mixed Systems I. The Tripartite System Proposed by Rev. H. Moseley in 1845 Leading features and mode of working the scheme The advantages of the plan Its defects .... xii Contents. 2. The Pupil-teacher or English System .... An outgrowth of the monitorial plan. Suggested about 1844 Established as a system by the Minutes of 1846 Changes in the proportion of pupil-teachers to be em- ployed Some mistakes in working the plan .... PAGB 162 162 162 163 164 &c. CHAPTER II. THE SCHOOL AND ITS APPOINTMENTS. (a) The Shape, Size, and Disposition of the Rooms Superficial and cubical content limits per child The site of the school Shape and general arrangement . Class-rooms and their disposition Walls and flooring The lobby, or cloak-room, and its fittings . The teacher's private room . . .. . . The playground. Its value, position, laying, gymnastic apparatus ; covered sheds The closets and the drains .... (0) The Mode of Lighting . . •..';,• Kind and position of windows Dr. Liebreich's opinion as to the most suitable Importance of proper lighting (c) Wanning and Ventilation .... Injurious effects of school life upon children and teach ers largely due to unwholesome conditions of work Temperature best for work in school Prof. Huxley on changes of the air in a room due to respiration Quantity of fresh air to be provided per child Methods of warming by radiation Open fire-grates. The Boyd, Manchester, Longden, &c Common stoves and their defects Gill stoves. Prevention of undue drying of the air Hot-water-pipes. Use and disadvantages . Convection apparatus. Danger from overheating Ventilation and draughts Doors and windows as ventilators light 166 166 167 167 168 169 170 171 171 172 174 174 r 75 176 176 177 177 178 178 179 180 180 181 181 181 183 183 Contents. Xlll PAGE Cowl ventilators. Sylvester's plan .... 1S4 Arnot's balance valve 184 Ordinary gratings and valves 184 Vertical shaft ventilators. Tobin's tubes. M'Kinnell's double cylinder ventilator 185 Louvre ventilators 186 (d) Fittings and Fnrnitnre 186 General arrangement 187 Galleries. Characteristics and kinds . . . .187 Desks. Infant school desks. Desks for older children 189 Slope of desks. Measurements. Seats, &c. . . 191 Ink-wells 192 Short-length system of arranging desks . . .192 Long-length system of arrangement .... 193 Teacher's desks, &c 194 Cupboards, &c 195 Curtains 196 Hammocks or cots, &c. ...... 197 CHAPTER III. THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHILDREN. Difficulties of classification 4 Manifold, ' ' twofold, ' and 'single ' systems of classification American and German plans .... Definitions of ' class ' * Sections' and 'drafts ' 1 Grades, ' and how they differ from classes Practical considerations respecting classification . 1 . The extent of the boys' attainments 2. The size of the school .... 3. The last standard passed 4. The number and quality of the teachers 5. The subjects to be taught 6. Cases where age should have weight 7. Readjustment and promotion Question much discussed in America Mixed schools. view ..... Objections urged against mixed schools Advantages claimed for the arrangement The question mainly one of good or bad government English 195 200 201 202 202 203 203 203 204 204 205 205 205 206 208 209 210 210 xiv Contents. CHAPTER IV. THE QUALIFICATIONS, DUTIES, AND DISTRIBUTION OP THE TEACHERS. PAGE The pleasure and usefulness of the teacher's work depends largely upon the spirit in which it is carried on . . . .211 Qualifications of the teacher 212 His methods both of management and teaching should be pro- gressive 213, Value of a reading habit to the teacher 214 Teaching a difficult art if perfection is aimed at . . .214 {a) The Staffing of Schools 215 Teachers recognized by the Department . . . 215. Department requirements as to school staff . . 215, What constitutes an efficient staff . . . .216 Opinion of Prof. Huxley's Committee, 187 1, as to school staff 216 Changes in the Code requirements since 1859 . . 217 {b) The Master 217 The chief school duties of the master . . . 217 Adjustment of superintendence and teaching . . 218 Dealing with parents 219 Should not be hampered with minor regulations framed by others 220 {c) Adult Assistants " . . . 220 Each should be responsible for a certain group of chil- dren 220- Working of assistant and pupil-teacher together . 220> The placing of the assistants 221 Relation of assistant to the master . . . .221 Supervision of the work of assistants .... 222 (d) Pupil-Teachers . .222' Should be placed according to ability and experience 222 Evils of overworking young teachers .... 222- The training of pupil-teachers ..... 223. Selection of candidates 223, Home studies of the pupil-teacher. Examination tests 224 The ' centre system ' of teaching pupil-teachers . . 224 Suggestions on the TEACHING OF THE VARIOUS SUB- JECTS of school work, and on class management. 225. Contents. xv PAGE Monitors ' 230 How far officially recognized 230 Conditions to be borne in mind in their use . . 230 The employment of 'paid monitors' in small schools . 230 CHAPTER V. THE ARRANGEMENT OF TIME AND SUBJECTS — TIME-TABLES. Importance and value of time-tables .... (a) General Considerations The subjects to be taught The internal circumstances of the school The sex of the scholars. Mode of attendance, &c. The length and succession of the lessons Distribution of the noisy lessons Provision for change of posture and of place Play, marking of registers, home lessons, &c. (b) Method of Proceeding to Draw up a Time-Table Distribution of the time into separate lesson portions General arrangement Specimen of time-table The use of ' ill-adjusted time-tables ' Alterations of work on going to a fresh school . Teacher should draw up a ' syllabus of study ' for each class (c) Government Kegnlations respecting Time-Tables Requirements of the Education Act, 1870 . Points selected and condensed from the various ' min- utes ' and ' circulars ' respecting time-tables CHAPTER VI. THE APPARATUS AND BOOKS. Apparatus good and bad . . Prevention of wear and tear to apparatus (a) Kinds of Apparatus .... Kinds, qualities, and uses of black-boards Maps, diagrams, and pictures Models, specimens, &c. xvi Contents. Form, color, and kindergarten apparatus Apparatus for teaching arithmetic Apparatus for teaching reading . (b) Books The General Readers i. General qualities and uses 2. Books for the earliest or conceptive stage 3. Books for the middle or interest stage 4. Books for the upper or information stage The Special Readers Qualities of books for teaching geography, his tory, &c Importance of graduation of subject-matter Remaining Books Class-books for the ordinary subjects Varieties of copy-books Manuals for the specific subjects Reference books .... PAGE 250 251 251 252 252 253 254 255 2 S5 255 255 256 256 256 256 257 CHAPTER VII. REGISTRATION. Objects of registration .258 Registers required 258 The individual and collective departments of registration . 259 The Admission Register, and mode of keeping it 260 The Class Registers. Department requirements as to marking, &c. 261 Suggestions. Daily summary, &c. . . . . . . 264 Arrangement of class registers ....... 265 What is meant by ' attendance ' 265 The Stcmmary .......... 266 Averages, and the method of finding ...... 267 Returns sometimes required . 268 The checking of the registers by the managers . . . 269 The Log-book . 269 Contents. xvi 1 PART III. DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING. CHAPTER I. THE USE OF THE EMOTIONS IN EDUCATION, AND THEIR CULTIVATION. Necessity for culture of the moral and emotional elements of the child's nature What is meant by emotion and by passion Tendency of emotional excitement to affect the body Emotion and intelligence run side by side Desire and aversion. How motives arise Necessity for proper direction of the emotions Importance of knowing the nature of the child Law of emotional action. Evil of violent emotion in the case of children Influence of the emotions on conduct In what way the will may be made to influence the emotions Cautions respecting the treatment of children. Nervousness The cold philosophical temperament Association of pleasure and pain with conduct Influence of surroundings on the emotions Value of sympathy in dealing with children The emotion arising from steady pursuit The (Esthetic emotions and the culture of the sense of beauty Means of training children to good taste, music, oral lessons, &c Necessity for guiding a child's early aesthetic associations 271 271 272 273 273 274 274 275 275 276 276 277 278 279 27.9 280 281 2S2 CHAPTER II. GENERAL MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING. The objects of moral training 283 The association of right or wrong with actions . . . 283 Effect of a child's surroundings on his earliest moral notions . 284 Different natures need different treatment .... afo XV111 Contents. Connection of morality, intelligence, and emotion Importance of early moral training The elements to be made use of in moral training The teacher's aim in moral training . Too exclusive attention is often given to what shall not be Difference between command and influence Necessity for going slowly. Lessons of experience Evil of investing neutral actions with a moral significance The introduction of reasons for right conduct . Weakness of a merely argumentative discipline Submission and compulsion .... The objects of moral instruction .... Characteristics and methods of moral instruction The mfluence that which was at the desks to the floor of the schoolroom for reading ; and that which was reading to the gallery for Systems of Organization. 157 examination by the head master in that reading lesson, in which the whole division has been receiving the instruction of the monitors. This arrangement continues during the second hour ; and so each division passes in its turn, in the course of the morning, under the personal examination and oral instruction of the master; each is occupied during an hour in writing, slate arithmetic, &c. ; and an hour is devoted by each to mechanical instruction in reading.' The following time table represents the arrangements described : — Hours I. II. III. 9 to IO Oral Instruction Slate Arithmetic, &c. Reading IO to II Slate Arithmetic, &c. Reading Oral Instruction II tO 12 Reading Oral Instruction Slate Arithmetic, &c. The school was to be mixed, the boys and girls being taught together in the morning ; and both a mas- ter and a mistress were to be provided. For schools whose average attendance did not exceed 100, this was considered enough. For every additional 25 children it was proposed to employ a pupil-teacher ; and if the number exceeded 200, to replace one of these at least by an assistant master. 5. The teachers were to be grouped as follows : — a. The Master. — * In all that requires the indepen- dent exercise of judgment and discretion in the busi- ness of instruction — in all that involves the sanctions of religion, and considerations of moral responsibility, and thus needs to be presented to the mind of a child with the gravity and the authority which can only be brought to it by the mind of an adult teacher ; and in 1 5 8 O rganization. all that concerns the development of the judgment and intelligence of the child — the direct interference of the master in its education is necessary to any use- ful result, as well in reference to the youngest child in the school as to the oldest.' The master, however, was not to be constantly occupied in talking. He was to examine and hear lessons, and from time to time to require the children to write down abstracts of the lessons he had given. b. Mistress and Monitors. — The station of the mistress was to be the reading room ; the teaching of reading being entrusted to the mistress with the mon- itors under her care. For reading, each of the three divisions of the school was to be formed into two sections ; one com- posed of as many of the children who were most back- ward in their reading as the mistress could herself properly instruct in a single class, the other portion being broken up into drafts of not more than eight children, each placed in charge of a monitor. 1 The whole of the children of each of the great divisions is, when in the reading room, to be occupied in reading the same lesson ; and the time-table of the schools is to provide that, when the hour allotted to it in the reading room is ex- pired, it shall be transferred to the gallery for oral instruc- tion by the head-master, such oral instruction always com- mencing with an examination upon the reading lesson which has preceded — first as to the ability of the children to read the lesson accurately ; secondly, as to their intelligence of the subject matter of it. If the reading lessons be properly selected, they will frequently serve as the foundation of that oral instruction of the master, which is to follow this ex- amination.' In the afternoon the girls were to be taught to sev Systems of Organization. 159 by the mistress in the reading room, the boys being formed into three divisions, and occupied as in the morning ; * the two divisions employed in oral instruc- tion and writing occupying one of the remaining rooms, and the other being appropriated to reading, under the supervision of the assistant master or the pupil teacher.' With respect to the use of monitors, Mr. Moseley says, 1 1 am not prepared to deny that there are certain elements in the business of a school, which, being essentially me- chanical in their nature, may, under due supervision and with proper limitations, be conducted on the principle of mutual instruction. Reading, for instance, may, as to its mechanical elements, and with a view to that individual instruction and mechanical practice which it requires, be taught by the aid of monitors — as young even as some of those to whom the whole business of instruction is intrusted in our existing schools — provided that each reading lesson, so given, is checked by a subsequent examination of the master ; and that the subdivisions of children placed at any time under the instruction of a single monitor do not exceed eight, or at the most ten, in number.' c. Pupil Teacher, or Assistant Master. — The pupil teacher or assistant master was to have charge of the writing, practice of arithmetic, drawing, &c, and he was from time to time to relieve the head-master. b. Advantages. 1. The most suitable provision was made for both giving the necessary information and training the in- telligence. While use was made of the simultaneous mode of teaching, for subjects to which it was suited, the individual side of the work received due attention ; i 60 Organization. and each teacher had just that work allotted to him, which he was best fitted to perform. It is characteristic of this plan, says the author, ' that providing for those technical branches of instruction, which are not only valuable in themselves, but necessary to se- cure that public opinion of the parents favorable to the school, on which its success must after all depend, it pro- vides further for that oral instruction of a more general kind which aims at results less tangible, indeed, but the highest contemplated in education, and the most valuable ; that it extends the benefits of this form of instruction from the highest to the meanest and lowest child, and that it brings to it the master spirit of the school, and all the sanctions with which the authority of the highest office can surround it ; that in respect to his own individual part in the labor of teaching, it does not leave the master to the influence of no other motive than his own sense of duty, or that desire for excellence which it is so difficult to preserve in a remote and unobserved school, subject as it is to the antagonism of those prejudices which, lingering in the public mind, too frequently interdict all sympathy in his labors ; but that it contemplates a system of instruction in which his labors shall constitute an integral part, and prescribes the subjects which he shall teach himself, and the times when he shall teach them. ' 2. The certainty and regularity with which each scholar was brought under the direct influence and teaching of the master was a great gain. 3. It secured relief to the children by the variety of work, of teachers, and by the changes of locality and posture. 4. It arranged for the regular inspection and examination by the master of every subject taught in the school. 5. It provided, for the tedious and difficult task of Systems of Organization. 161 teaching to read, the services of an adult teacher (the mistress), who was supposed to employ the assist- ance of monitors only in respect to those children whom she was unable to teach herself. 6. Lastly, it assured i to the girls (to whom it is at least as necessary as to the boys) the highest order of instruction' which the school could supply; and it enabled 'the master to employ the services of his wife in the business of the school.' c. Defects. 1. The system took too little account of the strength of the master. The activity both of bod] and mind necessary to successful oral teaching is o f the most exhausting character, and it was found tha I he was unable to bear the strain of continued effort, c f the kind contemplated, for any great length of time, 2. The lack of variety in the work of all tlni teachers, and the monotony and mechanical nature nf it in the case of some, confined as they were, to a very large extent, to one kind of duty, told injuri- ously on the teaching. Not only did it destroy interest, but it prevented the proper growth of the teacher's power, by restricting his exercise within too narrow limits. 3. The system was not suited to very small or very large schools. In the first case the groups were too small, and the arrangement too expensive ; and, in the second, the sections were unmanageably large when placed on the gallery. Many of the existing schools were unable to employ it from the unsuita- bility of the rooms. 4. In schools, again, the pupils of which varied M 1 6 2 Organization. very widely with respect to age and acquirements (say from infants to advanced scholars), the three-part classification was insufficient to enable the work to be made suitable for all. 5. It broke that sympathy between teacher and taught, and that continuity of associated work, which act so strongly for good. (2) The Pupil Teacher or English System. The pupil teacher scheme was an outgrowth of the monitorial system ; an attempt to preserve the best features of the latter, without its evils, and not only insure improvement in the work, but also provide a supply of future masters. It was felt that the monitors, just as they were getting of an age to do really useful work, were withdrawn from the school, and various memorials were addressed to the Com- mittee of Council on this subject. The remedy of apprenticing the monitors — to be then styled pupil teachers — was suggested about 1844. In 1845 the Rev. F. C. Cook says, in his report, 'I have noted the cases in which pupil teachers are employed, and it appears that they are only found in a few metropolitan parishes. In one school, at Baldwin's Gardens, four youths act in this capacity; in other places but one assists the master.' The celebrated minutes of 1846 x established the use of pupil teachers as a system. They might be employed up to one for every twenty-five children in 1 These minutes initiated the annual grants to elementary schools, and proposed the granting of pensions to masters. The details, how- ever, of the latter were not made known until 1851. Systems of Organization. 163 average attendance, in any school under inspection, which had a competent master, and was properly supplied with apparatus and books. They were to be apprenticed to the master for five years, com- mencing after thirteen years of age, the Government paying a fixed stipend for each year of apprenticeship, if the annual examination test was satisfactorily^ passed. A scheme of study was laid down for each year, and they were to receive daily an hour and a half's instruction from the master, for five days a week. For this instruction the master was to receive 3/. per annum for one pupil teacher, 9/. for two, 12/. for three, and 3/. more for each one in addition. At first it was proposed to issue a certificate at the end of appren- ticeship, showing that the course had been completed ; but this was not found advisable. It was supposed that the majority of those who had completed their time would seek to enter a training college, and exhibitions to them, as Queen's scholars, were granted for this pur- pose. Opportunity of employment in the Civil Service was also held out, but this proposal was cancelled in 1852, as it was thought it might divert attention from the profession for which the pupil teachers were trained. The system soon became general throughout England, and though modifications have been introduced from time to time, it still remains essentially what it was intended to be. In the case of large schools, necessitating the employ- ment of a number of pupil teachers, it was found that the proportion of skilled to unskilled labor was too small for the work to be properly performed. To meet this defect various regulations have been made, limiting the number of pupil teachers which may be employed with each master or adult assistant. The pupil teacher must now be turned 164 Organization. fourteen at the time of apprenticeship, and is ordinarily apprenticed for four years; though the period may be shortened to three, or two, provided that the candidates pass the examination for the end of the first or second yeai respectively, and that the apprenticeship terminates beyond his eighteenth year. The system supplies an excellent means of recruiting the teaching profession, and with the employment of a sufficient number of skilled assistants in large schools to do the higher educative work, may be made a thoroughly efficient one. It would be a mistake to sub- stitute for it the more costly plan of adult assistants only, and employ highly skilled labor in the performance of cer- tain mechanical parts of the teaching — such as the drill work of reading, superintendence of silent work, &c. — which can be effectively performed by even young pupil teachers, and with much less irksomeness than would be felt by the majority of adults. Many of the objections urged against the plan result from defective carrying out, and are not, as it is at present modified, inherent in the system itself. One of the greatest mistakes is the treatment of the pupil teacher, so far as the work is concerned, as though he were a journeyman and not an apprentice. To put a young untrained teacher to a large class, and make him responsible, often without help, and sometimes without guidance, for its entire teaching, is not to carry out the system as intended, but to fall into an error which we should do our best to avoid. Is it not to proclaim, either that we have forgotten the instrument we are using, and the needs both of the teacher and the children ; or that we fail to recognize what edu- cation should be, and have no higher ideal of the child's needs than a certain minimum acquaintance with the rudimentary branches of instruction ; and do we not also thereby show ourselves to be blind Systems of Oj'ganization. 165 to the lessons of experience, and repeat, in a slightly altered form, the most defective feature of the moni- torial system ? No doubt the understanding of schools (which has rendered the master's share of the work very severe), the necessity of bringing every child up to a certain examination standard, and the direction of the atten- tion of both teachers and managers to the money earn- ing capability of the school by the system of paying grants, have had much to do with this state of things ; but it should be remembered that they do not excuse avoidable faults in the teacher's share of the work, and that while we may do all in our power to secure the best conditions of work, it is still our duty in the meantime to do our best under such conditions as exist. Where (the pupil teacher having been properly selected) the fact is recognized that at first he is but a good monitor, and such work is allotted to him as he should be able to perform ; where it is not for- gotten that he has to be trained to his business, and the teaching required of him is gradually made of a higher or more difficult kind as his skill increases ; where it is realized that every child in the school should, during certain lessons, be brought under the influence either of the master himself, or of a skilled assistant ; we are not likely to hear much of the use- lessness of the pupil teacher's work, on the one hand, or of the defective training of the children on the other. 1 66 Organization. CHAPTER II. THE SCHOOL AND ITS APPOINTMENTS. Though the teacher may rarely have his opinion asked concerning the building of a school, and only occasionally have a voice in its fitting up, it is not the less incumbent upon him to know what a good type of school should be, and the proper means of fitting up and furnishing it, so that the work may be facilitated and carried on with the largest measure of success. He may often very considerably modify the arrangements for the better, if he is clear as to what should be aimed at. We have to consider in connection with this sub- ject, — (i) the size and shape of the rooms, with their general disposition as to each other — large room, class rooms, lobby or entrance room, lavatory, teachers' room, play-grounds covered and uncovered, and the offices in connection with them; (2) the mode of lighting; (3) the warming ; (4) the ventilation ; (5) the fittings and furniture. A. The Size, Shape, and Disposition of the Rooms. The size of the room will of course depend upon the expected attendance. The code states that ' the department will endeavor to secure at least 80 cubic The School and its Appointments. 167 feet of internal space, and eight square feet of internal area, for each unit of average attendance.' The content limit of 80 cubic feet per child is certainly a very low estimate under ordinary conditions, and in most schools is with good reason considerably ex- ceeded. The site of the school should be convenient with respect to the children's homes ; as quiet and retired as possible, and not placed in a disagreeable neighborhood ; should be healthy, well drained, and have as cheerful surroundings as may be ; and wherever practicable the building should be isolated from other structures. Small schools present little difficulty as to planning. Larger ones combining all the rooms required for three sep- arate departments — boys, girls, and infants — are generally grouped in one block of buildings, and require much more careful consideration. The more compact the arrangement, so long as it secures the proper isolation, lighting, connection of rooms in each department, &c, the better. The site of the school building will often very materially modify the grouping, and in some cases the question of cost will be no unimportant factor. The aspect with reference to sun and wind should also be taken into consideration. Where land is dear, and often difficult to procure, as in large towns, it becomes necessary to arrange the rooms in flats or stories ; but when this plan can be conveniently avoided, it should be. If it is adopted, the infants should always be placed on the ground floor. Steep and narrow staircases must be carefully avoided, and the flights should be as short as convenient. The best shape for the large room is a well-pro- portioned oblong, sufficiently wide to give desk room and floor space opposite for reading. With the usual grouping of desks 22 feet will be found sufficient, for small schools somewhat less. The width and shape of infant schools is not so important, as few desks are Organization. £> required and much of the work is of a different kind. Small schools will approach more nearly a square, while large schools will be proportionately narrower as they increase in size. The most perfectly shaped room, and much the most convenient sized school for efficient working, is one for from 200 to 250 children. Very large rooms generally necessitate waste of space, and the accessories are much more difficult to arrange satisfactorily. Within reasonable limits the loftier the school-room the better ; if it has a flat ceiling it should be at the very least 14 or 15 feet high. The genius of our English system, its scheme of teachers, classification, &c, necessitate a large room. The separate class-room system adopted in Germany and elsewhere would be a mistake, in the vast majority of instances, under our present conditions, and must, under any circumstances, tend to diminish that esprit de corps and pride in the school on the part of the children so common in England. Class-rooms should always be provided in sufficient number, and even the smallest schools should have one. The class-rooms should under ordinary circum- stances furnish the gallery-room for oral lessons ; but in addition to this in many of our large schools, with a considerable staff of assistants, class-rooms are now provided with desks, and worked pretty much like small schools under the supervision of one head. Under average conditions the class-rooms should hold from 30 to 40 children each. They should open directly on the large room, and have glass in the upper part of the door, or have a partially glazed partition. They should not be the means of communication between the school and the playground or offices. Where intended to hold desks, they must be wide enough to allow the children to be brought out on The School and its Appointments. [69 the floor for reading ; and where this cannot be ar- ranged, the desks must be such as to allow the chil- dren to stand easily between them. Change of posture must not be forgotten. In small schools it is not difficult to dispose the class- rooms suitably, but in large schools it is often no easy matter to arrange them so as not to interfere with the lighting of the large room, and yet afford facilities for proper super- vision. A common plan is to place them side by side along one side of the school, and separated from it by a partition glazed in the upper half. This plan is said not to be de- sirable, as both lighting and proper ventilation are interfered with. They should at least not be placed across the end of the school which lies to the children's left when seated in the desks, as this precludes the use of the most valuable side light which can be obtained. Where an assistant and pupil teacher are intended to work together, a class-room suffi- ciently large for two classes, separated by means of a sliding partition so that it can be used either as a single room or divided into two, is very useful. A glazed partition will render easy the oversight of the pupil teacher's work by the assistant, in the lessons where each is independently em- ployed. This seems a valuable means of training assistants to become head masters. In America the attempt is sometimes made to combine the occasional use of a large room with the general employ- ment of the class-room organization. In such cases the fitting is so arranged that the school-room can be divided into a number of separate class-rooms by sliding partitions. These isolate the children as to sight, but can scarcely do so with respect to sound. The walls of the rooms should be, wherever it can be afforded, panelled or match-boarded to a height of about 4% to 5 feet ; where this cannot be done they should be painted to this height. Above they should i jo Organization.. be colored, not white-washed as this gives an un- pleasant glare which is trying to the eyes. French grey or very light stone color answers very well. This coloring serves an important purpose in dis- tributing the light. Where boarding is used for floors, it should be of well dried timber, and of sufficient thickness to give solidity. Perhaps the best flooring for rooms on the ground floor is that made of good wood blocks laid in asphalt on a concrete bottom, or in cement. Oak is the best wood to employ, but pine is sometimes used. The blocks may be laid in an agreeable pattern with little or no additional expense, and they wear best if the grain runs perpendicularly. The lobby or cloak room should be conveniently placed with respect to the playground, and it is better that the street door of the school-room should not open directly into it, as this affords facilities for the theft of caps, &c. It should be of suitable size and well lighted, secure enough for the children to feel confidence in leaving their things in it, and be liberally provided with pegs. The bent wire pegs with a con- necting band in the middle wear much the best. In large schools, where the lobby is sufficiently large, a wooden partition about 5 feet high down the middle of the lobby affords increased peg space, and is serviceable in point of order. A folding door should communicate with the school itself. In connection with the lobby, but partitioned off from it, or better still forming a separate room, there should be a lavatory provided with iron hand basins and taps. 1 These need not be numerous, two or three basins for 1 See an excellent arrangement of tap and basin figured in Robson's ■School Architecture, p. 212. The School and its Appoi?itme7tts. 171 each 100 children are usually considered sufficient ; soap and a few school towels are also necessaries which are very frequently forgotten. When expense was in nearly all cases a. most impor- tant consideration, and any room which could possibly be dispensed with was omitted, a teacher s private room was a rare thing. Since the advent of School Boards a room of this kind has become a part of most large new schools. Such a room is convenient for the in- struction of pupil teachers, for holding surplus stock, the teacher's library, &c. It may also prove useful in case of accident or sudden illness. It is a misfortune for a school not to have a good playground in connection with it, and except in cases of practical impossibility one should always be pro- vided. It should be well fenced in, and protected from the intrusion of outsiders. 'The playground,' says Robson, ' is a most important adjunct to a school, and, whether for fresh air, exercise, amusement, rec- reation, or discipline, is quite as necessary in the production of satisfactory educational results as a class-room, or any other portion of the school proper. Not inaptly did Mr. Stow call it "the uncovered school-room." A good teacher will often be found to regard it as but another place for another kind of in- struction. ... It may sometimes happen that the plan of the buildings is so determined by the con- ditions of the site, as to leave only sunless play- grounds. Under ordinary circumstances, the aspect of these latter is quite as important as that of the school-rooms. Sun is here a necessary of life. With- out it, the playgrounds will be mere draughty yards, conducive to colds, which are the seeds of so many disorders.' 1 72 Organization. The floor of the open playground is an important con- sideration. It should have a good slope, be thoroughly well drained, and properly * made.' Fine gravel, which will bind well, does for the upper surface, but a surface of loose stones is the worst possible. Red furnace-ashes, to be obtained in some parts of the country, answer very well, but black ones should not be used. Asphalt is, perhaps, on the whole the most satisfactory; but this is somewhat expensive, and has its drawbacks. Each playground should afford means for the children obtaining water to drink. There should always be a supply of suitable appliances in the way of gymnastic apparatus, etc. A selection may be made, bearing in mind the needs of infant schools, from the following — giant-strides, swings, horizontal bars of varying heights, parallel bars either fixed in height or adjustable,, ladders, ropes and poles for climbing, a double-inclined plane, see-saws, a wooden vaulting-horse, and jumping ap- paratus. In the provision of such appliances we are very far behind most foreign schools. Where space is a consideration, arrangement may be made whereby the girls and infants may use the same yard at different times. Covered sheds, open on one side, should be provided, with asphalt floors, in the case of all large schools, to protect the children from occasional show- ers, and afford free space for recreation in wet weather. The covered playgrounds are fortunately becoming common. They are especially necessary in the case of infant schools, and in such cases form capital marching grounds. In some of the French infant schools, or salles d'asile, they are base- ment rooms, fitted up with seats, and warmed in winter. In America, too, the basement story is frequently used for this purpose, but left open to the air. A most important matter with respect to out- door arrangements is the provision of proper offices. These should be retired, and not conspicuously placed, as is often the case. They should be sufBci- The School and its Appointments. 173 ently near to the school building to be convenient for the children, and yet far enough removed to prevent any contamination of the air in the rooms. The drains should be of good size, well connected at the joints, and properly trapped and ventilated. They should have in all cases a sufficient fall to clear themselves ; ' one in forty-eight is frequently given, or three quarters of an inch in every yard ; a fall of one in sixty-five, in drains of six inches diameter, and one in eighty-seven, in drains of eight inches diameter, will give a velocity of 220 feet.' 1 Traps are often inefficient from bad laying ; if * properly laid, a trap is efficient if water stands in it to the height of three quarters of an inch above the openings/ For underground use, the ordinary syphon traps serve school purposes very well. To prevent the drains silting up, there should always be simple gulley traps in connection with the gratings for carrying off surface water. Pipes should be sufficiently large to prevent them under any ordinary circumstances from running full of water. The closets, or latrines as they are now frequently called after the French, should be small separate apartments with white glazed brick walls, which present no facilities for writing upon, and are very cleanly. Great care should be taken to have the closets frequently cleaned, and they should be under regular inspection. In the case of large schools in towns, where a caretaker is employed, the seats and floors should be washed down daily by means of a pipe and hose. The number of closets to be provided is about three to the first hundred, and one in addition for every succeeding fifty. Separate provision should be made for the teachers. Water-closets are very apt to lead to great waste of water ; 1 Parkes' Hygiene. 1 74 Organization. but, where they are used, a sufficient supply is absolutely necessary. The pans should be conical in shape, not hemispherical. Water-troughs are very useful where a supply of water and proper attendance can be secured. A large cast-iron or strong earthenware trough runs under the seats, and is kept about half full of water. By the opening of a valve the contents pass into large drains in connection with the sewer. Water-troughs should be well flushed at least once a day. Earth-closets frequently answer well, and are, perhaps, the best adapted for general use. They may be constructed either with or without dust-regulating arrangements. In many cases they are made with hinged flaps at the back, by means of which dry earth can be thrown in periodically — once a day at least. In Moule's arrangement there is a hopper above, from which the dried earth falls when a valve is opened. Powdered clay, or marl, is said to be the best earth for use, though almost any will do if not very sandy or chalky ; wood ashes answer well, but are not easily pro- cured. Fine coke-dust is a good substitute, and coal-ashes and the dust from school sweeping are also used. The urinals should be separated by slate slabs; the floor should have sufficient slope, there should be a fairly broad, but not deep trough, and the connecting openings should be large enough to allow a brush to be readily passed from one section to another. Care should be taken that the surface of the troughs is regular. Thorough and fre- quent flushing is a necessity. b. The Mode of Lighting. Good light is essential if the work is to be per- formed without strain to the sight. Windows in schools should be large and numerous, placed well up in the walls, so as never to form a background to anything exhibited by the teacher, and so arranged as to furnish both light and ventilation. The School and its Appointments. 175 Small panes break up the light too much, and try the eyes; the small diamond panes set in lead being particularly objectionable on many grounds. The panes, however, should not be too large, on account of breakage. Rods and levers are better for opening windows than cords, as being much less likely to get out of gear. All windows into which the sun can shine should have blinds provided. Excess or defect of light tends, not only to injure the eyes, but causes a drowsy depressed state of feeling, and, not unfrequently, headaches. With respect to the most suitable kind of light Dr. Liebreich says, ' The light must be sufficiently strong and fall on the table from the left-hand side and, as far as possible, from above. . . . Light coming from the right hand is not so good as that from the left, because the shadow of the hand falls upon that part of the paper at which we are looking. Light from behind is still worse, because the head and upper part of the body throw a shadow on the book ; but the light that comes from the front and falls on the face is by far the worst of all. In the first place, it does not attain the object desired; and next, it is most hurtful to the eye. The object is to make the fully illuminated faces more visible to the master ; but the children, instinctively desirous of avoiding the unpleasantness of the full glare, assume all sorts of positions, which turn their faces from the master. In reading they turn the head round the vertical axis, generally towards the right, in order to let the light fall on the book which, when held straight before them, is completely in shadow ; while in writing or in reading (the book being on the table) they bend their heads as low as possible, in order to shade their eyes by the projection of the forehead/ In some schools t 76 Organization. arrangement is made for the admission of light from above by means of skylights or a lantern. These are very good so far as illumination is concerned, as the light is free from shadow and steadier than from the sides ; but they are, especially lanterns, difficult to keep watertight. Ground glass is injurious, if light is admitted through it opposite to the eye ; it ought not, therefore, to be used for the lower panes in windows, and the same objections apply to ribbed glass. The best authorities are of opinion that the main lighting of a school should not be from the south or south-west, on account of the heat and glare in summer, but there should be some light from this direction. A room into which the sun never shines is scarcely likely to be as healthy as it should be. The way in which the school is lighted will largely determine the arrangement of the furniture, and this again will need to be taken into consideration in the disposition of the fireplaces. c. Warming and Ventilation. So closely connected are warming and ventilation, that, not only in systems avowedly intended to ac- complish both, but even in the case of the ordinary grate or stove, they need to be considered in connection. ' Warming is the motive power of ventilation.' Even in the case of summer ventilation the change of air depends mostly upon differences of temperature ; the winter difficulty however is much the greater. Winds, which are but natural convection currents, often modify considerably the efficiency of warming and ventilation. To warm a school, as is often done in Germany, without proper attention to change of air, is not a difficult matter ; Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 8 1 certain combinations of ideas. It takes as elements the ideas already existing in the mind, and selecting certain of these combines them in a way of its own ; it may be with an intensity of realism, a vividness of color, a completeness of detail, and, in its higher products, a perfection of beauty and a power of pro- ducing emotion, which completely surpass, in these respects, anything with which the other faculties supply us. The elements are natural transcripts of real exis- tences ; the product may be merely an imitative and truthful picture intensely realized ; or may be utterly unlike anything previously existing in the mind, either from its incongruity with natural things, or from its transcending them in all those qualities which go to make up ideal perfection. In the former case we pro- nounce the result unreal, grotesque, or extravagant ; and this fantastic, whimsical, ridiculous side of the imagination, which aims mainly at amusement, is often denominated/^;^. The imagination shows itself in invention, in illustration, in power of appreciation, in emotion, in dramatic power, in improvisation ; and, lastly, in that wonderful insight into truth, and that extreme sensibility to beauty, which mark the genius of the scientific discoverer or the artist. It opens up many possibilities, and its value will depend upon the original strength of the power, upon the mode in which it has been trained, and the use to which it is put. On the one hand it may serve important pur- poses of culture, both intellectual and moral ; it may add to our joys, give force to our virtues, and strengthen our faith ; it may aid us to discover ele- ments of beauty worthy of our admiration in the commonest things and circumstances of life, and help G 82 The Work of Education. to raise us above mere animal pleasures, or the absorbing contemplation of our own selfish ends ; it may assist the intelligence to penetrate into regions unknown, and enable genius to unlock for us the secret chambers of nature, or fashion for us the beauties of art. On the other hand, it may usurp the power of the other faculties, and render the mind dreamy and unpractical; it may rouse evil passions, picture degrading scenes, and make vice alluring ; it may promote a spirit of rash speculation, or blind enthusiasm, and lead to delusion or superstition ; and, further, it ' may be employed for calling into being evils which have no existence, or for exaggerating those which are real, for fostering malevolent feel- ings, and for imputing to those with whom we are connected, motives and intentions which have no foundation in truth.' * Kept in check it is a most valuable servant, but allowed to run riot and override the other faculties it is a serious source of evil. Even its disproportionate and excessive use has a tendency to destroy the balance of the mind. It is well known that novelists and poets are more prone than other men of healthy minds to insanity. ' Great wits are sure to madness near allied.' Imagination differs from memory, in that in the latter case we reproduce as faithfully as possible a pre-existing type, and carefully avoid mixing up any other elements than those previously held in connec- tion by the mind. The business of memory is to present facts as they happened ; there must be no rearrangement, no confusion, the more exact the copy the better ; in imagination only an idealized similarity 1 Abercrombie's Intellectual Powers. Imagination, Judgnicnt, and Reason. 83 is aimed at. Memory gives us a word for word translation, as it were, and confines itself to its sub- ject ; imagination gives a free rendering with added illustrations and digressions, which may be an im- provement upon the original, but is not the counter- part of it. Memory reproduces only images of real and past experiences ; imagination conjures up ficti- tious visions, and projects itself with equal facility into the past or the future. The imagination is nearly always spoken of as of two kinds: — (1) reproductive or constructive ; and (2) creative. By the constructive imagination is meant that everyday phase of the faculty, which allies itself for the most part with the intellectual side of the mind, and which is more particularly capable of cultivation, and more directly amenable to control. In its lowest aspects it is nothing more than extended conception ; the power of rapidly combining and, as it were, objectifying ideas, of realizing as vividly and truthfully as possible objects or scenes suggested to the mind — as the appearance of an animal we have never seen but have read of, the aspect of a foreign country from description, or the sufferings of a ship- wrecked mariner from our knowledge of the circum- stances. In common language we often say indif- ferently we cannot imagine or cannot conceive a thing. Some writers, indeed, make the word concep- tion cover the whole of the constructive side of the imagination, but it seems better to exclude from the former term the elements of fiction or invention prop- erly so-called — all such products, that is, as have no original. The creative imagination concerns itself more especially with discovery, with producing for us works 84 The Work of Education. of taste and beauty ; and when working in the latter direction associates with itself a large element of emotion. It is but little amenable to laws, and in its higher forms is rather a special gift than a product of cultivation. At the same time, it may be greatly invigorated by training, directed in its action, and brought into harmonious working with the other faculties. It is modified by their influence, and in turn reacts upon them. It lends its aid to the settle- ment of what is to be done in the case of difficulty, acts as pioneer in the discovery of the way, and takes a large share in portioning out the work. It is, how- ever, a late development, and except in so far as it is strengthened by the general means for the cultivation of the imagination as a whole, it does not fall within the ordinary province of the teacher. That the imagination acts very early may be seen from the vague terrors of children at suggested evils, from their intense personifying power — as shown by their mode of treating their playthings, and the way in which they credit inanimate things with life ; from their power of ' supposing ' an object to be this or that, or of transporting themselves into imaginary circumstances ; and from the keenness with which they feel the pleasures of anticipation. Many persons, however, seem to look with suspicion on the cultivation of this faculty as likely, either to render the child excitable, timorous, and apprehensive, and to inflame the passions, or to lead to that dreamy inactive state in which the mind seems always preoccupied with its own fancies. Others, again, failing to recognize the numerous useful functions of a healthy imagination, are inclined to view it as entirely ornamental, and useless for the practical concerns of life. As a matter of fact, however, the evils generally arise as the result of neglect of cultivation — from its having been left to follow its own bent, from the lack of proper regulation, and Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 85 from the absence of that proportionate attention to all the faculties which gives the mind its true power. Certainly the average child is bettered by the cultivation of the imagination. There is no subject of study which may not be aided by its proper use, and no position in life which may not be br ghtened by it, if led into proper channels. 'With reason,' as Professor Blackie remarks, 'it is often the best and the most indispensable of allies.' The fact that imagination in all its phases makes use of materials already stored in the mind, indicates that the more thorough and extended the child's perceptional training — the more ample and varied the store of ideas — the more readily will imagination find the elements necessary to its combinations. But passing over the assistance rendered in this way, we proceed to speak of some of the more direct modes by which the teacher may foster the right growth of the imagination itself. Nothing perhaps is more likely to have a bene- ficial effect upon the growth of this faculty, than promoting a reading habit, and providing children with wholesome and interesting books. There is now so much that is excellent, so much that will lighten many a weary hour, both in fiction and in poetry, that it is a real loss if no taste for, and power to enjoy imaginative works is given by the school. The necessary qualities of reading books will be spoken of in another place ; but, in addition to these, the teacher may do much in guiding the home reading of children. Many of our large towns possess free lending libraries, which the children of reading age should be encouraged to use, the teacher suggesting good books and giving a word of advice here and there respecting the reading. Wherever too the 86 The Work of Education, funds will permit, a small school library should be established. The books found in these are often too dry, too ill assorted, to serve their purpose well. Books devoted to information there should be ; but these should not form even the larger part. In these days of cheap literature — often of the most pernicious kind — we have. to present a counter attraction ; and this can readily be found in thoroughly interesting books, good standard novels of the Sir Walter Scott type, stories of honor and heroism, fables and parables, books of travel and adventure, and a judicious selec- tion of the poets. Nor need we be afraid of fairy stories or eastern tales, so long as the grotesque element does not preponderate. The teacher may often serve a double purpose by occasionally reading a short interesting story in school, with comments and questions. Valuable opportunities of training will also frequently occur during the reading lesson, and in the upper classes the children may be gradually led to appreciate some of the higher elements of poetry. The learning of select extracts of acknowl- edged excellence will not only store their minds with beautiful images, but tend to improve their taste, and provide them with standards for comparison. Pictures again serve a very useful purpose in the training of the imagination, whether used as lesson illustrations or as occurring in books. In some sets of reading books, the woodcuts throw no light, or only a confusing one, upon the lessons, and so far as their use in enabling the child to realize the story is concerned would be better omitted. It is a good exercise to allow a child occasionally to explain or 'read' the pictures, especially such as occur in the books he uses. This may best be done in the reading Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 87 lesson, the other children watching narrowly for errors and supplying omissions. The object is to elicit from the child just such a description or story, told in his own words, as the picture would exactly illustrate. The delight with which children enter into this work, the sudden brightening up of attention, the frequent skill in invention, and the little touches of humor and dramatic power displayed, render the exercise not only a good training for the imagination, but a useful and pleasant recreative break ; especially with a somewhat jaded class. The ' picturing out ' method in teaching is another aid in the culture of the imagination, and is most useful in such lessons as geography and history. And lastly, in addition to the various means described, much may be done by directing attention to the beauties of nature ; by quickening the observation, and pointing out elements worthy of admiration in the objects brought under notice ; by encouraging little experiments, mechanical inventions, or ingenuity in overcoming difficulties ; by the recital of noble, courageous, or generous actions, and by promoting the formation of a high ideal of conduct and the constant struggle after a higher degree of perfection. In the case of children given to day-dreaming we must stimulate to activity, both of body and mind ; we must arouse their interest, encourage play, and by giving them a full share of such work as answering questions during teaching, leave them little opportu- nity for turning their attention inwards. Finally, the best means of keeping the imagination in its place, when inclined to be unduly active, is not by systematic neglect — for it will find food without our aid — or any attempt at suppression ; but by 88 The Work of Education. increased attention to the strengthening of such fac- ulties as the judgment and the reason in opposi- tion to it, and by removing as much as possible all, emotional incitements to its operation. In any case, we have so to distribute exercise amongst the various powers that each may have suitable opportunities afforded to it, and the mental balance be as far as possible preserved under all circumstances. B. yudgment. When we mentally place side by side two notions or two objects or two courses of conduct, in order to examine them as to their agreement or disagreement, their truth or falsehood, or as to whether this or that is the right course to pursue, and we decide what is to be thought or done, we are said to use our judgment. In any case judgment supposes comparison, either conscious or unconscious, and selection or choice o£ one view rather than another. All thought thus involves judgment, and we see that assertions or propositions, which are but expressed judgments,, must be either positive or negative in form. The term judgment is often made to cover a great deal of ground, including not only reason, but almost every phase of mental action. As Dr. Carpenter remarks,. ' all the faculties are exercised in an act of judgment,' which according to this view comprehends the entire process of arriving at a decision. Still, it is quite possible to confine the term to the mere balance of data provided by the other faculties, and the expres- sion of the result. Just as in building a house the making of the bricks, the sawing of the wood, the carting of the materials, &c, are all necessary steps;, Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 89 yet they may be kept quite distinct from the actual process of building itself. As previously pointed out, reason is often employed as a mere synonym for judgment, but more usually it is confined to one phase of this faculty — the mental act whereby we consider in connection the force of certain previous judgments or facts of observation, and in consequence of this consideration pass on to another decision founded upon them. We shall find shortly that we commonly do this in one of two ways, either by a deductive or by an inductive process. Rea- soning is thus nothing but a higher form of judgment, involving comparison and the drawing of an inference ; an intentional starting with known facts to arrive at something as yet unknown ; an act of judgment according to certain fixed methods of procedure. The reasoning processes therefore serve to give direction to the working of the judgment, and form as it were a kind of machinery of search after truth. The province of perception is to present to the mind outward things ; the province of the repre- sentative faculties is to recall past ideas or image forth new combinations ; the province of the judg- ment and the reason is to compare and decide — ' to strip away what is merely temporary, in the multi- plicity of daily experience, and to retain that which bears upon it the marks of an universal truth, valid alike in the sphere of nature and in the region of thought.' The products of perception are ideas, and the signs words ; the products of judgment are decisions or propositions, and the signs sentences. The accurate wording of ideas and conclusions is a consideration of vital importance in connection with the judgment, and deserving of careful attention on the part of the 90 The Work of Education. teacher, both as a study, and in connection with his work. It is not sufficient only to have right ideas, or to judge correctly ; if we wish to free ourselves from all haziness of conception, to retain our notions or decisions clearly and accurately, to make them of benefit to others, or to use them readily ourselves, the expression of them in precise and compendious language is a necessity. * A country may be over-run by an armed host,' says Sir W. Hamilton, ' but it is only conquered by the establishment of fortresses. Words are the fortresses of thought. They enable us to realize our dominion over what we have already over-run in thought, to make every intellectual conquest the basis of operations for others still beyond.' It is thus a necessity in good teaching to attend to both ideas and words, thoughts and expression. We must not only see that the child grasps our meaning, but make him give back his knowledge in his own words. Questioning, writing abstracts of lessons, and ex- aminations, are all useful means to this end. Hearing words frequently and accurately used, with plenty of exercises demanding their employment, and the cor- rection as well as detection of the errors he makes, will do more for the understanding of a child than any number of formal definitions. In explaining a word, to isolate it and give a dictionary definition, even when within the range of the child's com- prehension, is the wrong method. It should always be treated in connection with the context, and the sense of the passage taken first. Sometimes this will be sufficient, and at least it will then be easy to narrow down the meaning of the particular word to the idea required. This will not only enable the child to give the signification of the word, but will show him how it should be used. Every teacher Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 91 knows that a child is frequently able to give the purport of a passage containing a difficult word, while he is quite unable to give the sense of the particular word when taken away from its connections. One meaning at a time is all that should be attempted. It is a common error to dwell upon the various significations of a new word with children. Such a proceeding is pretty certain to end in nothing but confusion, until a somewhat extended knowledge of words and meanings has been acquired ; even then it needs tact and skill. A child's ideas and vocabulary should run side by side ; to endeavor to teach either out of proportion to the other is a mistake. The everyday requirements of life are continually calling upon us for exercises of judgment, many of which we are enabled to verify and correct. The actual results of these judgments, although they may have passed from the consciousness, seem to give the mind a kind of instinctive power of looking into things, and arriving at a decision without any very definite realization of the grounds upon which the judgment is based. This faculty is usually spoken of as 'common sense,' or 'good sense,' and often exerts a very large influence upon our ordinary decisions. The more extended and varied our experience is, and the more determinately we endeavor habitually to arrive at just conclusions, the more valuable does the intuitive help to be derived from common sense become. On the other hand, as each one of us is placed in certain circumstances, which are in many respects similar from day to day, any particular decision we arrive at has an influence upon the next act of a simi- lar kind which we are called upon to perform. Thus our judgments tend to fall into special lines, and we 92 The Work of Education. come to form certain ' habits of thought,' as they are called ; the mind takes a natural bent, and loo*ks at things from a particular point of view. This habitual mental attitude very materially influences our judg- ment. Prejudices are simply exaggerated forms of this natural bias ; and in a similar way arise certain class narrownesses from which very few persons are wholly free. These ingrained tendencies account too for the very different value assigned to particular grounds of judgment by different individuals, and the very diverse decisions they sometimes honestly arrive at respecting the same thing. The prevalence and persistency of error show us how difficult it is in many matters for us to come to a right judgment, and how easily we may be led astray. These mental ten- dencies are thus very apt to mislead us, to warp our views, to keep out of sight certain elements which, should receive consideration, and to make us un- charitable and forgetful of what is due to others. It is therefore highly important that we should be as free as possible from the effects of previous mistaken judgments ; that we should keep selfish motives or party interests out of consideration ; and exercise due caution in restraining our emotions, our likes and dislikes, within proper bounds. We should also accustom ourselves to make ready allowance for factors we may have overlooked, and to view any subject brought before us for decision in as compre- hensive a manner as possible. Now as these 4 acquired conditions of mind ' are many of them formed while we are young, and as habits then generated act with greater force, and are much more tenacious, than those developed later in life, it is clear that the teacher should endeavor, as Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 93 far as he is able, to see that the tendencies formed by the child are correct ones : that his views are broad- ened as much as is consistent with his age, and that much suitable and corrected practice in judgment is afforded him. What we have to aim at is to give exactness of observation, readiness of comparison, and promptness of decision ; and to steer clear of rashness on the one hand and indecision on the other. The importance of a sound judgment can scarcely be over-rated. It ' assists moral education by enabling man easily to distinguish good from evil. It prompts him to regulate his conduct according to the various situations in which he may be placed. It produces tranquillity of soul ; for it guards against violent emotions, by the mental habit of bestowing on all things the attention which they deserve, of considering them in their true light, and estimating them by their just value. Without rectitude of judgment, man is a slave to prejudice and passion ; his memory only exposes his folly; his imagination and sympathies continually lead him astray ; his habit of observation multiplies his errors ; his spirit of invention and discovery causes his ruin ; his reasoning, although it may be logical, by starting from wrong premises brings him to false conclusions. Even moral qualities often become dangerous when unaccompanied by sound judgment: courage degenerates into rashness, indul- gence into weakness, frankness into indiscretion, economy into avarice, and religion into superstition or fanaticism.' 1 Judgment in its simplest form begins to act at a very early period, long before anything of the nature of what is usually meant by education is brought to bear upon the child. It is remarkable how soon he learns to trace analogies, detect differences, and come to simple decisions respecting the things around him. 1 Marcel, Language as a means of Mental Culture. 94 The Work of Education. As in the case of the other faculties, if we would have a child judge well we must lay the foundation in clear and accurate perceptions. These not only store the mind with data for future use, but their acquisition affords numerous opportunities of exercising a child's judgment in a suitable manner. It is thus necessary, from this point of view also, that we should train the child's observation, extend his experience of things, and strengthen his power of grasping their reality and meaning. Hazy and imperfect understanding can only end in weak and mistaken judgments. It is the training to be gained by the 'object lesson' which gives it its main value ; the facts are of secon- dary importance. If the knowledge we present to the child is not such as he can employ his powers upon, or is so crowded as not to give him proper time, we must not expect that his judgment, or any other faculty, will be much benefited. We have seen that in judgment we have two steps to take into account — comparison and decision. Now as the correctness of the latter depends upon the suc- cess with which the former has been accomplished, and results naturally from it, it follows that the great means for the early cultivation of the judgment is to accustom children to perform rapid and accurate com- parisons. How valuable this process of comparison is, in connection with the whole intellectual training, may be seen from the fact that it includes two of the three functions into which Professor Bain reduces all strictly intellectual operations — the detection of simi- larities and the discrimination of differences. With children, so far as judgment is concerned, we must begin with objects ; the order of the exercises being comparison of things as wholes, then of their Imagination, Judgment, and Reason. 95 qualities, &c., then of simple conceptions, passing on gradually to more complex acts of judgment and simple reasoning. We may seek to bring out by comparison, similarity, difference or identity respect- ing (1) quantity — as size, number, degree, equivalence, &c. ; (2) properties or qualities — as shape, color, text- ure, hardness, &c. ; (3) functions, or modes of action, uses, &c. We may also view two things as to their sequence "ami relationship — the dependence of one thing on another, which we speak of as cause and effect ; the relation of a thing to its surroundings, or adapta- tion to circumstances, and so on. The work of com- parison must be done as far as possible by the child, the teaching being directive and suggestive. Nor must there be any formal array of the measures we adopt. The more natural and unrestrained the lessons are the better ; and here as elsewhere our machinery and plans should be kept as far as possible out of sight. The exercises of the judgment in children, the comparisons they are called upon to make, should be incidental rather than systematic, especially at first. It should not be forgotten that the main things to attend to during the early stages are perceptive and conceptive training, and that the larger share of the teaching should be directed to this end. Still the teacher will find almost every lesson he comes to will supply opportunities of cultivating the judgment, and these he should not neglect. Later on definite lessons of comparison will be found very useful, if properly managed ; but even here other things will of course also need attention. While the teacher should not forget that a distinct purpose — that is, distinct to him — is essential, he must at the same time be careful not to let it run away with him. 96 The Work of Education. Elaborate special lessons, put into the strait-waist- coat of a rigidly fixed purpose, are generally weari- some ; they lack the necessary freedom for a good lesson, there is not sufficient room left for the chil- dren's minds to stretch themselves, except just in the way proposed, in consequence of which interest and attention flag, and little good results. The ends proposed, no matter how minute, may be reached without this. After progress has been made in the power of detecting resemblances, both of objects and qualities, we may gradually extend our comparisons to concep- tions on the one hand, and to a number of objects on the other, passing thus to simple exercises in generali- zation and classification. Here the attention has to be directed to the detection of the elements common to the objects or conceptions examined, and when they have been discovered the child must be led to select some common characteristic as a test of agree- ment to be applied to other objects. Lessons on plants or animals taught in the simplest way, with plenty of specimens in the one case, and of pictures or models in the other, with frequent use of black-board in both, will afford opportunities for a large number of very simple exercises in classification. Numerous other objects suitable for lessons will also supply materials for a similar training. As the child's power strengthens and he becomes able to understand them, the cultivation of the judg- ment may be carried into moral matters, and the exercises be made gradually more and more complex up to the limit of his power. We must nevertheless be careful not to go beyond it, and to proceed very slowly. History and Biography afford much material The School and its Appointments. 193 or four children, not more ; and the pupils are reached from the side by gangways leading out in lines from the front to the back of the class. In America the single desk arrangement is much in vogue, and a similar plan is in use in Sweden and elsewhere. In Holland dual desks are generally employed, and these are in use in some parts of England, especially in the Board Schools of London. In Germany and Switzerland the desks usually seat four pupils each. In the short length arrangement the desks are placed close up to each other from front to back, and five, six, or even more rows are used. There should not be more than five. The advantages of the plan are the facility with which the teacher can reach every pupil, the ease with which any child can leave without disturbing any one else, the readiness with which the size of a group can be varied, and the simplification which it affords of the difficulties attending seats with backs. The disadvantages are the greater area covered by the class, which increases the difficulty of control, and decreases the available floor space ; the difficulty of concentrating a class for oral teaching ; the greater expense ; and the increased trouble if the desks are to be kept properly in their places, without being screwed down. Where this trouble is not taken, the irregular lines, straggling scattered arrangement, and varying widths of gangway give a slovenly look to the school, which is very un- pleasant. In the long length system of arrangement the desks are made to seat six, eight, or even more children each, and are almost invariably grouped three deep, as suggested by the Committee of Council ; though they are often useful arranged in fours where the school is wide enough to allow of this. The boys o 194 Organization. are reached from the back of each row by gangways just wide enough for the teacher to pass easily be- tween each desk and the next. This arrangement increases the width required between the desks, it is a little more trouble to reach individual scholars, and a child leaving is apt to disturb other pupils. The advantages are — the floor space is economized, the classes can be readily concentrated, the desks are not easily disarranged, the cost is less, and the work can be examined more readily from behind than at the side. The practical difficulties of providing at the same time backed seats, easy means of ingress and egress, proper distance of seat from desk, and such an arrangement as will allow the child to stand up in his place, are very great, and cannot be said to be solved with complete success in any existing desk intended to seat more than one. The swing seat previously mentioned is perhaps the nearest attempt. When children are brought out of the desks on to the floor they should be placed well in front of the teacher, and may be arranged in a semi-circle, hollow square, circle, or phalanx, according to the teacher's taste. It is a common practice to mark these stand- ing places every morning with chalk. A better plan is to fix the best positions, and mark the lines with copper nails, having good sized flat heads. These are readily seen and need no renewing. 3. Teacher's Desks, &c. — For the master's or mis- tress's desk the best pattern is the one like an office writing table, strongly made with drawers down each side and a shallow drawer in the middle, the space for knees and feet being closed in front, and fitted with a narrow shelf about 8 or io inches from the top. It is better to have the top itself flat, and employ a The School and its Appointments. 195 movable slope for writing upon. The desk should be raised on the platform about 6 or 8 inches high. The head teacher's desk should be so placed that every child in the large room may be easily seen from it, and, this being secured, it should be as much out of the way as possible. Every girl's school should have a mistress's work- table. This should have one part of the top to open, with space for materials, &c, underneath, and lower down two or three good drawers. The opposite side to the one which opens^'may, if thought desirable,, have a leaf, which can be raised when greater space- is required for cutting out, &c. In well-furnished schools the teachers of the principal classes are each provided with a small light desk, having a receptacle for the teacher's books at the top. These should be made sufficiently high to be used by the teacher while standing. They should be placed on castors, and be light enough to be readily moved. In large schools at least, there should be a strong reading stand for occasional use in Scripture or collective lessons, and for other purposes. 4. Cupboards. — There should be one or two large cupboards as required to hold new books and appa- ratus, and a smaller cupboard for each two adjoining classes (or a single class if a large one), in which copy-books, reading books, slates, dusters, &c, maybe kept. In small schools class-boxes will be sufficient. Under one of the large cupboards a drawing board rack is often useful. In the case of a school possess- ing a library, and a collection of articles for lessons, proper receptacles will be needed for these. All cup- boards should be well and strongly made, the doors be- ing carefully fitted to shut close so as to exclude dust. 196 Organization. 5. Forms. — A few loose forms will always be found useful for special purposes ; they should have seats of not less than 8 or 9 inches in width, should be sufficiently strong not to give way in the middle, and should not be of too great a length. 6. Curtains. — In many schools curtains are pro- vided to isolate the classes when in the desks. They help to confine attention, and somewhat deaden the sound, but they often interfere seriously with the light from the side. It is a mistake to hang them, as is commonly done, in the middle of the gangway. Children cannot leave the class, or the teacher enter among the boys, when this is so, without disturbing the curtain, and thereby adding considerably to the wear. It should be hung on one side nearly close to one group of desks, so as to leave each group one free gangway. Various materials are in use for cur- tains ; as baize, moreen, or twill. The rod from which the curtains are hung should not be driven into the wall, but be taken through and have a plate on the other side. The free end may be supported by alight chain from the roof. 7. Hammocks or cots. — In large infant schools there should be three or four cots or hammocks in the babies' room, so that any little ones who become tired and sleepy during hot weather may be put to rest. Hammocks, like large canvas trays, after the French fashion, with rope and ring fittings for fasten- ing to hooks or brackets from the walls, have the ad- vantage that they may be rolled up and the brackets turned to the wall when not in use ; thus leaving the space free. 8. Miscellaneous. — A suitable chair should be pro- vided for the head teacher's desk ; and a few ordinary The School and its Appointments. 197 chairs for the use of visitors, and for the occasional use of the teachers in girls' schools, who ought not to be allowed to stand all day. Every school containing little children, which is warmed by fireplaces, should have these well protected by guards. Among small items of furniture may be mentioned, a map-stick, ink-well trays, can for filling ink-wells, a gong or bell, pen and pencil boxes, and a chalk box. 198 Organization. CHAPTER III. THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHILDREN. Directly the practice of instructing a number of individuals by addressing them all at the same time came into use, classification became a necessity. It is evident that the more nearly the children of a group are on the same intellectual level, both of ability and attainments, the more perfectly can the instruction be suited to their needs, the greater will be the power of emulation, and the larger the number becomes which can be taught together with success. In pro- portion as the classification is bad will the extent of the teaching influence be decreased. The difficulties which lie in the way of a perfect classification are numerous, such as wide range of acquirements with only few children ; the great dif- ferences of power, not only to grasp what is taught, but to advance, and the impossibility of judging of this in the case of new pupils ; the fact that if all start together there will soon be conspicuous diver- sities needing further readjustment ; the marked dissimilarities of ability with respect to different subjects ; the diverse periods at which the faculties begin to act with sufficient strength to be of use, a child being frequently dull in certain directions up to a particular stage and then shooting rapidly ahead ; The Classification of the Children. 199 the necessity of meeting in the best way the claims of individual and simultaneous instruction ; the need for varied treatment according to the character and idiosyncrasies of the pupils ; the differences of con- stitution, and of the effect of studies upon health ; variations of interest in school work and of anxiety to progress, arising from home influences, advantages, and previous treatment ; and the frequent deficiency in the requisite number of teachers to officer all suitable divisions well. All these points show how cautiously the teacher should proceed if the best effects are to be obtained, and how much judgment is required to adjust the balance properly, to give each element its due weight and no more. We have to fix upon certain points as forming a roughly correct criterion, and strike an average. We must be content with approximate results ; nor is an exceedingly minute and exact classification to be wished for. Up to a certain point difference is valuable ; it provokes more emulation, gives greater variety to the work, and allows the teacher greater freedom. The difficulty is so to balance requirements, as to fix the proper max- imum and minimum points for the classes, and in fairly large schools this is practically not great. A good classification places each child under the best possible average conditions of work ; it provides him with appropriate subjects of study, and puts him in the most fitting position to profit by the teaching : it ranks him with the most suitable companions for the stimulus of emulation to act ; and it enables the general business of the group to be so conducted that the action of each may tend to the benefit of all. The consideration of some of the above points led at first to the adoption of a separate classification for 200 Organization. each subject. This had the advantage of an exact adaptation of studies, it brought the children into competition with a large number of others, and into contact with several cultivated minds instead of one only ; but it was practically attended with much trou- ble and inconvenience, and was not so desirable a thing as it seemed. Not only was much time wasted and the proper distribution of work as to noise and position of classes interfered with, but it humored fancies for particular studies at an age when all-round cultivation is the thing needed. It also weakened the respect for position and the motives to exer- tion ; a boy feeling no shame for neglect of, or back- wardness in, some subjects, so long as he stood well in others. As all the school was employed at the same time in the same work it prevented the master distributing his time among the various classes in the most efficient way. The great difficulties in working soon induced teachers to abandon the manifold classification, and group the subjects into three sets : (i) reading and literary subjects ; (2) arith- metic, and allied branches ; (3) mechanical subjects, such as writing, &c. On these the classification was based. The small importance of the last, however, so far as classification is concerned, led to its aban- donment as one of the bases ; and thus the twofold arrangement was arrived at, founded on the mathe- matical side of the work on the one hand, and the literary on the other. There is much to be said for this system of grouping, but the fixing of the code standards, necessitating the bringing of all the chil- dren of one stage up to a certain general level, has led to the almost universal adoption of the single system of classification in elementary schools. The The Classification of the Children. 201 great advantages of this are the simplicity in working, the prevention of one-sided development, and the cer- tainty that all subjects of instruction included in the curriculum will receive their proper share of attention from all the children. In some of the schools of America, and elsewhere, the system is in vogue of limiting the work of each teacher to instruction in one or more subjects, which, knowing most perfectly, he can best teach ; and then making the classes circulate from teacher to teacher for their various lessons. It is claimed that when the instruction is thus given by those who become more or less specialists, it is of a higher and more useful character, that the children get more breadth of view from contact with different minds, that the teacher with a narrower range of work is able to make more perfect pre- paration, and concentrate his attention on the methods re- quired. The work, however, when once learned would lack variety, soon grow monotonous, and probably end in a mechanical routine. The plan directs the teacher's attention too exclusively to instruction, and too little to the need of knowing the scholar's disposition and peculiarities. The formation of the child's character would be everybody's, and hence practically nobody's, business. When a teacher has a class continuously under his control, he feels the respon- sibility more keenly of looking after their general welfare; there arises a sympathy and good feeling between him and his class, which not only stimulates energy, but smooths many a difficulty. If he has to deal with every class in turn, his influence has to be scattered over so great a number, that he feels little interest in the children beyond their success in the particular subject for which he is responsible. Discipline becomes much more difficult to maintain by moral power, and hence becomes more artificial in its character. If information were everything required by the child, more might be said for the plan. The system gene- rally adopted in Germany of fixing a teacher at one stage of 202 Organ ization. work until he becomes a specialist in this, and of bringing the children into contact with a different teacher every stage they rise, is much less objectionable ; though it can scarcely be doubted that, with English teachers at least, con- tinuance at the same standard work year after year would not be a gain either to the teachers or to the children. The word class came through the Latin from a root meaning to call, and hence in its original form was applied to any assembly called together for some purpose. As commonly employed in connection with schools class stands for any group of children arranged together for teaching ; but in a technical sense — as used in the examination schedule for instance — it is a fixed group standing together on the regis- ters, bearing a certain number, and as a rule forming the ordinary working division. The size of the actual teaching division may vary within certain limits from hour to hour, or day to day, according to the distribution of teachers, or the needs of the subject in hand ; the technical classes are invariable for the year, except in so far as they are modified by promotions. When for certain subjects, which may be taught by a skilled teacher in large groups, we combine two, or it may be several, of the ordinary working classes, we usually denominate these sections ; or we may apply the term to certain fixed large divisions of the school, each comprehending several of the register classes. The subdivisions of the ordinary working classes into groups of ten or twelve are almost uni- versally called drafts. It may be said that we owe the use of drafts to Lancaster, classes to Bell, and sections to Stow. In very many of the schools of America and on the Con- The Classification of the Children. 203 tinent the children are graded. Grades differ from classes principally in that they are based on an arrangement of studies suitable for different ages, and hence may be large or small according to circumstances ; while classes depend mostly upon attainments and teaching requirements. Each grade, if sufficiently large, may be divided into classes in the ordinary way. Thus if in all English schools the pupils were divided according to the standards, and the teaching divisions of these were never allowed to extend beyond the standard of which they form a part, we should have a system of grades, very similar to that in use in America : in all schools the number of grades would be fixed, and the num- ber of classes would depend upon the size, &c. In Prussia, where all children are compelled to begin school work at the same age, each of these grades really covers one year's work. A- rigid system of this kind has administrative ad- vantages, but it has its defects so far as the children are concerned, as will be noted when we speak of age. A. Practical Considerations respecting Classification. 1. The first thing is to estimate correctly the extent of the boys' attainments, and to do this requires a searching examination in the branches selected as tests. We have to rely upon the information gained, as shown by this examination, and upon apparent in- telligence. The parents' estimate of a child's knowl- edge or ability must be received with caution. Where previous progress has been uniform in all the three rudimentary subjects, there is not much difficulty; but where considerable diversity in this respect exists, it becomes necessary to balance the claims of one sub- ject against another. It seems natural to adopt as the main test the one of the three subjects which is most 204 Organization. dependent upon sound class teaching. This is un- doubtedly arithmetic. Writing is mechanical and the instruction mainly individual. Reading is mostly a matter of corrected practice, and for this the groups may be subdivided if required. Backward children again may be much more easily and successfully coached in reading than in arithmetic. In case then we have to decide respecting progress in these two sub- jects, the latter should have the most weight attached to it. Cases of exceptional unevenness of attainment will become fewer and fewer as regular attendance at school is enforced ; the most difficult ones now met with are those in which the child has been previously educated at a private school. In such cases more attention should for a time be directed to those sub- jects in which the pupil is below the common level. 2. The size of the school often largely affects the sat- isfactoriness of the classification. Where the range of knowledge is small — for instance in schools confined to higher or lower standards — classification is much simplified. Village schools often afford considerable trouble. The larger the school, other things being equal, the more exact may the classification be made. 3. The last standard passed is the first rough test, and should settle the group to which the child should belong ; though in a large school there may be several classes in the group preparing for the same standard, and other considerations will determine where he should be placed. No intermixture of classes or stand- ards is allowed on the examination schedule : hence when a boy has passed a certain standard, but is very backward (it may be he has been away from school for some time), it is sometimes difficult to place him well. His attainments would lead us to put him with The Classification of the Children. 205 boys of a lower standard than the one he should be preparing for, and this would lead to confusion. If he is very far behind, it is better to place him where he will be only a little below the general level, and insert his name on the schedule among the exceptions. 4. The number and quality of the teachers need also to be taken into consideration in settling the limits of the classes. The number of separate groups must not be more than can be efficiently officered, and each class must not be larger, or require a wider range of teaching, than the teacher into whose charge it is to be given can well manage. It is a mistake to give any teacher, whether certificated or not, a class of the size we sometimes hear talked of as answering on the continent. No teacher can, under average conditions, teach 80 or 100 children with thorough efficiency in the ordinary branches of instruction. 5. The subjects to be taught largely influence the suitability of a certain size of class. Oral teaching may often effectively be given to large groups, and hence for some lessons, where circumstances will ad- mit, two or even more classes, according to their size, may be combined. For other lessons, as arithmetic, the ordinary classes, say of 30 children, seem most suitable ; while reading, requiring as it does a large amount of individual practice — which unlike the case of writing cannot be effectively obtained unless one boy is taken at a time — is best taught in small drafts drawn from the classes. 6. Age should not as a rule be allowed much weight in classification. Even under the most per- fect and long continued system of national education, it can never be a sound principle on which to group children for teaching. Its employment as a classi- 2o6 Organization. fication test supposes a uniformity of growth in chil- dren which does not exist and that each faculty conies into useful activity at the same time in all children and develops at a similar rate; whereas the power to apply the mind in a particular way frequently commences in different children at very diverse ages, acts with much irregularity, and shows considerable variations in the rapidity of its growth. As a general test, then, age occupies a very subordinate place ; but there are a few cases where it must be taken into account. A child may have parents who feel no interest in educa- tion, and hence may have been allowed to spend his time at home, or he may have been neglected from other causes, till compelled. by the law to attend school. His ignorance would lead us to place him, perhaps, in the lowest class in the school, or nearly so, among boys altogether his juniors. But this would be an evil in many ways. He will probably associate his degradation with learning, and so be prejudiced against it ; he will feel himself aggrieved, and oppose him- self to the school which has so treated him ; lastly, the hopelessness of rising so far as to join those of his own age will be likely to dishearten him, and he will be inclined to let things take their chance. His influence over his class- fellows, not from his age alone, but from his greater ex- perience and the natural way in which he assumes command, may be of a very pernicious kind. His knowledge of evil will probably be much more extended than theirs, his ex- ample an evil one, and he is likely to be a ringleader in mischief, or perhaps to play the part of a petty tyrant over his comrades. Here, then, for the good of himself and others, we must make allowances, place him on account of his age considerably higher than we should otherwise do, and encourage and help him as much as possible. 7. Keadjustment and promotion need much more at- The Classification of the Children. 207 tention than they seem to receive. The year's work, laid down in the * standard ' requirements, indicates the amount of work which a child of average ability under ordinary circumstances should be able to accom- plish well. There are doubtless, on one side, a few very dull and backward children, who are unduly strained in order to bring them up to the necessary level in the time ; but there are, on the other, many quick and intelligent scholars, who can accomplish more, but who are kept back and made to go over day after day exercises they can perform with ease, while attention is given to the dull ones. One of the very worst features of our present practice is this ten- dency to reduce all to a dead level of acquirement. To those who could progress the retardation till the examination is passed is a great evil. They find time for mischief, they grow weary of this intellectual treadmill, by which they constantly move but never advance ; they frequently become irregular ; they pick up indolent and inattentive habits ; they interfere with their slow comrades, and not infrequently retro- grade themselves. This state of things should not be allowed to exist. Frequent promotions are to be deprecated, nor should a child be moved until he is thoroughly well grounded, but there seems to be no reason why at the end of six or nine months those who can perform their standard work easily should not be put up. They might be made to keep up their class subjects from their books, and be worked in their proper standard again for a few weeks just before the examination. Another plan would be to form those who pass the test examination into a draft, and let them sit by themselves in the class and work largely from their books at more advanced exercises. 2o8 Organization. b. Mixed Schools. The question of the co-education of the sexes is one which has been very much discussed, especially in America, and conclusions the opposite of one another have been arrived at. In England, except in the case of Wesleyan schools, which from their early adoption of Stow's principles adhere to the plan in many instances, mixed schools (excluding infant schools) have nearly always been adopted as an economical expedient, and quite apart from the question of the benefit or not arising from the admixture of boys and girls. The limited number of the children to be provided for in many country places, and the unavoidable waste- fulness in such cases of supplying two schools, led naturally to the grouping of the sexes together under one head teacher. In Scotland Stow's influence is still felt, so that many of the schools are mixed, and the plan is much employed in Holland and Switzer- land. The system has not found much favor in Ger- many or France ; and where it is employed in the latter country, the Government circular requires the separation of the sexes by a partition which must be at least a metre and a half high. In America, how- ever, the system is strongly believed in, and prevails to a very large extent in the lower grades of primary schools. It is also adopted very frequently in second- ary schools, and even in some of the colleges. In England the head teacher is generally a master, in America more frequently a mistress. In the case of villages the plan is undoubtedly a valuable makeshift. Here, too, the children knowing The Classification of the Children. 209 one another, less objection can be urged against its use than in the case of town schools. The general view taken in England, that beyond the infant age it is better wherever the circumstances will allow to have separate schools, is probably the right one ; though the evidence on many sides seems conclusive that mixed schools can be made, not only efficient, but to possess in numerous instances advantages in the way of general training. ' Where there has been,' says an American writer, 'a thorough and proper trial of the co-education of boys and girls, the testi- mony seems to be strongly and almost exclusively favorable to that system. In many of the large cities of the Union this is the prevalent plan of organiza- tion, and the reports of superintendents are quite emphatic in its approval.' The objections generally urged against the plan, many of which no doubt obtain to a greater or less degree, are, that the education of boys and girls, having somewhat different ends in view, cannot be properly made identical in the means : that a uniform discipline cannot be administered without much injury, the girls needing often to be treated in quite a different way from the boys ; that the girls become forward and self-assertive, and lose, in a way never to be regained, that innate modesty and sense of pro- priety, that delicacy of both feeling and action, which distinguishes the sex when properly trained ; that the girls having to learn needlework and other things, in addition to the ordinary subjects, can scarcely be ex- pected to make as much progress in these as boys, and for them always to figure as laggards is unfair ; and finally, that where a master is employed there is no room for the development of those little affectionate 210 Organization. traits which distinguish the intercourse of girls with a mistress. In opposition to this it is held, by those who have worked the system long and thoroughly, that when properly carried out the evils do not exist : that the girls exert a refining influence upon the rougher and coarser natures of the opposite sex, and that the stimulus of working with boys improves their intel- lectual tone ; that the shy, timorous, nervous manner of many girls is improved, and greater independence of action, greater self-reliance implanted ; that the system tends to check that rudeness and disrespect to women which-are unfortunately so common, and that the girls brought up with boys regard them less as objects of wonder, and are thus less romantically inclined. After all, it seems the question is mainly one of good or bad government. Under a judicious and skilful teacher, alive to the needs of both sexes, and aware of the evils likely to arise, a mixed school may serve its purpose admirably ; but there can be little doubt that the benefits sometimes claimed are extrava- gantly stated, and are not realized in numerous cases, while effects of a prejudicial character arise, especially to the girls. Where the system is in working great care should be exercised ; separate playgrounds and cloak-rooms should be provided ; the offices and their approaches must be perfectly detached ; the sexes should not be allowed to mix promiscuously in the class, but be grouped in different parts ; and the girls should not act as monitors. The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 211 CHAPTER IV. THE QUALIFICATIONS, DUTIES, AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE TEACHERS. ' I do verily believe,' says Professor Wayland, ' that nothing so cultivates the powers of a man's own mind! as thorough, generous, liberal and indefatigable teach- ing ' ; and we may add, no profession affords greater opportunities of usefulness, no labor is fraught with more momentous results, or to the true worker affords greater satisfaction when successfully performed, than that of the teacher. Almost everything, however, depends upon the spirit in which the work is carried on. If it is viewed merely as a means of earning a respectable livelihood, and the teacher is always on the look out for something to turn up; if its troubles and difficulties are magnified by being dwelt upon, and we refuse to count its pleasures ; if the children are looked upon as so many ' bristling fragments of humanity', in whom perversity, stupidity, and rebel- liousness are the most strongly marked features ; if the only end aimed at is the pressing children through a certain minimum of required instruction ; if it be- comes to us the reluctant performance of a spiritless routine of duty, — then its possibilities of weariness, disgust, and disheartenment are almost boundless, and it grows to be a slavery to which Egyptian bond- 212 Organization. age were preferable. ' Teaching is the noblest of all professions,' says Mr. Fitch, 'but it is the sorriest of trades ' ; and he adds, ' he who takes his work as a dose is likely to find it nauseous.' If, then, the teacher would perform his work, not only with profit to the scholars but with happiness and satisfaction to himself, it is necessary that he should take a high view of his duty ; he must endeavor to cultivate those qualities which will enable him to perform it successfully, with the mini- mum of weariness, worry, and irritation, and be ever on the alert for improvement, or more skilled methods of procedure. He should be an enthusiast, but no visionary ; a man of many devices, yet fanatically attached to none ; hopeful, and inclined to take a cheerful view of things, yet not easily deceived by appearances ; full of sympathy for little children, and prepared to make all due allowances for natural way- wardness ; having faith in himself without arrogance or conceit, and while fully recognizing his own re- sponsibility, ready to give a full share of credit to the efforts of those associated with him in the work. He must take care also to be at all times a worthy example to his children, bearing in mind the strength of the tendency in them to imitation. There is no calculating the mischief which an irritable gloomy temper may do. His cheerfulness should keep his scholars on good terms with themselves, and encourage the flagging efforts of his subordinates. He should be able to interpret the workings of any boy's mind in terms of that mind, and not heedlessly put a construction upon them in accordance with his own habits of thought and action. He should be, as it were, in electric commu- The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 213 nication with every part of his school ; able on the instant to interpret action aright, and ready at once to remedy any derangement of the machinery, or make good any broken sympathetic connection. His influ- ence should be felt at all points — 'an influence unseen, perhaps, and unobtrusive, but all-pervading ; free from the slightest taint of distrust or suspicion, but checking insubordination before the thought of it has taken form ; exacting a faithful performance of duties, yet encouraging by its inspiration before despondency has attained a conscious existence ; soft and gentle as a mother's hand on the brow of a sick child, yet holding the reins of authority, and controlling the very motives of action, like the hand of fate.' 1 Energy must not deteriorate into restlessness or noise, vigilance into espionage, confidence into neg- lect of precautions, or system into a mere mechanical routine. A good teacher will never rest content with the present state of things, however excellent ; but at the same time he will recognize exactly the limits to which a thing is practicable and useful. His methods, both of management and of teaching, should always be in a progressive state. They should grow from within — the better elements gradually thrusting outwards those which are less satisfactory — and not by patch- ing from without, until all* unity of design is lost. He should not attempt to fit stereotyped plans to all circumstances ; what we want is more power of in- vention, of adaptation, more originality and less blind imitation. He should be of an inquiring turn of mind, given to make careful observations of child-nature, and to try experiments in teaching or government. 1 G. Howland in * Education* 214 Organization. He should strive to cultivate the same simple, thoughtful seeking after truth which distinguished Faraday. He will not begin all sorts of grand re- forms and new schemes without counting the cost, and considering carefully what good is likely to accrue from them. When a reform has been decided upon, gradual and steady insistence is what is needed — all violent and sudden changes in school-work are to be deprecated. A sudden burst of fiery zeal is almost always followed by a frosty reaction. A word must suffice about the teacher's reading. The habit is one of great value to him not only in making him acquainted with the work of teachers in the past — this is the smaller gain ; but in preventing his becoming narrow-minded, in ridding him of that 'shoppiness' which clings more or less to most profes- sions, and in affording a wholesome and pleasant means of recreation. It provides him also with an abundance of illustrations, and often adds to the life and clearness of explanations. Travel and the obser- vation of men and things are additional means tend- ing toward the same ends. Anything which will add to his * culture in matters of general human interest ' should not be lightly cast aside ; and even a ' good reliable hobby' has very numerous uses. Teaching, it is true, is a difficult art, but with the wish to succeed, by thoughtful study and patient practice, and the careful noting of the lessons of experience, it can be acquired in an eminently useful degree by almost every one ; and the reward to him who is earnest in his work is well worth the expendi- ture both of time and of trouble. The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 215 a. The Staffing of Schools. The teachers now recognized by the Education Department are, Code of 1882, (1) pupil teachers, (2) assistant teachers, (3) provisionally certificated teach- ers, (4) certificated teachers, (5) evening school teach- ers. The following are the Code requirements with reference to the staff of a school : — It is one of the conditions of grant that the principal teacher shall be certificated ; there are, however, several ex- ceptional cases. (See Code 1882, Art. 93.) 'In estimating what is the minimum school staff re- quired, the Department considers the principal certificated teacher to be sufficient for an average attendance of sixty, each additional certificated teacher for an average attend- ance of eighty, each assistant teacher or provisionally cer- tificated teacher for an average attendance of sixty, each pupil teacher for an average attendance of forty, each can- didate for a pupil teachership, on probation under Article 40, for an average attendance of twenty.' 'In mixed, girls', and infant schools a woman over eighteen years of age and approved by the Inspector, who is employed during the whole of the school hours in the general instruction of the scholars and in teaching needle- work, is accepted as equivalent to a pupil teacher.' ' Where vacancies in the office of any teacher, other than the principal teacher, occur in the course of a school year, and are duly reported to the Department, temporary monitors employed in place of the teachers causing the vacancies are recognized as part of the school staff, one monitor being accepted as equivalent to a pupil teacher or candidate, and two monitors as equivalent to an assistant teacher or assistant certificated teacher, provided always that the vacancies are supplied not later than the end of the school year by the appointment of duly qualified teachers.' 2 \6 Organization. £>' 1 Teachers appointed in the course of a school year are,, as a rule, recognized by the Department only from the date at which their appointment is notified to the^Department.' ' No grant is made to an infant class with an average attendance of more than sixty unless it is taught by a cer- tificated teacher, nor to an infant class with an average at- tendance of more than forty unless it is taught by a teacher over eighteen years of age approved by the Inspector.' A common misapprehension seems to exist as to what constitutes a completely efficient school staff so far as the number of teachers is concerned. The Code requirements are not put forward as indicating a sufficient staff for obtaining the best results, but as- showing the lowest number of teachers which a school can have to escape a fine for defective teaching power. This ' starvation minimum,' as it has been called,, should be exceeded wherever the funds of the school will admit. To teach 40 children continuously is more than ought to be expected of any young pupil - teacher. It is now held by many of the larger school boards, and by the better informed managers of voluntary schools, that a much more liberal provision must be made, if the schools are to do their work so as to give the maximum of intelligence and usef ulness-^- if they are to give heed not only to the amount of information required for an examination pass, but also to those educational results which have been too long* neglected. Professor Huxley's Committee reported to the London School Board, in 1871, ' that the mini- mum number of teachers for a jtmior or a senior school of 500 children should be sixteen — viz. one principal teacher, four assistant certificated teachers, and eleven pupil-teachers ; and that the teaching staff should be increased by one assistant certificated teacher and The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 217 three pupil-teachers for every additional 1 20 children.' This is two pupil-teachers over the minimum require- ment for every 120 children. At the present time ' the School Board for London allows about one assist- ant or two pupil-teachers for every 60, or fractional part of 60 children after the first 30, and other boards are equally liberal in their arrangements, by means of which thorough efficiency, and as a natural result increased grants are secured.' The forty children per pupil-teacher limit has been in force since 1859. The Revised Code of 1861 placed no limit upon the number of pupil-teachers employed, so that the whole staff beyond the head teacher might be so com- posed. In 187 1 the first New Code was issued, and next year the following article was added, to take effect after April 1, 1873, as one of the conditions: — 'That not more than^^r pupil-teachers are engaged in the school for every certificated teacher serving in it.' This number was sub- sequently reduced to three ; in 1880 to two (to take effect March 1881) ; and now finally by Code of 1882 the number of pupil-teachers recognized by the Department must not exceed three for the principal teacher and one for each certificated assistant teacher. There is no doubt that in some, if not many, schools much power is lost by faulty distribution of the work ; the teachers not having those duties assigned to them which they can best perform, or not being placed in circumstances where their work will tell with greatest effect. b. The Master. The chief school duties of the master are of four kinds — (1) organization, (2) teaching, (3) superinten- 2 1 8 Organization. dence and conduct of work, (4) examination. How his time is to be distributed among these various claims will depend upon the size of the school, the general arrangements, and the kind of assistants he has. He has first to arrange and distribute the school work in the most effective way. He should lay down periodically a certain syllabus of study, and let each teacher know definitely, not only what duties are required of him, but what work his class will be expected to master by a given time. To prevent loss of time each teacher should keep by him and make himself acquainted with the portion of the time table which more immediately concerns him. In a school of moderate size the master has not only to superintend the working of the school, examine into the work of his subordinates, and give occasional lessons to the various classes, but hold himself responsible also for the teaching of one special section. This should be by all means the most advanced. Careful logical teaching is here nec- essary, to train the children to think clearly, rapidly, and correctly, and the master, as the most skilful and accomplished teacher, can do this most efficiently. Further, it is here that the disciplinary influence arising from contact with the master will tell with greatest effect, and go a long way towards forming that healthy public opinion and respect for authority, which tell so powerfully upon the whole school when they obtain among the elder pupils. In very large schools, while the master should give as much attention as possible to the teaching of the higher classes, he will be unable to carry on the whole working of any one group, and should limit himself to The Qualifications ; &c. of the Teachers. 219 the more important lessons. Much more time will need to be spent in the work of general arrangement and conduct, in the supervision and testing of the work of his assistants, and in giving lessons here and there as he finds he can best make his teaching tell. Though the master may expect the co-operation of his assistants in all matters which further the interests of the school, he should hold himself directly- responsible for all inflictions of corporal punishment, the inspection of home lessons, the dealing with late- coming, attention to absentees, the daily review of the children as to cleanliness and neatness, and all communications with the parents. In dealing with parents much circumspection is needed. It is highly important to secure their goodwill and co-operation. The way in which the teacher is spoken of at home has much influence on the behavior of the child at school. Directly or indirectly parents get to know, at least, any defects in the management of the school, are often very unreasonable, and inclined to magnify small matters. The master should listen patiently to any complaints, and, if they are of real moment, should do his utmost to remedy the defect ; if frivolous, he should point out to the parent the mischievous effects paltry complaints are likely to have on their children. He should make it clear that school rules have been carefully framed, and must not be broken ; but while he firmly adheres to what he thinks right, he should treat a parent who differs from him with courtesy. Any off-hand assertion of authority, or loss of tem- per, is sure to damage his reputation, and that of the school. An offended parent may do much mischief. In particular cases the master may do well to call upon the parents, and he should bear in mind that in 220 Organization. many instances he has to convince and influence them in order to effectually reach the boy. He should not be so burdened with teaching as to be worried by the impossibility of performing his duties efficiently. He should not be hampered by a great number of minor rules and regulations, and while he should be ever ready to accept suggestions, he should not have the plans of others forced upon him without his being consulted in the matter. If useless and troublesome restrictions are laid upon him, it is his duty courteously but clearly to point out the evil consequences likely to ensue. He should be the last person to raise the standard of rebellion. If he wishes his subordinates to yield a loyal and rational obedience to this behests, he should listen to anything they may have to say, and be in this, as in other matters, an exemplar of his own doctrines. c. Adult Assistants. Where several assistants are employed each should be made responsible for a certain group of children, and one or more of the younger pupil-teachers, as re- quired, associated with him in the work. The assistant should not only take his share in the teaching, but should superintend and direct the labors of his younger brethren. The most difficult oral lessons and explanations he should reserve for himself, and where two classes can be united for these the pupil-teacher should be allowed to stand by and see the lesson taught, and take notes of any special devices. Oc- casionally such lessons may be entrusted to the pupil- teacher, after he has made careful preparation, the assistant or master acting as critic, and making sugges- The Qualifications , &c. of the Teachers. 221 tions or pointing out defects after the lesson is finished. So far as the teaching is concerned, each group should be taught pretty much as though it were a small school in itself, the conditions of work being simplified. As the care of the higher classes should be the special work of the master, when he takes any partic- ular section of the teaching, so the lowest section of the school, as being the next post of difficulty and importance, should be given to the most skilful, suit- able, and energetic assistant. The work at the bottom of the school needs a teacher of cheerful, patient, vivacious temperament, gifted with much skill in fixing attention, and in presenting facts in a vivid and interesting way to little children. It is a very great mistake to give the lowest group of children to an in- experienced or unskilful teacher. The middle classes of the school are much the easiest to teach, and any want of care and skill does not tell so prejudicially here as either above or below. An assistant should not be too full of his own plans, but ready to defer to the superior knowledge and experience of the head-master, to whom he should look up as to an elder and more skilful brother whose advice is valuable. He should do his best to further the aims of the latter, endeavor to enter into the spirit of the duty required, and honestly try to carry out the general design of the school work. On the other hand, the assistant should be treated as a friend. The master's dignity should be felt, not seen, and if matters are properly managed there will be cordiality between the two without undue familiarity. The latter is likely to lead to the assistant taking liberties, freeing himself from control, and becoming disrespect ful in manner. Any suggestions of improvement, 222 Organization. however, he may make should receive attention, and any promising plan he may wish to try with his own section should receive the master's sanction. The work of the assistants should be regularly supervised and periodically tested, not as though the master doubted their skill or industry, but simply as a part of a regular system of inspection and examina- tion applying to the whole school. Defects should be pointed out to them, and remedies suggested. At the same time they should receive full credit for their successes. d. Pupil-Teachers. . The pupil-teachers should be placed according to teaching ability, power of command, and experience. They should not at first have the entire care and re- sponsibility of any class. Their work should be graduated as far as possible, so as to become of a more educative character, and increase in difficulty and freedom from year to year. To give a young teacher a class of fifty or sixty children, require him to work the whole day, perhaps in a close room, scold him if the boys do not make progress, and expect him besides to make good headway with his own home lessons, is to strain both body and mind ; to destroy all liveliness, and produce a jaded irritable being who is disgusted with his work, whose interest in methods has all gone, and whose only notion of teaching is that of a dull never-ending mechanical grind. The master should not let anything interfere with his duty to teach the pupil-teacher his business ; even on the very lowest grounds of securing good results, economy of labor and time, and avoidance of trouble, it will pay to give attention to the training of a pupil- The Qualifications , &c. of the Teachers. 223 teacher. The great thing is to arouse and foster in him a liking for his work, to interest him in teaching, and in children. He should be trained to steadiness of purpose, and encouraged under difficulty ; should not have tasks assigned him too great for his strength ; opportunities should be afforded him of seeing lessons skilfully taught, and his own efforts should be privately criticised in a kindly and suggestive spirit. He should be. taught to hold in detestation all flimsiness and sham, whether of an intellectual or moral kind, and made to feel the value of uprightness, earnestness, and resolution. He should not be subjected to too many restrictions, and he should be led to see that continued progress is necessary. We do not want to make him an exact epitome of ourselves, rather an intelligent disciple, who, with increased advantages, may event- ually carry on the work to a point beyond that which we ourselves have reached. Much of the master's in- fluence upon the character and success of the pupil- teacher will depend upon the way in which he is treated when off duty ; the interest taken in him, the chats about his tastes and pursuits, the indirect word dropped at a suitable moment, and the consistency of the treat- ment to which he is subjected both in and out of school. Great care and discrimination need to be exercised in the selection of candidates. Many of the difficulties of the teacher arise from his having accepted hastily some boy, it may be of quick parts, but quite unsuited to the work of teaching. Good health and spirits, general intelligence, and an earnest, upright, teachable character, are essentials ; then come sympathy with little children, aptitude in managing them, attainments and interest in study, and desire to learn to teach. General vigor of disposition should also have some 224 Organization. weight : a boy of influence in the playground, skilled in games, and to whom his companions defer, will often, if suitable in other respects, make the best of teachers. Home circumstances and influences must always be taken into account. Wherever it is possible to free the pupil-teacher for a short period each day from duty with a class it should be done. The time spent in study will be a rest from his ordinary labors, and give encourage- ment to the formation of a reading habit. The home studies of the pupil-teacher should re- ceive careful attention. Regularity of study should be insisted upon, and encouragement given to the thorough mastery of the necessary subjects. Much time is often allowed to be spent on advanced studies before the rudimentary ones have been at all soundly learned. This generates a taste for novelty, a super- ficiality of work, and a disinclination to continuous effort at one thing ; all of which prove hindrances to real progress. The instruction by the master should.be given on some well considered scheme. There should be frequent written exercises, and test examinations should be given at short periods. Many a young teacher, who is creditably acquainted with his work, does badly at the annual examinations from want of experience. Recently a system has been tried in some places of instructing the pupil teachers from several schools at one centre, by a series of teachers for the various subjects. So far as this is intended merely to save each master's labor, and be a substitute for his in- struction to his own teachers, it is surely a mistake. As an additional means of help, and with special provision of instruction, it may have its uses. The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 225 With reference to the study of the professional side of the work, one or other of two mistakes is very frequently made. Either the young teacher receives no instruction at all in method, or an advanced treatise is put into his hands from which he is unable to select the few plain directions he wants, and which proves a source of bewilderment rather than help. The first code of instructions should be drawn up by the master himself, embodying only a few of the most important points, which serve as a ground work, or concerning which mistakes are likely to be made. Any teacher of experience will readily be able to frame such a code for the use of his pupil-teachers, in accordance with his own views. The following may be of use as an illustration of what is meant. Suggestions for Pupil-Teachers. I. Class Management. 1. Strive to govern by the eye, not the voice. Stand well back from your class so as to see every boy. Have dull, backward, and restless boys in front. Separate mis- chievous children. 2. Give as few orders as possible, but be firm in having them promptly and thoroughly obeyed when given. Try to impress children with the respect due to law. 3. Good discipline is impossible with children unem- ployed. Allow no waste of time in beginning. 4. Avoid speaking in a loud blustering tone. Be ever on the alert, and warn where necessary. Do not scold, and never threaten. 5. Give careful attention to details. Know your boys. 6. Never sneer at children. Be cautious not to damp their natural ardor and gaiety. 7. Authority should be felt not seen. The need for Q 226 Organization. much punishment means, in nearly all cases, weak handling. If children are troublesome look to yourself first. //. Teaching. i. Distinguish clearly in teaching between the means and the end. In class teaching every boy must receive individual attention. 2. Do not hurry ; much good work is spoiled by being scampered over. 3. Try to make children think ; do not rest content with loading the memory. 4. Do not waste time in long introductions. Recollect there should be a proportion of parts in every lesson. 5. Let your teaching be varied, not only to keep up interest, but that you may reach every boy's mind by some means. 6. A good teacher is constantly a censor of his own work. Bear in mind you are forming good or bad teaching habits. 7. Attention must be obtained principally by interest, manner, and work ; it cannot be secured by a mere exercise of authority. 8. Remember that the black-board is a great help in nearly all lessons. 9. Learn to detect by the appearance of your class whether the children are in sympathy with and following you, or not. 10. Practise all the teaching devices, use none exclu- sively. Strive earnestly to attract sympathy and attention from your class. Interest the children, and endeavor to take every one with you. III. ' Oral' Lessons. 1. Take care that you have a clear aim in view; re- member these lessons should be especially educative. 2. Distinguish carefully between important and unim- The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 227 portant facts. Connect your information as much as pos- sible with a few leading truths. 3. Avoid too wide a range; keep to the view you take so as to preserve the unity of your lesson. 4. Wherever you can do so, without roundabout teaching, question the facts from the children, group, and summarize them. 5. Do not overload your lesson with facts; look to the sequence of your work; and avoid wandering from your subject. 6. Thoroughly illustrate your lesson. Compare and contrast objects where possible : discrimination of diffe- rences, and discovery of agreements, are valuable means of training. IV. Scripture. 1. A Scripture lesson is a difficult one to teach, and hence will need thorough preparation. Remember that it should not be a mere history lesson. 2. Endeavor to make boys feel the practical lesson rather than learn it as a matter of mere information. 3. Be careful to have a distinct object in view, and let every part of the lesson tend towards this. 4. Where the lesson will admit of it sum up by a suitable text. V. Reading. 1. Be careful to arrange boys well, and stand well back from your class. 2. Do not attempt too much ; remember that hearing boys read is not teaching reading. 3. In simultaneous reading be very scrupulous to have exact imitation of the teacher ; beware of allowing sing-song. 4. Have words said before they are spelled ; syllable words on the black-board ; compare similar words. In the lower classes give phonic exercises. 5. Allow mutual correction, and constantly appeal to the black-board in the case of difficult words. 228 Organization. 6. Explanations should be sufficient but brief ; a reading lesson is not to be made an * oral ' lesson. VI. Writing. i. Teach, do not merely examine; constantly appeal to the black-board for corrections, &c. 2. See that instructions respecting posture are not only given, but carried out. 3. Make boys show books every few lines, and carefully correct errors. 4. Look to improper spacing, bad joinings, irregularity of size, and incorrect formation of the letters. VII Dictation. 1. In this lesson spelling should be taught, not merely examined; hence some preparation of the words should have been made before giving out. 2. Leave at least half the time for detection and correc- tion of mistakes. 3. Do not 'give out' the spelling for boys to correct from ; let them have something to see. 4. Be especially careful about correction of errors. 5. Be very watchful to prevent copying. VIII. Arithmetic. 1. Be careful to ascertain before commencing to teach that every boy has the necessary materials. 2. Arrange the class so as to have backward boys in front ; give these a large share of the black-board work and of individual help. 3. Look to the grouping of figures into threes in no- tation. 4. Insist upon a uniform method of working in teaching subtraction. Avoid the 'borrowing and carrying' plan. 5. Distinguish between lessons intended to teach a new rule, and lessons of practice. The Qualifications, &c. of the Teachers. 229 6. Be especially watchful and cautious about discipline ; endeavor to render copying impossible. As a rule let ad- jacent boys have different sums. 7. Make frequent use of the black-board for illustrations, but as a rule dictate examples to be worked IX. Grammar. 1. Remember this is a difficult subject to little children ; and that the teacher should therefore do his utmost to render the teaching simple, clear, and interesting. 2. Proceed from known to unknown. In teaching the parts of speech give words first, then the name of the class, then the definition. 3. Constantly refer boys back to the definitions as tests. Give plenty of exercises. 4. Teach the rules thoroughly, and let them fix them- selves in the children's minds before giving lists of ex- ceptions. X. History. 1. Distinguish carefully between important and unim- portant events. 2. Connect facts carefully together; many lessons are of little value from being mere collections of fragments. 3. Teach by vivid lecture in portions, with thorough examination by questions at the end of each, and carefully sum up the principal points. XL Geography. 1. Bear in mind that one great and common evil is the teaching of words instead of ideas. Teach geography, not mere names. 2. It is useful to draw a blank map on the black-board for teaching, and then to use the printed map for examina- tion. 3. Let descriptions be vivid but truthful. Carefully sum up and impress the important facts. 230 Organization. e. Monitors. Though not now officially recognized by the department, except to supply until the next inspection a deficiency which has arisen in the school staff in the course of the school year, monitors may be occasionally employed with much advantage in schools where the teaching staff is small. The principal conditions to be borne in mind in their use are : (1) that they should be employed for short periods only, so that their duties as teachers may not interfere with their work as pupils, and may be viewed in the light of a reward ; (2) that they are put to suitable work, as hearing repetition of tasks, helping dull individuals, giving out dictation, hearing reading of lower classes, and examining written exercises ; (3) that their work is always under the direct supervision and control of one of the regular teachers, and that they are instructed how to perform the duty required of them. In small schools, where the number of teachers is necessarily limited compared to the number of standards, paid monitors would often form a very useful help to the recognized staff of teachers ; and the gain from their use would in most cases probably lead to an increase in the grant sufficient to cover the expense of employment. Arrangement of Time and Subjects. 231 CHAPTER V. THE ARRANGEMENT OF TIME AND SUBJECTS — TIME TABLES. Everyone knows how much more can be done when a distinct plan is kept before the mind, than when work is taken up in a hap-hazard, desultory way, even when the labor is as severe and long continued in the one case as in the other. We do not spend our strength and time vainly on things of little importance ; each part of the work needing attention falls into its natural place, and has due weight assigned to it ; we do not allow ourselves to be governed by our likes and dislikes, as we are very apt to be unconsciously ; nor have we to stop and think what it were best to do next. All is orderly, all is useful ; the machinery is carefully adjusted, the friction is reduced to its lowest point, there are no jerks, no stoppages, and the work is consequently performed with the least amount of strain and the greatest measure of success. A well considered and carefully arranged scheme of work is invaluable in school : it prevents a large waste of time, it portions out the work so that every faculty is exercised in the best way, and none dispro- portionately ; it secures that no subject is neglected, and arranges the most suitable time and place for 232 Organization, each lesson ; it confines the attention to one thing at once, prevents undue digressions, and settles the limits within which the teacher has to accomplish each section of his instruction ; it has a moral value from the encouragement it gives to habits of order, regularity, steadiness, and attention to duty at fixed periods ; and it aids the discipline directly by the distribution of noise, by the prevention of trouble and confusion at the changes of lessons, and by lessening the need of punishment for faults arising from lack of employment. A. General Considerations. I. The first things perhaps that strike the atten- tion in considering the drawing up of a time table are the subjects to be taught. Placing religious- instruction apart, the three rudimentary branches — reading, writing, and arithmetic — stand first in im- portance ; then come the class subjects — grammar,, geography, and history ; then extra subjects, such as the specific subjects of Schedule IV., singings drawing, and in the case of girls' schools needlework. Before we can commence to distribute the work into portions, we must consider the relative importance of each subject at each stage of progress, and hence the amount of time to be given to it. It will be found that under ordinary circumstances reading requires most time in the lowest sections ; that spelling — to which it is important to give great attention at this stage — comes next ; and then arithmetic, writing, &c. In the highest section arithmetic should have most time allotted to it, then reading, spelling, and the class subjects. In the middle of the school the time to W Arrangement of Time and Subjects. 233 given to the different subjects will be more evenly- balanced. We cannot well lay down any hard and fast line. Each teacher must examine carefully for himself into the existing conditions and capabilities of his children, and be guided accordingly. Religious instruction must be given at certain fixed times as required by section 7 of the Education Act of 1870.* In Board Schools ' no religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular de- nomination ' may be taught. Music is best taken as a recreative break between lessons of severer char- acter. 2. Another consideration of primary importance is the internal circumstances of the school — the number and size both of the classes to be provided for and of the rooms at disposal, the number and quality of the teachers, and the disposition of the fittings and furni- ture. Each of these subjects has already received separate treatment. We have to settle the locality of every class during each lesson-time, bearing in mind the quality of the work to be performed. Arith- metic, for instance, is best taught in desks, reading on the floor, oral lessons on the gallery in a class room, and so on. 3. The sex of the scholars, the mode of attendance, and the length of the school times, will also modify our plans. In the case of girls' and mixed schools we have to provide for sewing and other lessons, which have not to be taken into account in the case of boys ; in- fant schools will need a quite different arrangement from others ; and the presence of half-time scholars will necessitate numerous changes, if such scholars 1 See ' Regulations ' given pp. 241-44 ; and Sect. 14 of the Educa- tion Act, 1870. 234 Organization. are to receive a fair share of attention in all subjects. Generally some attend during one part of the day, some during the other, and in such cases all the sub- jects will need to be provided for during the mornings and also during the afternoons of the week. 4. The length and succession of lessons, again, are points needing careful attention. In deciding the length of time to be given at once to each subject, we must bear in mind the demands which it makes upon the brain, and the age of the children as indi- cating their ability to bear the strain of continued work of one kind. These considerations will lead us to place the most exhausting lessons early in the day, or directly after recreation, and so to distribute diffi- cult and easy portions of the work — those requiring thought, and those needing mainly mechanical dex- terity — that they may afford variety and relief. A lesson demanding the use of one set of faculties should be followed by one calling into requisition powers of a different kind ; change is rest. Younger children should also, as far as possible, have shorter lessons than older ones. Of course we must not expect to be able to construct a perfect time table ; many practical difficulties stand in the way ; the thing is, to make the most suitable arrangements the cir- cumstances will permit, bearing in mind the neces- sities of the child as well as of the work. Twenty minutes is long enough for lessons to very little children, half an hour for general lessons to older children ; though where the upper section of a large school is worked separately three-quarters of an hour may be allowed. It is in nearly all cases useful to have one longer lesson each school time, and in some instances a lesson for older scholars may occupy the Arrangement of Time and Subjects. 235 time of two lessons to the younger ones. We cannot but consider the hour lessons — so common in some countries on the continent — a mistake, except for the oldest and most advanced of the scholars. What we should aim at is so to allot our time as to train to continued application, without going to the extent of producing weariness. Children can only assimilate knowledge at a cer- tain rate — that is, not only take it in but so realize its meaning that it becomes a useful acquisition. One of the commonest mistakes is to think, that by giving twice as much time to a thing a child will make twice as much progress. Every teacher, who will take the trouble, may soon convince himself that this is not so ; that do all we can, even by the most skilful teaching, a child will only take in so much of one subject in a given period, and that all the rest runs to waste. The mind, like the body, needs time to digest one portion before the next is presented to it. This should show us how ill advised are long lessons for young children, and how utterly barren and useless to the child himself is the great bulk of the matter so often crushed into the mind just before the examination day, and which should have been spread over a long previous period. It is not meant that the fault arises from the defective method of teaching (this may have been the best of its kind), but from the absolute inability of the child to assimi- late the amount in the space of time allowed. Can uncertainty, confusion, and error under such circum- stances be wondered at ? This is a subject which deserves much more extended observation than it appears to have received. 5. In order that the teaching may proceed with 236 Organization, little hindrance, the noisy lessons must be distributed over both the time and the space ; and arrangement made whereby those lessons which require continuous attention may be taken in the class room, or where there is little disturbance from other work. Simul- taneous reading should not be allowed in a room where other work is going on, unless this is of some silent kind, as writing. 6. It is very necessary, also, if the maximum of work is to be obtained from children, to provide for due change of posture and place. Sitting and standing should, as far as it can be arranged, be made to alternate one with the other. To cover the whole of the available space with desks, and keep the children sitting the whole school time, is far from a wise pro- ceeding. Changes of place, necessitating as they do a certain amount of noise and loss of time, should extend to as little distance as can be conveniently contrived. 7. Other points needing consideration are play, marking of registers, home lessons, review, and exami- nation. Proper provision for recreation should always be made. It is false economy to deprive children of their few minutes' play, not only on account of the opportunity it affords for changing the air of the room, but also from the increased vigor of the suc- ceeding work. In the 'Instructions to Inspectors/ 187 1, it is stated that ' any interval allowed for recreation in the time pre- scribed for secular instruction must not exceed — 1. For infants under seven. — Half an hour in the course of a school meeting of two and a half hours and upwards, or a quarter of an hour in a shorter meeting. 2. For children above seven. — A quarter of an hour in Arrangement of Time and Subjects. 237 the course of a meeting of three hours, or from five to ten minutes in a shorter meeting/ Most teachers set apart a special time for the examination of home lessons, but much time may be saved by giving on certain days such home lessons as can be examined by, or during, one of the next day's lessons. Book work may sometimes be examined by teachers freed by the grouping of certain classes for Scripture teaching or other oral lessons. The time for marking registers should immedi- ately precede the two hours' secular instruction ; five minutes will generally be sufficient. Provision should by all means be made for regular lessons of review. Much unnecessary work is en- tailed by the neglect of this. One of the secrets of success is regularly to run over back work, so as to keep it fresh in the children's minds. This is espe- cially valuable in subjects where many facts have to be remembered. Time should also be allotted for the examination of the whole school by the master ; say one of the ordinary subjects each week, and a general examination, including the class and specific subjects, once a month. b. Method of Proceeding. Bearing in mind the above considerations, the next thing is to divide the time into separate lesson portions, and assign a subject to each. The number of working hours per week should be determined, and the time subtracted which is occupied in assembly, dismissal, religious instruction, register marking, play, &c. The remainder shows the hours at our disposal for the ordinary lessons. Having settled the length 238 Organisation. Specimen of the General Arrangement of Time Tab Classes 9-0 to 9- 10 9- 10 to 9*45 9'45 to 9'55 9*55 to 10.0 10 to 10*30 10-30 to 10-55 IO '55 to 11. 10 i no to ii' f a 1 Arithmetic (10 m. mental) Reading — b r a 2 6 °3 Reading Dictation •n Arithmetic (5 m. mental b 6 a 0) m < ■■8 d 'So S3 O C/3 C/) 3 - r a L t> Arithmetic (5 m. mental) Reading Geography (M., W.) English (T., Th.) Obj. Lesson (F-) 4 a b Arithmetic (5 m. mental) Geography (M., W.) English (T., Th.) Obj. Lesson (F-) Copy Books 5 r a Obj. Lesson (M.,W.,Th.) Geography (T.) Spelling, &c. (F.) Reading Arithmetic (10 m. men- tal) N. B. — The class subjects selected are supposec Arrangement of Time and Subjects, 239 >r a School of about 170 (without Infants). 1-35 to 120 12-0 2'0 to 2*lO 2- 10 to 2-45 2*45 to 3-20 3-20 to 3-30 d O OS s .2 +-> cu !h U CU 3'30 to 3-40 3-40 to 4 - 1 5 4-15 to 4*25 4-25 to 4'3° co co a co s 1 Dictation M & W.) English T. &Th.) Review (F.) to CO s 5 u 0) to "So cu & co co 03 J-i c cu £ cu co co < Geography (M.,W.) Specific Subject (T., Th.) Oral Lesson (F-) Copy Books (M., Th.) Mapping (W.) Drawing (T.) Composi- tion (F.) bJO "So g C/5 Reading .(MO Dictation (T, F.) Geography (Th.) English (W.) cj =3 u? CJ co co cu cu s K +J CU in reography (M., W.) English (T., Th.) )bj. Lesson (F-) Arithmetic (M.,T.,W.. Th.) Spelling & Review CEO Composi- tion (F.) Reading (M., W., Th.) Drawing (T.) Copy Bks. (T., W., Th.) Geography (F.) English (M.) Dictation Geography (Th.) Arithmetic (M.,T,W.) English Reading (M., T., W., Th.) Spelling, &c, (F-) Copy Bks. (M.,W,F.) Dictation (T.) Drawing (Th.) Reading Dictation (Th.) Arithmetic (M. T., W.) Spelling, &c. (F.) Reading Dictation (M, T„ W, F.) Drawing (Th.) Copy Books Dictation Reading & English Arithmetic (M., T., W., Th.) Drawing o be Geography and English (Code 1882). 240 Organization. of the various lessons and distributed the time, we now decide, for each class in turn, how many lessons are to be given per week to each subject ; and, re- membering the needs of supervision, the distribution of noise, the difficulty of the work, &c, we proceed to arrange the order of the various subjects for each day. It will be found convenient to take the sub- jects which come every day at the same hour through the week, keeping certain suitable periods for the less frequent, but perhaps equally difficult, lessons. Thus lessons in two or more similar subjects of this sort may come at the same time every morning or after- noon, the subjects alternating. Any disposition of this kind simplifies the construction, and facilitates the remembrance of the various items. The accom- panying time table is given as an example of the mode of arrangement advocated. The use of 'ill-adjusted time tables' has been a frequent source of complaint. No time table can be constructed to suit all schools, even of similar size, as may readily be seen from the various considerations ; hence each teacher must acquaint himself carefully with the circumstances, and make out his own scheme of work. He should not have a time table forced upon him by outside authority, nor should he adopt one wholesale which has been tried elsewhere, no matter how successful. Other time tables may sug- gest and occasionally aid a new arrangement, but as originals from which copies may be taken they should not be used. The consideration, that knowledge of the conditions is necessary to successful planning, should also restrain a teacher, when he goes to a new school, from at once altering the time table, bad as it may seem. He should wait till he has learned more Arrangement of Time and Subjects. 241 about its working ; he may then find it not so bad as he thought, and at least he will found his reform upon sure grounds and so avoid the need of tinkering. In addition to the time table the master should draw up periodically (say monthly) a short syllabus of study for each class, and with the portion which concerns him each teacher should make himself well acquainted. This should serve as a guide to the work for the period, and as the basis of the monthly exami- nations. A scheme of this kind prevents the teachers from taking up various parts of the work in an irregular disjointed way, and it enables the master to test with certainty that upon which the teacher has spent his strength. C. Government Regulations respecting Time Tables. Various regulations respecting time tables have been issued from time to time, more especially with respect to the working of Sec. 7, of the Education Act 1 870, which says : — * Every elementary school which is conducted in accord- ance with the following regulations shall be a public element- ary school within the meaning of this Act, and every public elementary school shall be conducted in accordance with the following regulations, a copy of which regulations shall be conspicuously put up in every school, namely : — 1. It shall not be required as a condition of any child being admitted into or continuing in the school, that he shall attend or abstain from attending any Sunday school, or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observance or any instruction in religious sub- jects in the school or elsewhere, from which observance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he R 242 Organization. shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the school on any- day exclusively set apart for religious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs. 2. The time, or times, during which any religious ob- servance is practised, or instruction in religious subjects is given at any meeting of the school, shall be either at the beginning or at the end, or at the beginning and the end, of such meeting, and shall be inserted in a time table to be approved by the Education Department, and to be kept per- manently and conspicuously affixed in every schoolroom ; and any scholar may be withdrawn by his parent from such observance or instruction without forfeiting any of the other benefits of the school.' The following points are selected and condensed from the several minutes and circulars respecting time tables, with which each teacher should make himself acquainted : — 1. The time table of a public elementary school must be ' submitted to the inspector of the district at every visit he pays to the school.' 2. The inspector may approve any time table which sets apart, at. least, the minimum time prescribed by the code for secular instruction. The secular instruction must be continuous and under the personal supervision of the principal teacher. 3. The religious instruction may be 'given in the class room to separate classes or divisions of the school either at the beginning or end of the meeting; and the time of secular instruction need not be the same for the whole school ' if there is a class room attached to the school. 4. Before signing the time table the inspector must satisfy himself — (a) ' That a copy of the regulations contained in sec. 7 of the Education Act (1870) is conspicuously put up in the school. Arrangement of Time and Subjects. 243 (b) That the time table is clearly written or printed, and a copy provided for every schoolroom. (c) That, if the school premises admit, children who are withdrawn from religious instruction receive instruction in secular subjects by themselves during the time set apart for religious instruction or observances. 5. Any five parents or guardians may complain to the department if an approved time table is not in accordance with these minutes. 6. ' Her Majesty's inspectors ought not to interfere with the responsibility of managers and teachers for the details of school work. The efficiency of their arrangements will be tested by the results produced at the annual examination;' but the inspector may ' point out any serious objection to a ' time table ' presented for signature. 7. ' If the time table does not show the classes and sub- jects entrusted to the pupil-teachers, and the time given by the principal teacher, during school hours, to their technical instruction in the art of teaching, those particulars ought to be entered in the log book, and inquiry should be made' by the inspector at the time of his visit * as to how the ar- rangements so recorded are carried out in the daily work of the school.' 8. No change may be made in the time for religious instruction * without the express sanction of the inspector. This sanction ought not to be given in the course of a school year, except upon formal application from the managers, nor unless strong grounds for the change are shown.' Any neglect ( will entail a forfeiture of grants.' 9. ' So far as the distribution of the time devoted to secular instruction is concerned, the case is different, as the approval by the Education Department, required under sec. 7 (2) of the Elementary Education Act does not apply to such distribution of time. A time table, however, for all subjects taught is necessary to secure order and regu- larity in the daily work of a school, and when once settled 244 Organization. ought to be adhered to. It otherwise ceases to be of any use for the information of the parents, or to be a guide to the inspector in forming his judgment of a teacher, or in examining a school.' 10. Permanent alterations of the details of secular work should be specially noted in the log book ' by the corre- spondent,' and a copy of the corrected time table inserted. Occasional deviations should be noted ' by the teacher ' ; ' if frequently resorted to without good reason, they must be regarded as a proof of the teacher's inefficiency, and may cause the grant to be reduced.' ii. 'So far as the hours of secular instruction are con- cerned,' the inspector 'will note in the log book, for the information of the managers, every case in which he finds a school not being taught according to the ordinary time table, unless there is a record in the said log book of the reason why the order of instruction set forth in the time table has not been observed.' Apparatus and Books. 245 CHAPTER VI. APPARATUS AND BOOKS. The term apparatus includes all the various materials made use of by teacher or scholars, in order that the work, both of teaching and of learning, may receive all the help which the best tools and labor-saving appliances can give. By his words the teacher appeals to the ear, by the use of apparatus to sight ; and it has been previously remarked how much this double appeal conduces to clearness of impression and re- tention by the memory. Apparatus thus properly covers not only the ordinary teaching instruments but books. The latter, however, are of sufficient im- portance to be treated by themselves. Skilfully used, good apparatus facilitates instruction, reduces the expenditure of energy, and largely increases the success with which the work is performed. We frequently hear school requisites spoken of as though goodness and costliness were synonymous ; there is no necessary connection between them. The money spent in making the things showy is often spared from more needed qualities. Good apparatus is very necessary in schools, and to be of most use should be plain, strong, and exactly adapted to serve its purpose ; beyond a certain point ornament means in most cases increased liability to injury. The 246 Organization. tendency to make teaching appliances needlessly expensive has grown considerably of late years. Nevertheless, while it should be recognized that very ornamental apparatus is an extravagance, it should equally be remembered that very cheap things are rarely, if ever, economical. They are almost always flimsily constructed, of the very poorest materials, and display the worst workmanship, an attempt being made to cover the defects by mere outside attractive- ness. Every teacher must feel that there is often much waste and excessive wear and tear, from the defective care or the rough usage to which the apparatus is subjected : pens, paper, or slates, not properly col- lected ; black-boards cracked by being tumbled about ; maps with the rollers half torn off ; reading cards with the corners all doubled up ; and so on. Nor is the wastefulness the only evil ; recklessness in using the property of others is a bad habit to encourage in children. Monitors or junior teachers should always be appointed to look after the ordinary appliances. They should also be periodically inspected by the master, and any damage seen to. A stitch in time will often save nine here. In teaching, apparatus should be carefully kept to its proper place ; it is a means only, and must be used as such. Elaborate appliances are very apt to attract the attention of a child to their looks rather than their use, and to cover out of sight the points intended to be illustrated. a. Kinds of Apparatus. 1. Black-boards. — These are of four principal kinds : (1) boards fixed to walls ; (2) boards for use Apparatus and Books. 247 with easels ; (3) swing boards ; (4) sliding boards. Boards fixed to walls are useful when they can be con- veniently placed with regard to the classes, and when a large writing space is required. In some cases prepared cloth, or smooth and hard plaster properly prepared, is in use. The ordinary boards may either be plain or framed. The former should be made of thoroughly well seasoned pine, and tongued with iron strips; the latter may be much lighter, should be framed with birch, and are suitable for infant schools or younger classes. Easels are of various forms ; some with added supports for maps, &c. The square- topped reversible easel is perhaps the most useful, though lighter forms are also of service, especially with little children. Pitch pine has lately come into fashion for easels ; but this splits more readily, and is much more likely to give way, especially at the hinges, than good American birch. Both woods need to be well seasoned to prevent warping. There should be a pointer supported by two rings at the side of the easel whenever the latter contains a map support, and always a small attached box for chalk. Swing boards, or large slates, are valuable where there is not much necessity to move them to any distance. Slates afford a good surface to write upon, and clean more readily, but are more liable to break, than boards. Means should be provided for fixing the board at any required slope. Occasionally a small swing board is made so that the support can be raised or lowered as needed, and the board be turned into a horizontal position. Placed in this way it may be used as a small table for the exhibition of specimens, experiments, &c. Sliding boards are generally larger than the ordinary boards. They are exceedingly 248 Organization. convenient to use when well balanced, but they are expensive, occupy a good deal of space, and should be kept pretty much to one place. The preparation for coating the boards should not give a smooth greasy surface like paint, nor a rough gritty surface like emery cloth. Liquid slating is much in favor in some parts of America and elsewhere, and is occa- sionally used in England. It is sometimes useful for walls, but generally gives too rough a surface for pleasant working, and increases the amount of dust. The ordinary square chalk is better than the tapered crayons prepared for black-boards ; the latter have a kind of greasy touch in writing and are more difficult to erase. There should be a black-board for every class in the school: one should be ruled for music lessons, and another with lines for writing, as in Mulhaiiser's system. 2. Maps, Diagrams, and Pictures. — These serve a double purpose : they act as valuable means of illus- tration in teaching, and also help to give the room a cheerful and pleasant aspect by ornamenting the walls* There should be a good supply of maps ; including a plan of the parish, and a map of the county. Most of the maps prepared for school use contain far too many names, and the excess of detail destroys the necessary boldness. 1 They frequently approach what a good library map should be, and are thus quite un- suitable for class teaching. The coloring is in many cases crude and unpleasant, and far too positive in tone. Maps without names are very useful for pur- poses of oral examination. Relief maps are much used in Germany, and, if well constructed, are valuable in 1 The maps recently published by the National Society are free from this defect, and are in many respects excellent. Apparatus and Books. 249 special lessons ; but they are expensive, and need great care to preserve them from injury. Maps out- lined in white on a slated surface which will take chalk are sometimes employed, after the Swedish plan, instead of sketching on black-board. The diagrams in common use contain far too many things on one sheet, and hence distract the attention. They are sometimes, also, too small to be of much use. A good set of plain moderately colored physiological diagrams should be found in every large school. Some drawings of common machines will be useful for special lessons ; as well as a few good-sized and boldly drawn botanical diagrams. There should be a modu- latorf or singing. In girls' schools, needlework demon- stration sheets will be found advantageous for use with beginners : or better still, perhaps, the demon- stration frame as used in Germany, by which the mode of forming almost any stitch may be illustrated. Pictures are very serviceable for teaching pur- poses, if suitable and well drawn. Many of those in use are badly outlined, false in details, and coarse and incorrect in coloring. These should be avoided* A plentiful selection should be provided of pictures of animals and plants, especially such as yield valu- able products ; as well as illustrations of Scripture narrative, manners and customs, English history,, foreign scenes, races of men, natural phenomena, &c. 3. Models, Specimens, &c. — A good globe is neces- sary in school. It should be well mounted, but not so large as to prevent its being easily carried from place to place. An instrument for showing the rela- tionship of the earth, sun, and moon is very useful,, but need not be anything like so elaborate in arrange- ment as many of those sold. A tray with modelling 250 Organization. clay is made a great help to the teaching of geography in some schools. Models of simple machines may often readily be made by the teacher as required, and should be pre- served for future employment. A few, such as small models showing the essential parts of the steam-en- gine, the force-pump, &c, may be purchased ; as well as, in large schools, a set of models illustrating the mechanical powers. There should also be provided a set of geometrical models and a terra cotta vase or two for drawing, a magnet, a mariner's compass, a large compass card, a clock face with movable hands, a prism, and a small microscope. Every school should have its cabinet of specimens for object lessons : this need not be costly, and should contain examples of raw and manufactured materials, both animal and vegetable, common minerals, metals, &c. The objects may be mostly collected by the teacher and the children, with a few purchases here and there. The collections sold often contain unsuit- able things which are never used, and many of the specimens are far too small to answer their purpose well. 4. Form, Color, and Kindergarten apparatus. — In infant schools there will be needed, in addition to materials mentioned elsewhere, a box containing wooden models of various forms, a box of small wooden bricks, specimen cards and materials of dif- ferent colors with a color diagram ; and, if the school makes use of the Kindergarten exercises, a box of gifts and suitable materials for the various employ- ments, as papers cut for folding, strips for mat plait- ing, sticks for stick laying, &c. The 'gifts' aveijirst, six woollen balls of different colors, three primary and Apparatus a?id Books. 251 three secondary colors ; seco?id> a sphere, cube, and cylinder, of hard wood ; third, a large cube divisible into eight small ones for constructive exercises ; while the fourth to the eighth gifts consist of cubes variously divided into bars, smaller cubes, &c, and triangular and quadrangular wood tablets. The so-called gifts beyond these are really further exercises added by Froebel's followers. 5. Apparatus for teaching Arithmetic. — In addition to the black-board much help may be obtained from the following : ' number pictures,' a ball frame placed on a stand with one-half covered, a box of 144 small cubes for notation and tables, wall sheets of tables, cards of examples, models or diagrams of weights and measures, and a dissected cube for teaching cube root. In some schools a modified form of ball frame is used, besides the ordinary one, for teaching numeration and exercises in addition and subtraction. In this case there are thirty-six balls on each horizontal wire di- vided into nines by perpendicular bands ; each column of nines being colored differently, and the four groups standing for units, tens, hundreds, and thousands. 6. For Reading should be provided a large alphabet card ; a letter box and frame, or better still, a word- maker^ after some of the French models ; and read- ins: cards with suitable stands. b. Books. Probably no class of books has developed at so rapid a rate of late years as that intended for school use. There is no lack of kinds to choose from, suited to almost all tastes and views as to how the work 1 See Meiklejohn's Problem of Teaching to Read. 252 Organization. should be performed. Many of the books are also very attractive, but when we come to look somewhat deeper into their qualities they are not unfrequently disappointing. The most important group is that of the reading books, embracing as it does now, not only ordinary readers intended as the means of teaching to read and a source of general information, but books devoted to class subjects intended to be taught through reading lessons. The general readers should be constructed for the special purposes and needs of reading, and should not be miscellaneous collections of reading-lessons, arith- metic, drawing, grammar, home lessons, and so on. They should contain plenty of matter, and be well graduated — especially in the early stages; should be varied both in contents and style, so as to secure interest, and provide fitting exercise for all the facul- ties; and should treat of subjects suitable to the age of children, be carefully illustrated, clearly printed, and strongly bound. To confine a set of books pre- pared for the teaching of reading to one subject, no matter how valuable, would be a great mistake. They are not text-books in the ordinary sense, and should not be treated as though they were. They form in most cases a child's first introduction to literature, and the wider the view which can be conveniently given, after other requirements are satisfied, the better. The extracts may be usefully taken from such books, as are fairly accessible and may be wisely read through by children. The lessons should lead the child to take to reading as a recreation and amusement first, and later on as a means of acquiring knowledge. Apparahis and Books. 253 The illustrations are often quite unsuitable. They need not be by any means elaborate, but they should be good of their kind. They should aid in the reali- zation of the story narrated, or the scene described, and exactly embody its ideas ; unless they do this they are worse than useless, so far as their true purpose is concerned. They should be bold in design, well drawn, and suggestive rather than full. The printing should be as clear as possible and not overcrowded, and the type should be sufficiently large to allow the child to read it easily at some little distance. The increasing short-sight among children is said to be partly due to badly-printed books. General strength of binding is an important quali- ty, not only on account of the increased durability and consequent less expense, but also from its effect upon the child's habits. It can scarcely be expected that he will take much trouble in preserving a book, which despite his efforts comes rapidly to pieces, and then seems no longer worthy of care. A dog-eared, dirty volume, with broken back and loose leaves, is a stand- ing bad influence on a child, decreasing his respect for books, and rendering him careless in his treat- ment of them. Anything which will tend to prevent this is worth consideration. We may conveniently group the special qualities of reading-books as follows : — (a.) The earliest, or conceptive stage. — The books for this stage will need to be specially written, so as to secure the proper introduction of new words, and the repetition of those previously used. The ideas must be familiar, and such as are likely to interest little children. They must be expressed in a pleasant, sim- ple, direct way, by short sentences, and be arranged 254 Organization. in lessons which can each be easily mastered in a brief period. A personal element should run through all the lessons, and a few pretty little poems, on such topics as can be readily appreciated, should be scat- tered here and there. In all cases the lessons should be as natural as possible, and a little beyond the child's mode of expression. Simplicity must not be confounded with silliness or babyishness. (b.) The middle, or interest stage. — The reading- books of the second stage introduce the child to a much wider range of ideas ; he has to make use of his own experiences to enable him to understand those of others. Many suitable extracts may now be found, but some of the lessons will yet need to be specially prepared, and lucidity both of thought and expression are still matters of great importance. Anecdotes, short moral tales, fables, deeds of heroism, adventures, descriptions of manners and customs, and of interesting objects will all be found useful. The great thing here is to interest the child in reading. The personal element may be less frequently intro- duced, but plenty of food must be provided at this stage for the imagination. There is frequently a good deal of affectation in the books of this stage, especially in the stories. Many of the latter either give warped ideas of greatness in human conduct, or encourage a sickly sentimentality opposed to all healthy moral feel- ing ; and there is not unfrequently an artificial gloss, a goody-goody tone, and an unreality in the moral consequences and punishments of vice, which a child readily detects as being unlike actual life, and views with suspicion and distaste. The poetry is frequently unsuitable, being either too childish or too difficult. It should be mostly of the ballad or descriptive type. Apparatus and Books. 255 Such poets as Wordsworth, Scott, Cowper, Gold- smith, Thomson, and many others, will supply suita- ble extracts. (c.) Upper, or information stage. — The lessons may here be considerably longer, especially in the advanced books. The work is more intellectual, and excellence and variety of style are much more important. We have to train to continuous reading, and cannot do this by a collection of short scraps or mere dry epitomes. Stories will be here only occasionally in- troduced, and much more attention given to matters of fact, but emotional elements must not be absent. Descriptions of scenery, short biographies, historical incidents, accounts of great discoveries, brief essays on general subjects, explanations of natural phenom- ena, and suitable lessons in elementary science will form the bulk of the subject-matter. The poetry should be of an increasingly higher type, but not too difficult. Many of the selections, both of prose and poetry, found in the books in common use, are of too difficult and classical a kind for children to grasp their meaning, or feel proper interest in them. The special readers for teaching such subjects as geography, history, natural history, botany, &c, par- take much more of the nature of simple text-books, and will be in many respects unlike the general readers. The topics to be treated should be selected with great care, and should, as far as possible, be connected. Graduation of language must not be forgotten, but graduation of subject-matter is here of still more importance. The lessons must not be too long, should be treated in a simple, engaging way, be well illustrated, and present few difficulties in words or expression. The latter should be left for the most 256 Organization. part to the ordinary reading books. The object here is to train the child to master the facts by reading, and anything which would unduly break the conti- nuity of thought, or distract attention from the mat- ter, should be avoided. The remaining books necessary for school use com- prise principally arithmetic books, grammars, atlases, copy books, manuals of the specific subjects, and a few good reference books for the use of the teachers. Many good standard arithmetics are now published, providing a large number of well-graduated examples. The grammars for the use of children are not so satis- factory, but several good examples exist. They should give exact definitions and a very clear account of the elements, should not be burdened with a large num- ber of exceptional cases, and should have a numerous selection of suitable exercises. Atlases should be clearly drawn, and should contain, as nearly as may be, just the information needed in studying the geographical text-books. Many are confusingly and uselessly full of names. Many varieties of copy books are in use; some with single copies, some with more \- some making large use of the tracing method, some scarcely any. In one case, too, a sliding head-line is used. The teacher will, of course, be guided largely in his selection by the style of writing he approves, but careful examination should be made before adopt- ing any set. Many contain the letters wrongly formed, in some the slope is far too great, some vary greatly in style from book to book, and others are objectionable from the great variety of ways in which the capitals are made. The manuals for the specific subjects are often well drawn up, but run too much on the lines of the larger treatises, and too little in ac- Apparatus and Books. 257 cordance with the order most teachers would adopt in instruction. Every school should have its small stock of reference books for the use of teachers, independent of the school library. These should be one or two carefully selected treatises on each of the subjects taught in school, a good dictionary, and, if possible, a cheap but trustworthy encyclopaedia, such as that published by Messrs. Chambers, which is excellent. 258 Organization. CHAPTER VII. REGISTRATION. The principal objects of registration are, to mark the growth, changes, and financial state of the school, its past circumstances and present prosperity, and to chronicle any events of importance in its history ; to supply the facts concerning the children or the school required by the Education Department, as a guarantee that certain conditions of grant are fulfilled ; to enable the teacher to obtain with promptitude and certainty particulars as to the attendance, payments, and stage of progress of each child, for his own information, that of the managers or parents, or for purposes connected with the various Acts regulating the labor of children. The Appendix on Registration to ' Instructions to Inspectors ' (August 1882) says : — ' 1. The Code requires that before any grant is made to a school the Education Department must be satisfied that suitable registers are provided, accurate- ly kept, and periodically verified by the managers (Articles 8 and g6c), and again under Article 1 1 5 the grant may be reduced upon the inspector's report for faults of registration. ' 2. In every school there should be (1) a register of admission, progress, and withdrawal ; (2) registers of daily attendance for all scholars ; (3) a book of Registration. 259 summaries. These registers must (Article 8) be pro- vided by the managers out of the funds of the school, so as to be the property of the school, and not in any sense of the teacher.' There must also be a ' Cash-book of School Ac- counts/ kept by the managers ; a * Diary or Log- book ' ; and ' a Portfolio to contain official letters, which should be numbered (1, 2, 3, &c.) in the order of their receipt.' In addition to the above the following will be found advisable : — (1) An examination register; (2) a register of home- lessons and of general work. In certain cases a ' late book ' and a ' stock book ' will also be found useful. Some School Boards require a register to be kept of all administrations of corporal punishment, with reasons, &c. ; and in the * Instructions to Inspectors ' it is said that when such punishment is administered, ' an entry of the fact should, in their lordships' opinion, be made in the log book.' In every system of school registration there must of necessity be two departments — the ' individual' and the ' collective.' The individual department should note the necessary facts concerning each particular child, such as date of admission, resi- dence, promotion, withdrawal, attendance, fees, suc- cesses at periodical examinations, &c. The collective department regards children only in groups, and consists of totals, averages, general conclusions, &c, respecting a class, section, or the whole school. Be- sides matters of fees and attendance, the collective department will register percentages of passes at the periodical examinations, work done by certain classes within particular periods, and any special occurrences affecting a group, whether large or small. 260 Organization. A. The Admission Register. This consists of two parts — the ' index ' and the 'entries.' The following are the regulations respect- ing it 1 : — i. 'The admission register should be kept exclu- sively by the head-teacher, and made up at least once a week. Successive numbers should be allotted to the children on their admission, so that each child may have its own number, which it should retain throughout its school career. A child who returns to school after an absence of any duration would resume its original admission number. The name need not be re-entered in the Admission Book if the child is re-admitted in the course of one school year. ' No child's name should be removed from the register on account of absence for any period less than six weeks (except in case of death) unless the managers have ascertained, or the school attendance officer reports, that the child has left the school or neighborhood. 3. 'This register should show distinctly for each child in the school (a) its number on the register ; (b) the date of its admission or re-admission, day, month, and year : (c) name in full, christian and surname ; (d) the name and address of its parent or guardian ; (e) whether exemption from religious instruction is claimed; (/) 2 the exact date of the child's birth, day, month, and year ; (g) 2 the last school (if any) which it attended before entering this school ; (h) 2 the 1 For this and succeeding extracts see Appendix, quoted above. 2 ' Special care must be taken to obtain exact information on these points from the parents, former teachers, and registrar of births, if necessary.' Registration. 26 1 highest standard in which it was there presented, (i) the successive standards in which presented in this school ; (k) the date of leaving. 4. 'Where several children of the same name attend, they may be distinguished thus : — " John Jones (a)," "John Jones (b)" &c.' The surname should be entered first, as it facili- tates the rinding of a name by running the eye down the letters. The names of half-time scholars should be distinguished in some way, as writing (H. T.) after each. A dark or red line should divide the entries of one school year from those of another. The index should be carefully filled up as the names are entered in the register. Admission registers * must never be destroyed.' b. The Class or Attendance Registers. An attendance register should be provided for every class. The upper portion is usually taken up with the individual particulars and totals ; the lower part being reserved for the collective items which supply the information required for the 'summary.' The following are the Department requirements. 1. ' The attendance registers must be marked every time that the school meets, however small the number of children present, and all attendances so marked must be taken into account. They should show the daily and weekly attendances of every scholar, begin- ning with the first day of the school year (Article 22), and continuing to the end of the same. 2. 'Adequate time for marking these registers should be provided for in the time tables — from five to ten minutes or more — according to the number of scholars. 262 Organization. 3. 'In mixed schools the boys should be entered in the upper part of a page, the girls in the lower, leaving a space between them. 4. ' On the outside of the cover of each register should be legibly written the name of the school, and the year, also the department (boys', girls', mixed, or infants', as the case may be), and the class or classes to which it belongs. All registers should be paged. 5. ' There should be columns for each child's admission number, for its name in full, and its age last birthday, and columns for all the weeks in the year, which should always be dated at their head with the day and the month. One also for the morning attendances and another for the afternoon attendances of every day, with a place at their foot for adding them up. A column for school pence received in each week is not unfrequently added to the attend- ance columns, but as this is apt to cause confusion in the additions, both of the pence and attendances, the pence columns had better be kept separate, unless entries be made in them in red ink. There should be a column for the entry, at the close of each week, of the total attendances made by each child during that week, and at the end of the register columns, to sum up the total attendances of each child during the year. The Code requires a separate register for half- timers. The register for each class may be marked by the pupil-teacher (if he have completed his second year) having charge of the class ; but the head teacher will be held responsible for its being regularly and properly kept. 6. ' In marking the attendance registers the fol- lowing rules should be observed : — (1) The registers must be marked, and excepting marks cancelled under Registration. 263 (10) infra, be finally closed at least two hours before the termination of the time given to the secular in- struction at each meeting of the school, and at the time specified on the approved time-table ; (2) after the registers are closed no child may be marked ; (3) children must be marked at each meeting of the school ; (4) in ink, never in pencil inked over after- wards ; (5) presence must be marked with a long stroke, thus /> or \ ; (6) absence must be marked with an "a"; (7) there must be no dots; (8) no erasures, if any error has been made it must be cor- rected by a footnote; (9) no blanks; (10) if a child leaves before the two hours of secular instruction expire, its mark for presence should be cancelled by another stroke across it, thus x> and the total attend- ances for that meeting corrected by placing under them — 1, — 2, as the case may be; (11) registers must be original and not copied from slates, papers, &c., on pretence of keeping them clean, or any other plea; (12) the number of attendances made by the class should be entered at the foot of the column every morning and afternoon at the time of closing the registers; (13) the number of attendances made by each child during the week must be entered ; (14) when a half or whole holiday occurs, or on the occa- sion of days set apart for special inspection, under section 76 of the Education Act (when the meetings and attendances are not to be registered for the pur- pose of annual grants), a line should be drawn down the whole length of the column or columns; (15) for longer periods "holiday" should be written across the columns. 7. ' At the foot of the attendance columns for each week, or in some place specially provided for them in 264 Organization. the registers, should be entered : (a) the number of times the school was open, morning and afternoon ; (b) the total number of attendances made by all the children on this register during the week. 8. 'At the foot of each pence column the total amount of pence received during the week.' Suggestions. — Enter surnames first. Fill in dates of admission with boys' names in first quarter, and transfer them to last quarter with any additions when required. The use of various marks for such things as sickness, home circumstances, weather, &c, except where the cause of absence is of some standing, can- not be carried out conveniently, and is best avoided, as we do not generally know why a child is absent until afterwards. It will facilitate counting up, if the strokes for morning and afternoon attendance are made to slope in opposite directions. The total of attendances made by the class during the week, found by adding together the morning and afternoon totals, should always be tested by comparing the result with the total obtained in one of the following ways : either by counting all the absences in the week's attendance columns, and subtracting them from the total num- ber of attendances possible, or by adding the weekly totals of attendances made by each child which appear in a column by themselves. This system of checking one set of totals by another should be strongly insisted upon by every master. It is a good plan to have a small blackboard, say a foot or eighteen inches square, or a large slate upon which to enter total attendance morning and afternoon. A respon- sible teacher may, in a very few minutes, count the children and see that the number corresponds to the total of attendances marked in the register. Registration. 265, This daily summary forms a check to errors in reg- ister marking, the master is able to see at a glance if the attendance is lower than usual, and inquire the cause and send after absentees, while school managers coming into the school can see the attendance for themselves. * Attendance registers, when filled, should be put away and preserved for at least ten years.' Class registers vary considerably in arrangement of the particulars. One of the greatest improvements introduced of late years is the separation of the column for fees, and those for the weekly totals of attendances for each child, from the daily attendance columns, and the placing of the first almost directly after the names, and of the second at the end of the attendances. There are three ways of separating the morning and afternoon attendances ; by dividing the small squares intended for each child's daily attend- ance horizontally, perpendicularly, or diagonally. Where the attendance marks lie just over each other space is saved, but greater care and trouble are needed in counting up the afternoon attendances than when they occupy a separate column. The first plan has the merit of compactness, the second of clearness, the third is very little used. Attendance. ' An " attendance " means attendance at secular instruction : — {a) During one hour and a half, in the case of a day scholar in a school or class for infants ; (b) During two hours, in the case of a day scholar in a school or class for older children. * 1 ' For boys, military drill under a competent instructor for not more than two hours in any week, or forty hours in any school year, and for girls lessons in practical cookery, where the inspector reports 266 Organization. (c) During one hour in the case of an evening scholar.' 4 No attendance is, as a rule, recognized in a day- school for any scholar under three years old ; or in an evening school for any scholar under fourteen or over twenty-one, but children under fourteen who are exempt from the legal obligation to attend school are recognized as scholars in an evening school.' (Code 1882, Arts. 12 and 13.) c. The Summary, &c. The following are the points laid down respecting the summary in the 'Instructions to Inspectors.' 1. The Summary should contain {a) the weekly entries of the attendance of each class transferred from the class registers every week into appropriate pages, and the average attendance for each week ; (b) at the completion of the year the annual averages for the whole school should be struck and entered of boys and girls separately; (1) under 3, (2) between 3 and 7, (3) above 7, and (4) above 13, and the highest weekly average noted; (c) the summary should be clear, and should at once show the results asked for in the Managers' Return (Form IX.). 2. ' In this book the duplicate examination sched- ules, and copies of the returns in Form IX., should that special and appropriate provision is made for teaching it, for no< more than forty hours in any school year, are reckoned as instruction for the purposes of this article.' Not more than one hour at a time should be devoted to drill ; and the War Office ' Memorandum ' shows that the employment of a Government instructor is contemplated, at least in the first instance, though schoolmasters who have ' passed a sergeant's examination before an adjutant of volunteers ' may continue the work. Registration. 267 be preserved, together with a list of scholars qualified to be presented, but not presented, with the reasons for their not being presented, and likewise of scholars presented a second time in the same standard, with the reasons for their being so presented/ Averages. — If we have a number of unequal quan- tities a certain mean may be found such that the sum of all the excesses exactly equals the sum of the deficiencies — this mean is called the average. The average may be found by dividing the sum of the several quantities by their number. By average attendance is meant the average number of children present each school time during a given period. The average attendance is sometimes confused with average number of attendances. In the first case we have to distribute so many attendances uniformly over so many times, so as to arrive at a number of children : in the second we distribute the attendances among so many children, so as to arrive at a certain number of times. * The average number in attendance for any period is found by adding together the attendances of all the scholars for that period, and dividing the sum by the number of times the school has met within the same period ; the quotient is the average number in at- tendance.' The average for the quarter or the year must not be obtained by finding the average of the weekly averages — this only gives an approximate result. ' For the purpose of calculating the average attend- ance, but for no other purpose, each "attendance" of a half-time scholar shall be counted as one attend- ance and a half.' (Code 1882.) 268 Organization. Returns sometimes required, (i) Number present at all. By this is meant the total number of children who have made any attendance, even one half day, during the period for which the return is required. (2) Average number of attendances made by each child present at all. Find the total number of attendances made by all the children during the given period, and divide by the number present at all. It must be remembered, as stated above, that this is quite different from 'average attendance.' (3) Number on the register. This is obtained by count- ing every child's name not taken off the register at the date of the return. Supplementary rule No. 12 says : 'No child's name should be kept on the admission register after a fort- night's continuous absence without inquiry from the parents whether the child has been withdrawn. The names of children withdrawn (whether they are so the answer of their parents will decide) should be cancelled at once in the registers, and not included in the returns of age and stay at school; but the attendances (if any) opposite to such names in the class registers must be counted ' for the calculation of the average attendance, ' and the whole number of such names must be counted for the return, " left in past year." ' (4) The number left in past year may also be obtained as follows : Find the total number on the class registers at the beginning of the year ; add to this the number admitted during the year from the admission book, and subtract from the number thus found the number on the books at the close of the school year. One method may be made to check the other. The summary should be made up week by week from the class registers, which if marked and kept by the other teacher should then be carefully examined by the master. The highest weekly average may be marked at the end of the year by darkening the lines enclosing the number. Printed summaries are often Registration. 269 much too complicated in arrangement ; the simpler they are in form, and the more directly the results required can be obtained, the better. ' Summaries should never be destroyed.' 'The Managers' Return (Form IX.) will contain a cer- tificate that the registers have been checked at irregular in- tervals, and at least once in every quarter, by the managers. To check the registers the managers, or some one deputed by them, should visit the school, without previous notice, after the registers ought to be closed, and ascertain that the number of attendances marked tallies exactly with the number of children then present. An entry should also be made in the log book and in the registers at the time of checking them ; they should also be signed at the same time by the teachers responsible for them. ' The managers' return should show, by separate entries \ the number of admissions and re-admissions in the course of the first and second halves of the school year respectively? ' My Lords do not at present/ says the Instruc- tions, ' insist upon uniform registers as a condition of annual grants, but they trust that by the co-operation of the managers of schools such an extent of uniform- ity may be gradually introduced as to make the adop- tion hereafter of a uniform system of registers a- matter of little difficulty.' d. The Log Book. The school life often does not vary much from day to day, and when a daily record was required, the entries were not only troublesome, but necessarily in many cases of the most useless and frivolous descrip- tion. This was to use the book as a diary properly so called. A log book, however, in which occasional entries are made, when anything worthy of note 270 Organization. occurs, is a very different thing, and should be care- fully kept. When it is so, it is a most valuable and useful record. It is really a reference book of past events and circumstances. The Code of 1882 says (Art. 8d), 'The log book must be stoutly bound and contain not less than 300 ruled pages. It must be kept by the principal teacher, who is required to enter in it from time to time such events as the introduction of new books, apparatus, or courses of introduction, any plan of lessons approved by the inspector, the visits of man- agers, absence, illness, or failure of duty on the part of any of the school staff, or any special circum- stances affecting the school, that may, for the sake of future reference or for any other reason, deserve to be recorded. ' No reflections or opinions of a general character are to be entered in the log book.' The Use of the Emotions in Education . PART III. DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING. CHAPTER I. THE USE OF THE EMOTIONS IN EDUCATION AND THEIR CULTIVATION. We have seen that, while we provide for the culture of the intellectual side of the mind, we must not lose sight of the moral and emotional elements of the child's nature ; and though the formation of the character is not so exclusively the work of the teacher as the training of the intellectual powers, it none the less needs his particular and constant care ; not only from the fact that upon the education given to the moral nature and the emotions depends to a large extent the child's future happiness, but because they influence, in a very large and important degree, the success even of the more distinctly intellectual side of the work. By emotion we mean the greater or less degree of excitement or agitation which accompanies particular ideas or sense impressions in certain cases, and takes the form of pleasure, or pain, or a mental stimulation which cannot properly be said to be either pleasurable 272 Discipline and Moral Training. or painiul. The mental association is usually con- sidered essential, and hence states of body which act directly in producing painful or pleasurable feelings are excluded from the domain of the emotions proper, though both may be combined, as in the emotion of grief and the accompanying choking sensation. Bodily affections again may give rise to an associated intellectual impression, and pass into true emotions. When an emotion becomes so intensified in its action as to exceed due limits, it is usually denominated a passion; the distinction therefore between the one and the other is simply one of degree. The more common and distinctly marked phases of emotion bear special names, as affection, fear, joy, grief, anger, shame, remorse, surprise, wonder, and so on ; but the number of varieties due to subtle modifica- tions, both of kind and degree, is practically un- limited. In all cases there exists a tendency to affect the body, varying in force with the strength of the mental excitement, and with the age, state of health, and other conditions of the individual. Par- ticular emotions exert to some extent a selective action in the mode of diffusion of the bodily stimu- lus, giving rise to outward expression, whereby their presence is recognized, and in some cases to other physical effects. Action, or increased functional activity, uses up the nervous energy, and thus tends to tranquillize the agitation; as in the shout of joy, and the relief of tears. The muscles of the face are very commonly influenced in this way, and are often associated with the contraction of other muscles giving rise to in- voluntary actions. Tremor is another frequent ac- companiment, and in case of strong emotion, the heart, The Use of the Emotions in Education. 273 the breathing, the secretions, and the skin may also be affected. In fact ' states of pleasure are usually accompanied with an increase in some or all of the vital functions, and states of pain with a depression or weakening of vital functions.' Emotion and intelligence run side by side, and the origin of the former, as of the latter, lies far back in the earliest perceptional stages of the child's growth. The simpler phases of emotion, arising from some form of sympathy, act almost as soon as the child comes to recognize exterior objects as having any relation to himself. He soon learns to distinguish between the smile of pleasure and the frown of reproof on the faces of those around him, and his own feelings are influenced accordingly. Some actions and ideas are thus early associated with pleasure, others with pain, while others again remain indifferent. Pleasure in the contemplation of objects leads to desire ; pain, on the other hand, tends to aversion. When the pleasurable emotion gives rise to desire of sufficient strength to serve as an incitement to voluntary action it becomes a motive. Pain may also act in this way by impelling us to the avoidance of an action, and it may be the adoption of some opposite course. In this way arise many mo- tives, either of an inciting or deterrent character, which influence the will in a very forcible manner. Pleasurable and painful emotions may, however, if acting in opposite directions, neutralize each other to a greater or less degree according to their relative proportions. The proper direction of the emotions so that they may act in a way beneficial to the child, and furnish, directly or indirectly, motives to exertion, is an im- T 274 Discipline and Moral Training. portant consideration in education ; and such meas- ures should be adopted, as will enable the teacher to make useful appeal to these powerful aids towards securing the voluntary exercise of the child's powers, in the direction in which we need to employ them. As, however, original predisposition, mental develop- ment, and the state of the health have very consider- able effect in determining susceptibility ; and as the emotional exercise of no two individuals can have been the same ; motives which act powerfully upon some natures scarcely affect others at all. Hence motives correct enough at some periods of moral growth may at others be not only ineffective, but injurious. This shows us again how important it is to know the nature of the child — from this point of view, that we may judge what motives may be most suitably employed at a particular time to accomplish a particular end. It is a law of emotional action that frequent or violent exercise rapidly weakens succeeding effects ; hence for special appeals we should rely upon as wide a range of motives as possible, only make occa- sional use of the same motive if founded on an emo- tional basis, and employ the least amount of emotional stimulus which will serve our purpose. All violence of emotion is bad in the case of children, not only from its deadening effect upon the sensibility, but because it may lead to positive injury. Powerful ap- peals to the feelings should rarely or never be made. To teach so as to bring children frequently into tears is not difficult to one who knows them, but it is in the highest degree mischievous. In some individuals the emotions seem naturally strong. Poets, musicians, and artists are generally The Use of the Emotions in Education. 275 men of the keenest susceptibility to feeling. Where the emotional side of the mind is highly developed it is likely largely to influence the conduct, and the proper regulation of the emotions is a matter of great importance. A person in whom these act strongly, and who allows himself to be hurried into action be- fore the judgment has proper time to act, is said to be impulsive. The emotional force, however, fre- quently spends itself in a first burst, and as a motive^ although strong for the time, has little persistence. Against a habit of being governed by spasmodic effects of this kind — the fit of zeal being usually followed, by one of apathy — we should do our best to guard children, and to strengthen in them the power of endurance and self-restraint. It is well to bear in mind in our treatment of them, that the will has little direct influence over the emotions ; yet that it may materially weaken their power indirectly, by turning the attention away from the cause of the emotion, by strengthening an antagonistic power, and by con- trolling the outward expression. It may also be made to govern their influence as motives. The greatest care should therefore be exercised wherever the emotional elements of a child's nature come into question. Thus it may cost a child full of animal spirits an amount of effort of which we do not take the trouble to form any conception to restrain him- self from action, and remain quiet as told. A child may control himself in grief or pain sufficiently not to cry out, but it is absurd to command him not to sob. In the case of laughter at anything ludicrous which turns up in a class, it is far better to let the fit expend itself naturally at once, than to endeavor to stifle it, and continue the teaching with an accom- 2y6 Discipline and Moral Training. paniment of small outbursts. To scold or threaten a child till he is in a tremor of fear, and then command him to do something perhaps requiring all his wits to perform properly, is often to demand an impossibility ; and to threaten still further, and at last punish him for disobedience, not only shows ignorance of the child's nature, but inflicts a cruel wrong which will leave its mark behind it for many a day. It is to be feared that some cases at least of so-called obstinacy are of this character. What we call nervousness, when we are placed in an unusual or trying situation, is also an emotional outburst, and may so agitate the mind as to paralyze all power of thought. This too must be allowed for. The way to overcome it is by encouragement and experience ; and to scold a child for it, or for the spasmodic movements which some- times accompany it, is but to increase the evil. While therefore we should accustom children to the indirect control of emotion by the will, we should take care that our exactions are reasonable, and in case of emotional excitement allow proper time for its sub- sidence. Some persons again of cold philosophical temper- ament are very little influenced by emotion, especially of some kinds. They view suffering with indifference, greatness or beauty without admiration, and have but little sympathy with their fellows. The exclusive at- tention to the development of the intellectual side of the mind, more especially if the imagination has been dwarfed by neglect, not unfrequently leads to this result. Mathematicians often fail to appreciate or to be moved by any of the beauties of art. Landor, in one of his dialogues, makes Chesterfield say, * Newton like Barrow had no feeling or respect for The Use of the Emotions in Education. 277 poetry.' Where the emotions are abnormally inac- tive it is to be viewed as a defect. Children of this cold unsympathetic nature are often the most diffi- cult to deal with. They seem dead to most of the ordinary motives which influence others of their own age, and need the nicest adjustment of conditions, and the most judicious stimulation and treatment, in order to train them successfully. Directly our sympathetic emotions fail to affect us towards action, and we are content to have our feelings stirred without making any effort in behalf of the distress of others, our sympathy degenerates into mere sentimentality. We should do our best to prevent this degeneration in the case of children. Care and moderation are necessary in our use of im- aginary stories as illustrations ; there is always a temptation to overcolor and arouse a false emotion, while the frequent appeal with no attention to the practical carrying out of the lesson learned tends to deaden sensibility. The emotions are so intimately connected with the moral nature, that the culture of the one is necessarily to a large extent bound up with the development of the. other; and in the correct union of the two lies the strength of the training im- parted. Association thus acts powerfully here as in the sphere of the intellect proper. Without accom- panying emotion morality is little more than a cold and lifeless routine. One important object in moral education is the association of a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction with right conduct, and of pain with wrong doing. This must be so accomplished that the connection may be as natural as possible, and the nature of the pleasure become of a higher and higher type as the 278 Discipline and Moral Training. child is able to appreciate higher and nobler motives. As a natural consequence of certain actions pain may- be left to accomplish its own end, but artificial ap- peals to it as a motive need the very greatest circum- spection, both as to the temperateness of its use and the mode of its association with action. Shame judi- ciously used may be made a powerful engine for ac- complishing our ends with children ; if used too fre- quently its familiarity destroys its effect. Fear which is of the nature of dread or terror should find little or no place among the emotions induced to serve the purposes of the educator. A discipline of terror not only fails to successfully accomplish its end, but gives rise to many of the worst vices of slavery ; hypocrisy and falsehood, idleness directly there seems a chance of not being being found out, meanness and cunning, hatred, and a train of other evils. Under such a disci- pline no true or useful moral growth can take place. Children are often emotionally influenced very readily by their surroundings, and are easily pleased on the one hand, or rendered unhappy on the other. The importance of happiness to children is very great, and anything which will conduce to this should not be overlooked. Their work should be made as pleasant for them as circumstances and the need of vigorous effort will admit ; no unnecessary restraint should be put upon their liberty ; they should be spared as much as possible both the sight and the description of bodily suffering ; and it should not be forgotten that much of their happiness is of a reflected character and dependent upon the cheerfulness and sympathy of those around them. Under the sunshine of pleasurable conditions the better parts of a child's nature unfold themselves naturally, put on added The Use of the Emotions in Education. 279 tints of beauty, and grow with a strength and vigor which enables them successfully to resist the dwarf- ing effects of evil influences. ' Sympathy,' says Miss Edgeworth, ' is our first best friend in education.' The great value of the existence of this feeling between teacher and taught has already been dwelt upon. Its influence both in learning and discipline is very great. Every mem- ber of the school should feel the teacher's esteem and approbation to be a reward worth striving for, and his ever ready sympathy an encouragement and stimulus to right action. We must attend also to the cultivation of the sympathy of children one with another, not only that phase which exhibits itself in cases of pain or distress, but that spirit of helpful- ness and that genuine and habitual consideration for the feelings of others which form the foundation of all true courtesy. Nor must kindness to animals be forgotten. One of the emotions which conduces most perhaps to educational improvement is the pleasure of study, of steady pursuit, of success in the accomplishment of a set purpose. All steadily continued and honestly performed work, of whatever kind, will scarcely fail to arouse and strengthen this useful feeling. Such effort has also a further moral value ; lessons of per- severance, patience, regularity, and the wholesome- ness of work do not exhaust its gains. It is the teacher's part to encourage this emotional stimulus of labor, to rouse to earnest self-effort, and to step in with help just before difficulty passes into dishearten- ment. Further, the establishment of a love for school and of a healthy esprit de corps — mainly the result of respect for and confidence in the teacher, of pleasant 280 Discipline and Moral Training. conditions of work, and of feelings aroused by con- sciousness of progress and success — may be made of much service to the child's well-being, and should form one of the aims of every teacher who would have his school work what it should be. In addition to the above we must also gi re heed to the emotions aroused by the contemplation of beauty, sublimity, goodness, order, harmony, &£. — in a word, the cesthetic emotions. These add largely to the pleasures of life by giving us a greatly increased enjoyment in the contemplation of external things, whether of nature or of art ; they lead us to recognize the beauty and attractiveness of truth and right, and by contrast the ugliness and repulsiveness of false- hood and vice, thus not only enabling us to distin- guish them more clearly, but affording an additional motive for choosing the one and avoiding the other ; they assist the growth of the more spiritual part of our nature, by withdrawing the attention from the more gross and animal side ; and they soften the na- ture, improve the manners, and tend to strengthen all the emotions of sympathetic tendency. The aesthetic emotions act spontaneously, and the germs exist at an early date ; but they may be greatly developed by culture both in strength and extent of range. We may say roughly that emotional culture of this kind should render our appreciation keener and our de- tection more acute of three kinds of beauty : first, the intellectual beauty of truth and order ; second, the moral beauty of goodness and right ; and third, the physical beauty of nature, of things with and without life. Art frequently combines elements from all three. An important thing in training this side of the emo- The Use of the Emotions in Education. 2 opposition. There is a good deal more than is often thought in the way we accept little services from children ; the sympathy and affection aroused by pleasantly and graciously accepting anything children do for us is very great, and nothing gives keener pleas- ure to them than to be allowed to perform little of- fices for us if they see their attentions are appreciated. Decision .in the teacher is essential to successful management of children. Very frequently measures have to be settled almost on the instant, and while the teacher is trying to make up his mind mischief is perhaps going on and becoming more and more diffi- cult to stem. A firm, confident, restrained manner is an important element in authority, and is at once recognized by children as a mark of power. Weak- ness and indecision are great temptations to the child to resist control. It is far safer in matters of disci- pline to err on the side of strictness than of laxity. A The Government of Children. 313 child likes good discipline, and respects thoroughly a wise and decided control. It need never be feared that a firm but temperate exercise of authority will alienate a child's sympathies ; a weak foolish indul- gence, which admits licence in the place of true liberty, is much more likely to accomplish this. ' It is one of the mysteries of human nature,' says Abbott, 1 that indulgence never awakens gratitude or love in the heart of a child.' Children must be governed, not coaxed. Control within proper limits is natural and wholesome for them. No amount of imploring them to do right will ever accomplish the purpose, and it very easily becomes positively harmful. On the other hand, restraint must not be carried too far ; we must remember it is not the course which is easiest for our- selves, but that which is most beneficial to the child, which is to be followed. Mere quiet is not good order. Allowance must be made for the natural characteristics of childhood ; many of their faults are but effects of their age which time will cure. To blame a child for being active, careless, restless, variable, and apt to get into mischief, is to blame him for what he often cannot help. To keep these within bounds, without destroying his vivacity and light-heartedness, is not always easy, but it is the object to be aimed at. One of the commonest faults of discipline is the want of uniformity in requirement — the absence of steady incidence. A spasmodic government, violent and weak, rigid and neglectful, by turns, is never satisfactory. A child soon learns to calculate chances of escape, and if these are considerable a premium is at once offered upon disobedience. Certainty of detection is a very stronghold for the teacher. Threatening does little good ; children have little 314 Discipline and Moral Training. power of realizing in the present either future pleasure or future pain, and the threat soon ceases to have any effect upon them. There is no more important thing to secure in the government of children, both for their present and for their future good, than a prompt and willing obedience ; at first to the authority of the teacher, afterwards to the sense of duty. The transition step is a critical one. There is great difference between obedience to the influence of authority and to mere compulsion. A government of sheer force is the lowest and least worthy of all ; and the teacher should never rest content till he has passed to a higher and better stage. It is not a blind abject submission that we want, but a cheerful obedience rendered from right motives. Children should know exactly what is re- quired of them, and be led to act up to the spirit rather than the letter of requirements. Many faults of omission arise from imperfect understanding, or from want of attention. School rules there must be, but they should not be so many as to be difficult to bear in mind, and should deal with important matters ; the more certain and unmistakable they are the better. Every extra regulation is an additional burden both to the child and to the teacher. Neglected rules are much worse than none ; the wiser course, therefore, is to consider carefully the necessity and working of any new regulation before we promulgate it. Commands should be given in a clear firm tone, (here should be no hesitation, no doubt as to what is meant. It is the impressiveness, the decided ring, which produces effect, not the loud tone. The teacher should be on his guard against shouting at children; the attempt to ' still a noise with one still greater ' only The Government of Children. 315 adds to confusion. Once an order is given so as to be distinctly heard, obedience should be waited for and insisted upon. Reiteration of commands over and over again, with increasing force of voice, is a sure sign of weakness, and the child knows it. Much bad order results from giving commands one after an- other without proper attention to their being carried out. Nothing, again, is more certain to induce neglect than to set some particular work, or impose certain tasks, and never properly examine into the result. When our commands refer to cessation from some action we must be careful to give a child time. It is sometimes impossible for him to turn his nervous energy at once into another channel. His not ceasing instantly must not be looked upon as intentional op- position. Have a little patience, and probably all will be well. Habitual tricks are very difficult to restrain. Perhaps there is no fault about which serious mis- takes are more frequently made than about obstinacy. There are several phases of mind which go by this name, and the greatest caution must be observed that they are not confused. It is sometimes mere deter- mination not to be moved from a certain course of conduct or form of belief which is supposed to be right, but which has been adopted without proper consideration. The mind simply shuts itself up, and is with great difficulty moved to see things in any other light than the chosen one. This is not uncom- mon in adults, but is unfrequent in the case of children. Enlightenment is what is needed; you cannot con- vince a child by punishment. There are also times, again, when children seem quite dazed, and no longer have their nervous machinery under control ; the teacher should be very careful he does not further 316 Discipline and Moral Training. stupefy a child in this state by punishment. There is also a constitutional sullenness and heaviness of dis- position which is often called obstinacy ; the mind easily drops into a state in which it is scarcely enough awake to realize the nature of what is required of it ; pain seems only to confuse it still more, and increases the dogged determination to bear punishment as an unavoidable misfortune, without ever awaking to con- sciousness that something is to be done. Such cases need most skilful treatment ; it is a grievous error to enter into combat with such a child ; encouragement is far more frequently needed than punishment, and, even if the latter seems from a careful judgment to be needed as an unpleasant association, the teacher must never start with the determination of making such a child obey. Lastly, there are the cases where, from previous mismanagement, a strong spirit of opposition to all control has been set up. Such children are perfectly conscious what they are about, and are simply determined to make a struggle for the mastery, even at the cost of pain to themselves. Here there is nothing for the teacher but to accept the contest, if forced upon him — it is the height of folly to seek it — and to come off victorious. Before any punishment is inflicted, however, sufficient time for reflection should be given. This will often have a good effect upon the child, and will allow the teacher to very carefully consider the position of affairs, be certain he has made no mistake, and make up his mind exactly what he will do. Except in the lowest of schools, and where the teacher's weakness is an inducement, such cases are rare. The trials to the teacher's patience and the sources of vexation in school-work are numerous, and par- The Government of Children. 317 ticular care is necessary that they do not affect the temper or render him callous. Ill-temper almost always means injustice ; it is certain to be strongly reflected in the children, and the discipline is weakened by their not being able to reckon upon the effects of certain actions. If our control is to be strong there must be no capriciousness ; the more certainly children are able to calculate what the teacher will think or do with reference to his judgment of their conduct the better. But while passion and ill-temper are to be carefully avoided, displeasure within proper limits — righteous indignation at evil — is often a useful instrument of discipline. It presupposes for its successful employment attachment of the child to- wards those who govern him ; the more he cares for their good opinion the more powerfully does displeasure act, and the smaller is the amount of it that will serve the purpose. In expressing displeas- ure we must be sparing of words, and avoid most care- fully getting into a habit of continually rating children about all sorts of faults. This blunts a child's feelings, renders him callous to reproof, and hardens him against any exhortation we may_offer. Scolding and weakness generally go together. A teacher finds his control slipping away from him, and tries to make it up by frequent reprobation : but this only increases the evil, and keeps both teacher and pupils in a constant simmer of vexation and discontent. We not unfre- quently worry children very unnecessarily, and any government which produces continual irritation is bad ; it will not only act prejudicially on the child's dispo- sition, but effectually defeat its own object. A scold- ing * nagging' teacher can scarcely be conscious of the harm he is doing. We should not apply unpleasant 3 1 8 Discipline and Moral Training. epithets to children, or get into a habit of attributing vices to them ; we are very likely to complete thereby an only half-formed evil tendency, and to strengthen wrong-doing rather than to repress it. A child who is continually being called a liar is pretty certain to become confirmed in the vice. Unjust and unkind words often sting deeply, and rankle in the child's mind long after the cause which led to them is for- gotten. Sneering and sarcasm should never be used with children ; the malevolent feeling accompanying them renders them totally unfit instruments for the teacher's use. Ill-nature rapidly alienates the sym- pathy and affection of children. Even the use of ridicule needs caution, and should always be good- humored. It is an edged tool which needs skill in the handling, and we must not suppose that because it is very effectively employed by some it is therefore a safe and useful weapon for everybody. The practice of making examples, as it is called — of holding up some wretched offender for reprobation before the whole school — is to be condemned. It is cruel, in nearly all cases it hardens the offender, and is likely to do more harm than good to the onlookers. When public mention is made of a fault, it should be severed from connection with the guilty person, and spoken of at such a time and in such a way as to direct the children's attention, not to the condemna- tion of an offender, but of a vice. A habit of industry — of regular vigorous work — is one of the most beneficial and far-reaching of those which come within the scope of school cultivation. Its great value arises principally from the importance of its immediate results, from its influence on the future well-being and prosperity of the individual The Government of Children. 319 from its powerful and salutary action on the school discipline, and from the weighty moral effects which are mainly the result of the continuity of effort and the steady self-control it involves. Every teacher knows the value of keeping the children diligently at work, and how certainly difficulties and troubles arise directly the children are left without employ- ment. He who cannot keep children's minds occupied with what they are about is not likely to keep good order. Idleness is the parent of a long train of evils ; restlessness, weariness, mischief, carelessness, and dis- content, are only a few of them. An idle child is never happy ; absolute inactivity, being entirely opposed to his nature, is a serious punishment. There is, however, employment and employment. We should not dishearten a child by setting too much to be done at once. It is a mistake to alarm child- ren by the magnitude of the task to be performed ; put before them a little at a time, and they will astonish themselves by the amount they can get through. Where it can be managed, the work should be so arranged that any neglect will at once become apparent. ' Idle children,' says Miss Edgeworth, ' are eternal petitioners,' and we may add frequent grum- blers. A grumbling discontented habit is a serious source of unhappiness, and its formation should be prevented if we would have the child grow under the best conditions. Many educators, from Salzmann downwards, have insisted that the teacher must look to himself if children go wrong ; and although he may not be will- ing, nor would it be just, to credit himself with all their faults, the habit of looking to his own actions and mode of treatment first is a useful one. It will be well 320 Discipline and Moral Training. for him to make up his mind that no child is so bad but what some way of reform may be found, and that if he fails it is that he has not discovered the right method. If he would have his school discipline satisfactory, it is not alone to the most important measures of government that he must look, but also to the very numerous and often independent matters of detail; which all exert their influence for good when attended to, and soon show points of weakness if neglected. Caution must be exercised that nothing in the arrangements and conduct, of the school affords opportunities for or inducements to wrong doing. It is necessary to discriminate clearly between noise of work and noise of play : absolute quiet is un- natural, and shows a rigid artificial restraint, rather than a wholesome government. The teacher should learn to recognize at once from what any noise proceeds, he should know whether it ought to be modified or suppressed, and act accordingly. There must be no idle moments for children strongly inclined to activity ; troublesome ones must be kept well in view, and care be taken that the mischievous do not congregate together attracted by common sympathies. The eye must be made to perform its share in the work of control, sending many a warning or reproof, and con- vincing the pupils of a vigilance that instantly detects anything wrong. Little things must be looked to, sweeping general measures avoided, the influence of the master spirits of the school made the most of, the disciplinary value of play recognized, punctuality in- sisted upon, and the government so conducted that while the general good is the first consideration the benefit even of individuals is not overlooked. Motives, and the Training of the Will. 321 CHAPTER IV. MOTIVES, AND THE TRAINING OF THE WILL. Almost from earliest infancy, as we have seen, children begin to recognize certain actions as leading to pleasurable or painful results, and feel an inclina- tion to performance or avoidance accordingly. As the child grows, various phases of these moving powers come into play, and serve as stimulants to the will or controlling power, in order that through it the impulse may be satisfied. When these inducements thus consciously influence us, so that we intentionally act in order to produce a certain result, we speak of them as motives. They receive their character from the nature of the result contemplated : thus where the intention is bad, as in the gratification of revenge, they are bad ; where the end aimed at is in accordance with the dictates of morality, they are good ; and where the action has no moral significance, they also are indifferent. What we intend to accomplish by an action is therefore an important element of any judgment as to its moral nature and value. All children feel some stimulative influences ; but as they differ very considerably in this respect — some being easily moved by inducements which are quite inoperative in the case of others — the thing is to discover which incentives act most powerfully and Y 322 Discipline and Moral Training. least harmfully, and which among such as will suc- cessfully influence the child are the highest and best in character. The means employed will vary also with the moral progress of the child : it is absurd to treat all children alike, or the same child in the same way at all times, and a very large proportion of failures is certain to result from such an attempt. Some of the most hopeless cases met with in school are those ' sauntering ' moody children, who seem to take no interest in such things as move other children — not even in play. Much skill is required in inducing the action of suitable motives of the lower kind, so that while the child is encouraged to present effort he is at the same time gradually brought under the dominion of higher self-acting influences. The usefulness of the natural consequences of action, where these are painful and so serve as deterrents, has been pretty fully recognized by educators ; but far less stress has been laid upon the equally if not more valuable pleasant consequences, which naturally result from right action. We must be very cautious, in the employment of artificial motives with the young, that we do not make so fre- quent an appeal to such influences that the children cease to act except under stimulation. This excessive use of lower motives weakens the will, makes the child the slave of external circumstances, and puts happiness upon an utterly false basis. The stimulus applied must be as exactly proportioned as possible to meet the case. Very frequent errors are made in this respect, a powerful influence being brought to bear when a very simple one would have served. We do not need a sledge hammer to drive a small nail, and are pretty certain to bruise and spoil the Motives, and the Training of the Will. 323 wood if we employ it. Much power is lost also from want of attention to the evil influences which surround a child, and which often effectually destroy much of the effect of our positive training. These opposing forces must be very carefully looked to, and their power as far as possible directly neutralized. It is really these wrong tendencies which at bottom give us all the trouble. The following are the principal motives which the teacher may usefully bring to bear upon the pupil, for the purpose of inducing vigorous action, of keeping him to a right course of conduct, and of so habituating him to good influences that they may strengthen the will and guide it to act in accordance with right in- clinations : — 1. Pleasure arising from active employment, both physical and mental — Force of habit. The little child's love of activity is one of the earliest aids to educa- tion, and properly used may be made to play a valuable part in school training. The instinct acts strongly, and, if we do not properly direct it, will soon run into wrong channels. If we can only so arrange the pupil's studies as to keep him suitably and briskly employed — giving both body and mind a proper share, and varying the mode of exercise directly we see he is wearied with what he is about, or that a change would be good for him — we have done much to make him happy, and create in him that liking for work which is one of the first conditions of success. Every effort congenial to the child's nature brings its pleasure, which gives strong inducement to still further exertion, and, as we have seen, not only strengthens the habit of concentrating the attention, but is one of the most powerful means of impressing the memory. 324 Discipline and Moral Training. With dull lethargic children, to arouse their interest in play is generally a step to better things. The force of habit in influencing our actions and giving a strong tendency in a particular direction, and the importance of making use of this in training, have been already dwelt upon. 2. Pleasure arising from simple commendation— Praise, approbation, esteem. The feeling of gratifica- tion which comes from finding our efforts appreciated — and if of sufficient importance made the subject of commendation — by others competent to judge of them, exerts a strong influence upon nearly all of us, and acts still more powerfully in the case of children. Not only do they feel the happiness derived from approbation, but also that arising from the conscious- ness that their conduct is a source of pleasure to those above them. The latter is with children often the more powerful element of the two. This shows us that to be effective our praise must not be the mere expression of just approbation which a stranger would accord to their actions, but must be accompanied by that hearty sympathetic ring and smile of pleasure which assure them that we are gratified by their endeavors. The use of praise may be made a powerful engine for good in the hands of a judicious teacher, but he must steer clear, on the one hand, of allowing it to degenerate into that indiscriminate commendation which soon becomes a serious source of harm ; and, on the other, of crippling his resources by using it in so niggardly and cold-hearted a manner as to discourage children. They are easily damped, and when once they feel it is of no use trying to win the teacher's cordial appreciation, they take little or no interest in their work, and soon begin to give trouble. Motives, and the Training of the Will. 325 The over-use of praise draws off the attention from that for which the praise is given — thus disguising the true merit of the action — and soon leads children to crave for it as an end in itself independent of merit. When this state has been induced they greedily absorb praise from all sides, lose all discrimination as to the kind of commendation offered them, and are easily led away into wrong actions by the flattery of the vicious who have their own ends to serve. Children must be taught that praise is worth having only so far as it is deserved, and that the commenda- tion of those who are best capable of judging of their conduct is that which is most valuable. ' The esteem of. the wise is more estimable than the applause of the many.' We must also be careful not to spoil the effect of a moral action, by giving praise to such an extent as to become an equivalent for the self-denial exercised. It is encouragement which is needed, and in many cases it is sufficient to show our appreciation by our sympathy and pleasure, and by increased confidence — in a word, by our esteem — without any direct expres- sion of praise. The language of empty praise or mere compliment should never be used with children. The character of the child will often considerably modify our use of praise ; the timid and hesitating needing it much more than those of stronger temperament. With those inclined to conceit it should be used very sparingly, and in such cases we may direct it princi- pally to the encouragement of a more modest bear- ing ; but at the same time we must be very careful not to disparage or misrepresent their actions. 3. Gratification arising from permanent marks of commendation in connection with the pleasure of posses* 326 Discipline and Moral Training. sion— Objective rewards, prizes, medals, &c. Rewards, of the kind here contemplated, differ from praise and esteem in that they should be given for more dis- tinguished conduct or more sustained effort, should from their nature yield more permanent pleasure by acting as mementos of past excellence, and should serve as continual incitements to still more praise- worthy efforts. Their true worth thus depends not upon their intrinsic value, but upon the amount of effort needed to secure them, the consequent weight of commendation they carry with them, and the fact that they afford proof which may be produced at any time of past merit. When these are the things upon which most stress is laid it is not difficult to pass to rewards of a higher kind. Where their monetary value is almost the sole thing thought of, or they serve simply as certificates of ability, or even of the possession of a certain amount of information — except in so far as this is a measure of voluntary effort — their moral worth is very small indeed ; and it is objected that in such cases their character is often debased by their partaking of the nature of bribes. They appeal to the selfish side of our nature, which is generally over-developed already. Prizes given for continued good conduct are very serviceable — where proper care is taken to secure as just an award as the conditions of the case admit — since here all have equal chances. Those given for one special competitive examination are least useful. They generally go to the strong who need little encouragement, and pass over those to whom they would do most good. They usually affect the work of only a very few; the great majority know they have no chance, and consequently make little effort. The far better plan is to award them on the Motives, and the Training of the Will. 327 results of daily work during a given period ; here there is a chance that the patient persevering tortoise may outstrip the swifter but more uncertain hare. Or again, it is sometimes useful to fix a sufficiently high standard and reward all who work up to it. A uni- versity degree is thus a reward of the best kind. Prizes should be of sufficient value to make them wortb preserving, and should clearly set fo-th for what purpose they were given. Books are one of the best forms, money the worst. Commendatory certifi- cates are also a very useful kind of rewards. Every competitor should be made aware of the exact con- ditions upon which the prize is to be given, and when once these have been fixed they should not be altered until after the award has been made. Rewards should not be distributed in a cold perfunctory manner, but in such a way that it may be seen that we are fully conscious what we are bestowing, and that our cordial commendation goes with them. Beyond a certain point the more numerous the prizes are the less bene- ficial is their effect. There is always the danger to be guarded against of directing children's thoughts to the wrong motive, of making them act from love of gain instead of from duty ; and when prizes are so frequently brought before their attention as to fix this wrong tendency, it is difficult to get them to act from higher motives. Where, again, a very large number of prizes are given at one time they are not felt to confer any distinction : what is within almost every- body's grasp is not much cared for by any. Prizes which have cost little effort give correspondingly little pleasure, beyond that of mere possession, and have a dangerous tendency to foster conceit. The hope of future reward or distinction may be 328 Discipline and Moral Training. made to act over long periods in the case of adults, and give such an amount of pleasure by anticipation as to considerably lighten labor. But children are creatures of the present, and, as we have seen, have very little sense of futurity ; hence the contemplation of future pleasures makes little impression upon them, and soon loses all hold upon their minds. Prizes therefore to be of any use as a spur to effort should not be placed at a distant period, such as a year, or they will have no effect until just before the time for awarding them comes round. They are better given for effort during a comparatively short period, and should be distinctly brought before the children's attention when the time commences. Annual distri- butions of prizes, it is to be feared, are often used as a means rather of pleasing the parents, than of moral influence on the conduct and work of the scholars. Increased confidence, employment in offices of trust, greater independence of action, are all impor- tant means of reward, which may be made of great service by a skilful teacher ; and if properly used are highly valued by children. A point which should al- ways be looked to in connection with all kinds of rewards is the inculcation of a generous spirit, and the avoidance of mean petty jealousies. The latter often make up no inconsiderable share of the unhappi- ness of life. To learn to take pleasure in the well- doing and success of others is a most important and beneficial training to the child. 4, Pleasure arising to children from the approval and sympathy of their fellows. — It is often astonishing what an amount of trouble, self-denial, and even pain, a child will undergo to stand well with his fellows, to be thought courageous, generous, or skilful, or to gain Motives, and the Training of the Will. 329 influence with them. The example and views of those who are looked up to as leaders in a school, and whose opinion is thus valued by the others, is thus of great consequence. They practically settle what the public opinion among the scholars shall be, and where this is distinctly on the side of law and order it is a powerful influence for good ; where it is not it acts with similar strength for evil. If a child knows that a wrong or mean action will at once bring upon him the condemnation of his comrades, he is deterred from doing it ; while the fact that any very decided act of virtue will equally win their applause, adds a strong additional incitement to its performance. This sound public opinion is an ever-present check upon wrong- doing, and acts most powerfully just where the direct control of the master is least able to reach. To see a school well conducted in the master's absence speaks strongly for the wholesomeness of the discipline, and for the care with which it has been administered. A few children may at times be inclined to break out as rebels, and a larger number to occupy the position of 'armed neutrals', but where the majority are the allies of the teacher things are not likely to go far wrong. . 5. Emotions of satisfaction from progress, conquest, or successful competition — Emulation, &c. — The feeling that he is progressing acts as a strong and useful stimulant to a child to make increased effort. Every difficulty mastered not only leaves less to be overcome, but gives a sense of strength and of pleasure at the victory which incites to greater vigor in the next attack. Competition, within due bounds, gives anima- tion and interest to the work, rouses dormant energy and strengthens the resolution, shows a child where 33° Discipline and Moral Training his strength lies and how he stands with respect to others, and in most cases tends to decrease conceit. It is the teacher's business to utilize all the forces at his command, to direct their action into proper channels, and to remove any serious discouragements. The spirit of emulation, arising out of the struggle of com- petition, when properly directed is simply a feeling of friendly rivalry, of wish to excel without disparaging or injuring others. Emulation is a great spur to exertion, and with proper care may be usefully em- ployed as an incitement both to moral and intellectual effort. Too severe competition is baneful ; it keeps the child's attention fixed not upon the value of the end aimed at and the effort made, but simply upon outdoing others ; it is very likely either to strain those who are anxious but not strong, or to effectually discourage them ; and it encourages those evils which have led to the condemnation of emulation, viz., jealousy, dislike, and uncharitableness. It is foolish, however, to throw away the use of emulation because it may be abused. It is a natural feeling and is certain to act where numbers are trained together ; the wiser plan is to take it in hand and turn it to good uses. ' A cook might as well resolve to make bread without fermentation,' remarks Wood, 'as a pedagogue to carry on a school without emulation.' It rarely needs foster- ing, more often restraining within healthy limits. The important point is to direct its action so as to encourage the proper kind of effort ; it should not be a mere rivalry for places or prizes, but anxiety to excel in well-doing, and children may be led to feel its in- fluence in reference to outstripping their own previous achievements as well as in the wish to outvie others. 6. The recognition of moral obligation; pleasure Motives, and the Training of the Will. 331 arising from right action. Sense of duty ; sense of worthi- ness. — ' Sense of duty ' is a convenient expression in- cluding the recognition of various obligations as wide in range as action itself. It is a short formula covering a great variety of cases. When, again, an action is performed on account of the recognition of it as a duty, there follows naturally an emotion of pleasure at having done that which is right, proportionate to the value of the act itself. Associated with duty there are thus two motives, naturally coupled together, but dis- tinct in character : viz., the feeling of moral obligation, and the sense of worthiness arising from virtuous action. These are often spoken of under one common term. Sense of duty is altogether too comprehensive and abstract to be at first anything more than a mere name to the child ; appeal to it as a motive can only be of any use in proportion to the child's understanding and moral advancement. Before anything else can be done he must learn what is meant by duty, and this is at first nothing but the recognition that he ought to do a thing because it is the will of another i who is better able to judge than himself. By and by he comes to recognize that the decision of those over him as to what ought to be done is not arbitrary, but is based on certain considerations that they themselves obey ; and by learning gradually why his elders act he comes in the end to discern why he should act himself. Seeing others do things, often at pain or inconvenience to themselves, because they feel it their duty, is an important means of enlightenment to the child ; especially if suitable occasions are seized to make clear to him, as far as he is able to bear them, the reasons which led to such a course of conduct. Hence association comes very powerfully into play 332 Discipline and Moral Training. in determining the child's progress. It is by means of the combination of instruction and contemplation of action, aided by the action of the conscience, and followed by exercise in accordance with the teaching thus given, that nearly all the earlier training to act from a sense of duty must take place. Thus the obligation arising from the will of the parent or teacher must be very gradually transferred to law, as a thing binding upon the child independently of their wishes, though in accordance with them ; the will of that Heavenly Father, whom he has learned to know dimly, being pointed out to him as the source of all law, and the more important phases of it necessary to our existence and happiness being gradually made clear to him. When the child has learned to recognize what duty is, and that its essence lies not in assent but in obliga- tion to act, direct instruction may be given respecting duties he has not yet been called upon to perform, but which his past experience enables him to understand. He must be shown that we have duties to perform to ourselves, to others, and to God. The instruction must not be a mere catalogue of things the child must do, given either by books or by oral instruction, but each duty must be explained and applied so as to meet his daily requirements, and must be illustrated by the life he sees around him, until he obtains clear ideas of what is becoming, right, and honorable. Steady adherence to right and a high sense of honor are ever to be put forward as the characteristics of crue manliness. As he comes more and more to act in ac- cordance with what his conscience and his knowledge tell him to be right, the pleasurable accompaniment arising from the fulfilment of duty increases in like Motives, and the Training of the Will. 333 degree, and gives an additional incentive to right con- duct. In such degree, therefore, as the feeling of duty- is developed in the child's mind, to such an extent will it be valuable to appeal to it ; and within these limits every such appeal will strengthen its action as a motive. When this highest and best of motives will serve our turn, it is a mistake to make use of lower ones ; but even the best of us fail often to be moved by it, and in the case of children too much reliance must not be placed upon it alone, beyond its proved strength. It must be remembered that with them the personal element in authority is scarcely ever entirely absent. Where the sense of duty cannot be expected to act, it is better not to appeal to it at all, but to use other means ; and where its employment is of doubtful effectiveness its action should be supplemented by motives of a lower kind. The best motive which the circumstances will admit of is the one to which appeal should be made ; and the lower ones should be so used as to lead gradually up to those of higher character. We must be content with small things at first ; to get a child to act from principle at all, even if of low character, is a great point gained. Motives will often need to be varied in order to suit diversities of character, circumstances, and the nature of the action required. What may be useful as a spur to intellectual exertion, may be inoperative in the case of moral effort. The standard of duty exacted should never be so high as to dishearten children, or strike them as altogether imaginary, and they should be encouraged by being shown that duty not only leads to the commendation of all right- thinking men, but that it has God's approval also and is the foundation of all real happiness. 334 Discipline and Moral Training. The will is the power by means of which we exert control over our physical and mental action, the directing agency whereby we govern both our thoughts and conduct. It thus includes a purposive determi- nation, and the ability to carry this out by steady effort in spite of opposing tendencies. It sets the human powers in motion in all cases where they do not act automatically, and changes their mode of working to suit the varying conditions of performance, or stops their operation altogether when required. It acts largely through the attention, by powerfully directing the mind to what should be done, and by withdrawing its contemplation from any inducements which may act in opposition. This is another reason for the careful training of the attention, which has such a beneficial influence in many different ways. The will does not create energy, but brings such as we possess into play, renders it subservient to our needs, and, where properly employed, directs it into such channels as will tend most to our general well-being. Without the power to determine upon our conduct, and to carry out such determination, freedom of action would vanish ; and we should sink to the level of mere pieces of mechanism, controlled entirely by circumstances. The will is stimulated to activity by certain incitements or motives of various kinds and power ; the feebler it is, and the more desultory its action, the less likely is it to be stirred by internal impulses, and the more necessary external influences become. In children the energy of the will is very small, and it needs therefore to be aroused and strengthened by suitable exercise induced by motives brought to bear upon it from without. The capability of high Motives, and the Training of the Will. 335 intellectual or moral action is useless unless we have the power to voluntarily put it in force and direct its working, and the training of the will is therefore a matter of the utmost concern to the teacher, if he would lead the child to act freely, vigorously, and well, for himself. ' The education of the will,' remarks Mr. Morell, ' is really of far greater importance, as shaping the destiny of the individual, than that of the intellect.' It has to be trained in such a way as to act in response to the best motives, to lead to ready self-control of the intellect and the conduct, to heighten moral courage in the attack of difficulties, to give steadiness of purpose in spite of opposing forces and temptations, and to prevent that vacil- lating weakness which allows the individual to be swayed hither and thither by every impulse which arises. To properly discipline the will, and strengthen its connection with the reason and the conscience, is far from an easy task, and will need all our care, especially with respect to the motives we present, the guidance we afford, and the amount of freedom we allow. We have to so cultivate it that it may take the place of external control ; and as its power increases this should be in like measure with- drawn. Where blind obedience to authority is all that is looked for, and this is continued long after it should have been relaxed, no wholesome growth of self-control can take place ; and thus it is that those accustomed to severity and undue restraint rarely turn out well when they come to act for themselves. Either they are broken-spirited, which is a thing to be dreaded, or having come to loathe control without having learned to regulate their own conduct, they rush into all sorts of excesses directly the pressure is 336 Discipline and Moral Training. withdrawn. Thb difficulties of educating the will are especially great in schools, where we have to train numbers together, inasmuch as the very varied treatment necessary to anything like complete suc- cess can only be given in a considerably limited degree. We have to be content to adopt the best general measures we can devise, with individual applications wherever opportunities offer. Children should be strongly encouraged to adhere decidedly to that which they know to be right, accustomed to steady perseverance in effort, taught as far as may be to weigh well the consequences of what they are about to do, and led to control their impatience and temper ; while such motives as they are capable of feeling should be brought in by the teacher in aid of their will, where its power is in danger of giving way, or where support would serve a useful purpose. Intensity of emotion must not be mistaken for strength of will ; passion may be of such power as to completely swamp the will and carry us away in spite of ourselves. Sudden outbursts of this kind show weakness of will, not strength ; and the child must be led to curb the exhibition of his feelings within reasonable limits. Nor must obstinacy be confused with strength of will ; if the result of will at all, it in all probability means that the general power of self-control has been weakened by the direction of nearly all force of will into a wrong channel. It is the power of using the will in all useful directions, so as to give control over the body, the emotions, the intellect, and the conduct, which we have to cultivate ; and it should not be for- gotten that it may be developed in some directions only, and seriously neglected or misdirected in others. An individual may be able to control his intellectual Motives, and the Traini?ig of the Will. 337 operations with ease and certainty, and have scarcely any moral self-government ; while, on the other hand, he may have great moral strength, and be quite unable to control his thoughts and attention, or the exhibition of his emotions. The usefulness and value of the will thus depends not upon its actual strength, but also upon the directions which are habitually given to its working. Habit and will act and react upon each other, and whether the will has been accustomed to be roused by good influences or bad often determines whether its control shall lead to right conduct or to evil. ' The highest exercise of -willy says Dr. Carpenter, 'is shown in those who are- endowed with vigorous intellectual powers, and whose strong emotional nature gives force to all their tendencies to action, but who determinately fix their attention on the divine ideal, and steadily endeavor to shape their character and direct their conduct in accordance with it. This is not to be effected by dwelling exclusively on any one set of motives, or by endeavoring to repress the energy which is in itself healthful. Even the idea of duty, operating alone, tends to reduce the individual to the subservience of a slave doing his master's bidding, rather than to make him master of himself; but it gives most powerful aid in the acquirement of that power of fixing the thoughts and affections on " things on high," which more effectively detaches them from what is earthly and debasing. It is by the assimila- tion, rather than by the subjugation, of the human will to the divine that man is really lifted towards God' 338 Discipline and Moral Training. CHAPTER V. THE NATURE AND USES OF PUNISHMENT. Few things in school work are of such weight and importance, few are so beset with difficulties, as the clear appreciation of the province and uses of punish- ment and its proper administration. To use punish- ment in such a way as to conduce in the highest degree to the welfare of the individual pupil and the benefit of the general body, to render it effective in removing such obstacles to the ordinary work as fall within its scope, and at the same time to avoid allowing its administration to become so burdensome as to use up an altogether undue share of time and attention, will need -all the wisdom, patience, skill, resource, and experience, which the teacher can bring to bear upon the work. Laws and regulations are useless unless they are supported by some means of enforcing obedience, where they are wilfully or carelessly disregarded ; hence, when persuasive measures and better motives fail to secure conformity, punishment of some kind, sufficient in degree to effect the purpose, must step in. What- ever moral suasion may accomplish in the domestic circle it is certainly insufficient alone to serve the pur- poses of school discipline. To try and coax children into right-doing without firm measures of control and The Nature and Uses of Punishment. 339 proper assertion of authority, where these become necessary, is to prevent the growth of that wholesome respect to law and that recognition of the urgency and importance of acting in accordance with the dictates of duty, which are so essential to any training worthy of the name ; to fail, in the vast majority of instances, in giving any real power of self-government ; and to waste a large amount of time and strength without any ade- quate result. Where such persuasive inducements as can be wholesomely brought to bear upon the child will serve our turn, punishment must not be employed ; and where a small degree of punishment will answer, a large amount is mischievous in proportion to the excess. Strong measures are valuable only when weaker ones have been tried and failed. There is much truth in a remark of Dr. Bell's, that ' a maximum of improvement cannot be obtained without a minimum of punishment.' To use one form of punishment for all cases, or the same degree with all children, is absurd : such a course increases the chance of failure or injury, and decreases the range of usefulness. To be thoroughly effective punishments must be prompt, administered in earnest, clearly understood, proportioned to the degree of offence, suited to the character of the child, and in keeping with the nature of the fault. They should be given seriously, so as to be impressive ; should be sufficiently strong to produce the required effect ; and should serve both for cor- rection and monition. When they are too mild they are treated with covert contempt, and when too severe are liable to break the child's spirit and almost certain to act prejudicially on his disposition. Sham punishments are as ridiculous as they are harmful. It is not the severity of the punishments inflicted 340 Discipline and Moral Training. which has most effect, but their certainty and con- sistency, and the recognition of their justice. Severity may produce outward conformity whilst the most rebellious spirit exists beneath, and the child be less inclined than ever to act rightly of his own accord. That punishments should be so graduated as to accord with a natural scale of blameworthiness is of great moral importance. An absolute amount of punishment for a given fault should rarely or never be laid down ; as in such a case, injustice will certainly be done to some. The same punishment will be a cruel excess applied to some children, which with others would be useless to accomplish the end aimed at. The teacher should leave himself as much discretionary power as possible, so that he may be guided by the needs of the case : the moral condition of the offender, the nature of the motives which urged him, the strength of temptation, and the extent of his contrition, must all have due weight if the punishment is to lead to the most wholesome and lasting reform. There is always danger that we may be led to measure the child's culpability by the amount of our annoyance or vexation, and not by the gravity of the offence. Our personal likes and dislikes, or any feeling which is likely to mar the justice of our award, must be care- fully eliminated from the question. In investigating a case we must not proceed as though we were anxious to convict the child, but rather so as to. show we should be glad if his innocence could be established. Nor must we allow ourselves to judge children by the standard we should apply to adults ; much allowance must be made for their weakness and want of ex- perience, and we shall be more likely to act in the most beneficial way if we carefully search for the The Nature and Uses of Punishment, 341 source of the fault," and apply the remedy if possible there. It is scarcely necessary to say that wrong- doing or shortcoming from ignorance of what should be done, from accident, or from inability to perform what is required, needs very different measures from punishment. 'One ought to correct the bad that he may become better,' says Plato, 'but not the unfor- tunate.' We should not threaten to punish all who have not done a given amount of work in a set time. Either the requirement will be so low that the cleverer children do the work in much less than the stated time, rest content with this, and have time on their hands for mischief ; or, if we arrange matters to suit the average children, the dullest and most back- ward are pretty certain of punishment, even after making far greater effort than those who escape. Such a proceeding assumes an equality of ability and of power of performance which does not exist. Punishment does no good unless the child cleaidy understands why he is punished, and it will be helpful to him also to let him see how far any extenuating circumstances have weighed with us, and what he may expect in the future. The latter should not be put forward as a threat, but as information which will enable him to estimate more justly the position in which he stands. The important thing in all punishment is to arouse aversion to the fault, to get the child to recognize his culpability, and to feel such sorrow for his bad conduct as will make him strive not to fall in the same way again. It is not punish- ment alone that must be trusted to, but this in con- nection with other influences of a higher kind which may be made to lend their assistance. The teacher has not to punish the child in order to compel him to 34 2 Discipline and Moral Training. do good, but to prevent his following the bad. Compul- sory goodness is of no value, hence it is to the deterrent effect of punishment rather than the stimulative one we must look. In such a case as idleness, for instance, it may be necessary to punish for the neglect, but as a stimulus to voluntary industry this will not have much, if any, moral effect. It is self-effort, not com- pulsory action, we want to induce. A child who is simply flogged into being industrious will never by that means be made diligent in character, probably the reverse from the dislike engendered. Punishment acts by making a child choose the less of what appear to him as two evils ; he must either sink his own inclination and forego temptation, or suffer the consequences. But this selective action between evils is a very different thing from the wish to do right The latter is not given by punishment, but must be developed by quite other means. Without the im- planting of good motives the compulsory withdrawal of bad ones is useless as a means of moral growth. Punishment, when it acts properly, serves to remove obstacles and so give the better influences room and opportunity to act ; it is therefore an important, but can never be the most important, part of any dis- ciplinary training. Sympathy, instruction, habit, ex- ample, and good motives will all have their share in the work. A kind encouraging word or two after punishment will often not only assure the child we bear no malice, but will do much to make him resolve upon amendment. Directly a child shows any anxiety to improve he should receive every en- couragement, and we should be particularly cautious not to remind him at every step of his past offences. ' How careful should we be,' says Miss Edgeworth, The Nature and Uses of Punishment. 343 'never to chain children to their dead faults.' To act as though we cared nothing about the child's improvement, or considered him incorrigible and not worthy of further sympathy, is pretty sure to make him what he sees we think him. He must always feel his efforts at amendment will be appreciated, and that the way is open for him to reinstate himself in our good graces. // is a great mistake to view punishment, in the case of children, in the light of vengeance of the law, or as expiation of guilt. It should never be forgotten that the far greater number of a child's offences are against his own good, and not injuries to others. The function of the teacher as a judge and administrator of law has been made too much of. His work is very much more that of a physician, a missionary, or a reformer. He has not to avenge, but to cure ; and must use his heart as well as his head. To put on the stern, un- bending face of a judge dealing with a criminal, and to administer justice in the cold passionless way some would have him, would be to completely mistake his office. In the vast majority of instances school punishment is only justifiable as a measure of guidance and reform ; and it must be administered in such a way as to show that the teacher regards it in this light. We must be cautious, also, not to extend the remedies necessary in the case of a few morbidly depraved and neglected children to the general body who need quite different treatment. The needs of the few must not be allowed to control our actions over the many, and lead us to treat the average and better-disposed child in a way suitable for the reclamation of hardened offenders. The more closely the action and the consequence 344 Discipline and Moral Training. are associated, the more strongly will the latter act as a deterrent. Hence although it is well, especially in any serious case, to let some little time elapse between the commission of the fault and the punish- ment, in order that the child may recognize his posi- tion and calm down from any passionate excitement, the delay must not be too great — a few hours at most. As the hope of reward affects the child very little unless the reward be near at hand, so, as pre- viously remarked, threats of even heavy punishments have little effect where the prospect of having to suf- fer them seems to the child remote. From Rousseau down to Mr. Herbert Spencer the importance of the discipline of consequences, of the 'inevitable reactions' following the commission of faults, has been often insisted upon. The influences arising from such reactions are very valuable as far as they go, but they cover but a very small part of the necessities of school discipline. They are cer- tain, and the bond of association between fault and punishment is clearly evident ; but they partake too much of the nature of fate (punishing inadvertences to the same extent as deliberate misconduct, and mak- ing no allowance for extenuating circumstances) for the teacher to attempt to bring his own measures into conformity with them. Punishments often lose more than half their valne when administered in a careless and indifferent manner. In such a case the teacher appears con- cerned only about the past fault, not about the future influence. They seem to the child more like the in- flictions of a careless stranger than of an anxious sympathizing friend. Much has been said and written about the teacher being always calm and judicial and The Nature and Uses of Punishment. 345 never giving way to anger. So far as this means that the teacher should never display ill-tempered irritability, or be guilty of an outburst of passion, the remarks are just ; but there seems no reason why the teacher should act unnaturally and hide that righteous anger at deliberate or gross misdoing, which, kept under proper control so as not to warp our judgment or lead to animosity against the child, is in its place — as Dr. Priestley long ago pointed out — a valuable influence, and often gives much increased force to punishment. It seems perfectly natural to the child that we should be angry at wrong-doing ; and if com- pletely dissociated from bad temper, such anger may be made to have a wholesome effect upon the child and often save the necessity of severer measures. Where such placidity of temperament exists that anger is scarcely ever shown, an expression of genuine pleasure or interest will probably be as rare. The teacher should be essentially human and not automaton-like, either in administering punishment, or in anything else. Children know nothing of abstract laws, and the younger they are the more necessary the personal element is. We only confuse children by trying to divest duty of its proper background, and we must be extremely cautious how far we withdraw the accompanying wish or will of another from the laws enjoined upon the child. As before observed, the transition from personal considerations to abstract conditions of law is a critical one ; even in its princi- pal features it is the work of years, and cannot rightly be viewed as ever quite complete. Punishments vary very greatly in suitability, in the ease with which they may be modified, in the nature of their influence, and in promptness of effects 2,4-6 Discipline and Moral Training. It is a consideration of much moment to the teacher which of the various means at his disposal should be employed in any particular case. The principal kinds in common use are censure, disgrace, deprivation of play or occupation, compulsory silence, prohibition of companionship of fellows, solitary con- finement, tasks, the rod, and expulsion. Each of these may, under certain circumstances, be a source of mischief, and each, employed under proper con- ditions, may be made of essential service. Some children feel one kind strongly, some another. The more acutely they feel any kind of punishment the better, as then a correspondingly small amount may be used with success. More than is just sufficient to accomplish our purpose should never be employed. If we get into a habit of using heavy punishments children harden to them, and they are no more effective in ordinary cases than lighter ones, while the evil is much increased. In nearly all discussions about punishment we proceed far too much on merely theoretical grounds. If we took the trouble to observe children carefully, or even to go back to our own childhood's experiences and those of our school-fellows, we should often be able to correct our theories, and save ourselves the shame and evil of blundering in practice. Every teacher knows that numerous defects in punishments exist which are little dwelt upon by theorists, and that many of the evils which are made so much of, and of which such gloomy pictures are drawn, are in the great majority of instances inoperative. The effects of gross abuses have too often been imputed to proper and moderate administration. Much will depend upon the character and skill of the teacher as to what the The Nature and Uses of Punishment. 347 effect will be. What will answer with one teacher or mode of administration will fail with another. Each must make trial for himself, and employ those forms of correction which with him prove least harmful and most effective. In case of bad management any punishment may lead to evil results, and none will suit all circumstances. Probably no kind of punishment has ever been employed which has not been condemned by one writer or another from particular points of view : but because the application of a certain mode of correction may be productive of mischief in particular instances, there is no reason for abandoning it, when needed, in cases where it maybe usefully and properly employed. To abandon all punishments which may be abused would leave us absolutely without help. It only shows, what every experienced teacher will admit, that no punishment should be blindly used, but that all need judgment and care in application ; and that the more liable any form of punishment is to misuse, and the graver the results of such error, the greater should be the caution exercised in its use, and the less it should be employed where any safer method will serve. Compulsory silence, and exclusion from companion- ship, are sometimes useful punishments for such offences as lying, bad language, passionate out- bursts of temper, bullying, &c. Against idleness, carelessness in work, and milder faults, deprivation of play will often serve ; as will also in some cases the homcepathic-like remedy, suggested by Locke, of enforced inactivity. What is frequently styled idle- ness in school is simply wrong occupation — the diversion of the attention to matters of amusement 348 Discipline and Moral Training. instead of proper work; laziness and inertness are much rarer faults in children. This should be borne in mind in deciding upon measures of treatment. It is worse than useless to keep children in during play- time, or after school hours, without some one in authority to look after them ; setting them work to do without this only partially meets the case. The punishment is more effective where they are separated from each other and kept perfectly inactive. Solitary confinement is a much heavier punishment than mere 'keeping in' as one of a number, and should be reserved for graver offences. It is least successful with sullen dogged tempers. Censure, which has been already spoken of, may be graduated with great nicety, and if dealt out impres- sively and justly, will often be sufficient for minor faults ; or it may be associated in varying degrees with other punishments, as disgrace. Its value de- pends much upon the character of the teacher. Shame acts powerfully on some natures ; it should be associated with moral offences, not such faults as restlessness, inattention, or misplaced talking. Cau- tion must be exercised in linking it with action that the association is a proper one; false or misplaced shame is an evil. It has most influence in cases where the sense of honor exists, but has no effect upon hard- ened offenders, and soon loses its power if appealed to very frequently. It very rarely acts with a large body of delinquents as they keep one another in countenance. Book tasks are often very strongly condemned by educational writers, but it is very doubtful whether, when used with moderation, the evils with which they are credited are not more imaginary than real in the The Nature mid Uses of Punishment. 349 great majority of cases. Let the teacher watch for himself with great care the influence of book tasks upon children, and it is probable that when he has observed a wide range of cases he will scarcely be inclined to concur in their wholesale condemnation. He may find individual cases where their influence has not been a good one, but where a liking for books has been given by the teaching ; an occasional task will not be found to affect this liking at all seriously. The habit of watching experiments in this way cannot be too strongly recommended to teachers. If more general, and the results were made known, many points of theory which seem very strong would prob- ably soon become considerably modified. There is still very much to be learned about the work of the teacher, and thoroughly trustworthy results can only be arrived at by the proper combination of theory and observation. Expulsion is a strong measure only to be resorted to in extremity. It is a confession of failure on the part of the teacher, and an assertion that the depravity of the child is such that no means at disposal are sufficient to control him, and that consequently he is an unfit associate for other children. What is to become of such a one ? Cases of children deserving expulsion, except among the most depraved classes, are rare. It would be better to hold consultation with the parents before adopting such a course ; and where it becomes necessary, the child should be ex- pelled with the managers' concurrence, not from any question of the master's power or right to expel, but as a matter of expediency. Corporal punishment has probably led to more discussion and to more violently antagonistic opinions 350 Discipline and Moral Training. than any other means of correction employed in school. The term has come almost universally to be employed as a synonym for 'flogging' ; though there seems no reason why it should not include all the punishments which depend upon pain of body, such as the far more objectionable ones of making children support weights, keeping them without food, compel- ling them to kneel on sharp objects, goading them with sharp points, &c; and some of these, be it remembered, have often been employed where corporal punishment has been supposed to have been given up. Thus Wood mentions that, in his time, although the rod had been expelled from the public schools of France, yet not only boys but delicate young ladies were every day compelled to rest on their knees for a very con- siderable time on a floor. Instances of boasted aban- donment in our own country could be quoted, where simply other forms of giving bodily pain have been substituted for the rod. If we are to abandon cor- poral punishment, it must be by ceasing to employ bodily pain at all y and not by keeping the letter to break the spirit of the rule in this miserable fashion. It is of the highest consequence that we should clearly realize the grounds upon which this discipline of pain rests; and to be satisfactory our knowledge of its results must be based upon something deeper than mere sentimental or theoretical opinions. Pain consumes an amount of nervous energy pro- portionate to its intensity and duration, and thus un- doubtedly tends to weaken nervous action — to sub- tract a portion of that force which we have to employ in education. It is in itself non-productive. Every action performed on account of the stimulus of pain is performed in a very wasteful and expe7isive way, The Nattire and Uses of Punishment. 351 and to the extent of the waste takes away from the future store of energy for the sake of securing present requirements. Pain artificially induced is in its nature an evil, and where largely employed may be a serious one, apart from any ulterior effects on the disposition. The more clearly we recognize this, the more likely shall we be to arrive at a just decision respecting its use. Where the future good overbalances the present loss, it will be necessary to make the sacrifice, unless some more economical and equally effectual means can be discovered : as in the case of disease it is often necessary to employ medicines which weaken before the conditions of future strength can be arrived at ; or as destruction by cauterization is sometimes neces- sary before healthy tissue can grow. The strength, or the new tissues, cannot be given by the medical remedy, but must be provided by other means. We should therefore regard a state needing corporal pun- ishment as a diseased one, and when we apply such means to root out vice or suppress an evil habit, we must remember that voluntary right action must be se- cured by other measures, for this the punishment will not supply. And, just as the bodily strength cannot be lowered beyond a certain point without great risk, and if it is, this may prove as fatal as the disease ; so there is a point, dependent upon the state of the indi- vidual, beyond which corporal punishment must in no case go, or the remedy becomes worse than the evil it is intended to cure. It is a grave error to consider ner- vous force as inexhaustible ; it is quite possible to flog a child until he cannot obey ; and it must always be a question with us whether the amount of force required can be spared without injury. Corporal punishment is 352 Discipline and Moral Training. thus clearly unsuited to children of highly emotional tendency and weakly habit of body ; and to employ it with a tenderly nurtured child open to better in- fluences is cruel. With respect to the effects of corporal punishment upon the disposition, many factors have to be taken into account. Those persons who have most carefully watched its effects will probably concur that where used with skill and discretion by a sympathetic teacher, and care is taken to neutralize its side tendencies by other good influences, there is little or no cause to fear any evil results. There is something radically wrong besides the mere use of corporal punishment wherever the long train of evils laid to its charge are ever realized in practice. Where pain is inflicted without the child recogniz- ing fully the reason for the infliction, he is restive under it; if to this is added the feeling of injustice, dislike of the teacher follows, which may at last deepen into hatred. Frequent pain has a tendency to render us irri- table, and in the end sour our disposition. This ten- dency acts still more with children than in the case of adults, though the elasticity of the child's nature serves in some respects as a counterbalance ; and if the pain is severe as well as frequent, it may so warp their natures as to embitter their future existence. Corporal punishment, therefore, should not be frequent on ac* count of its weakening effect, its injurious influence on the temper when so employed, and, further, the fact that children then become hardened to bearing it and a larger and larger amount is required. Used to such an extent as to produce the fear and trembling of slaves it is highly mischievous. Moral offences of a grave character, deliberate The Nature and Uses of Punishment. 353 and continued neglect of admonition, or rebellion, may be justly treated by corporal punishment ; and it is 'sometimes necessary to give a physical check of this kind, as a counterpoise to wrong pro- pensities or long-established habits, as a means of arousing the pupil from that dreamy irresolution which is frequently the greatest obstacle to reforma- tion/ If we know ourselves that we are acting from right motives, with the intention of being strictly just, and that there is no passion or the slightest trace of vindictiveness in our administrations of corporal punishment, we need not fear but that the children will in the end recognize its justice. They are wonderfully acute in this respect ; they detect almost instantly in what spirit punishment is administered, and their feelings towards the administrator, and the good effects of the application vary accordingly. If its justice is not clearly recognized it cannot be ex- pected to have any good moral effect. Children must be made to feel that the teacher dislikes its use — that it is to him an unpleasant necessity, which their good behavior could do much to remove. We have seen that punishment, if it is to be viewed as just, must be uniform for the same amount of wrong doing — the same standard of punishment must be maintained ; and this is impossible where several teachers are allowed to administer corporal punishment in the same school. There are sure in such a case to be consider- able discrepancies, and the boys will institute injurious comparisons, even if those who use it are sufficiently experienced to do so wisely. The head teacher, as the most fitting and responsible person, and the one whose administration is most likely to be respected, A A 354 Discipline and Moral Training. should always reserve the use of corporal punishment to himself. If we punish a child when he is in a passion, he is not likely to feel the justice of the application, and such a proceeding is a common source of those con- tests for the mastery, which should be carefully avoided, unless forced upon us by the behavior of the child himself. In such contests we must be very cautious to remember the limits beyond which corporal punishment should not go. If after a severe administration the child is still obdurate, we should not continue flogging him, for we may reach the limit and have to give in. It is far better to pause and give him time to reflect upon his position, with the distinct understanding that at the end of the period another punishment will result unless he obeys. Passion, which has perhaps supported him, has time to evaporate, and in all probability when the time comes he shrinks from another castigation and breaks down. When this takes place we must be most scrupulous to show no elation at his defeat, and must never treat him with derision, or all the good of the victory will be lost ; rather we should show sympathy and the sorrow we feel at being compelled by his obduracy to chastise him so severely. A child's feelings rise instantly to resent any glorying over him as a fallen foe, and submission at once appears to him cowardly. He is defeated but not conquered. ' When children are made ashamed of submission,' says Lant Carpenter, ' they will become intrepid, probably unconquerable, rebels.' Any severe punishments should always be given in private. It is never well, as before mentioned, to familiarize children with the sight of pain. It has The Nature and Uses of Punishment, 355 a hardening effect upon them, not only rendering their sympathies less keen, but by accustoming them to its effects upon others making them less sensitive to it themselves. A severe punishment will act just as much as a warning when they know it has been given as when they have seen it administered. It is a mistake to punish groups of offenders at once. The less disciplinary measures obtrude themselves upon the attention of children the better. No good teacher will walk about the school with the cane in his hand. The art of control is to so govern children that they do not feel it, and never stop to think about it. There is always danger of the too common em- ployment of the cane : it is such a ready means of settling difficulties, and seems to save so much time and trouble, that the temptation is often strong to use it where better means would serve. The * short and easy way' is often a most unsatisfactory one. It is the child's good and not our own ease we should have in mind. We must beware too of the excite- ment of punishing : a good teacher is ever on his guard lest he should be betrayed into undue haste or over severity. When flogging is necessary, the greatest care should be exercised that it may be given in a way which cannot lead to bodily injury. A child's head should under all circumstances be sacred from punishment; for no offence should a child's ears be boxed. Such a proceeding may lead to disastrous consequences of which we little dreamed. Directly after punishing a child, while he is still smarting from pain, is a bad time to talk to him about the heinousness of his faults. His attention is distracted, and he is very likely angry and out of sympathy with the teacher ; wait until he cools down, 356 Discipline and Moral Training. and then a few words leading to forgiveness may be of the greatest value. To sum up the principal conclusions at which we have arrived, we may say that corporal punishment is a wasteful mode of punishment and in itself an evil ; it is needed for special cases, where other means have failed; it should be used for the repression of vice, and should be associated with good influences to give a tendency to virtue and neutralize any ill effects on the disposition ; the child must be in a proper state of mind, and must feel its justice if it is to have a beneficial effect ; it must be administered in a proper manner, and within certain limits; and lastly, the smallest amount must be used which will serve our purpose. * No corporal punishment ' should undoubtedly be a standard which every teacher should endeavor to work up to. The more we can do without such punishment the better, and its true abolition must come from teachers themselves : any external com- pulsion is only likely to lead to a mere change from the forbidden forms to others equally objectionable, if not worse. In the present state of things we must not delude ourselves with the idea that the majority of teachers will be able to do without its occasional employment at least. Where the attempt is made to do without the use of the cane its abandonment should never be announced to the pupils ; it should be there for appeal if a case of great seriousness should arise. The fact that it is in the background, and may be used, will often deter some masterful spirit who would brave anything else but a sound flogging. The compulsory abandonment of corporal punishment would in itself be a strong inducement to some children to break loose. The Nature and Uses of Punishment. 357 The difficulties of control and proper disciplinary training are very great ; arising partly from defective skill on the part of the teachers, partly from disturb- ing home influences, and in some cases from the depravity of the children themselves. It is unfor- tunate that those teachers most likely to need the support of corporal punishment are just those who are least likely to use it discreetly. Among the greatest drawbacks to its abolition are, the difficulty of dealing with such masses of children as the master has in many cases to discipline, and the shortcomings of those associated with him in his work. A master may be able in a good school, where he can know all the children intimately, and thoroughly supervise the work, to do without the use of the cane except upon the rarest occasions ; and he should never rest content until he is able to accomplish this. But, where he has so large a number of children under his charge that it is impossible for him to know every child as he ought, and he has further to support the authority of inexperienced and possibly weak assistants, his difficulties are immensely increased ; and he may well feel how little those know of the real needs of school work, or of the nature of children, who so un- sparingly condemn the use of corporal punishment, as though it were solely necessitated by his ignorance and unskilfulness in control. Under an ideal state of things, no doubt much might be accomplished, but we have to deal with matters as they are. As the masses of our population become more alive to educational influences, and the home sympathies more with the teacher, the less need will there be to employ the lower forms of punishment. Flogging has been abolished in the schools of many of the continental nations ; and where the 358 Discipline and Moral Training. children come from educated homes, as in Germany and Holland, things no doubt wear a different aspect. But even here gross moral offences must occasionally arise needing very serious treatment. One would like to know, not the theoretical remedy, but exactly what is done in a large number of such cases, to be able to test how far the means adopted have proved effective, and in what respects they are superior to the ordinary form of corporal punishment. To talk of moral suasion in a large school without any adequate means of correction is absurd. Some punishment there must be sufficiently severe to meet the case. The difficulty is — What ? He who would suggest a really practical remedy for grave faults — one which could be applied by all teachers, and which would be less expensive of energy, less likely to lead to evil results, and as effectual as corporal punishment — would deserve to take high rank as a public benefactor. If we are able to secure the good without the loss in- volved in corporal punishment, it is not only foolish to employ it, but wrong. And there can be no doubt but that there are many experienced teachers whose personal in- fluence, readiness of resource, and skilled judgment render them able to abandon its use except on very extraordinary occasions. To make these, however, the rule for their weaker or less fortunately situated brethren would be to seriously embarrass the latter and injure their work, if not wreck their entire control. A highly skilled physician may be able to accomplish a cure by means which, if employed in a coarser clumsier way by less accomplished and less experienced members of the profession, would fail com- pletely. No doubt the severity and cruelty with which corporal punishment was administered in the past, has had much to do with its condemnation ; and many of the arguments employed against it apply to its bygone use, and have no weight against its moderate and proper application in the present. At one time The Nature and Uses of Ptmishnient. 359 it seems to have been looked upon not only as a means of moral correction, but as a necessary spur to learning; the benefit apparently being supposed to be in proportion to its severity. It was not only employed in schools, but for a long time even at the universities : Milton is said to have been one of the last who were flogged there. ' Humanity is shocked,' says Vicesimus Knox, writing towards the end of the last century, 'at the degree of severity which has been used in schools.' Nor was this state of things confined to England : so far as we can judge, it was as bad or even worse abroad. How common and severe corporal punishment was in some cases may be gathered from the following account, given by Jean Paul Richter, of the punishments of John Jacob Hauberle, a Suabian schoolmaster. 1 Which of us can boast, like H&uberle, of having ad- ministered, during his schoolmastership of fifty-one years and seven months, 911,527 strokes of the cane and 124,000 of the rod; also 20,989 blows with the ruler; not only 10,235 boxes on the ear, but also 7,905 tugs at the same member; and a sum total of 1,115,800 blows with the knuckles on the head ? Who, besides Jacob Hauberle, has given 22,763 impositions, partly in the Bible, partly in the catechism, partly in the Psalm book, partly in the gram- mar, as with four syllogistic logical figures, or a sonate d- quatre mains ? And did he not threaten the rod to 1,707 children who did not receive it, and make 777 kneel upon round hard peas, and 631 upon a sharp-edged piece of wood, to which are to be added a corps of 5,001 riders on the wooden horse ? ' Compared with such a condition of things as this, our advancement is as from a state of barbarism to civilization ; and who can doubt that, as education 360 Discipline and Moral Training. advances and the conditions become easier, corporal punishments will be less and less employed, and that much which is not possible now may then be accom- plished. No one will hail with greater satisfaction the advent of such a time than the teacher ; and though now his difficulties are many and encouragement often scanty, yet the true glory of his labor is great, for, in rightly moulding the lives of the little ones under his care, he is not only advancing a great work in the present, but influencing the intelligence, nobility, and progress of generations yet to come. School Bulletin Publications NOTE.— Binding is indicated as follows : B boards, C cloth, L leatherette, M maniila, P paper. Size as follows : 8:416 indicates &vo,pp. hi <; 12:393 in- dicates 12mo, pp. SOS ; 16:389 indicates 16mo, pp. SSO. Numbers preceding the binding and size give the pages in the Trade Sale catalogue on which the books are described, the fullest description being placed first. Books pre- ceded by a dagger (t) have been added since last year's catalogue. Books starred may be had also in the Standard Teachers' Library, manilla binding, at 50 cts. each. 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