g^^^p^^^ai,^ .<$*? - - ,.. - 
 
 OUTLIUES 
 
 OF 
 
 SCHOOL JUflNfIGE|ftENT, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 Lectures on School Necessaries, SchooKOrganization, Study, Reci- 
 tation, Examinations, Reviews, and School Management. 
 
 -BY — 
 
 Prof. Daniel B.' Williams. A.M. 
 
 Dean of the College Department, Professor ~of Ancien 
 
 Languages, and Instructor in School Management 
 
 and Methods of Teaching in the V. N. and C. I. 
 
 ^^fc^jssL^^g^a^^^Pi 
 
OIF 1 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 Lectures on School Necessaries, School Organ- 
 ization, Study, Recitation, Examinations, 
 Heviews, and School Government. 
 
 Prof, Daniel B /Williams. A.M., 
 
 u 
 
 Dean of the College Department, Professor of Ancient 
 
 Languages, and Instructor in School Management 
 
 and Methods of Teaching in the Y. N. and C. I. 
 
 -ALS0- 
 
 Author of "The Negro Eace, a Pioneer in Civilization," 
 • y Science, Art and Methods of Teaching," Free- 
 ^y^i 4 ) dom and Progress." Etc., Etc. 
 
 $■ WITH AN 
 
 INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR 
 
 By Prof. D. WEBSTEK DAVIS, Teacher in the 
 Bichmond Schools. 
 
 FIBST EDITION. 
 
 
 PETERSBURG, VA,; 
 
 Daniel B. Williams, Publisher. 
 1891 
 
 Entered according to acl of Congress, in the year 1890, by Professor Daniel B. Williams 
 A. M., in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This little treatise was undertaken at the suggestion of 
 a number of teachers and students to whom I had the 
 pleasure of imparting instruction on the principles and 
 facts of school management. In the institutes held at the 
 Y. N. & C. I. in the summers of '88 and '89, 1 used with 
 the teachers Eaub's School Management in connection 
 with those of Kellogg and other authorities, and aimed 
 to impress them with the fundamental principles of the 
 science and art of school management. I also employed 
 the same authorities in connection with my lectures deliv- 
 ered to the Senior Classes of '87, '88, and '89. 
 
 A number of ladies and gentlemen under my instruc- 
 tion suggested to me that the fundamental principles of 
 school management could be presented with greater force 
 in a much less extended work. After five years' experi- 
 ence in teaching this subject, I am convinced that this 
 little work will supply teachers with all knowledge neces- 
 sary for managing a school, and that it contains many 
 suggestions which will prove beneficial to students. It 
 may be advantageously used as a text-book with classes 
 studying the subject. 
 
 It is sent forth with the earnest wish that it will prove 
 helpful to teachers in disciplining and instructing their 
 pupils, and that it will materially aid boys and girls, 
 young men and young women in their intellectual and 
 moral culture. Daniel B. Williams. 
 
 V, N. & C. £, October 7, 1890. 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY SKETCH. 
 By Professor D. W. DAVIS, Teacher in the Kichmond 
 
 Schools. 
 
 "We live in deeds, not years, in thoughts, not breaths ; 
 In feelings, not in figures on a dial." — Bailey. 
 
 Professor Daniel Barclay Williams, A. M., first saw the 
 light of day in the city of Kichmond, Va., November 22, 
 1861. As a boy he was good at ball, bandy, tops, mar- 
 bles, foot-ball, and won fame in swimming. With all 
 this, he was manly and above mean and low acts. He 
 passed through the common and high schools of Rich- 
 mond, and graduated from the Richmond Normal and 
 High School in 1877 with distinguished honors, having 
 won the gold medal for excellence in scholarship and de- 
 portment and a silver one for orthography. 
 
 His teachers having seen the wonderful promise of fu- 
 ture greatness in him persuaded him to attend Worcester 
 Academy, where he was the acknowledged leader of his 
 class till his graduation in 1880. He was matriculated in 
 Brown University in the summer of 1880, and, in the fall 
 of the same year, commenced to teach in the public 
 schools of Richmond. He taught in his city till June, 
 1884, and, in the fall of 1885, taught in the schools of 
 Henrico County. With a wonderful tenacity of purpose, 
 he pursued the entire course of study of Brown Univer- 
 sity which he completed in 1885. In the fall of 1885, he 
 was elected as teacher in the V. N. <fc C. I., and, in 1887, 
 he was elected as Professor of Ancient Languages and 
 Instructor in School Management and Methods of Teach- 
 ing. He is also Dean of the College Department. 
 
 1. As an Educator. — He has successfully taught about 
 all of the common school branches and high school 
 courses, several scientific subjects, Greek, Latin, French, 
 German, some Hebrew, Plane and Solid Geometry, Plane 
 and Spherical Trigonometry, Surveying, Negro History, 
 the World's History, and Pedagogy. He is the builder 
 of the Method Department of the V. N. & C. I., and is re- 
 
4 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 cognized as a man of great executive ability. He is con- 
 ceded to be a linguist of extraordinary talent. 
 
 2. As a Writer and Author. — Since 1880, he has at vari- 
 ous times contributed articles to our leading journals. In 
 1885, he published The Negro Race, a Pioneer in Civiliza- 
 tion, in 1885, Why We are Biptists, in 1887, Science, Art, 
 and Methods of Teaching, in February, 1890, Freedom 
 and Progress. He also wrote in '84 The Theory of Rev. 
 John Jasper Concerning the San, in the Life of Jasper 
 by E. A. Randolph. His works are widely circulated 
 among white and colored. 
 
 3. As a Speaker. — As an orator, Prof. Williams ranks 
 high. His voice is musical, and his facts are pleasingly 
 and logically arranged. Daring the last ten years, he 
 has received a number of invitations to deliver addresses 
 in and out of the State. 
 
 4. His Moral and Eeligious Character. — In the early 
 part of 1878, he became a member of the First Baptist 
 Church of Worcester, Mass. He is a man of unblem- 
 ished moral character, and of a deep, fervent religious 
 nature. He is broad and liberal in his religious views. 
 
 5. His Wide-Spread Reputation. — I here quote from 
 Prof. R. W. Whiting: "Prof. Williams enjoys a national 
 reputation, and has been frequently honored by distin- 
 guished leaders of our race." Cuts and sketches of him 
 lave appeared in the Cleveland Gazette, JVeio York Sun, 
 
 The Freeman, and The Planet. In May, 1889, Living- 
 stone College conferred on him the degree of A. M. He 
 is now Second Yice-President of the Normal School 
 Alumni Association and Chairman of the Executive Com- 
 mittee of the Virginia Teachers' Association. 
 
 We bespeak for him an imperishable fame and hope 
 that no clouds may bedim his sky. May he press on 
 knowing" that 
 
 "The heights by great men gained and kept 
 Were not attained by sudden flight, 
 But they, while their companions slept, 
 Were toiling upward through the night.'' 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 LECTUKE I. 
 SCHOOL NECESSARIES. 
 
 "As is the teacher, so is the school." 
 
 "The scholar is his own teacher, and learning is self-teaching.'* 
 The author in S. A. & M. of T. 
 
 While some educators use the terms school government 
 and school management to designate the same ideas, we 
 propose to employ school management as embracing 
 school necessaries, school organization, study, recitation, 
 and school discipline. School Management treats of the 
 control and regulation of schools, and has for its aim 
 the highest physical, mental, and moral development of 
 students. 
 
 I. THE TEACHEK AND HIS PUPILS. 
 
 The most essential factors in school management are 
 the teacher and his pupils. The magnitude of the work 
 which the teacher aims to perform in his endeavor to 
 impart knowledge, inspire noble aspirations, and direct 
 the will to the choice of virtuous thinking and acting 
 renders it necessary that he should possess certain physi- 
 cal, intellectual, and moral qualifications. Fitst, the 
 teacher should possess a sound body with a sound mind 
 — sanum corpus cum sana mente. It is therefore es- 
 sential that he should learn and obey the laws which reg- 
 ulate health. He should indulge in regular physical 
 exercise of some kind, eat nutritious food, have sufficient 
 sleep, and give wise attention to clothing, bathing, and 
 to the breathing of fresh air. Some teachers of frail 
 physical constitutions may have made valuable contribu- 
 tions to the education of humanity, but the great ma- 
 jority of the prominent educators of ancient and modern 
 times were characterized by good physical stamina. The 
 affability, good nature, cheerfulness, and enthusiasm so 
 essential to judicious management require the powerful 
 stimulant of a healthy digestion, quiet nerves, and free- 
 dom from pain or disease. 
 
 Secondly, the teacher's intellectual qualifications should 
 be varied. (1.) On the subject or subjects which he at- 
 
6 OUTLINES OP SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 
 
 tempts to teach, his knowledge should be thorough, 
 broad, and available. (2.) His mind should be well dis- 
 ciplined, and his scholarship should embrace at least the 
 general principles and facts of science, philosophy, his- 
 tory, and practical life. The true teacher, like the im- 
 mortal Bacon, says in word and deed, "All knowledge is 
 mine. " (3.) In as much as teaching, like law, medicine, 
 and theology, is a science and art, the teacher should be 
 specially trained for his profession. He should have a 
 good understanding of the human mind, an accurate 
 knowledge of the natural order of its development at dif- 
 ferent stages of the child's growth and the subjects and 
 methods calculated to strengthen each faculty. Besides, 
 he should be acquainted with the lives and teachings of the 
 world's teachers ; such as, Moses, Socrates, Menu, Con- 
 fucius, Zoroaster, Christ — the greatest of all — , Galileo, 
 Newton, Bacon, Rakes, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Horace 
 Mann, Page, Payne, Swett, and others. The Colored- 
 American educator should also be acquainted with the 
 work of prominent colored teachers ; such as, W. J. Sim- 
 mons, B. T. Washington, J. C. Price, Frank Trigg, 
 J. W. Morris, J. E. Jones, P. F. Morris, J. H. Burrus, 
 A. M. Moore, J. H. Johnston, C. L. Puree, J. M. Greg- 
 ory, J. C. Corbin, B. F. Lee, and others. (4.) He should 
 be " apt to teach, " and capable of managing and con- 
 trolling his students. Capability of managing is condi- 
 tioned upon an intimate acquaintance with the motives 
 of those governed, legislative ability, and tact in adjusting 
 personal relations. 
 
 Thirdly, the teacher should be morally qualified for his 
 work. Education should aim to ennoble the desires, be- 
 get truthfulness, honesty, industry. The teacher should 
 be a believer in a personal responsibility to God and in the 
 importance of obeying the Ten Commandments. (2.) He 
 should love his pupils and seek their highest welfare. A 
 kind, loving preceptor makes an obedient school. (3.) 
 He should be truthful and honest. (4.) He should be 
 industrious and faithful in the discharge of duty. (5) 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 He should be known for cleanliness and neatness in dress- 
 ing, for " cleanliness is next to godliness." 
 
 II. THE SCHOOL HOUSE. 
 
 Though some of the greatest of the world's teachers 
 have instructed their followers on the common highway, 
 in the open field, and by the side of a river or lake, mod- 
 ern education demands a fixed place for the association 
 of the teacher and pupil. No one can imagine the influ- 
 ence which the school house exerts in the general culture 
 of students. (1.) It should be located in a healthy place. 
 (2.) It should be so situated as to be free from disturb- 
 ing noises in order that recitations may be conducted 
 with quietude. (3.) It should be convenient of ap- 
 proach. A school house should be so built as to allow 
 about ten or twelve square feet to each scholar. Its ceil- 
 should be from ten to fifteen feet in height. It should be 
 so built as to embody both comfort and beauty, and 
 ample arrangements for the safe keeping of hats, shawls, 
 and over-shoes should be made. 
 
 A school room should be well supplied with a platform, 
 on which the teacher may sit, seats or desks suitable to 
 the scholars, spacious blackboards, erasers, pointers, out- 
 line maps, and a globe. Besides, cabinets, a dictionary, 
 and a library containing instructive and interesting books 
 are great helps to teacher and pupils. 
 
 III. SCHOOL HYGIENE. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to the light, heat, 
 and ventilation of a school room. In order to secure the 
 best light, the windows should be high and in such a po- 
 sition that the light will not strike the pupils in the face. 
 Securing proper heat and ventilation is no easy matter, 
 yet every teacher should aim to wisely regulate the heat 
 and air of his own school room. Pupils should be en- 
 couraged to take regular physical exercise. Calisthenics, 
 swinging Indian clubs, using dumb-bells, and walking 
 may be easily taught and practiced. Instruction should 
 be given to pupils with reference to cleanliness, clothing, 
 eating, sleeping, and correcting injurious habits. 
 
8 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 IV. THE SCHOOL GEOUNDS. 
 
 Spacious, well-adorned grounds add much to the pleas- 
 ure of school life. In general, the ground surrounding a 
 school house should cover at least three-fourths of an 
 acre, and should be so laid off that each sex may have 
 separate places for play and recreation. Trees, flowers, 
 and shrubbery are Nature's ornamentations for it. Out- 
 buildings and agencies for physical exercise should be 
 carefully provided. 
 
 V. TEXT-BOOKS AND SCHOOL BECOEDS. 
 
 (1) Text-books are necessary to a well taught school. 
 They aid both teacher and pupil. They are supposed to 
 be accurate, concise, logical, and easy of comprehension. 
 (2) School Records are necessary from the fact that the 
 attendance, deportment, and general scholarship of the 
 pupil should be recorded from day to day. The teacher 
 can thus obtain more reliable data concerning the pro- 
 gress of the pupil than by relying on the uncertainty of 
 memory, and the pupil receives a greater incentive to be 
 more prompt, better behaved, and more scholarly. 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 "Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, 
 Have ofttimes no connection ; knowledge dwells 
 In heads replete with thoughts of other men ; 
 Wisdom in minds attentive to their own. 
 Knowledge, a rude unprofitable mass, 
 The mere materials with which wisdom builds, 
 Till smoothed and squared and fitted to its place, 
 Does but encumber whom it seems to enrich. 
 Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows no more." — Cowper. 
 
 School Organization is such an orderly disposition of 
 school labors as will enable teacher and pupils to perform 
 the very best work with the least possible hindrance. Its 
 true aim is to impart to each pupil the greatest physical, 
 mental, and moral power. It includes the first day of 
 school, classification, working by a programme and school 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 signals, average daily attendance, and percentage of at- 
 tendance. 
 
 The teacher frequently finds it to his advantage to visit 
 the neighborhood before he opens his school. (1) He 
 may thus learn the opinions of the community with refer- 
 ence to education and his particular work. (2) He may 
 thus learn how his predecessor managed and taught his 
 school. This information will materially aid him in his 
 work. 
 
 I. THE FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. 
 
 The first day of school is important to both teacher and 
 pupil. The pupils are anxious to see what kind of teacher 
 will instruct them. The first impression which he makes 
 will have much to do with his future career. Many ex- 
 perienced and successful teachers state that, on the whole, 
 the instructor makes the best impression on the first day 
 by the following methods : (1) By explaining in a few 
 words what he intends to do for them and letting them 
 understand that he expects them to aid him in making 
 school pleasant and profitable. (2) By enrolling their 
 names, ages, and whatever information concerning them 
 which may be needed. This method enables the teacher 
 to dismiss early and have a sufficiency of time to copy 
 their names and ages in a register and think of the next 
 day's work. 
 
 II. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 On the second day, the teacher should classify both old 
 and new students. Classification consists in grouping 
 pupils in classes according to their mental discipline and 
 knowledge for the purpose of mental and moral develop- 
 ment. The following advantages result from classifica- 
 tion : (1) It groups together pupils of equal or almost 
 equal capacity. (2) They are thus better stimulated to 
 study. (3) Their interest and attention are better se- 
 cured. (4) The teacher can do more effective work. (5) 
 He can better discern the progress of his pupils. Some 
 teachers think that it is best to classify according to the 
 pupil's knowledge of arithmetic, others believe that it is 
 
10 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 best to classify according to a knowledge of English 
 composition. Experience proves that both of these 
 methods are very faulty for general classification, since 
 a pupil's knowledge of either of these subjects may be 
 satisfactory while he may be very deficient in geography, 
 history, or some other branch. The great majority of 
 our best educators claim that the only true and thorough 
 way to classify is to examine a pupil on each study or a 
 part of a study required to enter a particular class. Some 
 employ written or oral examinations, others use both. 
 Of course, a written and oral examinations combined 
 gives the teacher a more thorough knowledge of the pu- 
 pil's capacity and knowledge. 
 
 III. WOBKING BY A PBOGBAMME AND SIGNALS. 
 
 After the pupils have been duly classified and the 
 teacher knows how many classes are to receive his atten- 
 tion during a school day, he should proceed in a syste- 
 matic manner with his school work. This can be best 
 done by carefully following a programme, which should 
 possess the following characteristics : (1) It should make 
 provision for opening exercises. (2) All students should 
 receive due attention. (3) All pupils should be provided 
 for. (4) The most difficult study should be recited in the 
 morning. (5) Studies to be prepared in school should 
 not be first heard. (6) It should make provision for two 
 recesses and for general business. The following advan- 
 tages result from a good programme carefully followed : 
 (1.) It creates interest in the pupils. (2) It leads to sys- 
 tematic study and recitation. (3) It makes teaching and 
 learning effective. (4) It saves valuable time. (5) It aids 
 in a round development. (6) It makes the teacher syste- 
 matic. (7) It aids school government. 
 
 We may suppose that the teacher, after careful classi- 
 fication, discovers that he has a school of fifty or sixty 
 children, among whom are the following classess : Two 
 arithmetic, one number, two geography, two reading, two 
 history, two grammar, one language lesson, two compo- 
 sition, and three writing and drawing. He wishes to 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 11 
 
 open school at nine o'clock and close about three with 
 two recesses of twenty and twenty-five minutes respec- 
 tively. His programme may be arranged as follows, nam- 
 ing his classes A, B. and C : 
 
 From 9 to 
 
 9-15 to 9-45 
 
 9-45 to 10-15 
 
 10-5 to 10-40 
 
 10-40 to 11-05 
 
 11-05 to 11-25 
 
 11-25 to 11-50 
 
 9-15 Opening Exercises. 
 
 A. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Reading the Bible and prayer. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Hecess. 
 
 B. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 C. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Writing or Drawing 
 under an advanced 
 pupil. 
 
 '■ anguage Lesson. 
 C pass home. 
 
 " 11-50 to 12-15 Geography. 
 
 " 12-15 to 12 40 Geography. 
 
 " 12-40 to 1-05 
 
 1-05 to 1 30 Recess. 
 " 1-30 to 1-55 Hisiory & Reading.! 
 " 1-55 to 2 20 I History & Reading. 
 
 " 2-20 to 2-45 Composition Exercises. 
 
 '* 2-45 to 3-10 Writing on Monday and Wednesday, Drawing on Tuesday 
 and Thursday, and Elocution on Friday. 
 
 The linking of two studies together means that one 
 may be taught for three days and the other for two days 
 in the week. It is advantageous to allow C class to pass 
 home as early after twelve o'clock as possible. The in- 
 structor should have in his school-room a reliable time- 
 piece in order that he may allot to each class its proper 
 time. He should also adopt a system of signals to aid 
 him in school work. A hand-bell will prove useful for 
 this purpose. When a class is to take its place for reci- 
 tation, the first tap of the bell may mean attention, the 
 second tap, rise, and the third tap, pass to the designated 
 place for recitation. These taps may be also used in 
 dismissing for recess and home. The scholars should be 
 drilled until they thoroughly comprehend each signal. 
 Snapping the finger and calling the teacher should not be 
 allowed. The pupils should be taught to raise their hands 
 when they wish to attract the teacher's attention. 
 
 IV. AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE AND PERCENTAGE OF ATTEND- 
 ANCE. 
 
 It may be advisable at this juncture to indicate the 
 methods of finding average daily attendance and per 
 centage of attendance. We may suppose that the school 
 contains forty-four pupils, twenty of whom are boys and 
 twenty-four are girls. The school was taught for twenty 
 
12 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 days, during which time eight boys and ten girls were 
 absent. The problems for the teacher to solve are : I. 
 What was the average daily attendance of the boys and 
 girls separately and of the whole school? II. What 
 was the percentage of attendance of the boys and girls 
 separately and of the whole school ? 
 
 The average daily attendance and the percentage of 
 attendance of the boys may be found as follows : 20 
 [number enrolled] x 20 [number of days taught] — 400 
 total enrollment. 400 — 8 [number absent] = 392 total 
 days present. 392 -*- 20 [days taught] = 19.6 average 
 daily attendance. 19.6 x 100 = 1960. 1960 -+- 20 [numbers 
 on roll] = 98, which is regarded as 98 percent., the percen- 
 tage of the boys. We may also find this percentage of 
 attendance by dividing 392 [the total days present] by 
 400 [the total enrollment] 2. The average daily attend- 
 ance and the percentage of attendance of the girls may 
 be found in the same manner. The data on which we 
 would work would be twenty-four [number of girls on 
 roll], twenty [number of days taught] and ten [number 
 absent.] 3. The average daily attendance and the per- 
 centage of attendance of the whole school may be ob- 
 tained according to the same method. The data on which 
 we would work would be forty-four [total number on roll] 
 twenty [number of days taught], and eighteen [number 
 absent]. Hence we may deduce the following rules : 1. 
 To find the average daily attendance, divide the total 
 days present by the number of days taught. Observe 
 that the total days present is found by subtracting the 
 number of absentees from the total enrollment, and that 
 the total enrollment is found by multiplying the number 
 on roll by the number of days taught. 2. To find the 
 percentage of attendance, multiply the average daily at- 
 tendance by one hundred and divide the product by the 
 number on roll ; or divide the total days present by the 
 total enrollment. 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 13 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 STUDY. 
 
 "To teach boys how to instruct themselves— that, after all is the 
 end of school work."— Markby. 
 Studium mentem firmat. (Study strengthens the mind) 
 Study is the application of the mind to some subject of 
 thought. The following may be given as the chief aims 
 of study : (1.) The training or disciplining of the intel- 
 lectual faculties. (2.) The acquisition of knowledge. 
 Of course, the student of history or arithmetic should 
 know the principles and facts of these subjects. (3.) 
 The application of knowledge. When knowledge is 
 acquired, it should be used for the benefit of the indi- 
 vidual and humanity. The numerous inventions which 
 add untold blessings to the world resulted from the ap- 
 plication of knowledge to the practical affairs of life. 
 Mere theoretic knowledge may serve to discipline fac- 
 ulty, but it cannot cure the body or produce a crop. (4.) 
 The preservation of health. Certainly, our education 
 should teach us how to learn and obey the inflexible laws 
 which regulate our bodily comfort and longevity. (5.) 
 The perfection of our moral nature. The highest object 
 of study is to enable us to be pure and upright and to 
 prepare ourselves for our immortal destiny. Even the 
 noted infidel, Thomas Paine, could say after profoundly 
 studying nature, " I believe in one God. " Our study- 
 ing should have as its highest aim a knowledge of God 
 and His holy Son, Jesus Christ. 
 
 II. HOW THE TEACHER MAY AID THE SCHOLAR. 
 
 The instructor may legitimately aid the scholar in the 
 following ways : (1.; He may carefully read the lesson 
 with them and designate its essential points. (2.) He 
 may impress upon his pupils the importance of studying 
 alone. ^ (2.) He may teach them the importance of pay- 
 ing strict attention to what is done in the class. (4.) 
 The teacher should show his pupils that he is deeply in- 
 terested in their work. ( 5. ) He should give praise when 
 they deserve it. (6.) The teacher may greatly inspire 
 
14 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 his pupils by making but little use of text-books. (7.) 
 He may help them by bringing to their attention examples 
 of successful men and women. 
 
 III. HOW THE PUPILS MAY STUDY WITH SUCCESS. 
 
 (1.) Bodily health and comfort are essential to effec- 
 tive study. The pupils should be taught the necessity 
 of physical exercise, nutritious food, and quiet sleep. (2.) 
 Students should study in a place free from disturbing 
 noises. (3.) Scholors should have a regular time for 
 learning their lessons. (4.) Most difficult lessons should 
 be learned first. (5.) Students should make free use of 
 reference-books, text-books, and apparatus. 
 
 LECTUKE IV. 
 RECITATION INCLUDING EXAMINA- 
 TIONS AND REVIEWS. 
 
 "Education is the generation of power." — Pestalozzi. 
 
 "Let things that have to be clone be learned by doing them." 
 Comenius. 
 
 Recitation is the recital of the lesson by the pupil un- 
 der the supervision of a teacher. 
 
 I. THE AIMS OF RECITATION. 
 
 (1.) Mental discipline may be mentioned as one great 
 aim of recitation. This means the proper development 
 of all the intellectual faculties in accordance with the 
 laws of intellect. (2.) Acquisition of knowledge may 
 be mentioned as another aim of recitation. Certainly, a 
 recitation in history or physics should enable the student 
 to master some of the principles and facts of the subject 
 studied. (3.) That the instructor may test the work 
 done by the student during his study -hour may be given 
 as another object of recitation. (4.) Recitation should 
 also aim to give the pupil self-confidence, to awaken his 
 interest in study, to enable the scholar to cultivate habits 
 of attention, and to enable the teacher to correct the 
 pupil's errors. 
 
 II. THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION. 
 
 First, the teacher should be well acquainted with what- 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 15 
 
 ever subject or subjects he attempts to teach. Secondly, 
 he should make a special preparation for each recitation, 
 for he should know the simplest methods for presenting 
 the principles and facts of each lesson to his class. 
 Thirdly, he should make such thorough preparation as 
 to be able to show the relation of each lesson to the pre- 
 ceding one. Fourthly, he should so prepare each lesson 
 that he will be enabled to teach without the use of a 
 text-book. 
 
 III. THE SCHOLAR'S PREPARATION. 
 
 (1.) The scholar should prepare for each recitation 
 that he may more thoroughly discipline his mental facul- 
 ties. (2.) His prearation should be such as to enable 
 him to acquire a knowledge of the subject studied. (3.) 
 He should prepare for each recitation that he may be 
 able to gain information on the part or parts of the les- 
 son most difficult to him. (4.) A student should pre- 
 pare each lesson that he may have self-confidence in the 
 presence of the teacher and his class-mates, and that he 
 may answer questions with clearness and precision. 
 
 IV. METHODS OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 (1.) The lecturing method may be used in teaching 
 a subject. While it may be profitable to somewhat 
 advanced students who understand the elements of the 
 subject on which the lecturer speaks, it should be seldom 
 used with those beginning a subject. (2) The illustra- 
 tive method is often used. By this method we seek to 
 convey knowledge to the child by means of pictures, 
 drawings, experiments, and incidents. (3.) The simulta- 
 neous method, according to which all the pupils are al- 
 lowed to answer at once, may be sometimes used. This 
 was a favorite mode of teaching of Pestalozzi. (4.) The 
 interrogative, or questioning method is more frequently 
 used than any other. The following suggestions on the 
 art of questioning may prove profitable to the progres- 
 sive teacher : (1) Do not ask a question which may be 
 answered by yes or no. (2.) The questions should be 
 given in such an order as to form a progressive develop- 
 
16 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ment of the subject. (3.) The question may be put in a 
 general way to the whole class, and one pupil may answer 
 one part of it and another the other. (4.) Children should 
 answer in their own language, and should sometimes in- 
 terrogate each other. (5.) Questions should be given in a 
 clear, concise manner. (6.) They may be put orally or 
 in writing. (7.) Pupils should be taught to answer in 
 clear, correct, concise language. (5.) The topical method, 
 according to which a scholar tells all he knows about a 
 subject or a division of a subject, is also much used by 
 teachers. (6.) The mixed method, which is a combination 
 of two or more of the preceding modes of teaching, may 
 be used with great benefit. All methods should be sea- 
 soned with the spice of questioning. 
 
 V. SOME SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHEES. 
 
 The teacher should use pleasant tones of voice during 
 a recitation, for it greatly enhances his influence with his 
 scholars. While the class is reciting, he should stand as 
 much as possible instead of sitting. He should manifest 
 a deep interest in his work and thus incite enthusiasm in 
 his students. His deportment should be dignified, and 
 his language should be correct and elegant. He should 
 encourage the timid and dull, and refrain from ridiculing 
 the mistakes of his students. It is unwise on the part of the 
 teacher to allow one student to prompt another. Pupils 
 should be impressed with the importance of giving close 
 attention to what is done in the class, and they should 
 not be allowed to laugh at the mistakes of each other. 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 I. THEIR AIMS. 
 
 (1.) An examination on a given subject is an attempt to 
 find out what the pupils know of that subject. (2.) Ex- 
 aminations should aim to create interest on the part of 
 the students and serve as an inspiration. (3.) To secure 
 data which, in connection with daily class standing, may 
 serve as a basis on which to promote from one class to 
 another is another object for testing the knowledge of 
 students. 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 17 
 
 II. THEIR CHARACTER. 
 
 (1.) They should include the leading principles and 
 most important facts taught. (2) They should test the 
 pupil's knowledge as far as he has studied. (3. They 
 should also test the scholar's capability to think. This may 
 be done by questions which are not found in the text- 
 book studied, but which involves the principles taught. 
 (4) They should also test the mental discipline of the 
 student by showing whether or not he is able to produce 
 the required knowledge in a given time. (5.) They 
 should not be so long as to weary the pupils. The length 
 of an examination depends to some extent on the ages of 
 the scholars. In general, an examination which extends 
 more than two hours and a half or three hours wearies 
 even advanced students. 
 
 III. OTHER IMPORTANT POINTS 
 
 Some teachers claim that there should be no stated or 
 regular time for an examination. They argue in favor of 
 their position that pupils will make a special preparation 
 for it, which together with the solicitude incident to it 
 frequently injures both mind and body. While some 
 evils attend stated or regular examinations, the vast ma- 
 jority of European and American educators believe that 
 more good results from them than evil. It is customary 
 for some schools to hold regular monthly examinations. 
 In institutions which divide the school year into three 
 terms, examinations are usually held at the close of each. 
 Examinations may be oral or written. In general, a 
 written examination is considered a better test than an 
 oral, but a written and oral examination combined is the 
 most preferable. 
 
 REVIEWS. 
 
 The main objects for a review of a study is [1.] to 
 more thoroughly discipline the student's mind, [2.] to 
 make his knowledge of the subject more exact, [3.] 
 to more thoroughly prepare the pupils for an examination , 
 and, [4.] to give further opportunity to the dull and 
 sluggish. The question, When should a review be given ? 
 
18 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 is often asked. The best teachers usually review on 
 each clay the preceding day's lesson. It is profitable to 
 a class to review on each Friday the work of the week. 
 Some instructors expend about two or three days at the 
 end of each month in reviewing the month's work. A 
 week or ten days prior to the term examinations may be 
 profitably given to a review of the term's work. The in- 
 structor should aim to impress in a review the leading 
 principles and facts of his subject and enable his 
 students to perform original work as much as possible. 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 " Few consider how much we are indebted to government, be- 
 cause few can represent how wretched mankind would be without 
 it. '' — Atterbury . 
 
 "He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty ; and he that 
 ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city."— Solomon in Proverbs 
 xvi:32. 
 
 "Every experienced teacher knows that good order is essential 
 to the progress of the scholar in his several studies. A boisterous, 
 whispering school is, without exception, a poorly taught and disa- 
 greeable one." — The Author in S. A. & M. of T. 
 
 I. OBJECTS OF SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 (1.) The direct and immediate object of school-govern- 
 ment is to secure the obedience, punctuality, and undi- 
 vided attention of the child. (2) The great purpose of 
 school-discipline is to impart to the child the ability and 
 power to govern himself. 
 
 II. HOW TO SECURE GOOD ORDER. 
 
 "While disorder is sometimes the result of circumstances 
 beyond the teacher's control, it may, for the most part, be 
 offset by diligence and wisdom. The following are the 
 main causes of disorder : (1.) Uncomfortable school- 
 houses, (2.) poor ventilation, (3.) uncomfortable seats, 
 (4.) unwise threats, (5.) laughing and whispering, (6.) 
 too many rules, (7.) ill-disposed pupils, (8.) timidity on 
 the part of the teacher, (9.) suspicion on the part of the 
 teacher, and (10.) unhealthiness of the pupils. 
 
 Most of these causes of disorder are within the contro 
 
OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 19 
 
 of the wise instructor, and any of them may be mitigated 
 by him. [1] If the school-honse and seats are uncomforta- 
 ble, he should exert his influence with the proper authori- 
 ties to have them suitable for his scholars. [2.] He should 
 study with care the best way to ventilate his school-room, 
 and should never threaten his scholars. The experienced 
 and skilled instructor avoids too many rules. [3.] The 
 strongest power with which a teacher may govern a school 
 is love. Love begets love. A kind, loving instructor 
 makes a kind, loving school. Fear should never be the 
 ruling principle of a school. It paralyzes the intellect, 
 deadens the aspirations, and makes children slavish and 
 deceitful. Timidity and suspicion on the part of the 
 teacher should be avoided. He should diligently culti- 
 vate good feelings and purposes toward his students, and 
 show them that he has confidence in them. [4.] The in- 
 structor should be courteous and polite, and should pre- 
 serve a cheerful and pleasant disposition. He will thus 
 frequently cause ill-disposed pupils to become his friends, 
 and will cease to worry over many little misdemeanors. 
 [5.] He should labor to make the public opinion of the 
 school unfavorable to disorder. [6.] Good order is greatly 
 dependent on systematic work. The instructor should 
 carefully follow a wisely-arranged programme. [7.] He 
 should keep his scholars busy. 
 
 But he who would govern others should first learn how 
 to govern himself. The following elements of governing 
 power are essential to a teacher : [1.] He must know how 
 to govern himself. He must be able to control his own 
 temper and to master his own passions. [2.] He must 
 possess common sense in dealing with human nature. 
 [3.] He should have a sound judgment and good execu- 
 tive talent. [4.] He should possess a cultivated mind 
 and attractive manners. [5.] He should love his pupils, 
 and be impartial in his treatment of them. [6.] He should 
 be energetic and vigilant. 
 
 III. PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 If kindness, moral suasion, and the teachings of relig- 
 ious principles fail in governing a pupil, the teacher must 
 
20 OUTLINES OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 have recourse to punishment. I. The main objects of 
 school punishment are [1.] the reformation of the offen- 
 der, [2.] a warning to the others, and [3.] a maintenance 
 of the supremacy of the school laws. II. The extent of 
 punishment should depend on circumstances. [1.] The 
 nature of the offense and the motive of the offender 
 should be considered. [2.] When the same offense is 
 committed a number of times, the offender deserves a 
 greater punishment. [3.] Punishments should be regu- 
 lated to some extent by the age, sex, and temperament of 
 the offender. III. The efficacy of punishment is largely 
 conditioned on its certainty. Punishments should be re- 
 lated to offenses as effects to causes, and every violation 
 of the school regulations should be followed by its mer- 
 ited penalty. IY. The following kinds of punishment 
 may be employed by the teacher under varying circum- 
 stances : [1.] Reproof. An offending student may be re- 
 proved publicly or privately at the discretion of the 
 teacher. [2.] He may make an apology publicly or pri- 
 vately. [3.] He may be deprived of some privilege; 
 such as, a recess, the forfeiture of a favorite seat, or a 
 post of honor or emolument. [4.] He may be dismissed 
 from recitation, detained after school, or forced to per- 
 form some neglected duty. [5.] Corporal punishment 
 may be inflicted on him. 
 
 V. SOME SUGGESTIONS ON PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 [1.] It is injudicious to scold, ridicule, or heap personal 
 indignities of any kind on a pupil. [2.] It is unwise to 
 whip pupils on account of neglected lessons and to re- 
 prove those who are doing their best. [3.] It is 
 wise to postpone punishment till it can be done with de- 
 liberation. [4.] Public reprimands should be employed 
 only when the offense is an aggravated one. [5.] Aim to 
 arouse the sense of right in a pupil, and appeal to his 
 sense of honor. [6.] Do not hold malice, prejudice, or 
 a spirit of revenge against a scholar. [7.] Corporal pun- 
 isment should be moderate, and should be administered 
 in private. It should never be inflicted when the teacher 
 is in an angry mood. [8.] Pupils should not be suspended 
 or expelled for light offenses. [9.] Do not desire to pun- 
 ish for every misdemeanor. It is sometimes wise to ap- 
 pear to be unconscious of some violations of the rules. 
 
 \Not\- \y?tkv e\_eci[ 9ac ?r\ut , 
 
POPULAR WORKS 
 
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