Practical Home and School Methods OF STUDY AND INSTRUCTION IN THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION WITH OUTLINES AND PAGE REFERENCES BASED ON THE NEW TEACHERS' AND PUPILS' CYCLOPAEDIA Under the Direction of BERNHART P. HOLST Teacher and Editor Partial List of Assistants: CLARA E. THOMPSON Teacher at St. Paul, Minn. ESSE V. HATHAWAY High School Teacher, Marshalltown, Iowa E. L. COBURN Supervisor of Music, St. Ivouis, Mo. GRACIA E. TUCKER Principal of the L,incoln School, Boone, Iowa H. M. MARTIN Principal of the Morse School, Kansas City, Mo. EFFIE SCHUNEMAN Supervisor of Drawing, Boone, Iowa LAWRENCE DeGRAFF Judge of District Court, Des Moines, Iowa :ago. 111. Boone, Iowa Pittsburg, Pa. Toronto, Oni. The Hoist Publishing Company 1910 CONTENTS Preface - --,- " " " " "^ Introduction - -■'- - - " " ' ^ The Attainment of Success - - - " ~ ~ ^ The Spirit of Inquiry - - - - - ~ ^ Education - - - - " " " ~ "^ How to Study - - - - - ~ ~ ' ° SUBJECTS TREATED on Agriculture - - - - -" " "iiq Agriculture, Course of Study in - - - - - j^^ American Indian ------- 138 American Literature Botany Copyright 1910 by THE HOLST PUBLISHING COMPANY printed in the united states of America ©CI. A 2B 8945 250 Anthropology -------- 133 Asbestos, Etc. . ------- ^-7 Astronomy . _______ 204 Biography - -- - - " ~ " -^^^ Birds, Outline on - - - - --- 25 223 Coal, Etc. - ' ~ ~ ' ' ~ ~ III Commerce - - - - - - - -~ ^^° Drawing - - - - - - - - ^^^ English Literature ------- 231 Fine Arts - -- - - - - - 1^"^ Flowers - - - - - -- " " ^^" Forestry - - -- - - - " l^" Games and Sports -----.-- 294 Geology -------- 208 Grass ---------95 Horticulture -------- 111 Irrigation - - - - -- - - -86 Language and Grammar - - - - - - 305 Letter Writing -------- 1^^ Literature _--_---- 228 Minerals and Mining - - - - - - - 221 Nature Study __-_--- 12 Needs of Man - - - - - - - -10 Orthography and Orthoepy ------ 125 Painters and Paintixc.s - - - - - - 175 Paper Cutting - _ . _ - _ - _ 275 Parts of Speech - - - - -- - - 320 Physics --------- 281 Physiology ----_____ 288 Poultry --------t 103 Reptiles _---_--_- 198 Rules for Spelling _--___ 128 Sugar - - - - - - - - -.98 Transportation - - - -- - - - 298 Zoology - - - - -.- _ . _ 195 ETHOD is of vast impor- tance in the acquisition or knowledge. It is the lub- ricant that serves lo oil the mechanism of -the brain. Properly employed, it con- verts knowledge into chan- nels of wisdom and usefulness. The possession of an accredited work of reference, such as "The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia, is a valuable holding, but it becomes of the greatest utility only when it is con- sulted in a methodical way. The pres- ent volume contains the guideposts that direct efforts along the line of rational study- Those who have dedicated their lives to the work of the student and the teacher realize clearly the meaning of Rev. F. S- Browning's beautiful words: I do not know Where falls the seed that I have tried to sow With greatest care; But I shall know The meaning of each waiting hour below Some time, somewhere! —B. P. H. faf^sCTilqpral) 'f^'^^K.>-alia^^^ Introduction Principal Features. ATTENTION is directed to the innumerable suggestive and helpful fea- tures of this work. It covers the field of education so completely that many prominent educators recommend it as an indispensable help to students and teachers. Hundreds of institutions of learning have placed it on their lists of useful books. Orthography and Orthoepy. Correct spelling and pronunciation are accomplishments of the finished scholar. Acquired as habits in the formative period, they give surety and independence to the man or woman in writing and speaking. This work uses the correct method, the system of diacritical marking, and defines and explains the difficult titles. Language and Grammar. Children should be taught to speak and write correctly. If properly trained in youth, they acquire the use of language from habit and become able to use it authoritatively. This work gives the exercises and outlines the lessons which are important. With the language lessorls are correlated the more advanced work of grammar. Agriculture. All the departments of agriculture are treated in a helpful manner. The aim in this branch is to emphasize the importance of the farm in the economy of the nation. Formerly farming was empirical, but now the successful farmer is more especially fitted for the duties of his business. He studies not only to make his work profitable, but endeavors to beautify his home and enjoy the greater conveniences of a progressive age. Literature. This work abounds with facts that lead to a hearty appreciation of the best in literature. It contains not only a line of helpful information on the lives of the world's best writers, but furnishes materials for the actual scrutiny of their products. Many quotations from great authors embellish the pages and add interest in the study of useful subjects. Biography. Children gain much strength of character from studying the achievements of great men and women. They learn to emulate the noble deeds of great minds, whether in the field of science or statesmanship, and profit by the eflfort. This work stands foremost in the study and application of noted examples of human life and achievement. Civics and History. Instructors in the home and in school should keep in mind the future Scitizen — the men and women who will ultimately guide the ship of state safely on the sea of nations. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclgpa-edia treats of civil government so completely that all who follow the instruction obtain a clear understanding of the government, local as well as national. The scope of work in history ranges from the most ancient to the present time, covering a period of more than six thousand years. It traces the causes and effects largely by sources, making the whole subject both clear and interesting. Fine Arts. The fine arts embrace the greatest achievements of man. Architecture, painting, sculpture, music, and engraving stand at the head of human attain- ments. They engage not only the ingenuity and stimulate the higher nature, but embody the accomplishments that really make life beautiful and ennobling. This work furnishes the outlines and materials to study the fine arts. Students who follow the courses and consult the references, who devote their spare time to personal culture, acquire ability in conversing on these interesting topics. Drawing. The art of drawing is recognized as a very worthy subject of study. It enables the student to enforce statements by actual examples. This work con- tains a very complete treatise and many instructions in drawing, prepared by Miss Efiie Schuneman, an accomplished teacher of the Pratt System of draw- ing. The mere mention of this system is sufficient to recommend this work to the student and teacher. Letter Writing. Correct form and usage in letter writing are as essential as correctness in speaking. Great letter writers, such as Jonathan Swift, Johann Goethe, and Madame de Stael-Holstein, became famous for their style of writing, as well as for the thoughts they committed to paper. This work presents a very com- plete set of forms and directions for conducting correspondence. Linked with the information given in the work, this department enables the student to be correct in the subjects of knowledge as well as in the style of committing them on paper. Nature Study. The systematic study of nature is made possible by consulting this work. It enables students to plan with the view of getting the best information which nature furnishes. Correlated with the topics of study, of which there are in- numerable, will be found the choicest gems of literature to ennoble the mind. The fact that this work is consulted more frequently than any other, particu- larly in nature study, is proof conclusive that it is indispensable to the learner and the teacher. Sciences. All the natural sciences, including their branches and departments, are treated in The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia. Outlines in the most important of these branches are furnished in this work, such as those in Anthropology, Astronomy, Botany, Geology, Physics, Physiology, etc. Other Subjects of Study. To summarize the entire work, it may be said to contain all the leading subjects for conversation. It embodies the topics which are essential in a practical education and in the affairs of a successful business career. Those who wish to be abreast of the times, equipped at any moment to dem- onstrate their power as students and thinkers, may consult this work with con- fidence of success. In politics and business, in folklore and mythology, in law and commerce, in fact, in all the general topics, it widens culture and dissemi- nates knowledge. 3 VAAKKA) ^ .AAAAAAAAAAAAXAAAA-Xiq The Attainment of Success m op] UGGESS in any enterprise or industry is the prod- uct of labor. It must be sawed out of the forest, blasted out of the mine, plowed out of the field, achieved by close application in the institution of learning. Alexander Hamilton, the eminent American statesman, said: *'Men give me credit for genius; but all the genius I have lies in this: When I have a subject on hand I study it profoundly. The effect I make, they call the fruit of genius; it is, however, the fruit of labor and thought." We need to prepare ourselves to endure, physical toil as well as brain activity. This twofold culture, when closely associated with tact to apply it skillfully, is an ever-important factor. Indeed, labor, thought, and skill are the essentials of a successful career- Nothing can hinder young men and women from obtaining success, if they are ablaze with determination. Those whose early training has been neglected may repair the defect by earnest study at home or in evening schools. If the time for this work is limited, that little should be improved. Napoleon once said, "The reason I beat the Austrian army is, they did not know the value of five minutes. Success implies more than broad acres, large herds, and heavily laden granaries- It is closely linked with the kindnesses shown to others, the good accomplished in our community, and the help we bestow upon our fellows. Success means enterprise, thrift, skill, kindness, and self-denial. It is the very nature of man to be athirst. This instinctive characteristic marks the soul as infinite. He may be athirst for work, love, art, achievement, or any other worthy object, but it is a thirst that cannot be quenched by any one or all of them. The desire is gratified only by the hope of future attainment. Miss not the occasion; by the forelock take That subtile power, the never-halting time. Lest a mere moment's putting oil should make Mischance almost as heavy as a crime. — fFordsivortfi. VVVVVW VVVVVVVS i^VVVVVN/' VVVVVVVVVVVVV '^AAwA.Ai' LAAA.AAAAAAAXAAAAA-q The Spirit of Inquiry HE immortal spirit of inquiry — the basis of every addition to knowledge — cannot die. It is as irre- sistible as the onward flow of the tides, or the movement of the stars. The spirit of inquiry and investigation in all ages has dared to explore the wilds of untrodden lands. It has invaded the region of unknown seas, pene- trated the crust of the earth and the milky heavens above, and planted imperishable monuments as the result of constant search for knowledge. Seizing the power and speed of steam, it has moved the commerce of the world. It has bridled the lightning and com- manded it to bear messages from land to land. It has discov- ered the secrets which enable man to fly through the air with the precision and the speed of birds. The conquests of this spirit have kindled the fire of intelligence which will burn for ages and centuries. To think and investigate are now considered among the great- est glories of life. He who ascends highest the mountain steeps of thought, or plunges deepest into the ocean of unsolved doubt, is considered a benefactor of mankind. The intellect of the thinker, daring to seize the bolts of thought, is not impaled by a tyrannical Jupiter. Every phase of human economy has been investigated by the spirit of inquiry. This spirit is at the bottom of every progressive movement and is emblazoned on every landmark of civilization. It has supplanted doubt, uncertainty, and superstition by pro- moting truth, knowledge, and progress. The influence of this spirit has trained the statesman, guided the schoolmaster, and educated the masses. The spirit of inquiry should be made a subject of personal study. Our ability to learn and understand should be limited only by our power to acquire a greater fund of knowledge and skill. To be and to become — this is the tonic which should quicken the soul each new morning, the sparkling dew which should refresh the feet of those who tread the grassy sward. •/VVVVVVVVVVVVV VVVVVVVWVVVVVV VVVVVVYYVVVVVV> ^VVVVVVVWWWf^ c) EDUCATION is the birthright of every child. It is the duty of those in authority to protect the child in the enjoyment of this right. The kind and extent of education are primarily to be decided by the parent, or guardian, but later the youth may choose additional training for a particular trade or profession. The test of education is not outward prosperity, the enlargement of man's dominion over nature, or the increase of commercial intercourse. These are laud- able, if they add to the storehouse of human purpose, or extend the scope of per- manent happiness among men. The true test of education is in the influence it has upon the minds and hearts of the people. The first step in education is to ascertain the present state of mind develop- ment. Having learned the capacity of the mind, the instructor begins to teach new- elements of knowledge. Step by step the learner is led to associate the new facts with those previously known, both of which are called into use from time to time by tests and examinations. Successive tests may prove that the learner is making progress in learning the branches studied, but this is a small part of the actual accomplishment. The over- shadowing importance of educational work is in the student himself^ whose power of mind and body is enlarged and vitalized. A beneficent contagion drives the impulse of mental activity from one faculty to another — from the vision to the memory, from the memory to the imagination, from the imagination to the affec- tions, and from the affections to the will — until the whole being is awakened. The thrill passes from the first point of contact to all the faculties, causing the remotest part of the soul to feel the impulse. In education the environment of the child must not be overlooked as a potent factor. The mind is influenced, not only by the course of lessons, but by the con- ditions under which the instruction is given. The home life, the surroundings in the schoolroom, the companions on the playground, in fact, all the things heard and seen, have a vitalizing or depressing influence in the process of development. Frequently influences of which we are not conscious wield the greater force upon the mind and life of the learner. Education, aside from the subject taught, exercises an influence upon charac- ter, A student who is trained to mental and physical labor absorbs cardinal virtues in addition to the elements of knowledge. He acquires habits of self-control, industry, and perseverance. The assignment of lessons causes him to accustom himself to other impulses than present inclinations. Eventually, through persist- ent work and study, he acquires ennobling habits and sturdy strength. The scholar himself is the grandest type of perfection in education. He be- comes enlarged, strengthened, and improved by the mental struggle through a decade or more of years. If facts are forgotten, they may be recalled by a trained mind in a systematic order when they are needed in actual service. The facts may 6 even be lost, but a more important factor remains, the trained mind that gathers and vitalizes them. Huxley, the English writer, gives the following definition of a liberal educa- tion : "That man, I think, has a liberal education who has been so trained in his youth that his body is the ready servant of his will and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of ; whose intellect is a clear, cold logic-engine,, with all its parts of equal strength and in smooth working order, ready like a steam engine to be turned to any kind of work and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind ; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of nature and the laws of her operations ; one who is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of art or nature, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as him- self." The student is not inclined to measure life by years or decades, but rather by the wholesome culture of the mind. This culture brings an enlargement of power. a greater capacity to discharge the functions of life, and makes it possible for the mind to range in a more expanded field. Although such mental development en- larges the duties and responsibilities, it greatly multiplies the joy of living as well as the hopes and ambitions for future years. Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot, To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, To breathe the enliv'ning spirit, and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast. — Thomson. The Student. His years, 'tis true, are few, — his life is long ; For he has gathered many a precious gem ; Enraptured, he has dwelt where master minds Have poured their own deep musings, and his heart Has glowed with love of Him who framed us thus. Who placed within this worthless tegumeht The spark of pure divinity which shines With light unceasing. Yes his life is long, — Long to the dull and loathsome epicure's, — Long to the slothful man's, — the groveling herds, Who scarcely know they have a soul within, — Long to those who, creeping on to death, Meet in the grave, the earthworm's banquet hall. And leave behind no monument for good. —Select. How We Live. We live in deeds, not years; In ^thoughts, not breaths; In feelings, not in figures on the dial; We should not count time by heart-throbs. He most lives Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. —"Bailey. ^HE object of study is twofold— to acquire knowledge and to cultivate the mind. Many people regard the former of greater importance, since they consider the acquisition of facts and of knowledge the prime end to be kept in mind. It is needless to say that this view is erroneous. The real object of study is to secure the harmonious and healthful growth of all the faculties. To train the muscles, the mind, and the heart until they respond quickly and unfalteringly to the higher impulses should be the chief ambition of the student. Facts without a trained mind to use them are absolutely useless and unfruitful. The student should aim to acquire correct and vigorous habits of thinking. The thinking should be deep, concise, and clear. He should be able to express thought by voice and pen in an unfaltering manner. Trained in this way, the mind becomes the master of facts and uses them with the force that begets influ- ence. Method. Begin to study from facts already known and thence proceed to the unknown. The explorer of an unknov/n region ascertains a complete descrip- tion or record of the starting point, provides himself with the necessary instru- ments and provisions to endure the voyage, and proceeds with the greatest caution into the untrodden field. In a similar manner, the student must equip himself with the instruments of study, such as text-books and works of reference, and proceed from his state of mind development to the higher realm of mental activity. If he plunges recklessly into unexplored fields, entirely disconnected from his previous attainments, he hazards the danger of being lost in the floes of the frozen seas, or devoured by beasts in the malarial jungle. Principles. The mind develops only under favorable conditions, when it is in a suitable attitude to concentrate its powers upon the subject under considera- tion. Mental culture is not creative in its nature, hence the aim is to develop real- ities only from the possibilities possessed by the mind. From these principles, the following rules may be deduced : 1. Take ample healthful exercise to stimulate the circulation and develop the physical powers. Plan to have sufficient sleep so the mind will be clear for work during the entire period for study. 2. Do not plod and ponder. It is better to rest when you get tired than to try to study when the mind is dull or overtaxed. The mind becomes dull when the body is tired. At this point it may be well to take up another subject. A change in the branch of study often is restful and tends to revive interest. 3. The student must cultivate an interest in the subject which he studies. Interest stimulates the attention and induces the mind to grasp for more informa- tion. Games and amusements are enjoyed because they are interesting. The same interest, the desire to master the subject, is essential to study with success. 4. Interest is stimulated by an understanding of the lessons. It is a mistake to try to teach what is beyond the comprehension of the learner. Any knowledge secured in an isolated and disconnected way is of little value in the general process of education. The spelling of words and the meaning of terms and phrases should be mastered and affiliated with facts previously learned. 5. We should study to acquire power. Frequently we find those who know how, but they lack the power to do. These two elements must be combined by judicious training. The power sought should enable us to think consecutively, to utilize judiciously, and to control and direct our mental and moral forces. In every act of the body and mind we expend energy. This energy is the life element, the vital force, which enables us to achieve success and obtain happiness. 6. We should not study merely to get the answer, but rather to understand the topic in all its relations. Strength is gathered by mental exercise, by acquir- ing and applying the new knowledge. The effort in learning should be compared to the exercise of the athlete instead of the work of the haymaker. Rather than aim at the product, we aim at the healthful, intelligent effort put forth. 7. The student needs to acquire habits of thoroughness. He should go to the bottom of the problem and master the cause and effect. Thoroughness does not imply reading all that may be said on a topic, but rather to read each sentence carefully, thoughtfully, and understandingly. Our work is thorough when we are able to explain the reason for each step as we proceed. 8. The student should apply the knowledge as it is learned from time to time. This should be done with tact, else he may become offensive to his compan- ions. Such use of the new elements of knowledge causes him to employ the correct form from force of habit. Those who know how to speak correctly, in a fluent and grammatical order, do themselves an injury when they fail to employ the best forms of which they are capable. The force of habit. in using incorrect forms, both in thought and speech, is so strong that even the trained mind needs to guard against it with care. 9. We should study to acquire nobility of mind and heart. Every act may be likened to stone and mortar in the formation of character. Without character the most splendid attainments are as the house built upon the sand. With it deeds become the guardian angels of this mortal life. 10. If you have leisure hours, as most students have, plan to spend them wisely. Great men, men of affairs, have no hours of leisure, because they allot their time so it will count for something— either for business or for recuperation. It is important to utilize time wisely in this way, making it of utility in study, in rest, or in healthful exercise. Our doubts are traitors And make us lose the good we oft might win By fearing to attempt. — Shakespeare. 9 \n\vAVAVi^^!;^!/m\!',mvmm'sum'mmm'^m^iSimmmm^ Needs of Man Food ^. , . ou ,^ Heat ^ Clothing Shelter ^i^^/^,mm^fmm^f^ Education \\tmmmm}Sf}&'/&W(i^?&w<&'^>B ^^^ Those who think must govern those who toil. — Goldsmith. THE needs of man are varied and numerous. Simplest in the early period, they increase in number and complexity as man progresses upward in the scale of civilization. Primitive man considered few wants and was easily satisfied. He lived close to nature and depended largely upon himself for food and shelter. The complexit}^ of human interdependence was not recognized until long after intelligence had been placed above physical strength. Every discovery and invention has added to the requirements of man in the home, in society, and in public life. It is now considered that he lives most who acts the noblest and thinks the best. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is of importance to those who feel the need of a work of general reference. It was prepared and edited by a corps of writers who had in mind the requirements of mankind along the line of practical information. Consult the articles on Agriculture, Architecture, Civilization, Commerce, Food, Hygiene, Plants, Schools, Weaving, etc. Outline. . Food. 2. Anim al. 1. Vegetable. 1. Where found. 1. Where found. 2. How obtained. 2. How obtained. 1. Hunting. Farming. 2. Fishing. Gardening 3. Trapping. (Market). 4. Stock raising. 3. Kinds. 5. Trade. 1. Fruit. 1. Wholesale 2. Grain. — Packing 3. Vegetables. houses. 4. Occupations growing 2. Retail- from this. Butchers 1. Farming. 3. Kinds. 2. Gardening. 1. Poultry. 3. Trade. Wholesale — Commission houses. Retail- 2. Pork. 3. Beef, Veal. 4. Mutton, Lamb. 5. Fish, Oysters. 6. Dairy products. Grocery 4. Occupations. stores, 1. Trade, bakeries, etc. 1. Wholesale — 4. Transportation. 1. Packing 5. Commerce. houses. 10 I 2. Commission houses. 2. Retail— 1 Butchers. 3, Mineral. Iron. Lime. Salt. Water. Soda. Magnesium. II. Clothing. 1. Where found— Trade cen- ters, zones. 2. How obtained. 1. Manufactured. 3. Kinds. 1. Vegetable. 1. Cotton. 2. Flax. 3. Hemp. 4. Rubber. 2. Animal. Silk. Leather. Wool. Furs. Feathers, boas. Hair. 3. Mineral. 1. Glass. 2. Steel or Iron (Coat of mail, armor). III. Shelter. 1. Kinds. 1. Stone. 1. Kinds. 1. Building stone. 2. Granite. 3. Marble. 2. Where found — Quarries. 3. How obtained. 4. Occupation — Stone cutting. 2. Wood. 1. Kinds. 1. Oak. 2. Pine. 2. Where found. 1. Forests. 3. How obtained. 4. Occupation — Lumbering. 3. Brick. 1. Kinds. 2. Where found. 3. How obtained. IV. Heat. 1. Materials. 1. Coal. 2. Oil. 3. Gas. 4. Wood. Where found. How obtained. V. Education. 1. Need of— Physical. Intellectual. Moral. 2. Public and private. 3. Classes of schools. 1. Kindergarten. 2. Elementary. 3. Academical. 4. Technical and pro- fessional. 5. The University. THE BUILDERS All are architects of Fate, Working in these walls of time; Some with massive deeds and great. Some with ornaments of rhyme. Nothing useless is, or low; Each thing in its place is best ; And what seems but idle show Strengthens and supports the rest. Forthe structures that we raise, Time is with materials filled ; Our to-days and yesterdays Are the blocks with which we build. — Longfellotv. 11 ^ ^ i/^^;.« There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, There is a rapture on the lonely shore; There is society where none intrudes, By the deep sea, and music in its roar. — "Byron. Definition: Nature Study embraces a study of the objects in nature, such as animals, minerals, and plants. The period of childhood is the most fruitful time to cultivate the emotions and to build up the positive side of character. It is primarily the formative period, when the eyes are filled with pictures and the fancies spring as buds of the reali- ties which a happy maturity of years may bring. Nature furnishes the inspirations which are really worth while. It enables the author to write with tenderness and trueness to life ; it teaches the painter to reduce to the canvas what we call the delicate and the beautiful in art. But to the student, especially in childhood, nature does even more, since it awakens the love and interest in the beauty and realities which are encountered everywhere in the universe. Plants are the simplest and most common objects with which we come in con- tact and are well adapted for use in the early lessons. Where certain plants grow, how they are constructed, and in what order the several parts develop are interest- ing topics. Attention may be directed to the grouping of plants, or, in other words, to classification. Both botany and zoology furnish large fields for observation and study, but the processes in the latter are somewhat complicated. Therefore, the study of plants should precede the study of animals. From these the student may proceed to geography, the elements of physics and cjiemistry, the study of min- erals, and ultimately to physiology. If the teacher hopes to guide her pupils wisely, she must herself go to nature for inspiration. It is necessary for her to learn to know and love the flowers, the birds, and the trees in order to induce her students to observe their habits of growth and the functions they serve in nature. Each object which is studied should be sketched and made the topic for a written lesson, after which all the statements should be verified by reference to the text-books and the cyclopaedia. Practice work in drawing and composition, conversational lessons, and the study -^f selections from literature are earnestly commended. 12 jprrrrprrrrf'^rf^'rrrprrrrrrmi wtittirvtitftitiiiiiTtitttTfTiiTiiiiiifiitifriittr? NATURE licVr;): Uattire speaks in language olden, Speaks in tones that all may hear; Tells of ages that were golden, Tells of storm-nights dark and drear She has secrets in her keeping. Secrets hid from you and me, Taey have "been for ages sleeping. Stored in earth and air and sea. In the streamlets you will hear them, is they ripple o'er the stone. In the forests you are near them, Near them; in the desert, lone. Hear them in the tempest raging; Hear them in the summer hreeze; See them in the season's ageing; See them in the spreading trees. Every flower, it has its story; Every stone its tale to tell; Legends tint the sunset glory. History moulds the mollusk's shell. I. Noble. -SH- T T t I T f I t T I r I I ? I I I T I I T I 1 I I t T I I T T T t t T » t t » I T I t < t Till ^ 12 ^ 15 TYPEWRITER LESSON- 13 Objects to be Attained. 1. To increase the power of obser- vation in children. 2. To awaken and enlist the interest of the children in their imme- diate environment. 3. To give practical information about the common things of life. 4. To prepare children to appreciate the literature which nature has inspired. 5. To develop the higher nature of the human being — the spiritual, the aesthetical, and the ethical. Outlines in Nature Study. I. Fall Term. A — The common flowers, fruits, grasses, weeds, leaves, trees, etc. 1. 2. B Collect specimens and bring to schoolroom for study (Where possible, children should make the collection). Make study of each specimen as to color, size, form, where found, how grown, short de- scription, use, etc. Represent each in color work in drawing (The best drawings at the time to be collected and preserved). Collect pictures of these things and classify for study. •The more common insects and worms. Covering, color, size, form, habits, and use (Specimens to be collected, brought into the schoolroom, studied, and pre- served for future use). Collect and classify pictures for study. Represent in color drawings (Preserve the best). C — Domestic and common wild ani- mals. 1. Covering, color, size, habits, and use (Children to make obser- vations and tell what they ob- serve). Collect and classify pictures for study. Represent in color drawings (Preserve the best). ■Domestic fowls and birds. 1. Teach something of color, size, habits, dress, and use of each (Children to be given an op- 2 3. 2 D E- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. F- 1. 2. 3. 4. G 1. 3. 4. H— portunity to make observations about these fowls and birds). Collect and classify pictures for study (Where possible to get a stuffed specimen, do so). Represent in color drawing, as far as possible, a picture of each (Preserve the best). Observations on the weather. Clear and cloudy days. Calm and windy days. Warm and cold days. Rainy days. Make chart indicating simplest ob- servations and preserve it. As far as possible, collect pictures. Represent in color drawings little scenes showing sunshine, clouds, etc. Observations on the surface of the earth and simple directions and distance taught. Hill, hollow, brooklet, stream. Represent these in drawings. North, south, east, and west. Far and near, etc. •Literature and language. Memory gems and poems about nature. These to be selected and suited to the topic under consideration and taught at the time. Story of Hiawatha. Other stories, as "Little Red Rid- ing Hood," "The Three Bears," etc. (These to be acted and played). Finally, as a fitting close for the fall work, the idea of the in- gathering of the harvests, as represented in the Thanksgiv- ing Celebration, etc. The Even- ing of Life, 14 II. Winter Term. A — Preparation of different things for winter. 1. Flowers, grasses, weeds, trees, etc., closing of the buds, A- changes in the grass, weeds, l, trees. Why? 2. Insects; change. What becomes of them? 2. 3. Fowls and birds , change. Migra- tion of birds. 3. 4. Animals change in covering. 4. Why? _ 5 5. Continue observations on weather — Snow, ice, cold, frost, and 6. fire. 6. Winter scenes represented in 7. drawings. 8. 7. Pictures collected and classified. 8. Children's sports and games 9. 9. Memory gems and poems suited 10, through the season. 10. Continue the study of stories, acted and played. The idea here represented is that all na- ture goes to sleep. It is the Nighttime of Life. III. Spring Term. -Preparation for spring. Opening of the buds (Get the earliest buds and twigs for study). The springing up of the grass and weeds. The leafing of the trees. The flowering of the plants. The coming of the birds and in- sects. Change in the animals — Shedding of their winter covering, etc. Change of fowls. Memory gems and poems suitable to the season and the lesson. Stories acted and played. Pictures collected and classified. The idea here represented is the awakening of all nature. The Morning of Life. Correlated Subjects. Animals. Birds — Condor, carrier pigeon, dove, jay, lark, robin, stork. Domestic — Camel, cat, cattle, dog, elephant, horse, swine. Extinct — Archaeopteryx, mammoth, mastodon, megatherium, pterodactyl. Fabled — Chimaera, dragon, griffin, mermaid, phoenix. Fowls — Duck, goose, guinea, pigeon, poultry, turkey. Insects — Ant, beetle, butterfly, flea, fly, gnat, mosquito. Miscellaneous — Dodo, chameleon^ frog, monkey, prairie dog. Minerals. Aluminum — Discovery, utility, process of making. Coal — Anthracite, bituminous, canal, lignite, coke ; uses of. Cobalt — Commercial uses, where mined (Canada has the largest output). Copper — History of, where found, quantity produced, uses of. Gold — Mining, uses of, quartz, gold beating. Iron — History of, where found, uses of. Lead — Production of, uses, value in the arts. Related Topics — Amalgam, assaying, blast furnace. Silver — Where mined, uses, smelting, quantity produced. Plants. Cereals — Barley, corn, kafir corn, oats, rye, spelt, wheat. Flowers — Carnation, dahlia, geranium, hollyhock, phlox, sunflower. Fungi — Lichens, mushrooms, rust, smut, toadstool. Fibers — Cotton, esparto, flax, hemp, jute, ramie. Forest Trees — Ash, elm, mahogany, oak, pine, rosewood. Fruit — Almond, apple, breadfruit, lemon, orange, palm, quince. Miscellaneous — Bamboo, coffee, tea, seeds, tobacco, weeds. Vegetables — Bean, cabbage, lettuce, onion, pea, potato. 2 15 Ant. II III. IV Hymenoptera (Two winged). Description. \'. 6 Wings — Four membraneous. Head — Triangular. Mouth parts — Arranged for biting or sucking. Antennae — Slender. Eyes — Two kinds. A. Compound, consisting of fauces. B. Ocelli (Little eyes). Sense of smell — Very acute. Kinds. 1. Queen (Winged). *" A. Size — Much larger than males. B. Duty— To deposit eggs which are scattered anywhere m the nest. 3. Males (Winged). A. Size — Smaller than female. B. Use — To fertilize eggs. C. Death — Soon after pairing season. Workers ( Wingless ) . A. Size — Smallest of class. B. Intelligence— Greatest and most interesting. C. Duties— To build home and streets. To care for eggs. e. Acquisition of food. To feed the larvae. f. To act as soldiers. To care for pupae. g. To keep habitation in repair. 3. a. b. c. d. RED ANT (Magnified and Natural Size). A. Male; B. Worker; C. Female. Metamorphosis. 1. Eggs-^(Very small). A. Deposited by queen. B. Carried by workers and placed in sun in morning and at night stored in nest. 2. Larvae — Small, white worms. A. Carried back and forth by workers same as eggs. B. Nourished by liquid from stomach of workers. C. Spinning of cocoon. . 3. Cocoon — A. Cared for in same way as eggs and larvae. B. Cut out of cells by workers when ready to become perfect ants. Habits and Construction of Homes. 1. Homes — A. x\nt-hills — Built in ground and cones, or hills, constructed over them. a. Rooms and galleries — l\Iany. b. Height — In tropics from 12 to 18 feet. 16 B. Others construct pillars with extended arches, covered with loose straw and sticks. C. Mining ants — Construct long galleries in clay. D. Carpenter ants — Build their homes in trees. E. Houses of leaves — Constructed by species in Australasia. VI. Food— 1. Sugar — Obtained from vegetables. 2. Honeydew — Sugar fluid found in the aphis (an insect), 3. Animal food — Valuable in clearing away carrion. 4. In tropical region, some species prey upon living animals. A. Others kill birds, reptiles, etc., by attacking in swarms. 5. Characteristics. A. Intelligence — Almost beyond belief. B. Wonderful ingenuity in carpentry, masonry, and mining. C. Sensitive of changes of temperature and moisture. D. Sound — Exceed human ability in detecting sound waves. E. Dead — Removed promptly and buried. F. Sign language. VII. Kinds. 1. Common red ant. 2. Black ant. 3. Umbrella, or parasol, ant — So-called from habit of carrying leaves on its back. 4. Honey ant — Secretes and stores honey in abdomen. 5. White ants — (Not true ants). Test Questions on the Ant. What classes of ants have wings? 108. Which are the most intelligent? 109. Which perform the work of the community? 108. Where do ants live and how many in a colony or community ? Which ants are the largest ? Which the smallest ? Which the most numerous ? - How large are the eggs of ants and where are they deposited? Give two ways in which a worker may be distinguished from a male or female ant. Tell how the eggs are taken care of and hatched. Tell how the larvae are fed and cared for by the workers. What can you say about the wonderful, intelligence of ants in building houses ? In mining? In carpentry work? In what countries are ant-hills found which are from twelve to eighteen feet high ? What kind of ants live in growing trees? In what countries are ants found that glue leaves together with which to build their houses? Do ants have a language to communicate with each other ? Are they sensitive to sound and changes in temperature? In what country are they used for food and how are they prepared? How does the ant milk the aphis? Do some ants eat animal matter? What species of ants live principally upon wood ? How do white ants, or termites, differ from common ants ? How many eggs will a single ant lay ? In what island was there a remarkable scourge of ants about 1780 and how were they destroyed ? Name three of their principal enemies. What species of ants are very dangerous pests? What can you say of the ants' love for sugar ? When does their second birth take place ? Give all the points you can about the similarity of ants and bees. 17 Apple. I. Family. II. Description. 1. Tree. FLOWliR. Height — Moderate, seldom exceeding 30 ft. Branches — Spreading. Leaves — Oval, Flowers — Pinkish white, produced from very short shoots. Fruit. Pulp — Hard and juicy, formed around a. core which has five cells. (a) Cells (Contain 2 to 3 seeds). Color — Various — Limited to shades of red, green, and yellow. Shape — Round or elongated. a. b. III. Classes. 1. From where derived. A. Wild crab. 2. How improved. A. By ingrafting. B. Naturalization. 3. General classes. A B, C. FRUIT. 4. Summer. Autumn. Winter. a. Varieties of classes (Many thousand). (a) Wine Saps. Danvers Winter Sweet. Pippins ; Ben Davis. Willow Twigs. Duchess of Oldenburg. Hundred of others. Seedless apple. A. Propagation — Evolved by propagation at Grand Junction, Colo. Characteristics. Seedless. Coreless. Wormless. Flower — Missing. Meat — Ouite solid, of good flavor, and keeps well. IV. Uses. (b) (c) (d) (e) (0 1. Cooking. A. Canning. B. Baking. C. Preserving. D. Jelly. Cider. 3. Medicinal compounds SECTION OF APPLE. V. Where Found. 1. Native — Temperate regions of Asia and Europe. 2. Introduced into America by Puritans. 3. Cultivated where — Southern Canada, Middle Atlantic states, Missis- sippi Valley, and Pacific coast. 18 VI. Propagation. 1. New varieties — How obtained. A. By seeds. B. Mostly by grafting. 2. Orchard. A. Ground — Should be carefully prepared. B. Distance of trees — Best results obtained about 30 ft. C. Good crop — How obtained. a. Land should be tilled until about middle of July. b. Hence, sown with clover or cowpeas. D. Number of trees in United States (200,000,000). E. Yearly crop about 100,000,000 barrels. The Apple. Doth thy heart stir within thee at the sight Of orchard blossoms upon the mossy boughs? Doth their sweet household smile waft back and glow Of childhood's morn — the wondering fresh delight In earth's new coloring, then all strangely bright, A joy of fairyland? An apple orchard is sure to bear you several crops beside the apple. There is the crop of sweet and tender reminiscences, dating from childhood and spanning the seasons from May to October, and making the orchard a sort of outlying part of the household. You have played there as a child, mused as a youth or lover, strolled there as a thoughtful, sad-eyed man. Your father, perhaps, planted the trees, or reared them from the seed, and you yourself have pruned and grafted them, and worked among them, till every separate tree has. a peculiar history and meaning in your mind. Then there is the never-failing crop of birds, — robins, goldfinches, king-birds, cedar-birds, hair-birds, orioles, starlings, — all nesting and breeding in its branches and fitly described by Wilson Flagg as "Birds of the Gar- den 'and Orchard." — John Burroughs. Come Let Us Plant the Apple Tree. Cleave the tough greensward with the spade; What plant we in this apple tree? Wide let its hollow bed be made ; Sweets for a hundred flowery springs There gently lay the roots, and there To load the May wind's restless wings, Sift the dark mold with kindly care, J^^en from the orchard row he pours And press it o'er them tenderly- Its fragrance through our open doors; . ji.ii--r^, r\ A world of blossoms for the bee, As, round the sleeping infants feet. Flowers for the sick girl's silent room, We softly fold the cradle-sheet ; For the glad infant .sprigs of bloom, So plant we the apple tree. We plant with the apple tree. What plant we in this apple tree? What plant we in this apple tree? Buds, which the breath of summer days Fruits that shall swell in sunny June, Shall lengthen into leafy sprays ; And redden in the August noon, Boughs where the thrush with crimson breast. And drop, when gentle airs come by. Shall haunt and sing and hide her nest; That fan the blue September sky, We plant upon the sunny lea. While children come, with cries of glee, A shadow for the noontide hour. And seek them where the fragrant grass A shelter from the summer shower, Betrays their beds to those who pass, When we plant the apple tree. At the foot of the apple tree. — William Cullen Bryant. 19 Ok/W^ CWO-^ .4aAx«a- ^^ftA^Z^la- CXa/V^ C'OA/v^ft-. "^»-^ ^ O'Vcdk, -AjuMi^ aJUa>v*.^ wW)«a. BLACKBOARD I.ESSON. 20 Test Questions on the Apple. To what family of plants does the apple tree belong? 120. Of what continent is it a native? What can you say of its antiquity ? From what country was the apple introduced into xA.merica ? What is the parent apple of all the varieties grown and of what country is it a native ? Describe the wood of the apple tree and tell for what purposes it is used. What is the height of the apple tree? 120. Name five winter varieties common to Illinois. Name three summer varieties. 1175. Give four different ways of grafting trees. What is the object of grafting? Wliat is bud grafting? What materials are used in grafting? What kind of plants are budded? 396. Describe the apple tree borer. 121. Give three preventives. What other fruit tree does it attack ? What can you say as to crab and sour apple vinegar compared to that made from wine, as to quality and flavor? 3051. What is added to the cider to improve the flavor? At what temperature does cider ferment very rapidly? 3050. How is cider brandy, or apple jack, made ? 581. Planted thirty feet apart, how many apple trees will an orchard of ten acres contain ? Which would be the more profitable, an apple orchard yielding three bushels of apples per tree at $.40 per bushel (40 acres), or a wheat field of 160 acres pro- ducing 25 bushels per acre at $1.00 per bushel (Apple trees set 30 feet apart) ? In what sections of United States are apples cultivated most extensively ? To whom is credit given for propagating the seedless apple? 120. How many seedless apple trees constituted the world's stock in 1905? 121. Does the seedless apple tree produce blossorns? Describe the meat of the seedless apple. Why is the seedless apple tree less liable to injury by late frost than other varieties ? How is it protected from injury by insects? 121. What can you say about the size and keeping qualities of the seedless apple ? Has the seedless apple a core and is it wormless ? In Autumn : "You think I am dead," the apple tree said, "Because I have never a leaf to show— because I stoop, And my branches droop, and the dull gray mosses over me grow ! But I'm all alive in trunk and shoot ; the buds of next May I fold away, but I pity the withered grass at my root-" — Edith Thomas. 21 I. Classes, 1. Social. A. Honeybee. B. Bumblebee. 2. Solitary Bees. A. Leaf cutting bee B. Carpenter bee. C. Mason bee. II. Species. 1. Honeybee. A. Queen. a. Eggs — Lays from 2,000 to 3,000 daily. a. Size — One-twelfth of an inch long. b. Color — A bluish white. c. Shape — Oblong. d. Period of incuba- tion — Three days. e. Larvae. (1) Color— White. (2) Food— Pollen or beebread. (3) Period of lar- val stage — Five to six days. Pupae. (1) Time — Thirteen days. (2) Envelopment- Cocoon. Where deposited. (1) For queens — Ordi- nary cell enlarged when queens are desired and fed on "royal food." (2) For workers — Ordi- nary cell. (3) For drones — Larger cell and hatched from unfertilized eggs. b. Size — Longer and more slender than male or worker. z. Age — 5 to 15 years. Workers. a. Number — From 10,000 to 50,000. b. Nurses — Youngest workers. a. Duties. (1) To feed larvae. (2) Enlarge cells for queen and feed them "royal food" or bee jelly. (3) Make bee jelly for lar- vae. (4) Time s e r V i (About week). Bee. QUEEN. f. g- B. WORKER. DRONE- 22 c. Uses. a. Gather and make honey. b. Protect the hive. c. Comb building. d. Clean out the hive. e. Cross fertilize plants. f. Repair the hive. g. Store beebread. h. Workers kill the drones. d. Habits. a. Flight. (1) Distance — Five miles. (2) Bee line. b. Swarming. (1) Frequency (From one to four times a year). (2) Hiving. (3) Old queens. Young queens, e. Honey. a. Where obtained. (1) From pollen of flow- ers. (2) Honey dew. (3) Sweet juices of plants. (4) Robbing other bee hives. b. How collected. (1) Pollen carried on hair of legs. (2) Sweet juices (Tak- en up by the trunk in stomach or honey bag). c. Honey cell. (1) Size (Larger than hatching cell). (2) Construction — Hori- zontal. (3) How filled and sealed. (4) How retained in cell (By capillary a 1 1 r a c - tion). d. Hive — Construction. (1) Frames. c. 2 (3) Honey comb founda- tion. e. Honey extractor. Drones. . Number— From 500 to 800. I. Why so called — From the low humming sound made in flight. Uses. a. To act as royal escorts, b To fertilize the eggs. Bumblebee. 3. Carpenter Bee. A. Home — In wood. a. How made — By trees. b. Tunnels. a. Rapidity of boring — 54 to Yz inch daily. b. Direction. (1) Against grain, at first. (2) With grain, afterward. (3) Length, one to two feet. (4) How divided, into cells. Cells contain pollen and eggs. (5) Partitions, how made. Powdered dust of wood. boring III. Food. 1. Pollen. 3. Sweet juices and honey. 3. Beebread (Composition of flow v.. dust mixed with water and honey). IV. Weapon of Defense. 1. Sting. V. Enemies. 1. Moth millers and birds. 3. Toads and mice. 3. Lice and flies. VI. Language. 1. How "expressed. According to Lubbock, "the language of bees is expressed by humming." VII. Age — Workers. 1. Spring bees — Two to three months. 3. Fall bees — Six to eight months. . 3. Old bees. a. How distinguished (Darker color; wings look worn). VIII. Death. 1. Wearing out of wings. 3. Diseases. 3. Loss of sting. 4. Other causes. Questions on the Bee. Of what sex are worker honeybees? 358. What becomes of the drones in the fall ? When the t.^^ first hatches, what does the larva look like ? What is it fed if a new queen is desired ? Note 1. Why is it difficult to raise red clover where there are no bumblebees ? 360. How is pollen carried ? 359. Does the queen ever leave the hive? Why is the male bee called the drone ? Is wax gathered or made ? How do bees carry honey to the hive ? What is the shape of a cell ? What keeps the honey from running out before it is capped over? 1153. What is artificial honey ? After the o.^^ is laid, how long before a full grown bee develops ? How many queens live in a swarm ? What is meant by the term hee line? What is a drone-laying queen ? Note 3. From what plant is the finest grade of honey made ? Note 4. How far will a bee go to gather honey ? Note 8. How can you distinguish an old bee from a young one? Note 8. What causes the natural death of workers and where do they die? Note 8. Where do injured bees die? Note 8. Tell how to locate a bee tree. Note 8. What is beebread ? How is it made ? 23 When do mice infest bee hives? Note 7. Name five enemies of bees. Notes and page 359. How far may bees be sent through the mails ? Note 2. What is royal food? Note 1. Give the method the bee raiser uses to hatch queens for mercantile purposes. What can you say about the habit of the kingbird in catching bees? Note 6. Notes on the Bee. Queens. 1. Queen bees have stings, but they will not sting a person nor use them for any purpose except to kill other queens. Should a queen die or be taken from the hive when there are eggs in the cells, the workers at once make larger pear- shaped cells, placing them vertically, and supply the larva with royal food before capping them over, thus hatching another queen. They generally do this with sev- eral cells, thus insuring at least one queen. Bee keepers take advantage of this and, by removing the queen, cause a number of queens to be produced for mercantile purposes. As they hatch, they must be inclosed in a wire screen so they cannot get together, or they will kill each other. Mailing Bees. 2. Bees may be securely inclosed in a cage or box and transported by mail without injury. They can be sent safely a long distance in this way, but sugar or other food must be inclosed in the box. A queen must never be transported with- out placing two or three workers with her, as she will starve ; she cannot or will not feed herself. Drone-Laying O^een. 3. Should a queen die and leave no eggs in the cell, the colony will gradually perish. Under these conditions sometimes a worker will become fertilized and lay eggs, which will hatch, but the product is a hybrid and will do nothing but eat. In looks, it is a small-sized drone. Such a worker is called a drone-laying queen. Honey and Fertilization of Clover. 4. White clover makes the finest grade of honey, but the blossoms of the lin- den tree and buckwheat make large quantities during their season. Honeybees cannot work on mammoth red clover for the reason that the proboscis is not long enough to reach the nectar. It is erroneous to speak of honeybees cross fertilizing red clover. It is the work of the bumblebee or other insects. Queens and Swarming. 5. About two weeks after bees swarm, if you place your ear against the outside of the old hive, you can hear the queen or queens calling. This is the time to look for the second swarm. After the second swarm, if it swarms the second time, the third swarm will come off, but not later than the third day ; the fourth swarm comes out about two days after the third. One queen, in the struggle for supremacy, drives another from the hive and some of the bees follow. This is the cause of swarming, the number of swarms depending on the queens that are driven out. The third and fourth swarms usually are small and undesirable. If bees do not swarm the second time inside of three weeks after the first, they will likely not swarm any more during the season. Kingbird. 6. The kingbird, or bee martin, is a very common enemy of bees. From the fact that it has a bunch of red feathers on top of its head, the story is current "that it ruffles up these feathers to resemble a beautiful flower and, when a bee comes along to sip honey from the supposed flower, it is snapped up by the bird." 24 • Toads and Mice. 7. If you see a toad sitting innocently on the ground or board close in front of the hive, watch him and if you have a quick eye you will see how he gets his meal. Mice will sometimes infest hives of bees in the winter. Old Bees, Beebread. 8. A bee tree may be found by placing honey or sugar so bees can find it and where their return flight may be observed. It is said that bees will go five miles to gather honey. Old worker bees may be distinguished by having a darker shade than young bees and the wings being more or less frayed. When the wings wear out they crawl as far away from the hive as possible. If a worker is injured it leaves the hive to die. Pollen mixed with honey and water is stored in quantities for winter use and known as beebread. Outline on Birds. Classification . Physical Features. . ^ Topics for Study. 1. Climbers (Scansores) — Cockatoo, parrot, woodpecker. 2. Perchers (Insessores) — Canary, goldfinch, robin. 3. Raveners (Raptores) — Eagle, hawk, vulture. 4. Runners (Cursores) — Emu, ostrich, rhea. 5. Scratchers (Rasores) — Fowl, pheasant, pigeon. 6. Swimmers (Natatores) — Dnck, goose, gull, swan. ^ 7. Waders (Grallatores) — Crane, heron, snipe, stilt. Covering of body. Bones and skeleton. Flight. Sight and hearing. Touch and taste. Song or voice. Economic value. ' Animal heat and intelligence. Birds of passage. Eggs — Size, color, value. Food — Insects, grain, worms. Feathers — Plumes and quills. Fossils — Remains and footprints. Nativity — Where found. Nests — Form and materials. Now the days are full of music! All the birds are back again; In the tree-tops, in the meadows, In the woodlands, on the plain. See them darting through the sunshine 1 Hear them singing loud and clear 1 How they love the busy springtime, Sweetest time of all the year! —Katherine Beebe. 25 BIwACKBOARD I.ESSON. 26 Kindness to Animals. Be kind to dumb creatures, nor grudge them your care, God gave them their life, and your love they must share. And He who the sparrow's fall tenderly heeds Will lovingly look on compassionate deeds. — Selected. You call them thieves and pillagers ; but know They are the winged wardens of your farms. Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe, And from your harvests keep a hundred harms ; Even the blackest of them all, the crow, Renders good service as your man-at-arms. Crushing the beetle in his coat of mail, And crying havoc on the slug and snail. — Longfellow. Questions on Birds. For what three traits is the falcon noted ? What birds are noted for their beautiful plumage? Name a list of song birds. Which sex of birds is the singer? What are laughing birds and where are they found ? ' Which birds are noted for their speedy flight? Of what country is the bald eagle an emblem? Of what qualities are eagles symbolical ? 853. Why is the condor known as the greedy bird ? Eggs and Nests. Of what materials do birds build their nests ? 298. What are mason birds ? How do water birds build their nests ? How are the eggs of sea birds gathered ? Tell how the owls of the class of mining birds secure nests. Name some birds of which the eggs are used for food. What bird lays the largest tgg ? What is the average length of the hatching season? Commercial Value. Name some birds the feathers of which are used in millinery. Of what birds is the flesh eaten ? How are egrets obtained? What is guano and where is it found chiefly ? ^ Besides being valuable as food, what other uses are made of eggs ? Explain how birds are trained for falconry. 971. How do birds aid in the destruction of insects ? Where were pigeons first used as carriers? Relate some instances where these messengers proved valuable. ■■ 27 Butterfly. I. IL Lepidoptera (Scaly winged), Description. 1. Body. A. Head. a. Antennae — Club shaped. b. Eye — Compound. c. Tongue — Two tubular threads for sucking and coiled when not in use. B. Thorax. a. Legs — Six. (a) Weak and used only when resting o r feeding. b. Wings — Large and strong. (a) First pair triangu- lar, second rounded. (b) Richly colored and covered with beauti- ful scales. (c) Power — Great. (d) Position — Held up- right when at rest. Abdomen CATERPILLAR, PUPA, AND BUTTERFLY. in. Metamorphosis, 1. Eggs 3. A. Where deposited (Singly or in clusters on plant where larvae feeds) B. Contains what? a. Germ of larva. b. Fluid to nourish germ. C. Period of incubation. a. Warm countries — Not over three weeks. b. Cold climate — Much longer. (a) Sometimes eggs deposited in fall do not hatch till spring. Larvae. A. Length of time — Varies with climate. a. Temperate regions — Three to four months. b. Cold regions — Eight to ten months. B. Caterpillar — Wormlike. a. Characteristic — Great feeder. b. Appearance — Very uncouth. c. Destructiveness — Great. Pupa stage, A. Chrysalis — With hard outer case. B. How supported. a. Many species attach themselves to leaves and hang head down ward. b. Others atfeach themselves at one end or suspend themselves witl silk cord. c. State of life. (a) Appearance — Lifeless. (b) Breathing — Through small pores. d. Length of time in chrysalis stage. (a) Some — A few weeks, (b) Others — Continue through winter. 28 4. Image. A. Resemblance to caterpillar for few hours. B. Time of life — A few days. IV. Characteristics. 1. Diurnal day flyers. 2. Clubbed antennae. 3. Admired for beauty. 4. Migration. A. Tropical regions — Often moving many miles. B. Smaller species — Zigzag motion, often stopping to rest. 5. Male and female — Differ in color and size. 6. Purpose — To deposit eggs. V. Food. 1. Nectar of flowers. VI. Habits. 1. Active in warm weather. 2. Associated with most beautiful vegetation and natural scenery. VII. Classes (50,000 species in the world). 1. Brush-footed butterflies. 2. Metal marks. 3. Blues, Coppers, and Hair-streaks. 4. Swallow-tails. 5. Skippers. VIII. Where Found. 1. All parts of the world (As far north as Greenland — as far south as the Antarctic islands). Memory Gems. Oh ! pleasant, pleasant, were the days, The times when in our childish plays, My sister Emmeline and I Together chased the butterfly! A very hunter did I rush Upon the prey; with leaps and springs I followed on from brake and bush ; But she, God love her! feared to brush The dust from off its wings. — Wordsworth. A butterfly basked on a baby's grave. Where a hly had chanced to grow: "Why art thou here, with thy gaudy dye, When she of the blue and sparkling eye, Must sleep in the churchyard low?" Then it lightly soared through the svmny air, And spoke from its shining track : "I was a worm till I won wings, And she whom thou mourn'st like a seraph sings ; Wouldst thou call the bless'd one back?" 29 c^ BLACKBOARD LESSON. 30 To a Butterfly. Come td us often, fear no wrong, Sit near us on the bough. We'll talk of sunshine and of song. And summer days when we were young; Sweet childish days, that were as long As twenty days are now. — W ordsworth. The Child and the Butterfly. "Oh, butterfly, how do you, pray. Your wings so prettily array? Where do you find the paints from which To mix your colors, warm and rich?" The butterfly, in answer, said : "The roses lend me pink and red, The violets their blue, And every flower its chosen hue. "My palette is a rose-leaf fair. My brush is formed of maiden-hair, And dewdrops shining in the grass Serve nicely for my looking-glass f" — Nixon Waterman. Questions on the Butterfly. How many wings have butterflies ? 419. Into how many stages or periods may the life of a butterfly be divided? How many months does it live in a wormlike form? Where does it lay its eggs ? By what agency are the eggs hatched? How far north are they found ? Do they have feathers? What can you say about the destructiveness of the caterpillar? What can you say about the length of life of a full-grown butterfly? How many species of butterflies are there ? In what countries are butterflies found having wings a foot across ? How do butterflies protect themselves from their enemies? Give three ways in which to determine the butterfly from the moth. Name four kinds of moths. 1460. What species of butterflies move about by twilight ? On what do butterflies feed? 419. How many eggs will a single butterfly or moth lay? 506. Which is the greater pest, the butterfly or caterpillar, and why? How long does it take the caterpillar to turn into a butterfly under favorable conditions ? What are the principal enemies of caterpillars ? Do caterpillars eat flesh? What can you say of the enormous amount of food consumed by the caterpil- lar compared to the weight of the larva? How many legs has the caterpillai which produces butterflies ? How many eyes has a caterpillar ? 3 31 Cocoanut. I. Where Found. 1. Native to Africa, East Indies, West Indies, South America. 2. Cultivated extensively in tropical regions. II. Description. 1. Tree. A. Height (Straight naked trunk 40 to 60 ft). 2. Leaves. A. Featherlike, growing in bunch at summit. 3. Fruit or nuts. A. In clusters of a dozen or more. B. Length (3 to 8 inches). C. Cover (Fibrous husk). D. Inside kernel (Firm, white, fleshy). E. Milk (Within kernel, sweet and watery), TIL Products of Fruit. 1. Kernel. A. Article of food. B. Copra. C. Cocoa butter. 2. Fibrous cover. A. Manufacture of yarn, matting, and cordage. 3. Shells. A. Cups and vessels. ^ IV. Products of Tree. Wood. A. Construction of houses other building purposes. Sap. A. Arrack. B. Jaggery. Leaves. A. To thatch cottages. and cocoanut palm. A, Branch with flowers. B, male flower; male flower, D, fruit with the shell opened. C, f c Questions on the Cocoanut. Of what tree is the cocoanut a fruit and in what countries does it grow ? 616. Describe the cocoanut as to size and covering? What articles of food are manufactured from the cocoanut? What is copra and how is it made ? What articles are manufactured from the fiber covering of the cocoanut? What articles are made from the shell of the nut ? What use is made of the wood of the tree? What can you say of the color, use, and taste of cocoa butter ? Name three products made from the juice of the tree. What is the height of a cocoanut tree ? How many cocoanuts grow on a tree? What use is made of the leaves of the cocoanut tree ? What part of the cocoanut tree is used to make writing paper ? For making baskets ? 82 What part of the leaf is useful for makin_2^ boat oars ? What pan of the leaves is used for making drums ? What part of the tree is used for medicine? For chewmg gum? How is chocolate made ? ' What do the ashes of cocoanut leaves yield ? What part of the tree is used for making cradles and clothes ? What part of the tree is used for making baskets and buckets ? What use is made of the terminal bud of the cocoanut tree? Coffee. I. Where Found. 1. Native to Abyssinia and Arabia. 3. Cultivated — West Indies, Bermuda, Brazil, Ceylon, Mexico, Central America. II. Description. 1. Tree. A. Wild (15 to 30 ft.). B. Cultivated (S to 10 ft.). 2. Leaves. A. Dark green color. B. Waxy appearance. 3. Flowers. A. Color--- White. B. Where placed. (a) Axils of leaves. 4. Fruit. A. Oval, dark red berry resem- bHng cherry. (a) Berry contains two cells. The coffee nib of greenish color. III. How Gathered and Prepared for coffee plant. Commerce. A",Flower;B,Fruit stock ;C, Fruit; b, Section of Fruit. 1. Placing canvas under tree and shaking. 2. Berries dried in sun. 3. Passed between rollers which crush pulp. 4. Pulp removed by winnowing. 5. Seeds thoroughly dried. 6. Packed in large sack. 7. Roasted to produce brown color and caffeine. Use. 1. Assists digestion, retards waste, exhilarates spirits. Kinds. 1. Mocha (Red Sea). 2. Java. 3. Jamaica. 4. Rio (South America). History. ^ 1. Unknown to Greeks and Romans. 2. Dutch first cultivated it. 3. Seeds brought to Java in 1690. 4. Brazil and South America in 1774. VII. Annual Output. 1. 1,550,000 tons (50 per cent, in Brazil). 33 IV. V. VI. VIII. Consumption per Person per Year. 1. Holland (23 lbs.). 2. Belgium (11 lbs.). 3. United States (10 lbs.). 4. Germany (6 lbs.). 5. France (4 lbs.). 6. Great Britain (lib.). Coffee ifi Literature. Coffee, which makes the politician wise, And see through all things with his half-shut eyes. —Pope In the late Civil War, the desire of the soldiers upon halting after a wearisome march, was to make a cup of coffee. This was taken without milk, and often without sugar, yet was always welcome. —Steele. The coffee houses devise and spread abroad divers false, malicious, and scandalous re- ports to the defamation of his majesty's government, and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the nation. — From proclamation of Charles II. (1675). The Turks have a dish called coffee (for they use no wine), so named from a berry as black as soot and as bitter, which they sip as warm as they can suffer, because they find by experience that that kind of drink so used helps digestion and procures alacrity. —Burton. Questions on Coffee. To what countries is coffee native? What is the height of the coffee tree in its native state ? Why is it treated to make it smaller? Theine in tea is closely identified with what constituent in coffee ? What is caffeine and how is it developed ? Give three points in favor of using coffee as a beverage. With what is coffee adulterated ? How may this be avoided ? Name several kinds of coffee and tell where each is grown. What is the world's annual output? By which country is half of it pro- duced? 619. From where do United States and Canada secure their supply? What is the annual consumption of coffee per person in Holland ? In Great Britain ? Through what people was coffee brought to other countries ? 619. Describe the preparation of coffee from the time the berries are ready for gathering until it is in the cups before you on the dining table. 34 4. 5. 6. 7. drane. I. Genus — Grus. II. Specie — Wader. III. Migration — Winter bird of passage. IV. Description. 1. Size — ^About four feet high; 45 in. long. 2. Color — Ash gray, or bluish white. 3. Head — More or less naked. Neck — Long, arched. Windpipe — Perfectly straight at birth, coiled and from 3 ft. to 5 ft. long in adults. crowned crane. Bill — Short, compressed, and used as means of defense. Wings — Short, rounded, and powerful. S. Legs — Long and slender. 9. Feet — Unwebbed ; hind toe greatly elevated. V. Food. 1. Worms. 4. 2. Insects. 5. 3. Roots. 6. VI. Nests. 1. A. On the ground, or in low bushes. 2. Eggs — Two. VII. Classification and Homes. 1. Crowned — Northern and Western Africa,. 2. Demoiselle — Central Asia and Africa (so called from elegance form), Seeds. Snakes. Small quadrupeds. B. Marshes. of its 3. Whooping — North America sounds with its voice). 4. Sand-hill — North America. 6. Crowned — Northern Africa. VIIL Habits. 1. Travel by night. 3. Fly in wedge-shaped flocks, or in single lines. (extensive trachea, producing resonant 5. Sacred (Japan and India). 2. Alight for food in daytime. IX. X. 4. Have single leader. 5. Travel at g Use. 1. Food. 3. Pets. 2. Plumage. 4. Exhibition. Characteristics. 1. Dances (During courtship) 2. Antics. 3. Display of feathers (Like peacock) 4. Docility. 5. Whooping. Questions on the Crane. In what respects do cranes differ from storks and herons ? 696. Name several classes of, cranes. Why is the demoiselle crane so called ? What peculiarity is there about the trachea of the whooping crane ? Where is most of their food obtained? How are they adapted for life in the lowlands? When do they migrate ? Mention some uses of cranes. At what time do these birds perform peculiar antics ? In what countries are they held sacred? What is their means of defense? Which species are best known in United States ? In what respect are they like peacocks? Describe the crowned crane and note the peculiarity about the head. 35 Dog. I. Origin and Family. 1. Genus — Canis. 2. Related animals — Fox, jackal, and wolf. 3. Possible origin — From the wolf. 1, Setter; FAMILIAR BREEDS OP DOGS. 2, Pointer; 3, Pug; 4, Bulldog; 5, German Boarliound. Aids in subduing other animals. 11. History and Antiquity. 1. Mentioned in the books of Moses and the writings of Homer, 2. Carved on an Assyrian monument. 3. Represented in Egyptian sculptures. 4. Used in sacrifice to deities by Romans, Greeks, and Celts. 5. Employed as executioners, in. Description. 1. Size — Varies. 3. Color — Nearly all colors. 3. Structure — Varies greatly. 4. Hair — Straight, curly, or shaggy. 5. Voice and habits — Differ widely. 6. Intelligence and friendship — The truest animal friend to man. 7. Sense of smell — Often very acute. IV, Uses to Mankind, 1. 2. Assists in hunting, 3. Protects human life and property against enemies. 4. Saves life at sea and in storms. 5. Tracks criminals. 6. Acts as guard and carries dispatches for armies. 7. Serves many conveniences in society. 8.. Is used for food — By Indians and Eskimos. 9. Runs errands and carries parcels. 10. Is employed in herding stock. 11. Is used as a beast of burden, principally by the Eskimos. 12. Used in shows for performing animals. 13. Employed by the police to capture other dogs and criminals. 14. Hide is used for making leather and furs, V. Characteristics, 1. Born with eyes closed (Attains sight in eight to twelve days), 2. Maturity reached at about two years. 3. Average life (10 to 12 years). 36 VI. Classification. 1. Wolf dogs. A. Saint Bernard. B. Eskimo. C. Spitz. D. Newfoundland. E. Shepherd. F. Scotch Collie. G. Welsh. H. Schipperke. I. Nootka. J. Siberian. 2. Greyhounds. A. Irish hound. B. Greyhound. C. Brinjaree dog. D. Lurcher. E. Egyptian street dog. F. Scotch. G. Italian. H. Turkish. I. Russian. 3. Watch dogs. A. Danish dog. B. German boarhound. C. Matin, or Indian, dog. D. Arabian boarhound. E. Shepherd dog. 4. Hounds. A. Old Southern hound. B. Staghound. C. Bloodhound. a. English. b. Cuban. c. Russian. D. Harrier. E. Pointer. F. Foxhound. G. Setter. a. Irish. b. English. c. Scotch or Gordon. d. Russian. H. Blenheim. I. Beagle. J. Springer. K. Cocker. L. Poodle dog. M. Hound. N. Spaniel. a. Lamb spaniel. b. Water spaniel. c. Toy spaniel. d. Maltese spaniel. e. Blenheim spaniel. f. King Charles' dogs. g. Cocker spaniel. h. Mexican water span- iel. 5. Cur dogs. A. Fox terrier. B. Terrier. a. Scotch. b. Bull. c. Welsh. d. Irish. e. Skye. f. Boston. g. Clydesdale, h. Yorkshire, i. Maltese. j. Dandie Dinmont. 6. Mastiffs. A. Bulldog. B. Pug dog. a. India pug. b. Holland pug. 7. Unclassified. A. Wild dogs. a. Dingo. b. Dhole. Questions on the Dog. Are wild dogs and domestic dogs of the same species ? 810. In what books do we find the first mention of dogs ? What other animals belong to the dog family ? Do naturalists agree upon the origin of dogs ? In what country is there a species of dogs found which have no hair? 37 In what countries have dogs been sacrificed to certain deities ? In what countries are dogs used for beasts of burden ? What use is made of dogs in the European armies? Are dogs regarded as personal property ? Tell why the dog is the best friend of man of all animals. How old do dogs live to be ? What kind of a dog would you select to catch a criminal? Why? What breed of dogs can run the fastest? Tell the story of Robert Bruce's escape from bloodhounds. Name five ways in which dogs are useful to man. Will a dog give his life for his master? How old is a puppy before it opens its eyes ? What articles are made from the hide of dogs ? Describe the Eskimo dog. How far can a team pull a sledge in a day ? Tell what you can about the practice of bull baiting and the bulldog in former times in England. Name three of the best known species of bloodhounds. Describe their ears and lips. Where did the pug dog originate ? What is the favorite dog of Scotland ? Tell how the staghound differs from the greyhound. Name five kinds of hounds and tell what each is noted for. What breed of dogs is the most useful on the farm ? Why ? 2811. Of what special use is the terrier? 2848. The Dog in Literature. Every dog must have his day. — Swift. His faithful dog shall bear him company. —Pope. With eye upraised, his master's looks to scan, The joy, the solace, and the aid of man ; The rich man's guardian, and the poor man's friend, The only creature faithful to the end. — Crabbe. Ay, in the catalogue ye go for men ; As hounds, and greyhounds, mongrels, spaniels, curs, Sloughs, water-rugs, and demi-wolves, are 'clept All by the name of dogs : the valued file Distinguishes the swift, the slow, the subtle. The housekeeper, the hunter, every one According to the gift which bounteous nature Hath in him closed. — Shakespeare. 38 Duck. I. Lamellirostres. 1. Anatidae. II. Description. 1. Bills (Broad, flat, and serrated; cov- ered with a tender sensitive cover- ing). 3. Legs — Short. 3. Feet— Webbed. 4. Excellent swimmers. 5. Good divers. 6. Mostly strong on wing. MAi,i.ard duck-mai.e and femai^e. III. Classes. 1. Wild. A. Mallard. a. Found in North America (A fine game bird). b. Color. (a) Male — Head, bluish-green ; neck, chestnut colored with ring of white ; body, various light, blue, and greenish shades ; tail feathers, curved, (b) Female — Grayish color. :c. Original of tame duck. B. Canvasback. a. Native of North America (Along estuaries and inland waters). b. Length (20 in.). c. Color. (a) Male — Head, reddish; bill, black; back and sides, grayish with lines like coarse canvas. (b) Female — Smaller and grayish. d. Migratory — Moving northward in March. e. Prized for flesh. C. Shoveler. a. Bill — Shovel shaped. b. Color. (a) Male — Finely decorated ; breast, white ; head and tail cov- erts, greenish. (b) Female — Dull plumage. c. Valued for flesh. D. Galwall, or Gray^ duck. a. Found in northern part of both hemispheres, in fresh water. b. Color — Black and white. c. Flesh — Prized for food. d. Migratory — Moving south in winter. E. Eider Duck. a. Found on rocky shores of America and Europe. b. Color. (a) Male — Black and white spotted. (b) Female — Reddish drab, mixed with black and white bands on wings. c. Food — Insects, shellfish, small fish. d. Down from breast of female used for commerce. e. Eggs gathered for market. 39 F. Wood Duck. a. Remarkable for beauty. b. Migration. G. Pintail. a. Domesticated. (a) Normandy. (b) Picardy. (c) Aylesbury. (d) Musk duck — Largest of ducks. IV. Habits. 1. Migration (Most species breed in higher latitudes). 3. Nest (Where built). A. Generally among reeds near fresh water. B. Sometimes in hollows of trees or crevices of rocks. 3. Eggs (Number 6 to 12). V. Characteristics. 1. Walking — Awkward, with waddling motion, 2. Flight— Brisk. 3. Swimming — Ability highly developed. 4. Plumage. A. Marked difference between male and female. B. Male has four curved tail feathers. 5. Voice of male — Low and basslike. VL Food. 1. Animal. 2. Vegetable. VIL Use. 1. Food. 3. Feathers. 3. Down. Ode to a Water Fowl. Whither 'midst falling dew, All day thy wings have fanned, While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere. Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land. Thy solitary way? Though the dark night is near. Vainly the fowler's eye And soon that toil shall end. Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest. As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, And scream among thy fellows ; reeds shall bend, Thy figure floats along. Soon o'er thy sheltered nest. Seek'st thou the plashy brink Thou'rt gone; the abyss of heaven Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide, Hath swallowed up thy form ; yet, on my heart. Or where the rocky billows rise and sink Deeply has sunk the lesson thou hast given, On the chafed ocean side? And shall not soon depart. There is a power whose care He, who, from zone to zone. Teaches the way along that pathless coast. Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight. The desert and illimitable air. In the long way that I must tread alone. Lone wandering, but not lost. Will lead my steps aright. — fFilliam Cullen Bryant. 40 The Impervious Duck. "How hoarse you are!" the wild Duck said, "You've got your feet wet in the channel ; You're only fit to go to bed And have your throat wrapp'd up in flannel." "Tut, tut!" replied the Drake; "in truth There's no occasion for these qualms, dear: The Corncraik's hoarser far; in youth He spoilt his voice with singing psalms, dear." "That's more than ever you did," cried The angry Duck; "it's most provoking To such a creature to be tied ; I know your feet are simply soaking." The season'd Mallard softly laid His bill among his shouldei--feathers, Serenely shut his eyes and paid No more attention to her blethers. — 'Henry Johnstone. Memory Gem. And this our life, exempt from public haunt, finds tongues in trees, books in running brooks, sermons in stones, and good in everything. Shakespeare. Test Questions on the Duck. How many eggs do ducks lay ? Where do they lay their eggs ? What is the most common duck of Central North America ? Describe the mallard duck. 837. From what kind of wild species have most of our domestic ducks been devel- oped? Which is the most valuable as food, duck eggs or hen eggs? What is the largest species of the duck family ? Of what continent is the musk duck a native ? What can you say of the flesh of ducks as food? What can you say of the migration of ducks ? Which lays the most eggs in a year, a duck or a hen ? What is the distinction in plumage in male and female ? Why is the pintail duck so called ? What can you say about the regularity of size and shape of duck bills? How can you tell a male from a female duck without seeing them? Is the duckbill a duck? 837. Give three important uses of the duck, 41 Eagle. I. Genus — ^Aquila, 1. Family — Falconidae. A. Eagles. B. Hawks. C. Falcons. II. Classes. 1. Golden Eagle. A. Dark brown — Tawny color. B. Yellowish tinge on back of head and neck. C. Length. a. 3 ft. from beak to end of tail. b. 6 ft. expanded wings. D. Food. a. Poultry. b. Rabbits. c. Small quadrupeds. E. Where found. a. Eurasia. b. North America. 2. Sea Eagle. A. Grayish brown color. B. White tail. C. Pale colored head. D. Food — Fish and marine animals. E. Where found. a. Coasts of lakes and seas. 3. Bald Eagle. A. B. C. D. E. F. Color — Brown. Neck, head, and tail white (After three years). Great cowards and thieves. Nest. a. Tall tree. b. Consists of sticks, sod, grass. c. Nest added to year by year. Food — Fish. Where found. a. America and Northern Eurasia. 4. Serpent Eagle. A. Southern Asia and Northern Africa. 5. Harpy Eagle. A. B. Bill— Crooked Claws — Strong and sharp. Color — Dark gray, barred with black above Breast — White. Head bears handsome crest. G. Feathers used by Indian for decorations. H. Found in tropics. Lammergeier. A. Length — Four feet. B, Wing expansion — 9 ft. to 12 ft. 42 BALD EAGLE- Larger than golden eagle. C. D. E. F. C. Food. • . a. Carrion. b. Living prey — Kids, lambs, chamois, and hares. c. Where found. Southern part of Europe and Asia. Northern part of Africa. 7. Other species. a. Imperial. b. Eagle hawk. c. Crested eagle. III. History. 1. Symbol of Persians 401 b. c. 2. War standard to Egyptians. 3. Romans 104 B. c. (Military standard). 4. Napoleon adopted eagle as symbol of France. 5. Double-headed eagle, emblem of Russia. 6. Introduction into Germany by Charlemagne. 7. Prussian Order of Black Eagle. 1701. 8. Standard of Austria. 9. Symbol of United States, representing fortitude, power, courage, nobility. The Bald Eagle. High soars a patriarchal oak, Its umbrage scath'd by Hghtning-stroke, Upon whose topmost bough doth dwell An eagle, monarch of the dell, O'erlooking from his eyrie grand, The wide expanse of forest land ; Now rising high in air to sweep In circling rings the upper deep, Now pois'd and balanc'd in mid-space, As resting on his airy chase; Now sweeping downward on its way As pirate bark sweeps on its prey. — Isaac McLellan. Questions on the Eagle. What bird soars the highest in flight? 852. Where is the golden eagle found ? Describe it. In what countries is the bald eagle found ? Do eagles eat carrion ? What can you say about the eagle as a symbol of societies and nations? When and by whom was the eagle adopted as the symbol for France? Who introduced the eagle in Germany as the standard? How many orders of societies of eagles are there in Germany? Describe the Prussian Order of the Black Eagle. 853. When did France abolish the eagle as a symbol ? What bird is regarded as the most noble and courageous of the birds of prey ? Describe the sea eagle. Where is the harpy eagle found ? Where does it live and upon what does it feed? 1256. What use did the Indian make of its feathers? Will they attack a human being? For what does the eagle stand ? How did the ancient Prussians regard the eagle ? What was the custom among the Romans in regard to the eagles of silver and gold? What is the value of the gold eagle of the United States ? When coined and what is the weight? 43 Fly. I. DiPTERA (Two winged). II. Species (Over 40,000). III. Description. 1. Wings — One pair present; second pair reduced to threadlike appendages (Balancers). 2. Head— Small. 3. Month parts— Adapted for piercing and sucking. 4^ Eyes — Very large and compound, sometimes containing as many as 4,000 single eyes. 5_ peet — Delicate pads for climbing upon smooth surfaces. IV. Metamorphosis. 1. Eggs. A. Deposited in refuse. B. Hatched in one day. 2. Larvae (Maggots) — Active scaven- gers. <^ I Y ^ -^Ua 3. Pupa stage (14 days). ^^ muscid; 2, syrphus; la, fly'S foot. 4. Rapidity of increase exceedingly great. V. Characteristics. 1. Skill in walking — Able to walk on smooth surface and with back down- ward. A. How — a. By hairlike cushion. b. Partly by glutinous fluid secretion. c. Partly by removing air from feet by suckers. VI . Food. 1. Sweet juices. 2. Decayed matter and offal. VII. Harmfulness. 1. Annoyance — Great, both to animals and human beings. 2. Breeders of disease — By carrying germs of decaying matter and depositing on food. VIII. When Most Prevalent. 1. In tropics — The entire year. 2. In Temperate Zone — In the warm season. Test Questions on the Fly. About how many thousand species of the fly have been described ? 1023. How long does it take a fly's egg to hatch ? How long do the young remain in the larval stage ? How do the flies walk on the ceiling? What is the use of flies? Where in the United States have 1,500 species of flies been found, in fossil and shale beds? Do we have a drone fly? Describe the under lip of a fly. What is its use? Describe the habits of the fly catcher. How does the fly balance itself? 44 Grapes. I. Genus — Vitis (A climbing vine). II. Description. 1. Stem — Woody and supported by strong tendrils. 2. Bark — Dark brown like that of a tree. 3. Leaves — Large, broad, deeply three lobed, and hairy, 4. Blossoms — Small and of a greenish color. 5. Fruit. A. Shape — Round or spherical and grows in clusters. B. Size — One-fourth to one inch in diameter. C. Color — Green, yellow, red, purple, or variegated. D. Interior — Soft pulp, containing two to five seeds. E. Outer skin — Tough and indigestible, but contains acid which devel- ops flavor in cooking. in. Kinds. 1. Wild (500 species indigenous to North America). 2. Cultivated. » A. Popular species. a. Concord. . , e. White Frontignan. b. Catawba. f. Madeira. c. Niagara. g. Black Prince. d. Clinton. IV. How Propagated. A. Inoculation (Budding). C. Grafting. B. Cuttings. D. Seeds. V. Cultivation. 1. Rows — About 10 ft. apart. 2. Ground — Cultivated in other crops for a couple of years and subject to clean culture. 3. Support, for vines — Trellises. 4. Trimming — Necessary to secure a large yield. 5. Where cultivated. A. Warm or Temperate zones. B. Countries. a. Western Asia. b. Southern Europe. c. United States — New Jersey, Delaware, New York, Ohio, Illinois, and California. d. Southern part of Canada. VI. Use. 1. Raisins. 2. Wine. 3. Table use. VII. History. 1. Time — Immemorable. 2. Introduced into Europe by the Phoenicians. 3. Grape culture in California — Begun by Spanish missionaries in 1771. 45 The Grape- Vine Swing. Lithe and long as the serpent train, Springing and chnging from tree to tree, Now darting upward, now down again, With a twist and a twirl that are strange to see; Never took serpent a deadlier hold, Never the cougar a wilder spring, Strangling the oak with the boa's fold, Spanning the beech with the condor's wing. Yet no foe that we fear to seek — The boy leaps wild to thy rude embrace ; Thy bulging arms bear as soft a cheek As ever on lover's breast found place ; On thy waving train is a playful hold Thou shalt never to lighter grasp persuade; While a maiden sits in thy drooping fold. And swings and sings in the noonday shade ! giant strange of our southern woods, I dream of thee still in the well-known spot, Though our vessel strains o'er the ocean floods, And the northern forest beholds thee not ; 1 think of thee still with a sweet regret. As the cordage yields to my playful grasp, — Dost thou spring and cling in our woodlands yet? Does the maiden still swing in thy giant clasp? — Simms. Questions on Grapes. Of what region are the best fruit-bearing grapes supposed to be native? What people introduced the grape into Europe from Asia? 1181. When was the grape first introduced into America? Give four ways in which the grape plant may be propagated. What is the greatest wine-producing State in the Union ? How many species of grapes are indigenous to North America ? Tell how grapes are cultured and propagated. Name five of the best kinds of market grapes. What can you say of the wild grape as to qualities and distribution? Do we have seedless grapes ? What nations lead in the production of wine? What country is noted for its production of the large species of grapes? How many times a year does the grape bear in warmer climates ? What kind of grapes is used in making sweet wine? What State produces the best grade of wine? 3162. How is white wine made ? Why is it white ? About what per jcent. of grapes does the juice equal of the entire weight? 3162. Explain how cream of tartar is made from the grape. 699. Tell how the raisin is made from the grape. What State leads in the produc- tion of raisins? What countries produce large quantities of raisins ? 2370. What can you say of the vineyards of Ontario ? 2038. 46 Grasshopper, ADULT GRASSHOPPER. I. Orthoptera (Straight winged). II. Description. 1. Body — Compressed. 2. Wings — Four in number, folded like sides of a roof. A. First pair thickened, over- lapping second pair. B. Second pair thin and folded like a fan. 3. Legs — Long and slender. A. Thighs of hinder legs large and adapted for leaping. 4. Antennae — Long and threadlike. IIL Habits. 1. Often fly in swarms, forming black clouds. 2. Destruction — Often great, especially to growing crops in arid regions. 3. Sound. A. Very characteristic, caused by rubbing wings and wing covers together during flight. B. Also by rubbing the serrated hind legs against the wing covers. 4. Young — Go through stage of metamorphosis. IV. Food. 1. Vegetation. 2. Insects. Questions on Grasshoppers and Locusts. Describe the grasshopper. 1182. To what other insects are they closely related ? How do they produce their peculiar sound? Where does the grasshopper deposit its eggs? In what states have they been so numerous at times as to obscure the sun? 1615. When are their eggs laid and when do they hatch? Describe the locust. 1615. What can you say about their destruction of vegetable growth ? By what people is the locust used as food ? What measures are taken to prevent the advance of locusts in the destruction of crops? When are locusts the most destructive to crops ? In what states are locusts the most abundant ? In what way do they interfere with railroad traffic ? Which jumps the farthest, the grasshopper or locust? How many particular species of locusts are found in North America? 47 Heron, I. Family — Ardeidae. 1. Genus — Ardea. II. Description. 1. Bill — Sharp, straight, and longer than head and cleft between eyes. 2. Legs and neck — Long, adapted for wad- ing. 3. Body — Slender and compressed. 4. Toes — Three in front, two outer united by membrane. 5. Wings — Very long. 6. Tail — Short, round, and compressed. 7. Ornamented crests and handsome plumes on throat and body. 8. Movements, A. Graceful and elegant on land. B. Awkward in flight because of long legs stretched out behind. in. Classes. GREY (BLUE) HERON. 1. Great blue heron (Native of North America). A. Color — Grayish-blue, black quill feathers. 2. Green heron (North America). 3. Snowy heron (Gulf of Mexico). A. Pure white plumage. B. Black legs and bill. IV. Haunts — Ponds, marshes, fresh-water streams, lakes, seacoast. V. Food. 1. Secured by wading (Often standing motionless in the water waiting for fish). 2. Insects, frogs, fish, rats, mice, young of birds, mollusks. VI. Nest. 1. Built in trees. 2. Others in bushes. 3. Eggs three to four. The Heron in Poetry. Oh ! give me back my thicket by the marsh ! Let me see the herons wade In the watery glade, And let me see the water-fowl go by Ghinmering against the sky. — Maurice Thompson. The heron builds her nest in the tall pine, That rises high, a watch-tower in the land, — The while her mate, by stream or crystal pool, Stands, mute and listening, warder of the strand. —Ella F. Mosby. Far up some brook's still course, whose current mines The forest's blackened roots, and whose green marge Is seldom visited by human foot, The lonely heron sits, and harshly breaks The Sabbath silence of the wilderness ; And you may find her by some reedy pool, Or brooding gloomily on the time-stained rock Beside some misty and far-reaching lake. 48 Questions on the Heron. What other birds are related to the heron ? 1294. Name three kinds of herons native to North America. Where does it build its nest ? How many eggs does it lay ? Upon what does the heron feed ? 1295. Of what value is the heron ? What is the height of the heron ? Describe the bill and plumage. Which is the taller, a flamingo or heron ? 1010. Compare the heron with the spoonbill. 2714. Where is the egret found and for what is it noted? 881. Describe the snowy egret. For what is it hunted very extensively? Grotesque and tall, he stands erect Where the reed-riffle swirls and gleams — Grave, melancholy, circumspect, A hermit of the streams. — Ernest M'Gaffey. The Brooding Season. Soft sits his brooding mate, her guardian he, Perch'd on the top of some tall, neighboring tree ; Thence, from the thicket to the concave skies, His watchful eye around unceasing flies. — Alexander Wilson. The Great Blue Heron. I saw him flit across the leaden west. Slow flap his way, poise high the wings of slate, The trailing feet upon an oak's dead crest To anchor drop, a migrant ship of state. I saw him next among his bayous bleak. Slim, sombre, mute, and grim, with listless wing; With yet a fierce reserve of eye, a beak The shafted lightning, egret crowned, a king. I saw him last where palms their plumes upreared, The mystic ibis of my lady's bower, An alien, stark, majestic still, a weird Gray ghost of decorative grace and power. — /. Vallance Brown. 49 Jay, I. Order — Passeres. 1. Family — Corvidae. II. Description, 1. Feet — Adapted for perch- ing. 2. Bill — Rather short and sharp. 3. Wings — Blue or brownish red color. A. Considerably shorter than tail. 4. Tail — Very long and round- ed, sometimes longer than body. 5. Head — Tuft on top. III. Species (About 20). 1. Blue Jay. A. Best known and hand- somest. B. Voice. a. Harsh and grating. b. Great power of imitating other birds. C. Motion — Fantastic. E. Nest. a. Trees. b. Formed of twigs lined with grass. c. Eggs — Four or five, olive-brown, dark spotted. 2. Canada Jay. A. Coloring — Somber. B. Bold, noisy, active. C. Friend of moose, hanging from its horns in search of parasites. D. Northern part of North America. 3. English Jay. A. Larger than blue jay. B. Color — Light brown, inclining to red. 4. European Jay. A. Color — Cinnamon, varied with white, black, and blue. IV. Where Found. 1. Both hemispheres. V. Food. 1. Insects, seeds, fruits. 2. Eggs and young birds. BLUE JAY. EUROPEAN JAY. D. Plumage — Bright blue, black, and white. The Canada Jay. With mingled sound of horns and bells, A far-heard clang, the wild geese fly, Storm-sent from Arctic moors and fells, Like a great arrow through the sky, Two dusky lines converge in one, Chasing the southward-flying sun ; ■While the brave snow-bird and the hardy jay Call to them from the pines, as if to bid them stay. — John G. Whittier. 50 The Jay in Literature. What, i& the jay more precious than the lark, Because his feathers are more beautiful? Or is the adder better than the eel, Because his painted skin contents the eye? — Shakespeare. Ten thousand warblers cheer the day, and one The live-long night : nor these alone the notes Nice-fingered art must emulate in vain, But cawing rooks, and kites that swim sublime In still repeated circles, screaming loud. The jay, the pie, and ev'n the boding owl That hails the rising moon, have charms for me. — Cowper. The jay is a jovial bird — Heigh-ho ! He chatters all day In a frolicsome waj With the murmuring breezes that blow — Heigh-ho ! Hear him noisily call From the redwood tree tall To his mate in the opposite tree — Heigh-ho ! Saying, "How do you do?" As his topknot of blue Is raised as polite as can be — Heigh-ho ! Oh, impudent jay, With your plumage so gay, And your manners so jaunty and free — Heigh-ho ! How little you guessed. When you robbed the wren's nest, That any stray fellow would see — Heigh-ho ! — Selected. Questions on the Jay. To what family of birds does the jay belong? 1445. Give three ways in which a jay bird may be distinguished from the crow. About how many species of the jay bird are known? Describe the head and wings. Of what countries are the different species native? Name five kinds of food upon which the jay bird feeds. Compare the English jay with the American blue jay as to color and size. What can you say about the voice and its cultivation when tamed ? How does the length of the tail compare with the length of the body? 51 L emon. I. Citrus Medica (Orange Family). II. Description. 1. Tree — Knotty wooded, about eight feet in height. 3. Leaves — Oval, containing oil used in making extracts. 3. Fruit. A. Shape — Ellipsoidal, with protruding point at each end. B. Length — 2 in. to 4 in. C. Color — Bright yellow. D. Skin— Quite thick. E. Internafpulp — Acid and juicy. F. Number of compart- ments — 8 to 12, each containing several seeds. G. Number on tree — 3,000 or more. How Gathered. A. Picked while green. B. Wrapped in small papers. C. Shipped in boxes. D. Ripened during transit. IV. Kinds. 1. Sweet lemon. 2. Thick-skinned lemon. 3. Common lemon. 4. Citron lemon. V. Uses. 1. Oil of lemon — Volatile substance secured from rind pressure. 2. Extract — Made from imperfect fruit by squeezing 3. Lemonade. 4. Stimulant in medicine. VI. Where Grown. 1. United States — California and Florida. 2. Southern Europe. 3. Australia. III. I, EMON. A, Flower; B, Section of Fruit. 5. Perfumery. Questions on the Lemon. Which are the more profitable to grow, oranges or lemons ? What is the height of a lemon tree? 1568. How many lemons will a tree produce in favorable seasons? Name four kinds of lemons. How is the oil of lemon manufactured? How is lemon extract made ? For what is it used ? What states in the United States produce the largest quantities of lemons ? When was lemon cultivation introduced in Australia? What can you say of the keeping properties of the lemon? Were lemons known to the ancient Greeks and Romans ? Name six uses of the lemon. Name two islands in the Mediterranean sea that are noted for their produc- tion of lemons. Who introduced the cultivation of lemons in Spain and at what date? How have lemons been improved? What can you say of the wood of the lemon tree ? What is the shape of the leaves ? 52 I. Description. 1. Tree. A. Evergreen. B. Height (15 ft to 30 ft.). C. Growth — Very slow, but hardy and long lived. D. Trunk — As it grows old, becomes gnarled, broken, and twisted. 2. Leaves. A. Shape — Lanceolate or oblong. B. Surface. a. Smooth above and horny be- neath. C. Color — Bluish or dusky green. 3. Flowers. A. Size — Small, grow- ing in terminal ra- cemes or clusters. B. Color — Whitish, appearing 4. Fruit. A. Shape — Oblong, spheroidal B. Skin — Smooth and thin. C. Stone — Hard. III. How Prepared for Commerce. 1. Olives for table use. A. In unripe condition. B. Soaked in potash and water to reduce bitterness. C. Bottled in aromatized brine. 2. Olive Oil. A. Process of securing. a. Olives gathered. b. Placed immediately in crushing mill and ground into c. Pulp placed in press operated by screw. d. Oil remains on top^ impurities settling. e. Oil oozes from pulp into barrel containing water. f. Virgin oil — Product of first pressure. §■. Last product inferior, used for soap, pulp, or fuel, h. Clarification — Filtered through sand and charcoal. IV. Where Found. 1. Native of Syria. 2. Grown in Asia, Europe, Australia, Southern States, California. V. How Propagated. 1. Slips. 2. Seeds. 3. Grafting. VI. Use. 1. Table us?. 2. For olive oil. 3. Wood prized in cabinet work. 4. For adulterating and flavoring tea (China). 53 OLIVE. A, Cluster of flowers; B, Single flower; C, Fruit. in June, July, and August. D. Pulp — Soft and greenish. pulp. VII. History. 1. Associated with garden of Gethsemane. 2. Held sacred to Minerva by ancients. 3. Wreaths of olives — Placed on brows of victors by Greeks and Romans. 4. Emblem of peace — So regarded by many nations. 5. Introduced in United States — 200 years ago, Questions on the Olive. What can you say of the use and value of olive wood ? 2032. How was the olive tree regarded by the ancients? What is the height of the olive tree? What is the color of the flower? How old wilt an olive tree live to be? How is the bitter taste of olives reduced? How is olive oil made? What is virgin olive oil ? What quality of olive oil is used in soap making? What part of the olive is used for fuel ? How is the olive tree propagated? When was olive oil introduced in the United States ? In what countries are plantations of olive trees most abundant? How is olive oil clarified to give it its beautiful golden color? The oil of what nut is sold as a substitute of olive oil? Olives intended for table use are picked in what condition? The olive branch is a symbol of what? What are the principal uses of the olive fruit ? What commercial product is sometimes adulterated by the use of olive leaves ? Orange. I. Order — Rutaceae. II. Description. 1. Tree. A. Small evergreen. • C. Time required to bear, 6 years. B. Height (Wild 30 ft.; tame, D. Age (Often 600 years). much less). E. Wood — Fine grained, smooth. 2. Leaves. A. Color — Green. B. Shape — Oblong, thick, smooth. 3. Flower. A. White' — Waxlike and fragrant. B. Worn by brides. 4. Fruit. A. Color — Bright yellow. C. Rind — Thick. B. Shape — Spherical. D. Pulp — Collection of oblong seg- ments filled with luscious juice. 54 III. 2. 3. pulped, 9 10 11 IV, V. Varieties. 1. China orange. Lisbon orange. Maltese, or red orange. 4. Mandarin, or clove (Small and flattened) orange, 5. Saint Michael. 6. Majorca seedless. 7. Tangerine. 8. Valencia. Egg orange (Oval shape). Navel — seedless. Blood oranges — Dark red juice. 12. Russets — Florida. How Picked. 1. Picked while green. 2. Wrapped in paper. 3. Shipped in boxes of 250. 4. Ripened during transit. Use. 1. Sweet, for eating. 2. Bitter, for flavoring and medi- cine. 3. Fragrant oils from rind, leaves, and flowers. 4. Curacoa — Drink. ORANGE. VI. Where Grown. 1. United States — California, Florida, and Louisiana. 2. Mexico. 3. West Indes. 4. East Indies. 5. China. 6. India. 7. Australia. 8. North Africa. Questions on the Orange. At what age does the orange tree begin to bear fruit? 2045. Which obtains the greater age, an orange tree or an olive tree? Which produces the greater number of fruit, orange trees or lemon trees ? What is Curagoa ? Is it made from the best class of oranges ? About how many oranges are shipped in a box? What is the name of the variety of oranges which are egg shaped? What is a Maltese orange? What is a clove orange, or Mandarin orange? How do the different species of orange fruit originate? What is the color of orange flowers and what can you say of their fra- grance ? When was the first orange cultivated in Portugal? Of what country is the orange a native? What states produce the most oranges? What is the difference between the California orange and the Florida orange ? What is a blood orange ? Why is it so called ? From what are the fragrant oils of the orange obtained? What are their uses? Name eight varieties of oranges sold on the market. What uses are made of the bitter orange ? What can you say of the value of the wood of the orange tree ? What can you say of oranges as to food value ? Why are orange blossoms worn by brides on their wedding day? Why is the navel a special favorite with the consumer? 55 Ostrich. and 4 RHEA. OSTRICH. I. Genus — Cursores. 1. Related to rhea, emu, cas- sowary. II. Description. 1. Largest of living birds. 2. Height— 6 ft. to 8 ft. ■ 3. Weight— 70 lbs. to 90 lbs. 4. Head— Flat. 5. Bill— Stout. Q. Eyes — Large. 7. Neck — Long and naked. 8. Legs — Long and power- ful, giving great speed. 9. Toes — Two, correspond- ing to third and fourth ^ of other birds. 10. Neck and thighs — Bare. 11. Wings— Small, of little service in flight. 12. Feathers — Fluffy plumelike. 13. Color. A. Males — Shiny, r black, with white plumes at end of wings and tail. B. Females — Dull, brown color. C. Chicks — Striped. III. Characteristics. 1. Timidity. - 2. Remarkable speed, often outstripping the fastest horse. IV. Food. 1. Wild state. A. Herbs, seeds, and fruits. 2. Domesticated. A. Usually fed on alfalfa or grass and clover mixed with fruit. V. Rearing of Young. 1. Nest (Built in sand). 2. Eggs. A. Number — 8 to 15 from several hens. B. Weight— About 3 lbs. 3. Hatching. A. Incubated by cock and hen alternating, nest at night. B, Length of time required for hatching (6 weeks). VI. Why Domesticated. 1. For feathers. A. Black and white plumes from male. B. Brown from female. C. Value — Varying according to size and quality from a few cents to $50. VII. How Hunted. 1. On horseback or by using covering of ostrich skin. 2. Defend themselves with great vigor by means of powerful legs and "^aks. 3. Sound — Something like cackle, seldom given except in distress. 56 cock usually occupying VIII. Where Found. 1. Native to deserts of Africa and Arabia. 2. Ostrich farms. A. South Africa. C. California. B. North Africa. D. Australia. Questions on the Ostrich. To what countries is the ostrich native ? 2062. What other birds resemble the ostrich? What is the height of the full-grown ostrich? Speak of the ostrich as to size and strength. What can you say of its antiquity and mention in early history ? How many toes has the ostrich? In the wild state, what animals does the ostrich usually follow? What is their principal means of safety from their enemies? What is the color -of the male ostrich? How many plumes will an ostrich yield a year? What is the price of ostrich plumes per pound ? Tell how ostriches are hunted. How many ostrich eggs are laid in the same nest ? How are the eggs hatched? Which sits on the nest at night, the male or female? How many pounds will an ostrich egg weigh? How long does it take an ostrich egg to hatch? What is the average weight of the ostrich? What is the average stride of the ostrich in walking? In running? Is the flesh fit to be eaten? What are the principal differences between the rhea and the ostrich? A Few of the Bird Family. The old bob white, and chipbird; The flicker and chee-wink. And little hopty-skip bird Along the river brink. The blackbird and snowbird, The chicken-hawk and crane; The glossy old black crow-bird. And buzzard, down the lane. The yellowbird and redbird, The torn-tit and the cat; The thrush and that redhead bird The rest's all pickin' at ! The jay-bird and the blue bird, The sap-suck and the wren — The cockadoodle-doo bird, And our settin' hen ! — James Whitcomb Riley. 57 Parrot. I. Class — Climbers. II. Species — (About 350 known, 150 of which are in America). III. Description. 1. Size — From that of swallow to birds of 3 ft. in length. 2. Color — Bright green, red, blue, and yellow. 3. Tongue — Soft, large, fleshy (Sometimes fringed, or tuft- ed). Barbarous tribes some- times slit tongue to cause better articulation. 4. Bill — Stout and hooked, mov- ably hinged to jaw. 5. Wings — Short, broad. 6. Feet — Rough, stout. A. Toes. a. Two before, two be- hind. b. Outer toe turned backward. 7. Voice — Coarse and harsh, though articulate. IV. Food. 1. Fruit. 2. Nuts. 3. Seeds. 4. Buds. 5. Plantain. 6. Insects. V. Nests. A. Where made. 1. Hollow trees. 2. Holes in rocks. 3. Deserted buildings. B. Eggs. 1. Number~2. 2. Color— White. 3. Shape — Rounded. VI. Characteristics. 1. Affectionate. 2. Imitative. 3. Docile. VII GRAY PARROT, 4. Hardy. 5. Long lived. Kinds. 1. Gray parrot a. Home— b. Color— -West Africa. Ashy white, black wing quills, red tail. c. Skill — The best of talkers. 2. Carolina parrot. a. Home — United States. b. Size — 12 in. or 13 in. long. c. Color — Green back, yellow head, red cheeks (Fast becoming extinct). 3. Macaw. a. Where found. b. Size. c. Plumage — Beautiful. d. Number of broods — Two per season. 4. Cockatoo. a. Name — From peculiar harsh utterance. b. Head — Tufted crown.' c. Lives in tribes. d. Easily domesticated. 58 Questions on the Parrot. About how many species of parrots are known? In which country are the most species found ? What is said of the comparative size of these birds ? Which are the largest and where are they found ? Why are the love birds so called? Describe the tongue. Which species is said to best imitate the human voice ? How do the Carolina "parrots differ from others of America ? Mention a pecuHar fact of the macaws in brooding. What is said of the temperament of parrots? 3114. Where do these birds best like to be? What progress do they make when going about on the ground ? For what are the macaws noted? Where are the favorite nesting places ? In which zones are parrots most numerous ? Story of a Nest. Far away in the beautiful land of Brazil, Where the birds are all singing o'er valley and hill, Two little children walked out 'neath the trees, Talking in musical Portuguese; And if you will listen to what I say, I'll tell you in English their words that day. "Sister," said Manuel, "often I've heard. That the trees scarce have room for the nest of each bird ; For this is the land of these beautiful things. And the air seems alive with their songs and their wings; And I think that I know of a little bird breast, Which was puzzled and troubled for a place for a nest." "Now, brother," said Lena, "don't tell me a word, Let me hunt for the nest of this crowded out bird." So away they went roving o'er hill and through dell ; — Of the nests that they found 'twould take hours to tell. There were nests in the orange trees, blossoming white, There were nests in the coffee trees, glossy and bright, There were nests in the hedges, the bushes and grass, In the dark, hanging vines, by each roadside and pass. There were blue eggs and speckled eggs, brown eggs and white, And yellow throats opening with chirpings of fright. "Search no longer," said Manuel, "'mid bushes and trees, 'Tis a stranger place, sister, than any of these." "I give up," said Lena, a shade on her brow, "Come, hasten, dear Manuel, I'll follow you now." Then away to the garden the little feet sped. And he showed her the nest in a big cabbage head ! — Anna R. Henderson. 59 Peach. I. Order — Rosaceae. II. Description. 1. Tree (8 ft. to 25 ft. high). A. Branches — Irregular. B. Leaves — Glossy and lanceolate or willow like. C. Blossoms — Light pink, appearing spring. D. Fruit. a. Shape — Roundish drupe. b. Size — 1 in. to 3 in. in diameter. c. Color — Downy reddish, yellowish, and whitish skin. d. Seed — A furrowed, flattish stone. e. Kind. (a) Freestone (Fleshy part when ripe separates from seed). (b) Clingstone (Flesh does not sep- arate). PEACH flower. in. Where Found 1 Native of Persia and Syria (Several species grow wild). 2. United States (Grown most extensively). A. Southern shores of Great Lakes. B. Central part of Missis- sippi valley. C. Southern States. D. Pacific coast. 3. Ontario and British Columbia. IV. V. VI, VII How Propagated (From seed). 1. Cultivated in orchards. Annual Output (In United States 40,500,000 bu.). Use. 1. Eaten raw. 2. Dried. 3. Peach brandy. How Prepared for Market. 1. Gathered before quite ripe. 2. Placed in small baskets. 3. Shipped in refrigerator cars. Questions on the Peach. Is the peach tree a distinct genus, or is it allied to the almond, cherry, and plum? 2131. What is the general height of the peach tree ? What is the color of its blossoms and which appears first, the leaves or its blos- soms ? Of what country is the peach tree native? When was it introduced into Europe? What are the two principal classes of peaches ? How old must a peach tree be before it bears? How many years have they been known to produce? How is the peach tree propagated, from the seed or from cuttings? Which provinces of Canada are best adapted to the cultivation of peach or- chards. Where are the most productive peach-growing regions in the United States ? What Southern State produces the most peaches and what is the annual yield m the number of bushels ? How many bushels of peaches are produced annually in the United States ? In what condition are peaches gathered for the market and how are they shipped ? What can you say about the keeping qualities of dried peaches ? Where is peach brandy usually made ? 60 Pear. I, Family (Rose), II. Description. Native of Asia. Tree, A. Wild state — Small and thorny. B. Cultivated — Thornless. a. Height (25 ft. to 60 ft.). b. Diameter (Quite often 3 ft). c. Age (Usually live only a few years, but some have been known to live 300 years). d. Wood — Hard and durable. . and shiny on PEAR FLOWER- Leaves — Green upper side. Flower — W h i t e apple. Fruit. A. Resembles apple. B. Shape — Irregularly cal with base of hanging down. C. Pulp — When ripe, 2. resembling coni- cone soft, sweetish, and delicious flavor. How Propagated. 1. Grafting on quince, white thorn, and other trees. 2. Budded on seedlings of species called free stocks. Varieties (225). 1. Bartlett pear (90 per cent.). 2. Seckel pear. V. Where Grown. 1. Practically every country in temperate and tropical zones. B. C. D. E. F. VI III IV. United States. A. California (first rank). New York. Ohio. Michigan. Indiana. Pennsylvania. 3. Canada (Prolific producer of several fine grades). How Prepared for Market. 1. Picked before ripe. 2. Wrapped in separate papers. 3. Transported in refrigerator cars. Use. 1. Eaten raw. For cooking. Manufacture of wine. Perry, or pear jcider. Wood used in manufacture of musical instruments, turners' tools, and wood engraving. VIII. Annual Crop of the United States (3,500,000 bu.). VII. Questions on the Pear. Of what continents is the pear a native ? 2132. Describe the wild pear tree and its fruit. To what height will a pear tree grow ? How great a diameter does a pear tree attain in a favorable climate? How many species of pears are recognized by writers at the present time? How many in Rome at the time of Pliny? 2132. 61 Would a pear tree planted at the time the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Ply- mouth Rock be capable of bearing fruit at the present time? 3133. Name three uses of pear tree wood in manufacture . What is the favorite pear on the American market ? What two states rank first in the production of pears ? The Bartlett pear constitutes what per cent, of the entire crop of the United States ? Which is the more valuable, the pear or the peach crop ? 2131 and 2133. What is pear cider generally called ? In what country is pear cider made in large quantities ? How many million bushels is produced annually in United States? How are pears dried? How are pears prepared for the market and shipped? In what countries are they raised ? Are apples, pears, and quinces related in family? 2132 and 2355. Why is the Japan quince cultivated? What use is made of the quince fruit? 2133. The River Path. There's a path beside the river, Winding through the willow copse, Where I love to walk in autumn Ere the season's curtain drops. On far hillsides beech and maple, Touched by early nipping frost, Havp their brown and crimson jackets To the boisterous breezes tossed. Still the willow leaves are clinging, Latest foliage of fall, Shading yet my river pathway Underneath the osiers tall. On the wimpling water's surface Drift a million truant leaves, Stolen from the woodland reaches By the wind, the prince of thieves. All along the river edges Verdure's turned to brown and gray. Rustling through the dying sedges Autumn's low voiced breezes play. Nowhere sweeter walk or rarer Than my path beside the stream. There I love to stroll in autumn, There to loiter and to dream. — Frank Farrington. 62 Pigeon. I. Order — Columbae. 1. Species (Over 500). II. Description. 1. Body— Heavy. 2. Legs— Short. 3. Head— Small. 4. Wings — Large, strong in flight. 5. Bill— Short, straight, and compressed (Though upper mandible may be slightly curved at tip). 6. Nostrils — Protected by a fleshy scale. 7. Color. A. Temperate regions— Dull gray, brown, or slate, though some are black and white. B. Tropical regions— Bright shades of blue and purple. III. Classification. 1. Wild pigeons. A. Gouras. (a) Found in Papua. (b) Length— 2 ft. (c) Large and showy crests and rich color. B. Passenger. (a) Formerly found in great numbers in Northern United States— Almost exterminated by hunters. (b) Length — 15 in. (c) Plumage — Finely tinted. (d) Tail — Long and pointed in shape, feathers tapering in regular order. (e) Formerly migrated in communities of millions. (f) Nests — Sometimes hundreds in one tree. C. Mourning Pigeon (Or turtle doves). (a) Length (10 in.). (b) Color (Grayish brown). (c) Nest (Built of twigs). (d) Eggs (Two — Cream white color). (e) Hatching (Male and female alternate sitting on nest). (f) Peculiar characteristics (Cooing and affection for mate). (g) Other species. Carolina turtle dove. Collared turtle dove. 2. Domesticated Pigeons. A. Fantail. a. Description (Tail large, erect; opens like a fan). B. The Carrier, or Homing, Pigeon. a. Description. (a) Size (Large). (b) Beak (Base of — naked). (c) Wings (Long). (d) Eyes (Surrounded by circle of naked skin). (e) Commercial use (For carrying letters or messages). (f) Flight (Rate, 30 miles per hour). (Distances, from 200 to 1,000 miles). C. The Pouter. a. Peculiar power (To swell crop to a very large size). D. Jacobins. a. Distinguishing characteristics (Big ruff of feathers a^out the neck and head), E. Tumblers. a. Peculiar habit (Turn somersaults in the air). 6 63 b. Beauty and price (Handsome, high price). F. Runt. IV. Habits. 1. Perch in trees. 2. Build nests on some elevated spot. A. Domestic pigeons breed in barns. B. Both male and female sit on eggs. 3. Pair for life. 4. Young at hatching. A, Blind, naked, and helpless. B. Fed masticated food from crop of parents. V. Where Found. 1. Widely distributed, though most abundant in tropical regions. 2. Pigeon culture important in India, China, Persia, Belgium, and Holland. Y*^. The Mother-Dove. High on the top of an ol,d pine-tree Broods a mother-dove with her young ones three. Warm over them is her soft downy breast, And they sing so sweetly in their nest. "Coo," say the little ones, "Coo," says she, All in their nest on the old pine-tree. Fast grow the young ones, day and night._ Till their wings' are plumed for a longer flight, Till unto them at last draws nigh The time when they all must say "Good-bye." Then "Coo," say the little ones, "Coo," says she. And away the}- fl}- from the old pine-tree. PASSENGER PIGEON. Questions on the Pigeon. What can you say about the distribution of pigeons? they most abundant? 2312. Do pigeons build their nests in trees ? What can you say of their variety of color and habits ? Where does the domestic pigeon breed ? , What can you say about the mating of pigeons ^ In what climates are Do male and female birds both sit on the eggs ? Is this common with other kinds of birds ? How do they differ in this respect from the ostrich? 2212. Name nine kinds of pigeons ? Describe the passenger pigeon. What are the chief articles of food of pigeons ? In what countries is pigeon culture an important industry ? From what bird is the domestic pigeon supposed to be a descendant ? What is the object in rearing pigeons from a financial standpoint? Are turtle doves related to pigeons? Describe the turtle dove. 2946. How many miles an hour does the passenger pigeon fly? 492. What is the best distance record ever made by American homing pigeons? Why do they wash the passenger pigeon's feet with vinegar ? How is the message attached to the passenger pigeon ? How are they trained for service? Tell how Joshua in Bible times made use of the passenger pigeon. 491. What nation first made use of the passenger pigeon ? During the siege of Paris by the German army, in 1870 and 1871, how many thousand official messages were carried into the city by means of pigeons ? In what countries do they use the trained carrier pigeons in national games ? 64 Rabbit. L RODENTIA. II. Description. 1. Native of temperate climates. 2. Ears — Long. 3. Teeth — Incisors, large, curved, and very sharp. 4. Legs — Hind legs powerfully developed. 5. Toes — 5 on fore feet; 4 on hind feet. 6. Color. A. Native state — Brown. B. Domestication — Varied, including black, white, gray, spotted. 7. Life — Average 6 to 7 years. III. Habits. 1. Gregarious and in wild state pairs for life. 2. Haunts — Sandy pastures and hilltops. Remains concealed during the day and roams around at night. 3. Young. A. Brought forth in litters. B. Blind and naked at birth. C. Mother cares carefully for them in burrows. 4. Breeding — Age of 6 months. A. Several litters a year. IV. Characteristics. 1. Timidity — Seeks safety by rapid and continuous run- ning. 2. Senses — Well developed. 3. Very prolific. A. Pest in some countries. V. Classes (Several species). 1. Cottontail, or gray, rabbit. 2. Dark rabbit (Western states). 3. Domesticated rabbits. A. Albino or white rabbit (White hair and pink eyes). VI. Where Found. 1. North America, especially Mississippi Valley and Southern Canada. 2. Australia (Domesticated). VII. Food. 1. Grass. 2. Herbage. 3. Vegetables. 4. Bark (Often damaging young plants and orchards) . VIII. Use. 1. Food. 2. Hair — For felting purposes. 3. Skin — In making glue. 4. Fur — For making caps. GRAY rabbit Questions on the Rabbit. Where is the rabbit supposed to have originated ? 2359. Give the distinguishing features of the rabbit and the hare. How does the rabbit seek safety from its enemies ? 2360. What use is made of the rabbit fur ? From what part of the rabbit is glue and size made ? In what way are rabbits an injury to orchards? When is the best time to go rabbit hunting? In what countries have rabbits become a pest? At what season of the year is rabbit flesh the best for eatmg? Give reason. Describe the cottontail. 65 Describe the Jack rabbit. 1428. Which is the larger, a Jack rabbit or a Norwegian hare ? What is the color of Jack rabbits in the winter? In the summer? Where are Jack rabbits found? 1428. Is the Jack rabbit a hare ? 1252. Describe the polar hare of North America. What can you say about their food and their habits ? What use is made of the fur of the hare ? What can you say about the voice of the hare ? Of what continent are they a native? About how many young do they produce and how many litters per year? 2360, Where do rabbits stay during the daytime? Which has the longer ears, a hare or a rabbit? 2359. Which can run the faster, the hare or the rabbit? The Timid Rabbit. Of all the beasts he learned the language, Learned their names and all their secrets, How the beavers built their lodges, Where the squirrels hid their acorns, How the reindeer ran so swiftly, Why the rabbit was so timid, Talked with them whene'er he met them, Called them "Hiawatha's Brothers.'" ***** * * And the rabbit from his pathway Leaped aside, and at a distance Sat erect upon his haunches, Half in fear and half in frolic, Saying to the little hunter, "Do not shoot me, Hiawatha." ^ — Longfellow. The Hare and the Tortoise. A Hare' one day ridiculed the slow pace of the Tortoise, and boasted of his own speed in running. The Tortoise said, "Let us try a race. I will run with you five miles, and our friend the Fox may act as jvidge." "All right," said the Hare, and away they went together. The Tortoise jogged along with a slow and steady pace to the end of the journey. The Hare first outran the Tortoise, then fell behind and began to nibble at the grass and to play hide and "seek with other hares. Finallj' he became tired with play and lay down for a nap, saying, "If the Tortoise should get ahead of me I could catch up with her and pass her without the least trouble." The Hare woke up but the Tortoise was not in sight ; and running as fast as he could he found her at her goal fast asleep, while the Fox stood waiting to tell the Hare he had lost the race. —Aesop's Fables. 66 Robin, or Robin Redbreast. A. B. C. D. Species. 1. American — Thrush. 2. European — Warbler. Native home — Europe. Origin of name — Red breast of male. Kinds. 1. Robin redbreast. 2. Golden robin. Migration (Summer bird of passage). 1. Winter home — South. 3. Summer home — Northern states and Canada. II. Description. A. American. 1. Size — 10 in. long. 3. Shape — -Plump. 3. Color — Black head and back, orange breast. ■ Family — Perchers. 1. Broods — 3 per season. 3. Number of voung — 4 to 6. Nest. 1. Where built (Trees, raft- ers, etc.). 3. Material — Grasses, reeds, mud, and hair. ROBIN redbre;ast. goi,de;n robin. European. B. C. 1. 6 in. long. 3. Round, plump. 3. Olive brown body, red- dish-orange breast. 1. 3 each season. 3. 5 to 7. 1. Bushes, ivy wall, and vines. 3. Moss, leaves, dried grass, and hair. D. Eggs. 1. Number — 4 to 6. 3. Color — Greenish blue. 3. Size — ^, in. in diameter. E. Food. 1. Worms. 3. Insects. 3. Small fruit, especially cherries. 4. Crumbs. III. Characteristics. 1. Travel in pairs rather than in flocks. 3. Return to same nest of previous season 3. Familiar and friendly. 4. Have pleasant voice and sweet song. 1. 5 to 7. 3. White spotted dish brown. 3. Smaller. with red- The Robin Redbreast. Art thou the bird that man loves best, The pious bird with the scarlet breast. Our little English robin; The bird that comes about our doors When autumn winds are sobbing? Art thou the Peter of Norway boors? Their Thomas in Finland, And Russia far inland? The bird that by some name or other All men who know thee call thee brother? — Wordsworth. 67 The Robin's Return. Robin on the tilting bough, Redbreast rover, tell me how You the weary time have passed Since we saw and heard you last. "In a green and pleasant land. By a summer sea-breeze fanned, Orange trees with fruit are bent,- There the weary time I've spent; Robin, rover, there, no doubt. Your best music you poured out ; Piping to a stranger's ear. You forgot your lovers here. "Little lady, on my word, You do wrong a true-hearted bird ! Not one ditty did I sing, 'Mong the leaves or on the wing, "In the sun or in the rain ; Strangers ears would list in vain, If I ever tried a note. Something rose up in my throat. " 'Twas because my heart was true To the North and springtime new; My mind's eye, a nest could see In yon old, forked apple tree !" — Edith Thomas. The Four Seasons. First Pupil: Robins in the tree top. Blossoms in the grass, Green things a-growing, Everywhere you pass ; Sudden little breezes. Showers of silver dew. Black bough and bent twig Budding out anew ; Pine tree and willow tree. Fringed elm and larch — Don't you think that May time's Pleasanter than March? Second Pupil: Apples in the orchard Mellowing one by one; Strawberries upturning Soft cheeks to the sun; Roses faint with sweetness. Lilies fair of face, Drowsy scents and murmurs Hunting every place; Lengths of golden sunshine. Moonlight bright as day, Don't you think that svimmer's Pleasanter than May? Third Pupil: Roger in the corn patch, Whistling negro songs ; Pussy by the hearthside Romping with the tongs; Chestnuts in the ashes Bursting through the rind ; Red leaf and gold leaf Rustling down the wind ; Mother "doin' peache?" All the afternoon — Don't you think that autumn's Pleasanter than June? Fourth Pupil : Little fairy snowflakes Dancing in the flue ; Old Mr. Santa Claus, What is keeping you? Twilight and firelight, Shadows come and go ; Merry chime of sleighbells Tinkling through the snow; Mother knitting stockings, (Pussy's got the ball) — Don't you think that winter's Pleasanter than all ? — T. B. Aldrich. Questions on the Robin. To what continents is the robin native? 3429. By what name is it famiharly known ? Why so named ? Name some characteristics which make the robin a favorite. Note the difference in color between the male and female. Name some distinguishing features between the American and the European robin. When and where do the robins migrate? What is meant by the robin being a "percher" ? Silkworm. I. Family — Bombycidae. 1. Species (About 400). II. Silk Moth. 1. Description. A. Body — Thick and hairy. B. Length — Mature state 1 in. C. Legs — Stout. D. Wings — Large, marked with dark lines. E. B o d y of female larger than male. F. Both die after de- posit of eggs. III. Silkworm. 1. Eggs (300 to 500 in number). 2. Where placed. A. Wild state — Leaves of mulberry tree-. B. Silk culture — On pieces of paper or muslin. 3. Conditions necessary "for hatching. A. Tempera ture of 80° F. B. Room clean. C. Good ventilation. 4. Caterpillar. A. Early appearance — 8 or 10 days. B. Body— Parts. a. 13 segments. b. 6 anterior or legs. c. Ten fleshy hind legs. d. Large mouth with powerful jaws. C. Stages of development. a. Caterpillar state from 6 to 8 weeks. b. Skin changes four times (Casting). c. Body assumes an ashy color. d. Length — 3 in. e. Food — Mulberry leaves. f. Ceases eating fifth week. g. Spinning of cocoon. 5. Cocoon development. A. Place of attachment. a. Wild state — Mulberry leaves. fore SILKWORM. 1, Male Moth; 2, Female Moth; 3, 3, Silkworms; 4, Chrys- alis; 5, Cocoon. b. Artificial state — Cells. B. How attached — By hind legs. C. How made — By throw- ing silk threads. D. Threads. a. Glutinous substance. b. Secreted by two tu- bular glands. Lo- cation ( On each side body, near head, connected with spinneret). c. Length. 200 to 300 yards. d. Nature. Consists of two strands. E. Time of spinning. a. 3 to 5 days. F. Preparation for pupa stage. G. Chrysalis state. A. Hatching. a. Time required — 3 69 weeks. b. Prevention of hatch- ing. By placing in hot water, or warm oven. c. Cocoons necessary for 1 lb. of raw silk— 12. IV. Manufacture. 1. Placing in hot water kills moth and softens gum. 2. Unwinding of cocoon. A. Outside cocoon floss silk. B. Inside finest silk. 3. Reeling silk. 4. Raw silk. A. Washing. B. Winding on bobbins. C. Assortment. 5. Throwing. A. Unwinding from bobbins. B. Twisting on machine. C. Wound on reel. D. Preparing threads for spinning. a. Singles for plain silk and ribbons. b. Double twisted in making warps (Tram silk). c. Organzine (Twisted like a rope). E. Dyeing raw silk. F. Waste products (^ of cocoon). a. Formerly considered useless. b. Process discovered, in 1857, by which these products are utilized (Spin silk). 6. Weaving. A. Power looms in United States and Canada. B. Hand looms in Europe (Usually). C. Hand looms entirely (China). D. Manufacture of sewing silk. a. C o n t i n u a t i on of throwing. b. Made by continua- tion of twisting of threads. c. Process confined to America. V. History. 1. Originated in China. A. First cocoon unwound, 2600 B. c. 2. Introduced into Europe. A. Carried by Persian monks 530 b. c. B. Edict of Nantes. 3. Introduced into America. A. Attempt by James I., into Virginia. B. Introduced in South Car- olina, Florida, Califor- nia, and New Jersey, in 1850. VI. Countries. 1. Raw silk. A. China. B. Japan. C. Italy. D. France. 2. Where manufactured. A. France. B. United States. a. 650 silk factories. b. Annual value $115,- 526,500. c. One-third raw silk manufactured here. 3. Germany. 4. Switzerland. VII. Artificial Silk. 1. Made of cellulose prepared from cotton and pulps of soft wood. A. Cotton carded. B. Treated with nitric and sulphine acid. a. 15 parts nitric acid. b. 85 parts sulphine acid. C. Converted into nitrocel- lulose. a. Clear blue color. D. Pressed and carefully washed. E. Collodion. a. Dissolving in ether and alcohol. F. Run between steel rollers. G. Forced through tubes in- to nitric acid. H. Fibers reeled. I. Dried by warm air. J. Washing and drying. K. Spun and dried. 70 SILKWORMS AND THE SILK INDUSTRY. 71 The American Silk Worm. The American silkworm is a large moth of a buff color, whose caterpillar feeds upon the leaves -of many trees, such as the oak, maple, apple, willow, hickory, and sycamore. The cocoon is formed of strong silk, which has a glossy fiber when it is unwound. It is generally fastened to a leaf or to several leaves, with which it sometimes falls to the ground. A gummy substance cements the fibers together and when dry gives the cocoon a chalky appearance. The gummy substance is softened for reeling by soaking in warm water. This insect has two generations per year in the Southern States and passes the winter in the chrysalis state. Questions on Silk and the Silkworm. From what country is one-half of the raw silk obtained? 2636. Of what material is artificial silk made ? How does the price of artificial silk compare with that of real silk? Who is credited with unwinding the first silk cocoon 2600 b. c. ? 2635. What people carried the eggs of the silkworm in hollow canes from China to Constantinople about 530 a. d. ? What king first sent silkworm eggs to Virginia and offered rewards for the production of raw silk ? What is the color of raw silk? Tell how to unwind the silk cocoon. What is floss silk ? In what country did the manufacture of silk originate? What effect did the Edict of Nantes have upon the silk industry of France ? From what cities do we obtain most of our imported silk goods ? About what proportion of the raw silk produced in the world is handled by the mills of the United States? About how many species of the silkworm are there ? How many eggs does the silk moth produce ? How many pounds of cocoons are required to produce a pound of raw silk? How many silk factories are there in the United States at the present time and what is the value of their annual output ? Which is the larger, the male or the female silkworm? How do the eggs of the silkworm compare in size Avith the mustard seed? How long do they remain in the caterpillar stage and how many times does their skin change during this period? How many legs has a caterpillar? Tell how they spin the silk thread. ^ How is the moth killed in the cocoon ? How many pounds of raw silk are produced in the world annually? What part of the silkworm is used in the manufacture of fish lines? 2637. ' Give reasons why silk is more expensive than cotton. Name five articles made from silk. What temperature is necessary to hatch the silkworm egg and what time re- quired ? Upon what do the caterpillars feed? When do they begin to spin their cocoons ? How long does this take ? Which is the better quality, artificial or natural silk? Give reasons. 72 spider. I. Class — Arachnida. An animal (Sometimes called in- sect). II. Description. 1. Body — 3 segments. ' A. 1. Head; eyes (8). 2. Chest — Breathes through lung sacs. B. Abdomen. 1. Structure. a. Tubes. b. Fluid. c. Thread. C. Legs — 8, in i pairs. N"ew limbs may grow again when others are destroyed. D. Mandibles. 1. Hooked. . 2. Use. 3. Fluid. E. Color — Various (Often same as leaves, bark, or petals of flowers where they occur). F. Size — From minute size to several inches in di- ameter. G. Shape — Same at birth as when adult. Skin changes 6 or 9 times. 2. Food. A. Kinds. 1. Flies. 2. Birds. 3. Small reptiles. Suck juices from prey. B. How obtained. C. Manner of poisoning. 3. Eggs. 1. Number (From 50 to 2,000). ' 2. Where laid (Silk co- coon) . 3. Hatching. 4. Webs, or Nests. 1. Construction. 2. By which made (Us- ually the female). 3. Kinds. 4. Use. 5. Where made. a. Plants. b. Buildings. c. Water. d. Under sfround. 5. Habits. 1. Fighting. 2. Hiding. - 3. Leaping. 4. Running. 5. Swimminj in. Species. 1. House. 2. Garden. 3. Water. 4. Trapdoor. 5. Tropical. 6. Tarantula. Questions on the Spider. Name three ways in which spiders differ from insects. 2707. Which senses are most highly developed? Give the construction of the second segment. Compare the male and female in size and strength. Describe the web-making process. What may be said regarding the parental attitude of spiders? What animals are enemies of spiders? How great are the poisonous effects of spiders ? Where is the home of the tarantula ? In what regions are spiders found in greatest number and of largest size? Why are the trapdoor spiders so called? Describe the home of the water spider. How are the young of the scorpion cared for? 2561. Squirrel. 9. 10. I. Class — ^Mammalia. 1. Order — Rodentia (Gnawing animals). II. Characteristics. 1. No canine teeth. 2. Two powerful incisors. 3. Molar teeth flat. 4. Motion of jaw backward and forward. 5. Body slender. 6. Bright eyes. 7. Ears small and pointed. 8. Tail long- and bushy. Hind feet have 5 toes. Front feet 4 toes and a thumb- like projection. III. Groups. 1. Tree Squirrels. A. Ruddy-brown color up- per parts, B. Reddish white below, t C. Color varies with season, generally grayish in the winter. Live in trees. Food — Nuts, seeds, acorns. F. Flesh valued as food. 2. Ground Squirrels. A. Species, (a) Gray, striped, red. B. Home in burrows in ground. C. Food — Seeds, tender shoots of plants, cereals. Pest to cornfields in cen- tral west. Flying Squirrels. A. Extension of skin con- necting fore and hind legs forming a para- chute. D. E. D. B. Flying motion. C. Roam at night and seen little in daytime. IV. Where Found. 1. Tree squirrels — In forests of North America and most other continents. 2. Ground squirrels — Both timber and prairie regions. 3. Flying squirrels — Western Asia, North America, Siberia, Eastern Europe. V. Use. 1. Fur. 2. Food. 3. Pets. tre;e squirre;i,s. Questions on the Squirrel. What continent has no squirrels? 2719. How many toes has a squirrel on its fore feet ? On its hind feet ? 74 In what countries are flying squirrels found? 2730. Do they roam about in the daytime or at night? Why are ground squirrels harmful to farmers? In what country do we find the best fur-bearing squirrels ? Name three kinds of ground squirrels and describe them. 2719. What kind of squirrels produces the best meat ? What is the effect of the change of seasons on the color of the squirrels? Wliat do the squirrels do in the cold weather of winter ? What do they eat? How do they provide food for the winter? In what countries are tree squirrels most abundant ? The Squirrel. • In the joy of his nature he frisks with a bound To the topmost twigs, and then to the ground; Then up again, like a winged thing, And from tree to tree with a vaunting spring; Then he sits up aloft, and looks waggish and queer, As if he would say, "Ay, follow me here!" And then he grows pettish, and stamps his foot; And then independently cracks his nut. — Mary Howitt. The Hunted Squirrel. Then as a nimble squirrel from the wood Ranging the hedges for his filbert food Sits pertly on a bough, his brown nuts cracking And from the shell the sweet white kernel taking ; Till with their crooks and bags a sort of boys To share with him come with so great a noise ^riiat he is forced to leave a nut nigh broke, And for his life leap to a neighbor oak, Thence to a beech, thence to a row of ashes ; Whilst through the quagmires and red water plashes The boys run dabbing through thick and thin. One tears his hose, another breaks his shin; This, torn and tattered, hath with much ado Got by the briars ; and that hath lost his shoe ; This drops his band ; that headlong falls for haste : Another cries behind for being last ; With sticks and stones and many a sounding holloa The little fool with no small sport they follow, Whilst he from tree to tree, from spray Gets to the woods and hides him in his dray. — Williain Brozvne. 75 BLACKBOARD LE;SS0N. 76 Tea. I. Family — Allied to Camellia. II. Species. 1. Several (Ranging from 4 ft. to 30 ft. in height). A. Tea shrub or Chinese tea (Most important) . III. Description. 1. Shrub. A. Height. (a) Wild state (20 ft. to 30 ft.). (b) Cultivated for commerce (5 ft. to 6 ft.). B. Leaves. (a) Length (3 in. to 6 in.). (b) Shape (Lanceolate). C. Flowers. (a) Color (White). IV. Propagation. 1. From seed. 2. Ready for picking (3 years of age). 3. Best results secured (8 years to 10 years of age). V. Distribution. 1. Range (From 39° north, in Japan, to regions south of Equator) ; Java, Australia, South Africa, Southern Brazil. 2. United States— South of line extend- ing from California to South Caro- lina. VI. Harvesting. 1. Leaves picked by hand. 2. First crop gathered in April. 3. Second crop gathered a month later (Most valuable). A. Different grades. (a) Hyson (Spring crop). (b) Pounchong (Wrapped tea). (c) Souchong (Small kind). 4. Process of curing. A. Green Tea. (a) Made by drying- leaves quickly in pan immediately after picking. (b) Rolled on table. (c) Dried a second time. (d) Varieties. Hyson. Young Hyson. Hyson Skin. Gun Powder. 77 VV^S AND FLOWERS OF TEA. Imperial. Caper. B. Black Tea. (a) Drying leaves in shallow baskets. (b) Saccharine fermen- tation. (c) Roasted in iron ves- sel. (d) Dried over charcoal fire. (e) Varieties. Pekoe. Flowery Pekoe. Orange Pekoe. • Pekoe Souchong. Congon. Bohea. Souchong. VII. History. Discovered by Chinese in 2737 B. C. Carried to Japan in 13th cen- tury. Dutch established plantation in Java in 1825. 4. Later established in Ceylon, West Indies, South America, Australia, Southern Europe. VIII. Constituents. , 1. Volatile oil, theine, tannin, albuminoids. 3. Soluble mineral matter (Phosphoric acid and potash). Tea in Literature. Love and scandal are the best sweeteners of tea. —Fielding. The gentle fair on nervous tea relies, Whilst gay good-nature sparkles in her eyes ; An inoffensive scandal fluttering round. Too rough to tickle, and too light to wound. — Crabhe. Tea! thou soft, thou sober sage, and venerable Hquid; — thou female tongue-running, smile-soothing, heart-opening, wink-tippling cordial, to whose glorious insipidity I owe the happiest moments of my life, let me fall prostrate. — Cibber. Questions on Tea. What is the height of the tea plant? 2829. What is the most important species of the tea shrub or tree? What is its height in cultivation? What is the length of the leaves ? What is the color of the flower ? - How is it propagated? 2829. How old must it be before the leaves are picked ? At what age does the tea plant yield the best? What can you say of the tea as to its climatic range ? What grain covers a wider scope? Why is it not raised in the United States, although the climate is favorable ? In what states is the tea plant grown with profit? What countries produce the greatest amount of tea ? How are the leaves gathered? When is the first crop picked? How long before the second crop is picked ? How many crops are picked in a year? Which, crop is the most valuable? What is Hyson tea ? When is it picked ? Are black arid green tea both secured from the same plant? Tell how green tea is made . How black tea is made . What are some of the kinds of green tea ? ' How is tea adulterated ? May all the grades of tea be prepared from the same plant? How is tea classified as to its flavor and who are employed for that purpose? What is the active principal of tea ? To whom do Chinese writers ascribe the discovery of the virtues of tea and when did he reign ? 78 Woodpecker. I. Order — Picariae. IT. Species (About 350). III. Description. 1. Bill — Long, straight, and angular for perforating bark of tree. 2. Tongue. A. Long, slender, and armed with barbed, horny point. B. Capable of thrusting tongue out and spearing insects. C. Covered with sticky, shiny substance. 3. Body somewhat slender. 4. Tail quite stiff (Spine enables them to climb). 5. Skilled in discovering holes of insects in trees. 6. Tapping. 7. Plumage. A. Beautiful, usually having bright mark of red, yellow, or green at head and wings. IV. Species. 1. Ivory billed. A. Length (20 in.). B. Alar extent (30 in.). C. Color — Black and white ; male with bright red crest. D. Nest in hollow trees. 2. Red-headed. A. Length (10 in.), B. Head— Red. C. Found in North America, Atlantic to Rocky Mountains. 3. California woodpecker. A. Food — Acorns. B. Found along the Pacific coast. 4. Sap sucker. 5. Species native to Europe. A. Great spotted woodpecker. B. Green woodpecker. 6. Asiatic hornbill. The Woodpecker. 'How does he know where to dig his hole, Away to the pear tree, out of sight, The woodpecker there, on the elm-tree pole? with a cheery call, and a jumping flight! How does he know what kind of a limb tt u .a ^ ^ ^ 4.-i t, r i ^ u rp X J i u -2 He hopped around until he found a stub, To use for a drum or to burrow m? uai. , > i i How does he find where the young grubs grow— ^h, here s the place to look for a grub ! I'd like to know ?" 'Tis moist and dead — rrrrr rub-dub-dub." "I see," said the boy. "Just a rap or two. Then listen as any bright boy might do. You can tell ripe melons and garden stuff In the very same way — It's easy enough." — William J. Long. Questions on the Woodpecker. Why is the woodpecker so named? 3179. Is it a bird of beautiful plumage? To what division of birds does it belong? 298. What species of woodpecker is found on the Pacific coast ? Where are the nests usually built ? How many eggs are laid ? In what way is the horny point of the tongue an advantage? Name and describe five species of woodpeckers. What causes the woodpecker to make a tapping noise in the forest ? What species of woodpecker is found most commonly in North America? 79 ■-' ^T n^^'i S M'Fl^ Happy the man, in busy schemes unskilled. Who, living simply, like our sires of old, Tills the few acres which our fathers tilled. Vexed by no thoughts of usury or gold. — Martin. THE cultivation of useful plants as a means of supplying the needs and luxu- ries of mankind is the oldest and one of the most important occupations. Indeed, land is the source of all wealth and its care and cultivation consti- tute important enterprises. The field, the garden, and the forest are the three divi- sions in which agricultural labor is done, giving rise to the arts of agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. Modern farming, as it is managed at present, includes two general divisions, those of plant production and of animal raising. Agriculture is fundamentally utilitarian, since the products as an aggregate supply human wants. On the other hand, horticulture yields a large quantity of luxuries, although the raising of vegetables, which is properly a branch of horticul- ture, is concerned very largely with supplying materials for the table. Horti- culture and forestry, although distinctive arts, become closely related in land- scape gardening and arboriculture. Although much advancement has been made in modern farming, this enter- prise does not represent a radical departure from the best practice of agricultural arts and stock raising in the earlier times. However, the principles which underlie successful method are better understood at present and the farmer is able to profit from the experience of others. The soil is the laboratory of the farmer. He must necessarily study the constituents of the soil so he may know how to treat it and what classes of plants to cultivate. This has become possible through the greater intelligence of the agriculturists and the valuable assistance furnished by the government and through agricultural schools and periodicals. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a work of reference in studying the arts of agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. It contains practical suggestions and a wide fund of information on these topics. The reader should consult articles under the titles of Agriculture, Agricultural Education, Corn, Elevator, Forestry, Irrigation, Milk, Soil, Swine. Turkey, and hundreds of others. The titles especially outlined in this book suggest innum- erable correlated topics which are of relative importance to the student of agri- cultural arts. 80 Education in I. Agricultural Education. 1. History. A. Dates from antiquity. B. Early schools — Studied agriculture alone. C. Schools. a. England — near Cir- encester. b. Germany — Berlin. c. C a n a da — Guelph, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba, etc. d. Australia — Rich- mond, Ga,tton, Dookie. e. United States — National and State (One in each). f. Societies. 1. Farmers' Insti- tutes. Agriculture. 2. Farmers' O r - ganizations. II. Department of Agriculture. 1. When organized. 2. Chief officer. 3. Reports. 4. Objects. 5. Literature — Library, periodi- cals. Year Book. 6. Bureaus—Soil, Chemistry, An- imal industry. Weather, etc. III. Experiment Station. 1. What is it. 2. Purposes. 3. Principal stations — Canada, England, United States. 4. Grants and appropriations. 5. Administration. 6. Bulletins. 7. Means of promoting interest. Outline in Agriculture. I. Farming. 1. Location. A. As to climatic conditions. 1. Amount and distribu- tion of heat and moisture. 2. Length of season and character of same. 3. Nature of changes — Sudden, gradual, etc. 4. Drainage. B. As to character of land, 1. Highland or lowland. • 2. Level or rolling land. 8. Prairie or timbered land. 4. Fertile or sterile land. C. As to nature of the soil. 1. Origin and formation. 2. Nature and composi- tion. 3. Kinds, etc. D. As to accessibility to mar- ket. 2. Making the farm. A. In timbered land. B. In prairie land. C. Nature and extent of work required in each case. D. Relative value of the farms. , E. Fertilization. F. Irrigation. 3. Divisions of the farm. A. Tillable land. 1. Field, meadow. 2. Garden, orchard, and vineyard. B. Pasture land. C. Relative proportion of each. D. Nature and use of each. 4. Location of buildings. A. The dwelling. 1. In i-eference to pasture, fields, garden, or- chard. 2. 'Accessibility to road. B. The barn. 1. In reference to dwell- ing and pasture. C. The granary. 1. In reference to safety and accessibility to fields. 81 D. E. F. G. H. The wood and coal house. 1. In reference to dwell- ing. Chicken house. Meat house. Milk house (dairy). Tool and implement house (Here draw a plan of farm, locating the pasture, fields, meadow, garden, orchard, vineyard, and the different buildings). A model farm. Field lesson — Visit an im- plement house. Get pic tures of the different imple ments. Animals used in farming. Beasts of burden. A. The ox. B. The horse. C. The mule. Fow Is. A. Chicken. B. Duck. C. Turkey. D. Guinea. E. Goose. Used for food and clothing. CUTTING GRASS 5. Products of the farmi. A. Cereals — Corn, wheat, oats, rye, flax. B. Grasses — Timothy, alfalfa, clover, etc. C. Fruits — Apples, peaches, pears, plums, apricots, etc. D. Garden vegetables — Beans, peas, potatoes, onions, to- matoes, cucumbers. E. Products of the vineyard — Grapes, berries, etc. F. Planting — Cultivating, har- vesting, and marketing each. 6. Implements used in farming. A. The plow, breaking plow, cultivating plow — Use of. B. The harrow, the roller — Use of each. C. The planter, the drill — Use of each. D. The mower, the reaper — Use of each. E. The thrasher, the stacker — Use of each. F. The wagon — Use. G. The hoe and rake — Use of each. HARVESTING GRAIN. A. The cow. B. The sheep. C. The hog. D. Goats. 8. Kinds of farms. A. Grain farms. B. Grass farms. C. Fruit farms. D. Dairy farms. E. Stock farms. F. Garden farms. G. Poultry farms. II. Stock Raising. 1. Stock farm. A. Special features. 1. Water. 2. Grass. B. Difference and similarity to other farms. 1. Character of the land. 2. Divisions of farm. C. Extent and size. 1. Depends upon number and kind of stock. 2. Depends upon nature of soil and kind of land. D. Division and arrangement 1. Pastures. 82 2. Meadows. 3. Fields. 4. Feed lots. 5. Location of each di- vision with reference to the other. E. Caring for the farm. 1. Kind of work. 2. Extent of work. 2. Kinds of stock. A. Horses. 1. As to use — Draft, road- ster, race, saddle, buggy and ponies. 2. As to breeds — Common and fine breeds. B. Mules. 1. As to use — Draft, road- ster, and saddle. 2. As to breeds — Common and fine. C. Cattle. 1. As to use — Draft, beef, and milkers. 2. As to breeds — Common and fine. GANG PIvOW. D. Hogs. 1. As to use — Meat, feed- ers, and stockers. 2. As to breeds — Common and fine. E. Sheep. 1. As to use — Clothing and food — mutton. 2. As to breeds — Common and fine. F. Goats. 1. As to use — Food and clothing. 2. As to breeds — Common and fine. G. Common fowls. 1. Chicken. 2. Geese. 3. Turkeys. HI. 4. Ducks. 5. Guineas. 6. Kinds and use of each. 3. Caring for the stock. A. Pasturing. B. Making provisions for watering — Ponds, creeks, wells. C. Feeding — Kinds of food for each. D. Housing or sheltering. 4. Marketing the stock. A. When — The season of the year. B. How done. C. Shipping. Farming Sections. A. 1. Make a study of your State or Province. 2. United States. 3. Canada, Mexico, and Central America. HAY RAKE. 4. Draw maps and locate on them the farming sections. 5. Tell what is grown in these sec- tions. 6. Name and locate the great mar- kets of each section. 7. Amount of production. B. 1. Make a study of South America in a similar manner (Use outline under A) . 2. Compare farming belts of South America with those of North America as to extent and amount of production. C 1. Study Europe by outline under A (4, 5, 6 and 7). 2. Compare with North America and South America as to the extent of farming belts and the amount of production. D. 1. Study Asia, Africa, and Aus- traHa in a similar manner. 2. Compare with other continents as to extent and production. E. 1. Study the islands of the sea — Japan, Philippines, Cuba. 83 IV. A. B. 1 V. Stock-raising Sections. 1. United States and Canada. 2. Other countries of North Amer- ica. 3. Location and extent. 4. Kind and number of stock. 5. Stock markets — L o c a t e and name them and give to what extent engaged in buying and selling and shipping stock. 6. Different stock markets. 1. Cattle market. 2. Hog market. 3. Sheep and goat market. 4. Horse and mule market. 5. Poultry market. Make a study of South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, in a similar manner. Compare with North America as the number and kind of stock bought, sold, and shipped. Type Studies. 1. Vegetable origin. A. Wheat, corn, rice, flax, cot- ton. 2. B. Apple, peach, pear, plum, apricot, banana, orange, lemon. C. Beans, peas, potatoes, to- matoes, cabbage. 2. A. Preparation of ground. B. Planting. C. Cultivating. D. Harvesting. E. Marketing. F. Amount of production. 3. Animal origin. A. Cattle. B. Hogs. C. Sheep. D. Goats. E. Horses and mules. F. Silk. 4. A. Raising. B. Feeding and housing. C. Preparing for market. D. Marketing. E. Shipping. F. Use. G. Amount. The final thought : The world is a great farm. Subjects for Study. Adulteration. Dairying. Labor. Agrarian Law. Dehorning. Land. Agricultural Education. Dog. Lumber. Agriculture. Earthworm. Milk. Animal. Education. Oats. Animal Intelligence. Egg. Parasites. Architecture. Ensilage. Polder. ' Atmosphere. Farmers' Institute. Political Economy. Barometer. Fence. Potato. Bean. Fertilizers. Poultry. Bee. Floriculture, Rent, Beer. Food. Sewage. Beet. Flour. Sheep. Birds. Forest. Soil. Bread. Germination. Sugar. Breeding. Grafting. Swine, Brick. Grape. Tariff. Butter. Grass. Tax. Cattle. Guano, Technical Education Climate. Harvesting Machinery. Telephone. Cheese. Horse. Tobacco. Clover. Horticulture. Weeds. Commerce. Insects. Wire. Cream. Insurance. Wool. 84 TOBACCO. t44^ 000, ooo I <:?.l/i mi n id. I /3.0, j^s.ooo ^sS>j S,6'0, COO ^. Te/r-z^e-ssee m S3j^90jOOO 'A 6. Wiscon s\yi 37, /70, ooo H AY / I O WCJ. 6'.QS'S,OOoTons. ill^ew York _ S, 002., 000 " <5 lllinoi's. 1^,/sSfOoo- „ 4. QW\ o. i^, 0^5, ooo ., 5. Pennsylvdnia. 6. Missouri. ^,7/9, ooo. i.'i. I -". /. r ^: ' 'II ^ ^ ' ^' I J / / y V 7 ' / / , /" POTATOES / NewVofk. 5',2,y'5'60, 000. Bu. Mich/gcin. G^yS'^OjOoa " ^93 3,SOjOOO. » Wisconsin. 3,^j73.^jOO0 „ Pennsv/«^c/n/cf. 2.3,790, ooo ,. Mlnneso-td. l^,ii-OOjOOO ., ;•,'/,'/,? r^ xx J / Illinois. ^1^9,77^,000. Bu. \o Wei. 2.^,8^00,000. .. Missouf j. ^/S,S*40,ooo, „ I n d » cj no! . ,, /^6,S£10.000... NeDlr»clSKc«. l<^%o (90,000. .. Kansas. £1, 6. RYE. / Pennsvlvcihici. =2. Michiqcin. s,s%%ooo .. a- W/scon^fn. 11,72.7,000. .. 14. Newrork. {1,72.0,000. ,. ^, a ^0,000. .. <^- Nebraskd. RICE /. Louisidnci. I^,^7S,000. Bu. i^. Texcis. c^. A^kcinscjs. ^. South Cd/-olmd. ^7C,000 •• 5? OcOfQid. |- /od^ooo. ^. 66', 000. .' VVHEAT (SPRING) / Ninnesofd. j4-,omooa Bu. j^. ^. North 'Ddkofd. 1 90,76%poo. ™ lowd. NeibrdsKd. 1^,060,000 J. fll/nois. JS^.,0/o4,000. Bu. Iowa. J/k/00,00O. ,, Miwesotci. ^Mm,ooo. ., Wisconsin. ,, 7ff,mmo „ NeioPdSKd. ^M Ms; 000. Ohio. /. Minnesota S/,^00,000. Bu. S Cdlifoi'iQid. yS/,^70,000 : 3. Wisco Pis/n. £14, aj+si 000. .• 4 WorffiDdkotd. £10,7^7,000 .. <^. lovvd. /O^S^'?o,ooo. .. i New York. If 5 IS,, 000. Bu. <^. F^^?«sylv/d»^ia. J. M/ch;qdn. ^. Maine. (s^H-.OOO. ., v5. WestVirqinid. 4(79,^000. .. (o. V/rgihid. %7P,000. .. FLAXSEED / NormMofc^. /4,&2^0.00. Bu £1. bOMf-liIldkofd. rjf, /VJmnGsota 4. Kbhsds. 3^£i,ooo .. sl^i'\ rt44'' 85 Questions on Agriculture. How does agriculture rank among the world's occupations? When and where was the first college of agriculture establishea ;' Who was its leader? 37. , When was the Department of Agriculture organized? What is the "Year Book?" 40. Name the chief benefits of Agricultural Experiment Stations. How are they managed? Give a list of the principal courses pursued in agricultural schools. Locate the leading schools of this kind in Canada. What are the chief farm implements used? Describe some of the latest inventions in farm machinery. State the benefits of scientific farming on small farms. Compare the present size and number of farms with those of earlier days. Give some strong points in regard to selecting a location for a profitable farm home. State some means of fertilizing soil. Explain what is meant by "rotation of crops" and "specializing" in farming. Name the pests and dangers to which the following are subject and give remedy for each: wheat, cotton, potatoes, squashes, apples, cabbage, gooseber- ries and cherries. Why is seed selecting so important? How has the government aided the farmer in this respect? What is floriculture? Grafting? Pruning? Rust? Smut? Nicotine? Vegetable? Blight? By naming a dozen or more staple articles of food endeavor to show the extent of our dependence upon the farmer. What are the chief animals used in farming? Name ten useful animal products. Locate the best farming regions of Canada. Name some of its leading exports. For what crops are the following noted : Kansas, Minnesota, Ontario, Wash- ington, British Columbia, Georgia, and Colorado? Who was Burbank and what special improvements has he made in plant life? What flower is named after him? 406. Irrigation. L Object— To produce or increase fertility. H. History — Ancient and modern. HL Irrigation contrasted with dry farming. IV. Necessary Dependence. 1. Soil. 2. Crops grown. 3. Amount of evaporation. 4. Season and distribution of rainfall. V. Methods and Means. 1. Sources of supply. A. Rivers. D. Artesian wells. B. Lakes. E. Freshets. C. Springs. F. Melting snows. 2. How reserved — Dams and reservoirs. 3. Means of distribution — Canals and ditches. 4. Forced into channels as needed by pumps, windmills, or machinery. 5. Inundation system used in the South for rice fields and cranberries. 86 VI. Where Carried On. 1. Egypt. A. When. B. Source of water supply. C. Extent of arid region. D. Method of irrigating. E. Benefit — N umber of crops, etc. F. Assuan dam. 2. Asia — Persia, India, China, etc. 3. E u r o p e — 1 1 a 1 y, Spain, France, etc 4. America — New Mexico, Ari- zona, Alberta, California, Utah, Oregon, Georgia, etc. VII. Statistics. 1. Extent of arid regions. 2. Amount of reclaimed lands. 3. Value of irrigated lands. VIII. Reclamation Act. 1. When passed. 2. Purpose. 3. Benefits derived. 4. Truckee-Carson system. A. States affected. B. Canals. C. Extent of distribution. 0-^0fi. ^Z'niiieABLe °.T.".^k!P S^ "l 'MiWINNEMUCCA "^.y ■jsivr-V;;:-:'.' iti.Af^AS '■'^'^^ I \ !|( W-AKE wfm: ... auHVEYEO ,.. \ 14, c4 vJ^'^^ .>,. • CARBON 6INK •^ ^^fTW&h Av:. |v,^..;^v:^ ^ ! '^fe^#3 "Wi^^OTi^i^^ t'^^ -CARsbN 'sifjKvVij^ v_ 1 A'-; ••-(■ \:ClAf>Kjff^ 'a^T^ssss^^ ^^^.:;:vVA\:l:EY:;-.::-vfc:i' *^ ^E« '»'>«' ^c^w^X^ ^i 2TliLiyAT£SO/,'-^ ;■ •\^— ^O^fS^J '^i'-'^'-'^yZr^^ ^v / DAM SITeJ ^^ALLONy^l'i'^^t ^:^ ••■'".y. J^ ■-r;i.'3.'iri/i/JOT ^ yf^*-^;';.'-'-'*'' -"^^..^ ..^/^^(■^^^^ ?5(7* ■'.■ •.■.-■■■,■>. [|4+gwii. /*_^"^ -!<»~^ ■'}]: .SITE ;_*..■.■..•:: ..); "^^ /^N ^Kf^i ^^fCARSON y*^ ^^: •\t I^^PV*'* "** It «»^ k=^ '^i^MfsBOO jP X^ A-'-'^iiA •"■«: "' tMoi /^^^^m i'.?®'-*''^ \/!P^ fAYTON >* - W&KCM CARSM^t^* 'Jim A ft t UM ^:rj IVABuSKi9-,.,4-~ % tVORKS 1 ^JEA H fev "^^^''^''"'"^'^ 1 -9 o ^jbnmiiSTOM ^^ '^^^'X :V-vsi>s/iWvf/?t'/iif ^^Sk eMsnmfh^ sliW><^ WALKER , ^^1 '"^f) LAKE 11K\ > im\ TRUCKEE-CARSON IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN NEVADA. Questions on Irrigation. Define irrigation. 1413. What are its chief purposes? Upon what does the necessity of irrigation depend? What two things greatly determine the value of irrigated land? Name some eastern countries where irrigation is carried on most extensively. In what sections of North America are traces of irrigation by prehistoric peoples ? How do present methods compare with the ancient? State some changes. Wliere are the greatest arid regions of the United States ? Which State has the largest amount of reclaimed land ? 1414. How has irrigation aided in populating the western states ? Where is the largest irrigated area in the world ? Describe the Assuan dam of Egypt. What was the Reclamation Act? What land has been especially benefited thereby ? Describe the Truckee-Carson system. State some of the chief benefits irrigation has produced in America. Blessings of the Rain. When the blacken'ng clouds in sprinkling showers Distill, from the high summits down the rain ^ Runs trickling, with the fertile moisture cheer'd, The orchards smile, joyous the farmers see Their thriving plants, and bless the heavenly dew. —Philip. 87 Cotton. I. Genus — Gossypium. II. Description, 1. Shrublike. 2. Lobed leaves. 3. Flowers, yellowish (like hollyhock). A. Celled capsule which bursts open when ripe (Bell). B. Black seeds covered with cellular fibers. 4. Leaves — Dark green with blue veins. III. Species (Several). 1. Short fiber, or upland. 2. Long fiber, or Sea Island (Southern States). IV. Cultivation. 1. Planted in fields like corn. 2. Preparation of ground (Plowed in spring). 3. Drilling of seeds (Rows 3 ft. apart). 4. Plants appear above ground in 8 days. 5. Plants cultivated 3 times. 6. Seeds ripened in 70 days. V. Gathering or Harvesting. 1. Bursting of pods or bolls. 2. Picked "by hand. All not ripe at once. 3. Sent to gin house (Separated from seed). 4. Pressed in bales of 500 lbs. 5. Bales bound ready for shipment. VI. Products. 1. Raw material made into cotton cloth. 2. Cotton stalks — manufacture of pulp. 3. Cotton-seed oil. A. Food. B. Lard and butter. C. Food for animals. ■ VII. Where Grown. 1. Native to tropical regions. A. Cultivated between latitudes 35 degrees north and 35 degrees south. 2. Southern States. A. Texas (Leading). B. Mississippi. C. Georgia. D. Alabama, North Carolina, Louisiana, Arkansas. 3. Egypt. 4. Russia. 5. China, Brazil, Mexico, West Indies, Asiatic islands of the Pacific Ocean. VIII. History. 1. Writings of Herodotus. 2. Mentioned by Aristobulus (Alexander's general). 3. Arabians made cotton cloth in 627 a. d. 4. Introduced into Italy 14th century. 5. Mentioned in English history, 1436. 6. Made into cloth in 1736 by Louis Paul. 7. Native of West Indies and South America. 8. Cotton seed brought to Georgia, 1786. 9. First cotton mill (Beverly, Mass.). 10. Invention of cotton gin^ 1793. IX. Annual Output. 1. United States (13,500,000 bales) 66^ per cent, of world's crop. 2. Worid's output (19,942,500 bales) 1909. (U^^^t^Sr^x^ (^JL^C>^^,^, ?^CLA.cA,.^^CZ C^C.>^J^ ^ ^^ Stt<^.-r.'..~-^L.a/(%->^^ ''^a-^. (Uebe-^C^^trlt QoPOUr-^ 9^^^^ -i^J-ijoL Stu^JjLrU, BIvACKBOARD LESSON. 89 X. Enemies. 1. Boll moth. A. Deposits eggs under leaves. 2. Boll worm (Larva of boll moth). 3. Boll weevil. A. Beetle with elongated head. 4. Red bug. A. Suctorial. The Cotton Plant. Sing, Oh ! sing for the Cotton Plant ! When you've worn it long and well, Bravely may it grow, Will it worthless be? Bearing in its seeded pod No, a book made from the dress Cotton white as snow. You yet, in time, may see. Spin the Cotton into thread ; Sort the rags and grind the pulp ; Weave it in the loom ; Weave the paper fair ; Wear it now, dear little child, Now it only waits for words In your happy home. To be printed there. May ten thousand" Cotton Plants Spring up, fresh and fair, That words of wisdom and of love, O'er all the world shall bear. — Selected. Questions on Cotton. The cotton belt covers how wide a belt north and south of the Equator? Name two of the principal varieties of cotton. 687. Which is the better quality? What can you say about the manufacture of cotton goods by the Arabians in early times;? When was the culture of cotton commenced in Italy? When was the first cotton mill in America erected? Where? When was cotton seed first brought into Georgia? When was the manufacture of cotton into cloth by means of machinery begun ? How many million bales are produced annually in the United States? How is cotton baled and what is the average weight per bale? How is cotton cultivated? When is the ground plowed? How are the seeds planted? How many times must it be cultivated and weeded? Should it be cultivated after the plants liower? About how many days after maturity should cotton be gathered and why ? Why must cotton be picked by hand? Wliat effect did the invention of the cotton gin have upon the production of cotton ? Name six of the leading cotton states. Tell who invented the spinning gin and the power loom. To what countries is the greater part of our raw cotton exported? What use is made of the cotton stalks? From what part of the cotton is cotton oil manufactured? What is cotton-seed cake and for what is it used? Name four articles made from cotton. Where does the cotton boll moth lay its eggs? Where does the boll weevel lay its eggs? In what way does the red bug or cotton stainer injure the cotton? Which is the more valuable, cotton crops or the wheat crops of the United States ? 90 Corn. II. Ill History. 1. Where first known. 2. Native to what country. 3. By whom introduced into Europe. Kinds. 1. Dent. 2. Sweet corn. 3. Popcorn. 4. FHnt. Description. Names. Family. Stem. A. Structure. B. Height. C. Covering. Leaves and silks. Roots. Ears. A. Developed leaf sheaf. B. Kernels— 18 within to IV. m a row. C. Color — White, yel- low, red, or mixed. Testing. 1. Select fully ripened ears. 2. Well-developed ears. 3. Full, straight rows of kernels. 4. Plump, even grains. 5. Plant in box in suitable dent corn. soil. 6. Watch development of growth, stand, etc. V. Planting. 1. Soil — Well-drained, rich, sandy loam. 2. Preparation of ground — Plowed, disced, and harrowed. 3. Time of planting — May 1 to 20. Old rule — "Maize should not be planted until the white oak leaves were of the size of a squirrel's ear." 4. How planted. A. With corn planter. B. 3 or 4 stalks to a hill. C. Hills 3% ft. apart each way. VI. Cultivation. 1. Purpose — To sterilize soil ; to promote growth ; check weed crop. 2. Machinery used — Cultivator and plow. 3. Process begins — June and lasts about six weeks until plants are too large to escape injury by machines. 4. Cultivated each time at right angles to preceding direction. VII. Enemies. 1. Larva beetles. 3. Cutworm: 5. Weevil. 2. Root worm. 4, Chinch bug. 91 dhu uxUi XuAj l/vu VnAA . Ayiw AnAArucJIru UrUU JUxIVVYUAj. oiuy COIAKl ,iiJl£/ to- xoly tlu/yRTbtdJu OauA caVyy wxx^. hjJxmAA (yv co-am; lyyiXir hojjvy JmJJci^ WMJ Qxfwxj'Xj:^ oJxmjcr. ^^^ ^^ ^ JmjyniAi Xjrwjwj oj rvYWjv\A JnjLOudj . I u cKmi^ x6 Oj AcnjmAj tXAjMsfuy JbAAArJpJijyrv o-tj Cf/UAAT i/Yv XJnJU JAJiAjdj voxIm) XJfw zqA/w . OAW hjJvvY\jO\j JoXxxjYxXjudj XJwiJ Alaat/vV 'ymyvu - AjuxU> AnJiAAsj XJkv JaaJUU ov cx/i/vu. ({/^ omu JpAArY\AhJkA/Yw r\y[/YiU o/VLob ^WWd'Cn/n^ LM^ /i>€/M^yb/ixt{yu/ u/vLdje/u VkiiJurrxjcvA^^^uYiu' coVw JuuxnHyi>. uXmw [aw AywynJ^mmJ) xx^z^v AaMiv tMJiwJjiyiykjidj ajJw oAmXj 'curidjiAru ArcuM dAcrjoAi^d; a/w Unju JLuJLdA . HjnMi JoAMvnkJfumj unZh fVYwJkju oj ry\xxjj Awu. U , JmAn/ aA Oj )mANY\hA\j^mj .Maju 1 c/ hMJ XJixA/o JpJiV AA CAaX>, OAoAa oruu AuJAJu aA q(yYiv H z/ —vircTYuiM/ — uryLcr- oXv- VnoX' - hAJbUu-o^j-hAAAmAiyivjyv — Maju I Ujju JruxAHJ JpAjyvYihyRAAnj JaJuU jLy\) oJr\jOJYihAOi^v\r\/nw . 3MxxAnJk^oAArvvi(v aA ownadt; XxsUW. VIII. Harvesting. 1. Sweet corn. Use — Canning, drying, roasting ears, etc. Gathered when grains begin to glaze. 3. Dent corn. Gathered for fodder when grains glaze. Also see Ensilage. Ripened corn gathered in October and November by husking, then crib- bing. 3. Machines used — Corn harvester, shredder, roller, etc. IX. Uses. 1. Food. A. Animals. a. Whole corn, ground, cracked, fodder, etc. B. Mankind. a. Meal, hominy, roasting ears, canned, etc. b. Manufactured products. Starch. Candy, Liquors. Oil. Glucose. Breakfast foods. 2. Cobs. B. General. A. Fuel. - C. Board of Trade. B. Pipes. XI. Corn Lands. C. Syrup. 1. United States. 3. Husks. A. Annual production. A. Mattresses. B. Comparative value. ■ B. Mats. C. Rank of A/Iississippi valley C. Paper. as corn-producing region. D. Stock. D. Leading corn-producing X. Marketing. • states — Iowa, Illinois, 1. Cribbed. Kansas, etc. 3. Shelled. 2. Canada. 3. Hauled to elevators. A. Ontario. 4. Sent to mills. Annual crop. _ 5. Markets. 3. Agricultural countries of Tem- A. Local. perate zones. Questions on Corn. What is the origin of the name Indian corn? Describe fully the corn plant. 678. Tell why and how seed corn should be tested. Where are the male and the female organs of the corn flower found? When should it be planted? Give the rule of early days. Name the diflerent machines used in caring for a crop of corn. What are the enemies of corn? Why was popcorn so named? Name ten products obtained from corn. To what regions is flint corn especially adapted, and why? Tell how Indians planted corn and how they prepared it for food. Flow does corn compare as a food with other grains? .What nutritive properties are found in corn? What are the prospects at present in the corn market? What is the price per bushel? To what animals is corn fed chiefly ? What is the fattening quality ? 93 Corn in Literature. Nor forgotten nor neglected Was the grave where lay Mondamin Sleeping in the rain and sunshine. * * * * Day by day did Hiawatha Go to wait and watch beside it ; Till at length a small green feather From the earth shot slowly upward, Then another and another, And before the winter ended Stood the maize in all its beauty With its shining robes about it And its long, soft yellow tresses. And still later, when the autumn Changed the long green leaves to yellow, And the soft and juicy kernels Grew like wampum hard and yellow, Then the ripened ears he gathered, Stripped the withered husks from off them, As he once had stripped the wrestler, Gave the first Feast of Mondamin, And made known unto the people This new gift of the Great Spirit. — Longfellow. Corn is King. Upon a hundred thousand plains Its banners rustle in the breeze. O'er all the nation's wide domains. From coast to coast betwixt the seas. Far back through history's shadowy page It shines a power of boundless good. The people's prop from age to age, The one unfailing wealth of food. How straight and tall and stately stand Its serried stalks upright and strong ! How nobly are its outlines planned ! What grace and charm to it belong ! And let the states their garlands bring, Each its own lovely blossom-sign ; But leading all, let Maize be king, Holding its place by right divine. — Celia Thaxter. The Corn Song. Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard ! Heap high the golden corn ! No richer gift has autumn poured From out her lavish horn ! Let other lands, exulting, glean The apple from the pine, The orange from its glossy green, The cluster from the vine. We better love the hardy gift Our rugged vales bestow. To cheer us when the storm shall drift Our harvest fields with snow. Through vales of grass and meads of flowers Our plows their furrows made. While on the hills the sun and showers Of changeful April played. We dropped the seed o'er hill and plain Beneath the sun of May, And frightened from our sprouting grain The robber crow away. All through the long, bright days of June Its leaves grew green and fair, And waved in hot midsummer noon Its soft and yellow hair. And now with autumn's moonlit eves, Its harvest time has come. We pluck away its frosted leaves, And bear the treasure home. There, when the snows about us drift. And winter winds are cold, Fair hands the broken grain shall sift And knead its meal of gold. Let earth withhold her goodly root, Let mildew blight the rye. Give to the worm the orchard's fruit, The wheatfield to the fly. But let the good old crop adorn The hills our fathers trod ; Still let us, for his golden corn, Send up our thanks to God. — Whittier. 94 Grass. Creeping, creeping, here and there. In fields and meadows, everywhere, Coming up to greet the Spring, And hear the robin red-breast sing; Creeping under children's feet, Glancing at the violets sweet, Growing into tiny bowers For the dainty meadow flowers — We are small, but think a minute Of a world with no grass in it. — Selected. I. Species— 4,500. Ontario. 11. Classes. Manitoba. 1. Natural. Quebec. 2. Artificial. d. Acreage. III. Propagation. e. Annual production. 1. From seed and roots. f. Value. 2. Sowed broadcast. B. Harvesting. 3. Annual. a. Number of crops (Two and 4. Perennial. sometimes more per IV. Natural Grasses. season). 1. Series A. b. Time. A. Maize or Indian corn. First crop — Early sum- B. Millet (650 species). mer. C. Rice. Second crop (Aftermath) D. Lemon grass. — Few weeks later. E. Sorghum. c. Manner — Machinery. F. Mesquite, etc. Cut. 2. Series B. Cured. A. Timothy (750 species). Raked. B. Oats, wheat, rye, etc. Stacked. ' C. Blue grass. Stored, in barns. D. Bamboo, redtop. Baled for transportation. E. Canary grass. C. Preservation. F. Buffalo grass, etc. a. Curing. V. Artificial Grasses. Cut when in blossom. A. Clover. Exposed to air. B. Alfalfa. Dried in sun. C. Cowpea, etc. b. Ensilage. VI, . For What Cultivated. Cut just before ripe. 1. Hay. Stored in mass in deep 2. Pasturage. trenches. 3. Seed. Placed in mow or silo. 4. Soiling. D. Kinds. VII. Cultivation of Grasses. 1. Timothy. A. Distribution. a. Origin of name. a. All agricultural lands. b. Native to Europe. b. United States. c. When sown. Iowa (First). d. With what grains New York. sown. Kansas. e. When mature for cut- Pennsylvania. ting. Missouri. f. Stems. Illinois. g. Form. Nebraska. h. Height. C. Canada. i. Quality. 95 j. Quantity. k. Where grown. 2. Clover, Trefoil (Not a true grass). a. Genus — Trifolium. b. Family. c. Species — 150. d. Kinds. Dutch. French. Red. White. Alsike, or Swedish. e. Uses. f. Enemies. 3. Alfalfa, or Lucerne (Not a true grass). a. Name — Spanish origin. b. Description. Stem. Leaves. Flowers. Height. c. Where grown. 1. America. Nebraska. Kansas. Texas. Colorado. Western Canada. 2. Europe. Countries along the Mediterran- ean. d. Characteristics. Deep rooted. Adapted to dry lo- calities. Nourishing. • Healthful. Yields 3 to 8 tons per acre annually. Several crops per year. 4. Redtop. a. When sown. b. With what other seed sown. c. Kind of soil required. d. Chief advantage over other grasses. e. Uses. 5. Blue Grass. a. Permanent. b. Hardy. C. Length of growing sea- son. 6. RED CLOVER. d. Where grown. Eurasia. America. 1. Mississippi Valley. 2. Kentucky (Blue Grass State). e. Use. Pasturage. Lawn. Hay. Bamboo. A. Description. 1. Stem. 3. Rootstalk. 3. Height. 4. Soil required. B. Propagation, C. Uses. D. Products. E. Where grown. 1. Tropical regions. America. Africa. Asia. 96 Questions on Grass. What plants are included with natural grasses ? 1182. What is the extent of growth in a season ? Name some species. State some uses. Name some of the products obtained. Describe the harvesting of grasses to make hay. How may unripe crops be cared for? What is known of the economic value of ensilage? 92-i. Which tw.o states rank first in the production of hay ? In which provinces of Canada is the yield greatest? Upon what does the annual output of hay depend? At what stage may the best quality of hay be secured ? Explain what is meant by rozucn. For what soil is redtop best suited? State one of its valuable properties. Study the articles on corn, wheat, and barley and write an essay on Cereals. Name some species of clover. What can you tell about alsike? How may poor and exhausted lands be redeemed ? State three uses for clover. After whom did timothy get its name? By what other name is it known in England ? What proportionate value has timothy hay in the United States? How is alfalfa particularly adapted to dry regions ? How long has it been cultivated in Europe? Why is blue grass especially valuable for pasturage ? Wliich is the Blue Grass State ? How are lentils prepared for food? 1570. In which countries is bamboo grown most extensively? State some of its uses to the natives. For what are bamboos used in America ? Song of the Clover. I wonder what the clover thinks, Intimate friend of Bob-o'-links, Lover of daisies, slim and white, Waltzer with buttercups at night; Keeper of inn for traveling bees, Serving to them wine dregs and lees, Left by the Roj^al Humming Birds, Who sip and pla}^ with fine-spun words ; Comrade of winds, beloved by sun. Kissed by the dew-drops, one by one ; Prophet of Good Luck mystery, By sign of four, which few may see ; Sweet by the roadsides, sweet by rills. Sweet in the meadows, sweet on hills. Sweet in its white, sweet in its red. Oh, half its sweetness cannot be said ; Oh! who knows what the clover thinks? No one! unless the bob-o'-links. — Saxe Holm. Showers and sunshine bring, Slowly, the deepening verdure o'er the earth ; To put their foliage out, the woods are slack. And one by one the singing-birds come back. — Bryant. 97 Sugar. I. Definition. (A sweet crystalline compound). 11. Composition. 1. Elements : a. Oxygen ; b. Car- bon; c. Hydrogen. 2. Proportions of each. III. History. 1. Where first made (India and Arabia). 2. Introduced into Europe (By the Moors into Spain). 3. Introduced into the West In- dies (By Spanish Colonists). 4. Introduced for culture in Louisiana (1751). IV. From What Obtained. 3. 1. Sugar Cane. A. Nativity of plant (Cen- tral Asia). B. How developed. C. Description. a. Leaves (3 ft. to 5 ft. long) . b. Stems. c. Height (7 ft. to 12 ft). \ d. Pith (Contains juice). D. Conditions for growth. a. Lowlands (Most suitable). b. A rich alluvial soil. c. Abundant moisture. E. How propagated. a. By cuttings of top joints. F. How planted. a. In rows (5 ft. to 7 ft. apart). 2. Cane Sugar. A. Processes in the field. a. Topping. b. Stemming. c. Cutting. 4. d. Grinding at the mill (Pressing out the juice and straining e. Boiling in tanks (Until it becomes granular) . f. Separated by ma- chinery from the syrup. 98 g. Raw sugar, or brown sugar. 1. Refining process. 2. Dissolving i n hot water. 3. Adding lime and sulphuric acid. 4. Passing through bags of cloth and charcoal. 5. Second boiling. h. Granulated sugar (How made). i. Loaf sugar ( How. made). B. Cane mills (How con- structed). Beet Sugar. A. From what plant derived (Sugar beet). B. Where grown. a. Germany ( P r o - duces the most). b. Austria - Hungary, Russia, France, Canada, Belgium, Holland, United States. C. History of cultivation. a. In France by Napo- leon (In 1810). b. Discoveries of Count von Arnim. c. United States, ex- periments of 1890. D. Best zone in United States, a. Location. b. Length. c. Width. d. Government experi- ments. e. United States pro- duction (For 1909, 250,000 tons). Sugar Maple. A. Where grown (Indiana, Ohio, New York, Penn- sylvania, West Virginia, New England States, New Brunswick, On- tario). B. Season. C. Sap, how obtained. D. Maple sugar, how made. E. Flavoring and uses. BLACKBOARD LESSON. 99 5. Jaggery. e. Preparing plant for A. From what obtained. ■ molasses. C." P?^duction. (^) 'Twing and 6. Sorghum. , stnppmg. A. Nativity of plant (b) Grinding and (Chma). pressing out B. Introduced nito France ^ • • r (From China). '^'^ J"^^^ °^ C. Introduced into America (1856). the stalks. D. Description. (c) Boiling to mo- J- Seeds. 1^33^5^ b. Height. c. Planting. f- Yield of molasses per d. Uses. acre (75 gal. to (a) Fodder (In 150 gal.). colder and ^ ^ , , . - dry climates) ^- I^-esemblance to broom (b) Molasses. corn and sugar cane. 7. Glucose (Sometimes called grape or starch sugar). A. From what made (Chiefly corn and potatoes). B. Sweetening power (^ of that of cane sugar). C. Uses. a. Table syrups and confectionery. b. Artificial honey. c. For brewing liquors. d. Food for bees. e. Making bleached grape sugar. f. For canning fruits. g. Making jellies. h. Making condensed milk. D. Weight per bushel of corn (30 lbs. to 45 lbs. glucose). E. Processes of manufacture. a. Soaking in water. b. Temperature necessary (80°F.). c. Injecting sulphur fumes. d. Time required. e. Grinding, crushing, stirring, separating. f. Extracting the oil. (a) Amount (50%). (b) Uses of the oil. 1. Making salads. 3. Mixing paints and making toilet soaps. 3. Residue feed to stock. g. Removing the gluten. (a) Process (Filtering and drying). (b) Use (Food for stock). . (c) Price per ton (About $18.00 per ton), h. Processes after the oil and gluten have been removed. (a) Residue mixed with water. (b) Filtered several times. (c) Converted into syrup by sulphuric acid and muriatic acid. 1. Pressure (25 lbs. to 40 lbs.). 2. Starch is steamed (About one hour). 3. Converts the starch into glucose, or grape sugar. 4. Solidity (35% solid matter). 5. Color (Yellowish brown). 6. Clarifying. 7. Evaporation. 100 F. Amount of corn made into glucose yearly in United States (About 48,000,000 bu.). 8. Grape Sugar. A. From what obtained (Juices of fruits). a. Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits. b. Quantity (From 1 to 15 per cent). c. How made. 9. Milk Sugar. 10. Other Materials. Such as barley, honey, and various allied substances. V. Consumption of Sugar. 1. For the world in 1909 (14,500,000 tons). 2. Beet sugar consumed in 1909 (7,190,000 tons). 3. United States consumption (2,525,000 tons). 4. United States domestic sugar consumed at home (20%). 5. Consumption per capita of leading nations (annually). a. England (91.6 lbs.). e. Sweden (38 lbs.). b. United States (65.2 lbs.). f. France (36 lbs.). c. Switzerland (60.3 lbs.). g. Germany (34 lbs.). d. Canada (54 lbs.). h. Russia (14 lbs.). VI. Refineries. 1. Location in United States (Largest are at New York, New Orleans, Philadelphia, San Francisco), VI L Production of Sugar. 1. Amount. Beet Sugar. a. Germany (1,975,000 tons). b. Austria-Hungary (1,200,000 tons). c. France (850,000 tons). d. United States (1909, 250,000 tons). 2. Cane Sugar (1909, U. S., 250,000 tons). Questions on Sugar. In what country was sugar first made? 2769. Of what country is sugar cane a native? Is sugar cane found in the wild state? What proportion of sug-ar is made from the sugar cane? What is raw sugar? What is brown sugar? How is raw sugar refined and made white? How is granulated sugar made? What are the differences in the processes of making loaf and lump sugar ? Sugar beet juice yields about how many per cent, of sugar? What countries produce the most cane sugar? Beet sugar? 2770. From what plants do we obtain grape sugar? How is glucose or starch sugar made ? What is jaggary sugar? From what plant obtained? What is the average number of pounds used by each person in the United States per year ? What nation uses the most sugar according to its population? Is glucose a sugar and from what plants is it chiefly made? 1153. What can you say about the sweetness of glucose compared to that of cane sugar ? Give the processes of making glucose. How many pounds of glucose can be made from a bushel of corn? Name seven articles in which glucose is used in manufacturing. What is the color of the table beets ? Of the sugar beets ? 262. To whom is credit given for the development of the sugar-beet industry? 101 What can you say of the sugar-beet zone in the United States, as to extent of length and width ? What provinces of Canada are raising the sugar beet successfully ? What State could produce enough sugar beets to supply the entire United States with sugar? How many pounds of maple sap will a hard maple tree produce ? How many pounds of sugar will it make? 1702. What can you say of the value of maple tree blossoms to bees ? How is maple sugar made? What states produce the most maple sugar? Of what elements is sugar composed? 2770. Do Indian corn and sorghum produce sugar? From what is much of our candy made? 2770, 1153. The Maple Tree. "There's a maple bud, redder today ! It will almost flower tomorrow ; I could vouch 'twas only yesterday In a sheet of snow and ice it lay, With fierce winds blowing in every way. — Selected. SUGAR MAPLE. 1. Flower; 2, Seed. The Song of the Sap. The woods are still sleeping, But grass is a peeping From under the snow. The swallows are coming. The bees are a humming. The sap has begun to flow ! The buds that were hidden In brown coats are bidden To break and let the world know. The Ice-king is quaking, The spring-time is waking, For sap has begun to flow! Under the greenwood tree Who loves to lie with me, And tune his merry note Unto the sweet bird's throat, Come hither, come hither, come hither! Here shall we see No enemy But winter and rough weather. Memory Gems. Who doth ambition shun And loves to live i' the sun, Seeking the food he eats And pleased with what he gets, Come hither, come hither, come hither ! Here shall he see No enemy But winter and rough weather. — Shakespeare. If Mother Nature patches the leaves of trees and vines, I'm sure she does her darning with the needles of the pines ; They are so long and slender and somewhere in full view, She has her threads of cobwebs and her thimble made of dew. ~W. H. Payne. 102 Poultry. I. Class — Domestic Fowls. II. History. 1. Origin. 2. Antiquity. III. Poultry Raising. 1. By whom engaged in. 2. Where carried on. 3. In what countries. A. United States and Canada. a. Annual poultry pro- duction. b. Annual egg production. c. Number of eggs used daily. B. France. C. Germany. IV. Propagation. 1. From eggs. 2. Incubation. A. Natural — Sitting hens. B. Artificial — Incubator ma- chines. C. Time required — From 2 to 4 weeks. V. Care. 1. Spacious yards. 2. Proper food. 3. Good breeding, 4. Houses. A. Clean. B. Warm. C. Well lighted (Sunlight). D. Ventilated. VI. Food. 1. Grains (Corn, wheat, rye). 2. Lime. 3. Gravel. 4. Insects. VII. Kinds. 1. Chiqkens. A. Class — Domestic fowls. a. American — General breeding purposes. b. Asiatic — Meat or table use. c. Mediterranean — Egg- making. d. Polish — Ornamental. B. Species. a. Leghorn. b. Spanish. c. Hamburg. d. Cochin. e. Brahma. f. Bantam. g. Plymouth Rock, h. Langshan. i. Buff Orpington. j. Wyandotte. 103 2. Turkey. A. History. B. Species. a. Common. 1. Distribution. 2. Description. a. Head. b. Neck. c. Weight. d. Plumage. e. Food. f. Nests, g-- Eggs. b. Flonduras. 1. Native to what countries. 2. Size. 3. Plumage. 4. Neck. BUFF ORPINGTON HEN. 3. Duck. A. Family — Web-footed birds. B. Class — Swfinimers. a. Tame. b. Wild. 1. Sea ducks. 3. True ducks. C. Kinds. a. Mallard. b. Wood duck. c. Scaup. d. Pintail. e. Musk duck. f. Pekin. g. Canvasback. h. Aylesbury, etc. D. Nest. E. Eggs. a. Number — 6 to 12. b. Not as desirable as hens' eggs for food. F. Use. a. Food. b. Feathers. 4. Goose. A. Description. a. Origin. b. Swim- mer (Duck f am - ily). c. Size. d. Color. e. Body. f. Migra- tion. g. L o n - gevity. 1. SNOW GOOSE. B. Uses. a. Food. b. Feath- ers. c. Quills. d. Eggs. e. Oil. Characteristics. a. Shape of bill. b. Awkward waddling movement in walk- ing. c. Brisk flight. d. Excellent swimmer. 2. POMERANIAN GOOSE. 3. TOUIwcrinv', lo the skies! When hnl ;in idle hoy, I: soiif-dil il'- Kralclnl shade ; In :ill their KiishinK joy Here loo my sisters pla\ cd. My mother kissed me heic; My father pressed my hand ; Forgive this foolish tear, llnl let the old oak stand, ,My hearlstriuKS round thee eling, Close as thy bark, old friend ! Here shall the wild birds sing. And still thy branelios bend. Old tree, the storm still brave! And, woodman, leave the si^ot ; While I've a haiul lo save, Thy ax shall harm it not. OuestioiiwS oil the Oak. I low iiiaiw ,s|H\-ios id" oak ran you iiauu- wliieli i;ro\v in yoiii' part of the eouutrv :' What do you kiunv oi tho aoo oi oak trocs? XM)!!, What aiv oak galls atul for what ato they valuablo? Where is the cork oak grown? How is iho cmk ohtaiiunl? Doscribo the fniit t>f ihc oak troo atul tell for what it i,s tisoil. Name sojuo usos for the wchhI of the o.ik tree. Sttlte SOUK- eli.iraoleiistios of oak liee.'^. What iiilorostiit!.; historical inoiiletits are assoeiatoi! with oak trees? Wh.ii is the sij;nilu'auoe oi the oak U\if? W'hy has the o.\k been ealleil " Monareli of the woods?" WHiat special vaiiety o{ o:\k is orowii in ralifornia? MeiiuM-i:-e the poem ]]\uufithin. Sf^arr That Trr,'. Where i.s the live oak fouiul? Peserihe the everoroeti oak. W'hv i,s the hark of the i\ik \ahi.ihle in tauniiiii'? ,110 ^Sf^mfv^^'^W -*^< « i Horticulture. \ I. DfJ'Inition: TTcjilicnltiirc is a bnmcli f)f n^'ricnllnrc. Tt is the art of cullivating flowers, fruits, and vct,a-tablcs. These three departments are known respectively as floriculture, poniolo^^y, and fjicriculturf. If, Divisions. I. I'Kjriculture. Vj. I'(;uiolo^^y. ;>. Olcricullurc. '1. Subdivisions. A. Amateur — Personal ideals. V>. Commercial — Comjnercial d(iii;uids. II. Essential Ficatukk.s. 1 . r;h;irac(er of .soil. A. j<>uit trees — Rich, dark io.-un. li. Vcj^etablcs and caily ( roi)-, S;uidy loam. 2. 1 )rainaf,a; — .Systematic. A. Effective cultivatifjii. B. Lessen injurious freezinj^. 3. Slope of surface. A. Facinj^ sun — Warm, regions. W. Away from sun — Northern latitudes. Choice selection of species of plants. Fertilization and cidtivatif>n. A. Suitable fertilizers. I>. 'riiorouj^(h tilling. C. Destruction of weeds, ins(;cts, etc. .Structtjkks, 1. Ilorhouses. Vj. Cireenhouses. I'KOI'AOATION. 1. I'ollen fertilizing^. 2. Grafting. COfJNTKIF.S. 1. United States — Ear^^est f;iUput. A. AjJi^les — Eeadinj,'- crfjp. V>. Annual yield, C. California — First in j^roduction of citrus fruits. Annual shipment. D. Florida — Second in citrus fruit. F. Peaches, pears, tomatoes, bananas. %. Canada. A, Number of species. Pj, Quantity of fruit. C. Exports. 4, '.). r'it.s. 4. Nurseries. ?,. liuddinj^. 4. Seed. V , Gradually diminish the volume of tone. Delicato, Delicately. Diatonic, Naturally, according to the degrees of the major or minor scale. Diminuendo, or dim., Gradually dimin- ish the volume of tone. Dolce, Sweet and soft. DoLCissiMO, As sweetly as possible. Dolore; Doloroso, Soft, sweet, and beautiful. Duet, A composition for two voices ; in two parts. E., And. Elegante, Gracefully, elegantly. Espressivo; Con Espressione, With expression. Extempore, Unpremeditatedly. Fantasie; Fantasia, An irregular kind of composition, in which the rules are to a certain extent disre- garded. Finale, The last movement or part of an extended composition. Fine, The end. Forte, or f.. Loud. Fortissimo, or ff., Very loud. FoRZANDOOR, fz., or > , Sudden empha- sis or force. Fuoco, With fire. FuRioso, Furiously. GiusTO, In exact time. Grave, Slowest degree of movement ; extremely slow. Grazioso, In a graceful, elegant style. Idylle, a name given to graceful com- positions in a romantic style. I., IL., The. Impromptu, An extemporaneous pro- duction. Interlude, A short strain, usually of 4/8 measure, occurring between the verses of a hymn or psalm. Interval, Difference in pitch of two notes. Larghetto, Slow and solemn, but less so than largo. Largo, Very slow and solemn. Legato, Smooth and connected. Lentando, Gradually retard or slacken the time. Lento, In slow time. L. H., Left hand. Loco, Play the notes where written. The mark occurs after an 8va. 170 LuGUBRE, Mournfully, sadly. M., See Mezzo. Ma, But. Maestoso, Majestic and dignified. Main, Hand; M. G., Right hand; M. D., left hand. Manual; Manuale, The keyboard in contradistinction to the pedals. Marcato, Marked and emphatic. Marche; Marcia, A march. Marche Funebre, a funeral march. Meno, Less. Menuet; Minuet, A graceful move- ment in 3/4 measure. Mezzo, or M., Medium or moderate; Mf., rather loud; Mp., rather soft. Moderato, Neither slow nor quick; moderate. MoLTo, Very ; extremely. Mosso, Rapid (Pin mosso, more rapid; neno mosso, less rapid). MoTO, or Con Moto, With agitation and earnestness. Nocturne ; Nocturno, Night Song. A name given to light and elegant com- positions. NoN Troppo, Not too much. Pastorale, A soft and rural movement in 6/8 measure. Pathetico, Pathetically. Piano, or p.. Soft. Pianissimo, or pp., Very soft. Piu, An adverb of augmentation, as piu presto, quicker ; piu piano, softer. Poco, A little, somewhat. Prelude, A short introductory per- formance. Prestissimo, As fast as possible. Presto, Very quick indeed. Quartet, A composition for four voices, or in four parts. Quasi, As if, in the manner or style of. Quintet, A composition for five voices, or in five parts. Rallentando, or Rail, Gradually re- tard the time and diminish the vol- ume of tone. Religioso, In a solemn style. Reverie, A graceful composition in a free style. R. H., Right hand. Ritardando, Ritard, or Rit., Gradually slower. Romance; Romanza, A simple and elegant melody. Scherzo, A cheerful and humorous composition in quiet time. Semplice, In a simple way; unaffected style. Sempre, Throughout, always. Senza, Without. Sforzando, or sfz.. With sudden em- phasis. Slentando, Gradually retard the time, lentando. Sostenuto, Sustained, smooth, and connected. Spirito, or Con Spirito, With spirit. Staccato, Short and detached. Stringendo, Gradually quicken the time. Suspension, Holding a note or chord after the next chord is struck. Swell, or <> , Increase the volume of tone and then diminish it. Tempo, Time. Theme, A subject. Tranquillo, In a tranquil manner ; quiet. Trio, A composition for three voices or parts. Valse, a waltz. ViGOROSO, Boldly, vigorously. Vivace, With extreme briskness and animation. Vivo, Animated, lively. Evening Bells. Those evening bells, those evening bells! How many tales their music tells. Of youth, and home, and that sweet time When last I heard their soothing chime ! Those joyous hours have passed away, And many a heart that then was gay. Within the tomb now darkly dwells, And hears no more those evening bells ! And thus 'twill be when I am gone. That tuneful peal shall still ring on. And other bards shall walk these dells, And sing thy praise sweet evening bells ! — Moore. 171 Painting. Painting is a decorative art. It requires skill in the selection of colors as well as in the process of applying them to surfaces. The painter needs to go to nature for inspiration, to study objects and landscapes, as a means of making reproductions that are true to life. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia treats the general subject of painting in a special article, but in addition to this are presented many relevant topics. The whole treatment affords a prolific source of information, not only on paintings, but on painters and their life and achievements. Painting is a prolific field for the study of the beautiful. No home or public institution is cheerful without adornments from the hand of the painter. A few well-selected paintings from the great masters, a collection of the works of art, inspire home life with grand ambitions and lofty purposes. They quicken the imagination, sweeten the ties of friendship, and add luster to literature. Correlated Subjects. Art. Drawing. Landscape. Paints. Canvas. Enamel. Mosaic. Perspective. Ceramic Art. Encaustic Painting. Mummy. Pottery. Color. Fresco. Ochre. Vase. Distemper. Glass. Oil. Water Colors, Biographies of Painters. Angelo. Guido Reni. Millet. Tintoretto. Bartolommeo. Hals. Murillo. Titian. Bonheur. Holbein. Perugino. Vedder. Burne-Jones. Inness. Raffaelli. Vereshchagin. Caracci. Kaulbach. Raphael. Vernet. Cimabue. Landseer. Rembrandt. Vinci. Correggio. Leutze. Reynolds. West. Delaroche. Luini. Rossetti. Whistler. Diirer. Memling. Rubens. Wilkie. Eyck. Menzel. Ruysdael. Wyant. Giorgione. Millais. Sarto. Zeuxis. on Painting. ir. Definition : Painting is the art of adorning surfaces with paints and colors, 1. Aim. 3. Mastery of the art. A. Knowledge of : a. Form. d. Color. b. Design. e. Light. c. Perspective. f. Shade. General Methods. 1. Drawing. A. Pencil. D. Pastel. B. Crayon. E. Water C. Charcoal. 2. Oil painting. A. Canvas. B. Panel. 172 color. 3. Mural. A. Fresco. B. Distemper. C. Encaustic. 4. Others. A. Porcelain. B. Vase. C. Glass. D. Terra cotta. E. Enamel. III. Varieties. 1. Decorative. 2. Portrait. 3. Landscape. 4. Marine. 5. Historical. 6. Genre. 7. Fruit and flowers. 8. Battle. 9. Architecture. 10. Miniature. IV. History. 1. Comes from remote . antiquity. 2. Painted decorations in temples at Thebes. 3. Mentioned by prophet Ezekiel. 4. Use. A. Decorations. a. Tombs. b. Temples. c. Mummy cases. d. Public buildings. e. Rolls of papyrus. 5. Greece — Most highly developed in painting. A. Schools. B. Noted scholars. 6. Rome — Introduced from Corinth about G50 b. c. 7. Italian — Developed about 1204. V. Oil Paintings. 1. Introduced in 15th century, 2. Brought forward masters. 3. Developments. A. Better expression. D. B. Depth of color. E. C. Richness in effect. F. VI. General Developments. 1. Deep shadows and enlargement upon indoor effects 2. Extreme contrasts of light and shade — Rembrandt. 3. Brilliancy and transparency of coloring — Jan Van Eyck, 4. Grandeur of design — Michael Angelo. 6. Elevated landscape painting — Guido. 173 miniature of WILLARD'S spirit op '76. Cannon to right of them. Cannon to left of them. Cannon in front of them. Volleyed and thundered. * * * * Flashed all their sabers bare. Plashed as they turned in air. Sabering' the gunners there. Charging an army. * * * * When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wondered. — Tennyson, >3a Inventive genius. Elegance in color. Individuality in character. Leonardo da Vinci. VII. Twelve Great Paintings. 1. The Last Supper Da Vinci. 2. Beatrice Cenci Guido Reni, 3. The Assumption of the J'irgiii Titian. 4. Sistine Madonna Raphael. 5. The Transfiguration Raphael. 6. The Holy Night Correggio. 7. The Last Judgment Michael Angela 8. The Descent from the Cross Volterra. 9. The Communion of Saint Geromc Domenichino. 10. The Immaculate Conception Murillo. 11. Aurora Guido Reni. 13. The Descent from the Cross Rubens. Questions on Painting. As a fine art, what is the aim of painting? 3080. The knowledge of what subjects is involved in painting? By what prophet is this art mentioned ? Upon what materials were paintings made in early days? Upon what now? State a half dozen varieties of paintings. What are art galleries? Locate a number of noted art galleries. Name the special developments due to Vinci, Jan Van Eyck, and Guido. In what respect did Michael Angelo surpass other artists of his time? The ancient Egyptian paintings are of what value to us? Tell how painting, sculpture, and religion are related. Mention the leading works of Rubens and Menzel. . For what is fresco work especially useful ? Name the twelve great paintings of the world. For what special lines of work are Landseer, Bonheur, and- Raphael noted? Mention the painters of the following: The Angelus, Aurora, The Horse Fair, and The Shepherd's Chief Mourner. Name some of America's best painters and their works. Correggio's The Holy Night. The following Christmas carol, translated from the German by Bernhart P. Hoist, inter- prets this picture : Silent night, Holy night ! Silent night. Holy night ! All repose, — halo light _ Son of God, love's pure light. Shines on the loving parental pair, O'erwhelms us, a redeeming power. Who in the stall at Bethlehem are When we're strik'n by the saving hour, By the heavenly Child, Jesus Christ, through Thy birth, By the heavenly Child. Jesus Christ, through Thy birth. Silent night, Holy night ! _ Silent night. Holy night ! Shepherds see star most bright. Earth, awaken at the sight, — Angels singing hallelujah. Let every creature bend the knee, Bringing glad tidings from heav'n afar, Let all proclaim the jubilee, Christ, the Savior, is born. Peace on earth forever, Christ, the Savior, is born. Peace on earth forever. 174 Study of Painters and Paintings. Sanzio Raphael. "The perfect artist, the perfect man." Sanzio Raphael, a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Urbino, Italy, on April 6, 1483. His death occurred on his thirty-seventh birthday, April 6, 1520, from a fever contracted while he was conducting some- excavations at Rome. His premature death caused much mourning, and he was interred with great honors in the Pantheon. The birthplace of Raphael is an in- teresting mountain town, directly east of Florence. It is in a section noted for its beautiful scenery, such as, later, Raphael loved to paint as a background for many of his most beautiful Madonnas. The inhabitants, shut in as they were from the outside world, led simple and religious lives. His parents were deeply religious and their entire thought was how they could best rear the little son of whom they were so proud. The father of Raphael was a painter and allowed him to assist about the studio. When Raphael was eight years old, the mother died, leaving the father to care for the child. In a short time a stepmother was brought home. Fortunately, she was a kind woman and could not have loved and cared more for the lad had he been her own. When the father died, she and his uncle managed his affairs with the greatest care. The most noted of all the Umbrian painters at this time was a peculiar little man named Perugino — a man with unusual ability in painting Madonnas. To this painter Raphael was sent. It is said that, when the artist examined the lad's work, he exclaimed, "Let him be my pupil; he will soon become my master." In this studio he remained many years, but the dream of his life, a chance to view the treasures of Florence, the art center of Italy, was not realized until in 1505. His first visit in Florence was short, but during the second visit he painted many of his best known pictures. He was most successful in his paint- ings of the child Jesus and the beautiful mother. Some of his best known pictures are the Sistine Madonna, Madonna of the GoldHnch, Madonna of the Meadow, Madonna of the Garden, Madonna Delia Sedia, and Madonna Saint Cecilia. All of these are finished in soft exquisite coloring. Indeed, Raphael has been considered one of the greatest colorists the world of art has ever known. He was given a commission by the Pope to paint in fresco three large rooms of the Vatican and to decorate the corridor leading to these rooms. In this corridor are the paintings known as Raphael's Bible of the Fifty-two Pictures ; forty-eight of these paintings represent Old Testament scenes and four are from the New Testament, 175 THE SISTINE MADONNA. Death claimed the great artist at the age of thirty-seven years, before he had completed The Transfiguration, which was finished by his pupils. The Sistine Madonna. The Sistine Madonna, considered by many as Raphael's greatest picture as well as one of the most famous of the world's paintings, now occupies a room by itself in the Dresden Picture Gallery, in Dresden, Germany. It was painted originally as a banner for the monks of Saint Sixtus, but was afterward used as an altarpiece, and was purchased in 1753 by the Elector of Saxony for the Dresden gallery. The picture is really a canvas panel over eight feet long and nearly six and a half feet wide. This work of art, as we usually see it, is always beautiful, yet we can hardly form any idea of its real beauty until we see it in the original colorings. The shades are so exquisitely blended and the expressions on the faces are so pure and ethereal that one hesitates in attempting a description. In looking at the picture we can almost fancy we are looking out through a window across which are draped curtains of a rich green hue. As we look through this window we seem to catch a glimpse of heaven ; faintly through the background is seen a cloud of countless cherubs. Out of this cloud appear the Madonna and the Child as though taking their way to earth. The figures on either side represent Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara. Saint Sixtus looks earnestly into their faces while Saint Barbara occupies a position of deep devotion as though waiting for them to pass by. Underneath is a ledge upon which lean two beautiful boy angels, the final touch of love. The picture was completed without these cherubs, which were afterward added when Raphael found two small lads leaning on a parapet and gazing with intense earnestness on the beautiful picture. This famous Madonna was the last picture painted wholly by Raphael. Study of the Picture. Looking at the picture as a whole and thinking only^ of the trend of the lines, what figure do they form? Studying it in detail we find it to be a combination of pyramids. What is the size of the original picture ? Upon what was it painted ? Where is the picture ? Write a descrip- tion of it as it looks to you. Compare the mother's expression with the expres- sion on the face of the child. Which do you consider the more beautiful and why? The study of Raphael's life forms a basis for excellent language and com- position work. Write a composition, using the following outline as a basis : I. Describe the boy Raphael. II. Raphael's home and early life a. Appearance. III. His paintings. b. Disposition. IV. His later home and last days Whittier's Tribute to Raphael. The tissue of the Life to be Think ye the notes of holy song We weave with colors all our own, On Milton's tuneful ear have died? And m the field of Destiny Think ye that Raphael's angel throng We reap as we have sown. Has vanished from his side? ''^^l^r:!^'^VL:^ here, °0r° Lrn^ly'^Lrd ""I'r S' ^ ^Th/S'shaii^\p"r^ ^^"' Th^^p;reL?\t^'pas°t^:lt-"' ine rast shall reappear. Man's works shall follow him! ,nn — J- G- Whittier. Jean Francois Millet. Jean Frangois Millet, the celebrated French artist, was born at Gruchy, Normandy, Oct. 4, 1814. This part of France is noted for its hardy race of peasants, some of them bold fishermen, others thrifty farmers. He was the second of eight children and was brought up to do the hardest of outdoor work. Although he afterward became one of the world's most celebrated artists, yet he always re- mained at heart a good peasant. The people of his vicinity were intensely religious and all their interests centered _^__^________ around the church. The Mil- the; gleaners. let family lived quite a distance from their beloved church, yet the associations were very dear to them all, and, when in after years Millet brought his own family back to spend a long summer holiday, he was able to make many sketches of the old familiar scenes which furnished materials for some of his best known pictures. The boy inherited some of his artistic tastes from his father, who was precentor of the parish church, and also conducted the village choir for many years. His mother belonged to a family of rich farmers who were looked upon as belonging to the gentle folk. As a child Millet was fond of reading, having shown a passion for the Bible. Indeed, it has been said that an old illustrated Bible first inspired him with the idea of expressing himself in art. Quite early he showed marked signs of great artistic ability and loved to draw and paint men and women as he saw them under the burden of heavy toil. When the father recognized his son's ability, he sent him to Cherbourg to study. Though he received fairly good instruction here, and later in Paris, yet his greatest teacher was Nature, and he was delighted to get to Barbizon, where he could study and work out the peasant life which he so much loved. In appearance he was a large, fine-looking man, with a countenance which bore the stamp of the thinker and scholar as well as artist. He was a man who had few intimate friends, a man who lived in a world of his own, yet the few people who were permitted to know him well loved him sincerely. He was twice married and always much attached to his home and home people. It has been said that among all his paintings Feeding Her Birds was his favorite, for when he worked in his garden his children were always hopping about him like birds, and that this is really a picture of his own home and garden. The Angelas is probably the best known of all his pictures. It represents an early twilight of an autumn day. The two peasants who have been work- 177 ing later than usual, in order to fill another sack with potatoes, are suddenly reminded of the hour of prayer by the ringing of the Angelus. An atmosphere of prayer pervades the entire picture. The patron for whom this picture was intended was very disappointed with it and for a time Millet found difficulty in disposing of it. In 1889 it was purchased by an American and carried on an exhibition tour through most of the large cities of Canada and the United States. It is now in the collection of M. Chauchard in France ; the canvas is somewhat cracked and the colors have grown darker. The hour after sunset is sometimes called the hour of Ave Maria — Ave Maria ! blessed be the hour ! The time, the clime, the spot, where I so oft Have felt that moment in its fullest power Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, While swtmg the deep bell in the distant tower, Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft, And not a breath crept through the rosy air. And yet the forest leaves seemed stirred with prayer. — Byron. The Sower, another of Millet's famous pictures, was exhibited at the Salon in 1850. The Song of the Sower. Brethren, the sower's task is done, The seed is in its winter bed. Now let the dark-brown mould be spread, To hide it from the sun, And leave it to the kindly care Of the still earth and brooding air, As when a mother, from her breast Lays the hushed babe apart to rest, And shades its eyes, and waits to see How sweet its waking smile will be. The tempest now may smite, the sleet All night on the drowned furrow beat, And winds, that from the cloudy hold Of winter breathe the bitter cold, Stiffen to stone the yellow mould, Yet safe shall he the wheat; Till out of heaven's unmeasured blue Shall walk again the genial year. To wake with warmth and nurse with dew The germs we lay to slumber here. — Bryant. The Gleaners. The Picture. In this picture of Millet's we get a glimpse of a harvest field on a large farm. The wheat has been gathered and carried by wagons to a place where it is stacked in great mounds. After all this has been done, the gleaners are permitted to come into the fields and gather what is left. This is an old, old custom and dates back to the earliest times. It is still observed in France, although gleaning is allowed only in daylight. The time of the picture is probably noon of a summer day, when the sun is high in the heavens. The gleaners are three women of the peasant class, neatly dressed in coarse working clothes, representing the three ages of womanhood — a maid, a matron, and an aged woman. Millet's unusual ability to see and portray light and shade is well brought out in this picture, as well as his love and sympathy for the French peasantry. The painting was first exhibited at the Salon in 1876. In 1889 it was pur- chased by Madam Pommeroy for 300,000 francs and given to the Louvre, Paris. 178 Test Questions. What is the picture called and why? In what country is the practice of gleaning still carried on? What are some of the old laws regarding it? (Read Lev. xxiii., 22 ;Deut, XXIV., 19). What is the probable time of day ? Give a reason for your opinion. How many people do you see in the foreground? Describe each one and tell what they are doing. Describe the scene in the distance. Why are the gleaners only allowed in the field in daylight? Teach the lesson of the dignity of toil. Sublimer in this world know I nothing than a peasant saint, could such a one now anywhere be met with. Such a one will take thee back to Nazareth itself; thou wilt see the splendor of heaven spring forth from the humblest depths of earth like a light shining in great darkness. — Thomas Carlyle. The Man with the Hoe has probably caused more discussion than any of Millet's pictures. Many people have thought that it was the artist's intention to set forth the degrading effects of work, but this is not true. He simply painted life as he had seen it and lived it. The Man with the Hoe. Written after seeing Millet's World-Famous Picture. Bowed by the weight of centuries he leans Upon his hoe and gazes on the ground, The emptiness of ages in his face, And on his back the burden of the world. Who made him dead to rapture and despair, A thing that grieves not and that never hopes. Stolid and stunned, a brother to the ox? Who loosened and let down this brutal jaw? Whose was the hand that slanted back this brow? Whose breath blew out the light within this brain? Is this the Thing the Lord God made and gave To have dominion over sea and land; To trace the stars and search the heavens for power ; To feel the passion of Eternity? Is this the Dream He dreamed who shaped the suns And pillared the blue firmament with light? Down all the stretch of Hell to its last gulf There is no shape more terrible than this — More tongued with censure of the world's blind greed — More filled with signs and portents for the soul — More fraught with menace to the universe. What gulfs between him and the seraphim! Slave of the wheel of labor, what to him 179 Are Plato and the swing of Pleiades? What the long reaches of the peaks of song, The rift of dawn, the reddening of the rose? Through this dread shape the suffering ages look; Time's tragedy is in that aching stoop; Through this dread shape humanity betrayed, Plundered, profaned and dis-in-herited. Cries protest to the Judges of the World, A protest that is also prophecy. O masters, lords and rulers in all lands, Is this the handiwork you give to God, This monstrous thing distorted and soul-quenched? How will you ever straighten up this shape; Touch it again with immortality ; Give back the upward looking and the light ; Rebuild in it the music and the dream ; Make right the immemorial infamies, Perfidious wrongs, immedicable woes? O masters, lords and rulers in all lands. How will the Future reckon with this Man? How answer his brute question in that hour When whirlwinds of rebellion shake the world? How long will it be with kingdoms and with kings— With those who shaped him to the thing he is— When this dumb Terror shall reply to God, After the silence of the centuries? — Edwin Markham. The Angelus. Against the sunset glow they stand, Two humblest toilers of the land. Rugged of speech and rough of hand, Bowed down by tillage. O lowly pair! you dream it not Yet on your hard unlovely lot That evening gleam of light has shot A glorious passage; For prophets oft have yearned and kings Have yearned in vain to know the things Which to your simple spirits brings That curfew message. Enough for us The two lone figures bending thus, For whom that far off Angelus Speaks Hope and Heaven. — Lord Houghton. Some other well-known pictures are : "The Shepherdess," "The Gleaners," "Potato Planters," "Filling the Water Bottles," "The Church at Greville," and many others, all representing peasant life. Jean Frangois Millet has been called the "Dante of peasants and the Michael Angelo of rustic art." His death occurred in Barbizon, France, in 1875. 180 Rosa Bonheur. THE horse; fair. The life of Rosa Bonheur is one of the most interesting of all artists, including- as it does years of poverty and struggle, and later years of fame and all the luxuries wealth can procure. To-day her name is loved and hon- ored by the whole world, es- pecially by the children, with whom she probably stands as first choice among artists. Much of this fame of Rosa Bonheur is due to the careful training she received from her father, who was a teacher as well as an artist. As an in- structor he possessed great ability, and his methods of instruction were far in advance of the times in which he lived. Among his earlier pupils was a beautiful musician with whom he fell in love and afterward married. They made their early home in the quaint old town of Bordeaux, on the west coast of France. Here, on March 22, 1822, was born the subject of this sketch. Her early years were spent in perfect freedom with her pets and animals as her playful companions. She dearly loved to follow them about and early became a close observer of the outside world, through these observations enjoying much that an ordinary child would have considered dull and uninteresting. Bordeaux was a commercial city with almost no opportunities for one of artistic tastes, so the Bonheurs were easily prevailed upon to remove to Paris. Their change occurred just at the breaking out of the Revolution, a most unfor- tunate time for the father to gain the patronage he so much needed. But only a short period elapsed before pupils were attracted to him and he was engaged to make illustrations for a scientist who was getting out a work on natural history. Upon the death of the mother, in 1835, the father was left alone to care for the family of children. Thoroughly impractical and crushed with sorrow over the loss of his beloved wife, he saw no better way to care for his children than to separate them. A kind friend took the youngest child, the two boys were sent to a boarding school, and Rosa was placed in another. School life was not to her liking. She was fond of all out-of-door sports and so exceed- ingly careless in her dress that she was often the subject of ridicule. She paid very little attention to books; about the only pleasure she derived from them was to scribble them full of pictures, sketches of animals, and funny pictures of teachers and friends. She made no attempt to gain the good will of her instructors and, as she was the instigator of many of the pranks of the school, one can easily see that the impression made was far from a favorable one. The little girl was next sent to a Madame Gaindorf to learn to sew, and in this, too, she was a failure. 181 Then an artist friend of her father's took her and, giving her brush and colors, she allowed her to assist in the studio. For the work she was paid a few cents. At last, the father, not knowing what to do, took her into his own studio. He was busy with his work and could give her almost no attention, yet she was perfectly happy and contented, amusing herself with paints and colors. Her first work of any value was a bunch of cherries, which was so cleverly drawn that her father resolved from that time on she should have careful train- ing. She. soon made such rapid progress in her work that she began copying the great pictures in the Louvre. This work she did so well that her copies brought good prices and she was able to aid her father in caring for his family. This copying gave her the highest training, which she afterwards fully appre- ciated; concerning it she said: "I cannot repeat sufficiently to young begin- ners who wish to adopt the hard life of the artist, to do as I have done: stock their brains with studies after the old masters. It is the real grammar of art, and time thus employed will be profitable to the end of their careers." She spent many years in studying the anatomy of animals until she under- stood it as thoroughly as a physician knows the structure of the human body. In order to perfect herself along this line, she spent much time visiting the slaughterhouses of Paris. Knowing animals so thoroughly enabled her to sketch quickly, and it was in this power to draw rapidly and accurately that she excelled. Her first picture to be exhibited In the Salon was a study of rabbits, drawn from life. In 1847 she took her first prize, a gold medal of the third class ; in 1850 she was successful in gaining the first prize. To no one did these honors mean so much as to the aged father, who had watched her progress with fond hopes for her highest success. His last years had been easier, for he had been given an appointment in a young ladies' draw- ing school, but his health began to fail while she was engaged on the picture Oxen Ploughing, which afterward brought her much fame. When it was finished, he summoned strength enough to go and see it. The success of this picture seemed to be the crowning glory of his life and he lived but a short time after this. Upon the death of her fiather, she was given his position and carried on his work until her departure for By, which was afterward her home. This new home was very near Fontainbleau Palace, which was the favorite resi- dence of Napoleon III. and the Empress Eugenie. She soon became a great favorite of the Empress and it was through her influence that the badge of the Legion of Honor was bestowed upon her. In -after years she received many honors, coming from many countries, but the one that most delighted her was the one conferred by President Carnot, in 1893, which made her an Officer in the Legion of Honor. This last honor should be especially interesting to Amer- icans, as it was bestowed on account of the work sent to the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. For many years she made a study of animals ; lions and tigers, the stronger animals, appealing most to her. The lions she used as models became great pets and seemed to know and love her. During one of her absences, one of her pets, 182 Nero, was sent from home that he might be better cared for. He grieved for his friend and refused to be comforted. When she returned she found him ill and in a few days he died with his head on her arm. This beloved artist, whose hair had been whitened by much sorrow, whose countenance always wore the same sweet and placid expression, died at By, May 35, 1899, at the age of 77 years. The Horse Fair. Rosa Bonheur's picture Oxen Ploughing proved such a success that she was fired with a desire and ambition to do something much greater and better. With this thought in mind she planned the Horse Fair. In order to do this well she made a careful study of horses, visiting horse fairs and markets, in spite of the fact that her friends had placed at her disposal their finest horses. To get about easily she adopted male attire, which she found so very con- venient that she afterward used it when at work. As the horses were to be two-thirds life size, the canvas required was an immense one and it was necessary for her to use a ladder much of the time in working. The completed picture was exhibited in the Salon in 1853. On account of the merit and great ability displayed in this work, the artist was allowed the privilege of exhibiting in the Salon without examination. The Horse Fair was afterward loaned for an exhibition in Ghent. The Belgians were not only delighted with the picture, but were so pleased with the artist's generosity that they sent her a cameo reproduction of the picture in miniature. At the close of the exhibition, she was offered 40,000 francs for it. She accepted the proposition and the picture was on exhibition first in England, then in America. It was finally bought by a wealthy American for 300,000 francs and is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Questions on The Horse Fair. A beautiful picture is a silent teacher. — Selected. What special preparation did Rosa Bonheur make for the production of this picture? What costume did she adopt and why ? How many horses can you count? How many men? How large are the horses? Describe one horse which you consider more beautiful than the others. Where and when was this picture first exhibited ? How was it received ? In what place was it afterward exhibited? When the artist sold the picture, how much did she receive for it? Who finally bought the picture and how much did he pay for it? Where does it now hang? Describe the picture as a whole. 183 Letters are intended as re- semblances of conversation, and the chief excellencies of conver- sation are good humor and good breeding. —Walsh. DEFINITION. A letter is a written communication from one person to another. Letters may be either private or pubHc. Private letters embrace Let- ters of Courtesy, Letters of Friendship, and Letters of Business. Pubhc letters include nezvs letters intended for publication and essays and reports addressed to some person or persons. HISTORICAL. Letter writing in some form has been employed since the earliest ages. Messages of all kinds have been inscribed on every available sub- stance — on stones, on skins of animals, on leaves of plants, and on tablets of clay. Many savages used the bark of trees for challenges of war or messages of good will. Letter writing as now used is a form of composition and is more frequently employed than any other class of writing. For this reason its importance cannot be overestimated. DIVISIONS OF A LETTER. a. Heading. b. Introduction. c. Body of the letter, d. Conclusion. e. Superscription. 184 ■ The subject-matter is by far the most important part of the letter, yet there are certain usages which are absolutely essential to successful letter writ- ing. While these well-established principles may seem trivial in themselves, yet inattention to them displays ignorance or carelessness on the part of the writer and the consequences are very apt to be detrimental. PAPER TO USE. The selection of paper depends largely upon the nature of the letters to be written. Business letters are usually written on larger sheets of paper than letters of friendship and other notes. The sheet selected should be appropriate to the purpose for which it is employed, both in size and quality. Any good bookstore is able to furnish sizes adapted to the wants of any article or class of letters written. For personal letters, the order in which the pages are used and the sheet is folded should be such as shall not be confusing to the reader. The most careful attention should be given to margins, paragraphs, and indentations. It is very important to be original and to avoid imitating the style of others. What is written should represent the writer, not some one else. HEADING. The heading consists of the post-office address of the writer and the date on which the letter is written. Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the right-hand upper corner of the first page. The first line should be about one and a half inches from the top of the page. The second line should be commenced a little to the right and the third line, if any, a little to the right of the second, thus : /. (%Uiance^ Okiof <^ept. 4f fp^O, S, i34Q cfiftk (%venue, iBew JJotk (oity, 3, Ihnive^dity of (yJoirinedotcL^, afloinneapoUdf (yJbiriiVD., 4. S^. S". 2). %c. 3, 9l5ov. Q6f iC)iO. It is essential to begin every important part of the heading with a capital letter. The parts should be separated by commas, the abbreviations should be followed by periods, and a period should be placed at the end of the heading. INTRODUCTION. The introduction consists of two parts, the jormal address and the salutation. The formal address embraces the title, the name, and the residence or place of business of the person addressed. Whether the address takes up one, two, or three lines is optional with the writer, but each line should 185 be followed by a comma, except the last line, which should be followed by a period. Titles are prefixed before the name, as follows: Master — boy. Miss — girl or unmarried lady. Misses — several unmarried ladies. Mr. — gentleman. Messrs. (Messieurs) — several gentlemen. Mrs. — m?.rried lady or widow. Mesdames (ma-dam') — several married ladies or widows. Rev. — clergyman. Rev. Dr. — clergyman who is a doctor of divinity. Dr. — physician or surgeon. Hon. — public man. Esq. — may follow name of gentleman, but two titles, as Mr. James Smith, Esq., should not be used. Prof. — prominent teacher. A. M., LL. D.; etc., may be suffixed in writing persons who hold literary or professional degrees. SALUTATION. The salutation is the word or phrase of address used in beginning the letter. It varies with the formality of the letter, or the position occupied by the person addressed. Such terms as Sir, Madam, Rev. Sir, etc., may be used in writing strangers, but in general writing they should be avoided, as they are too formal. In let- ters of friendship the salutation may be My dear Elizabeth, My dear nephew. Dear Aunt Mary, etc. ; in a business letter to an individual it should be Dear sir, My dear sir, or My dear Miss Martin; in a letter to a firm it should be Sirs, Dear Sirs, or Gentlemen. The official title may be used in addressing a military or naval officer, as Captain, Major, Commodore, General, Admiral. A governor is addressed as Sir, Governor, or His Excellency. The President may be addressed as President or His Excellency. No general rule is recognized in regard to punctuation of the salutation. The comma, colon, or semicoion may be used either alone or in connection with the dash, as My dear sir: — . According to some authorities the comma is the least and the colon is the most formal. BODY OF THE LETTER. The body of the letter, or the part which con- tains the subject-matter, is the most important. It should be written in the natural flow of language and should vary in style and length according to its character. It is usually thought best to commence the body of the letter one line below and directly underneath, or to the right, of the salutation. In business letters, where the salutation is short, it is not improper to begin on the same line with the salutation. Formal letters should not be written on a half sheet, but business letters, where the card of the person or company is printed at the top of the sheet, may be written on a single leaf. CONCLUSION. The conclusion of a letter consists of the complimentary 186 close and the signature of the writer. The choice of a complimentary close de- pends upon the relations which exist between the writer and the person to whom the letter is addressed. A business letter should be closed with an expression of respect only, such as Yours truly. Yours respectfully. Yours very truly, etc. Letters of friendship require some expression of regard. Among the more common forms of complimentary closings are the following: Your loving son. Ever your friend. Yours affectionately, Very sincerely yours, etc. The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of the main part of the letter and a short distance to the right. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name should be signed in full and should be clear and legible. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as Miss or Mrs. This may be done either by placing Miss or Mrs. in parenthesis before the name, or by writing the whole address below and to the right of the signature. Thus : (aToiddJ Sffle (^cfiuneman, c/fB'Cd, ohotnad Jo, cfSenton, CAUTION. Titles of this kind should be prefixed only in writing to strangers. A married lady should sign the initials and name of her husband, and a widow should use her own initials and name. SUPERSCRIPTION. The superscription is the address which is placed on the outside of the envelope. It should include all that is necessary for the letter to reach its destination and should be plainly and carefully written. It may be arranged in three or four lines, each one beginning to the right of the preceding one. A properly written address contains the title, the name, the street number, the post office, and the state or province. When writing to a small town or country post office, it is well to give the county. The usual plan is to write the street number just below the name, but it may be written in the left-hand corner. PUNCTUATION. The punctuation in writing the superscription has re- solved itself largely into one of taste. All abbreviations and the last line should be followed by the period. If any other punctuation is used, it consists of a comma after each line, although these commas may be omitted with perfect propriety. LETTERS OF BUSINESS. Since the purpose of business letters is to gain or impart information, they should be perfectly clear in meaning. It should be the purpose to make them short and concise. This is exemplified by the follow- ing motto posted over the door of the printing office of Aldus & Co. : Talk of Notning but Business and Dispatcn Tnat Business QuiCKly. S 187 Business men have no time to waste reading long, rambling letters, inter- spersed here and there with unimportant details. On the other hand, a business letter should be answered promptly and any information requested should be given accurately. Too much stress cannot be laid upon punctuation, correct spelling, and clear English in business letters, as it is among business men that we find the keenest critics. Applicants for responsible positions have been rejected either because they did not know the correct forms or, knowing them, did not heed them. For this reason, every letter should be examined carefully when it is finished to see that it contains no omissions and no mistakes. LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP. Letters of friendship are so different from business letters that it is more difficult to make definite rules in regard to them. Their purpose should be to induce pleasure, and it should be the endeavor of the writer to make them as entertaining as possible. Much of the charm of a friendly letter lies in the easy and natural way in which it is written. Only when we feel the individuality, the personality of the writer, has the written message any charm — a charm that seems to be slipping away from many letters of this new century, crowded out, perhaps, by the rush and throng of society engagements, by the demands of club life, or the absorption of business. WRITING OF NOTES. Note writing bids fair to become a fine art. There are few days during a month when a note of some kind is not in order. All presents should be acknowledged by writing a note. To omit this cour- tesy is to brand one's self as deficient of good breeding. Notes may be formal or informal. Formal notes include all forms of invita- tions, replies, and announcements. They should always be written in the third person. The heading, salutation, close, and signature should all be omitted. The address of the writer may be written either below the body of the letter or a little to the left. Good by — my paper's out so nearly, I've only room for Yours sincerely. — Thomas Moore. Models in Letter Writing, As every letter of friendship depends upon what the writer has to say at the time, it is difficult to suggest models that answer the purpose in every detail. A good plan is to write as you would talk, giving the leading details in an interesting manner. Friends and relatives enjoy good letters, whether they come from home or from a distant city or country. Such letters strengthen the ties of friendship and turn the mind to pleasant thoughts and hopeful ambitions. The rule is to write often and have many good things to tell in an interesting manner. 188 • Model 1. Letter of Business. 1QQ (pentez ^t., Jjed cJllooined, cJowa, iBewdon S^ &o,f 378 "WaUA (%ve„ Gfiica^/Of SiL <^ept, 4f 1^10. zUeat i^izd: « (Body of Letter). Yeti/ tziiiif youtd, \yaznez Cb, UJualeijt Model 3. Letter of Business. Qq4 (yVoiclti^an Ubve., (jfiica^o, SU.f 9^0V. 30, iC}iO. £Oaniel JjOU> & (do., 23Q Sddex (^t., (^alem, c/rSadd., yentUtnefi: (Body of Letter). cJoedpectftilli/ yoiitd, (cUoiddJ (yJoinnie Cb, cJooe. 189 Model 3. Letter of Friendship. Slbadtdofi, \\ idcoTidin, Oct. i^f i^iO, SToy deat niece, (Body of letter). Jooviti^li/ ijomd, c^lOii'icLm clDti/ant, Model 4. Superscription. Stamp 34 m Sue lid (%ve,, (d lev eland. C li'ic. The writer of a note may place the address either below the body of the mes- sage or a little to the left. 190 Model 5. Superscription. Stamp m~.. HQ. 0. &mccrndoc, The writer of a note ma> place the address either below the body of the message or a little to the left. Model 6. IN\^TATION. cMr. and Mrs. G. Bradshau^ request the pleasure of i^onr company on Tuesday Evening, September nintlj, at eight o'clock. lOlg Euclid Ave. Model 7. ACCEPTANCE. Miss LeCompte accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Bradshaw's invitation for Tuesday evening, September the ninth, at eight o'clock. Model 8. REGRET. Mr. Jones regrets that a previous engage- ment prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Bradshaw's kind invitation for Tuesday evening, September the ninth. Model 9. INVITATION. My dear Mrs. Leathem, Will j'ou not give us the pleasure of your company at dinner on next Wednes day evening at six o'clock? Miss Rae of Davenport is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet her. Very sincerely yours. Bertha Pike. 229 Center St., Nov. 20, 1910. Model 10. REGRET. Nov. 21, 1910. My dear Mrs. Pike, I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation to dinner next Wednesday evening, for I have made a previous engage- . ment which it will be impossible for me to break. Yours sincerely. Grace Le.'MHEm. . The difference between formal notes and informal notes consists in the forms in which they are written. All replies to informal notes should be written in an informal manner, being simply brief letters of friendship. 13 191 Model 11. Introduction. Sherbrooke, Que., Aug. 4, 1910. Miss Anna Sherman, Jamestown, N. Y. My dear friend : This will introduce to your kind consideration Mr. D. V. Gesner, a very worthy gentleman, whom I commend to your kind attention. Your friend, Ella T. Kearns. Model 12. Congratulation. Boone, Iowa, July 30, 1910. Miss Esse V. Hathaway, Marshalltown, Iowa. Dear friend : Kindly accept my hearty congratulations on your success in writing and publishing your new book. The Little Corsican. I had the utmost faith in your ability to produce a work of great value, one that would be interesting in style and valuable for the facts of history which you collated, but let me say the beauty and value of the completed work surpass even the highest anticipations of your best friends. You have my best wishes in the field which you have chosen, and I trust that your work will be entirely agreeable. Very truly yours, Gracia E. Tucker. Model 13. Condolence. Chicago, 111., Aug. 32, 1910. Mr. John B. Alden, Atlanta, Ga. My dear sir: Permit me to express to you the deep sorrow I felt on learning of your failure in securing the nomination for Governor in your State. Although you had the cooperation and support of a large part of the more intelligent voters, the time which you had for making a canvass was entirely too short. Your position jn the leading issues, in my opinion, is the correct one. Since "Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again," I am confident of your ultimate success. Deeply regretting the defeat for the present, I look hopefully forward to a complete victory in the future. Very truly yours, Belden J. Clark. 192 Model 14. Application. Tiffin, Ohio, July 33, 1910. Hoist Publishing Company, Boone, Iowa. Gentlemen: Kindly consider my application for the position of man- ager of sales for your company. I am a graduate of the Tiffin High School and hold a diploma issued by the Capitol City Commercial College of Des Moines, Iowa. Herewith I enclose testimonials from a number of prominent business men of Cleveland and Chicago, certifying to my ability and successful experience in the line of work for which you are receiving applications. Respectfully yours, Chas. E. Medaris. Model 15. Recommendation. Toronto, Ont., June 30, 1910. Hon. John D. Jones, President of the School Board, Ottawa, Ont. Dear sir : The bearer of this letter, Prof. J. C. King, has been personally known to me the ten years last past as a teacher and superintendent of schools. I have visited the classes where he instructed and know of his ability to manage and teach. Professor King is a teacher by nature and training. He has not only made an entire success of his work, but has acquired liberal and broad views of the teachers' profession. He is eminently fitted to take charge of your schools. I can speak of him and his work in the highest terms of praise. Very respectfully yours, David L. Maynard. Exercise I. Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and signa- tures for the following: To American Book Company, 300 Pike St., Cincinnati, Ohio. To a dear friend. To the school board, asking for supplies. To the Governor of your State. To a stranger. To a dry goods firm. 193 Exercise II. Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following : Miss Laura Graham, living at 1231 First Ave., Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The wife of a minister in Toronto, Ont. Your sister, who is visiting some friend. William A. Mowry, 17 Riverside Square, Hyde Park, Mass. The Rev. Charles St. Clair, 650 Center St., Davenport, Iowa. Exercise III. Write to John Wanamaker, Philadelphia, Pa., asking him to send you samples of silk. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of stenographer. Write to the publishers of The Century Magazine, New York, N. Y., asking them to change your address from 312 State St., Chicago, 111., to 38 High St., Columbus, Ohio. Write to the President of University of California, Berkeley, Cal., for in- formation regarding the course of study in law. Exercise IV. Write a letter to a classmate, who is in the hospital, telling him the school news. Write to Puttkammer & Miihlbrecht, Buchhandlung fiir Staatswissenschait, Berlin, Germany, for a copy of Statistisches Jahrhuch. Write for information about silver mining to J, M. Macedo, Consul del Peru, Lima, Peru. Write to your mother, describing your visit in Quebec. Supposing you are camping, write of the experiences to your sister. Write to some boy friend of your hunting and fishing expeditions in the West. Exercise V. Write an invitation to a simple home wedding. Write a formal invitation to an afternoon reception. Write an acceptance of the same. Write regrets to the above invitation. Write to a friend, thanking him for a box of candy or beautiful flowers. Write congratulating your friend of his new appointment. Write a note of sympathy to a dear friend, on the death of her mother. 194 ZOOLOGY, the science that treats of the animal world, is studied from two aspects — condition and theory. The former aspect is concerned with facts as they are proven to be, while the latter takes into account the facts as they are observed. In these aspects, zoology relates to observed phenomena and the deductions that are based upon them. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a pro- lific source of information for the study of this branch of general knowledge. It contains articles on all the important forms of animal life, both the past and present, and furnishes the basic facts for exhaustive research. Outline. archaeopteryx. II. I. Animal Life. a. Form and structure. b. Reproduction. Embryology and growth. Habit and instinct. Distribution and migration. Relationship. 1. To other animals. 2. To their environments. Extinct Animals. 1. Birds — Archaeopteryx, dinornis, dodo, etc. 2. Reptiles — Dinosauria, ichthyosaurus, pterodactyl, etc 3. Crustaceans, fishes, insects. 4. Mammals — Dinotherium, mammoth, mastodon, etc. Classification of Living Forms. 1. Vertebrata, or Vertebrates. A. Origin of name. B. Description. a. Skeleton. b. Spinal cord. c. Lungs. d. Heart. e. Stomach. f. Brain, etc. III. Functions. a. Digestion. b. Secretion (Glands). c. Respiration. d. Circulation. e. Locomotion. D. Protection of body — Skin, hair, scales, feathers, etc. E. Examples — Amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles, etc. 195 2. Arthropoda, or Articulates. A. Nervous system — Well developed. B. Eyes — Simple or compound. C. Parasitic — Some species. D. Reproduction — By eggs only. , E. Divisions — Arachnida, Crustacea, and antennata. F. Examples — Lobsters, spiders, cockroaches, butterflies, flies, bees, and insects. 3. Coelenterata, or Many-Celled. A. Organism — Simple, B. Body cavity and circulatory system not distinctly separate. C. Food enters through mouth, passing into a system of chambers or tubes. D. Tentacles — Organs of touch, used as hands and fingers. E. Home — Sea (Mostly) and in fresh water. F. Types. a. True swimmers — Jellyfish. b. Cylindrical, fastened to some object — Corals, sea anemones, hydroids, etc. 4. Protozoa, or One-Celled. A. Minute, microscopic, invertebrate, simple, structureless organism of jellylike substance. B. Found in fresh or salt waters. C. Some live in moist earth or as parasites. D. Assimilate food into their protoplasmic being. E. Forms — Sponges, coral, hydras, etc. 5. Echinodermata, or Radiates. A. Third from the lowest division. B. Body — Five parts radiating from central axis. C. External skeleton — Calcareous, leathery, or covered with spines. D. Alimentary canal — Distinct from body, protected by skeleton. E. Nervous system — Radiate. F. About 3,000 living species — All marine. G. Seven divisions. a. Sea cucumbers. d. Starfishes. b. Sea urchins. e. Cystoids. c. Brittle stars. f. Pentremites. 6. Mollusca, or Shellfish. A. Unsegmented, bilateral body, four nerve cords. B. Supplied with shells, or muscular sac, or body is quite naked and unprotected. C. Shellfish — Those with shells. a. Univalves. b. Bivalves. c. Multivalves. D. Kinds — Nautilus, oyster, clam, slug, snail, cockle, etc. E. Acephala — Without a head ; clams, oysters, mussels. F. Cephalopods — Head-footed ; nautilus, octopus, cuttlefish, G. Number of species. 7. Vermes, or Worms. A. The lowest class of animals. B. Bodies — Elongate, flattened, or cylindrical. C. Structure — Segments, head, tail, surfaces, nervous system, heart, body cavity. D. Species — Numerous, but of same characteristics. E. Entozoa — Forms found in intestines of human body, especially children, 196 Questions in Zoology. Give the derivation of the word zoology. 3225. What does this study embrace? Deiine each department. To what classes of animal life did vSolomon refer? Job? Jeremiah? Of what do ornithology, herpetology, and arachnology treat? Of what genus is man? Tell of his creation. To which is animal intelligence due — instinct or reason? 105. Define sense, nucleus, segment, parasite, protoplasm. Which of the domestic animals are the most useful to man for (a) food, (b) clothing, and (c) beasts of burden? Why do animals migrate? Name ten migratory birds. What is meant by the following expressions: cold-blooded, ruminant, nat- ural selection, and survival of the fittest? Which class is of the lowest division of animals? How has nature provided for the warmth and safety of wild animals? Explain the habits of eating among carnivorous animals. Which animal can go longest without drinking? Why? Define the modern theory of embryology. 910. Describe the functions of digestion and secretion. What is microscopic zoology and why is it so named? Why do some animals become extinct? Name five extinct species. Polyp. Protoplasm. Protozoa. Reptiles. Rodentia. Sea Urchin. Species. Spontaneous Gen- eration. Starfish. Ungulata. Vertebrates. Worm. Let cavilers deny That brutes have reason ; sure 'tis something more, 'Tis heaven directs, and stratagems inspire Beyond the short extent of human thought. — Somerville. The heart is hard in nature and unfit For human fellowship, as being void Of sympathy, and therefore dead alike To love and friendship both, that is not pleased With sight of animals enjoying life, _ Nor feels their happiness augment his own. — Cowper. Related Subjects. Acclimatization. Crinoidea. Infusoria. Amoeba. Crustacea. Insects. Amphibia. Dinosauria. Jellyfish. Anatomy. Egg. Longevity. Animal. Embryology. Mammalia. Animal Intelli- Evolution. Marsupialia. gence. Fauna. Medusa. Arachnida. Feather. Metamorphosis, Biology. Fish. Microscope. Birds. Foraminifera. Mollusca. Bone. Genus. Myriapoda. Carnivora. Hair. Nautilus. Cell. Hoof. Parasites. Cephalopoda. Hybrid. 197 Reptiles. GANGES GAVIAL. L Species— 2,000. II. Class — Cold-blooded, air-breathing vertebrates a. Oviparous and ovoviviparous. III. Body — E 1 o n- gated. 1. Tail. 2. Skin. 3. Limbs. IV. Difference BETWEEN. 1. Amphibians. 2. Birds. V. Orders. 1. Number — Ten (Six now extinct). 2. Four living orders. A. Lacertilia — Lizards, chameleons, blindworms. B. Crocodilia — Crocodiles, alligators, gavials. C. Ophidia — Snakes. D. Chelonia — Turtles and tortoises. VL Food — Flesh, seaweed, insects, bugs, vegetables, flies, etc. often feed on smaller reptiles). VIL Homes. 1. Warm and tropical climates. 2. In or near marshes, swamps, and larger bodies of water. VIII. History, 1. Antedate the Permian period. 2. More numerous in earlier ages. IX. Uses. 1. Food. 4, 2. Destroyers of insects, flies, bugs, carrion, etc. 5, 3. Skins — Leather (Shoes, purses, etc.). 6. X. Kinds. 1. Tortoise. 4. Frog. 7. Alligator. 2. Turtle. 5. Gavial. 8. Lizard. 3. Toad. 6. Crocodile. (Larger ones Shells- Pets. Oil. 9. 10. -Ornaments. Snake. Iguana, etc. Questions on Reptiles. Distinguish between amphibians and birds. 2397. Name the four orders of reptiles now living. Give a list of the most common species. With what safeguard from destruction has nature provided the reptiles? What are the largest living reptiles? State a peculiarity about the skin of snakes. What is the Gila monster and what is said of its bite? 1140'. Tell about the size and hatching of crocodile and alligator eggs. By what people were crocodiles formerly held sacred ? What reptiles are found in Canada? Name three uses of alligator skins. What classes of snakes are common to your neighborhood? What is said about the chameleon changing its color of skin? Of what value are toads in a garden or hothouse ? 198 Snakes. I. Description. 1. Nearest relative — Lizard. 2. Body. A. Elongated and cylindrical, B. Covering — Horny scales, lapping folds. C. Skin — Thin ; shed at least once a year. D. Ribs — Sometimes hundreds of pairs. a. Give form to body. b. Aid in respiration. c. Organ of locomotion. E. Flesh — White and chickenlike ; considered wholesome by some. F. Eyes — Small, unprotected by lids ; sight feeble. G. Ears — Internal ear only ; hear well. H. Nostrils — ^Two ; keen sense of smell. I. Tongue — Forked. J. Fangs and poisonous glands. 3. Eggs. A. Number. C. B. Places of deposit. D. 4. Food. A. Insects. E. B. Birds. F. C. Reptiles. G. D. Mice. II. Species— From 1,500 to 1,800. 1. Largest and most numerous in tropical regions 2. Wet regions — Boa, python, etc. 3. Arid districts — ^Viper, adder, rattlesnake, etc. III. General Classes. 1. Burrowing snakes. A. Live under surface. B. Feed on in- vertebrate animals. C. Are most poisonous. 2. Tree snakes. A. Live mostly in trees. B. Very poison- ous. Shell. Incubation. Monkeys. Small quadrupeds. Fish. H. Eggs, etc. PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE. C. Bodies green and slender, or color of tree. D. Feed on insects and animals. 3. Ground snakes. A. Remain mostly on ground. C. Few are poisonous. B. Live in burrows made by other animals. 4. Fresh-water snakes. A. Good swimmers. C. Feed on frogs, fish, and aquatics. B. Not poisonous. A. Generally poisonous. C. Unable to move on land. B. Rudder-shaped tail. 199 IV. Characteristics. 1. Mostly timid and harmless. 2. Vocal utterance is only a hissing sound. 3. Are affected by musical sounds. 4. Some bodies so dilate as to enable serpents to swallow prey much larger than themselves. 5. When large prey is devoured the snake lies dormant until the food is somewhat digested. 6. Snakes aid farmers by destroying mice, locusts, gophers, grasshoppers, etc. ' 7. They may be trained by professionals called snake charmers. V. Kinds. 1. Adder — Only poisonous snake in Great Britain. 2. Asp — Native to Egypt and Libya. 3. Boa — Large American serpent. 4. Anaconda, or Water Boa — Skins used for bags and shoes. 5. Garter, or Ribbon Snake — Small, harmless serpent. 6. Rattlesnake — One of the most deadly poisonous. 7. Viper — Resembles rattlesnake, native to Old World. Questions on Snakes, Mention and describe the five general classes of snakes. 2664. How do poisonous snakes differ from others? Of what use are serpents ? Can they be trained ? Upon which sense do snakes rely quite largely for their prey? Explain the shedding of the skin and the structure of the fang. Describe the formation of the rattles of the rattlesnake. Why is the puff adder so named ? The garter snake ? The rattlesnake ? By whom is the cobra de capello held sacred? What is the rate of fatalities caused by its bite? Relate the fable of Apollo slaying the python. 2342. Which portion of Scripture refers to the asp? To the adder? Name five kinds of snakes common to this vicinity. With the bite of what snake did Cleopatra accomplish her suicide? Upon what do snakes feed ? Can a snake swallow a frog ? Where is the black snake, or blue racer, found? Is it poisonous? Upon the Rhine. 'Twas morn, and beautiful the mountain's brow — Hung with the clusters of the bending vine — Shone in the early light, when on the Rhine We sailed and heard the waters round the prow In murmurs parting, varying as we go, Rocks after rocks come forward and retire, As some gray convent wall or sunlit spire Starts up along the banks, unfolding slow. Here castles, like the prisons of despair. Frown as we pass ! — there on the vineyard's side. The bursting sunshine pours its streaming tide; While Grief, forgetful amid scenes so fair. Counts not the hours of a long summer's day. Nor heeds how fast the prospect winds away. — William Lisle Bowles. 200 Frog and Toad. I. Class — Tailless amphi- bians. II. Head — Nose, mouth, teeth, tongue. III. Legs — Feet, toes. IV. Skin. a. Color. b. Warty in some species. V. Eggs. 1. Composition. 2. Number. 3. When laid. VI. Stages of Development. 1. Enlarging and hatch- ing. 2. Tadpole. 3. Tadpole with outer gills. 4. Tadpole with inner gills. 5. Tadpole with two legs. 6. Tadpole with four legs. 7. Frog with rudimentary tail. 8. Adult frog or toad. VII. Breathing and Movements. VIII. 1. Frogs — Common, bull, wood frogs. 2. Toad — Natterjack, common, Surinam toads. IX. Value. 1. Food — Legs only, 2. Insect destroyers. X. Nativity of Frogs and Toads. metamorphosis of the frog. 1, egg; 2, egg partly incubated; 3, newly hatched tadpole; 4 tad- pole with gills; 5, outside gills replaced by internal ones; 6, tad- pole with hind limbs; 7, tadpole with four limbs; 8, tadpole with rudimental tail; 9, adult frog. I had rather be a toad, And live upon the vapor of a dungeon, Than keep a corner in the thing I love, For others' uses. — Shakespeare. Questions on Frogs and Toads. To which class of reptiles do frogs and toads belong? Explain the structure of the tongue in these reptiles. Describe the appearance of an adult frog. 1073. Name the different stages of development. When are frogs said to "live on their tails"? Do they live in water entirely? If not, why not? Which are able to swim better, frogs or toads ? Why ? How many eggs are usually laid in a season by frogs ? What sounds are made by frogs and toads ? What is the name of the largest species of frogs? In what respect do frogs resemble toads? How do they differ? Learn the poem, "Twenty Froggies Went to School." 201 Frogs at School. Twenty froggies went to school Down beside a rushy pool ; Twenty little coats of green, Twenty vests all white and clean. "We must be in time," said they ; "First we study, then we play ; That is how we keep the rule When we froggies go to school." Master Bullfrog, grave and stern, Called the classes in their turn ; Taught them how to nobly strive, Likewise how to leap and dive ; From his seat upon a log Showed them how to say "Ker-chog" ; Also how to dodge a blow From the stones which bad boys throw. Twenty froggies grew up fast ; Bullfrogs they became at last ; Not one dunce among the lot, Not one lesson they forgot ; Polished in a high degree, As each froggie ought to be ; Now they sit on other logs Teaching other little frogs. 1. Twen>t7 frog •gies went to school 2. Maa • ter Bull • frog.grave aild stem, 3. Twen • ty " frog - gies grew up fast; -# * — : r-# »■ Down Vieside a rush • y pool; Called the class - es in their turn; Bull-frogs they became at last; Twenty lit - tie coats of green, Twen-ty vests Taught them how to no • bly strive. Likewise how Not one dunce a • mong the lot, Not one lea - all to' son white and clean. leap and dive; they for -got; r—f- n ^: I m m a^s^ ^ -^-*- — *- "We must be in time," said they; "First we stud- y, From his seat up -' on a log Showed them how to Pol-ishedin a » high degree. As each frog -gie -0-i »- • .,. -i ft. m m^^^ ~m then we playy say " Ee^chog;^' ■ought to be: _^-i /•_•.- That \U how ^Al • ao bow Now they sit -0- we to 11 5=^sr5:r: l^-nt i^^B ^^ m keep the rule, dodge a blow otb • er logs —♦-2 (K_A. tHQ2 ""• — *~^ - ' • -#, ■When we frog -gies go to school," From the stones which bad boys throw. Teach-iog oth- er lit « tie fiogs^ -/ •■ **^ ? « — rr_, C 0*.. TT' "~P'" h Angling. The pleasant'st angling is to see the fish Cut with her golden oars the silver stream. And greedily devour the treacherous bait. — Shakespeare. 202 Tortoise. I. Class — Reptiles. II. Homes — In marshes, on dry land, in water. III. Description. 1. Skeleton. A. Carapace — Upper part. B. Plastron — Lower part. 2. Size and weight. 3. Age — Sometimes 100 years. IV. Eggs. 1. Number. 2. Where deposited. 3. Hatching. V. Habits. 1. Protrudes head, legs, and tail when walking or swimming. 2. Draws them in while resting. 3. Closes plates, or bony shell, tightly for protection in danger. VI. Species. 1. Salt-marsh terrapin — Atlantic coast of North America. 2. Green turtle — West Indies and Gulf of Mexico. 3. Loggerhead — Atlantic coast of America and Europe. 4. Hawksbill — Warmer parts of America. 5. Snapping turtle — Florida and New Brunswick. VII. Use. 1. Article of food. 2. Shell — Ornamental work, combs, toilet boxes, etc. GREEN TURTLE. TORTOISE. Questions on the Tortoise. Describe the skeleton of the tortoise. 2899. Of what is the carapace formed? The plastron? What means of protection does the tortoise use when endangered ? How are the eggs cared for during incubation? What can you say of the largest tortoises ? Which move with greater speed, land or sea tortoises ? Name and describe several species. Which is noted for its delicate flesh ? From which species is the tortoise shell of commerce obtained ? Name some species of tortoises common to North America. Are these reptiles of economic value? Relate the story of The Tortoise and the Hare, 203 Astronomy He telleth the number of the stars ; He calleth them all by their names. — Psalm 147, 4. ASTRONOMY, the most ancient of the sciences, treats of the phenomena of the heavenly bodies. It may be studied by departments, or branches, but these overlap each other to a large extent. However, they should be observed in a consecutive order. The student is first referred to the article entitled Astronomy, which intro- duces the subject by definitions and information of a general nature. The next step is to read the general articles in the order in which the science is generally subdivided. These include principally Solar System, Planets, Satellites, Time, Stars, Comet, Nebula, Constellations, etc. With these should be cor- related the biographies and achievements of famous astronomers. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia will be found very helpful — in fact, indispensable — in the study of astronomical phenomena. Consult it for information on Day, Night, Seasons, Tides, and many related topics. The helpful information, clearly classified as it is in this work, adds interest to this ever-interesting science. Outline for Study. I. Astronomy as a Science. 1. Relation to other sciences II. History. 1. Assyria. 2. Hindu. 3. Egyptian. 4. Chaldaea. III. Value. 1 2 3 4 2. Old and ancestral. 5. Greece. 6. China. a. Peculiar laws. b. Superstitious ideas of eclipse. Fixes disputed dates. Helped in making calendar. Aided navigation. Gave knowledge of exact size of earth. 5. Enabled making of proper maps of continents and oceans. 6. Aids materially in general surveying. 7. Determines exact units of time. IV. Astronomers. 1. Thales. Founder of the science. Date and discoveries. Teaching, 204 V. 2. Pythagoras. 6. Kepler. Teaching. Laws of. Demonstration. 7. Galileo. 3. Hipparchus. Telescope. Beginner of history proper. 8. Newton. Date and nativity. Gravitation. Charts of heavens. 9. Laplace. 4. Ptolemy. Satellites of Jupiter. Erroneous teaching. Rings of Saturn. 5. Copernicus. 10. Donati, Brahe, Halley, Herschel, Date. Yerkes, etc. System. jE NERAL Subjects. 1. Apsides. 2 Soiar system. a. Sun — Center of our system. b. Major planets — Satellites. c. Minor planets, or asteroids, and comets. d. Meteoroids — Furnish zodiacal li ght. e. Rings of Saturn. f. Nebular hypothesis. I^HHBHBHHIHHHiil^lH g. Solar phenomena. H^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^I^^^H 1. Records. , H^H^^^H^^^^^^^I^^^^H 2. Largest spots. ^Hj^^^JH^^^^^^^H^^^H 3. Periodical variations. j I^HHU^^^^^^H^JHH^H 4. Appearances. j ^^^^^^^bH^^I^^^I^^HhI 5. Influences. ^H^h^^^^hISHI^^^^^I h. Spectrum. HH|H^^H|^^HBH|^H 1. Analysis. ^^H^^^^^^HH^HB^^^^H 2. Spectroscope. ^I^^^^^^H^^H^^^I^^R 3. Light. ^^HH^^^HhUH^^^^^^H 4. Rainbow. mmm^^mmBJiHjj^^i 3. Moon. a. Comparative size and weight. b. Light reflected from sun. c. Changes or phases. d. Effect on tides. DONATI'S COMET. 4. Planets, a. Primary — Planets proper. 1. Inferior — Mercury and Venus. 2. Superior or major — Mars, Jupiter, Sa.turn, Uranus, Neptune. 3. Minor — Number and size. 4. Orbits of heavenly bodies. 5. Symbols. a. Number of. b. Origin and significatior 1. 5. Stars. a. Constellations. 6. Orion. 1. Magnitude. 7. Ursa. 2. Centaur. a. Major. 3. Milky Way. b. Minor. 4. Zodiac. 8. Periodical or varia- a. Signs of. ble. 5. Cassiopeia. 9. Double and multiple, 6. Comets — Cause and nature of. a. Biela's. c. Encke's. b. Donati's. d. Halley's. 205 VI. Branches. 1. Astronomical geography. 2. Uranography. 3. Sidereal astronomy. 4. Physical astronomy. VII. Observatories. 1. First one — Alexandria. 2. Arabian. 3. Persian, 4. European. 5. American. a. United States. b. Canada. VIII. Instruments. 1. Telescope. 2. Barometer. 3. Chronometer. 4. Circle. 5. Clock. 6. Quadrant. 7. Sextant. 8. Chronograph. 9. Micrometer. IX. Time. 1. Year. a. Solar, tropical, or equi- noctial. b. Sidereal. c. Common. d. Leap year. e. Civil. f. Lunar, g. Ecclesiastical, h. Divisions. 1. Month. Average length. Number. Names and their origin. Lunar or synodical. Sidereal. Anomalistic. Solar. Calendar. 2. Week. When instituted. Number of days. Naming of days. 3. Day. Division. Cause. Kinds. a. Solar. b. Sidereal. c. Civil. d. Apparent. e. Astronom- ical. Correlated Subjects. Aberration. Cycle. Milky Way. Seasons. Apogee. Earth.' Moon. Sextant. Asteroid. Eclipse. Nadir. Solar System Astrology. Ecliptic. Nebula. Spectroscope. Aurora Bore- Equator. Nutation. Stars. alis. Equinox. Observatory. Sun. Calendar. Gravitation. Parallax. Telescope. Chronograph. Greenwich. Perturbation. Tides. Chronometer. Halo. Planets. Transit. Circle. Latitude. Pole. Twilight. Comet. Longitude. Precession. Year. Conjunction. Meridian. * Refraction. Zenith. Constella- Meteor. Satellite. Zodiac. tions. Micrometer. 206 Questions on Astronomy. How does the history of astronomy compare with that of the other sciences ? What is the story of the shepherds and the stars ? Tell where the following is found: "The heavens declare the glory of God and the firmament showeth His handiwork." Which nations studied this science centuries before the Christian era? What was the theory of the Chinese regarding eclipses. Who was the early founder of the science of astronomy? With whom does its history proper begin? 173. State and explain Kepler's laws. By whom was gravitation discovered? How is gravity modified? Give a brief sketch of the life of Galileo. State some uses of astronomy. Is it an exact science? Name several branches of this science. Prepare an article on comets. What brought Halley's name prominently before the world in recent years? Give a list of the chief symbols used in astronomy. What instruments are used? Describe a quadrant. Compare the sun, moon, and earth in size and in motion. Define ecliptic, satellite, meteor, corona, cycle, zenith. Name the major planets in the order of size. Distinguish between variable, temporary, and fixed stars. Name and locate some noted observatories. How do you account for the change of seasons ? For the rainbow ? Literature. The contemplation of celestial things will make a man both speak and think more sublimely and magnificently when he descends to human affairs. — Cicero. The smallest dust which floats upon the wind Bears this strong impress of the Eternal mind : In mystery round it subtile forces roll, And gravitation binds and guides the whole. — Selected. Be like the sun that pours its ray To glad and glorify the day; Be like the moon that sheds its light To bless and beautify the night; Be like the stars that sparkle on, Altho' the sun and moon are gone ; Be like the skies that steadfast are, ' Though absent sun and moon and star. — Selected. The sun is not a-bed when I At night upon my pillow lie ; Still round the earth his way he takes, And morning after morning makes. While here at home at shining day. We round the sunny garden play. Each little Indian sleepy-head Is being kissed and put to bed. And when at eve I rise for tea, Day dawns beyond the Atlantic sea; And all the children in the West Are getting up and being dressed. — Robert Louis Stevenson. 207 Geology The attempt to convey scientific conceptions, without the appeal to observation, which can alone give such conceptions firmness and reality, appears to me to be in direct antagonism to the funda- mental principles of scientific education. — Huxley. THE study of geology, which investigates the structure of the earth, is treated under the general title Geology. It answers the questions — Of what materials is the earth composed ? What causes produced the present arrangement of these materials? Are geological forces still active in producing changes ? The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a refer- ence in the study of geology. It contains hundreds of articles on mineralogical subjects, such as may be grouped under the general headings of gems, stones, fossils, and alluvial deposits. The student is referred to the following Correlated Subjects. Algonkian. Archaean. Basalt. Bed. Boulder. Cambrian. Carboniferous Age. Chalk. Cinnabar. Clay. Cleavage. Coal. Cretaceous Period. Crystallography. Dike. Earthquake. Eocene. Erosion. Erratics. Fault. Flood Plain. Fossil. Glaciers. Igneous. Joints. Jurassic. Lava. Loess. Mammoth. Marl. Metamorphic Rocks. Mineralogy. Mountain. Niagara Series. Obsidian. Oolite. Ordovician. Ore. Peat. Pliocene. Quaternary. Sandstone. Shale. Silurian System. Soil. Stones, Precious. Stratification. Terrace. Tertiary Period. Triassic System. Valley. Volcano. Outlines in Geology. I. Department of Natural Science. 1. Treatment. 2. Investigation. 3. Study. A. Early students. a. Herodotus. 1. Studied carefully formation and fertility of soil, in Egypt, and traced cause. b. Strabo. 1. Greatest of early geologists. 2. Flourished in 1st century. 3. Discussed origin of fossils. c. Werner. 1. Gave modern geology its. widespread interest. 2. Theories. d. Hutton. 1. Directed attention to causes now existing in periodical for- mations. 208 3. Held contrary view to Werner. 3. Published Theory of the Earth. B. Present schools. a. Catastrophism. 1. Series of creations and catastrophes. 3. Representatives. b. Uniformitarianism. 1. Reasons of all geologic phenomena constituted by causes now in operation. 3. Representatives. c. Evolution. 1. Similar to above. 3. Representatives 3. Theory regarding time required for production of the pres- ent conditions. d. General theory. 1. Interior and surface of earth once highly heated. 3. Cooled gradually. 3. Crust formed. 4. Action of water and heat. 5. Rock formations. II. Life Periods. 1. Archaean time — Dawn of life. A. Extremely high temperature. B. Creation of simpler forms. C. North America largely submerged. D'. Formation of iron. 3. Paleozoic. A. Fossil remains. a. Mollusks, protozoa, radiates, and articulates. 3. Silurian, or Age of Invertebrates. A. Rocks under water — Consisted of limestone, sandstone, and shales. B. Formed of clams, oysters, etc. 4. Devonian Age. A. First vertebrate fishes. B. Plants became abundant. C. Appearance of vast swarms of insects. 5. Carboniferous Age. A. Surface covered with gigantic fernlike and other plants. B. Formation of coal beds. C. Alternated elevations and subsidences. D. Animals of the subkingdoms lived. E. Reptiles began to appear. 6. Mesozoic time, or Age of Reptiles. A. Numerous reptiles abounded. B. Plants and animals began to resemble existing species. C. Ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus common. D. Great birds left foot imprints as fossil remains on forming rocks. 7. Cenozoic time. A. North America largely above the sea. B. Abundance of fresh-water lakes. C. Abundant vegetation in Arctic Zone — Redwood, magnolia, etc. D. Large animals abundant in Rocky Mountains. E. Glacial period. a. Swept over northeastern portion of continent. b. Destructive drifts and boulders prevailed. 209 III. F. Champlain period. a. Alternating floods and varying climates. b. Return of tropical climate. c. Gradual fall of temperature. Quaternary Age. A. Present animals and plants appeared. B. Creation of man. Geologists. Agassiz. Dawson. Le Conte. Silliman. Buck land. Geikie. Lyell. Smith. Buffon. Cuvier. Hayden. Miller. Strabo. Dana. Hitchcock. Murchison. Tyndall. Darwin. Huxley. Powell. Winchell Questions on Geology. Of what does geology treat? What are fossils? 1114. Distinguish between geology and mineralogy. Name some early students of geology and state the theories they advanced. What are the three recognized schools of geology to-day? To which school does Lyell belong ? How does he support his opinions ? Explain what is meant by igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Name the principal life periods. In which do we live? How may earthquakes and volcanoes be accounted for? Briefly describe Geological Survey. What caused the elevations and depressions on the earth's surface? What wa§ the glacial period ? By what other name is it known ? What is meant by Azoic and Eozoic ? Speak of the Age of Reptiles and the Carboniferous Age. Bugle Song. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story, The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blow ! set the wild echoes flying ; Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes — dying, dying, dying ! O hark, O hear ! how thin and clear. And thinner, clearer, farther going ! O sweet and far, from cliff and scar, The horns of Elfland faintly blowing ! Blow ! let us hear the purple glens replying : Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes — dying, dying, dying ! O love! they die in yon rich sky: They faint on hill, or field or river ; OUR echoes roll from soul to soul. And GROW forever and forever. Blow, bugle, blow ! set the wild echoes flying ; And answer, echoes, answer — dying, dying, dying ! — Tennyson. 210 Coal. I. Description. 1. Carbonaceous mineral. 2. Appearance. 3. Use. 4. Composition. A. Carbon. B. Hydrogen. C. Oxygen. D. Nitrogen. E. Earthy impurities. 5. Formation. A. Vegetable matter. a. Luxuriant growth accumulated. b. Decomposed. c. Compressed and chemically changed. d. Solidified and reduced. II. Kinds. 1. Anthracite — 90 per cent, carbon. A. Burns with little flame. B. Much used in kilns furnaces, and by blacksmiths. C. Most valuable. 2. Bituminous. A. Used for fuel in heating and in engines. B. Greatly exceeds in output. 3. Cannel. A. Appearance. B. Flame. C. Used in gas making. 4. Lignite or brown — 50 per cent, carbon. A. Used less for manufacturing purposes. B. Valuable for fuel in sections where other coal is minus. C. Bums easily with extra draft admitted. Ill Veins. 1. Number — 1 to 4. 3. Thickness— 2 ft. to 50 ft. 3. Deposits. A. Drifts, or pockets. B. Measures. IV. Mining. 1. Differing of methods. A. Thickness of veins. B. Class of coal. C. Character of roof. D. Blasting. E. Long-wall work. F. Mining machinery. 2. Slopes. A. Coal crops out at hillsides. B. Opening and sloping inroad made into hillside. 3. Shaft. A. Perpendicular passage sunk to veins of coal many feet below. B. Entries driven and rooms made. C. Coal obtained by picking, sledging, blasting, or drilling. D. Brought to surface by cages. 211 V. History. 1. Not known to early ancients. 2. Used in 852 a. d. in England. 3. Common prejudice prevented early usage. VI. Distribution. 1. United States. A. Found in 35 states and territories. B. Products in 29 reached commercial quantities. C Leading producers. a. Pennsylvania. ^- Alabama. b. West Virginia. f- Indiana. c. Illinois. S- Colorado. d. Ohio. D. Annual production and value. 3. Canada. A. Annual output. B. Deposits. a. British Columbia. b. Nova Scotia. c. New Brunswick. d. Alberta. 3. Great Britain. 4. Germany. ' 5. Austria-Hungary. 6. Russia. 7. Philippine Islands, and others. Coal in Literature. " Sing a song of coal in a mine so deep, Where the mighty mountain guarding watch doth keep. Down must go the miner in the ground so damp, Each one with his pickax and his tiny lamp. ^-Jessie L. Gaynor. Not many years ago men would have laughed, had they been told to dig for the rays of the sun in the darkness of the earth. But we strike a match and discover that the black heart of the coal is the treasury of sunbeams. — Newman Smyth. Questions on Coal. What is coal and of what is it composed? 609. Explain briefly the formation of the coal beds. Name several kinds of coal. Which is most valuable? Which kind of coal contains the greatest per cent, of carbon? Why is lig- nite coal of lesser value? What is a coal measure? State the difference between a slope and a shaft. Illustrate coal stratum with a drawing. At about what date was coal first used for fuel in England? Where are the chief deposits of coal in England? What is the annual output ? State the value of the annual production of coal in the United States. Name the leading coal-producing states. What serious objection was raised against the use of coal in early days? Name some of the greatest coal-producing countries of the world. 212 Gold. I. Description. 1. Precious metal. 3. Color, bright yellow. 3. Specific gravity — 19. 4. Atomic weight — 196. 5. Melting point— About 2283° Fahr. 6. Properties. A. Ductility — Grain can be drawn into wire 500 ft. long, or same amount is sufficient to gild two miles of silver wire. B. Malleability — One grain may be beaten out so as to cover 56 sq. in. (thickness, gsTgso P^^^ '^^ ^" inch). II. Characteristics. 1. Not acted upon by water and oxygen. 2. Not tarnished by air. 3. Not soluble by hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric acids. 4. Soluble in mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. 5. Crystallizes in cubes and other regular forms. 6. Yields aurous and auric salts. III. Kinds. 1. Pure gold. A. 24 carats fine. B. Very soft. 2. Alloy. A. 54 copper and ^ gold, usually used by jewelers. B. 14 to 18 carats fine commonly used. 3. Coinage. A. Standard 22 carats fine — 2 parts copper and 22 parts gold. 4. Nature. A. Gold and silver alloy. B. Used in medicine and by dentists. IV. Where Found. 1. In alluvial deposits (placer mining). A. Small particles, called grains or nuggets. B. Separated from foreign matter by washing in troughs and pans. 2. In sandstone, slate, quartzite, granite, and serpentine. 3. In fissures or quartz veins. A. Mined by machinery. B. Rock crushed. C. Gold separated by excessive heat. D. Natural gas, coal, and electricity employed as agents in smelting. E. Refined by repeated subjection to heat. V. CupellatiOn. 1. Extracted from ore by pulverizing. 3. Sulphur and arsenic set free by heating gold-bearing pyrites. 3. Quantity of mercury and sodium added. 4. This amalgam heated to liberate the mercury. VI. Use. 1. Coin. 2. Jewelry. 3. Dentistry. 4. Medicine. 5. Photography. 213 VII. Distribution, 1. North America, A. United States, a. California. b. Montana. c. South Dakota. d. Utah. e. Arizona. f. New Mexico, etc, B. Canada. a, British Columbia, b, Yukon. c, Saskatchewan. C. Alaska — Klondike. 2. South America. A. Peru. B. Bolivia, 3. New Zealand. 4. South Africa, 5. Ural Mountains. VIII. Statistics. 1. Value of world's production since 1493. 2. Present annual production. 3. Comparative outputs. a. North America. b. South America. c. Europe, d. Asia. e. Africa. f. Australia. 4. Largest pure gold nugget, a. Where found. b. Date. c. Weight, Gold in Literature. All that glistens is not gold, Often have you heard that told ; Many a man his life hath sold But my outside to behold. — Shakespeare. Can gold calm passion, or make reason shine? Can we dig peace, or wisdom, from the mine? Wisdom to gold prefer; for 'tis much less To make our fortune than our happiness. — Young. Gold ! gold ! gold ! gold ! Bright and yellow, hard and cold, Molten, graven, hammer'd, and roU'd ; Heavy to get, and light to hold ; Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold To the very verge of the churchyard mold ; Price of many a crime untold ; Gold ! gold ! gold ! gold ! Good or bad a thousand fold! How widely its agencies vary — To save — to ruin — to curse — to bless — As even its minted coins express. Now stamped with the image of good Queen Bess, And now with a bloody Mary. — Hood. Questions on Gold. Compare the value of gold with that of other metals. For what three things is it noted? State some of its characteristics. 1161, With what metals is gold alloyed? How many carats are generally used in jewelry? Name some gold coins now in use. Give a list of articles of jewelry made of gold. How is gold refined? Illustrate its malleability. Where is this metal first mentioned in the Bible? Tell when the gold fields were opened in the following places: California, Alaska, and Australia, What and where is the Klondike region ? 1514. Locate the most important gold fields of United States and Canada. 214 Iron. I. Description. 1. Metal. 3. Mixed with clay, earth, and rock. 3. Found in sea water and mineral water. 4. Essential constituent of plants and animals. 5. Pure metal— Silvery-white, very tenacious, malleable, and ductile. 6. Commercial product — Derived from ores. A. Magnetite. C. Limonite. B. Hematite. D. Siderite. 7. Compounds. ' A. Sulphur. D. Carbon. B. Copper. E. Arsenic. C. Silicon. F. Phosphorus, etc. II. Kinds. 1. Cast iron. A. Commercial iron. B. Produced in blast furnace. C. Contains much carbon. D. Easily cast in molds. E. Neither ductile nor malleable. F. Pig iron. a. Form of cast iron. b. Heated metal run into molds called pigs. 2. Wrought iron. A. Fibrous. D. Produced in a puddling furnace or forge, B. Ductile. E. Quite pure. C. Malleable. 4. Weld iron, bar iron, steel A. Compounds of iron. B. Compare with others. C. Can be forged, tempered, and cast. D. Hardened by heating to redness and cooling quickly. III. Iron Industry. 1. Mining — Blasting and shoveling. 2. Transportation — From mines to smelters. 3. Smelting. A. Crushed by rollers. 4. Manufacture. B. Heated in furnaces. 1. Improvements. C. Tapped. A. Cort. D. Molded. B. Dalton. E. Cooled. C. Bessemer. IV. History. 1. One of the earliest known metals. 2. Mentioned in Bible. 3. Represented in Egyptian sepulcher. 4. Its discovery at Mount Ida. 5. Deposits of India, Italy, Britain, and Spain. 6. Discovery of deposits in North Carolina. 7. Establishing and use of blast furnaces. V. Items of Interest. 1. United States ranks first in production of pig iron. 2. Two-thirds of iron ore is obtained from Lake Superior region. 3. Pennsylvania leads in the manufacture of iron products. 4. Minnesota ranks first in the output of iron. 5. First blast furnace operated under direction of William Penn. 6. First rolling mill established in 1817, at Plumstock, Pa. 215 VI. VII. Production and Distribution. 1. World's production in 1908. A. United States. D. France. B. Germany. E. Canada. C. Great Britain. F. Other countries. Uses. 1. Machinery. 6. Castings. 3. Utensils. 7. Stoves. 3. Tools. 8. Framework of buildings, 4. Railroad ties, rails, spikes, etc. 9. Wire and nails. 5. Bridges. 10. Medicine, etc. Questions on Iron. Name four classes of iron. 1410, With what metals is iron combined and why? Describe cast iron. What is pig iron? What medicinal properties has iron? Name the leading iron-producing states. In what does Pennsylvania lead? Why is the iron industry of the Southern States making rapid progress? Describe the Catalan furnace. What materials are used for fuel for smelting? Who is spoken of as "instructor of every artificer of brass and iron"? How do Canada and the United States rank among the nations in the pro- duction of iron? Name ten things in your home made of some form of iron. Explain what is meant by the Iron Age. What useful improvements in the iron industry were made by Cort? Who discovered the method of converting crude iron into steel? Old Ironsides. Ay, tear her tattered ensign down! Long has it waved on high, And many an eye has danced to see That banner in the sky ; Beneath it rang the battle-shout. And burst the cannon's roar ; — The meteor of the ocean air Shall sweep the clouds no more ! Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, Where knelt the vanquished foe, . When winds were hurrying o'er the flood. And waves were white below, No more shall feel the victor's tread, Or know the conquered knee ; — The harpies of the shore shall pluck The eagles of the sea ! ' - Oh, better that her shattered hulk Should sink beneath the wave ; Her thunders shook the mighty deep, And there should be her grave ; Nail to the mast her holy flag, Set every threadbare sail, And give her to the god of storms — The lightning and the gale! — Holmes. 216 Asbe^os. I. Description. 1. Composition — Magnesia, lime, iron-oxide. 2. Silky mineral fiber. 3. Will not burn. 4. Some flexible and elastic ; others brittle and stiff. II. Deposits. 1. All grand divisions. A. United States. a. Georgia. Sail Mountain — Has ledge 800 feet long, 350 feet wide, and of great depth. b. Montana. B. Canada. a. Pure white. b. Long fibers. c. Can be spun into yarn ; made into rope. III. Classes. 1. True asbestos. A. Rock-cork — Soft, light, and easily cut. B. Rock-leather. C. Rock-wood. 2. Chrysolite. IV. Uses. 1. Modern. ' A. Asbestos cement. B. Quick-setting plaster. C. Fireproof roofing, stage curtains, firemen's clothing. D. Deadening walls and floors. E. Sectional coverings for pipes and boilers. F. Insulator in electric mechanisms. G. Fireproof coat in paint. 2. Ancient. A. Absorbent in lamp wicking. B. Embalming robes for dead bodies, ashes being thus preserved when body is placed on the funeral pile for cremation. Questions on Asbestos. Is asbestos an element? Give reasons for your answer. What is the most valuable property of asbestos ? State several uses of it. Where is it found most extensively? Compare the American product with that of other parts of the world. What is known of the deposits in Canada? Name two articles of manu- facture made from the Canadian product. Why is it especially beneficial in making curtains for theaters? How was this mineral used by the ancients? What do you know of the extent of the use of asbestos? Nought in this life without much toil is bought. In this world of ours, The path to what we want ne'er runs on flowers. — Horace. 217 Alum. I. History. II. Classes. 1. Potassium alum. 2. Ammonium alum. 3. Sodium alum. III. Description. 1. Double salt. 2. Constituents. A. Alumnia. B. Alkali. a. With potash. b. With ammonia. c. With soda. C. Sulphuric acid. D. Water. 3. White and stringent. IV. V. Kinds. 1. Natural. A. From alum ore. B. Found in lower coal measures. 2. Manufactured. A. For commerce. B. Burnt alum. Use. 1. Preparing skins. 2. Mordant in calico printing. 3. Glazing paper. 4. Bread and pastry. 5. Clarifying liquors. 6. Harden tallow, fats, etc. 7. Baking powders. 8. Medicine. 9. Arts. Questions on Alum. How long has alum been manufactured ? Where was it known and manufactured in the 7th century ? What is the effect of alum applied to the flesh? Would you consider it healthful to use it in whitening bread ? What is burnt alum and for what is it used? Name the three general classes. Upon what do they depend? What useful property has it in dyeing? In what is it used to harden ? Break, Break, Break. Break, break, break. On thy cold gray stones, O sea ! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. O well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at play ! O well for the sailor lad, That he sings in his boat on the bay ! And the stately ships go on To their haven under the hill; But O for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still ! Break, break, break. At the foot of thy crags, O sea ! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. — Tennyson. 218 Aluminium. I. Discovery. 4. Form. II. Description. A. Drawn into fine wire 1. Metal. thread. A. Qualities. B. Rolled into thin foil. a. Ductile. 5. Alloyed with copper, steel, b. Malleable. etc. c. Sonorous. B. Weight. IV. Use. C. Color. 1. Ornaments. D. With what found. 2. Scientific instruments. a. Clay. 3. Bells. b. Mica. 4. Bicycles. c. Spar, etc. 5. Automobiles. III. Manufacture. 6. Airships. 1. By machinery. 7. Bath tubs. 2. Power employed — Electricity. 8. Torpedo boats. 3. Intense heat required. 9. Stoves. Questions on Aluminium. What is aluminium? Should it be classed with the elements? State a peculiar fact about this metal. Why has the extensive use of this metal been so recent? For what articles is it especially adapted, owing to the fact that it does not rust? How is aluminium made available for use? With what is it alloyed? What are some of the most recent products made from this metal ? Give two reasons for using aluminium in the manufacture of stoves, bath tubs, airships, and automobiles. What two reasons can you give for the constant increase in its use? The Isles of the Blest. The Isles of the Blest, they say, The Isles of the Blest, Are peaceful and happy, by night and by day. Far away in the glorious West. They need not the moon in that land of delight, They need not the pale, pale star ; The sun is bright, by day and night, Where the souls of the blessed are. They till not the ground, they plow not the wave, They labor not, never ! oh, never ! Not a tear do they shed, not a sigh do they heave. They are happy, for ever and ever ! — Pindar. 219 Salt. I. Definition. II. Uses. 1. Preserver of food. 2. Seasoning for food. 3. Uses in chemical and industrial arts. 4. Mordant. 5. For glazing coarse pottery. 6. Giving hardness to soap. 7. Imparting clearness to glass. III. Sources. 1. Ocean water and saline lakes (3%). 2. Salt rocks. 3. Springs and wells. IV. How Obtained in Market. 1. By evaporating or freezing water from the ocean. 2. By mining in beds of rock salt. V. In What Countries Found. 1. Michigan (Saginaw Bay). 2. Avery Island, La. (2,000 ft. thick). 3. Nevada and California. 4. Canada (Chiefly in Ontario). 5. Germany (In Brunswick and Hanover). 6. Russia in Europe (Worked since 12th century). a. Crimea. b. Caucasus. 7. China. 8. Persia. 9. Sahara. 10. Various parts of Australia and other arid countries. VI. Annual Output. 1. United States, 3,150,170 tons (Exceeds all others). 2. Canada, 80,000 barrels. Questions on Salt. What per cent, of ocean water is salt, by weight ? 2507. What can you say of it as an essential in foods for animals? What are the chief uses of salt? Give three sources by which salt is obtained. What can you say of the salt deposit in the Avery Island region of Louis iana? What is the annual output of salt in tons for Canada? What states rank first in the production of salt ? How many pounds of salt for every hundred pounds of water in the Dead Sea? 764. Why is the Dead Sea so salty? Where is the Salton Sea? 2509. Speak of the largest salt lake in Turkey ; in the United States. Why dost thou shun the salt? that sacred pledge. Which once partaken blunts the sabre's edge, Makes even contending tribes in peace unite, And hated hosts seem brethren to the sight. — Byron. 220 Minerals and Mining. The mining industry is one of the great enterprises. Information on the minerals is found under their appropriate titles, as Coal, Copper, Diamond, Gold, Iron, Silver, etc. The student is likewise referred to the subhead Minerals under the states, provinces, and leading countries of the world. MINERS GOING TO WORK. I. Mining Regions. A. 1. Colorado, Ontario, Pennsyl- vania, etc. 3. United States. 3. Canada, Mexico, and Cen- tral America. 4. Map drawing. 1. Outline maps. 2. Chalk mod- eled maps. a. Each country. b. Locate mining regions. c. Locate mining centers. 5. Nature and surface of the country in mining re- gions. 6. Minerals that . are mined in each region. 7. Amount produced. 8. Incidentally locate other re- gions, as agricultural, manufacturing, etc. B, 1. Study of South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, by out- line above. 2. Compare each continent with the other as to the ex- tent of the mining re- gions, nature and kind of minerals, and the amount produced or mined. II. Minerals. A. 1. Coal. 2. Iron. 3. Lead. 4. Zinc. 5. Copper. 6. Gold. 7. Silver. 8. Petroleum. 9. Stone. 10. Diamond. B. Outline for study of any min- eral. 1. Nature and composition. 2. Color and weight. 3. Where found. 4. How obtained. a. Process of mining. 1. Sinking the shaft. 2. Digging for the min- eral. 3. Separating it from dirt and other ma- terial. 4. Taking it out of mine. b. Preparing min- eral for use. 1. Clearing. 2. Smelting. 3. Molding. 4. M a r k e t- ing and ship- ping. 5. Stamping. Suggestion : minerals are found in the pure state and do not have to be taken through all the above processes. 5. Use. 6. Location of mines. a. In our own country. b. In other countries. 7. Comparative amounts of pro- duction. a. In this country. b. In other countries. Suggestion : Use specimens of minerals, if possible. Give the process in a general way. Some 221 Questions on Minerals and Mining. Of what does the art of mining consist? 1795. When and by whom was the first exhaustive treatise on mining published? What inventions have greatly facilitated the mining industry? Give a list of the most important minerals. Name some minerals which occur in seams or strata. Which occur in lodes ? For what mineral is each of the following noted : California, Nevada, Penn- sylvania, Michigan, Mexico, Ontario, and Yukon? Where are the most valuable diamond mines ? How are diamonds obtained ? Explain how tin ore is prepared for the market. How is petroleum, or mineral oil, secured? Name some of its products. Explain how prospecting is done. How are shafts sunk? Explain the long-wall method of mining coal. Name some agencies for blasting. Which is used most extensively? Name and locate some noted schools of mining. State some benefits of labor unions in connection with the mining industry. How may mineral titles be secured? Name the four lines of study into which mining is divided. Locate the chief mineral fields of Europe. Of South America. Of Australia. Flint and Steel. The Flint and Steel — the story goes — Old friends by natural relation, Fell out, one day, and like two foes. Indulged in bitter altercation. "I'm weary," said the angry Flint, "Of being beat: 'tis past concealing; Your conduct (witness many a dint Upon my sides !) is most unfeeling. "And what reward have I to show? What sort of payment do you render To one who bears each hateful blow That you may blaze in transient splendor ?" "You seem to think yourself abused," The Steel replied with proper spirit ; "But, say, unless with me you're used. What praise of service do you merit? "Your worth, as any one may see (For all your feeling of defiance), Is simply nought, unless with me You keep your natural alliance." "True!" said the Flint; "but there's no call, Whate'er my worth, for you to flout it; My value, sir ! may be but small ; But think what yours would be without it!" — J. G. Saxe, 222 I. Definition. The science that treats of plants— Their structure, the functions of their parts, and the conditions governing their growth. II, Divisions. 1. Structural or morphological — Dealing with plant structure. 2. Physiological— Treating of the function and vital action of plants. 3. Descriptive or systematic— Relating to classification and arrangement. 4. Paleontological — Treating of fossil plants. 5. Phanerogams — Flowering plants. 6. Cryptogams — Flowerless plants. III. Plants. 1. Organs of growth. A. Roots and rootlets. a. Grow downward. b. Gather moisture and nutri- tion from soil. B. Stems. a. Grow upward. b. Bear leaves. C. Leaves. a. Color — Greenish or brown- ish. b. Grow mostly from upper part of stem. c. Differ in form and size. d. One side of leaf faces the sky and the other is turned toward ground. 2. Subsistence. A. Water. B. Earth. C. Air. a. Assimilated through roots and leaves. 3. Necessary elements. A. Light. B. Heat. C. Moisture. IV. History. 1. Not studied as long as astron- omy or geography, 2. Taught in time of King Solo- mon. 3. Early botany students. A. Theophrastus — Pupil of Aris- totle. B. Diosconides, of Asia Minor. C. Pliny the Elder. D. Otto Brunfels of Germany. E. Linnaeus — Swedish natural- ist. F. Bernard Jussieu — French scholar. G. Darwin. V. Classification. 1. Annuals — Live one year. 2. Biennials — Live two years. 3. Perennials — Live year after year. 4. Structure. A. Herbs. B. Undershrubs. C. Shrubs. D. Trees. 5. Evergreen — Retain foliage the entire year. 6. Deciduous — Shed leaves in the fall. 7. Genus — Scientific names o f plants. 8. Species — More than 120,000. 9. Variety — Numerous. VI. 1. Cryptogams. A. Seedless apple. B. Bacteria. C. Diatoms — Microscopic plants. D. Mold — Low type of growth. E. Rust — Fungus growth on ce- reals and grasses. F. Yeast — Fungus growth. G. Algae — Plants that grow in water. H. Lichens — Sort of fungus growth. 223 I. Mosses — S e V e r a 1 thousand species. J. Ferns — 4,000 species. K. Desmids and pond scums. L, Liverworts. M. Scouring rushes. N. Club mosses. O. Fission plants. 2. Phanerogams. A. Coniferae — Pine family. a. Pine. f. Tamarack. b. Spruce. g. Cypress. c. Hemlock, h. Arbor Vitae. d. Fir. i. Cedar. e. Larch. j. Juniper. B. Angiosperms. a. Monocotyledons. 1. Cat-tail family. 2. Grass. 3. Sedge. 4. Arum. 5. Spiderwort. 6. Pickerel weed. 7. Rush. 8. LiHaceae (Lily) family. a. Wild oats. b. Wild onion. c. Common tulip. d. White dog-toothed vio- let. e. Wild hyacinth. f. Star of Bethlehem. g. Asparagus. h. Jacob's ladder. i, Lily-of-the-valley. j. Wake robin. k. Green briar. 9. Amaryllis family. a. Daffodil. b. Star grass. 10. Iris family. a. Crocus. b. Blue flag. c. Fleur-de-lis. d. Yellow flag, 11. Orchis family. b. Dicotyledons. 1. Willow family. a. Poplar. b. Cottonwood. c. Aspen. d. Weeping willow. 2. Walnut family. a. Black walnut, butter- nut. b. Hickory — Pecan, pig- nut. 3. Birch family. a. Hazelnut. 4. Beech family. a. Oak — Red, black, white, burr. 5. Elm family. a. White elm. b. Slippery elm. c. Hackberry. 6. Mulberry family. 7. Nettle family. 8. Buckwheat family. a. Sheep sorrel. b. Swamp dock. c. Knotgrass. 9. Pink family. 10. Peonia family. a. Marsh marigold. 1. Buttercup. 2. Cowslip. b. Wild columbine. c. Blue larkspur. d. Marsh clematis. 11. Poppy family. a. Dutchman's breeches. b. Bleeding heart. c. Bloodroot. 12. Mustard family. a. Horse-radish. b. Water cress. c. Shepherd's purse. 13. Rose family. a. Quince, pear, apple, haw. b. R a s p b e r r y, mul- berry, blackberry, dew- berry, strawberry. c. Wild rose, sweetbrier. d. Plum, peach, cherry. 14. Pulse family. a. Honey locust. b. Clover, alfalfa. c. Wistaria. d. Wild pea, sweet pea, peanut. 15. Geranium family. 16. Vine family. a. Grape. b. Boston ivy. c. Virginia creeper. d. Woodbine. 17. Linden family — B a s s- wood. -18. Violet family. 19. Begonia family. 224 20. Cactus family. b. Bluebells. a. Night-blooming cereus. c. Forget-me-not. 21. Primrose family. d. Blue thistle. 22. Ginseng family. 32. Verbena family. 23. Parsley family. 33. Mint family. a. Caraway. a. Catnip. b. Parsnip. b. Ground ivy. c. Carrot. c. Motherwort. 24. Dogwood family. d. Garden sage. 25. Heath family. 34. Nightshade family. a. Wild honeysuckle. a. Bittersweet. b. Sheep laurel, trailing 35. Honeysuckle family. arbutus, Mayflower. 36. Composite family. c. Wild rosemary. a. Daisy. d. Huckleberrv, cranberry. b. Garden coreopsis. 26. Olive family.^ c. Mayweed (Dog's a. Ash. nel). b. Common lilac. d. Marguerite. 27. Gentian family. e. Ragweed. 28. Milkweed family. f. Bachelor's button. 29. Morning-glory family. g. Fall thistle. 30. Phlox family. h. Chicory. 31. Borage family. i. Dandelion. a. Common heliotrope. j. Wild lettuce. fen- Questions in Botany; Name three distinguishing features between plants and animals. 346. Upon what do plants subsist? Name the four main divisions of plants. 2232. Name three eminent botany students of early days. Who was the first writer of this subject? Define annual, perennial, dicotyledon, parasite. What are rust and yeast? How are ferns propagated? To what family does the apple belong? 120. By whom was the flowerless, seedless apple evolved? 121. What beverages are made from grapes, apples, corn, and agave? From what are asafetida, arnica, and opium made? State a peculiarity of the eucalyptus tree. What are sago, palmetto, and caoutchouc? Name some useful tropical plants. Describe tobacco, maple, and holly. How did the name mandrake originate? By what other name is it known? From what is manilla hemp made? Linseed oil? What are weeds? How do plants'become weeds? Name several species of oak. What does the name oak signify? Name some plants noted for their wood. For what is ginseng used ? By whom principally ? To what person and State is the celebration of Arbor day due? What is an aquarium and for what is it used ? These children of the meadows, born Of sunshine and of showers. 225 — Whit tier. Flowers. Description. 1. Parts. A. Receptacle, base of flower B. Perianth. a. Sepals. b. Petals. C. Corolla. D. Calyx. E. Pistils (Female organs). a. Ovary. b. Ovules. c. Stigma. d. Style. F. Stamens (Male organs). a. Filament. b. Anther. c. Pollen. 2. Diversities. A. a. Hermaphrodite. b. Unisexual. B. a. Neuter. b. Naked. C. Sessile. 3. Inflorescence. A. Indeterminate. Axillary — Red currant. Raceme — Forget-me-not. Corymb — Red haw. Umbel — Carrot. Spike — Plantain. Head — Clover. Panicle — Oats. B. Determinate. a. Terminal — Basswood. b. Cyme — Chickweed. 4. Reproduction. A. Manner, a. Transportation of pollen from stamen to pistil. B. Agencies. a. Insects. b. Birds. c. Falling of pollen. d. Blowing through air. C. Best results obtained from fertilization from differ- ent flowers of plants of same or similar species. 5. Variations. A. Forms. B. Colors. C. Construction. II. Floriculture. 1. Nurseries. 2. Landscape gardening. 3. Conservatories, hothouses, etc. a. b. c. d. e. f. IV. 1. 2. III. Object. 1. Producing Uses. Beautifying earth. Commercial purposes. A. Perfume. B. Honey. C. Coloring. D. Medicine. V. Adoption of Flowers. 1. When. 2. Why. 3. How chosen. 4. Where adopted. A. Nations. a. Canada — Maple leaf. b. England — Rose. c. Egypt — Lily (Sacred). d. Ireland — Shamrock. e. Scotland — Thistle. f. United States — Goldenrod. (For states, see list.) VI. Artificial Flowers. 1. By whom made. A. Early times. a. Italians. b. Egyptians. c. Romans. B. Present. a. Americans. b. Germans. c. French. 2. Use. A. Millinery. B. Decorations. 226 Materials. VII. Language of Flowers. A. Wax. 1. Flowers are used as types to ex- B. Paper. press thoughts and feelings. C. Shell. 2. Where developed. D. Horn. 3. By whom. E. Whalebone. 4. Types in common. F. Rubber. A. Amaranth — Immortality. G. Velvet. B. Oak leaf — Power. H. Ribbons, etc. ^- ^?'' rosebud— Confession of love. D. White rosebud — Happy in love. 5. See list. Questions on Flowers. Name the principal parts of a flower. When is a flower said to be perfect? When sessile? What is pollen and of what use is it? 2263. State some uses of flowers. How did the adoption of flowers as emblems come about? 1020. What flower is considered sacred in Egypt? How were many of the State flowers selected? Name the adopted floral emblems in the states of Illinois, New York, Cali- fornia, and Iowa. Give a list of at least six national flowers. What flowers last only one day and night ? Do flowers generally remain open at night? What is said to be the most beautiful and fragrant of flowers ? Who were the first to advance the art of making artificial flowers to a more perfect state? Which nations now excel in this industry? What is the value of the annual export of flowers from Germany and France? What is meant by flower language ? State the significance of the following : Pansy, laurel, apple blossom, violet, daisy, and goldenrod. 1021, Who is considered god of flowers ? Flowers in Literature. spake full well, in language quaint and olden, One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, When he called the flowers, so blue and golden. Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. — Longfellow. In Eastern lands they talk in flowers, And they tell in a garland their loves and cares ; Each blossom that blooms in their garden bowers On its leaves a mystic language bears. — Percival. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Old Time is still a-flying, And this same flower that smiles today, Tomorrow will be dying. — Herrick. 227 THE fact that poetry preceded prose In the origin of Hterature indicates the natural desire of mankind for beauty. Poetry is the voice of imagina- tion, of music, of ideals; prose, of the practical affairs of life, of criti- cism, of the exposition of knowledge. As poetry is to literature, so is literature to education in general : that phase of common school education which arouses the desire for art and gives a finer taste for all that is best in achievement. Prose is to literature what the practical studies of mathematics and sciences are to education. A man's life could never reach its most complete achievement without both, but the natural instinct of man is for the ideal rather than the practical. The centuries when man's natural expression in all literature was in verse proves this. The practical must come, as it did in prose, but the natural desire must be satisfied first or the zest for the practical will be lost. Literature satisfies this natural craving of man ; it furnishes the inspiration, the personality of education. From the time savage man told of his conquests in wild, barbaric verse to the present-day poetry, polished in form and abounding in knowledge, narra- tives have been told in rhyme. When these stories swung themselves off in ringing stanzas which sing in spite of one's self, they fell easily under the head of ballads. But it is in the epics of literature that the more pretentious of these stories come, and the world's greatest writers have used this method of narra- tion. The German Nibelungenlied, the Greek Iliad and Odyssey, and the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf are among the most famous examples of the world's early epics. Coming down through the centuries of English literature, it is found that the most profound subject-matter — dramatic, ideal, and sustained — has found its expression in the epics of Paradise Lost, Faerie Quecne, and Idylls of the King. It was not until several centuries of development had passed in the British Isles that the drama found birth through the demand for action in literature. Prose was not developed sufficiently even in the 17th century to furnish an expression for the novel, yet people were eager for stories, and, as the masses could not read, the drama, modified and made more expressive of human character, was drafted into service. The lyric, the natural song of the poet's heart, the expression of all the emotions of mankind, has existed always, as the laughter and tears of the world have always existed. These forms, the ballad, the epic, the drama, and the lyric, furnish the basis of all poetic forms of expression. 228 Prose in the early history of the nations was merely the mode of express- ing facts. Historical chronicles are the earliest forms of it in Anglo-Saxon prose. The Reformation advanced the clearness of English prose through the argumentation then prevalent. The printing press made it possible to present political and religious views in pamphlets. From that time there was a steady, but slow, growth in prose expression. Humor and nature found their way into the heavy sentences in the latter part of the 17th century. The presence of these elements made the entire prose expression more elastic and variable. The novel naturally follows, and critical essays developed rapidly as the possibilities of a concise, flexible prose offered themselves to the writers of these centuries. To-day it hardly seems possible that our literature was ever lacking in the many departments which are only possible through prose — those of the essay, the novel, the short story, the oration, and even that of our current periodicals. We can scarcely estimate the wealth of our inheritance in literature. Everything of importance in the literature of other ages is ours through trans- lation, added to the magnificent production of our own English-speaking men of letters. The study of it should be an inspiration, not only to greater individual .development, but toward that of the natural life as well, through the efforts of our public schools. Studying Literature, BOYS and girls of the age to study literature are ready, emotionally, for all that is beautiful in prose and poetry; mentally, they are just at the stage of their development where the realization that they have power to make clear to themselves and others the masterpieces of literature is of the greatest importance. A feeling of power leads to a further desire into new fields of conquest. In no development of school work is this general charac- teristic of mankind so forcibly evident as in the study of literature. But to develop this trait the pupil must be allowed sufficient freedom for research work, must be given a chance to develop the imitative within him. The teacher must keep in the background, an inspiring and guiding force, but not to take away the zest of discovery from the pupil by giving him what he can find for himself. No public school course can do more than open the doors to the vast pleas- ures in literature : but those doors may be opened in such a way that the boys and girls will never care to shut them again — in fact, never can shut them again — against the enjoyment of companionship with the world's greatest men and women. The plan of research and report work through topics assigned by the teacher leaves the pupil the power of imitation within the bounds of his ability. The outline of literature following this introduction is designed to furnish topics for pupils' work in chronological order, so that a complete history of Eng- lish and American literature may stand out definitely, as well as the interpretation and detailed study of the individual Vv^riters. The reports assigned on these topics are to be presented to the class by the pupil in such a manner that notes can be taken and recited upon. Each writer's characteristics should be proved through the reading of his productions, and definite examples given to illustrate the truth of the subdivisions under that head. This particular part of the outline plan develops true critical ability in reading and brings the boys and girls to realize 229 ■^ VICTORIAH PERIOD OICKENS TH/iCKERAY ELIOT ROMANTIC PERIOD SCOTT 18^-^ CENT. NOVEL DErOE RICHARDSON FIELDING GOLDSMITH I £ H zz "^ t >lJ4JlK>Li-Li-LK>LI-lJ-mJ-UHJ-^>^>LK>^^ 7^ ^ L[E®.EK]®§-D STfQ^DEg - §®[ra£ PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 230 their ability to read good books intelligently; having realized this once, litera- ture of a poorer class will lose its attraction, for the poor sentiment, the lack of strength, the bombastic display of rhetoric will appear to them as the toys of their earlier years. Thus there is a possibility here which must appeal to every true teacher: the possibility of removing future failures in the lives of boys and girls, by creating an indifference to all but the best. English Literature. Old English of Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066). I. Historical Background. A. Roman conquest of Britain. B. Teutonic conquests. C. Introduction of Christianity. II. First Poetry and Writers. A. Scop and Gleeman. B. Beowulf: greatest Anglo-Saxon epic. C. Caedmon and his paraphrase. D. The Cynewulf cycle. E. Characteristics. a. Love of the sea and war. b. Background of rugged, stormy land. c. Gloom ; stern sense of duty. d. Rhythm, but no rhyme. III. Prose Productions and Writers. ' A. Alfred the Great. B. Bade. C. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Suggestions for Study and Questions on the Anglo-Saxon Period. Beowulf — Read translations in Morley's English Writers, and prepare report of characteristics of Anglo-Saxon literature foun-d in the poem. What difference is there in the treatment of nature by the Anglo-Saxon and a writer of to-day? Is there any analogy between the struggles in the poem and the struggles of the Teutons with nature? What knowledge of early customs does the poem give? How can you account for the fact that poetry precedes prose in its origin ? What effect did the introduction of Christianity have on the character and literature of the Anglo-Saxons? What work of this period is similar to Paradise Lost? The Transition Period. (1066-1400). I. Historical Background. A. Norman Conquest, B. The Crusades. C. Unsettled conditions of England following Norman Conquest. D. Final mingling of Anglo-Saxon and Norman races. II. General Characteristics of Period. A. No settled language. B. A period of lack of productions until the last century. C. First productions in English language. 231 III. Writers. A. Prose. 1. Geoffrey of Monmouth. 2. Sir John Mandeville. 3. John Wychffe. B. Poets. 1. John Gower. 2. William Langland. 3. Geoffrey Chaucer. a. Life. b. Minor poems. 1. Legend of Good Women. 2. Troylus and Cryseyde. 3. House of Fame. c. Masterpiece. 1. Canterbury Tales. a. Plan. b. Characteristics of early times. c. Chaucer's characteristics in poems. d. Characteristics of poetry. 1. Influence of French and Italian hterature. 2. Love of nature. 3. Breadth of sympathy, 4. Humor. 5. Power to tell story in verse. 6. Portrayal of character. e. Place. 1. Founder of English language. 2. Third place among English writers by some critics; fourth by others in poetic ability. 3. First great English poet in time. Suggestions and Questions for Study. Why is this period called the Transition Period? Why is Monmouth valuable to later writers? What similarity is there between Mandeville's Travels and Swift's GuUiver^s Travels F Why is John Wycliffe called the "Morning Star of the Reformation"? On what is Wycliffe's rank as the most important prose writer of the 14th century based ? How does John Gower show the confused state of the English language in his time? What is the similarity between William Langland's Piers Plowman and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress f Into what three periods is Chaucer's work divided? Why does Chaucer's work close the Transition Period? Read the Prologue and the Knight's Tale from Dryden's translation of the Canterbury Tales and make reports to illustrate Chaucer's characteristics of humor, power of character portrayal, and love of nature. Compare Dryden's translation with the original verse of Chaucer to get the difference between the early and modern English language. That noble Chaucer in those former times, Who first enriched our Enghsh with his rhymes; Spoke first in mighty numbers, delving in the mine Of perfect knowledge. — Wordsworth. 2B2 The Fifteenth Century. A Period of Literary Depression. I. Historical Background. A. War of Roses. B. Discovery of America. C. Introduction of printing. D. Capture of Constantinople. II. General Characteristics. A. Reaction against chivalry. B. Lack of freedom of thought. C. Lack of high ideals in education. D. Ballad singing. III. Literature. A. Prose. 1. Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur. 2. William Tyndale's Translation of the Bible. a. Very similar to present version. b. Clearness of prose expression advanced. 3. Robert Ascham's School-master. B. Poetry. 1. Scottish ballads by William Dunbar. 2. Review of old songs : Rohin Hood; Chevy Chase. 3. Introduction of Italian sonnet form by Wyatt and Surrey. English as Written in the 15th Century. Sir Percival. But this knyght that foughte with Syre Percyval was a proved knyght and a wyse fyght- inge knyghte, and Syre Percyvale was yonge and stronge, not knowying in fyghtying as the other was. Thenne Syre Percyval spake fyrste and sayd syre knyght hold thy hand a whyle stille, for we have foughten for a symple mater and quarel over longe, and there- fore I requyre thee tell me thy name, for I was never or this tyme matched. Soo god me help, sayd that knyghte that wounded me soo sore as thow hast done, and yet have I foughten in many batails, and now shalt thow wete that I am a knyghte of the table round, and my name is Syre Ector de Marys broder unto the good knighte Syre Launce- lot du Lake. Alias said Syre Percyval and my name is Syre Percyval de Galys that hath made my quest to seke Syre Launcelot, and now I am seker that I shall never fynysshe my quest, for ye have slayne me with your handles. It is not soo said Syre Ector, for I am slayne by yoore handes, therefore I requyre you ryde ye here by to a pryory, and brynge me a preest that I may receyve my Saveour, for I may not lyve. Alas said Syre Percyval that never will be, for I am so faynte for bledyne that I maye unnethe stande, how shold I thenne take my hors. "^Thomas Malory. Test Questions. What makes this period one of importance to English literature in spite of the lack of productions? Can you see any reason why the use of gunpowder necessitated a change in the subject-matter of romance? What effect does a civil war have on the literary production of the country during the time it is in progress? Apply your answer to the case of England during the War of the Roses. The events enumerated in the historical background of the period are among the reasons why the Elizabethan period was one of such remarkable literary bril- liancy. Why did they not have the same effect on the period in which they occurred ? Of what value was the capture of Constantinople to literature? Read the ballads : A Lyteel Geste of Robyn Hood, Robyn Hood's Death and Burial, The Nut-Brown Maid. 233 Age of Elizabeth. (1558-1625). Climax of Greatness in English Literature. I. Historical Background. A. Exploration and settlement of the New World. B. Gradual development of Puritanism. C. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. D. Reign of Elizabeth. E. Reign of James I. (first of Stuart kings). II. Influences Giving Rise to Greatness of Literature. A. Liberal intelligence of Elizabeth. B. Combined effects of Renaissance and Reformation. C. Imagination aroused by stories of New World. D. Rise of middle class. E. Greater use of printing press. III. General Characteristics of Literature. A. Strong imagination. B. Youthful enthusiasm. C. Love of adventure. D. Love of nature. E. Variety of subject-matter. F. Dramatic expression. G. Extravagant decoration. IV. Production. A. Prose. 1. Philip Sidney. 2. Richard Hooker. ■ 3. Francis Bacon. a. Life. b. Works. 1. Essays on all subjects. 2. Scientific and historical. c. Literary characteristics. 1. Clear, concise sentences. 2. Breadth of knowledge. 3. Figures drawn from court life. 4. Interest. B. Poetry. 1. Nondramatic. a. Edmund Spenser. 1. Life. 2. Works. a. Minor poems. 1. Shepherd' s Calendar. 2. Epithalamium. b. Masterpiece. 1. Faerie Queene. a. Place. b. Style. c. Rank. Thanks to the human heart by which we live, Thanks to its tenderness, its joys, and fears, To me the meanest flower that blows can give Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. — Wordsworth. 234 ^ ia' 11 2 fcS e=©^_,-i>K. • BLACKBOARD LESSON. 235 c. Characteristics. 1. Melody. 2. High ideals. 3. Absolute expression. 4. Influence on other poets. 5. Spenserian stanza. b. Large number of writers of lyrics used sonnets. Dramatic. a. Thomas Sackville. b. Christopher Marlowe. 1. Life. 2. Works. a. Example of greed for money. 1. The Jew of Malta. b. Example of greed for knowledge. 1. Dr. Faustus. c. Example of greed for conquest. 1. Tamhurlaine the Great. 3. Characteristics. a. Extravagant imagination. b. Extreme types in character. c. Youthful enthusiasm. d. Highly decorated expression. 4. Influence. a. Made blank verse variable and flexible, to suit subject- matter. b. Shakespeare adopted his new form. c. William Shakespeare. 1. Life. 2. Work. a. Nondramatic. 1. Venus and Adonis. 2. Liicrece. 3. 150 sonnets. b. Characteristics of nondramatic poems. 1. Subject-matter — Love and nature. 2. Exquisite expression in sonnet form. c. Rank of nondramatic work. 1. Would have placed Shakespeare among the first poets of the world. d. Dramatic — According to periods of life. 1. Youthful, hopeful period. a. Comedy of Errors. b. Midsummer Night's Dream. c. Romeo and Jidiet. d. Richard II. and ///. 2. Deeper insight, deeper philosophy, better plot. a. As You Like It. b. Merchant of Venice. c. Henry IV. and Henry V. 3. Disappointment, sorrow, weakened faith. a. Hamlet. b. Julius Caesar. c. Othello. d. Macbeth. 236 4. Closing years — Faith and strength. a. Cymbeline. b. The Tempest. e. Plot. 1. Material. a. From old English chronicles. b. From Plutarch's Lives. c. Miscellaneous manuscript. 2. Treatment in general. a. Act. I. 1. Introduction of main character. 2. Previous history. 3. Purpose and plan of hero. 4. Background. b. Act II. 1. Development of hero's purpose. 2. Introduction of opposition active. 3. Introduction of minor lines of actions. c. Act III. 1. Climax. d. Act IV. 1. Decline of opposition. 2. Progress of hero's plan. e. Act V. 1. Conclusion. f. General characteristics. 1. Sympathy with all classes. 2. Love of nature. 3. Humor. 4. Mixture of comedy and tragedy. 5. Command of vocabulary. 6. Imagery. g. Rank. 1. First of all times and nations. d. Ben Jonson. 1. Life. 2. Works. a. Prose. 1. Critical essays. b. Poetry. 1. Nondramatic. a. Lyrics. ^ 2. Dramatic. a. The Silent Woman. b. Volpone. c. The Alchemist. d. Masques. 3. Characteristics. a. Display of technical knowledge. b. Lack of sympathy. c. Satire. d. Vigorous critical power. e. Exquisite lyrical expression. e. Beaumont and Fletcher. f. John Webster. Hope, for a season, bade the world farewell, And freedom shriek'd, as Kosciusko felL — Campbell. 237 B ci X. R ot TC R ^\ TH- R c+ ZS- Bctl -t-K^ C-k T^ ^' 3 = Cj^t/s Cld-ry^Q-rrvLcnriJO "to yni > >^,n ru. >%4JLl/v-*CjC "to koLJt. I'dL^rt^. 5 = 3Lo-5J»-o (o r M o-»w-vi!j»_X "touL4'C/i u o .L3rJf-u Vv4_o »no"tJ-ujv.- BLACKBOARD XESSON. 238 I =• ''^*^^ ^aJ-*r>o C^OodL <.juLC-a. e*:f pu-c^^ . o 4-r >^^*^^ p^^i^w^ oolXK "^^craA^c^OL^wa ^^.-v-^ ^ 1 ^ IxJ*^^ >^45.oM^ «^.A-LM- -i/- sg/ •<»* ^^y %i2> m ^'2^^^2-eot^«p6*;t^^ -^XjuU-^^y^^ Zu^jJz •^^^:ig,yi^e^. L i i^M - III T ill j ill -^S^^^J^'O^cCtt^vJL- A^iM^U^. ^^ <3^^-,^ Co-i;U«/t/. fc^ tie '4 ^! ^^^'i'^"^^^^ JhL.ii^Z^.y^. ^ •!'• ^& tj* ^2t tji lit>-i.-c/i2>2^ -<;^t^ -l^^^^-r>'i^tyCeyz^ -^Q^CA-cl-, 'Q-*xy, iX'<;i.yj[tjeyi. — "'Zx2lt_co't>-i-'a-'t-^ . (j^SL^X/t ^»i<-ClE/l>-t-t-C-2 . DESIGNS AND MODEI^S FOR DRAWING, ETC 268 February Lessons. "When shines the February sun, When melting snows begin to run, When baby brooks, though sound asleep, Must from their winter cradle peep." Grades I, II and m. Make large paper cuttings to il- lustrate incidents in the lives of Washington, Longfellow and Lincoln. Make a booklet of cut- tings. Give plenty of action draw- ings and blackboard work during the month. Illustrate poems. Much of the work in February should be done in silhouette. Grade IV. Begin action work and pose drawing. Give a great deal of silhouette work. Make a booklet of silhouettes taken from the lives of Washington or Lincoln. Design a book cover. Grades V, VI, VH and VHI. ■ Begin pose drawings. Study for leading lines in the pose and work for accu- rate drawings. Study the lives of Washington, Lincoln, and Longfellow, and illustrate incidents in the lives of these men. Make a booklet of illustrations from the life of any one of them. Design an appropriate cover page. Paint stained glass windows. fe;bruary. March Lessons. "When the March winds whistle shrill, And go tearing down the hill, And the melting snows run free, Then it's clear to you and me Spring will come as it did last year, Spring is coming, never fear." Grades I, II and HI. Silhouette drawings of animals. Make large cuttings of animals. Make paintings of animals in color. If possi- ble bring animals into the schoolroom (a dog, cat, hen, rooster, rabbit, squir- rel, etc.). Illustrate wind poems and stories. MARCH. Grade IV. Study the work of the wind. Paint a windmill and place it in a landscape. Make a booklet illustrating the work of the wind. Design a cover page. Paint birds in colors. Grades V and VI. Paint birds and mount them with appropriate poems. Make a booklet of birds and design the cover page. Draw a perspective as related to rectangular objects and landscapes. Paint a marine scene. Grades VH and VIII. Study perspective as related to rectangular objects. Draw boxes, books, chairs, tables, etc. Paint a marine scene, illustrating some poem. 269 My heart leaps up; I behold a rainbow — So was it when I was a child; So is it now I am a man; So shall it be when I grow old, Or let me die. — Wordsworth APRII,. Grades I, II and III. Paint spring landscapes. Paint trees and place them in a landscape. Paint spring flowers. Illustrate spring poems. Make large cuttings to illustrate the month of April. Make a booklet of painted flowers. Grade IV. Paint spring landscapes. Make a landscape booklet. Study and paint trees. Paint spring flowers. Illustrate spring poems. Grades V and VI. Paint trees. Make a tree booklet, combining painted trees and appropriate poems. Paint spring landscapes. Continue the study of perspective as related to landscapes. Illustrate the April poem. Grade VII. Continue the study of perspective as related to rectangular objects and land- scapes. Paint spring landscapes. Illustrate the April poem and bind it into the booklet. Paint a spring poem in neutral values and in colors. Grade VIII. Draw a house in perspective. Draw a house in free-hand perspective and place it in a landscape with proper environments. Draw the interior of a room and decorate it in harmonious colorings. May Lessons, "All the birds and bees are singing, All the lily bells are ringing, All the brooks run full of laughter, And the wind comes whispering after. 'What is this?' they sing and say. 'It is May !' " MAY. Grades I, H, III, IV, V, VI, VII and Vffl. Review any part of the year's work. Illustrate the May poem, scapes, birds, and flowers. Paint land- Water Colors. (a) Children must have plenty of exercise in handling water colors, (b) Teach the child from the beginning to mix colors in his brush and lift all colors directly from the cake, (c) Do not let him "work over" his colors, (d) In paint- ing flowers, he should lift the fresh colors from the cakes and place them on paper at once. For instance : If he wishes to paint the sunflower in color, he should dampen his brush, fill it with yellow and a touch of red, and apply immediately to the paper. The brown should be mixed in his brush and applied to the center of the flower. If the leaves are painted in the same manner, fresh, pleasing colors will be obtained. Paint directly from the flower. Do not draw and then paint. In pamtmg landscapes, work for effect and not detail. All paper should be dampened. Avoid hard lines, (e) The mixing of color for the design should be done in the paint pans. 270 Perspective. The Horison is the apparent junction of the earth and sky. The Line of the Horizon is the apparent line where the earth and sky seem to meet. LINE. OF THE HORIZON FIG I All receding parallel lines meet at the same point, if they are sufficiently extended. If the drawing is correct, this point is on the horizon line and is called the vanishing point (See Fig. I). LINE OF THE HORIZON FIG.H When the faces of rectangular objects are viewed obliquely, they appear fore- shortened (See Fig. II). LINE OF THE HORIZON When the edges of parallel horizontal lines recede to the left of an object, they appear to converge to- a vanishing point at the left of the object. When they recede to the right of the object, they appear to converge to a vanishing point at the right of the object (See Fig. III). LINE or THE HORiZON FIG. EZ When the rectangular faces of an object are turned away unequally, the vanishing points are unequally distant from the nearest point of observation. The greater the angle, the nearer will be the vanishing point (See Fig. IV). The appearance of a face view of a circle is always a circle (See Fig. V). When a circle is seen obliquely, it always appears like an ellipse (See Fig, V). 271 18 Pencil Drawing. Use a soft pencil. The M. S. (medium soft) is very good for ordinary work, but the pencil intended for drawing should not be used for writing exercises. While it is not wise to give too many directions in pencil rendering, it is a good plan to insist upon the pupils working directly and freely. They should never be allowed to work over and over the paper, for by so doing a shiny effect is pro- duced. When a dark tone is desired, the child should immediately produce that tone by a strong pressure of the pencil. Show the students specimens of good work and let them copy. Lead them to do original drawings. Poems for Illustrations. "The Owl and the Pussy Cat went to sea In a beautiful pea green boat. 'Have you seen the sunshine fairies Peeping out at you — Red and orange, green and yellow, Violet and blue?' " "Over in the meadow, In the sand, in the sun, Lived an old mother-toad And her little toadie one." (See Fig. I.) FIG. I. FIG. III. Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night Sailed off in a wooden shoe. — Eugene Field "I know a house so fair and fine, No flaw in it can you detect ; A silver beauty smooths each line. Drawn by its patient architect." (Spider Web) 'Clouds of gray are in the sky. Flocks of birds are passing by." "By the shining big sea water, Stood the wigwam of Nokomis." "High on the branch of a walnut tree. A bright eyed squirrel sat ; What was he thinking so earnestly And what was he looking at?" "Apple blossoms budding, blowing In the soft May air ; Cups with sunshine overflowing, Flakes of_ fragrance drifting, snowing. Showering everywhere." tiring the comb and play upon it ! Marching here we come ; Willie cocks his highland bonnet, Jennie beats the drum, Mary Jane commands the party, Over in the meadow. Where the streams run blue, Lived an old mother-fish And her little fishes two." (See Fig. II.) "Over in the meadow. In a hole in a tree. Lived a mother-bluebird And her little birdies three.' (See Fig. in.) "Over in the meadow, In a snug bee-hive, Lived a mother-honeybee And her little honeys five." (See Fig. IV.) yiQ. I v. Peter leads the rear : Feet in time, alert and hearty. Each a grenadier. — Robert Louis Stevenson. (See Fig. V.) FIG. V. How do you like to go up in a swing. Up in the air so blue? Oh, I do think it the pleasantest thing Ever a child can do. 272 — Robert Louis Stevenson. pe;ncil drawing. 273 "Once there was a little birdie, Sitting in a shady tree, And this song sang little birdie, 'God is good — He cares for me.' " "Three little bunnies Out for a run In the bright moonlight, O ! what fun." "The bluebird chants, from the elm's long branches, A hymn to welcome the budding year." "A rainbow in the morning Is the sailor's warning." "A fair little girl sat under a tree, Sewing as long as her eyes could see." "Long may it wave O'er the land of the free And the home of the brave." A little black cricket Lives down in a thicket, O, a jolly young cricket so gay !_ — Selected. The moon has a face like the clock in the hall; She shines on thieves on the garden wall. On streets and fields and the harbor quays. And birdies asleep in the forks of the trees. — Robert Louis Stevenson. The friendly cow, all red and white, I love with all my heart; She gives me cream with all her might To eat with apple tart — Robert Louis Stevenson, "On goes the river And out past the mill. Away down the valley. Away down the hill." "What do you think I saw All bundled up in fur, Swinging at ease on a willow spray? Nine little pussies, plump and gray; But I could not find a sign of a claw Nor even the tip of a velvet paw ; What do you think they were?" (Pussy Willows). "High up the old gray garden wall The morning-glories climb. To kiss the stately hollyhocks. All in the summer time." "Hang a lantern aloft in the belfry tower Of the old North Church as a signal light.' Robins in the tree top, Blossoms in the grass. Green things a-growing Evervwhere we pass. -T. B. Aldrich. THE HARE AND THE TORTOISE. Stories for Illustratioii. The Sheep and Pig that Set Up House. The Lion and the Mouse. The Foxes and Ducks. The Little Red Hen. The Old Woman and Her Pig. Cinderella. The Three Pigs. The Three Bears. The Hare and the Tortoise. The Story of Chicken Little. The Donkey and the Salt. Clytie. TIte Poplar Tree. Jack and the Bean Stalk. Many stories used in connection with reading, literature, language, and his- tory should be used for iUustrations. 274 Paper Cutting. In drawing, the little child seems to naturally express the details and to lose sight of the large, important facts. He does not see any relation of these details to the whole. Free-hand cutting will do much to overcome this tendency. There is magic in a pair of scissors and a piece of paper. "Some speak with brush and palette, And some with pen and ink, But to speak with a pair of scissors Is the nicest way, we think." Insist on large free-hand cuttings. Never let the student draw and then cut. He should early learn to give his own free self-expression and idea of a story or object through this medium. The teacher herself should learn to cut quickly and well. Large cuttings from black paper should be pasted on large cards to be used as models. Oftentimes the cutting should be direct from the object. The teacher can prepare cards to meet the needs of the day. The following cuttings to be prepared by the teacher will be found very helpful : Cuttings of tame aniinals. Cuttings of wild animals. Cuttings from nature. Mother Goose poems illustrated. Other poems illustrated. Planting a Tree. (Commit to memory). What does he plant who plants a tree? He plants the friend of earth and sky; He plants the flag of breezes free; The shaft of beauty hovering high ; He plants a home to heaven a-nigh, For song and mother — croon of bird In hushed and happy twilight heard, — The treble of heaven's harmony, — These things he plants who plants a tree. What does he plant who plants a tree? He plants cool shade and tender rain, And seed and bud of days to be, And years that fade and flush again ; He plants the glory of the plain; He plants the forest heritage; The harvest of a coming age ; The joys that unborn eyes shall see, — These things he plants who plants a tree. What does he plant who plants a tree? He plants in sap and leaf and wood, In love of home and loyalty, And forecast thought of civic good, — His blessings on the neighborhood Who, in the hollow of His hand, Holds all the growth of all the land, A nation's growth from sea to sea Stirs in his heart who plants a tree. — Cooley. 275 fre;e;.hand paper cutting. 276 POSE CUTTING AND DRAWING Pose Gutting and Stories Illustrated. After the children have gained some skill in cutting from models, read a story or poem and let them illustrate with scissors. For instance: We wish the children to tell the story (with scissors and paper) of the three bears. Before giving the story, have large cuttings of a bear, house, table, little girl, chair, bed, bowl, spoon, tree, etc., in plain view. Tell the story. Retell the story with help of the children, thus : Once there was a little girl named Goldenhair. Do you see anything that will help you in cutting the little girl's picture? The chil- dren will tell that they see a picture of a little girl. Ask them if they will tell you where the little girl was going and if they see anything that will help them in their cutting of a little girl lifting the latch of the '^^^^m^hl f/ . door. Ask them to tell this much of the story fli^^^^^R •^^. 2., with their scissors (Fig. I.). When the little girl lifted the latch of the bears' house and entered, what did she see on the table? They will tell you that she saw three bowls. Ques- tion them in regard to the relative size of the bowls, and ask them what they see that will help them to tell that part of the story. They will say that they see a picture of a table, a bowl, and a spoon. Tell them to cut the table and place the bowls containing the spoons upon the table, being very careful not 277 jU:^.1Z. enhair asleep in the little bear's bed (See Fig When Goldenhair was asleep, who came home, and what did they find ? W e r e the bears all the same size ? Cut the three bears (See Fig. V. ) When Golden- h a i r awoke and saw the three bears, what did she do? Did the bears run after Goldenhair? No ; they were kind bears, and stood and looked at her as she ran through the woods. Cut the three bears looking at Golden- hair running through the woods (Fig. VI.). After a lesson has been given in this way, it will furnish a founda- tion for a great deal of undirected seat work. Many of the brush stud- ies given may be used for paper cut- ting. All figures should be learned so well that they can be drawn eas- ily and with a fair degree of accuracy. 278 to have the bowls the same size (Fig. II.). How many chairs did Goldenhair find, and were " they all the same size? Cut the three chairs, remember- ing that they were not the same size (See Fig. III.). How many beds did Goldenhair find? Cut the three beds and show Gold- J^^IZC BLACKBOARD- LESSON. •279 Picture Study. Grade I. Madonna of the Chair Raphael The Christ Child Murillo Feeding Her Birds Millet Can't You Talk ? Holmes Grade 11. Brittany Sheep Bonheur Sistine Madonna Raphael Hiawatha Taylor Two Families Walter Grade HI. The Gleaners Millet The Horse Fair Bonheur Saint Anthony and the Christ Child Murillo Grade IV. The Helping Hand Renouef The Angelus Millet In the Country LeRolle Two Families Walter Grade V. Ploughing Bonheur The Horseshoer Landseer ^orning '.*.'.'.".'.'.'.'. . . Corot Lincoln Saint Gaudens Grades VI, VII and VIH. There are twelve pictures quite generally accepted as masterpieces. These can be obtamed m the Perry Pictures and should be placed on exhibition in every room above the 5th grade. Many should be studied. They are as follows-: Transfiguration, Raphael, Vatican, Rome. Sistine Madonna, Raphael, Dresden Gallery. Aurora, Guido, Pallazzo Rospigliosi, Rome. " Last Supper, Leonardo Vinci, Milan. Last Judgment, Michael Angelo, Sistine Chapel, Rome Assumption, Titian, Academy Cathedral. Night Watch, Rembrandt, Amsterdam Gallery. Coronation of the Virgin, Fra Angelico, Louvre Paris Adoration of the Lamb, Van Eyck, Church of Saint Bavon Ghent Immaculate Conception, Murillo, Louvre, Paris Madonna, Holbein, Dresden Gallery. edge'offhe tlbwingf' '"'^"^ ^"^^ P"^""^' *'^ P"P^'^ ^^^"^^ ^-^ ^ ^--^■ Moses . ........"... Michael Angelo 0:,en Ploughing Bonheur Jesus m he Temple Hoffman Hope ...... f . Burne Tones Sr. 5^^«^^ ,V W^«^ ^-'^^ 'f ^^- P^opheis:::. Sargen ^^^dmill Van Ruysdael Adam and Eve . . . .oSer Exhibition of Specimens. rr^cJ^T. T ^^"^/Pecimens from each drawing lesson should be carefully mounted and placed on exhibition in the room. The colored papers called mounfs Sfim'efit -r^'^f'^i '''^'''' "^^^^ ^'^ ^-^ -^ inexpensive mounts. Uftent mes It is wise to place an entire lesson on exhibition. Do not scatter the display work. One place in the room should be reserved n7. InTT- T^i^Tk ^'°/" ^" """^'^ blackboard over a radiator or the lop of a long, high blackboard can be used for this purpose. A large screen covered with harmonious colors is very convenient. coverea 280 = — ^^^' Physics Blessings on Science! When the earth seemed old, When Faith grew doting, and the Reason cold, 'Twas she discovered that the world was young, And taught a language to its lisping tongue : 'Twas she disclosed a future to its view, And made old knowledge pale before the new. — Charles Mackey. Physics is the branch of science which treats of the laws and properties of matter. It relates in particular to the general properties of bodies and considers their modification by the agencies of heat, light, gravitation, magnetism, and electricity. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia introduces the general sub- ject under the title of Physics and gives a very full treatment of the related topics. Students will find the treatment very helpful for home and school work. In addition to the special articles, attention is called to the following Outline on Physics. I. Definition. II. Branches. 1. Physical science. 2. Natural science. III. Matter. 1. General properties. A. Extension. B. Impenetrability, C. DivisibiHty. D. Porosity. E. Indestructibility. 2. Specific properties. A. Ductility. B. Malleability. C. Tenacity. D. Elasticity. E. Hardness. F. Brittleness. IV. Dynamics. 1. Statics. 2. Kinetics. A. Laws (Three primary). a. Inertia — Power of inertia. b. Momentum. 3. Force. A. Systems of measuring. a. Metric — Dyne, unit of. b. English — Poundal, standard of. c. Horse power. B. Effects produced by action. a. Point of application. b. Direction. c. Intensity. C. Resolution. D. Composition of forces. E. Classes. a. Parallel. b. Constant. c. Accelerating. d. Resultant. e. Uniform. f. Variable. F. Parallelogram of forces. G. Unit. H. Centrifugal and centripetal. I. Tangent. J. Field. 281 4, Attraction. A. Holds together molecules of different kinds. B. Takes place between two solids; solid and liquid; or solid and gas. C. Acts only at insensible dis- tances. D. Differs from chemical affinity. E. Capillarity. F. Diffusion. G. Osmosis. H. Solution. ■ 5. Cohesion. A. Holds together molecules of the same kind or body. B. Strong in solids. C. Weak in liquids. D. Absent in gases. E. Altered by tempering. F. Forms. 6. Gravity. A. Laws. B. Forces — Attractive and projectile. C. Mass and weight. D. Specific gravity. E. Center of gravity. F. Falling bodies. G. Moving bodies. H. Pendulum. a. Movements. b. Laws. c. Kinds. d. Uses. V. Mechanical Powers. 1. Wedge. 2. Screw. 3. Inclined plane. 4. Lever. 5. Pulley. 6. Wheel and axle. VL Hydrostatics. 1. Pressure and equilibrium of liquids. 3. Rules. 3. Pascal's law. 4. Demonstrations. 5. Machinery. 6. Equilibrium of floating bodies. 7. Buoyancy of liquids. 8. Specific gravity of liquids. 9. Laws of equilibrium (4). 282 Screw Gear. Bevel Gears. WHEELS. ElliDtical Gears. Pulley. Sprocket Wheel. Escapement. Vn. Pneumatics, 1. Gas. A. Molecules — Move freely. B. Repulsive tendency. C. Properties. a. Density. b. Weight. c. Pressure. d. Elasticity. e. Condensation. f. Rarefaction. g. Equilibrium. h. Diffusion. D. Machines. E. Tools. a. Percussion. b. Rotar3^ VTH. ]\L\GNETISM. L Origin of name. 2. Magnetite. 3. Magnet. A. Natural and artificial. B. Temporary or permanent. C. Poles. D. Paramagnetic or diamagnetic. E. Field. 4. Compass. A. Needle. B. Declination. C. Variation. D. Inclination. E. Dipping. F. Uses. G. Kinds. IX. Other Divisions. 1. Sound. 2. Light. 3. Heat. 4. Electricity, Accumulator. Aerostatic Press. Air Compressor. Air Pump. Archimedes' Screw, Arc Light. Argand Lamp. Armature. Balance. Barometer. Barker's Mill. Blowpipe. Compass. Camera Lucida. X. IN.STRUMENTS. Camera Obscura. Compass. Crookes' Tubes. Cyameter. Dynamo. Electric Generator. Electric Light. Electric Meter. Electric Motor. Electrometer. Field Glass. Galvanic Battery. Galvanometer. Geissler's Tube. Induction Coil. Insulator. Kinetoscope. Leyden Jar. Magic Lantern. Magnet. Microscope. Mirror. Opera Glass. Prism. Siphon. Spectroscope. Tuning Fork. Voltmeter. Questions in Physics. Of what does the science of physics treat? Name its two general divisions. State the three forms of matter. Name its general properties. What is the atomic theory, and by whom was it originated? 180. State the three principal laws of force according to Newton. What is a spectrum ? Name in order the series of colors. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion. What is gravity? Specific gravity has reference to what? 1184. AVhat would become of loose objects on the earth's surface if gravity did not exist ? By whom were the steam engine and the steam hammer invented, and of what use are they? With what form of matter does pneumatics deal? Tell of the uses of gas, natural and artificial. Describe the pulley. To what power does it belong? 2332. Tell of the origin of the name magnetism. Give names of the various kinds of magnets. State the four laws of equilibrium in the study of hydrostatics. 1350. For what are the following" used : barometer, galvanometer, electric meter, and voltmeter? How may air be liquefied? For what is it then useful? 1600. What are extension and expansion, and by what are they caused ? What is a lever? Describe three classes. How are annealing and tempering accomplished? W' hat discoveries did Galileo make in regard to falling bodies ? What did Newton demonstrate later? 973. 1. Generation. 2. Temperature. 3. Powers.' A. Vaporizing. B. Expanding. C. Melting. D. Decomposing. 4. Manifestation. 5. Theory of undulation. A. Oscillation. B. Ether. 6. Sources. 7. Production. A. Friction. B. Percussion. C. Chemical action. 8. Effects. A. Exceptions. 9. Transmission. 10. Radiated heat. 11. Thermometers. 13. Calorimetry. 283 1. Sources. 2. Action — Heating and chemical. 3. Importance. A. Vegetation. B. Animals. C. Sanitation. D. Health. 4. Self-luminous bodies. 5. Theory. Questions. What is temperature, and how is it indicated ? What powers does heat possess? Explain the theory of undulation. Describe the three principal thermometers. How is motion produced in heated air? How is chemical energy transformed into sensible heat? What is the effect of heat upon all solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies ? What is meant by radiated heat? Which branch of science treats of the measurement of quantities of heat? Why is a space left between the rails in a railroad track when they are laid ? What are the sources of heat? Which one furnishes us both heat and light? Light. A. Undulatory. a. Propagation. b. Transfer. c. Velocity. - B. Effects of ether waves. a. Heating. b. Luminous. c. Affinic. 6. Properties. A. Classes. a. Transparent. b. Translucent. c. Opaque. B. Ray — Beam, pencil, a. Converging and diverging. C. Movement — Variation. 7. Reflection. A. When. C. Conditions. B. Laws. D. Reflectors. "« 8. Refraction. A. On water surface. B. Occurrence. C. Lens — Double complex. D. Rules. E. Optics. a. Definition. b. Treatise. c. Instruments. 9. History. A. Knowledge of ancients. B. Fables. C. Solar spectrum. D. Discoverers and inventors. MONOCULAR MICROSCOPE;. ■4. Eye-piece; B, Object glass; C, Screw to focustubes; D, Mirror to reflect light on object to be examined. 284 Ampere. Archimedes. Becquerel. Bunsen. Descartes. Fahrenheit. Faraday. Fraunhofer. Galileo. Galvani. Gay-Lussac. Geissler. Helmholtz. Kepler. Laplace. Michelson, Newton. Roentgen, Torricelli. Volta. Questions. Illustrate the importance of light to vegetable growth. Of what benefit is it to man? From whence does natural light come? State four kinds of artificial light. Explain the generally accepted theory of light. How frequent must the luminous waves occur to produce the sensation of light and to afifect the eye ? Name and define three classes of bodies in connection with light. When is light said to be reflected? Name some good reflectors. Explain refraction. By whom was the law of refraction discovered? What does the science of optics embrace? State the discoveries made by Kepler, Malus, and Descartes. Describe an X-ray machine and its use. Sound. 1. Definitions. C. Tones and unison of tones 2. Production. D. Vibration. 3. Induction. E. Chords and discords. 4. Transmission. F. Harmonics. A. Through air. 7. Echo. B. In solids. 8. Noise. C. In liquids. 9. Speaking trumpet — Megaphone, 5. Sound waves. 10. Ear trumpet. A. Rate of motion. 12. Refraction and reflection. B. How propelled. 13. Promoters of acoustics. C. Travel best with the wind. A. Pythagoras. D. May be reflected, refracted B. Aristotle. and inflected. C. Newton. E. Measurement. D. Laplace. F. Velocity. E. Helmholtz. G. Temperature. 14. Laws of acoustics. 6. Musical sounds. A. Public buildings. A. Impulses. a. Gallery of Saint Paul's, B. Rate and pitch. London. Questions. Give two definitions of sound. Explain how the impression of sound is carried to the brain. Why are sounds not heard which are made in a vacuum ? Verify the statement that "sounds may be better heard by solids as con- ductors than when they are conducted by liquids or gases." 2079. At what rate does sound travel? How long would it take a sound to travel twenty miles? What is a speaking trumpet? Who invented the megaphone? 1750. To whom does the science of sound particularly owe its progress? State some principles of acoustics needful in the planning of public buildings. Where is the whispering gallery ? Name a lake in Ireland which is noted for its echo. 864. 285 Electricity, 1. Derivation of Name II. Definitions. A. Statical or frictional electricity. a. How produced. B. Dynamical electricity. a. Development. 1. Magnetism. 2. Heat. 3. 'Chemical action. b. Currents. E. Voltaic or galvanic. a. Experiments. F. Electrics and nonelectrics. G. Conductors and nonconductors. H. Insulator— Resistance. I. Positive and negative electricity a. Repulsion and attraction. b. Charge — Low potential and zero potential. III. Electroscope. A. Use. B. Construction. C. Illustration. IV. Electrification. A. Electric current. a. Electric battery. b. Voltaic battery. c. Dynamo. B. Electromotive force. C. Electric source. V. Velocity. A. Dependence. VI. Electrical Quantities. A. Ohm's Law. "B. Units — Volt, ohm, and ampere. VII. Uses. Revolution in economic enterprises. A. Heating agency — Homes, ofifices, railway cars, etc. B. Welding; electrotyping. C. Lighting; medical uses of. D. Propelling power. E. Electric spark — Firing explosives. F. Telephone and telegraph. G. X-ray, telautograph. H. Phototelegraphy. VIII. History. A. Writings of Thales. B. William Gilbert's On the Magnet. C. First electrical machine. D. Invention of Ley den jar. E. Experiments and discovery of Franklin. F. Animal electricity. G. Volta's discovery. H. Inventors. Morse. Bell. Faraday. Edison. Tesla. Roentgen. Ohm. Galvani. Marconi. 286 the dvxamo. Siemens. Ampere. Guericke. Questions on Electricity. From what was the name electricity derived? Define frictional electricity, electrics, insulator, and electrolysis. Give a list of nonconductors. Distinguish between positive and negative elec- tricity. 893. When is a body said to be charged? What is a volt? How many volts can a person generally bear? Of what is the ampere the unit ? What is Ohm's Law ? State the various uses of electricity in your community. What is the Leyden jar? By whom was it invented? 1580. Of what particular value to science was Franklin's discovery regarding electricity? Give a list of noted discoverers in the science of electricity. What is electrocution and where is it employed? Describe an electric motor. By what is electricity measured ? Write an article on Electric Railways. 895. Speak of electricity as an agent in medical science. Magnetism. That power which, like a pote. t spirit, guides The sea-wide wanderers over distant tides, Inspiring confidence where'er they roam, By indicating still the pathway home; — Through Nature, quickened by the solar beam, Invests each atom with a force supreme, Directs the cavern'd crystal in its birth. And frames the mightiest mountains of the earth. Each leaf and flower by its strong law restrains And binds the monarch Man within its mystic chains, — Hunt. The Love of Country. Breathes there the man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land? Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, As home his footsteps he hath turned From wandering on a foreign strand? If such there breathe, go, mark him well ! For him no minstrel raptures swell; High though his titles, proud his name, Boundless his wealth as wish can claim, — Despite those titles, power, and pelf, The wretch, concentered all in self. Living, shall forfeit fair renown. And, doubly dying, shall go down To the vile dust, from whence he sprung. Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. —Sir Walter Sc«H. 287 Nor love, nor honor, wealth, nor power, ' Can give the heart a cheerful hour ^ When health is lost. Be timely wise; With health all taste of pleasure flies. — Gay. PHYSIOLOGY treats of the phenomena of Hving organisms and the proc- esses which characterize Hfe. This subject is explained in the topic entitled Physiology, but innumerable other titles are treated in a helpful manner. The importance of this branch is well known to the student of experience. It is clear to him that an understanding of this subject is essential in caring for the body in a way that will help to develop and preserve physical powers. At an early stage in civilization, when comparatively little was understood of the laws of growth, life was dependent largely upon chance, but at present the length and pleasure of living may be wisely guided by the trained intellect. The infant should be cared for by parents who know and practice the right modes of living. The youth needs an early training to understand the laws which govern physical phenomena. Not only that, but he should be trained to obey the laws of nature and to apply wisely the instruction given. This will not only extend the period of life, especially if right living is practiced through succeeding generations, but it will increase the joys and successes that may be attained. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is recommended as a prac- tical guide in this branch of science. As an introduction to the course given in the outlines, students are referred to the following Correlated Subjects. Abdomen. Ear. Hygiene. Nutrition. Anatomv. Embryology. Intestines. Proteids. Animal. Evolution. Kidney. Protoplasm. Assimilation. Eye. Ligament. Respiration. Bile. Food. Liver. Saliva. P>iology. Foot. Longevity. Skeleton. Bone. Function. Lungs. Skin. Brain. (^land. Lymphatic Svstem. Spontaneous Cells. Hair. Mastication. Generation Chest. Hand. Muscle. Stomach. Chyle. Heart. Nails. Taste. Circulation. Heredity. Natural Selection. Teeth. Connective Tissue. Horn. Nerves. Tongue. Death. Hybrid. Nose. Voice. Digestion. 288 Outline in Physiology. Allied studies. A. Histology. B. Anatomy. C. Hygiene. D. Chemistry. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Osseous. Retiform. White fibrous. Yellow elastic. Size. Composition. Ossification. Periosteum. Motion. I. Physiology. 1. Divisions. A. Human. B. Animal. C. Vegetable. II. Human Body. 1. Life and growth. A. Human physiology. a. Embryo. b. Cells. 1. Protoplasm — Globules, molecules, granules, nucleolus c. Tissue. 1. Kinds. Adipose. Areolar. Cartilaginous. d. Growth. e. Germ or vital force. 2. Organs and functions. A. Skeleton — Head, trunk, and limbs. a. Bones. 1. Purposes. 3. Number. 3. Names. 4. Shape. b. Muscles. 1. Number. 2. Form. 3. Size. 4. Arrangement. 5. Contraction and expansion 6. Voluntary and involuntary, c. Living matter. 1. Constituents. , Water. Salts. Fat. d. Respiration. 1. Organs. Larynx. Glottis. Vocal cords. 2. Inspiration. 3. Expiration. 4. Purpose. e. Nervous system. 1. Brain. a. Center of system. b. Parts. Cerebrum. Cerebellum. Medulla oblongata. c. Composition — Fibers, tissues, and matter d. Convolutions. e. Weight. 289 7. Uses. 8. Movements. 9. Covering — Skin. a. Dermis. b. Epidermis. Proteid. Carbohydrate. Oxygen. Trachea. Bronchi. Lungs. Aided by skin and kidneys. 2. Spinal cord. a. Location. b. Protection. c. Structure. d. Branches. 3. Nerves. a. Structure — Cells, fibers, and nerve end organs, b. Classes. Sensory. Motory. c. Kinds. 1. Spinal — 31 pairs. Posterior and anterior. 2. Cranial — 12 pairs. Olfactory. Auditory. Optic. Glossopharyngeal. Motores oculi (3) . Pneumogastric. Trifacial. Accessory. « Facial. 3. S)^mpathetic. Hypoglossal. d. Reflex action. e. Development. f. Senses — Smell, touch, taste, sight, hearing. III. Special Topics. 1. Circulatory system. A. Organs. a. HEART. 1. Size and shape. 2. Muscular. 3. Pericardium. 4. Chambers. a. Auricles. ' b. Ventricles. 5. Valves. a.- Bicuspid or mitral. b. Tricuspid. c. Semilunar. 6. Movements. a. Systole or contraction. b. Diastole or expansion. b. ARTERIES. 1. Origin of name. 2. Lead from left ventricle. 3. Carry pure blood. , 4. Walls. 5. Coats. 6. Names — Aorta, pulmonarv, etc. c. VEINS. 1. Convey blood to the heart. 2. Carry venous or bad blood. 3. Walls — Compare with arteries. 4. Near the surface. 5. Names — Vena cava ascending, vena cava descending, pul- monary, portal, jugular, etc. d. Capillaries. 290 B. BLOOD. a. Composition. 1. Plasma. 2. Corpuscles. b. Coagulation. c. Transfusion. C. Circulation. a. Systematic. 1. Collected in left ventricle. 2. Propelled through aorta and its arterial branches and capil- laries to all parts of body. 3. Returns through veins to right auricle. b. Pulmonic. 1. Passes from right ventricle into pulmonary artery and its branches to lungs for purification. . 2. Collects and returns through pulmonary veins to left auricle ; thence into left ventricle and again enters sys- tematic system. 2. DIGESTION. A. Process of what. B. Begins in the mouth. a. Food chewed and ground by the teeth. b. Solids broken into bits, moistened with saliva, mixed well, formed into bolus, and swallowed. c. Passes through aesophagus into stomach. d. Churning process mixes ingredients. e. Subjected to action of pepsin from gastric juice. f . Starches and fats loosened ; protoplasm dissolved ; proteids con- verted into peptones. g. Time required is from 3 to 4 hours. h. This chyme then enters intestines through pylorus. i. Acted upon by bile, pancreatic juice, intestinal secretions. j. Starches converted into sugar; proteids into peptones; fats into emulsion, k. This chyle is then absorbed by portal blood vessels and lacteals. 1. Acid formation and further absorption extends to larger intestines. 3. EAR. A. Parts. a. External or concha. 1. Auditory canal — Size. 2. Auricle or pinna — Collects sound waves. 3. Muscles. 4. Wax. b. Middle or tympanum. 1. Size. 2. Lining. 3. Cavity — Mastoid process. 4. Eustachian tube. 5. Bones — Ossicles. a. Malleus or hammer. b. Incus or anvil. c. Stapes or stirrup. c. Internal or labyrinth. 1. Vestibule. 4. Liquid. 2. Cochlea. 5. Cells — Nerve ends. 3. Semicircular canals. 6. Ear sands. 291 B. How we hear. a. Production of sound waves in liquid. b. Speed. c. Vibrations — Number. d. Incentives to nerve action. e. Hindrances. f. Impressions and illusions. 4. EYE. A. Description. a. Globe or eyeball. b. Orbit. , c. Size and shape. d. Coats. 1. Sclerotic. 4. Retina. 2. Cornea. 5. Iris. 3. Choroid. e. Liquids. 1. Aqueous humor. 2. Vitreous humor. f. Pupil. i. Color. g. Lens. j. Muscles. h. Ciliary process. k. Protection. 1. Eyebrows. 2. Eyelids. 3. Eyelashes. 1. Lachrymal glands, canal s, lakes, ducts. m. Tears. 13. Phenomenon of sight. a. Dependent upon ether. b. Waves of light. g. Illusions c. Nerve of sight — Optic. h. Color-bli indness. d. Blind spot. i. Farsightedness. e. Focus. j. Nearsightedness. f. Accommodation. k. Care of the eyes. 5. DISEASE. A. Classes. a. Organic. b. Functional. B. Causes. a. Diathetic. b. Enthetic. Diseases Common to Man. Ague. Epilepsy. Leprosy. Rheumatism. Anaemia. Erysipelas. Lumbago. Scrofula. Apoplexy. Fever. Malaria. Smallpox. Appendicitis. Glanders. Measles. Sprain. Asphyxia. Gout. Mumps. Saint Vitus Bright's Disease. Headache. Neuralgia. Dance. Bronchitis. Hydrophobia. Neurosis. Sunstroke. Cancer. Hysteria. Paralysis. Tuberculosis. Catarrh. Influenza. Pleurisy. Tumor. Cholera. Insanity. Pneumonia. Typhoid Fever. Consumption. Itch. Poison. Typhus Fever. Croup. Jaundice. Quinsy. Whooping Cough. Diphtheria. 292 Questions on Physiology. Define physiology and name its chief divisions. 2206. Of what do anatomy and hygiene treat ? What are tissues ? Name the principal kinds. Of what is the skeleton composed ? Give the number and names of the bones. Of what uses are muscles? Explain contraction and expansion. 1876. Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary muscles. What are the organs of respiration? Write 12 lines on this subject. Name the divisions of the alimentary canal. Describe the process of digestion. Name the fluids which aid digestion and tell by what each is secreted. Illustrate the heart and its divisions by a drawing. 1375. Name the two systems of circulation and describe them. Tell about the color, density, taste, composition, and use of the blood. Define membrane, albumen, pulse, lacteals, dura mater, and coagulation. Tell of the growth and use of the hair and nails. Of what is the nervous system composed? Describe the brain. Name the three divisions of the ear. Explain how we hear. 853. What is meant by the phenomenon of sight ? How may poor sight be aided ? How many teeth should an adult have ? Give names of the different teeth. The Body. From the top of my head to my tiny toes, I am built of bones, as every one knows. These are the framework so strong within; Outside they are covered with flesh and skin. The parts of my body are only three. My head, my trunk and my limbs, as you see. My head has a back, two sides and a crown, All covered with hair, yellow, black, red or brown. And just in front, in the foremost place. You plainly can see my neat little face. My face has a forehead, nose, mouth and chin; Two cheeks where the dimples slip out and in. Two eyes you see when you are near, Two ears like sea-shells to help me to hear. My neck and shoulders so broad and strong. Arm, forearm, wrist, hand and fingers long. My trunk and my thighs, legs, and ankles and knees, On two feet I stand, or run, if I please. My joints are to bend when I run, jump or walk; I've a little red tongue to help me to talk. These make up my body, and now I will tell What we all must do to keep strong and well. To be neat and clean we must take great care, Have plenty of sunshine and breathe the fresh air; Eat nourishing food to make good blood, and then. We all shall become strong women and men. 293 Games and Sports GAMES and sports are considered essential in the development of physical skill, bodily strength, and mental activity. They aid in securing the healthful development of the body, making it fit as a dwelling for a vigor- ous mind. Froebel said, "Play is not trivial ; it is highly serious and with deep meaning." The aims in promoting healthful, yet playful, exercise are numerous. They tend to overcome bodily defects, such as narrowness of the chest and stooping of the shoulders, and furnish the recreation and relaxation which should follow sustained study. Above all, games and sports are both hygienic and educative in that they invigorate the circulation, enlarge respiration, and induce harmony of action between the body and the mind. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia is helpful in the study of amusements and plays for all classes. The student is referred to the special articles on the following list of Plays and Pastimes. Angling. Cards. Fencing. Roulette. Archery. Checkers. Gymnasium. Rowing. Athletics. Chess. Lacrosse. Skates. Backgammon. Cribbage. Lawn Tennis. Swimming. Bagatelle. Cricket. Marble. Tennis. Baseball. Croquet. Ping Ponc^. Toboggan. Basketball. Curling. Polo. Trapping. Billiards. Delsarte. Pool. Trolling. Boxing. Dice. Quoits. Whist.'' Bullfight. Dominoes. Race. Wresthng. Canoe. Falconry. Riding. Yachting. Outlines of Games and Sports, I. Divisions. 1. Recreative. 2. Amateur 3. Professional. A. Classes. a. Grecian. b. Gladiatorial. c. Modern. 1. Competitive. 2. Contestant. 11. Kinds. 1. Indoor. 2. Outdoor. Bowling. Checkers. Ball. Croquet. Billiards. Dominoes. Cricket. Golf. Cards. Legerdemain Archery. Tennis. Chess. Dice. Polo. Lacrosse 294 3. Sports. Hunting, Boxing. Shooting. Wrestling. Racing. Cycling. Boating. Fishing. 4. Field. Hurdling. Pole vaulting. Broad jumping. High jumping. Hammer, or weight throwing. 5. Track. Sprinting, ni. Training. 1. Athletic. 2. Calisthenic. 3. Physical culture. 4. Dancing. 5. Gymnastic. 6. Boxing. 7. Wrestling, etc. IV. Association. 1. Canadian Amateur Athletic Union. A. Games. B. Time and place. C. Records. D. Championship. 2. Intercollegiate Athletic Associa- tion of United States. A. Games. B. When and where. C. Records. 3. New England Intercollegiate Association. 4. Western Intercollegiate Games. 5. National Amateur Athletic Union. Value. 1. Develops physical perfection and skill. ■ LoweR 5TAne ■ < f . > i * ^ / ^■^ ~* / '■<' y s Jr \ /" \ / \&i ^*\ /' V /I V\ f^ ^--h ^ ■* 1 1 , A » 1 !« ► ROVEft A \ 36 rr hon^ STA.nE V. CROQUET GROUNDS. 3. Promotes speed, agility, en- durance, etc. 3. Quickens thought. 4. Serves as entertainment, amusement, and recrea- tion. 5. Cultivates temperance, s e 1 f - denial, etc. I. Basketball. Indoor game. Played in large oblong room. Goal — 18-in. net basket at each end of room suspended 10 ft. above floor. Ball — Leather cased inflated rubber bladder, 33 in. around. Teams — 2, of 5 players each. A. Guards — Right and left. B. Center. D. Referee. C. Forwards — Right and left. E. Order of game. Invented by James Naismith, in 1891. Popularity. A. Militia companies. B. Young Women's Christian Association. C. Young Men's Christian Association. D. Schools and colleges. Season — Winter. 295 II. Football. 1. Popularity. A. Ancient Greece and Rome. B. England — 12th century. C. America. D. Australia, etc. 2. Participants. A. Higher grade pupils. B. Students of colleges and universities. 3. Description. A. Field. B. Teams. C. Players. D. Officials. E. Position. F. Goal. G. Rules. a. Association. b. Rugby. H. Restrictions. I. Movements. J. Scoring. 4. Associations. A. Rugby. B. Australian. C. American Intercollegiate. D. Big Four. a. Harvard. b. Princeton. c. Yale. d. University of Pennsylvania. E. Others. a. Western. b. Canadian. c. Indian, etc. III. Baseball. 1. National game. 2. Originally town ball. 3. Institution of professional organization in 1871. 4. Clubs. A. National Association of Baseball Players. B. National League of Professional Clubs. C. American League. 5. Development of professional skill, 6. Adoption of standard rules. 7. Public exhibits. 8. Tours. 9. Games. A. Season. B. Ball — Size and weight. C. Bat — Material and length. D. Field — Diamond. E. Men — Umpire, catcher, batsman, pitcher, etc. F. Proceedings. G. Innings. H. Rules. 296 I Questions. Name the national games of England and United States. Describe a game of baseball. 240. Among what class of people is football played most extensively? Name seme of the benefits derived from this game. What sports can you name in connection with water? What was the moral influence of the athletics in the early Grecian and Roman days? Name some games which give intellectual training. What is the general attitude of schools toward athletics? State some reasons for increasing popularity of outdoor recreation. Define umpire, coach, score, goal, racket, and alley. Name a school of England famous for its athletic enthusiasm. Who invented the game of basketball? By whom is it played most exten- sively? 243. Give a list of games that may be played with cards. When and why were the gladiatorial games forbidden? 1147. The Philosophy of Sport. Bear lightly on their foreheads, Time ! Strew roses on their ,way ; The young in heart, however old, That prize the present day. And, wiser than the pompous proud. Are wise enough to play. I love to see a man forget His blood is growing cold. And leap, or swim, or gather flowers, Oblivious of his r;old. And mix with children in their sport, Nor think that he is old. I love to see the man of care Take pleasure in a toy, I love to see him row or ride, And tread the grass with joy. Or hunt the flying cricket-ball As lusty as a boy. All sorts that spare the humblest pain, That neither maim nor kill — That leads us to the quiet field. Or to the wholesome hill, Are duties which the pure of heart Religiously fulfill. Though some may laugh the full-grown men May frolic in the wood, Like children let adrift from school, — Not mine that scornful mood ; — I honor human happiness. And deem it gratitude. And, though perchance the Cricketer, Or Chinaman that flies His Dragon-kite with boys and girls, May seem to some unwise, I see no folly in their play, But sense that underlies. The road of life is hard enough — Bestrewn with snag and thorn ; I would not mock the simplest joy That made it less forlorn ; But fill its evening path with flowers As fresh as those of morn. 'Tis something, when the moon has passed To brave the touch of Time, And say, "Good friend, thou harm'st me not. My soul is in its prime : Thou canst not chill my warmth of heart;— I carol while I climb." Give us but health, and peace of mind, Whate'er our clime or clan. We'll take delight in simple things, Nor deem that sports unman; And let the proud, who fly no kites. Despise us if they can ! — Chas. Mackay. 297 No ! failure's a part of the infinite plan : Who finds that he can't, must give way to who can ; And as one and another drop out of the race, Each stumbles at last to his suitable place, — Crangles. COMMERCE is the exchange of goods or property between nations or the subdivisions of nations, such as states and provinces. Transportation consists of the industry of carrying goods and persons from one place to another. Collectively, commerce and transportation constitute important factors in the trade between states and nations. The New Teachers' and Pupils' Cyclopaedia contains the information that is needed by students of commerce and transportation. It furnishes the material which is essential in the study of these branches of learning. For research work the student is referred to the following Correlated Subjects. Banking. Boat. Bounty. Breakwater. Canal. Caravan. Carrier. Commerce. Commercial Law. Customs Duty. Dam. Dock. Duties. I. TRADE. Electric Railway. Erie Canal. Exchange. Excise. Hanseatic League. Harbor. International Law. Interstate Commerce. Jetty. Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Levee. Money. Navigation. Navy. Panama Canal. Protection. Railroads. Road. Sault Sainte Marie Canal. Ship. Steamboat. Suez Canal. Tariff. Tramway. Transportation. Weather Bureau. Welland Canal. 1. Origin and growth of trade. a. Earliest form of trade- What called. b. Conditions that gave to trade relations. c. Influences that have a ten- dency to develop trade, i. e., social, economic, dustrial, climatic, etc. 2. Object and purpose of trade. a. To the individual. b. To society. c. To mankind in general. rise m- 3. Results of trade. a. Material results. b. Social and economic re- sults. c. Intellectual results. 4. Trade Centers. a. Location — The determin- ing factors.' b. Growth — Upon what it de- pends. c. Earliest trade centers — Where found, and why. d. Influence of trade centers upon the growth of towns and cities. 298 e. The world's greatest trade centers — Location and why so located. 5. New York as a trade center. a. Why so located. b. Connection with other great centers of com- merce. Character of the trade — Industries and business that developed as a result. Chief factors in its growth. Manufactures and markets. Export and import trade. Commercial importance. c. 6. Important trade centers of the United States. a. Location with reasons for same. b. Growth — Chief factors of. c. Extent of territory reached. d. Manufactures and mar- kets. e. Population and industries. f. Export and import trade. g. Commercial importance. 7. Trade centers of Canada and North America treated in a similar manner. 8. Trade centers of South Amer- ica, Europe, Asia, Africa, AustraUa, and the isles of the Sea treated with special reference to loca- tion, industries and man- ufactures, population, and commercial importance. r^fi ^ ^ is ^H^^^^^B ^^^^ ^ /jT^^^iaa^^^ •«S®S^ iSS^st^S-^SSf- 1 1 n < D« HSfc'fT 1 j FLYING MACHINE. What wonders man has wrought The recent centuries best to us portray; In every field his studious mind has sought And found things beautiful in wide array. No more can Jupiter impale and blight, Nor tyranny suppress the growth of mind ; To think is now a universal right, Safe and secure in all mankind. —B. P. Hoist. ^'cecccetecexecececeeeceeeceace^cececece:^^ Suggestions. 1. Study the surface conditions of the countries where great trade centers are found. In a similar manner study climate, soil, vegetation, animals, and occupations of the people. 2. Locate places with special ref- erence to New York and the great trade centers of the United States North America. and 3. Locate countries with special reference to the United States and North Amer- ica. 4. Study the maps. Have the students make sketch and relief maps of their own. 5. Let the object be to study conditions, obtain facts, and fix places. 299 Diagram to show the general maxi- mum speed attained by various means of transportation. The automobile has the highest record. II. TRANSPORTATION. 1. Origin and growth of trans- portation. a. Connection with the earliest forms of trade. . b. Earliest ways and means of transportation. c. Inventions and discoveries that have influenced the growth of transportation. d. Conditions that make trans- portation necessary. 2. Means of transportation. a. Man — The earliest factor. b. The ox, pack horse, and other animals used. c. The cart, wagon, stage coach, steam cars, cable and electric cars, automo- biles, and flying machines. d. The raft, rowboat, sail- boat, steamboat. 3. Ways of transportation. a. Water transportation. 1. Rivers. a. Where found. b. Source, direction, size and length, mouth, cur- rent. c. Character and extent of country drained. d. River systems. 2. Conditions favorable to transportation. a. Swift current. b. Direct course. c. Smooth, clean bed. d. Good landings. 3. Improvements necessary. a. Removal of lodged tim- bers, boulders, and sand bars. b. The building of dikes and levees. c. Prevention of change in current or river bed. d. T h e construction o f wharves. 4. The Great Navigable Rivers. a. United States and North America. b. South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Aus- tralia. 300 c. Nature and extent of the country drained. d. How far navigable. e. Points of trade and trade centers connected. f . Climate, surface, soil, and productions of coun- try drained. g. Character and amount of goods transported — Cost of transportation. 5. Lakes. a. Where found. b. Size and extent. c. Inlets and outlets. d. Nature and extent of territory reached — Cli- mate, surface, soil, and productions of same. e. T h e world's greatest commercial lakes — Trade centers reached by and through them. f. Quality and quantity of goods transported. 6. Canals. a. Origin and purpose of the canal. b. Its connection with lake and river transportation. c. How constructed — Depth of water, width of ca- nal, and points con- nected. d. Conduct of canal trans- portation — Extent and cost. e. Growth and improvement in canal transportation. 7. Canals in Canada and the United States. a. Where found. b. When and how built. c. Cost of construction. d. Points connected. e. How operated. f. Extent and cost of transportation. 8. Canals in other countries treated in a similar man- ner. 9. The world's great canals. a. Object and purpose. b. Where found, when and how built. c. Cost of construction and how operated. d. Special aid to the world's commerce. e. Points connected — Ex- tent and cost of transpor- tation. f. Countries especially inter- ested. TOURING CAR (AUTOMOBILE)- 10. Oceans, seas, bays', etc. a. Location and extent. b. Countries that border on them. c. Countries separated by them. d. The world's great sea- ports — Where and why so located. e. The great oceans of com- merce. 11. Conditions favorable to navigation. a. Smooth surface. b. Medium temperature. c. Great depth of ocean currents. d. Freedom from storms. e. Favorable winds. f. Good vessels. g. Good harbors and wharves. 12. The great ocean routes. a. Points of beginning. b. Intermediate points. c. Terminal points. d. Goods shipped. e. Time and cost of trans- portation. f. A careful study of (a), (b), and (c), as to loca- tion, population, indus- tries and manufactures, exports and imports. 301 13. Countries that trade with the United States. a. Products produced and exchanged. b. Products bought and sold. c. Ocean routes most com- monly used in transporta- tion. d. Steamship lines carrying the trade. e. Seaports reached — Loca- tion, size, and importance. 14. Countries that trade with each other (Treated ac- cording to outline 13). modern battleship— the connecticut. Suggestions. 1. Trace rivers from source to mouth, describing surface and climatic con- ditions of countries drained, locating trade centers, naming products ob- tained at each, and giving the extent to which each is navigable. 2. Locate and trace rivers on maps in the books and on outline and relief maps drawn by the pupils. 3. Locate and trace canals on maps, show points connected, and emphasize use and importance of canal transportation. 4. Locate the oceans, giving latitude and longitude. Give climate and pro- ductions of countries touched. Study the character of the coast lines of countries and effect of same on transportation. 5. Make constant use of maps in tracing ocean routes and in locating sea- ports reached. Land Transportation. 1. The old time trails. a. Character of the surface of countries through which such trails passed. b. Difficulties and dangers to be overcome in making transits. c. Time required and expense incurred. d. Character of the products transported. e. Climate, soil, and productions of the countries in which trails occur. f. Name, locate, and trace out the most important trails. g. Points connected. 302 2. Wagon roads or trails. a. Early wagon roads or trails. b. Nature of the country traversed. c. Difference between the wagon trail and the old time trail. d. Comparative value of the two means of transportation in points of time, expense, and quality and quantity of goods transported. e. Points and trade centers connected. f. Climate, soil, and productions of the country. g. Improvements and the wagon roads of to-day. 3. Tramroads. a. Origin and purpose. b. Where found. c. How built — Cost of construction. d. Special use. e. Countries in which the tramroads are found. f. Points connected by them. g. Advantages over the old time wagon road in points of time made and amount of goods transported. 4. Railroads. a. Origin of the railroad. b. Points of similarity and difference between the railroad and the tram- road. c. Manner and cost of construction. d. Growth and improvement. e. Products transported, time saved, and effect on increased production. f. Countries of the world in which railroads are chiefly found. g. How railroads aid in the development of a country. 5. Trunk line railroads of the United States and North America. a. Where found. b. Points of beginning. c. Intermediate points. d. Terminal points. e. Points connected with main line by branch road. f. Careful study of (b), (c), and (d), as to location, population, manu- factures and industries, export and import trade. g". Time and cost of transportation. h. Warehouses and depots — Necessity for. 6. Trunk line railroads of other countries; study according to outline (5). 7. Chicago as a railroad center. a. Trunk lines. b. Branch roads. c. Extent of country traversed and points connected. d. Character and amount of trade controlled. e. Early connection of Chicago with the West and Southwest. How and over what routes (trails) were goods transported. f. Connection with the East and Canada — Formerly and at present. g. Warehouses and depots — Purpose and use of same, h. Daily trains entering and leaving Chicago. Suggestions. 1. Use maps freely in locating and tracing railroads. Make a special study of trade centers connected, as to location, size, and products obtained. 3. Locate and trace out the important trails, making a careful study of the conditions of the country, locating the points connected, and giving quality and quantity of goods transported. 3. Make a comparative study of the countries where railroads are main- tained, and those without railroad facilities, as to trade, intelligence, and progress. 4. Let the aim be to show the growth and development of transportation, and how this has contributed to the progress and well-being of man. 20 303 Questions on Commerce and Transportation. Define commerce and explain the two leading classes. 640. How do (he United States rank among' nations in foreign commerce? Name our leading exports. Name some helpful agencies for a thriving domestic commerce. How was commerce carried on in the Middle Ages? Which countries were great commercial nations of the ancient world? What reference is made in Isaiah to this? Of what benefits arc chambers of commerce? When was the Department of Commerce and Labor created? Who is now secretary of this department? What is commercial law, and what does it include? Compare transportation by modern facilities with those of ancient times. In which cotmtries are caravans used most extensively? What are their chief articles of trade? When did the rapid development of our domestic commerce begin? What is the Interstate Commerce Act, and what benefits are derived from it? 1398. Define tarifl^. Briefly discuss the tarifl^ of Canada. What is revenue? Name some nuportant tarilT bills. Name and locate five great canals of commercial value. Of what practical benefit will the Panama Canal be to the world? How do climate, soil, and rainfall tend to affect the commerce of a com- munity ? Tell of the leading railroad systems of the United States. Name ten impor- tant trade centers of the country. What are tnnik lines, depots, elevators, and warehouses? Mention the important factors which cause the development of great cities. Three Fishers Went Sailing. Thrco fishers went sailing out into the West, Out into the West as the sun went down ; Each thought on the woman who loved him best, And the children stood watching them out of the town : For men must work, and women must weep, And there's little to earn, and many to keep. Though the harhor-har be moaning. 'riiroo wives sat up in llic Hghl-houso tower. And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down; They looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower, And the night-rack came rolling up ragged and brown : But men must work, and women must weep. Though storms be sudden, and waters deep. And the harbor-bar be moaning. Three corpses lie out in the shining sands. In the morning gleam, as the tide went down. And the women were weeping and wringing their hands, For those who will never come home to the town. For men must work, and women must weep. And the sooner it's over, the sooner to sleep, And good-bye to the bar and its moaning. — Kingslcy. 304 Language and Grammar Languages are to be learned only by reading and talking, and not by scraps of authors got by heart. — Locke. I. Language. THE aim of language study is twofold: First, to teach the child to think; second, to teach him how to express his thoughts. Throughout the first three grades it will be found that more attention must be paid to teaching the child to think than to his expression. For this reason the plan of work provides for a preponderance of free expression over expression with a view to correctness of form. For the same reason, by far the greater part of the time in the schoolroom is to be spent upon oral rather than upon written work, since free thought is hampered by the necessity of spelling and forming the letters involved in writing. In first-year language, self-consciousness in the child must be avoided by every possible means. When he is telling a story, spontaneity must not be destroyed by interruption. Neither must correction be made after the story has been told. No greater fault can creep into a first-grade teacher's work than the inability to understand the sensitiveness of the child mind. Allow the child to speak freely and naturally, and to feel that he is making his story "interesting" to his hearers. The delicacy of touch with which the successful teacher handles the story- telling period is shown in the following report of such a recitation : First, the teacher tells the story; second, she asks the pupils about the way they can tell it to make it interesting. She does not burden them with any outline of pro- cedure, but endeavors to instill into their minds the idea that to make a story interesting they must not tell the details in a disjointed manner. This is the incul- cation of the principle of unity in expressing thought, and prepares the child for the paragraph idea in his written work taken up later. The teacher's story has been one of a child enjoying a ride into the country in a donkey cart. She supposes the case of the child telling his story, apparently with all its details rounded out and complete, when he suddenly remembers that on the drive out the donkey had upset the cart! She a.sks the class why this would not be a good way to tell the story, and the child, being properly led, readily learns to recognize the fact that it is not interesting to tell of this one incident of the donkey after everything else has been told about it. In other words, the interest has been destroyed by the child's failure to tell one of the most important details at the proper time. By means of this supposed case the teacher prepares the way for the repro- duction of the story next day, when, almost invariably, the child will endeavor to make his version "interesting." Though it is not wise to speak to the pupil of his spoken English in the story- telling period, an important part of the first-grade teacher's work is to teach the use of correct forms. How, then, is it to be done? By supplying single sen- 305 ..,C-iAJ~-£y2J . y-'<^Ul^Z^ ■^^J-z.-0 -A-C-€^ :Piy^^C_e^<^. . WRITTEN WORK— FOURTH GRADE;. 310 4. December. a. Winter. b. Position of moon in early evening sky. c. Stars bright and clear. d. Trees leafless. e. Christmas. 5. January. a. New Year. b. Winter. c. What farmers bring to town. d. What merchants sell. e. Sun's position in morning and evening. 6. February. a. Lengthening of days. b-. Winter fuel. c. Sun's position in sky. 7. March. a. Spring. b. Rains. c. Sun's position about March 20. 8. April. a. Spring. b. Planting of grains and flowers. c. Return of birds. d. Man's preparation for spring. e. Sun's position. f. Flowers. 9. May. a. Trees. d. Crops growing. b. Leaves. e. What the farmers buy in town. c. Flowers. f. The position of the sun. C. Reproduction of stories heard and read. D. Dramatization of stories. E. Plays and games calling for expression. 1. Single sentence games. 2. Correction of vocabulary used in play. F. Memorizing of poems. G. Inculcation of principle of interest in telling of stories. IL Written English. A. Observance of rules for form. 1. Left-hand margin. 3. Title of story without period. 3. Long paragraph form — Indentation of first line. 4. Each sentence a paragraph. B. Capitalization. 1. Beginning of sentences. 2. Names of people. 3. Titles : Mr,, Mrs., etc. C. Punctuation. 1. Period. 2. Question mark. 3. Comma to indicate pause. D. Material. 1. Pictures shown. 2. Flowers brought in. 3. Subjects discussed orally. E. Form of written work. 1. Single sentences. 311 Second Grade. I. Spoken English. A. Free expression of experiences. 1. Material as in first grade. B. Free expression on subjects suggested by months, seasons, holidays, etc. (Information to be sought for by pupil at home or anywhere obtain- able). 1. Introduction of discussions about leaves. 2. Introduction of discussions about seeds. 3. Flowers studied as to — a. Structure (No technical names used). b. Color. c. Perfume. d. Habit. e. Shapes. C. Instruction in grammatical accuracy. 1. Exercises requiring complete sentence containing correct grammatical forms. a. See, saw, seen. b. Do, did, done. c. Go, went, gone. d. Hear, heard. D. Enlargement of vocabulary. E. Reproduction of stories heard and read. F. Dramatization. II. Written English. A. Introduction of question plan. 1. Subject presented by teacher — e. g., Rice. 2. Questions asked by pupils as if entirely ignorant of subject. 3. Arrangement of the three or four principal questions (Never more than four in this grade) on board by teacher, with pupils' help in deciding logical order. 4. Written answers to questions — One sentence of reply to each ques- tion. B. Capitalization. 1. Months. 3. Cities. 2. Days of week. 4. Streets. C. Punctuation. 1. Exclamation point. D. Material for written expression. 1. Experiences, 2. Books of stories, myths, poems, accounts of heroes, etc. 3. Pictures. a. Knowledge of artist gained from teacher's talk. b. Description of picture. 4. Things observed. a. Flowers. b. Fruits. c. Metals. d. Grains. 5. Holidays — New Year, Christmas, etc. Third Grade. I. Spoken English. A. Free expression about experiences. B. Reproduction of stories heard and read. C. Dramatization of stories and lessons. 312 II. Written English. A. Question plan with following additions: 1. More help from pupils in deciding on logical order of questions. 2. Use of two or three sentences in reply to one question. 3. Long paragraph form extended — All answers to one question in one paragraph. 4. Title page and cover. B. Capitalization. 1. In writing letters. a. Heading. b. Salutation. 3. Beginning of line of poetry. C. Punctuation. 1. Apostrophe in contractions. D. Abbreviations. 1. Measures used in arithmetic. 2. Dr., Cr., Hon., Esq., Mr., etc. 3. la., Ont., Que., Pa., 111., etc. E. Material for written expression. 1. Experiences. 2. Letters. 3. Books containing — a. Fables, fairy stories, legends. b. Stories of child life in other lands. c. Stories of famous men and women. d. Stories of adventure. 4. Pictures. a. Knowledge of artist. (a) Introduction of library research. to limited extent. b. Description. c. Meaning. 5. Nature study. a. Mounted specimens of flowers studied. b. Mounted specimens of leaves studied. c. Birds. d. Grains. 6. Physiology subjects. Fourth Grade. I. Spoken English. A. Free expression of experiences. B. Reproduction of stories heard and read. C. Dramatization of stories and lessons. D. Conversational exercises. 1. Between impersonated storekeeper and customer, contractor and la- borers, gardener and men wishing to buy plants, etc. E. Correction of English used according to discretion of teacher. II. Written English. A. Question plan continued (with following addition) : "i. Change of question outline to statement outline before writmg of answers. B. Capitalization. 1. In addressing letters. C. Punctuation. 1. Comma in a series of words. D. Various abbreviations. 313 J-^CCA^ j-i^m-^ 6i 'xz^^z^^t^ — W^c^ V 7-^^^-e, Cc Cx_, J. 2^^/~t^Ul^ XJ^L^e^ i^-^i^cx.-^j^-L^e^'*^^-^^^, ^7 y€<...^^ /^t.-»«>^.. "Ti^'-e- /-z^u^ ;s[^^^ -/t>-3c .-^^^.-t^ <^<-^ iyt^-U^cr; %^^-^^.ji^ljl^ -CCX^-JL, WRITTEN WORK— SIXTH GRADE. 316 II. Grammar. I. Classes. The Sentence. A. According to use. 1. Statements (Declarative) — Ex., War is a conflagration. 2. Questions (Interrogative) — Ex., Are you an American? 3. Commands (Imperative) — Ex., Be brave. 4. Exclamations (Exclamatory)— Ex., How fast the time flies! - B, According to structure. 1. Simple — Ex., Rome was built on seven hills. 2. Complex — Ex., The plans which you present are very good. 3. Compound — Ex., The fireman raised his ladder and the woman es- caped. II. Parts. A. Subject. 1. Word. a. Noun — Ex., The house was large. b. Pronoun — Ex., He spoke well. c. Gerund — Ex., Seeing is beheving. 2. Phrase. a. Prepositional — Ex., Over the fence is out. b. Infinitive — Ex., To love is human. 3. Clause, a. Noun clause. w. Simple — Ex., That the man escaped is true. X. Direct quotation — Ex., "Never say die," is our motto. y. Indirect statement — Ex., That a man does not live by bread alone is well said. z. Indirect question — Ex., Why he went will never be known. B. Modifiers of subject. 1. Word. a. Adjective — Ex., The beautiful tree was cut down. b. Noun in possessive — Ex., The consul's reception was a brilliant affair. 2. Phrase. a. Prepositional — Ex., A box of oranges has arrived. b. Infinitive — Ex., The way to win is to work. c. Participial — Ex., Having broken his machine, the man stopped. ^ 3. Clause. a. Relative. X. Restrictive — Ex., A filter that is out of order is of no value. y. Descriptive — Ex., The hermit, who preferred his own hut, left our fireside. z. Progressive — Ex., A man was found who understood the business. b. Equivalent of relative clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb — Ex., The place where the tree stood is honored. C. Predicate. 1. Verb. a. Word — Ex., The king entered. b. Phrase — Ex., The day was set. 2. Modifiers of verb. a. Adverb. z. Ideas expressed. 1. Time. a. Word — Ex., Come now. b. Phrase — Ex., In the morning they came. c. Clause — Ex., We started before day dawned. 317 - u-CLe. "^^-^