,w>' ^1 ■ aass_UAr2A. Book lS_1_ . Gopy!ig[itN^__.^!iL COPYRiGHT DEPOSIT. THE RUSSIAN ARMY FROM WITHIN THE RUSSIAN ARMY FROM WITHIN BY W. BARNES STEVENI Twenty-five Years Special Correspondent Resident in Russia NEW YORK GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY Cafv| Z ^^ \J Copyright, 1914, by GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY ^^^ 19 1914 ' • G1,A387093 '^'^ X PREFACE OWING to the unusual interest now taken in Russian military matters, I have been in- duced to write the following account of the Russian Army from within. This little work, written in less than a fortnight, does not profess to be of a techni- cal nature, but is simply an account of the Russian commanders and soldiers and the impression they made upon me during the twenty-seven years I re- sided in various parts of the Empire, more espe- cially in Cronstadt, Finland, Petrograd, Krasno Selo, Little Russia and the Caucasus. W. B. S. London, September, 1914. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE The Country and the Army ii CHAPTER n Russia's Strength in Men and Money .... 19 CHAPTER ni The Peasant — the Backbone of the Army . . 29 CHAPTER IV Ivan: the Russian Tommy Atkins .... 41 CHAPTER V Uniform, Arms, and Artillery 57 CHAPTER VI The Japanese War and Its Lessons .... 71 CHAPTER VII The Cossacks 87 CHAPTER VIII The Cossacks in Modern Times and a Cossack Amazon Now at the Front 99 7 8 CONTENTS CHAPTER IX The Disposition of the Troops, and the Realism of page THE MaNCEUVRES II5 CHAPTER X Bayonet and Sword 129 CHAPTER XI Liability to Serve . . . . ' . . . . 135 CHAPTER Xn Discipline 143 CHAPTER Xni Officers and Friends in High Places .... 151 CHAPTER XIV Military Schools 167 Concluding Remarks 173 Appendix 179 THE COUNTRY AND THE ARMY CHAPTER I THE COUNTRY AND THE ARMY IT is now a thousand years ago since the Slav- onian chieftains of the ancient city of Nov- gorod sent a deputation to the Varangian Rus on the other side of the Baltic, begging them to come and rule over them ; for their country was great and vast, but there was no order. Although so many generations have passed away since these Vikings came to Russia and laid the foundations of the first Russian state, the above words still apply to the Russia of to-day. Great she is, but there is very little order. This being the case, a year may elapse before she can get her full fighting force into the field. How great her fighting capacity is when properly organised we can judge from the fact that the Empire is three times the size of America and more than forty times the area of France. A series of excellent harvests and a period of industrial prosperity have tended to heal the wounds caused by the Japanese war much more quickly than might have been expected. The enormous sums of II 12 THE RUSSIAN ARMY money borrowed from France, estimated to exceed 600 millions sterling, have helped to replenish the state treasury, to reconstruct the navy that was de- stroyed at Tchushima and Port Arthur, to construct important strategic railways to the Austrian and German frontiers, and to arm the forces with the very best rifles and quick-firing artillery, which in the Japanese war were frequently entirely lacking just when most required. The Russian Government, in view of this long- expected struggle with her western neighbours, has for some time been accumulating a gold reserve, with the result that she is said to have 167 million pounds of gold laid by in the Treasury for war ex- penditure as compared with Germany's £83,000,000. We must remember that Russia is about the only self-supporting European state. Her huge terri- tories stretch in one unbroken line from the Baltic to the Pacific, a total distance of about 7000 English miles. In this vast expanse every product, every mineral required by man, occurs in such abundance that considerable quantities have to be exported. The great forests of the North contain millions of acres of the finest timber, .while the industrial region around Moscow and Warsaw supplies the Army and people with all the clothing and textiles they require. South of Moscow there is "Little Russia the Boun- THE COUNTRY AND THE ARMY 13 tiful," with its expanses of corn, wheat, rye, buck- wheat, maize, oats and other cereals, its fine vine- yards and thousands of acres covered with tobacco and sugar-beet. There is also the rich granary of Siberia, which alone could grow sufficient grain to supply the whole of Europe. It would take volumes to describe the inexhaustible piscatorial, arborial, agricultural and mineral wealth of this Empire. I have, however, said enough to show that Russia could, if necessary, carry on a defensive war for years without feeling the need of importing any- thing from abroad. This war, however, will probably not be waged on defensive lines, for the Russians have already invaded Austria and Germany in force at about six different points. In this case they will not require to make use of vast stretches of territory — marshes, morasses and forests — to bring their enemies to destruction, as they did the armies of Charles XII and Napoleon. But whatever kind of war Russia may choose, defensive or offensive, she is a mighty force to be reckoned with by her foes, if they are wise and not too self-confident. Not only rich in money, which Cicero called "the sinews of war," Russia has more men at her dis- posal for military service than any other nation in Europe or America. Every year about 1,300,000 14 THE RUSSIAN ARMY men attain the age when they are liable for service. Of this number only 450,000 are taken, for the simple reason that the state has no need for any more. Those who are chosen are physically the best ; Russia cannot afford to keep weaklings in her army in a country where the conditions of life are so try- ing that only men with the very strongest constitu- tions can withstand them. Owing to the enormous size of the Empire and the hundreds of races and tribes inhabiting it, the total armed strength of Russia is still an unknown quantity. According to Russian statistics, which I see no reason to doubt, the total mobilised standing army with reserves numbers about 6 million trained men, or 20 per cent of the population. In addition to this there is the ''Opolchina," or militia, numbering over a million men. The "Opolchina" consists of soldiers averag- ing between forty and fifty years of age who have served their term in the line and reserves. In spite of their age, many are excellent soldiers, in some respects superior to the troops of the regular army. When Russia was conquered and overrun by the Poles it was the Opolchina of Nishni Novgorod, under the command of Prince Pbsharsky and the butcher Minin, who led the way to Moscow, drove the enemy out of the Kremlin, and saved the land from the domination of a foreign yoke. During the THE COUNTRY AND THE ARMY 15 invasion of Napoleon in 1812 the Opolchina, under the leadership of the "Pomeschike" (country gen- try), also rendered signal service to their country. After these forces come about 16,000 gendarmes, the pick of the army, and about 35,000 frontier guards, always on a war footing. This admirable body of men, which was organised under M. Witte, the famous Chancellor, probably already has been in action, for its members would be the first to meet an invader crossing the borders. Besides patrolling the frontiers, they are used to track and fight with smugglers who carry on a lively but dangerous busi- ness on both the Asiatic and European side. Owing to the high duties on all articles of luxury, and on many of the necessities of life, it pays the lawless to run the gauntlet, just as it did the same class in England during the Georgian and early Victorian periods. The frontier guards, who are continually contending with smugglers and other desperate people, are all picked men — first-class horsemen, excellent shots, enduring and resourceful. The frontier guards are little known outside of Russia; but the Cossacks have gained for them- selves a world-wide reputation for their horseman- ship, daring, hardihood and contempt of death or danger. In all, there are about 850,000 Cossacks, drawn not only from the Don, Donetz, the Caucasus i6 THE RUSSIAN ARMY and the Urals, but also from the far-distant prov- inces of Siberia. The Cossacks are such an inter- esting body that I will describe them in detail later on, and explain many curious features concerning them that are not known to the general public; for I have lived among them. RUSSIA'S STRENGTH IN MEN AND MONEY CHAPTER II RUSSIA'S STRENGTH IN MEN AND MONEY FROM the Russian habit of understating the strength of each regiment I am indined to beheve that the effective fighting force is even greater than is officially announced. If the coun- try is now able to raise such an enormous standing army with ease what will she be able to do in an- other hundred years? Only about 200 years ago Peter the Great was living a peaceful life near the site of the present Charing Cross Station, study- ing the art of shipbuilding. Russia then possessed no fleet worthy of the name. Her population was about 14 million souls. By the year 1859 it had risen to 74 millions; in 1897 i^ was 129 millions without including Finland; in 1904 it had reached 143 millions, and in 1906, according to a detailed estimate of the Central Statistical Committee, the total was 149 millions. At the present time those who are qualified to judge put the number at the enormous figure of 180 millions — ^a notable increase 19 20 THE RUSSIAN ARMY since Peter "knocked his window into Europe!" As the numbers, roughly speaking, double them- selves every fifty years, Russia will be seen to have the largest rate of increase in the Continent; thus she seems to be able to neglect losses that would spell disaster, if not decay, for less favoured lands. In 1892, for example, during the great famine, about 700,000 people perished from hunger and other causes, and in the following year about 300,- 000 were carried off by cholera ; yet these losses do not seem to have affected her in the slightest. Whilst Germany adds to her population at the rate of I million souls a year, Britain at the rate of 350,000, and France has practically no increase worth mentioning, "Holy Mother Russia," thanks to the fertility of her own mothers, has an annual growth of 3 million — equal to the whole popula- tion of Denmark. In another half-century, without counting her Slav allies in the south, she will have 360 millions of inhabitants, at the lowest estimate. It is apparent that whatever happens, she is able to call any number of men to the colours to con- tinue this war and to fight to the bitter end; where- as for her opponents, Austria and Germany, this is absolutely impossible, for reasons which do not come within the scope of the present work. Even should she by chance be defeated, it will only de- RUSSIA'S STRENGTH 21 lay the day when she will be the predominant power in Europe. Napoleon foresaw this, and his prophecy that Europe in a hundred years would be Republican or Cossack would have come true had not the Re- public in France been overthrown and Russia set back a hundred years or more by three great wars — the Crimean campaign, which cost her 100,000 men; the Russo-Turkish war, in which she lost 172,000, and the Japanese struggle, in which she is supposed to have lost about 350,000. In men alone she has been obviously badly weakened, apart from the millions in money uselessly expended in these more or less unsuccessful conflicts. In ad- dition to this, almost every year disastrous famines and epidemics occur in some portion of this vast Empire, to carry off other millions in a less public, but not less dreadful, manner. In spite of such drawbacks, her power of con- tinuing the war from a financial point of view is probably greater than that of any of the countries concerned. With a revenue of at least £300,000,- 000 a year, and a war reserve of about £165,000,- 000, she would be able, if she met with no serious catastrophe, to carry on her part in the present struggle for at least two or three years, easily, for there are several sources as yet untried by which 22 THE RUSSIAN ARMY the necessary funds might be obtained. In addition to the huge revenue, and great natural wealth in cereals, timber and minerals, she has a number of enormously rich monasteries. Some of these pos- sess untold treasure in the shape of gold, silver and jewels which have not yet found their Henry VIII to despoil them. Among the more wealthy religious establishments I may mention the Monastery of the Troitska, near Moscow; the Pechersk Monastery of Kieff, the Solovetsk Monastery on an island in the White Sea and the Alexander Nevsky Monastery at St. Petersburg. This last is said to have an income of £500,000 a year. It is so noted, in fact, that dur- ing the reign of the Tsar Nicholas the monks lent considerable sums to the Crown for the prosecution of the war. In the event of necessity these establishments, and many more, could be called upon to contribute to the requirements of the State; naturally, how- ever, this measure would not be resorted to except as a last hope. Russia can also borrow money from the million- aires of Moscow, the nobility, the rich merchants and land-owners. During the last thirty years she has become a great industrial State, with a home market of about 160 million customers, and many RUSSIA'S STRENGTH 23 fortunes have been made. Owing to the protective policy of the Government, Moscow, Petersburg, Kieff, Odessa, Warsaw, Lodz and other large cities and towns now contain many wealthy men, whose assets can be counted, if not in millions of pounds sterling according to English reckoning, at least in millions of roubles. In a prolonged conflict these princes of commerce would probably be obliged to lend or to give up a part of their accumulations to the State, as it has been owing to State bounties and the protection of industries by high tariffs that they have been able in a comparatively short time to make such vast fortunes. The very fact that the people of Moscow have just raised £1,000,000 sterling, in a week, for the help of those who will suffer from the effects of this war is eloquent as to the generosity of the inhabitants and the wealth of their "White-walled Moscow" — which is really the heart and centre of the Empire, rather than St. Petersburg. The State Railways form another immensely val- uable asset; in case of need, a considerable sum could be raised on this security. There is also the spirit monopoly, which brings in a revenue of at least 90 millions a year ; the tobacco monopoly, too, is owned by the State and is capable of great ex- tension, for tobacco can be grown in large quanti- 2^o THE RUSSIAN ARMY ti^i^i^d Is extremely cheap. Further taxation of the pe^op]^, however, would be a dangerous expedient, as. Ijljije^ tax-paying capacity of the peasantry has been fpiTfiqd to its highest limit, and an increase of the ex^f;fIons might lead to a revolution, which could b^jrtjiqre disastrous to Russia than a victory of the G^ri^fns. ( Jqternal disorders, in fact, might prevent Russia f|"!:^njf,continuing the war until Germany was com- ple^^y exhausted. At present, according to ad- vj^^^ I have received from St. Petersburg, the inten- tly; js to fight until the overbearing might of Prus- s'v^jff a nightmare of the past; this intention the I^^i^ians will probably carry into effect unless dis- seijLsions in Finland, Poland, the Baltic Provinces, S,9p^ Russia and the Caucasus compel a peace with tlj|^[^n.emy. So far, there are few signs of this di- v^fff^qn of energy. ^S| J regards her food supply, there is probably more than sufficient now that the grain exports vi^.^e Baltic and the Black Sea have been stopped. Tjhe .enormous amount of cereals that Russia an- nually exports to England, Germany, Holland and tl|^ ^9andinavian kingdoms will for the time re- m^\r^ in the country, and — a curious paradox — the pricp jOf food will be lower in war time than in pe^i9^ful years. In case of need, quantities of grain, RUSSIA'S STRENGTH 25 cattle, and horses can be obtained from Siberia, a territory which under proper cultivation could sup- ply the whole of Europe with food. From these comments on the situation it will be easily realised that Russia, as regards men, money and natural re- sources has nothing to fear from a continuation of the struggle for which she has been preparing for many years. THE PEASANT— THE BACKBONE OF THE ARMY '^O 08 i briB '!boO CHAPTER III ;^irrnft THE PEASANT— THE BACKBONE THE ARMY ^ '^"^ )rlJ lo THE Russian Army is recruited principaJJijy from the peasant class and from vral-tous nomadic races inhabiting the Eastern provineeSilfiit is estimated that in all there are about 120 miHi light grey in colour, and eight years old. "You ask me what is the object of my journey? My main object is to prove to the Tsar the loyalty of the Cossack women. He not only requires Cos- sacks, but 'Kazatchkee' (women Cossacks), who will always be ready to join in the defence of the fatherland. I have received permission, by the way, to present 'Mongolek' to the Tsarevitch, and I was desirous of proving the lasting importance of cavalry in general." ^One verst equals about two-thirds of an English mile. Note on Cossacks. — The word Kaaaks originally meant a free-booter and is of very ancient origin. The Cos- 112 THE RUSSIAN ARMY sacks are a very mixed race, and are of Tartar, Turk, Caucasian, Slavonic, and even Gothic origin. Their present military organisation dates from Peter the Great. "Once a Cossack always a Cossack." No matter how old a Cossack is, he belongs to the reserve forces of the "National Defence," and, if required, accompanies his sons and grandchildren to battle. THE DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS, AND THE REALISM OF THE MANCEUVRES CHAPTER IX THE DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS, AND THE REALISM OF THE MANCEUVRES THIS enormous army, variously estimated as numbering from five to six million of men, is not stationed, we must remember, solely in the European area. There are, as I have already said, forty or fifty thousand Frontier Guards, who are permanently on the Austrian, German, Armenian, Persian, Roumanian, and other boundaries, with instructions to keep out smugglers, and to prevent unauthorised persons without passports from cross- ing the border. Behind the Frontier Guards are the various Army Corps, stationed in the different military circuits of Kieff, Warsaw, Moscow, Petersburg, Riga, Revel, and Finland. An army corps usually contains from two to three hundred thousand men ; the one at St. Petersburg comprises the Guards, the flower of the forces. There are generally three corps stationed in the Caucasus, and four cavalry divisions, without counting the Kuban Cossacks. Another 1 5o,0(X) are 115 ii6 THE RUSSIAN ARMY maintained in Central Asia, and a considerable force holds the Japanese and Chinese frontiers. If the reports can be credited, there are about a million troops in Finland at the present time, as it was feared that the Germans, after seizing the Aland Isles, would endeavour to march on St. Petersburg through the Grand Duchy. Owing to the failure of the projected campaign in East Prus- sia, this plan has probably fallen through. It is hardly to be doubted that an attack on Finland was contemplated, for the great manoeuvres in that coun- try, which I attended for several summers in suc- cession, were specially arranged in view of a sup- posed attack on the Grand Duchy by the Germans. The evolutions were carried through with such in- tense realism that infantry soldiers were found dead in the forests round my brother's estate. The com- missariat waggons, owing to the rapid forced marches, could not keep pace with the troops; with the result that many men succumbed, com- pletely worn out by heat, hunger, and exhaustion. Had it not been for the hospitality shown to these unfortunates by English residents, some of whom have villas in Finland, many more would undoubt- edly have perished. I give this little incident simply to show with what rigid reality the Army's manoeu- vres are carried out. DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS 117 In the capital, and in centres such as Lodz and Warsaw, where there are huge industrial popula- tions and often numbers of disaffected inhabitants, large bodies of troops have necessarily to be quar- tered. The need for keeping so many divisions in Fin- land, the Baltic Provinces, Odessa, Central Asia, Manchuria, and many other danger-spots, with the object of maintaining order among the native people and of guarding against revolutionary outbreaks, considerably diminishes the fighting strength of the Army as a whole. In the Japanese War so many men were left at home for this pur- pose that Russia practically lost the day through sheer inability to utilise the tremendous military powers which she undoubtedly possesses. The manoeuvres of the Army generally take place every summer and are carried out on a scale im- known in England. Every year the Guards manoeu- vre around Petrograd and Tsarkoe Selo, but at times the operations of this and other crack regi- ments extend the whole distance between the capi- tal and the ancient fortress of Narva, the scene of the victory of Charles XII over the Russian Army. These grand evolutions, which I often visited, were carried on with at least 200,000 men — 100,000 on each side. The Tsar and the Grand Dukes usually ii8 THE RUSSIAN ARMY attend and inspire -the troops under their command. The conditions are made to resemble those of actual warfare as nearly as possible. Cavalry swim through deep rivers, and divisions of the infantry also, with the result that many an unfortunate sol- dier is drowned or expires from exhaustion. The Grand Dukes follow on horseback ; though reared in luxury, they have frequently to undergo the fatigue and strain of the ordinary soldier. Exceedingly important tests have also been car- ried out at Koorsk in South Russia, on a scale equal in magnitude to those already referred to. The op- erations I witnessed in Narva covered an extent of territory equal to the combined area of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Finnish manoeuvres were also extremely realistic. For many years the Russian troops have been executing a series of manoeuvres in those parts of the Empire which were liable to be invaded. We need not be surprised, therefore, if the German armies endeavour to invade Finland or the Baltic provinces; the Russians have long been ready for such a contingency. The greatest manoeuvres I ever saw took place between Krasno Selo and Narva. About 200,000 men were present on this occasion. Half of them were supposed to be Germans or a foreign army DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS 119 endeavouring to march on Petrograd ; the other half represented the force of defence. The Emperor and Grand Dukes took an active part in these opera- tions, which lasted several weeks. Owing to the courtesy of the military authorities, I and several other correspondents were furnished with passes •and permitted to watch the operations at close quar- ters. The Grand Dukes, especially the Grand Duke Nicholas, the elder (father of the present Grand Duke), took a lively interest in the proceedings. Later on I witnessed the manoeuvres in Finland, at which the Tsar was present. The Finnish troops, which have since been dis- banded, took a prominent part in the Wilhelmstrand manoeuvres, and won the admiration of an old colo- nel who was with me. But these troops were not popular with the Russian regiments of the Guard, and had they not been disbanded it is quite possible that blood would have flowed on both sides long before this. The Finnish people, as we have seen, no longer support their own military, which during the Thirty Years' War with Germany played such a glorious part, proving so hardy and brave that they were generally used for forlorn hopes or when no other troops would carry out desperate assaults and charges. During these interesting operations, carried on with all the grim realism of war, a por- 120 THE RUSSIAN ARMY tion of the forces occupied Pskoff, once the capital of one of the most powerful republics in Russia, but now a sleepy provincial town. Here an officer of the gendarmes wanted to arrest me, for he could not understand what I, an Englishman, had to do with Russian manoeuvres. (The English were then very unpopular in Russia.) Judging from the ques- tions he put to me he was not conscious of the im- portance of the English Press, which I then repre- sented. The famous Preolrashensk regiment, founded by Peter the Great, and the artillery of the Guards, with other regiments, numbering about 60,000 men, paraded before the Tsar and the Grand Dukes. It was a brilliant spectacle as thousands of these fine stalwart men, the pick of the Empire, passed before their "Little Father" and the members of the stafif who stood around him. Pskoff was simply packed with military ; there were about two soldiers to every civilian. Never since the day when the brave in- habitants endured a three months' siege by the forces of Stephan Batroi had this once famous city seen such a concourse of fighting men. When we remember that the King of Poland had 150,000 men with him and could not with all this force take the town, we can form an idea of the strength of this ancient republic, the sister of Novgorod the DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS 121 Great, "My Lord Novgorod." Gustavus Adolphus, with his brave army of Swedes who defeated Tilly and Wallenstein, had no better luck, and was forced to retire from the battered walls. Now Tilly, Wal- lenstein and the chivalrous Gustavus are no more; but Pskoff still stands, a shadow and wreck of its former might and glory. The city is full of ancient churches and monasteries, dating from the days when Varangian (Viking) Grand Dukes ruled over Russia, but in these pages this time must be passed over in silence. What particularly impressed me throughout the manoeuvres was the great interest the Tsar and the Grand Dukes took in military matters. They did not spare themselves in the least, several of them undergoing all the hardships, trouble and toil of a simple officer. Finest of all, perhaps, was the old Grand Duke Michael, the son of the Tsar Nicho- las. When last I saw him, although he was over seventy years of age, he marched at the head of his regiment of artillery, equal in every way to a much younger man. Like the iron emperor, Nicho- las, he delighted in the rough life of a soldier. His food, during the manoeuvres, was of the simplest, and he slept in a rough iron bedstead that many a private would not care to rest in. He was con- sidered one of the wealthiest men in Europe, and, 122 THE RUSSIAN ARMY although his estates in Russia occupied the space of many English counties, he evidently was only too delighted to escape from the pomp and luxury of his exalted position and to rough it once more with the men, who almost worshipped the ground he trod upon. He was not only head of all the Orders of the Russian Empire, but also of all the Russian artillery, which then numbered 6000 pieces. After witnessing the performances of his gunners he used to call up the soldiers and distribute new silver roubles and silver watches, which were greatly prized — "for had not the Grand Duke presented them with his own hands?" The Grand Duke Vladimir, the Tsar's uncle, was equally in evidence. Although he was very hand- some, and brave to temerity, he was not so popular with his officers and men as the veteran Grand Duke, who took such a prominent part in the cam- paign in Asia Minor during the last Russo-Turkish War. There was also the Grand Duke Paul, then Com- mander of the Guard, tall and erect as a pine-tree ; the affable and cultivated Duke Constantine, Presi- dent of the Academy of Sciences ; but the space and time at my disposal do not permit me to describe all these eminent personages in detail. Each day, after all the manceuvres, parades and DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS 123 marches were over, there was a grand rehgious and mihtary ceremony called the "Objezd Lager," or ride round the camp — which was sometimes several miles in circumference. The troops were without side-arms on these occasions. After inspecting the various regiments, the Tsar received the reports of his officers. Then, at a given signal, about five hundred cannon were fired simul- taneously, while a thousand musicians and drum- mers struck up the "Koln Slavjan," a Russian na- tional hymn. All the military present, from the Em- peror to the humblest private soldier, then intoned the Lord's Prayer. The effect of this ceremony was impressive beyond words. Anyone who wishes to see it to perfection must visit the camp at Tsars- koe Selo, for naturally when the Tsar and the Grand Dukes are present it is far more striking than on ordinary occasions. After watching the manceuvres at Krasno, the scene of operations was transferred to the Finnish coast, opposite Cronstadt. This was after the op- posing forces had come into contact outside Krasno, where the great mock battle was fought which was to decide the fate of St. Petersburg. As might be anticipated, the invading army was driven back after a stubborn contest, thanks to the prowess of the Im- perial Guards, the flower of the army. While this 124 THE RUSSIAN ARMY struggle was going on all round Krasno, another section of the invading troops made a descent on the coast of Finland, and occupied the road right up to St. Petersburg, or Petrograd, as it is now called. Important bridges were taken by assault, and the conditions of actual warfare were repre- sented as closely as possible. Many soldiers collapsed at these evolutions on the grand scale in consequence of the unusual strain. The heat was terrific, and after the troops had passed eastward several of my friends informed me that they found men lying completely prostrate. Russian soldiers are trained in such a manner that they are expected to accustom themselves to actual war conditions, so that they shall be able to take the field at a moment's notice against any enemy. During all these operations, I may say, the tem- perature was much higher than anything we are ac- customed to experience in England. The men were dressed, however, to withstand the heat. The ma- jority of them wore clean white linen blouses, black trousers, top-boots, and a round cap, and the entire outfit only cost the Government a very small sum per man. Nothing more practical or economical have I seen in any army, and were the system adapted to this country and our colonies, there DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS 125 would be a great saving to the nation and increased comfort to the soldiers, who, during the summer months, find it a trying matter to march and manoeu- vre in the present tight-fitting uniforms. BAYONET AND SWORD CHAPTER X BAYONET AND SWORD DURING my residence at St. Petersburg, I often attended the School of Arms, and from what I saw there was not much impressed by the performance of the officers as swordsmen. Great attention, however, was given to bayonet-practice. The bayonet is undoubtedly the favourite weapon of the Russian soldier, and in his heavy hands it is extremely effective. It was Suvoroff's weapon, as we have seen. In the present war it is playing an unexpected part, and the time and trouble spent on bayonet tactics evidently have not been wasted. The Russians, being heavy of build, always en- deavour when fighting to get to close quarters, so that their generally superior weight may tell. In the last war, Japanese nimbleness and staying pow- ers were sometimes more than a match, however, for the strength and weight of their opponents. In recent encounters with the Austrians the bayonet made havoc with their ranks, and will again when- 129 I30 THE RUSSIAN ARMY ever the stolid soldier of the Tsar faces his en- emy. Russian commanders have such great belief in the "Shtyck," as they call it, that much time is given to teaching its use. In an engagement the infantry always march with bayonets screwed on the end of their rifles; they are so used to this that the in- creased weight does not interfere with the accuracy of firing. As a rule, they prepare to use the wea- pon directly they come within 150 yards of the front ranks of the enemy, and do not "fix bayonets" at the last moment, as is the custom in some European armies. This is an unwise practice, as in the excite- ment of attack a soldier is apt to forget all about his bayonet until it is too late to affix it. The Japa- nese, who are very skilful in the use of this arm, usually affix it when about 350 feet from the an- tagonist, with the result that the Russians, in the last war, often forestalled them by rushing to the counter-attack before the Japs were ready to engage. Experience has shown that when the attacking party is able to approach within a hundred yards of the opponent the shooting of the latter has very little effect, for the troops, unless unusually cool and well disciplined, begin to fire wildly directly the enemy comes to such close quarters. Russian soldiers therefore make it a general rule to advance BAYONET AND SWORD 131 to the counter-attack with the bayonet as soon as possible. Generally, these tactics are extremely suc- cessful. The Guards, who are always stationed in and round the capital, are specially trained in the use of this formidable weapon, and when things look very black these splendid troops, who with the Rou- manians took the almost impregnable fortress of Plevna at the point of the bayonet, are called out as a dernier ressort. If I am not mistaken, the Guards were not ordered out to the Far East in the Japanese campaign until all chances of victory had vanished. But in the present war there is rea- son to believe that they are being used in East Prus- sia. If this is the case, it is quite easy to understand why the Germans have had to retreat and to en- trench themselves in their second line of defence. As swordsmen, if the Russians do not seem bril- liant, the Cossacks are and always have been very skilful. Their favourite weapon, however, is the long lance, which they wield with deadly dexterity. Many of them are also expert with the lasso, throw- ing it for a surprising distance and capturing the foe alive, if a trifle bruised, whenever they choose. In shooting with the carbine, or short rifle, the Cossacks are extremely efficient, and often, on ac- count of their coolness and their marvellous eye- 132 THE RUSSIAN ARMY sight, are employed as sharp-shooters to pick off items of the enemy's forces from a distance. There is little doubt, however, that the chief power of the Russian soldier lies in his bayonet, not in the rifle, which is rather too scientific a weapon for the village peasant to handle ; he has not the requisite skill, touch, and finesse which belong to French, Belgian, or English soldiers. Military experts hold the opinion that the Prussian victory at Tannen- berg, in E^st Prussia, was solely due to the su- periority of the German cannon taken from the fortresses of Thorn and Gaudenetz, and to the new inventions of Krupp, which have shown their ad- vantage over the Russian Horse Artillery, con- structed on French models. LIABILITY TO SERVE CHAPTER XI LIABILITY TO SERVE THE number of men to be called to the colours annually is decided by the Imperial Senate, according to the report of the Minister of War. Theoretically, the entire male population between the ages of twenty-one and forty- four years is liable to serve, either in the regulars or in the militia; but there are many causes of exemption. Speaking broadly, the term of service in the first line, or active army, is three years in the infantry, field and fort artillery, four years in the other de- partments of the Army. The soldier then enters the reserve, in which he remains for fourteen or fifteen years, undergoing during this period two trainings per annum of six weeks each. Having completed eighteen years in the first line of the re- serve, he passes to the militia or last reserve. Ser- vice here is for five years — i.e. until the soldier at- tains the age of forty-three. The Territorial Army is organised into groups of Regulars, Cossacks, Militia and Landsturm. On 135 136 THE RUSSIAN ARMY a peace footing the Cossacks are only maintained at one-third of their proper war strength, A Rus- sian regiment probably contains more men than that of any other country when on a peace footing; including officers, musicians, non-commissioned of- ficers and men, it numbers 1900; but in war time this increases to 4000. A regiment of cavalry usu- ally consists of six squadrons; a squadron com- prises 1000 men and 900 horses, exclusive of of- ficers. Cossack regiments consist of six "sotnias," or hundreds, of horsemen — 600 men. The Cossacks, unlike the cavalry, have preserved their own na- tional organisation, and have not copied the military organisation of others. I should say that at least 65 per cent of the con- scripts, when they join, can neither read nor write. The percentage of illiterates among the people at large is still greater. The officers have then to teach these ignorant men their alphabet, the three R's, and other elements of education, and considering that some of the poor fellows are little better than bar- barians, the task is not an easy one. There is small doubt that the Government, which since the days of Nicholas I has kept the people in ignorance, is much to blame for the backward state of the masses. Russian officers have told me that some of the re- cruits from outlying districts do not even know their LIABILITY TO SERVE 137 left leg from their right, and that in order to en- lighten them a wisp of straw had to be tied to one leg, a wisp of hay to the other. Then, by degrees, with the repeated call of "Hay" or "Straw" they mastered this intricate problem! Such exceptional cases, however, were probably Finns, not true Rus- sians or Tartars, for both these races are very in- telligent. Many of the Finns settled along the course of the Volga are practically heathen, and as- tonishingly dense. The soldier on the average is not so backward as in the Turkish war. In these days he reads the newspapers; in the last genera- tion he could only smoke them — ^i.e. convert them into cigarette-papers. Roughly speaking, the terms of service vary ac- cording to education. If a man has passed through the university, he serves two years in the line and sixteen in the reserves; if through the secondary schools, he does three years and fifteen respectively ; but if he has been brought up in the national schools he must put in his full time. Professors and learned men whose accomplishments are exceptionally valu- able to the State are generally free from military duties. Universal service was first established by law on the first of January, 1874. The practice of paying the Crown a certain sum to be exempt is not per- 138 THE RUSSIAN ARMY mitted ; but it sometimes happens that doctors can be bribed to give certificates of ill-health which would free the recalcitrant conscript from his du- ties. I believe, however, that this practice is rare; according to my experience neither rank nor for- tune can be used to prevent a man from serving his country when required to do so. I have, in fact, known cases both of poor men's sons and of the sons of wealthy people dying from their exertions at the manoeuvres; the more favoured ones of society be- ing treated in precisely the same way as the poorer men. The liability of the Cossacks to serve is on quite a different footing from the regulars. Their term of service is for life, and affects the whole civil life of the community. They are still, as in olden times, a nation of soldiers. For this reason they enjoy the use of the Crown Lands in Russia and Siberia on very advantageous conditions, and are freed from direct taxation; they have also other valuable priv- ileges which the Great Russians do not possess. Exemption from service in the Army is as fol- lows, generally speaking. Those who are unable to work in consequence of wounds, sickness, or de- formity need not serve. The only son of a widowed mother, and the only son among several brothers who is able to work, or who is one of a family LIABILITY TO SERVE 139 of orphans ; or the only grandson, living with grand- parents who have no son to support them : these are exempt. An illegitimate son who is cared for by his mother, in the event of there being no other son capable of working for her, is free; and exiles also need not serve. Many of the aborigines of Siberia, belonging to Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yenesiesk, Yakutsk, and Kams- chatka, are exempt from service; the inhabitants of Turkestan and subjects of the Grand Duchy of Finland are excluded, but in place of military duties they have to pay an annual contribution to the Im- perial Exchequer. The Finns are not considered sufficiently loyal to be enrolled ; they also pay a mili- tary tax. Since 191 2 this tax has been increased annually, until it now amounts to 16 million marks (£640,000). The Caucasians, who are even more unreliable than the Finns, also contribute in the same way an exemption-tax. With the Cossacks, reasons for exemption are practically the same as among the regular troops. There are so many of these opportunities for evading service, that one cannot say that conscription presses so hardly upon the Russian people as it does upon other nations in Europe, such as the Germans, Austrians, French and Italians. Service in the land forces is as follows : for those 140 THE RUSSIAN ARMY who enter the infantry and light artillery, three years; for those who enter all other branches (in- cluding the flotilla), four years. Service in the re- serves is divided into two categories, of which the second is intended exclusively for filling up the sec- ondary troops and the rear establishments. It termi- nates when the soldier attains his thirty-ninth year, after which he is in the militia. Persons who enter the service after the year in which they are called to arms have to make good the time lost by joining the reserves, but not after the age of forty-three, for then they retire from the military life. All who can bear arms are liable for the militia, also all who have escaped service in the regular army when lots were drawn. Volunteers are obliged to serve eigh- teen years — two years in the line and sixteen in the reserves. In the event of a volunteer passing the officers' examination, his term of service is short- ened still more, to twenty months. The volunteers have also the privilege of living in the officers' quar- ters during a portion of their time of active service. Those who pay for their keep and clothing have many favours, and for this class the life is not half so severe as it is under ordinary conditions. DISCIPLINE CHAPTER XII DISCIPLINE IN spite of the friendly, almost fatherly spirit existing between the officers and their subordi- nates I should say that the discipline in the Rus- sian Army is more severe than in any other Euro- pean force. Never shall I forget the picture in the Imperial Academy of Arts, at St. Petersburg, representing an incident that occurred in one of the many wars against Persia. In this particular conflict it was found impossible to transport the artillery across some deep fissures in the roads over which the guns must pass before they could be placed in position. As the ground was rocky, and there was no earth or loose timber to fill the wide cracks, the officer in charge was at his wits' end to know how to get each heavy piece over the difficult bit of road. In desperation, he finally asked if any of his men would sacrifice themselves by lying down in the hollow and letting the guns proceed over their recumbent bodies. Strange to say, about a dozen came forward to volunteer for this dreadful 143 144 THE RUSSIAN ARMY task; uncomplaining, they allowed the heavy ar- tillery to roll across their quivering bodies, out of which the blood and life were soon crushed by the unpitying cannon. To such lengths goes the spirit of obedience and self-sacrifice ingrained in the soldiers of the Tsar. In Russian military history many similar instances are chronicled — incidents which make us Western nations almost horror- stricken at the unconcern with which human life is treated. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, of Paul, and of Nicholas other events took place which equal in vividness the one I have mentioned. Being half an Asiatic, and at the same time a fatalist, the soldier sets small value on his own life or on that of another. This, with his want of nerves, makes him a formidable enemy, and when properly trained, fed, and led he is capable of conquering the most cruel or ferocious people on earth. A race that could hold its own against the fierce Tartars and Mongols for centuries, and finally subdue them, can accomplish anything in the way of heroism and endurance. The Russian military code of laws is even more severe than the German, and offences which in Eng- land would be punished with imprisonment or ex- pulsion are in Russia punishable with the death penalty. Disciplinary punishment is inflicted on DISCIPLINE 145 the rank and file, and on the commissioned officers by extra service, arrest, expulsion from the Army and imprisonment. During my seven years' resi- dence at Cronstadt executions both of officers and men in the garrison were not infrequent. Most of these penalties were for being mixed up with revo- lutionary propaganda or for mutiny. Soldiers who in a state of intoxication struck their superior of- ficers were shot without mercy. At Sveaborg, ac- cording to the evidence of a Finnish engineer who was present at the execution of the mutinous ar- tillerymen of the garrison, every second man was shot; but before being ranged in line for the final tragic scene each man had to dig his own grave. Those who do not suffer death are often sent to Siberia to work in the mines, or are compelled to join a disciplinary battalion, where the most menial and trying labours are inflicted on delinquents — ■ frequently so arduous that the men do not survive. The Superior Court-Martial is in St. Petersburg, and consists of generals and highly placed officers. This court has power to imprison offenders in a fortress, to sentence them to exile in Siberia, to expel them from the service, to degrade them, and to condemn them to death. In this short work it is impossible to give in detail the various punishments meted out to those 146 THE RUSSIAN ARMY who infringe the mihtary code. Owing to their severity the discipHne in the Russian Army is the envy of all those martinets who set little or no value on human life or independence of spirit. A slight notion of its range, and of how little the sol- dier troubles about killing a fellow-creature, may be obtained from a curious anecdote related to me while I was staying at the camp at Krasno. The victim on this occasion was an unfortunate Jewish contractor, who used to supply hay and provisions for the troops. It happened that one day he was exceptionally pertinacious, sending to demand money from the officer in charge of the regiment. At last the officer, losing patience on being so con- tinually importuned, exclaimed petulantly: "Oh, hang the Jew! I am too busy to attend to him." The soldiers standing by took the officer at his word. Seizing the Jew, they hauled him into the open and hanged him there and then without any further ado. A few minutes after they returned, jubilant, and said: "Evrei povjesen, vash blagorodni ! — The Jew is hanged, your high-born!" "What?" shouted the officer, horrified ; "do you mean that you have killed the man?" "Yes, your high-born!" "Who gave you that permission?" DISCIPLINE 147 "You yourself, your high-born." It was of no use explaining to the men that his hasty speech had been merely an irritated exclama- tion and that the last thing he had meant was that the Jew should be really hanged. His men had been brought up to carry out every order immediately, without asking questions, and this was merely the result of the system. Nothing could be done, so a report was sent to the highest military authorities explaining how the mistake had occurred with the result that both the officer and the men who had carried out his "order" were imprisoned. But it was not for long. After a brief term of confine- ment they were released. The men were rewarded for their obedience, and the officer was promoted for having his men under such excellent control! Truly, in Russia "Shezn cop j eke — Life is worth a farthing!" OFFICERS AND FRIENDS IN HIGH PLACES CHAPTER XIII OFFICERS AND FRIENDS IN HIGH PLACES MY relations with Russian officers and com- manders have on the whole been exceed- ingly pleasant. During twenty-seven years spent in many parts of the country I continually came into contact with officers of all ranks, from the highest general to the simplest rough sergeant. "Speak of a man as you find him" is an excellent adage, and in this hasty reminiscence of my friends in authority I shall endeavour to hold to it. The first officer of notable rank I met was bluff old Admiral K , the former Governor of Cron- stadt with its enormous garrison of 40,000 men. Admiral K , who had served in the Far East, was of Cossack or Little Russian origin. His bul- let-head, thick neck, massive forehead, broad chest and long, drooping moustache reminded me of Taras Bulba, the mighty Cossack Hetman whose life and exploits Gogol, the Dickens of Russia, has recorded in one of his finest works. 151 152 THE RUSSIAN ARMY I also made the acquaintance of another admiral, the commandant of the fortress, in whom the late Alexander III had the most implicit faith. In this he was justified, for a more trusty and honourable servant could not be found than this kindly old sea-dog, now, I am sorry to say, gone to his fathers. Before leaving Cronstadt for good, this admiral invited me to a splendid lunch, and took me over some of the forts. On expressing my surprise that he should show me, an Englishman, this favour, he replied : "We have no Dreyfus here !" — alluding to the fact that Jews were not then allowed to serve in the Army. But the sly old sailor did not show me the newer forts he had secretly built about ten miles outside the city at a cost of several million pounds, "for his friends the English," as he jok- ingly remarked, "the next time they pay Cronstadt a visit." These forts are furnished with the heav- iest Krupp guns that could be obtained, which, with the mines that are laid in the narrow channel, ren- der the place practically impregnable. I spent seven years in this "Little Siberia," as the officers called the town, and resided with three naval men, who had been all round the world and now lived together as merry a life as did the Three Mus- keteers. One of them was a lieutenant of Hun- garian origin, a member of the staff of the Tsar's OFFICERS AND FRIENDS 153 yacht; the second, a naval engineer, was of German extraction; the third, a remarkably clever Japanese scholar, was of pure Swedish blood. Little did we think, when they used to dress in Japanese costumes and drink tea in the Eastern manner, that in a few years they would be engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the Japanese whose language and peculiar social ceremonials this member of our party had mastered so thoroughly. Like most Russian officers, they were all splendid linguists, speaking English, French and German with equal fluency. They had all been to Japan, and had married there, and, as with many other Europeans, the three little Japanese wives had made these world-wanderers so happy and comfortable that they did not wish to return. But at the call of duty they said the sad farewells, and came back to "little Siberia" to work and perhaps to remember. When I eventually removed to St. Petersburg, my duties as foreign correspondent brought me into contact with officers of the Guards, from whom I learnt a good deal about not only the Russian Army, but the other Continental forces, the qualities of which we were continually discussing. To me the most interesting of all these friends was General Mansers of the Imperial Staff, with whom I lived for three years. His name had been corrupted from 154 THE RUSSIAN ARMY Manners, and he informed me that he was descended from Lord Manners, Duke of Rutland, who fled to Sweden after the battle of Tewkesbury or one of the great struggles that took place in the Wars of the Roses. When Finland was taken over by Russia many Swedish officers entered the Rus- sian service. This general, a handsome little man with aristo- cratic bearing, had two ambitions — to see his an- cestral estates in England, and to marry an English wife. Unfortunately he died before he could carry out either of these laudable aims. General Mansers spoke French and Swedish to perfection. He fre- quently visited Berlin, where he was much impressed by the Prussian troops ; he told me that he detested the Prussians, but could not help admiring their Guards, than which he had seen no finer body any- where. He had only once been to London ; .had he seen our Grenadier Guards and the Highlanders he might have altered his opinion, for better soldiers it would be difficult to find than these brave fellows who have so successfully withstood the attacks of the flower of the German Army. General Mansers, who was a keen student of his- tory, used to affirm that there were only seven great "Polkovodzee" (military leaders) who by genius had transformed the art of war : these were, if I re- OFFICERS AND FRIENDS 155 member correctly, Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Csesar, Eugene of Savoy, Gustavus Adolphus, Mar- shal Saxe and Napoleon. Why Moltke, Marlbor- ough and Wellington were not included in the list I could not understand; but not being a military expert I deemed it wiser to accept this dictum in silence. According to students, Cromwell and Charles XII were great cavalry leaders, but not "Polkovodzee." In the same house where I then lived — in fact, in the adjoining apartments — was the great-grand- son of that famous Swedish officer Colonel Michel- son, who suppressed the insurrection of the Cos- sack Pugacheff after several of Catherine's ablest generals had been defeated. This young officer, who was only about twenty-eight years of age, was exceedingly handsome, tall, fair, of erect carriage, with blue eyes, golden hair, and a fresh ruddy complexion. Although his family had resided in Russia since the days of Catherine II, he preserved the Viking appearance unaltered, in common with many Russian officers whose Varangian ancestors came over in the ninth and tenth centuries. Michel- son was remarkably studious, and spent most of his time reading up for examinations, or in the study of books on tactics and strategy. He re- sembled more the type of officer I had often met 156 THE RUSSIAN ARMY in Germany than the merry, happy-go-lucky and extravagant Russian of the 'eighties whom I so often encountered at balls and supper-parties. "Wein, weib, und gesang" then occupied their at- tention, just as tennis, polo, cricket, hunting and other sports absorb the superfluous energy of many of our own men. The bitter lesson of the Japanese War, however, taught many a thoughtless, reckless young officer that soldiering means more than pleasure-seeking, and that sooner or later comes a day when those who neglect to make themselves proficient in their profession must pay a heavy pen- alty. So it happened with many a merry soul on the battlefields of Mukden and on the Yalu River. The lessons of that sanguinary campaign have caused the General Staff to introduce numerous re- forms, often due to the painstaking care of General Koorapatkine, who, if not a first-class leader, is without doubt a second Kitchener as regards power of organisation and looking after the material needs of the men committed to his charge. The officers have become much more serious than they were in the days before so many disasters befell their coun- try's arms. Judging from what I learnt on the Continent prior to the outbreak of the present Arm- ageddon, the money, time and care have not been wasted, and the Russian Army now in action is far OFFICERS AND FRIENDS 157 more efficient than it has been for very many years. An instance occurs in the aviation department; large sums have been spent, until in aeroplanes Rus- sia is almost on a level with France and Germany. With Zeppelins and other dirigibles she is far be- hind still, and may suffer in consequence. After leaving St. Petersburg I spent several sum- mers at Krasno Selo, where the manoeuvres are held; there I constantly met officers of high rank. The most interesting of all was General R 1, adjutant to Alexander III, and former commandant of a large section of the artillery stationed always on the Austrian frontier. A jollier soul than this old general I have seldom known. Although nearly seventy, he had all the energy and vitality of youth. He laughed, danced, sang and even drank with the liveliest; but with all his gaiety he kept thoroughly an fait with his professional work. He delighted in gathering friends round him and relating anecdotes and adventures of his younger days in the Turkish and other wars. He had fought under three Em- perors, and naturally had plenty of good stories. One of the most thrilling was a tale of his battery in the Turkish campaign. At Plevna all the men of the battery except himself had been shot down, and he expected every moment to be killed by the advancing enemy, whose soldiers were steadily 158 THE RUSSIAN ARMY ascending the slope to take the guns. Seeing that resistance was hopeless, he coolly leaned against a field-piece and lit a cigarette. As he smoked, the Turks drew nearer and nearer with fixed bayonets. Just at the critical instant, when he thought all was over, a squadron of Cossacks came galloping round the hill; they soon routed the Turks, the majorit}'- of whom paid dearly for their rash ad- vance. This officer, who was the grandson of one of the last Hospodars of Roumania, was also of foreign origin, like so many others. When we remember that thousands of these men are of German, Swed- ish, Scottish and Polish birth or extraction, we can understand why they are not as efficient as the officers of other countries. Studying the Rus- sian Army and Navy List, we shall be astonished at the number of non-Russian names ; even Tartar, Mongolian, Caucasian and Greek. As long as they have gone through the military school, any post, except that of Minister, is open to them, and even that is obtainable if the aspirant belongs to the State religion. Among old Scottish families that have made a home for themselves in Russia and have become naturalised the Gordons are famous. General Gordon practically ruled during the absence of Peter the Great abroad. Admiral Greig, an- OFFICERS AND FRIENDS 159 other Scotsman, reorganised the Navy under Cath- erine; Barclay de Toll fought Napoleon in 1812; and Todleben raised the wonderful fortifications of Sevastopol that gave so much trouble to the Al- lies. There are also Levins, Leslies, Stewarts, Clay- hills and a host of other Scottish names, the ma- jority of which came into Finland and the Baltic Provinces during the reigns of Gustavus Adolphus or Peter the Great, or before these provinces were annexed. Others are of Polish, Swedish and Ger- man origin. One of Catherine's most trusted gen- erals was an Englishman, who rejoiced in the home- ly name of Brown. The great Skobeleff is said to have been of English origin, and traced his descent from a Captain Skobel, an officer in the army of Catherine II. Though perhaps not so refined and cultivated as our own, these gentlemen are for the most part hearty, jolly, manly fellows; fond of liquor, dancing, fun, cards, and the fair sex — ^pos- sibly too fond of these pleasures to be good sol- diers. In such a vast army there must be all cate- gories — frivolous, ignorant, cultured, studious — ■ as in other armies. But I should say that offi- cers and non-commissioned officers of the line regi- ments in Russia, though certainly tough, rough and ready, hardy soldiers, are inferior in training and education to the English and German and i6o THE RUSSIAN ARMY French. In the Guards, however, and in the regi- ments stationed along the Austrian and German frontiers, there are many brilHant officers and fine soldiers, who in the Japanese War had no chance of showing their ability. Some of these are now be- ginning to show what metal they are made of, doubtless to the surprise of the Austrians. From one of the leading generals who took an active part in the siege of Plevna, I learnt that the military arrangements were so inefficient that had it not been for the corruption of the Turkish Pashas the entire army of invasion would have perished on the other side of the Danube. The Russians prefer to "muddle through" hke ourselves; but that bad habit has cost them so much in men and money that in future they will trust less to luck and more to sound preparation. Among the men who have done so much to im- prove the fighting forces we must not forget the late General Dragoniroff, whose handbooks on the subject of soldiering have been translated into al- most every European tongue. Another notable General is Rennenkampf, who in the Japanese War gained great distinction for himself and his cavalry. In the present conflict this brilliant man is again winning honours. General Linevitch, the "old wolf," was also the idol of his men in Manchuria, OFFICERS AND FRIENDS i6i where he saw more active service than Koorapat- kine and others who were there before him; rrot until the Army was in difficulties was this old war- rior appointed to the position he should have held at first. At Mukden he retreated in good order to Tieling, with his entire army intact, while those of Koorapatkine and Orleff were fearfully broken; in addition to saving his men, he brought with him to Tieling seven Japanese cannon and several thou- sand prisoners. Shortly after the conclusion of the war General Linevitch, worn out with toil, and dis- appointed by the ingratitude and neglect which had been his portion, was called to his well-earned rest. Michenko, a Little Russian, is another celebrated cavalry officer; but whether he will again achieve fame remains to be seen. Grippenberg, Kaulbars and Stackelberg are three more excellent comman- ders of whom, if they still live, we ought to hear in the course of the fighting on the Continent. The Army has many hitherto unknown leaders only awaiting an opportunity to distinguish themselves; such a one is General Russky, whose name none of us had heard until he brought it into world-promi- nence by his fine action at Lemberg. Most of the skilled generals who took part in the last war are now too old for active service, or have passed away. Koorapatkine, after writing i62 THE RUSSIAN ARMY the memoirs in which he endeavoured to acquit him- self of blame for the series of defeats sustained by the forces under his control, has retired to his beau- tiful Finnish estate, where he will hear only echoes of the clash of arms. General Sacharoff, Chief of Staff, I believe was assassinated. General Tserpnit- sky, brave and talented, was killed at Port Arthur, whilst Grippenberg and Stackelberg, of Swedish and German origin respectively, fell into disgrace, prob- ably owing to their foreign birth. The modern Russian resents being led by men of foreign ex- traction, though there have been many officers of mixed blood — among them Souvoroff, Gordon, Barclay de Toll, Bagriaton, Gourko, Count Witten- stein, Todleben, Radetsky and Skobeleff. Koora- patkine was, I think, a pure Russ, and so was Koute- soff, the Russian ''Cunctator," though one can hardly term them first-class military leaders. There is a tendency now to eliminate the foreign element, and the last Ministers for War were pure Russians. Among prominent officers who doubtless will have much to say during the present war we may note the following: General J. Martsen, Commander-in- Chief of the Wilna Military Circuit; General R. Suchomiloff, Minister for War; the Grand Duke Nicholas, General of the Cavalry, Commander-in- Chief of the Regiments of the Guard for the mill- OFFICERS AND FRIENDS 163 tary district of St. Petersburg; General Skalon, Commander-in-Chief of the Warsaw MiHtary Cir- cuit; and General Ivanoff, Commander-in-Chief of the Kieff Circuit. As this war goes on we shall probably hear a good deal of these clever men, also, no doubt, of others such as Russky, whose names have not yet become highly distinguished. MILITARY SCHOOLS CHAPTER XIV MILITARY SCHOOLS IN Petrograd, Moscow, Odessa, Omsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, and man}^ other towns of Russia and Siberia are some very fine military academies. These buildings are on so elaborate a scale that they might well be taken for palaces ; others, such as the Sap- pers' School in Petrograd and the Corps de Pages, have actually been palaces in days gone by. This is a subject which some of our own officers might well take up, for it is worthy of attention. I do not remember how many thousands of officers the schools turn out annually, but it is a very impressive total, for there are about 70,000 officers in the Rus- sian Army — 30,000 commissioned and 40,000 non- commissioned. The majority of the best officers are educated in these academies, which I have often visited with great satisfaction and pleasure. I have also frequently attended the shooting contests at Krasno Selo between the cadets and the infantry of the Guards, and have been surprised to see that the highly trained cadets from the military academies 167 i68 THE RUSSIAN ARMY made better scoring than the ordinary artillery-men. Perhaps this could be explained by the fact that the latter are neither so well trained nor so scientific as the cadets. That excellent work, "Die Russiche Arme," pub- lished in Berlin in 1912, has some pertinent remarks on this subject. The author says : "The technical education of the officers is looked after by the vari- ous military academies, which train and educate the cadets according to the branch of service they have decided to enter. The Nicholas Military Acad- emy prepares candidates for the staff after they have served three years in the regular army. The Michael Artillery Academy, named after the Grand Duke Michael, trains officers for the artillery of the Guard, The Nicholas Academy of Engineers is for officers who wish to become military engineers and sappers. The Alexander Juridical Academy is for the benefit of officers who wish to be instructors in the military schools. Another academy trains of- ficers for the commissariat department ; while lastly, the Medical Academy takes charge of the education of the army doctors." It would take too long to describe all the similar military institutions in the Empire. They are all being maintained in a high state of efficiency at the cost of many millions of roubles annually. Enough, MILITARY SCHOOLS 169 however, has been written to show what a great amount of energy and wealth is directed into the single channel of the Army, also to indicate what a glowing future is in store for Russia directly her vast resources become more consolidated and better organised. Her very vastness is her greatest weak- ness, and if she does not emerge triumphant from the present struggle it will not be for the want of men, money, or natural wealth, but by reason of the internal dissensions which are so liable gradually to weaken her gigantic power for offence. In much the same way racial and religious hatred is paralys- ing the strength and efficiency of the Austrian Army. The constant and, it seems, inevitable in- ternal discontent is Russia's greatest enemy, rather than the power or number of the Austro-German troops, against whom, so far, she has more than held her own. In taking her Army into consideration, we must remember that a very considerable portion of it cannot be used for offensive purposes. I should say that at least one million men must be kept in Finland, the Baltic Provinces, Poland, Little Rus- sia, and the Caucasus to watch the disaffected ele- ments of the population and to repress any attempts to throw off allegiance to the Tsar. If the Poles, Finns, Caucasians, Little Russians, and the inhabi- 170 THE RUSSIAN ARMY tants of the Baltic Provinces are loyal and give no trouble, Russia should not only be able to inflict a crushing defeat on Germany, but might also annex Galicia and the Slavonic provinces of Austria ; thus w^ould her power and influence over the Slavs be increased. But her offensive power, as I have noted, entirely depends on the internal political state of the country ; and on this depends essentially her success in the terrible struggle. CONCLUDING REMARKS CONCLUDING REMARKS WHETHER Russia is victorious or not, whether she is triumphant or humihated, in the Titanic struggle, it is evident that it is only a question of time for her to become the first power in Europe. Greater Russia has been closed too long to Western influences, and if this war stimulates interest in her great future and vast resources it will have at least one bright side. Siberia alone, which contains sorrie of the richest corn-growing land in the world, is about twice the size of our Continent. It is said that the black-earth belt, on which the finest crops can be raised, stretches for several thousand miles, from the Altai mountains in Asia to the Carpathians in Europe. On this suf- ficient wheat could be grown to feed the whole of Europe and a large part of Asia besides. There is so much spare land, in fact, that it could support if necessary 600 millions of inhabitants instead of the present 180 millions. Russia, although only a young State, has shown that her people have been gifted by nature with those intellectual and spiritual qualities without ^72> 174 THE RUSSIAN ARMY which no race can ever attain true greatness; she has produced men of the first rank in wellnigh every important walk of hfe. In literature we find Push- kin, Lermontoff, Gogol, Turgenieff, Tolstoi, Dostoi- effsky, Gorki, Tchekoff, and many others; some of these may well be compared with the greatest geniuses of ancient or modern times. Gogol re- sembles Dickens, but he is a Dickens full of poetry and unfathomable depths of feeling and sorrow. Those who have heard "the bitter laughter of his weeping," as he calls his writings, do not easily forget it. In music, Russia has many great names, some of which are beginning to be known in England. Already she has produced a National Opera, with notable composers such as Glinka, Rubenstein, Tchaikoffsky, Rimsky Korsakoff, Dargominski. Her engineers have spanned the Empire with rail- ways which are the wonder of the travelling world; in art and in medicine her sons are making them- selves known, and as soldiers we have seen their imprint on history. If in the space of two hundred years Russia could attain such distinction, what will she accomplish when her millions are educated, when they have had the benefit of the increased in- tercourse with the worlds of art and science which we and our nearer neighbours now enjoy? Her CONCLUDING REMARKS 175 power for good or for evil will be doubled, and the day will approach when Napoleon's prophecy, though delayed, will come true. Over the future, however, a veil of darkness lies ; the horizon is now clouded by the fog and dust of war — a war in which the rougher passions hold sway and master the finer instincts of the people. It seems that we must pass through this Inferno before Europe will learn how to maintain peace without the aid of cruel armaments that even in tranquil times tend to crush the life out of so- called Christian and civilised nations. The present war, the final effects of which we shall never see, is the most terrible in the world's history; in com- parison with it all others seem but child's play. The officers and experienced soldiers taking part in it say that they have never known anything to equal the magnitude of its horrors or the suffering it has already caused. A Russian writer, whose name is u-nfami-Iiar to me, says : "In truth, the whole world now be- holds what terrific proportions modern warfare can attain, and one involuntarily asks the question, What is going to happen next, if we proceed still further — in our Christian era — in perfecting the im- plements for mutual destruction? There can only be one answer to this question : humanity is march- 1/6 THE RUSSIAN ARMY ing towards self-extermination. War will thus be- come an absurdity, since all the belligerents will become mutual exterminators of one another; and the word 'victor' will bear the same meaning for all— Ruin." APPENDIX APPENDIX A FEW details of the extent of Russia's ter- ritory may be of interest as giving an idea of the resources open to her in times of emergency. The total area of the Empire in Europe and North Asia exceeds 8,660,000 square miles — that is, it forms one-sixth of the land surface of the globe. The length of the land frontier line in Europe is 2800 miles; in Asia, nearly 10,000 miles. The greatest breadth of territory from north to south is 2932 miles, and the greatest length from east to west is 7680 miles. This tremendous expanse is divided into eighteen Provinces, seventy-seven Governments, and two Circuits. A single Russian Government is frequent- ly the size of one of the largest of the other Euro- pean States, while an "Oojezd" (District), the minor division of a Province, is often as large as Holland or Belgium. Germany and Austria com- bined are only equal in area to two of Russia's larger Governments. As regards population, I have already given some remarkable figures. The immense increase, even 179 i8o THE RUSSIAN ARMY in the short period since the close of the war with Japan, shows perhaps better than anything else the niarvellous vitality and power of recuperation of the Russian people. Of the total population of the Empire, the majority are Orthodox Slavs. There are about lo million Catholic Poles, 5 million Lithu- anians, 5 million Jews, 5 million Germans, and probably 13 million Tartars, Caucasians, Tchoo- vash, Finnish, and other races, from whom Russia can obtain vast numbers of soldiers if necessary. I should say that over 100 million of the people belong to the Orthodox Greek Church ; the remain- der comprise Dissenters, Roman Catholics, Ma- hommedans, and Buddhists.