% % / : o G° * Y ;' JBM - ^ * - $ ^ ^ o o N ^ ' , a* "C x i ^ - '/- -P \.» r -f^. c If •V v, V x° °* x°°- v Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/timestudyjobanalOOIich TIME STUDY i AND JOB ANALYSIS AS APPLIED TO STANDARDIZATION OF METHODS AND OPERATIONS By WILLIAM O. LICHTNER I! Consulting Engineer in Management and Construction NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1921 Copyright, 1921, by The Ronald Press Company All Rights Reserved SEP 2S 90.A627074 PREFACE The aim of this book is to explain the practical application of Time Study and Job Analysis in simple, non-technical terms. Experience has shown that job standardization when properly tied in with planning and control affords the most effective preventive yet developed for industrial ills. While the tech- nique of the subject is here given in full detail, special emphasis is placed upon the relation of standardization work to problems of management. The increasing attention being given to industrial manage- ment by progressive executives is to be attributed only slightly to the ordinary processes of salesmanship and advertising. The responsible executive, absorbed with the concrete difficul- ties of the business which he has seen grow up, is naturally skeptical of the assistance to be rendered from any outside source. The industrial engineer, whether employed as consult- ant or as resident, has won his way because he has been able to sit down with the individual executive and demonstrate plainly and in detail just what could be done for the particular business in question. It has been the logic of actual perform- ance which has demonstrated in plant after plant that : i. Through the methods of time study and job analysis reliable assistance can be obtained. 2. These methods constitute in no wise a magical form- ula, but are susceptible of cool and deliberate examination. 3. The work can be done by agencies which the executive can command. iv PREFACE The purpose of the author has been to present in written form just such a plain and coherent explanation of the subject as might be given in a series of conferences with an executive charged with the responsibility of decision. Job standardization cannot be adopted as something separate and distinct. It is a part of a well-balanced develop- ment which must be carried throughout the entire organization. Education of the members of the organization is, therefore, one of the first things undertaken by the analyst or engineer who makes the time study and job analysis and it must con- tinue to receive attention throughout the duration of his services. Another matter which the engineer must consider, is the relation of job standardization to planning of the work from the inception of the order to the delivery of the finished prod- uct. Sometimes the improvement in planning precedes, some- times it follows the work of standardization; but in any case the success of standardization is closely bound up with the methods by which the product is routed in the factory from process to process. Furthermore, inasmuch as pay and condi- tions of work — the two great factors in the labor situation— - are materially improved by time study and job analysis, the work of standardization has proved of great importance in connection with labor relations. Finally, even sales policies are affected by job standardization. All the factors of the business, in short, are the concern of the engineer who undertakes job standardization. The book therefore deals with these various related subjects as follows : In Chapters I to IV, a general review is given of the prin- ciples of job standardization and their application to the methods of time study and job analysis. In Chapters V to VII, the organization of a staff to carry out the work — not merely the temporary force required for PREFACE v the period of installation but a permanent staff within the plant organization — is discussed in detail from the point of view of the executive responsible for the introduction of job stand- ardization. In Chapters VIII to XX a detailed description of the technique is given. This portion of the book may be used as a textbook and guide in an actual development of time study and job analysis in a particular case. In this part also emphasis is placed upon applications of the technique described to the permanent needs of the plant. In Chapters XXI to XXIII job standardization is consid- ered in its relation to industrial problems. The material here given will be found useful in connection with sales activity and with practical adjustment of labor relations. Portions of. the material were printed serially in Indus- trial Management from April to September, 1920. For valu- able assistance through the long period of its development the author is indebted to a number of friends and associates, in particular to : Miss Ruth S. Babson, for able and untiring work on the manuscript; Mrs. L. H. Marshall and Mr. Sanford E. Thompson for their careful reviews of the work; Messrs. William E. Curley, Harold M. Davis, C. A. Dieter, Edward H. Hansen, John D. Holmes (deceased), and William E. Stevens, for valuable service in the collection of data. Appreciation should also be expressed for the assistance of the clients whose names are mentioned in the text. William O. Lichtner. Boston, Massachusetts, August 15, 1 92 1. CONTENTS Chapter Page I Job Standardization in Modern Industry .... 3 Development of Industry Comparison of Methods under Small-Scale Production Disappearance of Centralized Knowledge Requirements of Large-Scale Production Scientific Management The Human Element Co-ordination of Functions Specialization in Industry The Industrial Engineer Development of Industrial Engineering Job Standardization Saving of Material Saving of Time Reduction of Overhead Job Standardization in Industry Results of Job Standardization II Job Standardization Defined 18 Purpose of Job Standardization ^ Production and Costs Time, the Unit of Measurement Other Factors Affecting Production and Costs Material Equipment The Workman Quality Co-ordinating the Factors Production Factors in Shining Shoes Wide Applicability of Job Standardization III Method of Procedure 32 The Four Phases of Analysis Preliminary Work General Survey of Field Taking Time Studies Analyzing Studies Formulating Standards Use of Equations Written Instructions Application of Standards viii CONTENTS Chapter Page IV Results of Job Standardization 48 The Executive's Point of Interest Eliminating Useless Operations Standardizing to Save Materials Rationalizing the Bonus Day Work and Defective Economics Emergency Case and Emergency Measures V Personnel Requirements 59 Desirability of Trained Assistance Securing the Right Analyst Combination of Qualities Qualifications for Job Standardization Power of Analysis Accuracy Mechanical Sense Resourcefulness Initiative Faith Tenacity Health Tact The Analyst's Diagnosis College Man vs. Practical Mechanic Consequences of Poor Selection Position of the Analyst VI Non-Intensive Course in Training Personnel . . 74 Developing Qualified Personnel Organization of Staff Breaking in the Novice Directing the Assistants Learning from Mistakes The Ten Don't Commandments Recent Development of Intensive Training Courses Period of Development Educating Executives VII Intensive Course in Training Personnel .... 83 Advantage of Training Course Use of Stop-Watch Time-Study Board Time-Study Sheet Entering the Headings Recording the Elements Recording the Readings Working Up the Data Graphical Presentation of Time Values Drill in Taking Time Studies CONTENTS ix Chapter Page Exercises Points of Technique Reading Matter Using the Slide Rule Field Work Final Tabulations VIII Enlisting Co-operation 108 The Analyst's Problem Necessity of Co-operation in Business Job Standardization a Co-operative Undertaking Preliminaries of Co-operation Employees and the Preliminary Campaign Winning the Superintendent Points for Superintendent Methods of Production Equitable Basis of Wage Payment Convincing the Foreman Respect for Foreman's Authority The Talk to Foreman The Foreman's Authority The Foreman's Knowledge of Employees Maintaining Quality Standards Quality through Standardization Quality by Inspection Final Effect on Foreman IX Relation of Phases in Job Standardization . . . 124 Time Element in Analysis Time and the Analyst Need of Experienced Analyst Confidence in the Analyst "Make-Up" of the Analyst Variables in Standardization Unexpected Variables Infrequent Variables Relative Time for Four Phases 1. Preliminary Work 2. Taking the Times 3. Analyzing the Studies and Setting the Standards 4. Applying the Standards Results of Curtailing Required Time X Making the Preliminary Study 136 Purpose of Preliminary Study Essentials in the Operation Studying the Workman The Skilled Employee Maintaining Quality Materials Worked Upon x CONTENTS Chapter Page Studying Equipment Methods of Operating Equipment 1. Mechanical Methods 2. Layout of Operation 3. Group Work Standardizing Machines Production and Earnings Drawbacks of Special Records Sample Instructions for Preliminary Study XI Taking the Times 153 Systematized Analysis Employee and Machine Studying the Skilled Employee Gaining Employees' Good-Will Operation and Element Defined Analyzing the Operation Sample Analysis Symbolizing Operations Results of Imperfect Analysis Position of Observer with Relation to Employee Handling Stop-Watch Machines for Time Study Taking Time Studies XII Computing and Analyzing Time Values of Ele- ments 177 Considering Elements Separately Importance of Analyzing Studies When to Compute Studies Making Extensions Making Tabulations Determining Machine Times Time Variations among Employees The Personal Equation Determining the Personal Equation Figuring to Three Decimal Places Instructing Less Skilled Employees Variations in Personal Equations Choosing the Right Men Analyzing Standard Time Values XIII Determining Standard Time for the Operation . 190 Elements in Standard Time Average Time Values Abnormal Time Values Determining Abnormal Time Values Good Time Values Constants Variables CONTENTS xi Chapter Page Determining Standards for Variables Comparing Points in Curves Good Times as Check on Curve Plotting Variables Exterpolating Standards "Guess" Allowances Necessary vs. Unnecessary Delays Allowance for Necessary Delays Allowance for Necessities of Life Allowance for Fatigue XIV Fatigue 210 Determining Fatigue Allowance Serious Import of Fatigue How the Employment Department Reduces Fatigue Mechanical Devices to Reduce Fatigue The Analyst's Problem Utilizing Mechanical Methods Reducing Fatigue by Instruction Rest Periods Percentage Allowance for Fatigue Use of the Follow-Up XV Checking Standard Times 218 Testing the Standards Beating Standard Times Falling below the Standard Variations of Minor Importance Checking Standards by Time Studies Testing Causes of Delay Making Small Allowances Setting Temporary Standards Using Data to Make Needed Allowances XVI Deciding the Rates on the Operation ..... 228 Explanation of Rates Rates — Employee and Employer Methods of Payment Fitting Payment to Operation Day Work Piecework Time Work with Bonus Figuring the Pay-Roll The Base Rate Determining Base Rate by Survey Bonus Proportion of Base to Bonus Company Policy Statement Standard Form of Statement Xll CONTENTS Chapter Page XVII Summarizing the Standards and Instructions . . 243 Final Steps in Standardizing Final Form of Standards Instruction Cards for Operations Summarization of Squaring Paper Summarization of Laying Cloth Formula Method for Calculating Standard Times Availability of Data XVIII Explaining the Standards 270 Explaining Standards to Employers Increase in Wages Decrease in Cost Obtaining Approval of the Management Notification to Departments Concerned Explaining Rates to Employees Points to be Stressed Explaining the Pay Adapting Explanations to Individuals XIX Applying the Standards 282 Methodized Application of Standards Starting Employees Individually Starting Employees Simultaneously Instructing Employees Economy of Methodized Instruction The Instruction Engineer Duties of Instructor Foreman and Instructor Analyst and Instructor Following Up Employees Eliminating Unforeseen Complications Answering Employee's Questions Making Allowances for Standards Maintaining Standards Recording Delays Bonus Allowances Daily Production Record Completing Job Standardization XX Perpetuating the Standards 296 Establishing Routine for Perpetuating Standards Graphical Charts for Perpetuating Standards Graphical Reports Daily Production Record Daily Analysis of Machine Time Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus Weekly Analysis of Departmental Time CONTENTS xiii Chapter Page Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency Completion of Job Standardization XXI Scientific Management and Increased Production 311 Simplification of Industry Phases of Scientific Management Scientific Management Defined Standardization Installing Ford Starters Applying Standards to Construction Work Control Relation of Planning to Process Department Proper Method of Planning Orders Functionalization Co-ordination of the Phases XXII Balancing Manufacturing and Selling Activities 327 Returns Dependent upon Market Outlet Necessity for Production Reports Selling the Plant Capacity Reports on Plant Capacity Method of Making Report Strengthening Sales Division Service Increasing Economy of Manufacturing Estimating Cost of Orders Determining Company Policies XXIII Job Standardization as a Basis for Labor Media- tion 337 A "Solution" of Labor Troubles The Labor Situation The Three Necessities Channels of Contact Informal Contact Formal Contact Employee Representation Plan Mediation Defects of Customary Arbitration The Analyst as Mediator Neutrality of Analyst Examples of Analyst as Mediator Conclusion Appendix Appendix A — Reeling and Inspecting Coated Paper .... 351 Description of Operation Changes in Methods and Equipment xiv CONTENTS Page Estimated Increase in Output Outline of Plan of Bonus Payments Appendix B — Economies Obtained in Paper-Making . . . 363 C — Standard Requirements and Quality Bonus - 366 D — Constructing Homes under Scientific Man- agement Methods 273 E — Savings Made through Standardization of Pulp Manufacture 376 Processes of Sulphite — Pulp Manufacture Quality of Wood Bonus Installation Bonuses in Woodroom Acid-Making Bonus Standardization of Digesters Reduction in Cooking Time Digester Bonuses F — Machine Rates or Method of Distributing Overhead Expense 382 Signal Department FORMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page i. Industrial Organization Chart 7 2. Diagram Showing Reduction of Paper Waste by Job Standardization 12 3. Time Ticket Analysis 13 4. Automatic Cut-Off Machine in Use after Standardization . 15 5. One of the Elements in Shining Shoes 27 6. Study Sheet Showing Details of Shoe-Shining Operation . . 29 7. Time-Study Sheet Showing Standard Times for Trimming Paper Stock 39 8. Formulas for Figuring Standard Times for Blocking Cloth 41 9. Graphic Curve Showing Time Needed to Block a Given Number of Garments of a Given Style 42 10. Graphic Chart of Employees Piecework Earnings .... 46 11. Chart Showing Details of "Opening and Laying Out" in Bleachery before Job Standardization 51 12. Chart Showing Details of "Opening and Laying Out" after Job Standardization 52 13. Graphic Chart Showing Comparative Weekly Production for Three Groups of Men before and after Methods Were Changed and New Bonus Started 55 14. Analysis of Coating Operations in a Paper-Mill 57 15. Showing the Standardized Method of Cutting Labels by Hand 64 16. Single-Hand Decimal Stop- Watch 84 17. Split-Hand Decimal Stop-Watch 85 18. Line Drawing of a Regulation Time-Study Board .... 86 19. Regulation Time-Study Sheet 88 20. Regulation Final Tabulation Sheet 106 21. Combination Wheeled Truck and Workplace 141 22. Operation of Laying Cloth 144 23. Chart of Symbols Used to Designate Various Products of a Bleachery 159 24. Incorrect Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendar Backs . 161 25. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Limber-Backed Calendars 162 26. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Stiff-Backed Calendars . 163 XV xvi FORMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 27. Correct Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendars .... 163 28. Observer in a Well-Chosen Position for Taking a Time Study 167 29. Observer in a Poor Position for Taking a Time Study . . . 169 30. Electric Time-Clock with Attachment for Holding Time- Study Sheets 174 31. Time-Study Sheet with Extensions 179 32. Graphic Curve Showing Time Necessary to Walk from Eight to Thirty-Two Feet in Laying Cloth . 200 33. Graphic Curve Showing Time Taken to Cut Paper Accord- ing to Length of Cut 201 34. Unit Times for Pulling Cloth 203 35. Graphic Chart Showing Method of Exterpolation .... 205 36. Time Studies of Workmen Working Normally and under Pressure 219 37. Time-Study Sheet Showing Standard Times of Elements In- volved in Laying Gold-Leaf on Book Covers 231 38. Process of Hand-Cutting Lithographed Sheets 245 39. Time-Study Sheet Showing Elements Involved in Operation of Splitting Lithographed Sheets 247 40. Tabulation Sheet Showing Results of a Number of Time Studies 248 41. Graphic Chart Showing Amount of Time Necessary to Reach for a Sheet of Lithographed Paper 249 42. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Litho- graphed Sheets 250 43. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Down Sheets 251 44. Graphic Chart Showing Necessary Lost Time in Cutting Lithographed Sheets 251 45. Tabulation Showing All Elements Plotted on a Uniform Basis 252 46. Summarization of All the Elements Having Uniform Basis by Area of Sheet 253 47. Table of Standard Times Taken from Figures 42 and 46 to Be Used by the Rate-Setter 254 48. Instructions to the Rate-Setter in the Form of an Example 255 49. Showing Tabulation of Additional Time Allowance for Stock Heavier than 75 Pounds 256 50. Combination Instruction Card and Computation Sheet of Operations Used in Laying Cloth 257 51. Graphic Chart Showing Time Necessary to Pull a Given Number of Feet of Cloth 259 FORMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS xv ii Figure Page 52. Showing Times Taken to Straighten Section of Cloth . . . 259 53. Graphic Chart Showing Operation of Straightening and Evening Cloth 260 54. Graphic Chart Showing Time Taken to Walk in Operation of Laying Cloth 261 55. Chart Showing Summation of Laying Cloth Including Con- stants and Variables 262 56. Decimal Time Dial Attached to a Regulation Clock Dial . . 278 57. Individual Employee's Pay-Roll Sheet 280 58. Chart Showing Comparison of Times Taken by Skilled Em- ployees before and after Standards Were Set with the Standard Time Curve 285 59. Regulation Report on Interruptions 292 60. Typical Pay-Roll Sheet 293 61. Chart Showing Daily Earnings of Employees 294 62. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Production Record 299 63. Daily Record of Production and Machine Time 300 64. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Analysis of Machine Time . . 303 65. Daily Bonus Report 305 66. Graphic Chart Showing Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus 306 67. Weekly Analysis of Distribution of Pay-Roll 307 68. Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency 309 69. Diagram Directions for Installing a Ford Starter . . . . 316 70. Standardized Flan Used in the Construction of a Larger Concrete Bleach^ry 319 71. Regulation Route Sheet Used in Planning Department . . 322 72. Regulation Planning Board 324 73. Route of Stock Orders before Analysis .... following 325 74. Route of Stock Orders after Analysis following 325 75. Manner of Putting Rolls of Paper into Reeling Machine . 352 76. Special Truck for Keeping Paper Off Floor 355 yy. Standardized Trucks on which Finished Rolls Are Placed 357 78. Table Showing Savings Effected under Standardizing Bonus System 361 79. Standard Speeds for One Grade of Paper 364 80. Ratio Showing Decrease in Material Used and Increase in Output Due to Installation of Scientific Methods in a Pulp Mill 376 81. Cooking Time for Wood Pulp before and after Standardiza- tion c ......... . 380 Time Study and Job Analysis CHAPTER I JOB STANDARDIZATION IN MODERN INDUSTRY Development of Industry Modern industry has developed from the small shop. The small shop was usually begun and built up by one man, who was a workman possessing special skill and some qualities of leadership. With the growth of the business more men, more materials, more machinery, and more space became necessary, and these in turn necessitated more supervision and control than could be exercised by the individual owner. As long as the owner himself did the work with the aid of an ap- prentice or two whom he had taught, the problem of comparing methods did not exist, because there was only one method for each piece of work — the method employed and approved by the craftsman-owner. Each piece of work was begun and completed by one man. Comparison of Methods under Small-Scale Production As soon, however, as there came into the shop more men, who had perhaps learned the trade elsewhere and whose work the owner could not continuously oversee, it became evident that there should be some way of comparing the various methods so as to avoid mistakes and get the most satisfactory results. The greater the number of men employed, the more necessary it became to look about for the best methods of operation. While the business was still comparatively small, the owner could make comparisons by talking over the results with his workmen and by carrying on his study of methods informally; such a procedure was economical and was all that was 3 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS necessary. In a large and growing business, however, this sort of management meant waste of time, materials, and capital. Disappearance of Centralized Knowledge The growth of his business soon obliged the craftsman- owner to withdraw from intimate contact with the shop into the increasing confinement of the office, while the transfer of the business to the second generation or to a wholly new set of owners, often absentees, completed the separation of the managers from the details of production. At this point the supervisory duties of the owner were broken up and delegated to superintendents and foremen, who were usually of less ability than the owner and in addition were not spurred on by the fact of personal ownership. Thus, even though the com- pany was committed to large-scale operations, the original small-scale manufacturing methods of the founder remained practically unchanged, with the added disadvantage that they were invariably carried out by less able and less interested men. Requirements of Large-Scale Production The first requirement of large-scale production is a scien- tific investigation of needs and methods calculated to restore the centralization of knowledge which disappeared along with the disappearance of the omniscient craftsman-owner. Through organized knowledge the management is enabled to set stand- ards suited to the needs of equipment, materials, methods, and quality and quantity of production. The setting up of such standards, with special rewards for their attainment by em- ployees and with the proper planning of work by a new and specially trained section of the management provides the second requirement for large-scale production, viz., co-ordina- tion of the efforts of all members of an organization, in the same way as the personal supervision of the craftsman-owner JOB STANDARDIZATION 5 served to co-ordinate the efforts of the few men who worked immediately under his eyes. Scientific Management Carried to its most effective limit, standardization of work and planning thereof in accordance with the information obtained and the standards set, involve what has been termed scientific management. This term is appropriate, for it ex- presses briefly the idea of applying science to management. While it is true that management can be but relatively "scien- tific" — for that matter applied chemistry itself is no longer the pure science practiced exclusively in the laboratory — neverthe- less the following definition shows that the adjective is not wholly misapplied. The name scientific management is used to characterize that form of organization or procedure which is based on prin- ciples and laws established by a thorough investigation of manual and machine processes, materials, tools, equipment, and physical and psychological operating conditions ; which stand- ardizes operations and provides for instruction in new methods of execution; and which develops and maintains precise and automatic control, including the organization of the personnel, the processes, the materials, and the equipment in such func- tional co-operative relations as will utilize the highest technical skill available and capable of development in planning, super- vising, and executing. The Human Element The most significant fact about scientific management is that it involves the human as well as the mechanical element in an enterprise. Scientific management affects the organization from the chief executive down to the lowest-paid workman or clerk, and may be itself affected by the action of any member of the organization. This is the case because in analyzing 6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS facts the first step will always show some weaknesses in the system in use, and in order to cure these a change will be nec- essary which, large or small, will alter the routine of some employees. The natural impulse of almost every man is to resent change ; and unless all the employees are given to under- stand the nature of the change to be made, they will not fall in readily with the new routine. On the other hand, once their co-operation is secured they become a part of the plan. Such a relationship makes it possible to take the second step, and then the third step, and so to continue the development until more and more people become parties to the new arrangement. Co-ordination of Functions The development brought about by scientific management is in the direction of the co-ordination of functions. Every business may be likened to the human body. As in the case of the body a business may function to all outward appearances very well and seem to be in perfect health; and yet ever so often and at unexpected times troubles will arise, although few suspect that the cause is a weak or improperly function- ing member. The aim should be, therefore, to perfect each function independently according to its needs, yet co-ordinated properly with every other function. To achieve this aim is the purpose of scientific management. Perhaps the easiest way to illustrate the problem of co- ordinating functions is by means of a sample organization chart, as shown in Figure I. This chart represents a combina- tion of the best practices of many lines of business operating on scientific management principles. At the head of an organ- ization the board of directors, executive committee, and gen- eral manager direct the affairs of the company through three groups of activities, each one functioning through the one above. The activities of the first group may be designated as divisions, the second as departments, and the third as sections. JOB STANDARDIZATION | ~ , > 1 ■3 - — — 1 CO ^ £ I w 1 I ! , Z = o co 1 -H H z £ o o £ 1 ^ — u 1 CO CO > Q CO = 1 c (g 1 'i CO >• ' g | 1- "■ - o E E 1 s E E z o c: LU 2 7 1 E5 o o S 1 "i -o 1— o 1 2 K S z ra ra a 5 CO " < 3 CO C3 n 1 io x z o 0- o -^ o ~ LU c^ E i— 'Q M CO | > g — 1 — 1 1 Q £ », E a § 1 W .2 £ z | z. o 5 h- c o £ 1 u 1 w J_ „ — i H 1 £? " — — J " 2 = 1 CO 2= 1 8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS The time study and job analysis function is here given as a section of the Methods Department, of which it is the core, as the entire analysis of conditions and determination of stand- ards is handled by means of time study and job analysis under the one man, viz., the analyst who is head of the Methods Department. The importance of definite functions has been underesti- mated in small-scale methods of large-scale production. While many of the functions shown on the chart can in a small estab- lishment be combined under the direction of one man, the chief functions are essential to the conduct of any manufacturing concern. Scientific management solves the problem of their correlation and execution. To this end it demands that respon- sibility be assumed by those in authority, to whom responsibility belongs, and by them delegated down through proper channels, and thus the process is in the nature of an education and a development. This can only be accomplished by educating and developing the entire organization. Specialization, in Industry The education and development of an organization requires men who have specialized in the application of science to in- dustry. Already large-scale production has familiarized busi- ness with the principles of specialization. Centuries ago, for example, when clothing was first made, the maker used to grow his own wool, prepare it for weaving, and then make the garments. Today we find the clothing man- ufacturer purchasing all the materials which go into the fin- ished garment. He does not concern himself with the detailed manufacture of wool, lining, canvas, thread, buttons, and so on, but the manufacture of each of these items represents a large industry in itself. Each of these latter industries depends to a large degree on the clothing industry for its existence. JOB STANDARDIZATION 9 As the industries specialize in this way, so the workmen in each industry specialize. Again to use the clothing industry as an example, it was not long ago that a clothing worker made almost a complete garment from start to finish. Today practically no industry is conducted in this way. One garment represents today the combined efforts of some hundred differ- ent people, each contributing his own special share to the manu- facture of the complete article. Something of the kind is found in every industry, whether steel, clothing, wood-work- ing, camera, automobile, button, or candy-making. From every point of view we have grown into an age of specialization. The Industrial Engineer In industry the major field for the specialist, the field of management, belongs to the industrial engineer. The indus- trial engineer interests himself in doing for complex modern business what the craftsman-owner used to do in a smaller but adequate way for his shop. He becomes intimately acquainted with the details of operations, methods, machines, materials, and equipment, and determines standards for each. These standards are developed by combining the technique of the actual process known to the management with the technique of management in possession of the engineer. Too often the function of an industrial engineer is con- ceived to be similar to that of, say, an illuminating engineer engaged to solve some definite problem of lighting. Accord- ing to this view the work of the industrial engineer consists merely in getting the facts of the situation and drawing con- clusions in the form of specifically limited plans which the executive may accept, revise, or reject to suit his ideas. While this plan of procedure is applicable to certain types of engineer- ing problems, it is impracticable in accomplishing that develop- ment of the organization which is fundamental to scientific management. IO TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Development of Industrial Engineering The history of the industrial engineer is brief. This branch of engineering was inaugurated by Frederick W. Taylor, not more than twenty-five years ago, at the Midvale Steel Com- pany of Philadelphia. His work proceeded chiefly along two lines : first, the development of tools specialized both as to design and material, and second, the development of standards of production. The results of the experiments on the cutting of tools revolutionized the machine and steel industries, and gave to all industry the present high-speed cutting tools. The result of the second series of experiments was the develop- ment of rules and principles of which the effect was yet more revolutionary. When tested, these principles were found to apply to industry of every sort, not only to factory and machine shop but to construction and office work as well. Their appli- cation was given the name of scientific management. Job Standardization The same method was used in all Dr. Taylor's researches — the analysis of the job through the study of time. In the development of tools, specialized as to design and material, the object is — though the fact may not at first be apparent — to attain better quality in a shorter time. This is no less true in the development of rules and principles. A study of time is required in order to analyze the job properly. A little thought will make clear to anyone that in con- sidering any job he always "senses" that one method of doing it takes longer than another, although later he may completely forget the time element which he actually used. A number of concerns today are employing many of the principles of job standardization without realizing that they are doing anything technical and without giving these princi- ples a formal and specific name. One of the drawbacks to such unconscious use of the principles of job standardization JOB STANDARDIZATION II is that the work is not consistently carried through and that the data and standards are not correlated to further the develop- ment of the business as a whole. Nevertheless changes are being wrought even by such casual and partial application of the principles of job standardization. Saving of Material In a certain factory not long ago an analyst came across an operation on which any workman who stopped to think could not help being conscious of waste resulting from the operating method in use. The operation in question consisted of cutting large rolls of gummed paper into single sheets. The paper was used for labels on bottles and had to be cut into large flat sheets 50 inches long by 40 inches wide. This cut- ting was done by winding the paper on a drum 50% inches in circumference, until 80 layers of paper had been wound. The 80 layers of paper when sawed through at one point pro- duced 80 single sheets. In laying these 80 sheets out flat on the table it could be seen that the sheet first wrapped on the drum was 50% inches while the eightieth or top sheet on the drum was 52*4 inches. This meant a waste of paper on every sheet from nothing up to i l /2 inches or an average of % of an inch to each sheet of paper 50% inches in length by 40 inches in width. By changing the method of cutting the paper into individual sheets on what is called a rotary cutter or sheeter it was found that besides saving this % inch, an additional ^4 i ncn could be saved on every sheet. Under the old method an extra allowance of j4 i ncn i n the length of each sheet had to be made to allow for the saw's tearing the cut edge; under the new method this allowance was not needed. The difference between the amount of paper wasted before standardization and that wasted after standardization, as shown in Figure 2, meant a saving to the company of some $20,000.00 a year. 12 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Figure 2 . Diagram Showing Reduction of Paper Waste by J ob Standardization : (a) Amount of paper wasted before standardization (b) Amount of paper wasted after standardization Saving of Time Many instances of criminal waste of time occur in offices, banks, and the like, but it is a waste which is usually accepted as unavoidable. Job standardization, though originally started in the factory, is equally usable in the office. It is no less im- portant in the office than in the factory to know whether it is cheaper to do work by hand or by machine. For instance, the making out of time tickets, manufacturing orders, and sim- ilar forms takes considerable time and can be reduced as much to a routine as any factory job. This operation was studied in one office, where time tickets were being written by hand. Analysis, as indicated in Figure 3, showed that it took less time to make out from one to twenty tickets by hand than by mechanical means, but that for a larger number of tickets the multigraph was speedier and more economical. While the figures and conclusions vary with the amount of information to be filled in on the particular form, such analysis is one that could be made with advantage in a number of offices. JOB STANDARDIZATION 13 Reduction of Overhead In any factory using machinery it is economical to keep the machines running as nearly as possible 100 per cent of the time, and so to reduce the overhead. Take, for example, the operation of sawing lumber into definite lengths for making packing boxes. Certain kinds of goods require a box two feet long, others two feet and nine inches, others four feet, and so on. The customer may require five hundred two-foot boxes and one hundred three-foot boxes. At the Pioneer Box factory manufacturing so-called "wire bound" boxes, the boxes are made of thin veneer lumber, attached to thin wood cleats by means of stapling the wires on to them. Sheets of veneer come in long lengths which are cut by means of an automatic cut-off saw into the lengths required for the particu- lar boxes for which they are to be used. In some cases several Making Out Time Tickets By By By No. multigraph rubber stamp hand of tickets 10.62 9.14 5-3 10 11.32 10.64 10.6 20 11.67 11.41 13-25 25 12.02 12.22 15-9 30 12.72 I3-/6 21.2 40 I3-42 15-30 26.5 50 14.12 16.84 31.8 60 Figure 3. Time Ticket Analysis lengths can be cut out of one piece of veneer, so that the machine is rigged up with three or four saws on the arbor in order at one cutting to square off the two ends and cut the sheet into two or three pieces. The thickness of the veneer varies in accordance with the use to which the boxes are to be put. The machine can therefore cut a number of sheets of veneer at one time. Thus a standard was set for veneer ji" t I4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 34" and y%" thick. The final result of the studies was to eliminate using one of the two saws which had been previously used the major part of the time. This not only afforded more floor space in the factory for other purposes of manufacturing, but released one of the saws for use in another plant which the company was erecting. The operation of sawing is shown in Figure 4. Job Standardization in Industry If job standardization is recognized as a fundamental busi- ness policy it does much more than save a few hundreds of dollars here and a few thousands of dollars there — it brings about a decrease in cost throughout the entire business. Al- though this is by no means the whole benefit effected by scien- tific management, it is that part by which the most substantial gains are produced both for capital and labor. Without it an organization can have only crude and inadequate standards. Job standardization develops these crude standards in such a way that production is increased per machine, and in consequence individual and unit costs are reduced. On this account job standardization is sometimes called the cornerstone of scien- tific management. When a concern decides to take up job standardization it means that men are going into the factory to make a detailed study of each operation in co-operation with the present staff of superintendent, foremen, and workmen in order to develop the knowledge of processes possessed by this staff and then to put this knowledge into concrete, usable form. This may seem to many, especially on first thought to the workman, a transfer of power and control from employees to owners, and is likely therefore to arouse the workman's opposition. As both sides, however, gain a fuller understanding of the problem of the management, this feeling changes from resentment to one of enlightenment and co-operation. It must be borne in mind, JOB STANDARDIZATION 15 x 6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS however, that changes are always hard to make, and the hard- est are those which extend over a long period of time, so that the effort has to be made again and again. The manage- ment adopting job standardization as a business policy will find it a hard policy to live up to. It must be prepared not only to educate and re-educate its employees, but itself to adopt an attitude of willingness to learn. Results of Job Standardization The results of job standardization, however, far more than repay any effort involved. They are twofold : i. Increased production per machine or individual, of better quality at a lower cost. 2. Establishment of better labor relations. Both these results are due to the same cause : that facts in the hands of the management as well as in the hands of the employees have replaced half -knowledge and rule of thumb formerly followed by the employees only. Neither result, moreover, can be attained unless job standardization is under- taken as part of scientific management. Under the new system the "labor question" becomes less acute, because one of the aspects of that problem, the amount of work the employee should perform, is accurately ascertained by time study and job analysis in determining standards of production, and so the atmosphere is cleared for a discussion of the second aspect, the amount of wages which the employee should receive for his work. There is hope for agreement when discussion pro- ceeds on a basis of facts. Moreover, wages can be larger without loss to the employer when the production is increased through better methods and through individualized instruction and assistance to the employee, who is no longer hampered by defective machinery, tools, supplies, and materials, changes in orders after the work is in the machine, and innumerable JOB STANDARDIZATION 17 other delays common to unplanned production. Idle time is reduced, work and equipment are ready when wanted, mis- takes made are fewer, and when made the responsibility can be definitely fixed. This last is an especially important point, because under unscientific methods the blame was always dis- tributed and no one person in particular was really responsible. CHAPTER II JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED Purpose of Job Standardization Job standardization may be defined as the method of de- termining and applying standards of operating in productive and distributive enterprises for the purpose of increasing pro- duction and lowering costs. In considering this definition it is particularly important to consider the objects in view, namely increase of production and reduction of costs. Production and Costs Increase of production is a phrase which conveys but a vague idea to many persons. The two ways to increase pro- duction are, first, to increase the number of working hours, and, secondly, to decrease the time taken to perform a certain operation. The first method — increasing the number of work- ing hours — involves too drastic a change to be other than tem- porary even were it advisable. The second method, however — decreasing the time taken to perform the operation — is prac- tical, sane and just. In some cases job standardization is looked upon as a mere speeding-up device, which decreases the time by driving the employee. This is sometimes true when the work of standard- ization is done by a novice, but not when it is handled by an experienced analyst. The analyst is interested only in results that are permanent; the aim of his work is to set standards which will not, as a rule, call for much greater exertion on the part of the employee. Often job standardization makes possible the substitution of mechanical devices for sheer brute JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 19 strength, of easier ways of doing some part of the work through instruction, or of proper tools properly sharpened for the poor ones taken care of by the workman himself. For example, analysis of free-hand sawing of ivory nuts from which buttons used on clothing are made resulted in developing a mechanical device which gripped the nut while it was being sawed after it had been properly placed by hand, and thus re- lieved employees from the tension of constantly watching to protect their fingers from the saw. Where the work is increased after analysis, the experienced analyst makes a careful study of the fatigue factor so as not to require undue exertion from the employee. Increase in production, moreover, is possible with a reduc- tion of costs. For this reason specific mention of costs is made in the definition of job standardization. All the factors of production — material, equipment, workmen, and degree of quality to be attained, as well as time — are involved in the effort to lower costs. It is because of the failure on the part of many to appreciate the importance of this one fact when the subject of increased production is raised that the principles of job standardization have too often been misunderstood and misapplied. The notion that it is only necessary to "call down on the carpet" the superintendent, when costs go up, or the other notion that, when production goes down, every job of every sort should immediately be put on a piecework basis, must be abandoned for a more far-sighted policy, which includes the determination and application of standards of operation. Time, the Unit of Measurement The determination and application of standards imply the necessity of some common unit of measurement. Obviously the unit must be one of the factors of production. With different industries, however, in different localities and under 20 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS different conditions, all the factors of production, except time, show a difference in character. Time is the only factor of production applicable to all conditions. Time, therefore, is used as the most convenient measure of production. It is the universal yardstick. Accordingly, the chief tool of job analy- sis is a time device — the stop-watch. The analyst studies the time taken to perform even the smallest part of each method of operating. He talks in terms of time. His conclusions are formulated in terms of time. Other Factors Affecting Production and Costs The choice of the factor of time as the common unit of measurement probably accounts for the mistaken notion that job standardization includes nothing more than the timing of work. It should always be kept in mind, therefore, that except to correlate all the factors of production, time may not be so important as emphasis would make it appear. Other factors affecting production and costs and, therefore, the method of determining and applying standards are as follows : 1. The material from which the product is made. 2. The equipment by which the product is made, whether elaborate, semi-automatic machinery, or simple hand- worked tools. 3. The workmen, who are the agents of production. This factor, which is the most important, is the one most commonly neglected. 4. The quality of the product. Even in the lowest grade of goods, there is a certain standard, whether it is clearly defined or not, below which everything is classed as "seconds." An experienced man can see almost from the start along what lines the greatest increase can be made at the least cost. All the factors of production he keeps in mind, and their par- JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 21 ticular manifestations serve to modify his procedure. The standards he sets are not standards of time alone, but stand- ards of method which affect all these factors. Material Economy in the amount of material used is most important. It can generally be brought about by a little more care or a little more planning on the part of the workman. Waste of material is of course much harder to measure than the direct waste of money, as for example the money handled by a bank. A dollar bill has a definite value, it does not change in form, and must be accounted for to the last penny. If a bank cashier were as careless in handling dollar bills as the ordinary workman in handling materials the cashier would not long hold his job. A workman, however, may hold down a job for many years and annually throw away thousands of dollars — and yet be considered efficient. Workmen in shops daily handle such a large volume of material that they become careless and waste great amounts of it. For instance, in a wire mill great quantities of wire arc wasted in preparing and weaving it. In construction work carpenters waste large quantities of lumber by carelessly pick- ing up any piece that is longer than they require. This means a great many short ends which are practically wasted. Exam- ples of this kind occur day in and day out because the workmen do not realize the vast amount of money lost. It is astound- ing to the engineer, in going from plant to plant, to find this identical factor of ruthless waste appearing in varying degrees everywhere. Great savings are possible and with no expense at all simply by seeing to it that the workmen exercise a little care. In some shoe factories this problem of saving material has been studied, and a plan has been devised whereby the pay of a cutter is based, not on the speed with which he cuts, but on the amount of leather he saves. Such an arrangement can 22 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS be made because the cost of a shoe is influenced more by the price of leather than by the price of labor. Similarly in making leather garments, the cutters could do from 20 per cent to 25 per cent more work if they did not have to conserve material, but since the cost of labor on cutting leather garments — such as a leather overcoat — is only 10 per cent of the cost of the material, it means a minimum cost of production for them to work slowly enough to use the minimum of material. The expense of the material and its proportion to the total cost are matters for careful consideration. In some cases special in- vestigation is required to determine exact standards for the amount of material to be used for each order. • Equipment Improvement in equipment brings large returns, which generally require little or no extra effort on the part of the employee. Usually, however, they do involve an expenditure of money on the part of the management, and great care should be exercised in making recommendations for the purchase of new equipment. Too often very simple changes in machinery cost considerable money. Since changes which at first look small sometimes necessitate a good deal of experimenting, it is better, as a general rule, to put the present equipment into first-class order and utilize it for daily manufacturing purposes while some one machine is being experimented upon and fully developed. The answer to the question as to whether a change in machinery pays is necessarily phrased in terms of - time saved. Nevertheless, the quality factor cannot be overlooked in giving the answer, since the machine is sometimes less able to adapt itself to individual variations than is the hand con- trolled by the brain of the craftsman. The human element, too, enters into the answer. There is a popular saying that "necessity is the mother of invention." In manufacturing, inventions have often re- JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 23 suited from the pressure of competition. But the necessity which has done the most to bring about the invention of machinery has been the high price of what used to be called "cheap labor." The writer recalls an instance in which a work- man found that he had an exceptional abhorrence of monot- onous, physical work. This workman, therefore, devised an attachment which automatically stopped the machine when any- thing went wrong or rang a bell when the finishing point was reached. This bell he wired out to the engine room where, as the work was progressing, he sat and peacefully smoked his pipe. After he had made a number of inventions, the com- pany discovered that whenever he was placed on work which was particularly difficult or monotonous, he would work out some means of overcoming the monotony so that he could rest and smoke. They, accordingly, placed him on jobs where improvements in the machinery were desired. Thus his inge- nuity was directed to their mutual benefit. The Workman The workman is a factor of which much has been lately written. There is a great deal of talk about the psychology of the workman, as if there were some special brand of psy- chology which applied to a human being who was in overalls, and did not apply to a human being who worked where he could have clean hands and a white collar and act as an office attache or executive. It is well to keep in mind the fact that each human being sees the advantages he wants or needs from points of view that depend upon whether he is an executive, a full-fledged artisan, or an unskilled workman. It is no more of a mistake for the analyst to approach an executive from the standpoint of an illiterate workman than it is to talk financing and management to this same illiterate workman. In planning the campaign, in talking to the men, in laying down methods for them to follow, in giving them incentives 24 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS to practice the methods introduced, the man carrying on job standardization should always appreciate the limitations — and, even more, the possibilities — of the human material. The class of men performing the operation — whether they are American or foreign-speaking, whether they are quick to grasp a point or slow of wit, whether they feel kindly or the reverse toward the management — all these things have an effect on the methods followed. Neither the physical nor the mental demands should be made too great under new standards. The question of physical demands is a matter of fatigue study. The factor of fatigue naturally enters to a greater or less extent into all work, in fact, into everything we do. The method of job standardization includes the transfer to other jobs of employees not fitted to the work they are doing, on the basis that each operation imposes distinct physical and mental demands and that it is no more right for the clerk to strain himself physically trying to do the blacksmith's job than it is for the blacksmith to undergo the mental strain of the clerk. Proper and reasonable standards are set for each class of work, which will make it possible for a workman to keep at his work year in and year out without any danger of prematurely short- ening his life. Although there are certain types of work which are very heavy or require very close application, on the major- ity of shop operations the machine does the major part of the work. With operations of this type the question of fatigue is not of so much moment as when purely manual or mental effort is involved. The allowance for fatigue can be deter- mined from time studies upon which the standards have been based. With heavy work or machine work requiring great activity, special fatigue studies are essential. 1 The nature of the incentive to do the work in a standard time varies with the mental make-up of the men. It should 1 For a discussion of fatigue see Chapter XIV. JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 25 not lead them to overdo, a tendency which can be further pre- vented by supervising their work. Piece rates, premium plans and so on are often makeshifts, as anyone who has had any- thing to do with them realizes. When not adapted to the situation they are sometimes even the cause of labor troubles. The only similarity which exists between any of these methods and job standardization is the desire to measure the output and to make the pay commensurate with its quality and quantity. Quality In the majority of operations the quality factor is one of the most important, for every product must have some quality standards. Practically without exception no company has any absolute standards for quality, but the standards vary more or less with the whims of the customer, the salesmen, and often the executives. Accordingly the first result of job standard- ization is to determine a definite standard of quality. When job standardization is started there is always a move- ment on the company's part to stress the quality factor, using it as an excuse for low production. Nevertheless it can be stated as a general fact that the quality is better after job standardization than before, because of the closer attention given by the workman when he is on an accurately calculated incentive basis, and because of closer supervision of the work- men and of the materials. Broadly speaking, "quality tempers quantity." In other words, as the quality factor becomes greater the quantity be- comes less, not in direct proportion but proportionally less in relation to each operation. An exception to this rule was noted on a job in Toronto, Canada, where a sewing operation done by machine was unsatisfactory because the stitches did not hold, although the machines were operating at the speed and tension designated by the machine manufacturers. The com- 26 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS pany had about decided to do the work by hand when another clothing manufacturer who happened to visit the plant was told of the trouble. He saw that the machines used a very small drive pulley and stated that at his plant they used one twice as large. A pulley double the size was ordered from the stock room and put on the machine, of course doubling its speed. The workman then tried the machine and to everyone's sur- prise it turned out a stitch of first-class quality. The speed of the machine caused just the right tension. This is but one case in which greatly improved quality was obtained without decrease in quantity. Co-ordinating the Factors The way in which all these factors of production and costs have to be tied together and considered simultaneously with the time factor can best be illustrated by taking a specific example. To find a good example, however, is not easy because the reader should visualize without effort the details connected with it, and he cannot do this if the operation requires technical or special knowledge. Even in giving talks before employees in their own factory the difficulty of choosing a particular operation with which all the employees are familiar is apparent. Since few persons are perfectly familiar with the details of any job but their own, and since, moreover, few have the ability to picture mentally an operation which they have seen but not actually performed, most persons are likely to miss the signifi- cant points of an example. Some time ago a certain man, more ingenious than others, hit upon the idea of describing a job which was not inside of the factory or office but one nevertheless with which everyone was familiar — shining shoes in the ordinary shoe-shining parlor. The success of this ex- ample was so marked that it has been chosen as the one to illustrate the application of the elements of job standardization. The operation of shining shoes is shown in Figure 5. JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 27 Figure 5. One of the Elements in Shining Shoes 28 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS The average man's idea of standardizing shoe-shining would be to go into a parlor and with the permission of the "boss" take a great many time studies, such as the detailed study shown in Figure 6, of the amount of time taken by each part of the operation. These amounts could then be compared with a view to finding what seemed a reasonable time for each part, considering in a general way the standards ex- pected. If the observer had enough common sense, he would take a few additional studies to make sure that the amounts really were reasonable before he asked the boss to teach the men how to use the methods the best men studied were using and to leave out unnecessary motions. Finally, he would tell the men that if they polished a pair of shoes well in the time set they would be paid more money. Although this method is common, it requires a long time to get results. When ob- tained, moreover, the results are unsatisfactory because they are not based on clearly defined standards. A general routine of procedure is being followed without clear understanding of the objective or of the relation of the objective to the factors involved in shining shoes. Production Factors in Shining Shoes The object in studying shoe-shining is to find the best method of shining each type of shoe — black, tan, calf, kid and so on — so that this method can be made the standard The first general estimate involves the relative importance of the various factors making up the method of operating. An estimate in this case is especially easy because shoe-shin- ing is an isolated operation, without relation to other opera- tions, whereas in an office or a factory the place of the particular operation in the process as a whole effects the plan of action. In the case of shoe-shining the customers are always in ? hurry, and it is greatly to the advantage of the shop to give JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 29 Time 8:00 to 8:U No. Study 1 File Observer C.Dieter Date 00/21 Operation Shining Shoes Department Shoe Shining Sy Read Ex tn -Si Sy Read Ex % SyReac A %ls, Head Ex j*% ( Location 3rd Chair 0.00 j 38.72)0.47 5.32 Employee h. Blank Rate so^ hr. " 0.20 0.70 20 0.50 b 88.99^0.27 39.29. 30 Implements Cleaning Cloth, drying cloth. « 1.30 6.60 c WOO 0.71 2 brushes and polish cloth d 1.55 0.25 d 1,0.29 0.29 Materials Cleaner and Black Polish f S.<7 2.79 0.92 ost f 1,0 99 1,1.82 70 0.35 Conditions and Remarks 9 sso 101 9 1,1.92 CO Poor Light h i.56 76 h 42.32 0.40 Employee fast worker 1 4 73 5.32 5.59 22 51, ',32 j 1,3 22 4370 90 0.1,8 1,95 027 Each reading is for 2 shoes b 1 r. is 6.72 6 93 7-92 8 32 5i 59 021 099 OiO D-l Elements CL b c d e f g h i j 86? 35 «* 0.50 o.eo 25 «w o.ss 1.01 76 22 51, 9 9.65 V .''•' 0.27 0.51, 0.59 021 0.99 0.S5 0.98 0.71 2S 52 h 10.36 71 '.'!' 0.70 0.61 0.26 0.90 O.St 102 70 0.21 O'JO i 10.59 23 (11* 0.21 0.50 0.1,9 0.61 0.60 0.22 0.22 0.97 0.97 0.S6 0.33 0.95 0.96 0.72 71 25 21 057 O.iO a 11 11 11.33 0.52 5 7!< 22 0.22 0.50 0.60 023 0.93 OSi 0.9S 0.73 0.25 045 b 12.03 70 0.21 o.eo 0.65 0.22 0.94 0.31 99 0.70 023 0.17 c 12 61, ■J 61 0.2? (0££) 0.71 0.29 (JMJ) 0.33 torn}) @o) (53d) 0.1,8 d 12.90 13 30 0.26 90 Av. Time 0.22!) O.SI,} 0.620 0.237 915 0.S35 0.9S5 0.721 0.228 1,20 f 9 h i U.U 15.16 15.86 16 07 16 37 17 52 OSi 102 0.70 0.21 0.80 5,26 1.15 D-2 D-l = Look for Pol is i b 13.02 050 D-2 = Chatting with Fello o Worker c IS 6\> 0.61 D-S = Look for Brush d 18 35 0.22 e 19.82 0.97 f 20.18 36 3 21 13 95 h 21.35 22. 10 72 25 j 2267 22.88 5? 6 SO 0.21 b 23 37 23!' 7 0.1,9 611 Detail Elements d *\ 11 Din D-S a Rub of dust e 25 56' 97 [) Apply cleaner 1 25.89.0 33 C Remove cleaner 9 26Ss\o.96 d Apply polish 1st time h 27 56 71 e Polish with brush i 2777\0.21 f Apply polish 2nd time Q Polish with brush J 28.17 28.39 0.10 5 50 0.22 h Polish with cloth j Brush clothes 6 2889'0.50 29.49\0.60 Av. j Make change (take money) ,/ 29.72 0.23 Time k Time needed per pr, 1 / 30.65\0.9S S0.99]0.S4 0.229 0.517 m g SJ.S70.S8 0.620 n (i 32.70 73 0.2S9 i 32.95\0.25 0.9i5 P q i 33.1,6 33.61 0.45 0.S35 0.985 21 r b S4.2l\0.60 0.720 s t d Si.86\0.65 35 08.022 0.221 420 u e S6.02.09i 5.268 V f 36.33t0.Sl w •J S7.S2p.99 X Unnecessary Delays h S8.02 0.70 y Necessary Delays 1 S8.25\o.2S Figure 6. Study Sheet Showing Details of Shoe-Shining Operation 3 o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS instant and rapid service. In order to set a standard of time required to shine a pair of shoes of a given type — which will serve the purpose of showing how many bootblacks should be on hand and make it unnecessary for a customer to wait even at rush hours, as well as to measure each bootblack's ability — the observer will take time studies of the way in which the best bootblacks do the work. While he is taking the time studies and setting the time standards, he will note the require- ments limiting the time taken — the materials, the apparatus, the man himself, and the quality. The desired shine is obtained more by applying "elbow grease" than by applying paste. Some employees apply two or three times as much paste as others, with no better results. By determining the number of applications necessary the waste of both material and time can be reduced to a minimum. In many shops the shoes are dried by being fanned with a cardboard fan, which takes considerable time. An electric blower shortens the time on this element of the work, reducing the total time for shining shoes correspondingly. If tests show that the time saved by installing a blower would pay for the expense it should be recommended. Otherwise, the shoes should continue to be dried by a cardboard fan and sufficient time allowed for this. One way of improving both quality and speed without' introducing mechanical changes is to cut a two inch strip of cardboard and place this carefully in the top of a shoe so as to protect the customer's hose from becoming soiled when applying the liquid, paste, brushes and cloths. Shining shoes is not easy work. While dull hours some- times provide all the rest needed, it is probable that some allowance in setting time standards must be made for fatigue. This will be especially true if the work is done by boys. The factor most seriously affecting time required is the quality, or the amount of shine desired. No matter how great JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 31 the haste of the customer, he is always "fussy." The degree of brilliance desired should be carefully determined and im- pressed on the bootblacks. In order to eliminate the tendency of the bootblacks to slight the work, the "boss" will be obliged at intervals to check up the work by noting the feet of cus- tomers going out. During the entire analysis the methods adopted, the ways of maintaining quality, the amount of rest and all the factors included in the standards should be adapted to the type of bootblacks employed. The result of the analysis will be that each pair of shoes will be better polished and with less labor and material, and that more satisfied customers can be accommodated even at rush hours because the shoes are polished in a shorter time. Wide Applicability of Job Standardization The details of the way in which job standardization is con- ducted and standards of operating determined and applied, vary with the complexity of the operation under observation. The shoe-shining illustration is about as simple as could be found. At the other extreme is repair work in a machine shop. Never- theless, in spite of the wide range in the complexity of the problems, the same factors are involved — material, equipment, workman, quality — and time is always the measure by which standards are determined. For both operations, job standard- ization is the method to increase unit production and lower unit costs. CHAPTER III METHOD OF PROCEDURE The Four Phases of Analysis The processes of analysis described in the last chapter are carried through in a more or less definite order, and fall, in a general way, into four divisions. The transition from one phase to another is so gradual, however, that one usually some- what overlaps the other. Quite often it is necessary to go back from a later phase to an earlier for verification or correction. At the end of the study, for instance, after the standards have been set, the analyst may find it a wise precaution to check his standards by an all-day time study. The four phases of job standardization are : i. Preliminary work 2. Taking time studies m 3. Analyzing studies and setting standards 4. Applying standards The first phase, that of "preliminary work," gives the analyst a bird's-eye view of the field he is to enter and the workmen with whom he is to deal. There is some way best adapted to each situation, by which the right kind of start can be made. On the very first operation studied the preliminary work requires considerable time, for it is necessary not only to make a survey of the particular operation which is to be under observation but of all the preceding operations, except of course in the case of the initial operation, and also of some of the subsequent operations. Moreover, before undertaking detail time study, the analyst instructs the members of the organization in its purpose. As the analyst becomes acquainted with the departmental requirements and as the members of the 32 METHOD OF PROCEDURE 33 organization see that the work is as much to their advantage as to that of the company, the preliminary work on each opera- tion takes less time. The second phase, that of "taking time studies," is one commonly thought of when the subject of job standardization is discussed. The first step in any analysis is to get a record of what is being done. In order that the record may be used for purposes of comparison this means, in industry, that the time element must be recorded, since time is a very important factor in production. To the casual observer "taking the times" seems to be exceedingly simple. It is only necessary, however, for him to try his hand at the seemingly simple task to realize the skill required to take the detailed times of a very simple operation. The third phase, that of "analyzing the studies and setting the standards," requires experience and special training. Any- one can work up the time values and set a so-called standard, but unless the standard is developed so as to consider the human as well as the mechanical factors in such a way as to allow an employee to perform the work with a minimum of energy and a minimum of material in the minimum time, the standard is not correct and will do more harm than good. The fourth phase, namely that of "applying the standards," is the one which proves how well the other three phases have been handled. The standards both of method and time must be put into effect in such a way that they are easily assimilated by the organization. It is not until the employees are accom- plishing the work according to the standards set that the case is established to everybody's satisfaction. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. When a man gets a taste of some- thing good he wants more and passes the word to all his co- workers so that they also begin to want it. This is the result found in all plants when the work of the analyst has been properly performed. 34 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS A comprehensive idea of the field covered by job standard- ization can be given by outlining the method of procedure to be followed in each phase. Preliminary Work In adopting any new policy the human reaction to it should be taken into account ; otherwise the policy will be a dead thing, merely a matter of forms and routine. This result would be especially unfortunate in job standardization, because the mem- bers of the organization where the studies are to be made are the people who not only can and must assist in its introduction, but who also must be relied upon to maintain it. The analyst working in the factory is necessarily con- cerned with the speeds of the machines, the equipment, and the materials used, in order that he may be able to determine the effect of each. He should get from the superintendent the authority to have the foreman see that conditions are changed in accordance with the tests laid out by the analyst. The superintendent should see that the foreman fully understands his authority to co-operate with the analyst. It is important that the support of the foreman be gained, and to this end the analyst should explain to him the method of job standardiza- tion and what it will accomplish. The analyst should convince the foreman that he will be kept constantly informed of what is being done so that he can continue to direct his organization intelligently and obtain its full co-operation. General Survey of Field The other part of the preliminary work concerns the problems involved in the particular operation. The man who is introducing the work must gather together all available data on the subject in order to have a general knowledge of the situation as it is then and there and its possible future improvement. A general survey is made of the department to METHOD OF PROCEDURE 35 learn : present methods, stock of materials and their condition, number and types of machines and, in addition, cost records on the operation, including records of production, rates of wages, and number of employees. All this information is essential for the purpose of comparing present with final pro- duction and costs. All the operations in the room are related to each other in some way and no single one can be considered independently of the others. The consideration of the situation as a whole and of the general features of the operation takes a varying length of time. If the department is large and there are a great many operations, or if the work is laid out so poorly that large changes are necessary, the survey will take a long time. In other cases it may be possible to do all this work mentally without making any records. The preliminary survey may suggest changes in the ma- chines, their locations, mechanical parts, or speeds; the ad- visability of preparing more carefully the materials, or of pack- ing and delivering them so that they can be handled easily; or changes in the method itself. Much careful study should be given the possible changes, backed up, when necessary, by tests. The changes, however, should not be made until after the detailed studies to be made later have proved their efficiency. The analysis should be worked out to a point where the out- lines of the final result are clear before any suggested changes are recommended for final adoption. Taking Time Studies Having made the preliminary survey the analyst is now ready to enter upon the second phase, taking the time studies. The preliminary survey has made it possible to lay out a pro- gram which will accomplish the work in the shortest time and will secure a responsive attitude on the part of the working force. 36 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Equipment needed in making time studies consists of a decimal stop-watch with a large hand to indicate the fractions of minutes — preferably by hundredths — and a small hand to indicate the minutes; a standard form of time-study sheet; a clip board for holding time-study sheets and watch; a hand tally; and a speed indicator. In order to learn the elements, several studies should be made. Delays in the various operations, such as "waiting for material," "waiting for tools" and "machine broken down," occur over and over again without any steps being taken to correct them. It is these short, constantly recurring delays, ordinarily unobserved, that are the most common causes of low production. Time studies definitely point these out, and steps should be taken immediately to eliminate them. In considering which employees should be studied, the fore- man should be consulted. It is best during the first observa- tion of the employees and their qualifications as quality or quantity producers, to note what standards of quality have been maintained. The quality standards must be definitely set and used as the basis for all further development. Detail studies of an operation are made for the purpose of determining the best method of operating. Each operation breaks up naturally into a number of distinct divisions and subdivisions, corresponding in a general way to the individual motions and having definite points of starting and stopping. These divisions are called "elements." The elements, for in- stance, of the operation of shoe-shining, which has been used as an illustration, are : (a) Rub off dust. (b) Apply cleaner. (c) Remove cleaner. (d) Apply polish first time. (e) Polish with brush. (f) Apply polish second time. METHOD OF PROCEDURE 37 (g) Polish with brush. (h) Polish with cloth. (i) Brush clothes. (j) Make change (take money) In making the time study the analyst watches the operation performed, noting on his sheet each element and reading the time of his watch at the moment the element is completed. Later in the office he is able to find the time actually taken by each element. In order to facilitate the recording of the watch readings in making "detail studies" each element should be given a letter or symbol by which it can be identified. The letter "c," for instance, can be jotted down in a second instead of the sentence "remove cleaner" each time the shoe shiner performs this element in his shoe-shining operation, and similarly "h" could be used to symbolize "polish with cloth," "i" for "brush cus- tomer's clothes," etc. In the illustration the elements were given a symbol in alphabetical order as they were performed. Another method commonly used for symbolizing elements is to make the symbol mnemonic. With this method the symbol "r" would stand for "rub off dust," "ac" for "apply cleaner/' etc. This latter method has been found to be more flexible than using the letters of the alphabet in sequence, because no matter in what sequence the workman may do his work, the analyst will be able instantly and without exertion to follow the work element by element and record all information in the time-study sheet which may be needed later in working up the standard times. Analyzing Studies Preliminary work and taking the studies in the factory prepare the ground and furnish the material with which to build. The next step is to construct something tangible out of what up to this point has been a conglomerate mass. Here 38 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS the work falls into three divisions : determining the standards, codifying them, and incorporating them into instructions. In determining the standards the studies which have been taken must be worked up into such a shape that the time of similar elements can be compared, tabulated and averaged. There will also be a record of unnecessary delays and some necessary delays which occurred during the operation. By means of the notes recorded opposite the delays and the fre- quency with which they occur it is possible to determine what unnecessary delays, such as loafing, should be eliminated, and to allow for necessary delays, such as "tightening the tension on a sewing machine," because delays of this sort will occur so long as human beings are required to do the work. Formulating Standards The standards are formulated in terms of time, because, as stated before, time is the yardstick by which to measure the effectuality of each element and operation. The standard time is that time which the employee can fulfil day in and day out without injury to health of mind or body, and there- fore the analyst who sets this time should have well-balanced judgment, good technical understanding, and a knowledge of the effect of fatigue upon performance. The standard time should first be found separately for each element. Some engineers use a set method of determining the standard time; but the standard time should not necessarily be an average, nor the unit times recurring oftenest in the better performances, nor an average of means after elimination of the high and low extremes ; rather it should be a combina- tion of these, governed by conditions. To the sum of the stand- ard times for each element are added the proper allowances as determined for necessary delays, rest, and fatigue. The total constitutes the standard time of an operation. Figure 7 gives a chart of standard times for trimming paper stock. i ' 2 £?" J o in li a. c !c S g > li i: 1 3 ^ : So » II 23 -* c < II 3 ' II ii ii x i H coZ II ll V. 1 w SI II II 3 z «3 > ii = "3 11 II -P " V II ii !■ 3? s S^ 43 IK D3|a ogP | •gsya 1 c i c! E * Its CO (SI .£ if « |g ! i 1 S3 n 1 S -^ a C9K .0 bOb « 3 J % 3 III s 0. n3A3Uf| 5J D °1S | 5 S i o 11 S£ "5 3 W E-t «2 ^ -^ w\ j n=°»s S « 5 ■o'd J ; •q| gg lupadg £ 1 c o'o' ij »J!T aEK z *■ S ■i do o J I P% ° a M § H 2 2 d fell lis ».. L| 09 *W | ; s ■^ d Ci o ci C) do' ci o o" „09 *9S | = :> id Cf« d Ci d © d* '"' o'c» c> o' cl i§3 ,o 1 CO o .Of * ; OS | 3 3 ^ d d - o" o © o -- o d o ci d tn^Jl siq} ppB^ 3 § jg •qi gg |Epads | 2 3 do O 54 d Ci o©» d d 2 C) cf g3 X A«« T3 jjWoi g-*E co"2h e£™ CO „|. a iSg.aB^ 2 s ci m E o Z"g .09 xo* | ;< 5 CJCJ id ©* o o d d i d c»c» 0>H o d d o' ) .09 x gg | 5 ~ C>C> od o' © ci So S ' cics 2 § { .OS' x OS s «■ s ^ o do *2 s ©■ oc §3 C) d /I to U13?I stq} ppE*o wl "irra 8 2 § c - -^ / i U3 J! 01 oBS Duo ■qi 9S IPiosdsg, 5 2 IS 1 ; c / ; ) i. "* Bn"H!«, 5 | oo' 1 d o 3J0O s j° W?i 3 «\ # un UE W I §. l v 3 d ^S- : 233 I a I S5 a 3 0] H li £3 1 p toe Jd r. he-- o " 3 ■ C E >> XI §) 6 w ■a i --r 6 Is II a ' p - CO la '> i §j a a. D M -3 H B CO > a If P. -'■ ~t-6 ;«C0 M Z IS cq U > = i i- h o c u 39 4 o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS In some cases the standard time may be shorter than that within which the work was previously performed by any one workman, because of the fact that one employee is faster on one element of an operation while on another element a second employee, by the use of slightly different methods, is faster, and these two times have been combined in the standard time. For instance, job standardization on the operation of sewing buttons on men's garments showed that a couple of workmen who were turning out about the same number of garments of the same quality were using different methods. Workman A was found to be very fast in all the elements excepting the actual sewing on of the buttons, while workman B was found to be very fast on the sewing and slow in the other elements. The analyst showed further that workman A used a double thread and made more than double the number of stitches that workman B made and at a slower rate per stitch. Workman B, on the other hand, used a quadruple thread, made less than half the stitches of workman A and took each stitch faster than workman A. The standard, therefore, was set by using workman A's element for all but the sewing, and workman B's element for sewing. By getting B to teach A the use of a quadruple thread and A to teach B how to do the other ele- ments in a better way it was possible for both A and B to increase their production without any greater effort. Use of Equations The standards which are developed for an equation should be worked up into as simple a form as possible, so as to re- quire the minimum of work to determine the time of the opera- tion for any particular condition, quantity or specification. Sometimes this codification of standards requires considerable study. In a few rare cases it has been found that at first it took almost as long to figure the time allowed for a given order METHOD OF PROCEDURE 41 as actually to do the work. In the operation of "blocking cloth," for example, a formula was developed which filled the requirements. This formula appeared complicated to those not familiar with the particular line of work under considera- tion, but aside from the time taken to use the formula in figuring the job it was in reality quite simple. The formula was later reduced to the form given in Figure 8. The figuring Explanation of Symbols c — constants per section. For lays on the fold c = o cji — constants per cut per piece c 3 — constants per cut per part c. — constants per cut for dividing and blocking exact c 5 — pin facing constants g — number of garments L ■ — number of layers n — total parts in any piece p — number of pieces s — time for style value for each part T — total time u • — ■ pin facing time per layer v — time required to obtain (shake) and even each layer of each piece W ■ — variables per cut, per part. For parts marked i cut, w = o y — number of sections. For Blocking on the Open, y = 2; except for F to O pes. when y = 1 Determination of L 4 size lays on the open, L = - 2 size lays on the fold, L = - 2 L = g 1 " " " " " L = g 1 " " ' L = g Determination of Height of Section for Pieces Blocked on Fold • 1. Lays of 2 or more sizes on open. Height of sec. = — , when y is an even number. 2. One size lays on open. Height of section = -, for any value of y. 3. Lays on fold — pieces laid on fold. Height of sec. = — , for any value of y. 4. Lays on fold — pieces laid on open. Height of sec. = — , when y is an even number. Formula I — Blocking Pieces Not Cut Exact r f n (s, + . . . + sp) \ . _ (vi + . . . + v P ) 1 T = p y I Ci A > + L h c 2 + u (c 3 + wL) I [ ( n (s, + P . . . + sp)1 (v r + P . . + v P ) , I = P y S 0.001 -\ > + L + 0.022 + n (0.009 + 0.0006L-, Figure 8. Formulas for Figuring Standard Times for Blocking Cloth of the jobs was further simplified by drawing a curve, as given in Figure 9, for each style of garment that was to be 42 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 4.0 N umbe r o fC Jar m« nt 3 d.5 3.0 • ! >> >> J' -01- N w- 1 2.6 M 1 8" / / -fi- ll s- 2.0 01 • m. P w c -s en 3 / 1.5 / ffl .s 01 F ,<\* V H ^ •^ -y !» 4 > 1.0 .90 .80 .70 .60 .50 .40 .30 .20 ao < b* ,4 */> 1 p 0) c a o a "o _> 14 Jan. 8 15 22 29 Feb. 5 12 C >rrect 44 hoi ;d to irs x bo .S 3 hour's 23 30 We< kly] > ]arni f ngs i iDol lars $15 $25. $35. $40. $45. $50. Figure io. Graphic Chart of Employees Piecework Earnings METHOD OF PROCEDURE 47 The curves at the top show the proportion of the piecework to the bonus earnings, the distance between the lines repre- sents the amount of bonus, and the corresponding point on the bonus-line the total earnings. Thus, if an employee earned $30 on piecework, he would earn $7.50 additional bonus, making a total of $37.50 as shown by the dotted lines. The lower part of the chart shows the actual piecework earnings for each week in one line. The earnings on the chart are figured on a 44-hour basis so that where an employee worked only 31 hours, as during the second week of February, the earnings for 31 hours were increased by 44/31 to correct the chart to the standard number of working hours. The em- ployee is paid, of course, only for what he earns in the actual time worked, but in order to compare the amount of produc- tion for the time actually worked it is necessary to refigure it on the common basis of a 44-hour week. The methods department looks over the record every week, investigating any prolonged or frequent failure to approximate the maximum pay and correcting the cause of the failure. Further departmental records in graphical form showing actual production compared with the maximum, analysis of machine time and employees' earnings, amounts of delayed time, de- partmental proficiency, and a weekly analysis of total depart- ment time, give the management a constant check on the way in which the work is being done. The checks complete the work of applying the standards because they provide for their perpetuation. CHAPTER IV RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION The Executive's Point of Interest The method of procedure taken up in the last chapter is applicable to every plant, in spite of the common opinion that "every plant is different." This being true, any instances of results, even though taken from particular industries and operations each one of which is "different," are of general interest. In this chapter, therefore, a few illustrations are given of results in individual cases, three of which involve considerations vital to any industry : the elimination of useless operations; the saving of materials through standardization; the establishment of a rational bonus system. The executive is interested in results as they affect the whole plant rather than as they affect particular operations. For his benefit, therefore, before giving illustrations of the three points just cited, we transcribe a statement 1 by the East- ern Manufacturing Company, of the general results obtained through scientific management : (a) An increase in wages has resulted from the installa- tion of this system of task and bonus and the workers appear more happy and satisfied with their work owing to the fact that they are making more money and turning out a good day's work. (b) Since the introduction of scientific management, this Company has organized a service department whose princi- pal function is to look after all matters pertaining to the health, comfort, and contentment of all employees. This 1 Made to the Congressional Labor Committee (1916) in connection with stop-watch legislature. RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 49 department employs all new help and makes as careful a selection as is possible, endeavoring to secure for each posi- tion those who are physically and mentally suited to the work. Where the health of the worker is not good an effort is made to assign him work where there will be as little as possible physical strain. There have been no ill effects on the health of any of the operators employed on task and bonus as there is no undue strain placed upon them while working under these conditions. (c) The nature of the work done in this mill is such that accidents are not liable to happen. No reports of accidents to workers on task and bonus have been made since the in- troduction of this system. (d) Weekly earnings of employees who have been placed on task and bonus have increased from 20 to 50 per cent. (e) Since the first of January, 1916, this Company has been able to reduce its hours of labor from ten to nine with- out increasing the cost of production. (f) The increase in output since task and bonus have been established varies in different departments from 20 to 75 per cent. (g) The cost of product as effected by the work on which task and bonus system is applied has decreased on various operations in amounts ranging from 10 to 25 per cent. This decrease in cost takes cognizance of the fact that the over- head or indirect expenses are increased under the system of scientific management over what they were under the old type of management, but this increase of indirect labor is figured in the cost of production which shows a reduction in spite of this additional cost factor. (h) There has been a marked improvement in the quality of the product due to the rigid inspection which has been made on all work done under task and bonus. This is evi- dent by a decrease in th? criticisms which have been made on our product by our customers. Eliminating Useless Operations The operation of "opening and laying out" cloth in a bleachery preparatory to bleaching is a good example of the 50 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS unstandardized conditions found in many plants. A study of the particular plant from which the following illustration is taken revealed the fact that it required nine independent operations to get the cloth out of the bale and on to the truck so that it could be made ready for singeing and bleaching. It took a crew of seven men to handle the goods under these con- ditions, and since they were busy throughout the day perform- ing first one operation, then another, it was impossible under this routine to eliminate a single man. The foreman in this plant felt that the method in use was better than that in any other mill in the country, and he was a man with many years' experience in a number of different mills. Time study and job analysis, however, soon showed the possibilities of cutting down the number of operations from nine to four, and the number of men from seven to three. The operations as performed before analysis was made are indicated in Figure n. The operations necessary after the analysis had been made are indicated in Figure 12. Standardizing to Save Materials The saving which can be effected on any operation may result either from cutting down the amount of time required by a machine or workman, or from cutting down the amount of material used. In operations in which the material cost is the largest percentage of the cost of the operation, an especial attempt should be made to save the material. An illus- tration of such an attempt comes to mind in the operation of cutting leather hides and furs for use in making overcoats, in which case it became possible to standardize an unstandardized product. The material in this case was 90 per cent of the total labor and material cost. Each pelt was of a different shape and size, each also had imperfections unlike those in any other pelt; consequently those working with this particular product RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 51 ft >> T3 +J 03 3 Sh > nS O 'O r~ r! ° O H s 1 J - H % a -t O s 5 ™ z £ P ?! :r> 5 o s BACKFILLED FIRST AND SECOND LETTERS OF SYMBOL -1 7^ I £ 5 3 5 s ? ..' c 3 o s PURE > > > > > > Singed. Bleached, Starchedand Calendered Singed, Bleached, Starched, Calendered and Framed o o o o o o o [» Singed.Bleached, Starched, Framed and Calendered c.i O u u 1 > Bleached, Starchedand Calendered m m en Bleached, Starched, Calendered and Framed ti -n Tl -n Bleached, Starched, Framed and Calendered .— O rn-H X I I Bleached. Starched and Framed e_ c- t. <- L Sinned. Bleached. Starched and Framed 55° (Tl[-n ■* C/D - ! r~ r" Bleached, Run Through Flannel Combination and Inspected 3j;M £ si <: Bleached, Starched, Calendered jndManqled and Beetled z pfe TJ ro m—t zc/3 O r— O 3D rr C 30 ID :o en ■< S aa O -J H H H Bleached. Run ThrouahBluina Manqle & to Turkish Drvina Room < £ v -* N *• > v> > > > > V > 12" Double Back -no CD ID ro CD ro 03 ID 03 CD CD 12" Manufacturers' Sinqle Back O o o o o O O o O 9" Fold o u O 6" Regular m m in 6" Enrjlish Barnslev Fold LI Cuttle Fold X .1. Dress Fold ■■- e- c_ ■ ?; 7:. 7* Longcloth Fold m™ Doubled and Book < Doubled and Lapped on Wood or Cardboard Z z Z Z Doubled and Rolled on Plate 0= 1) Single and Lapped on Blade (Wood or Cardboard) os- 31 ji I) Crea No. 1 Fold C" co .D Crea No. 2 Fold (Skirt Fold) H H H Rolled on Spindle , ,. c c c Rolled on Tube and on 3-5 Wood Shells < £ ■ -< 'j T7 -0 Huck Fold (Papered) ©- 2 5 Huck Fold O Cut and Tied in Bundles of Five Dozen T X Cut, Hemmed and Tied in Bundles of One Dozen Cut. Hemmed, Tied and Papered (Two Dozen in a Packaqe) ^ Cut, Hemstiched and Tied in Bundl Cut. Hemstitched. Tied and Papere ?s of One Dozen H A (Three Doz. in a Package) -n n ~ r - Bamsley Fold IS 5«S H H Rolled on Spindle ■■■ Rolled on Tube and on 3-5 Wood Shells r~ 00 C/3^ X X Rolled on Spindle, Tied and Papered ILH- KY -In cro en— m° OS 03 Cut andJQed in Bundles of One Do Cut, Tied ami Papered (One Dozen Cut, (Fringed) Tied in Bundles of Cut, (Fringed), Tied and Papered ( en n n a Package) -n 3ne Dozen o 1 Doz. in a Packaqe) I Cut, H.ejBme.d and Tied in. Bundles ; of One_D.ozeji _, ._ Cut. Hemmed. Tied and Papered (One Dozen in a Package) Cut, Hemstiched and Tied in Bundles of One Dozen Cut. Hemstftched/Tied and Papered (1 Doz. in a Package) c_ CO - 1 Cut and Tied in Bundles of Five Do zen 55 n Cut, Tied and P Cut. Hemmed a jiered (Five Uozer in a Packaqe) T id Tied in Bundles ot Five Dozen led and Papered (1 ive Dozen 111 a Package) ^ Cut, Hemmed, Figure 23, Chart of Symbols Used to Designate Various Products of a Bleachery 159 j6o time study and job analysis the same symbols for common elements irrespective of the operation in which they occur, as w for walk, or s for stop- ping machine, it facilitates a comparison between the times taken by the same element under different conditions. Results of Imperfect Analysis Analyzing an operation seems to the uninitiated to be very easy. This is true if the operation is broken up into its major elements only, but as a general rule it is necessary to break it up into smaller elements in order to study it in enough detail. In some cases, for example, the element of picking up the material should be separated from the element of placing it in position. The object of this is to determine the variation in time of each of these elements for varying conditions of work, weight of material, or whatever the variable happens to be. The results of the failure to analyze the operation by re- cording all variables in sufficient detail were well illustrated in a case where a so-called experienced man made a detailed study of the operation of "stitching pads on calendars." The difference between a hasty, inaccurate study, in which all variables were not taken into account and a scientifically exact study is clearly brought out by citing this example in detail. The job of wire-stitching date-pads on the backs of calen- dars is a relatively simple one. The analyst, Mr. X, took fourteen studies — one study each on half of the total number of machines in the room, except on No. 2 machine, on which he took five studies. Each study occupied from two to ten minutes. From the results of the fourteen studies, taking in all less than two and a half hours, he drew up a curve, reproduced in Figure 24, which he maintained covered the standard for the job. Then he added an extra 35 per cent for delays. Just how or why he settled upon this figure of 35 per cent he did TAKING THE TIMES 161 not state; evidently he assumed the figure arbitrarily. He made the error, however, of failing to record all the variables 30 28 20 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0— 100 200 300 400 500 601) 700 800 900 1000 Figure 24. Incorrect Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendar Backs affecting the task. It was later found from careful study that the time required for wire-stitching calendars was dependent upon five variables : 1. The stiffness of the calendar back. The calendars could be grouped into two classes; either stiff- or limber-back. 2. The size of the back. The size of the back was any- where from 100 square inches to 600 square inches, with the ratio between the width and the length any- where from 1 to 1, up to 1 to 2/2. This ratio between width and length was a factor only when the area was over 440 square inches. Wir eSti tching C alen iars T3 0) ^ f *,« w jy 3 <3 $y p ,,« ■0/ a 0> ■* ^ H 11 1- W = Squ ire 1 nche s idd 355S fo r Delays 162 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 3. The size of the pad, which ranged anywhere from 10 square inches to 160 square inches. 4. The location of the pad. If the pad was located any- where except at the very bottom of the calendar, a lifting gage on the stitcher had to be used. 5. The number of wire stitches, which varied from 2 to 15. Of these five variables, Mr. X considered only one, the size of the calendar, and even in this one he failed to take into 0.12 0.11 q.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 20 60 100 140 180 220 260 300 340 380 420 460 500 540 580 620 Figure 25. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Limber-Backed Calendars consideration the ratio of the width to the length of the calen- dar. Of course the rates thus reached were not satisfactory, and the job had to be restudied. Figures 25, 26, and 27, show the correct time curves for wire-stitching calendar pads. Wire Stitching Calendars Having Limber Backs 1:2 y 2 Value Value of "c' of "d' (plact ' (placf calen ' newc iar to alenda side a r back fter st on ma tching hine) plus 1:2 /, 3 C CD s A rea o: caler dar b ick in inch* s . TAKING THE TIMES 163 The following examples show the difference in time between results arrived at by correct methods and those incor- 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 Wire Stitching Calendars Having Stiflj Backs Value Value of "c of c (pla ce ca] ce ne^ endar vcale tol s adar I deaft ack er sti imac ching line) ) plus 01 3 C a 1 \rea of ca enda r bac k in i nche 1 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 Figure 26. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Stiff-Backed Calendars rectly reached. On an order for wire-stitching 4,000 flexible- backed calendars, 12 inches X 20 inches, having a pad 12 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 °' 000 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 Figure 27. Correct Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendars inches X 5 inches, to be placed at the bottom, each calendar requiring three wire-stitches, the correct time allowance for this stitching was 6 hours, 51 minutes, whereas X had allowed 8 hours, 4 minutes, or 21.6 per cent too much time. Wire Stitching Calendars Val Wh tie of en usi 'a" (1 ng hir Dlace 1 gedg >ad on jage i calen iiow 1 dar bs .9 mil ck) 1. extr iper .00 cal ;ndar 1 +■» 3 ft a s H Arc a of Padi 1 Inc lies ^4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS For the stitching of 4,000 stiff-backed calendars of the same size and characteristics as in the first instance, the cor- rect allowance was found to be 8 hours, 12 minutes, whereas X's allowance was 8 hours, 44 minutes, or 6.1 per cent too much time. If the order consisted of stitching 4,000 flexible-backed calendars, having a pad, 15 inches X 5 inches, to be placed at the bottom, each calendar requiring 3 wire-stitches, the correct allowance was 11 hours, 11 minutes, whereas X had allowed 15 hours, 50 minutes, or 29.4 per cent more time than necessary. Position of Observer with Relation to Employee The position of the analyst while observing the operation and reading the stop-watch should be determined with care. In order to obtain a dependable study, the observer should take it from a position in which he can see exactly what the employee is doing, as well as what the machine is doing. The tendency of the beginner is to get directly in front of the em- ployee, because he has to concentrate so hard on getting the correct time for each element that he fancies if he were any- where except almost on top of the employee, he would not be able to see the exact moment at which each element is com- pleted. By so doing, however, he distracts the employee, who is working under a strain, which does not subside quickly because he is always conscious of being watched. Sometimes the employee is further handicapped by the observer's taking a position which shuts off the light or by his being in the way of materials being moved by the employee. The proper position, as a rule, is to stand at least 5 feet to the rear and to the right or left of the employee. This allows the observer to see everything that is going on, but does not confuse the employee, who will gradually become en- grossed in his job and work naturally. TAKING THE TIMES 165 Figure 28 on page 167 shows the observer standing in the correct position to the rear of the employee. Figure 29 on page 169 shows incorrect position. Instead of questioning the employee during the course of the study as to why he does or does not do a certain thing, the observer should wait until the study is completed. The em- ployee will be able to give all the information just as well at the end of the study as during it, and the observer will have the advantage of a record that is not indefinite because of abnormal conditions which he himself caused. Handling Stop-Watch The method of handling the stop-watch has considerable bearing on the success of the analyst in getting accurate data in a short time. The readings of the stop-watch supply the time measure of the operation and the information on which final time standards are to be based. The method, therefore, should give the times of the elements separately so that they may be later considered as distinct, may provide a record of the exact times taken by them, and yet afford a record of the place of the elements in the operation as a whole. The methods used are : 1. Continuous method. 2. Over-all method 3. Repetitive method 4. Accumulative method 5. Cycle method 1. Continuous Method. The continuous method gives the most satisfactory results in most cases and on most operations. According to this method, the elements are recorded in sequence without stopping the watch. The observer keeps the watch going continuously during the period of the study, making a mental note of the time as shown on the watch at the instant 1 66 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS each element is completed and then recording that time on the sheet opposite the appropriate symbol. He should do all this with sufficient speed and concentration to be free to note and write the time of the completion of the next element. As the reading of the watch is practically instantaneous there is no necessity for stopping the hand. The stop-watch escapement allows the watch hand to make 3 forward moves each .01 minute. Although if the hand were stopped, it would be possible to read to .003 minute, a reading to .01 minute is accurate enough for the usual ob- servation. A variation of .01 minute in an element taking as much as 1 minute is only 1 per cent — a negligible percentage of variation. Moreover it has been found that the law of averages applies on this work, and that an observer will in about 50 per cent of the cases read ahead to the next .01 min- ute and in the other 50 per cent will read back to the next .01 minute, which neutralizes the variation of readings and gives the correct total time for an operation. The continuous method meets all of the requirements cited above, giving not only the exact time for each element as a distinct entity, but also the times of all the elements in the order of their performance. Further advantages of the con- tinuous method are that it charges up every minute of the time for the duration of the study either to some necessary element, which may be called a "productive" element, or to an unnecessary one, which may be called a "non-productive" element; it also eliminates any danger of omitting delays. 2. Over-All Method. Many novices attempt to use in place of the continuous, what may be called the "over-all" method. They take the total time for a combination of several elements or even for an entire operation, starting the watch at the be- ginning of the group or operation, and making no record until it is finished. This method reduces to a minimum the figuring required but is of little value except for the purpose of check- TAKING THE TIMES 167 i68 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS ing or supplementing conclusions drawn from detail or ele- mentary time study. It should never be used, in place of detail time study, because it neither allows for improvements nor shows delays, and for that reason is not applicable to the set- ting of accurate standards. It is, indeed, no great improvement over the foreman's guess. 3. Repetitive Method. Another method of taking times used by novices is that known as the repetitive method. Ac- cording to this, the observer starts the watch at the beginning of an element, stops the watch when the element is completed, and records the duration of the element. The watch is then thrown back to zero. When the element appears again in the cycle, the observer starts the watch which is at zero, stops it when the element is completed, and once more records the time taken. In this fashion he may record several elements in one study, provided they do not occur consecutively. This method, like the over-all method, is easy for the ob- server and does not require much figuring. The conclusions drawn from it, however, are unsatisfactory, because one ele- ment should not be abstracted and timed apart by itself. The time taken to perform one element is more or less related to the time taken for the preceding element, since the employee usually swings from one motion to another without the slight- est hitch or stop. The repetitive method disregards this rela- tion, nor does it allow for delays. Moreover it is wasteful of time, since the observer during one study can record the times of but a portion of the elements and is obliged to take other studies to find the unit times of the rest. The repetitive method should only be used when the analyst is making a number of detailed observations of one motion of an operation with a view to its improvement. 4. Accumulative Method. There are two other methods for taking times which are adapted to special cases — the re- TAKING THE TIMES 169 3 P* 3 17 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS cording of elements which are "very fast," occupying between .003 and .02 minutes. These are the accumulative and the cycle methods. According to the accumulative method, the observer uses two or more stop-watches, the number depending upon his ability and the length of unit times, and keeps each watch for a separate element. Assuming that the symbols of the elements are, a, b, c, d, e, f , the first watch is started at the end of element f and stopped at the end of element a. Simultaneously with stopping the first watch the second watch is started at the end of element a and stopped at the end of element b. Both readings are then entered on the time-study sheet, and both watches are thrown back to zero ready for repeating this routine, which process is repeated at least 20 times. Since the escapement of the watch allows the hand to make 3 forward moves each .01 of a minute, by stopping the hand the reading of the element may be recorded to .003 of a minute. The sum of the readings of the individual elements may be checked by taking an over-all time study of the com- plete cycle. 5. Cycle Method. A cycle consists of a given number of elements. For example, there may be 4 elements involved in an operation — a-b-c-d — and these 4 elements taken together represent a cycle. The cycle method for taking the unit times of these elements consists of taking the times of the sum of all the elements less 1 element. The following equations repre- sent the method. An example to illustrate the method of computation is given below : Equations (1) a + b + c = 0.06 (2) b + c -f- d = 0.05 (3) a+ c + d = 0.07 (4) a + b + d = 0.06 (5) 3 a + 3b + 3c + 3d = 0.24 TAKING THE TIMES 171 Dividing equation (5) by 3 gives equation (6) : (6) a+b+c+d= 0.08 Subtracting equation (1) from equation (6) gives the time value for element d : (1) a+ b + c = 0.06 d = 0.02 Similarly the time values for elements a, b, and c can be determined. Carl G. Barth discovered the fact that the number of elements of a cycle which may be observed together is subject to a mathematical law. This law is that the number of elements in any set must contain no factors, that is, the number of elements in any set must be divisible by no numbers which are contained in the total number of elements. The following table 1 was devised to show how many elements may be ob- served together in various cases. No. of No. of elements No. observed 1 :ogether that elements that may be lead to a minimum of labor in the cycle observed together or is otherwise preferable 3 2 2 4 3 3 5 2, 3, or 4 3 or 4 6 5 5 7 2, 3, 4, 5- or 6 4 or 6 8 3, 5- or 7 5 or 7 9 2, 4. 5,7, or 8 5 or 8 10 3, 7, org 7 or 9 11 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 5 or 10 12 5, 7, or 11 7 or 11 Thus if a series of 5 elements be taken and observations made on 3 consecutive elements of these at a time, the follow- ing equations would be obtained : 1 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, 191 2. I72 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS (l) a+ b + c = A (2) b+ c+ d = B GO c -f- d + e = C (4) a + d+ e = D (5) a+ b + e = E (6) 3 a+3b+3C+3d+3e = A+B+C+D+E=S or (7) a+ b+ c+ d+ e = 1/3 S Adding a to both sides of equation (7) gives: (8) a+b+c+d+e+a=i/3S+a Equation (8) may be written: (9) (a+b+c)+ (d+e+a)= 1/3 S + a Substituting in equation (9) the value A and the value D for their respective equivalents as shown in equations ( 1 ) and (4), we have : (10) A + D = 1/3 S + a or (11) a= A+D- 1/3S Similarly equations for determining the time for elements b, c, d, and e are obtained : 2 b = B + E - 1/3 S c = C ■+. A - 1/3 S d = D + B - 1/3 S e = E + C - 1/3 S Machines for Time Study To concentrate on the performance of each element and at the same time to read the stop-watch and record the read- ings on the note sheet is difficult. Some study has accordingly 2 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management. 191 2. TAKING THE TIMES 1/3 been given to the development of a mechanical device for re- cording the detail unit times of the elements. Experiment has proceeded along 2 lines : 1. Under one plan, a ribbon or strip of paper moves at a uniform speed, while a pen, touching the paper so lightly as not to interrupt the uniformity of the speed, makes a running mark on it. The pen point is attached to a lever, which at the completion of each element the analyst presses, causing the pen to make a break in the vertical line drawn. The completed record, therefore, forms a zigzag line. The space between each break shows the elapsed time. Given the speed of the rib- bon, it is possible to read the time taken for each break, which represents the time of an element. If the ribbon moves for in- stance 20 inches to the minute, each .2 inch will represent .01 of a minute and can be read off by measuring the distance between breaks with an engineer's scale divided in tenths. The use of the machine is limited to operations where the elements always occur in the same sequence, since there is no way of making notes on the moving ribbon without interrupting the speed. If a delay occurs, it must be noted on a separate sheet; but there is danger that the analyst, when working up the study, will be unable to co-ordinate the unit times and the notes. A uniform sequence of the elements, combined with an insig- nificant number of delays, is so rare, that the stop-watch will still have to be used on the majority of the studies and so makes this device for taking studies of little value. 2. Under the other plan a time stamp somewhat similar to that used in stamping time tickets can be devised to register every .01 of a minute. An ordinary electric time-clock for stamping is shown in Figure 30 with an attachment for holding the sheets on which the analyst can record the symbol of the element and make the notes at the completion of each element. By this plan the observer presses a lever which stamps the reading on the time-study sheet. With the release 174 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Figure 30. Electric Time-Clock with Attachment for Holding Time-Study Sheets TAKING THE TIMES 175 of the lever the paper is automatically pushed on one notch, ready for the next impression. The clock is placed on a stand on wheels, so that it can be moved anywhere about the factory. The use of this time stamp will, of course, involve some expense in wiring the plant, in order to make it possible to make studies in every depart- ment. Thus far no device has been worked out which makes and breaks electrical contact every .01 of a minute. A device is, however, being worked on at present, and will soon be on the market, making and breaking contact every .1 of a minute. There seems no doubt that the mechanical limita- tions of the time stamp can be overcome. The advantage of using a mechanical device is that the observer is not obliged to give his attention to reading the watch, but can concentrate on the performance of the elements. It is of special assistance to the novice in taking fast times. There is danger, however, that such a device will become like a crutch — so necessary that the observer will scarcely be able to dispense with it — even in the cases where he is obliged to make use of the stop-watch because he does not have the equipment or because the factory has not been wired. He will therefore not develop the ability of the skilled observer, who can make the readings almost automatically. Taking Time Studies In spite of the possibility of mechanical devices the stop- watch is the most practical. The usual process of taking the times is for the analyst to select a skilled employee, watch him at work, divide what he does into its essential parts, and record the time at which each of these parts is completed. The length of each individual study is also a matter of judgment and skill. Individual studies may vary in length anywhere from 15 minutes to several days. Except for checking conclu- 176 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS sions, experimenting with different motions, or finding the effect of some one variable, short studies of 15 minutes to half an hour are never to be relied upon. The conditions may be exceptionally favorable or unfavorable at the moment, or the employee may be working at a spurt. Even if the situation is typical, the observer does not have a chance to enter into the swing of the operation and note on his sheet whether a cycle of elements is especially well performed. It is never advisable, therefore, to draw final conclusions as to the stand- ards from short studies. Although taking the times seems simple it calls for expert- ness and judgment in the observer. In reading the stop-watch, the mind must act instantly, in order to make a mental note of the watch-reading at the instant the element is completed. While at first this takes all the observer's attention, as he be- comes more experienced he gradually finds that his mind becomes less and less conscious that he is reading his watch, and finally the readings are retained only long enough to make the record. He notes and records on the sheet the time of the ele- ment automatically — as one might button one's coat. The fact that his subconscious mind is taking care of the time elements long enough to record them, enables his conscious mind to analyze continually just what is happening. The combination of this ability to see and record all matter simultaneously affect- ing the times and to note the watch-reading in the approved manner is what makes a time study valuable as a definite con- tribution to the formulation of standards. CHAPTER XII COMPUTING AND ANALYZING TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS Considering Elements Separately The first step in analyzing the studies and setting the standard is to determine separately the time values of each element. That is, the analyst for the moment should put aside all consideration of the time standard of the whole operation and concentrate on the unit times of each individual element and its distinct time standard. It is only by analyz- ing each element in this way that he can find the causes of variation in the time taken for the whole operation. Importance of Analyzing Studies It is as important for the analyst to employ the best methods in analyzing the studies element by element as in taking them, for his aim is to get the most satisfactory results in the short- est possible time. Working up the studies in the office is much more than merely supplementary to taking them. This. third phase, analyzing the studies and setting standards, is usually the most difficult. Its conduct is tempered by the factors af- fecting the second phase — taking the studies — and the tenta- tive conclusions drawn from the analysis in turn affect the taking of times, so that each is continually reacting upon the other. Both are fundamental to a complete job standardiza- tion. When to Compute Studies An analyst's mental equipment is of value in proportion to his ability to observe details and his capacity to retain them. 177 178 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Any mental picture loses detailed definiteness as time elapses, especially if the passing picture is not reviewed. The act of recording readings of the stop-watch at the completion of the elements should make a vivid picture of that process on the mind of the observer. If he works up the note sheets not later than the next day, he will be able, upon glancing over the time study of the previous day, to remem- ber in considerable detail events which affected the amount of time taken. This power to remember is very valuable, because the analyst may not have recorded the circumstance at the moment it occurred, thinking the effect would be negli- gible, or perhaps he may have lacked the opportunity because the elements followed one another with such rapidity. If the notes are not worked up immediately, they lose some of their vividness; the observer's mind fails to retain the finer impres- sions which one picture after another has flashed upon it. Making Extensions The time-study sheet filled out by an observer shows oppo- site the symbol of the element the watch-reading that was noted at the moment the element was completed. This information appears in the column marked "Read." We will suppose that the watch has been kept running, according to the continuous method of taking studies, so that the readings represent con- tinuous times. If this is so, then the time taken to complete any one element is the difference between the second reading and the first. For example, the time of the first element in the column, "Read," is 12.60; that of the second is 13.10. By subtracting 12.60 from 13.10 we have .50. This last figure appears in the column marked "Ex." The figures appearing in this column — the result of the mathematical process just described — are called extensions (see Figure 31). It is fatally easy in making a long list of extensions to let the attention wander, and an error creep in. Since it is unlikely TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 179 Time 1:00 \o 2:00 P.M. Study No. or Symbol 23 File VER Observer W.E. Curley Date 10/18/20 Operation Rip Veneer Checked by R.S.B. Department Saw 3y lead Ex ' !%JSyRead Ex sy eac Ex % Sy ead Ex f Location s it W(} hr Operator Rank (Sawyert Rate 36 e hr ' a! •2.6a 3.10 0.50 s 23.66, .821 0.10 0.18 i Williams (Off bearer) V .SS 0.28 s .9l\ 0.09 Implements c .70 5.20 0.32 1.50 s 24,00 .10 0.09 0.20 Materials „ e ! 6.08\ 0.88 8 .21 0.11 15 Bundles 13 2 x 56- J (25 pieces per bundle) = 875 pes. w 7.0S, 0.97 s .29 0.08 Conditions and Remarks f .11 \0.06 s .38 0.09 Study started upon completion of another size of veneer. g .70\0:59 s .46 0.08 Watch read 12:60 at start of study. I .SJ0.il .8910.08 .99\0.10 8.08, 0.09 I .56 .66 .76 .86 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 3 .19 0.11 s ■ 94 oos J .29 .38 .4? .55 0.10 09 0.09 0.08 h i 3 .99 25.30 .88 05 k a C c f (1 h J m s S S sw W '.I 0»True 0.15 Mar 0.4S | 0.50 ISO <<.,v. 0.06 0.59 0.05 o.:il 0.15 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.97 >.-'4 0.32 0.43 0.50 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.0s 08 0.09 OP 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.11 0.22 • .55 .75 .86 .96 0.10 10 0.11 0.10 y i 26.10 ■60 22 Clea 6.50 1 14. oii\ 12.60. 1 19.12 0.16 26.60'gxt. 0.09 0.11 0.16 s .21 0.09 J.&. 0.09 0.07 0.09 s .31 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.09 s .37 0-00 0.10 0.07 0.10 3 .45 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.11 S .50 0.05 0.11 0.07 0.08 S .59 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.09 S .68 0.09 0.16 0.09 0.08 S .77 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 S .84 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.10 s .92 0.08 0.06 0.1 J 0.10 20.03 0.11 0.08 0.17 0.10 s .08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.08 s .14 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.07 s ■ 24 0.10 0.12 0.08 0.82 1.50 0.88 0.06 059 0.05 1.2i 0.15 6.7S 0.40 1.08 0.50 s .44 0.07 0.09 0.29 4.29 '\11 s .52 0.08 0.08 0.11 7-02 0.11 '1.19 s .61 0.09 0.05 O.li s .70 0.09 0.06 0.08 s .81 .92 0.11 0.11 Total™?- Ti>ne.i em 4ver r Detail Elements a Take out Blocks Tim* T U.04 .11 0.12 0.0? 0.82 b ^ 8 .20 6.09 C Shift Saws (2) 1.50 s .27 0.07 d s .35 0.08 e Replace Blocks 0.88 s .42 007 f Start Saw 0.06 s .51 0.09 Q Rip first handful and test width 5 .56 0.09 li.Ot Figure 31. Time-Study Sheet with Extensions !8o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS that compensating errors will be made which will balance each other exactly, it is necessary to check the correctness of the ex- tensions. The proper method of checking is to total them. If they are correct, the total will be equal to the last reading of the watch. It is better to do the checking column for column — as should have been done in the sample time-study sheet in Figure 31 — since in this way an error can be run down almost at once. Otherwise, if there are 4 columns on the sheet and one error in the extensions, that one error cannot be located without starting again and checking all the columns until the one with the error is reached. Making Tabulations The next step is to tabulate all the elapsed times for each element under the symbol of that element. As each time value is posted, a vertical straight line should be drawn in front of the corresponding symbol. This will make assurance doubly sure that all the values are recorded under some symbol and that no value is entered twice. All tabulations should be made on the face of the time- study sheet if possible. If not, they should be made on a sheet permanently attached to it. It is not advisable to make use of the back of the sheet for tabulations and calculations, even though it has the value of being an economic use of paper. The danger is that such figures will be overlooked by those checking the work. When there are a great many values for each element, the quickest method of tabulating the unit times and getting the totals is to take them off on an adding machine which prints the figures on a ribbon or sheet of paper. The figures taken off on the machine can be pasted on a sheet of paper the same size as the time-study sheet in case the adding machine will not take an Sy 2 X 1 1 sheet, or may even be pasted on the back of the time-study sheet itself, since they will be too conspicu- TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 181 ous to be overlooked. Pasting the strips of paper in this way- keeps the files from becoming bulky and also prevents mixing up the strips. Determining Machine Times In work done by machinery the first factor to consider is the running time of the machine. The amount of time which the machine takes to complete a cycle of a given operation can be determined roughly by finding with a speed indicator the number of revolutions the machine makes per minute. The average of three i-minute readings of the number of revolu- tions is ordinarily considered as the speed of the machine. There are, nevertheless, variations in machine elements. The speed is often materially altered by particular conditions and should be checked at various times of the day and under vari- ous circumstances. E.g., the starting of another machine driven from the same line shaft may slow down one already running. In a certain lithograph factory the starting up of a heavy calender machine required so much of the power that the speed of the other machines in the room was reduced almost 20 per cent. Occasionally variations of one sort or another in the stock will cause variations in the speed of a machine, on the same principle that an automobile may be able to go at a speed of 50 miles an hour on an extremely good road, yet be able to go only 30 miles an hour on a slippery or poorly cared for road. And who knows better than the workman how much the machine is slowed down at times from some such cause as the slipping of the belt? Under some conditions, as the electrical engineer is aware, even the electrical power fluctuates to some extent. Allowances must be made to cover such un- usual conditions. The time per revolution multiplied by the number of revo- lutions necessary to complete the cycle might be expected to give the exact information as to the standard time taken by j% 2 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS the machine for that cycle, but in reality it gives only the theoretical time. The actual time is considerably greater, since materials have to be put into the machine and taken out and since some delays will always occur. Time Variations among Employees If, then, we find variations in the time taken by a machine, what must we expect to find when we consider the time taken by a man ? Too much stress cannot be placed on the effect of the character and state of mind of the workmen, upon their work, and on the fact that these variations should be studied by an experienced person who has been trained to do this work and who has properly demonstrated his ability to consider the human element in production. The complexity of the problem can be realized when the fact is considered that, at the end of a day's work, it seldom happens that two men will have produced an identical amount of work, except in cases where employees have arbitrarily set for themselves what they consider the proper amount of a day's work. In the present discussion the situation where employees thus limit output is not considered, for such a situation will very quickly be perceived by the analyst after he has taken a few studies and it will then usually be remedied by appealing to the workers' sense of fair play. The Personal Equation The time taken by one employee, therefore, in performing any one element, as well as a complete operation, usually differs slightly from that of another employee. In speaking of the "personal equation," what is meant is this aptitude for accom- plishing an element or operation in a less or greater time than some tentative base. This base, as pointed out in Chapter XI, should be, as a general rule, the times of the skilled em- ployee. The times of the other employees may be compared TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 183 with the base in setting a standard within the range of the average employee. It should be repeated again, inasmuch as the term "skilled employee" is so often misinterpreted, that when we speak of a skilled employee, we are not referring either to the employee who rushes around as if he were going to a fire and usually takes longer in the end, like the bricklayer in Chapter X, nor yet to the exceptionally fast or exceptionally skilled employee. Up to the present, we have not mentioned the case of the exceptionally fast or exceptionally skilled employee because he is more or less of a rarity. Such an employee is a specialist in his line, has probably worked all his life at it, and — what is most unusual in any work — has known how to learn by experience. For instance, one man of this type, a carpenter, employed on work in Baltimore, MaVwas accustomed to re- fuse to do anything but indoor finishing and other interior trimming in residences. He worked with such rapidity and skill that 40 per cent had to be added to all his unit times to bring them within the range of the ordinary skilled employee. Another exceptional man was a New York monotype opera- tor. His speed was tried out on copy which had been given a number of employees in several printing establishments. It was found that he did the work in half the time taken by the other operators and could easily outdistance the demonstrator of the company manufacturing the machine. Determining the Personal Equation The purpose of determining the personal equation of vari- ous employees is twofold : ( 1 ) the unit times which are worked up from the time studies taken on the various em- ployees are put on the same basis so that the results of the work of one employee may be compared with those of another; (2) the personal equation establishes the difference between the skilled and the unskilled employee, and through a study of ^4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS these differences the unskilled employee may be instructed and developed into a skilled workman. The first purpose — to facilitate the comparison of em- ployees — is exceedingly important. Let us assume, for ex- ample, that time studies are being taken on some of the different operations of weaving varying grades of cloth for a bleachery. Three studies are taken on a skilled employee weaving three grades of cloth as follows : i. 44/40 — 3&}4 " — 8.20 2. 64/60 — 2>% l A " — 5-35 3. 80/88 — 39 " — 5-oo The first figure represents the number of the study; the second represents the number of threads per inch of warp; the third represents the number of threads per inch of woof; the fourth represents the width of the goods in the state in which it is received at the bleachery; the fifth represents the number of yards in each pound of goods. Let us now suppose that three studies are taken on some less skilled employee who is also weaving the following three grades of cloth : I. 48/48 - -38 // _ - 7-i5 2. 64/60 - -38^ // - 5-35 3- 80/80 - - 39 // - 4.00 In this case a comparison could be made between the two employees by comparing the times on that grade of cloth, viz., 64/60 — 38 1/2 inches — 5-35, on which both these em- ployees had worked. If the skilled employee's time had been found to be 15 per cent less than that of the less skilled em- ployee, a correction of 15 per cent would have been necessary in establishing the unit times of the less skilled employee so that his times could be correctly compared to those of the skilled workman. Of course no such correction as this of the times of the less skilled employee should be made on the basis of TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 185 merely one or two studies. The correction should be made only from a very careful analysis of a number of studies. The case of laying cloth is much more complicated because it is group work, which always adds to the problem by in- creasing the influence of the human factor. The following statement reducing to common terms the times of the differ- ent combinations of the group, was nevertheless determined upon by the analyst taking studies with different men work- ing together as a group. This statement represents the per- centage of slowness of employees working in pairs laying cloth. Employee 203 with Employee 209 time to be reduced o per cent 207 224 204 204 219 204 anyone Employee 219 205 209 10 15 10 10 15 The times of Employees 203 and 209 are used as a basis. Figuring to Three Decimal Places The author recommends the practice of figuring the average of unit times to three decimal places, as shown in the examples in this chapter. This practice is of assistance to the time- study man and the analyst, for it shows directly that any figure with three decimal places is an average value and not a picked, individual reading. If the error should be made of averaging averages, which may be incorrect for a particular case, the error is not very apt to get by the analyst. In plotting variables, the chances for making errors are often reduced to a minimum if the time values are figured to a common base of per square inch or per lineal foot. It is advisable in these cases to plot up the time, using three decimal places, for the error, if taken to the nearest hundredth when the time is multiplied by the total number of inches or total num- ber of feet actually used by the workman, would be serious. l86 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS This practice is of great assistance in getting accurate results and is therefore justifiable. Instructing Less Skilled Employees The second reason for determining the personal equation of the various employees is that later on they will all be in- structed and developed, if possible, into skilled employees. If the analyst can put his finger on the points at which the em- ployee is weak, instruction can be concentrated on these points. The employee will be taught to use the motions employed by the skilled workmen. Bringing all the employees who are fitted to do the operation into the rank of skilled employees makes them of more value : ( i ) to themselves, because they are paid more if they are skilful; and (2) to their employer, because the cost of what they are producing is less per unit produced; and (3) to society as a whole, since a high standard of living is dependent upon a high standard of production. Variations in Personal Equations The variation due to the personal equation is shown on the opposite page in a study taken at random on a job which is typical of the variations found between a skilled employee, an average employee, and an unskilled employee. The average employee took about 17 per cent longer on the total net time for the complete operation than did the skilled employee. The ratio was found to be quite consistent in the various other operations of inside carpentry, such as laying hard-wood flooring, laying base-boards, putting in stairs, and so on, not varying more than a small percentage one way or the other. This percentage was, therefore, adopted on this particular work in comparing the over-all times of the average employee with those of the skilled employee. The times of the unskilled employee were from 10 to 100 per cent greater than those of the average employee. TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 187 Put on Hinges Skilled Average Unskilled and Hang Door Employee Employee Employee (a) Move tools and imple- ments 0.72 0.63 0.30 (b) Open box of hinges. . . 0.94* 0.47 1.65 (c) Lay off for hinges on 1.50 .2.08 i-S5 (d) Mortise door for both hinges 3.10 3-96 4.82 (e) Place and screw hinges on door (3 screws per hinge) 2.11 2-57 2-57 (f) Place door and mark jamb for hinges. . . . 0-95 1.72 i-57 (g) Lay off for two hinges on jamb i-5i 1.88 1.50 (h) Mortise jamb for both hinges 3.06 3-63 4.27 (i) Place and screw hinges on jamb (3 screws per hinge) 1.80 2.98 2-55 (j) Hang door 0.90 1.05 0-55 (k) Make necessary adjust- ments to hinges. . . 3.82 3-57 745 Total net time for complete opera- tions 20.41 24-54 28.78 * Waxed all screws. The detail unit times of the elements on the operation given above vary considerably without any apparent relation. A further study of the detail unit times, however, will show that there is a definite relation between the time of the elements which relate to the skill of the employees. When an employee is 20 per cent faster in completing an operation than another employee it does not necessarily follow that he is 20 per cent l88 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS faster in performing each element; but it does mean that he performs practically every element in such a way as to make the total time for the job the shortest time possible. For in- stance : i. In element (a) the skilled employee took the longest time, due to the fact that he placed his tools where they were readily accessible later on. The unskilled employee was the quickest on this element. 2. In element (b) the skilled employee took the precaution to wax all his screws. It meant a little extra time at the moment, but saved time later, on elements (e) and (i), where he placed and screwed the hinges. A careful examination of this study, in fact, shows why the unit times taken by the skilled employee (including some- times even those which take longer) should be the basis for the standard times. The variation due to the personal equation is something which cannot be overlooked in determining the final standards, but allowance of some sort must be made to cover it. The answer to the problem of what extra allowance to make in order to provide the less skilled employee with a margin of safety depends on such matters as the character of the opera- tion and the supply of labor. Choosing the Right Men In Dr. Frederick W. Taylor's 1 famous analysis of the operation of handling pig-iron, only one man in eight out of a gang of seventy-five was considered physically fitted for the work. This was unspecialized labor, and the analysis was made at a time when such labor was plentiful. It was possible, therefore, to transfer the seven men out of eight not fitted to handling pig-iron to work for which they were fitted, and to 1 F. W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management, 191 1. TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 189 hire and train a smaller force of physically fit men to take their places. In this case no allowance had to be made to bring the task set within the range of men not 100 per cent fitted for the work. In industry it is not possible in general to hire an employee who can reach an ideal standard, so the standard must be set within attainable reach. At the other extreme from Dr. Taylor's experiments on the handling of pig-iron is the operation of folding posters. Folding posters is seasonal work, and girls are transferred to it from other jobs when this kind of work is put through. During the season the original studies were taken, tall girls were employed, whose long arms were admirably suited to the necessary reaching. The following season, however, the only girls available for the work were short. They could not do it in the time allowed the first girls, because they could not do the reaching so easily. Studies were taken on the short girls, and an additional allowance was given them in which to com- plete the operation, because of the longer time it took them to reach across the table and the greater exertion entailed in reaching. Analyzing Standard Time Values The analysis of the time values of the elements shows what factors have an effect upon them and to what extent condi- tions of the operation, of the machine, of the stock worked upon and of the mill itself, are important, as well as the fac- tor of the personal equation. All of these must be considered in analyzing the times taken by the element, in order to deter- mine for each individual the time value which is to be the standard. CHAPTER XIII DETERMINING STANDARD TIME FOR THE OPERATION Elements in Standard Time The standard time in which an operation should be per- formed is made up by adding to the sum of the time of each element a percentage for necessary delays, plus a percentage for delays for the necessities of life, such as getting a drink, plus a percentage for fatigue. This may be expressed in a formula : i Sum of the Standard) standard time / ' I time of each | element + % for av. times for necessities of life /% for I fatigue % for av. times for necessary delays The body of the standard time consists, as a rule, of the sum of the standard times of each element. The determination of the standard time for an element requires experience and judgment on the part of the analyst. It is not a straight aver- age, not the unit time recurring most often in the better per- formance, nor the average of the means, although all these may play a part in determining it. It can be found only by carefully computing and analyzing the times of the individual elements as recorded on the note sheet, giving consideration to all factors affecting performance, especially that of the personal equa- tion. Average Time Values The time value with which the analyst is concerned is the average time which an element should take, in contrast to 190 DETERMINING STANDARD TIME I 9 I the average time which it actually does take. In order to deter- mine this, all "abnormal values," i.e., those which are extraor- dinarily large or extraordinarily small, should be taken out for the time being. The average should then be found for the re- maining values. Abnormal Time Values The usual causes of abnormal values are : 1. Some delay which will seldom occur. 2. Some mistake on the part of the observer which can generally be discovered by the fact that either the time of the element preceding or of the element fol- lowing will be abnormal, while the sum of the two abnormal times will be about the same as the sum of the average times of these two elements. 3. Some variation in the performance of the element, which should not be repeated. 4. Wandering of the employees' attention. Whenever possible, the analyst should make a note of any such cause during the progress of the study. Often, however, the unit times are of too brief duration to allow this, or it is not evident at the moment that anything out of the normal is occurring. An absolute rule cannot be laid down for determining what are called abnormal time values, because of the fact that each element should be considered upon its own merits. As a general rule, however, it can be said that the abnormal times should not be used when determining average values ; but that gross or straight average values should be used when the elements show variations from causes which cannot be pre- vented. In general, gross average time values should be used, retaining the abnormal time values under the following condi- tions : 102 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS i. Elements which occur in construction work, like exca- vating, construction of buildings, etc. 2. Elements which occur on more or less non-repetitive work, such as mill-wright's work or repair work. 3. Elements which depend upon a material which in itself varies to a degree, and which is manufactured by an outside concern whose product is not under the con- trol of the manufacturer using it. 4. Elements which occur in connection with "group work." Since it is not possible to lay down an absolute rule for determining abnormal time values, the way to make the de- termining of them clear is to give an example. The following case shows which values are considered abnormal and the reasons for so considering them. The operation in question — loading, moving, and unloading a truck — consisted of three elements. The symbol of the first element was (a), of the second (b), and of the third (c). The times listed in the following tabulations represent those taken from an actual time-study sheet. The abnormal values are starred. They are not added in the total, with the result that the divisor is reduced by the number of starred values. (a) (b) (c) I. 0.28* 0.49 0.08 2. 0.1 1 0.40 O.IO 3- O.IO 0-45 0.09 4- O.IO 0.50 0.08 5- 0.12 0.52 0.12 6. O.I4 0.88* O.I I 7- 0.12 0.36 0.07 8. 0.13 0.56 O.O9 9- 0.13 0.50 O.I4 10. O.27* 0.32* O.II 11. 0.12 0.52 O.IO 12. 0.09 0-55 0.09 DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 193 13- 0.47* (ta Ik) 0.51 0.07 14- 0.09 0.60* 0.12 IS- 0.1 1 0.42 O.II 16. 0.13 0.51 0.09 17- 0.12 0.49 0.08 18. 0.12 0.42 0.07 19. O.II 0.50 O.IO 20. 0.09 0.56 0.15* 17) i-93 17) 8.26 18) 1.68 Average 0.113 0.486 0.094 The reasons why the values are starred as abnormal are as follows : Unit Time 1. (a) This is the first value after the opera- tion was started. Part of this time is chargeable to "getting ready to start" and should have been so recorded. Unit Time 6. (b) This time is very large, with no note on the time-study sheet to indicate anything unusual. Unit Time 9. (c) 10 (a) and 10 (b). These elements were performed consecutively. Any one of them is distinctly out of line with the average time for the particular element. The sum of the times of all three elements, however (namely, .14 -f- .2J -J- .32 = .73) corresponds fairly closely to the sum of the average values of a -f- b + c (namely, .113 + .486 + .094 = .693). In all probability, the observer allowed the times of these three elements to overlap instead of keeping them distinct. Unit Time 13. (a) The reason for starring this value is self-evident. The observer noted the fact that the employee was held back by "talking." Unit Time 14. (b) As with unit time 6 (b), there is no reason given why the value is extraordinarily large. Unit Time 20. (c) This was the end of the operation. Part of this time is chargeable to "changing jobs." I9 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS In the case of the four exceptions cited above — in construc- tion work, in non-repetitive work, in work where the varia- tion in material cannot be prevented, and in group work — - the abnormal values would not have been starred, with the exception of value 13 (a). In regard to this value the observer especially noted that the unit time included unnecessary ''talk- ing." If the employee had stopped working entirely while talk- ing, the time could have been recorded as a separate time value. Determining Abnormal Time Values Individual cases will come up occasionally that require ma- ture judgment. Time may often be saved in deciding whether a value is or is not abnormal by determining at a glance : ( 1 ) how much weight the value in question has in relation to the average unit time of the element; and (2) how much weight the element in question has in relation to the total time of the operation. For example, in element (b) in the above list, three values are starred as abnormal. Let us assume that this element consists of "placing material in machine." There may be a difference of opinion as to whether the fact that the material is bulky makes it impossible always to place it in the machine without a hitch, or whether the bulkiness ought to have no effect on the time taken by the element. An experienced analyst would not spend long debating the pros and cons of the prob- lem, unless he saw that the difference in the result was of enough moment to make deliberation worth while. In the case of element (b) the average with the abnormal values taken out is .486, whereas the gross average (i.e., the average in- cluding the abnormal values) is .500, which is only 3 per cent greater. The time taken by element (b), however, represents over two-thirds the total time of the operation. Great care, accordingly, should be exercised in determining the average time of this element. DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 195 If the element under consideration takes 80 per cent of the total time of an operation, the time allowed for its per- formance cannot be chosen too carefully. If, however, it represents only about 8 per cent of the total time, the maxi- mum variation that could result would be considerably less than 1 per cent, which would be negligible. Good Time Values Every operation has a rhythm, so that the worker swings from one element into the next without a jar. The tempo of the rhythm or swing varies, even in the same person, under seemingly identical conditions, with such factors as his state of mind, health, or fatigue. All of these things affect the time of completing an element. The result is that the average times may vary considerably in different studies. It has been found by years of experience that, although the average times vary, good times picked from various studies are quite comparable. The term "good time" is used to describe a time of the shortest duration which occurs with a reasonable degree of frequency. Although the decision as to what constitutes a reasonable degree of frequency might at first appear to be a question of judgment, an example will make clear that there is a definite principle and method of determining the good times. To make clear what is meant by a good value, the same list of unit times is used that was used before, with the excep- tion of column (a), to show what was meant by an abnormal value. Elements (b) and (c) are chosen, because (b) repre- sents a case where the unit times are of long duration, and (c) represents a case where the unit times are of short duration. Good time values should not be confused with the practice of many so called time-study men of using the absolute mini- mum time in every case for each element. This practice can- not be too strongly condemned for minimum times are as a rule abnormally quick times. 196 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS (b) (c) 0.49 0.08 0.40 0.10 0-45 0.09 0.50 0.08 0.52 0.12 0.88 O.I I 0.36 0.36 = Picked 0.07 0.56 good time if only the 0.09 0.50 first 10 values were 0.14 0.32 available. O.I I 0.52 O.IO o-55 0.09 0.51 0.07 0.60 0.12 0.42 0.42 = Picked O.II 0.51 good time if only the O.O9 0.49 last 10 values were 0.08 0.42 available. 0.07 0.52 O.IO 0.56 0.15 17)8.26 0.486 = Average time 0.42 = Picked good time when all 20 values are available. 0.08 = Picked good time if only the first 10 values were available. 0.07 = Picked good time if only the last 10 values were available. 18)1.68 0.09 — Average time 0.07 = Picked good time when all 20 values are available. For element (c) .07 is the picked good time when con- sidering the 20 values. It happens also to be the minimum time, and occurs three times. Had it occurred only once, or 5 per cent of the time, .08 would have been selected instead. In the upper half of the column there are only ten values, and .08 occurs twice, together with an .07 and some .09 values. .08 is accordingly picked as the good time for these ten values. For element (b) .42 is the picked good time of the twenty values, since .36 occurred only once. Had there been only ten values as in the upper half of the column, .36 would have been selected. DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 197 The good times are of assistance in determining the aver- age times to use, because they are less affected than the average times by temporary conditions. The average times and the good times should be plotted independently and the deductions drawn separately. They should then be compared. Where there is any radical difference in the conclusions drawn, fur- ther study will reveal the cause of difference. The method of comparing good and average times will be taken up again later, in the paragraph on determining curves of variables. From this discussion it will be evident that the good times are used as a gage to determine the correct relation between the unit times of variable elements. Constants In many operations there are elements called constants which do not change with the varying requirements of a given order. A typical constant is the element of starting a train. It makes no difference whether the train is about to set out on a three or a three-hundred mile trip. The time it takes for the train to start and get up momentum should always be the same if all conditions of cars, track, weather, and the like are identical. For this reason the element of starting a train may be called a constant. There are constants in almost every operation. For instance, in the operation of laying cloth, the element of "obtain shears" is a constant. The observer simply lists, under their respective heads, the average and the good unit times of the constant element, from the various studies. Analysis will then be made in order to determine the correct time for the element. Variables The majority of elements are variables, which are not so simple to analyze as the constant elements, since a variable is an element which changes according to the requirements of 198 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS any given order. In the operation of laying cloth, for in- stance, the element of straightening is a variable. Determining Standards for Variables A list for the variable of a number of average or good times means nothing, because it affords no basis of compari- son. Take, for instance, the variable of walking. The amount of time taken depends, for one thing, on the distance walked. It requires much less time per foot to walk 30 feet than it does to walk 10 feet. If the analyst who studied the walking element in laying cloth had listed all of the times of walking, the list might have looked somewhat like the one below : Time in Distance walked No. of time minutes in feet study 0.04 6 1 0.12 32 2 0.09 22 3 0.05 12 4 0.07 16 5 0.03 6 6 0.05 8 7 0.14 34 8 0.10 22 9 1 0.07 16 10 0.04 6 11 0.09 20 12 1 O.I I 30 13 0.08 18 14 One glance at the figures shows that they are practically meaningless when tabulated in this way. It would not be possible to determine from this tabulation the time to walk any given number of feet not included in the list. The best way of arranging these figures so that they can be easily read is to plot them in graph form on co-ordinate paper. DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 199 The unit times of a variable element can be compared readily only if they are plotted on a co-ordinate paper, show- ing the variation in time against the corresponding variation in the element, so that the law connecting the two is evident. The time may be plotted on the abscissa, or the horizontal scale, against the number of feet on the ordinate, or the vertical scale. Then the time for any given length may be found by following the point for this length upward until the curve is reached, and then reading on the horizontal scale at the left the time opposite this point on the curve. In the variable of walking given above, the variation in time in minutes was plotted against the number of feet walked. A curve shown in Figure 2> 2 was drawn by plotting the values given above, which makes it possible to determine the time required to walk any distance from 4 feet to 32 feet. To walk 12 feet, for example, would require .04 minute, while to walk 24 feet would require .09 minute. After several time studies have been taken on any opera- tion, and the extensions and tabulations made, each variable should be considered, in order to determine how to plot its unit times. The time values must be plotted in such a way as to show the relation of the time taken to the length, width, surface, area, weight, or whatever factor is the cause of the variation. The time may be plotted on the vertical scale and the length, area, or other determining factor or factors may be plotted on the horizontal. An example of plotting time against length is shown in Figure 33 where the curve was drawn to show the time for cutting paper. From this curve the time to make the cut may be found for any given job. Comparing Points in Curves Considerable time may be saved by noting opposite each ■point as it is plotted the study number, the employee's number, and any fact of importance. Take, for instance, the variable 20O TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS element of "straightening," in cloth. As soon as several studies have been taken, the analyst should commence to plot the time values, using the time in minutes against the length 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 8 10 12 14 16 IS 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Figure 32. Graphic Curve Showing Time Necessary to Walk from Four to Thirty-Two Feet in Laying Cloth in feet. He will also note, opposite each point entered, the study number or any fact which appears significant. As new time values are found from the studies, he will plot them also. The fact that a number of the points have already been plotted en ■*-> 3 9 S Laj ing C falkin; oth St andard Time ii 1 Minut es per ( )perati jn L ength in Fee t DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 20 1 will be of assistance, as additional points are entered. The time values previously entered, with the notes opposite, will afford a basis of comparison for each new value. If the new 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 3 +■> W a 0) m $ a s Len gthoJ Cut n Inc les 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Figure 33. Graphic Curve Showing Time Taken to Cut Paper According to Length of Cut point is out of line with the others, this will be evident and the analyst can investigate the reason at once. He may find that the cloth is of a slightly different grade and that a sepa- rate curve must be drawn for straightening this grade; or he may find that the group is poorly teamed up, in which case he can make a correction for the factor of the personal equation which will probably bring the point within range of the other points. In any case it will be possible for him to make an additional note in explanation. Extraordinary time values are shown up immediately by this method. Good Times as Check on Curve It is not always evident what curve to draw through a number of points, for there may be several which could be 202 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS drawn. Figure 34a and Figure 34b show examples of the different curves drawn for the same unit times of the element of "pulling cloth." It is sometimes practically impossible by simply looking at two curves, such as those in Figures 34a and 34b, to say at once which is correct, no matter how experi- enced the analyst may be. The curve which the novice would choose would invariably be the one representing his attitude toward the work. If he were inclined to give the workman the full benefit of the situation he would choose the curve in Figure 34a. If he were more interested in striking an aver- age he would choose Figure 34b. An experienced man in giving a decision would prove which curve was correct. He would plot up his good times, as in Figure 34c and draw in the curve. Then he would superpose Figure 34c on Figure 34a and on Figure 34b, so that they would coincide as nearly as possible in terms of length. In this way he would prove Figure 34a to be correct for shape and direction. It is in an analysis of this kind that the value of plotting up the good times is evident. The percentage of increase of the curve of the average time over the "good" curve will run, as a general rule, between 15 and 35 per cent where the operations are partly hand and partly machine. On machine work, with almost no hand work, there will be very little difference ; while on an operation which is done entirely by hand the percentage of difference will be nearer 50 per cent. Experience in many kinds of industry and many kinds of work shows consistently that the two curves, the average and the good, will be symmetrical and that the aver- age values will be the greater by approximately the same per cent from one end of the curve to the other. Plotting Variables The method of procedure in determining the proper curve is briefly as follows : 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 c ! ^ r- r : c C m c C ^0^ c c +-» 3 G § >^ c ^« > : 5 r 5 c > c > < en a> +-» 3 c 9 : > > s < c ;>'-' ; ^ —- -^ ( — V 3 e < ) C r ( > ^- < ) 0) E ( c 1 > ( < ) 1 Length in Feet 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Figure 34. Unit Times for Pulling Cloth 203 26 204 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS i. Compare the curve drawn through the points of the good times with those drawn through the points of the average times, by superposing one curve on the other. 2. Figure in percentages the increase of the average times over the good times for the minimum, average, and maximum points of the curves. If these percentage increases are practically uniform for all three conditions, it is safe to assume that the average curve chosen is the correct curve. If these percentage increases are not commensurate with each other, investigate the reasons by referring to the original time-study sheets, if necessary, and even in certain cases by taking some additional studies. The correctness of the deductions will be established infallibly by means of the new values. The time taken in checking up and verifying conclusions is time well spent, because it will give the analyst complete confidence and will insure the correctness of the standards. Orders for the full line of a product do not always come into a plant at one time, convenient as this would be for the analyst. As a result it is often impossible to set standards for all conditions affecting the variable elements at the time the original analysis is being made. This is to some extent true in every business, and especially so where there are many special orders or a line of goods of extreme styles, or where the work is seasonal. Exterpolating Standards Sometimes the effect of all possible conditions on the time of an element may be estimated by extending the curve, that is by exterpolating. This has been done in Figure 35 for the element of pulling cloth. Points have been exterpolated on the curve of the average times, to show how many minutes would be required up to 34 feet in length. This method is, however, more or less indefinite. As shown in Figure 35, it is DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 205 difficult to say which of the two dotted lines is correct. Even when time values are found by exterpolation, the analyst should keep track of the nature of the orders coming in. When an order comes through which covers some variable whose 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.C9 0.03 0.07 h 0.06 0.05 0.04 Dotted Section of Curve 1 Showing Method of Exterpolation 3 : !• — js-c:' C^ — "i 3 t**> i H Lei lgth in F eet 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 Figure 35. Graphic Chart Showing Method of Exterpolation value he has estimated by exterpolating, he will immediately take steps to have the proper time studies made and to have these studies compared with the more or less tentative con- clusions reached. Exterpolating to determine extreme values is useful be- cause it is often advisable to put the standards into effect be- fore all possible conditions are determined. If the analyst waits until all possible conditions have been studied, the com- pany loses the benefits of increased production and the em- ployees the increase in wages. "Guess" Allowances The percentages to allow for delays, necessities of life, and fatigue should not be "guess" allowances of predeter- mined percentages on the sum of the times of the elements, as is too often done. One "guess" allowance is often intended to cover not only actual delays, but the inevitable slowing up 2 o6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS of the employee's speed when he is not under the artificial stimulus of observation. Both the fatigue and delay allow- ances should be kept distinct. The fatigue allowance should be sufficient to bring the standard time to the point where it is possible for the employee to maintain it year in and year out. Necessary vs. Unnecessary Delays Not only should the delay allowance always be kept dis- tinct from the allowances for necessities of life and fatigue, but unnecessary delays should not be confused with necessary delays. It is difficult to make a general classification of delays, since the conditions in different operations, different factories, and different industries, vary greatly, making what would be necessary in one case unnecessary in another. Unnecessary delays constitute avoidable lost time due to such conditions as a wrong truck, or due to conditions not yet corrected. Neces- sary delays may in general be said to result from particular conditions which occur rarely. The employees, for example, may not always be able to handle the stock in just the right way, and if so, allowance should be made for this fact. In determining the standard time, it is very important that the observer should have kept distinct the elements and delays incidental to the performance of the elements, listing each under the approximate symbol. Otherwise it will not be ap- parent from the studies why the time values of the elements vary and to what extent the additional time taken in some cases was due to a necessary delay. It is often difficult for the novice to keep the delay factor separate from the actual performance of the element. In one case an assistant in a study on an opera- tion in the clothing industry showed delays amounting to only 2^4 per cent, which, considering the nature of the operation, appeared surprisingly small. Accordingly the analyst checked the study by himself, taking a study on the same operative DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 207 doing the same work under the same conditions. The total time on the operation was practically identical on the study taken by the assistant and that taken by the analyst, but the analyst's study showed delays amounting to 16 per cent while the delays recorded by the assistant showed only 2J/2. The assistant, as it proved, had lumped in many delays occur- ring during the performance of an element as part of the time value of that element. The conclusions which would have been drawn from the assistant's study and the standards set thereby would have been incorrect had not the analyst taken the time to check the work of the assistant and run down the inaccuracy. Allowance for Necessary Delays The percentage for the necessary delays should be de- termined in the following way. First, make a tabulation of the total times taken in performing the work as shown on all the time-study sheets, including the time for necessary and unnecessary delays. Then tabulate the total times of the necessary delays, and in a separate tabulation set down the total times of the unnecessary delays. The net time for per- forming the work is determined by subtracting the time in the second tabulation, of the necessary delays and the time of the unnecessary delays in the third tabulation, from the total time of the first tabulation. This may be expressed in a formula : ( Times shown ) ( Necessary ) ( Unnecessary ) Net time = 1 ,. } — { , , V — { , , J } { on studies ) ( delays J ( delays \ Second, figure the percentage of necessary delays by divid- ing the time of the necessary delays by the net time, multiplied by 100 in order to get the percentage. Necessary Delays X I0 ° = P er Cent of Necessary Delays Net Time 208 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Abnormal seasonal conditions should be taken care of by making a study of them at the period when their effect is most pronounced. Extra allowances must be made to cover them. On the plating operation in a paper mill, i.e., the operation which puts a linen finish on stationery, the seasonal condition occurs during the winter months. Static electricity is gener- ated through the friction of the paper with the linens and zinc plates going between the rolls of the plating machine and remains in the paper with the result that the paper sticks to everything it touches. It was found through study that during the winter months 10 per cent should be added to the standard time to cover this condition. Allowance for Necessities of Life The amount of time to be allowed for the necessities of life varies considerably with the character of the operation, and in some cases even with the season of the year. In con- struction work, for example, which has to be done out in the sun without any shelter overhead, the workmen will require a great deal larger allowance in hot weather for taking many drinks of water, wiping off perspiration, and so on, than they will require in cooler weather. Thirty-three and one-third per cent was found to be the amount required on a construction job for these necessities of life whenever the men had to work out in the hot sun and the temperature was over 90 degrees. Allowance for Fatigue x In this chapter, fatigue is considered only from the point of view of the necessity of determining what percentage to allow for rest on the particular operation after every effort has been made to reduce any strain involved. The problem of fatigue in its large aspects, and the means of determining and reducing its seriousness, will be treated in the next chapter. 1 For discussion of fatigue, see Chapter XIV. DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 209 There are two points which should be considered in deter- mining the amount of fatigue, in any given operation. The first point to consider is the number of studies taken. If the operation is complicated, the analyst will have on file a great many studies covering all the different periods of the day. These will give a fair average of fatigue at all hours. The second point to consider is the supplementing of the detail studies by over-all studies taken during a period of sev- eral days. The analyst follows the jobs through, informs himself exactly as to what is occurring and notes all abnormal conditions. The over-all studies will help to point out the possible danger of cumulative fatigue. In operations which have a great deal of variety, the nature of the work provides rest automatically. The fatigue factor, therefore, is small on such operations, usually not more than 5 per cent. In other operations, such as those involving con- siderable danger if the workman relaxes his attention, or those in which there are fast moving parts continually passing before the eyes, the percentage of fatigue is much greater. It may amount to as much as 50 per cent. The relation of hand to machine work is still another thing which determines the amount of fatigue. There are some operations which involve strain, mental and physical, which cannot be relieved and therefore must be allowed for. Occasionally, fatigue allow- ance has required as high as 100 per cent of the working time of the operation. The determination of the fatigue allowance and its addition to the total, complete the determination of the standard time. CHAPTER XIV FATIGUE Determining Fatigue Allowance Although fatigue is an important factor in industry it can be properly taken care of by the competent analyst. The standard time for performing an operation consists, as de- scribed in the preceding chapter, of the sum of the times of the elements plus percentage allowance for necessary delays, necessities of life, and fatigue. Of all the allowances, that made for fatigue is the most complicated, and therefore the most difficult to measure. Nevertheless job standardization, by showing exactly what is involved in each element of an op- eration and by showing the exact conditions of performance, provides a basis of knowledge as to the amount of rest needed to protect the average workman from fatigue. The fatigue al- lowance varies with each operation as well as with each factory thus requiring an exact determination for each particular case. Serious Import of Fatigue Both from the point of view of maximum production and from the social point of view fatigue is a serious matter. The individual who is fatigued cannot do such good work or so much as if he were not fatigued. He is unable to keep his attention concentrated on what he is doing; he has not the necessary patience. The results of fatigue often show them- selves before the individual is conscious of being tired. They become more apparent, however, as his weariness increases. The work is not turned out at the former speed, and should it require careful handling the spoilage is greater. As the quality of his work deteriorates, so do all his actions show the FATIGUE 211 result of his physical depletion. He becomes irritable, he can- not digest his food, and he is unable to resist disease. If he is tired beyond the point at which he can regain his strength in an hour, over night, or even over the week-end, he has reached a point of "cumulative fatigue," and if work tires a man so that he suffers from cumulative fatigue there is some- thing wrong with the man or with the work. There are other reasons which have brought the subject of fatigue into the foreground of public attention. Workmen stress this unknown factor in order to safeguard themselves against unregulated pressure for greater production; the unions sometimes use it to maintain standards of production which allow the least skilful and slowest workman to earn a decent wage. Philanthropists interested in the welfare of the labor- ing class unwarrantably imagine that workmen are being driven to the limit of physical endurance. Despite these considerations, fatigue is not the factor it is commonly imagined ; general progress in industry has lessened fatigue-producing conditions. One extremely important safeguard against fatigue that has gradually come into use is the decrease in the hours of labor. The 12-hour day, once general, now lingers on in comparatively few industries. Some states limit the hours of women workers to 48 hours a week. The 8-hour day is accepted as the government standard. Under the shorter day it is generally possible for a man to do more in an hour without wearing himself out; the pace does not have to be sustained so long and the time for rest is greater. Shorter hours have in some instances proved economically practicable and have helped to lessen fatigue. How the Employment Department Reduces Fatigue Fatigue is also guarded against in factories that use modern methods by means of the employment department. This de- 212 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS partment under the direction of a competent head has the qual- ifications needed for every job card-indexed and filed. When help is needed the interviewer can choose intelligently a man fitted for the job. By such means as this a blacksmith is not given a watchmaker's job, nor is a tubercular employee put to work where dirt or abrasive particles are in the air. The blacksmith's job is also made as easy as possible for him and methods are introduced to lessen the strain of close attention on the part of the watchmaker. Mechanical Devices to Reduce Fatigue Definite efforts have been made in progressive plants to lessen fatigue by mechanical improvements. The windows of modern factories are no longer painted to keep the employees from looking out and incidentally to keep out the purifying effects of air and sunshine. Neither are the windows nailed down, but are made easy for the employees to open. The relation of eye-strain to fatigue is given study, and provision made for proper lighting, both natural and artificial. The contrast between a factory built today and one built a quarter of a century ago is marked. The windows of the modern factory are large, the lighting is good, and the physical con- ditions are conducive to health. Good ventilation and good lighting can be achieved even in factories built before the im- portance of the physical equipment was realized. Cotton-mills have already introduced mechanical devices which carry off some of the lint, and humidifiers for conditioning the atmos- phere. Such safeguards show how certain loopholes through which fatigue may attack the employees have been closed. To prevent very great physical effort, to decrease the strain that at first is not so obvious, such as standing all day, or working on a bench that does not fit one's physical dimensions, care- fully thought-out mechanical devices are introduced. FATIGUE 213 The Analyst's Problem No matter how well conditions may be adapted to jobs the analyst finds that a residue of fatigue appears in every form of work. In an attempt to cover all contingencies, by arriving at general laws, tests have been made both in laboratories and factories with but little success. These tests usually involve a method of showing relative production at various hours or under various conditions and draw the conclusion that a de- crease in production is an evidence of fatigue. The best prac- tical method of finding the amount of fatigue incident to the performance of each operation is to analyze that operation part by part, as is done in the course of job standardization, at the same time taking into consideration all other observable evidences of fatigue shown in the operation. Utilizing Mechanical Methods The analyst naturally turns to special account mechanical devices for lessening fatigue. Chairs of the right height and type may relieve fatigue when the worker has had to stand all day. Sometimes an employee may even tend two machines without walking from one to the other if his chair is placed on wheels that run on tracks. Where a regular chair is imprac- ticable a collapsible stool attached to the machine may be pulled out and used by the employee. Trucking material may be eliminated for the operator by transferring that part of the job to a "moveman" who is hired for such work. A bracket attached to a truck used for carrying coils of wire did away in one factory with the strain of supporting the weight of the wire while moving it. On a certain operation where a girl used dies for cutting out labels a spring platform was used to reduced the force of the jar caused by her mallet (Figure 15). In many factories a large part of the heavy lifting and pushing done by men could be done by machinery. 2i 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Reducing Fatigue by Instruction The analyst further assists in reducing fatigue by having the employees taught the best method of working. Some workmen use motions that involve a needless waste of strength and time, and it is the task of the analyst to introduce simpli- fied methods — and then to see that each workman uses them. A case in point is the operation of cutting paper. The size of a sheet before cutting may vary from 40 inches X '60 inches to 20 inches X 30 inches. The weight of paper for 500 sheets, or a ream, on a 17 inches X 22 inches basis, may range from 30 pounds up to 180 pounds. The size of the sheet after cutting may be no more than 4 inches square. The stock may have been put through the printing press a dozen times, so that it must be handled with the greatest care to guard against spoilage, which otherwise would be large. It was found by analyzing the work of a number of cutters that each one lifted a different amount of paper to the machine, some lifting it with the sheet flat, others folding one edge over, and still others making a double fold. Some took 3 lifts to fill the machine while others took 6. A study of all the conditions made it possible to decide the correct quantity to lift with the least effort. The amount of wrist and arm strain required by the method some of the men were using was so great that had this method continued in use only men of exceptional strength could have done the work for any length of time. Rest Periods The analyst may also find that it is advisable to give a fatigue allowance in the form of rest periods of a definite length at definite hours of the day. Where rest periods have been satisfactory three conditions have been observed : 1. Standards of performances have been set. 2. The rest periods have been adapted to the needs of each operation separately. FATIGUE 215 3. The co-operation of the employees has been gained, so that they observe the rest periods voluntarily. Rest periods without standards of performance are mean- ingless. The management, knowing practically nothing about the operation, should not attempt to interfere at this point. The employees are working with different methods, at different speeds. If they are on day-work most of them are probably resting much more than necessary; while if they are on piece- work, methods and paces are so different that each will need his rest period at a different time of day. Even with definite standards, the rest periods should be adapted to the needs of each operation separately. A rest period of ten or fifteen minutes in the middle of the morning and afternoon may be necessary on one operation in a depart- ment, while on another operation it may not be nearly enough or come too late to be of much benefit. One operation may need frequent shorter rest periods, and another require one long stretch of complete relaxation. As a rule, however, it is practically impossible to enforce rest periods when they are not adapted to each operation separately. It is absolutely necessary that the employees themselves be taught to appreciate the value of rest periods and to take them voluntarily. It is impracticable to force each group of workmen to stop work at a different hour of the day; and since they are paid by the amount they produce they will not stop unless they realize that in the long run the rest is to their own advantage. i &> v Percentage Allowances for Fatigue In any case, the analyst should follow the practice of mak- ing a fatigue allowance. This allowance is a percentage of the operating time as determined by time study and job analysis. The percentage is found by analyzing the time studies. 216 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Sometimes it is necessary to make special studies to find the amount of fatigue involved in the operation. As a rule, however, this may be determined from studies already taken. If enough studies have been made they show conditions and consequent fatigue at all hours of the day — early in the morn- ing, at midday, and in the low-tension hours around 3 o'clock. Long studies give a better evidence of fatigue than short, since during a short period the employee may have been working at a spurt, which he could not keep up week in and week out. Moreover it is a great help in determining the fatigue allowance if the analyst has familiarized himself with the operation at the start by taking an extended over-all study over a period of two or three days. The fatigue allowance is not standard but is adapted to the demands of the operation in question. The fatigue factor is small on operations having a great deal of variety, because rest is provided automatically, and therefore, the allowance may not be more than 5 per cent. On other operations, such as those involving considerable danger when the workman relaxes his attention, or those in which there are fast moving parts continually passing before the eyes, the percentage of fatigue is much greater. It may amount to as much as 50 per cent. Occasionally fatigue allow- ance has required as high as 100 per cent of the working time. Use of the Follow-Up The analyst also provides the employee further safeguard against overwork by reports of daily production. Any failure to earn the standard pay is, through these reports, brought to the attention of the analyst, who investigates to learn the cause of failure. In some cases the cause may be ill health, requiring medical attention. The analyst will also be on the watch for any cases in which the employee is exceeding the standard time by an extremely large margin, because this prob- ably means that he is overdoing. FATIGUE 217 Fatigue should be considered on each operation separately. By means of mechanical devices and instruction in the easiest methods and motions of doing the work the analyst decreases fatigue. Irreducible fatigue is provided for by a time allow- ance. The danger factor of fatigue is thus reduced to the lowest possible quantity. CHAPTER XV CHECKING STANDARD TIMES Testing the Standards After the standard time for the operation has been deter- mined by use of the formula discussed in the preceding chapter it must be checked before it is summarized, indexed, and filed. The standards set, however, are absolutely of no value unless the employees are able to work in accordance with them day by day, year by year, without increased physical or mental fatigue. Consequently this checking is done in the factory, against actual output. If the conclusions are not proved by this test, the standards should be given a rigid examination, but it does not necessarily follow that they are wrong. There is no need of becoming panic-stricken if the employee, on being informed that a test is to be made to prove the conclusions, either beats the standard or fails to make it. This statement requires, perhaps, some explanation. Beating Standard Times If the standard time has been set so that the employees can make it day after day and year after year, it is always pos- sible for a skilled employee "to let out a notch or two" and beat it by a large margin. In a certain box factory, where packing cases are made for shipping goods, the workmen have repeatedly beaten the standard time by as much as 40 per cent by applying them- selves with spurts of energy for the purpose of "snowing under" the men on the next operation. Figure 36 shows the results of a number of studies on the employees when working 218 CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 219 at a normal pace and when working at a spurt. This does not indicate that the standard times were too high, since such spurting tends to overwork and should be discouraged. In another case in "framing" — i.e., rough carpenter work, such .032 .031 .030 .029 .02b .027 .026 .025 .024 .023 .022 .021 .020 .019 .018 .017 .016 .015 .014 .013 .012 .011 .010 .009 3 01 :: 9) 0) a. Ai - :: 6 r a 3 a Go odCl irve 1 1 ? _ s c — ! 1 ( 1 0) 6 H .bnor 3ool uallj Low t ~Goo ) d Cui Tesr :'oint ("plot l' raei ;udie i-whe re mt pg 1 ( 1 ( 1 ] ^enj ■th i n In shes .032 .031 .030 .029 028 027 U2fi 025 ,024 023 .022 ,021 020 ,019 .018 .017 .016 015 .014 013 012 .011 .010 .009 50 52 54 56 58 60 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 Figure 36. Time Studies of Workmen Working Normally and under Pressure as cutting floor joints for wooden-house construction — the employees did the work in about one-half the standard time, because they wanted to prove, as they thought, that the stand- ard times were wrong. The individual jobs — as, for example, framing a few joists around a stair-well — were very short. The men were given several jobs at one time, some of which took only eight minutes to complete. In cases of this kind they were expected to go directly from one job to the next. By working at top speed on the first day, the men finished a day's work in about half a day. If they had been allowed to continue at this speed, they would have exhausted them- selves in a week or two. 220 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS The answer of the analyst to the first day's performance was to talk over with the workmen the foolhardiness of their procedure and show them by records of their own previous performance the reasonableness of the times allowed. On the second day he gave them job tickets for only a few jobs at a time, covering a period of approximately one hour's work. When they had finished these and came back for more tickets, he refused to give them any more until the time allowed for doing the work just finished was up. In this way he showed them how to keep up a pace just fast enough to complete the work in the standard time. He was convinced they would realize after they had tried it that this speed was the one they would be able to keep up day in and day out without detriment to their health. In this way the fairness of the standards was proved to the men, so that no further trouble was experienced when they were asked to work according to the standards. Falling below the Standard Occasionally the employee will react in just the opposite way, and will move around as if he were going at lightning speed and still fail to accomplish the job in the standard time. When an experienced analyst is making a check study, he will observe the work of the employee closely and will take enough notes to enable him to put his finger on the unnecessary move- ments and delays which drag out the work to an undue length of time. The real cure for situations like this, however, rests in the co-operation between the employees and the analyst which results in mutual benefit to the employees and the company. Variations of Minor Importance The problem of determining what major elements to allow for the performance of a given operation is comparatively CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 221 simple, so that there is little danger that the analyst will neglect to consider any of them in his computation. There is danger, however, that he will not allow properly for a number of more or less minor elements, or elements which occur infrequently. For instance, a minor element, like putting oil occasionally on the side of a hand-saw to prevent it from sticking, may be a small item in point of time; yet if it is done, say, once every fourth sawing, it is of real importance in the total. The way to make allowance for this element without complicating the figuring by having an additional item to add to every fourth sawing is to divide the time for oiling by four and add this time to the standard time for the sawing element. Checking Standards by Time Studies In order to be sure that all the minor elements have been taken into consideration the final standards should be proved in the following manner by using at least three to six of the complete time studies on the operation. These three studies given below were picked out as samples of cases in need of adjustment. Take one study at a time and run a check as follows : Study i Minutes i. Total time as shown on time-study sheet 225.72 2. Unnecessary delays as taken off time study 16.24 3. Time to perform the operation of 26 cycles omitting unnecessary delays 209.48 4. Time to perform the operation according to standard as set = 7.85 minutes X 2 6 cycles 204.10 5. Per cent increase of item 3' over item 4 2.6% Study 2 1. Total time as shown on time-study sheet 429.18 2. Unnecessary delays as taken off time study 3I-I7 222 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 3. Time to perform the operation cf 43 cycles omitting unnecessary delays 398.01 4. Time to perform the operation according to the standard as set = 7.85 minutes X 43 cycles -f- .76 minutes 338-3 1 5. Per cent increase of item 3 over item 4 18% Study 3 1. Total time as shown on time-study sheet 139-24 2. Unnecessary delays, as taken off time study 27.09 3. Time to perform the operation of 13 cycles omitting unnecessary delays H2.15 4. Time to perform the operation according to the standard as set — 7.85 minutes X I 3 cycles -\- 4.49 minutes 106.54 5. Per cent increase of item 3 over 4 5% If item 5 in any case shows more than 1 per cent difference the cause must be found. The reasons for the difference should be investigated along the following lines : 1. Was the figure for the unnecessary delays as used in item 2 correct? The unnecessary delays may have been included in the time values of the elements, instead of being kept dis- tinct, or delays that were in reality unnecessary may hav^e been tabulated on the sheets as necessary. In either of these cases, apply corrected figure to items 2 and 3. 2. How many abnormally large or small values were on this study? If many, by what amount? Figure this and apply correction to items 1 and 3. 3. Did any new factors enter into this performance? If so apply correction to item 4. 4. Was this study taken on a slow workman? If so apply correction to items 1 and 3. Re-figure item 5 using corrected time of item 4, and if it still varies more than 1 per cent, the original time study should be reanalyzed and checked for probable error or for elements CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 223 which have not been properly considered in the first tables. It is a discrepancy such as this which necessitates the "proving up." In study 1, the cause of the difference was the number of items encircled as "abnormal values." In study 2, the cause of the difference was due to a com- bination of minor elements. One was trouble with the stock, another was that the employee studied used motions which were necessary to him, but which were not used by the other employees. Still another was that the machine studied was so located that it was not easy to get the stock in, a condition which should have been corrected before the standard times went into effect. In study 3, the trouble was due to mechanical features of the machine, which were to be improved. This proving out brings such features forcibly to the atten- tion of the analyst. Testing Causes of Delay When delays are brought out definitely in this way it is possible to decide what procedure is most advisable. There are three courses open to the analyst : 1. Make the necessary small allowance to cover the delay. 2. Set a standard which will apply to the operation to be done before corrections have been made with the understanding that new standards will be set as soon as the corrections have been perfected. 3. Hold off setting the standard until all the conditions can be perfected. Making Small Allowances In the first course great care must be exercised not to take the path of least resistance and fail to investigate carefully 224 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS whether it is practicable to effect a cure in order to overcome the delay. It is by a I per cent saving here and another I per cent there that the total savings can be appreciably increased. This point is well illustrated in the setting of the standards for reeling and inspecting coated paper which is fully de- scribed in Appendix A. The operation consists of trimming both edges of coated paper while it is being reeled from a large roll to another roll and inspected at the same time. The inspection consists of re- moving by tearing out all of the coated paper which has any imperfection on it and then piecing the two ends of the good paper together so as to make the roll of paper one continuous sheet. The improvements in this threefold work brought to light the fact that there was : i. Increased output due to: (a) Improved methods of saving time and labor. (b) Bonus incentive. (c) Graphical competition accomplishment charts. 2. Improved quality due to : (a) Training operations. (b) Making bonus dependent upon careful work. 3. Reduction in waste of labor and materials due to : (a) Knowledge of how to handle material. (b) Introduction of labor-saving devices. (c) Creation of centralized planning department. (d) Systematic care of machinery. Before job standardization had been made on this opera- tion the clerical work necessary for putting through the jobs and keeping the records required a clerk in the department, but it proved possible to transfer this work to the clerical force in the planning department, which was equipped to do it. The percentages of saving by simplifying the clerical work were small — namely .74 per cent by preparing labels in the CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 225 planning department, 1.09 per cent by revising the job ticket, — but added to other small savings, such as 1.02 per cent by storing the operator's samples and tags at his bench instead of across the aisle and 1.14 per cent by using a spring clip in place of a hook — they give some idea how an accumulation of small percentages mounts up to quite a factor in production. The tabulation of estimated increases in output resulting from the changes is given herewith. Per cent of in- crease on previ- ous annual out- put Tender to change rolls and extra shafts : Feed roll . 8.75 Finished roll 1 5.46 Elimination of wrapper on feed roll due to special truck 6.65 Preparation of glue and oiling machines. . 8.57 Ends slit for splices instead of folded and torn 5.52 Cleaning after hours by janitor 11. 18 Band on finished roll replaced by gummed label 4-87 Labels prepared in planning department. . 0.74 Revised job ticket 1.09 Reduction in samples due to standardization 5.95 Samples and tags stored in operator's bench instead of across an aisle 1.02 Variable speed motor giving a uniform speed 59.1 per cent greater than previ- ous average speed 8.67 Decreased down time due to better planning 12.10 Spring clip for counter instead of hook. . . . 1.14 Automatic return for threading paper through the machine 0.97 Total annual increase due to improved methods 9 2 -68 226 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Setting Temporary Standards The second course, namely, the setting of a standard which will apply to the operation before corrections have been made, with the understanding that new standards will be set as soon as the corrections have been perfected, is advisable where : 1. The change is large enough, so that the employees will appreciate a corresponding change in the time allowed. 2. Production must be increased as quickly as possible in order to relieve congestion at this operation. 3. The day-work rate or the old piecework rates must be increased in order to satisfy the employees on their pay. 4. The changes cannot be brought about within a reason- able time, either because some research is first re- quired or because one machine or mechanism must be developed, which must be tried out over a long period to determine its value. In most factories the employees know what it means to have their day-work rate or their piecework rates changed under varying alibis, and as a result they are naturally sus- picious of every change. In the past where the rates have been set haphazardly there were many justifications for making changes. On the other hand many changes were simply made to squeeze more work out of the employee or to decrease the amount he could earn. The experienced analyst realizes this only too strongly and only after mature consideration will he consent to set up standards which require an understanding with the employees that they will be changed as soon as con- ditions are perfected as outlined. Although the third course, namely to refrain from setting the standards until all the conditions are perfected would be the ideal method to pursue, the method adopted must also be CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 227 practical. The considerations involved in the second course, such as the immediate need for increased production to relieve congestion, the pressure for immediate increase in rates, the length of the time before improvements can be made, these are the factors which determine whether it is practical to wait until the conditions in the third case are perfected. Using Data to Make Needed Allowances In addition to bringing the attention of the analyst to con- ditions affecting production which he might otherwise over- look, the checking of standard times also furnishes data from which to make special allowances for certain peculiar condi- tions in the case of failure to make the standard time due, not to the fault of the employees, but to the recurrence of these peculiar conditions. CHAPTER XVI DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION Explanation of Rates The term "the rates on the operation" covers both the amount of wages and the method used in paying the wages. Since the observations of the analyst have informed him more fully regarding the characteristics of the operation than any other member of the organization, it is for him to recommend to the management in what way and to what amounts the em- ployees working on any particular operation should be paid. It is a practical question which he must settle at once, since it is of great importance both to the employer and to the employee. Rates — Employee and Employer The employee, being human and not working for his health, is interested first of all in the amount of money he may expect in his pay envelope at the end of the week. He is after that interested in the amount of work he is required to do in order to receive this pay. With these two factors before him — in addition to other factors not so tangible and of varying im- portance with different men — he believes he is in a position to decide whether or not the job interests him. He naturally also compares the amount of skill and effort required and the amount of pay he can earn on his job with the requirements and earnings for other jobs in the same factory and vicinity. The employer as well as the employee has these same inter- ests at heart, namely, to have an equitable adjustment between : (i) the amount produced as against the cost of producing (which includes wages), and (2) the earnings of the employees computed in accordance with the difficulty of the operation. 228 DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 229 The employer is anxious that the employee should receive a share of the returns coming from increased production, where the returns have been brought about through the combined efforts of the management and the employees. He realizes the justice of paying the employees in proportion to the re- quirements — danger, monotony, application, experience, etc. — of their work. And job standardization makes it possible to determine the relative weight of these factors. Methods of Payment The first point to be considered is the development of a method of payment which shall be adapted to the operation to be paid for. There are many methods of payment, having different advantages varying according to the factory and the conditions. Some of these are day work, piecework, Towne- Halsey premium plan, Rowan premium plan, differential piece- work, task and bonus, or time work with bonus. A thorough treatment of each of these, listing the advantages and disad- vantages, would occupy considerable space, and would after all be only a recapitulation of ground already ably covered in a number of books and articles on the subject. The subject in this chapter is considered only as another step in work analysis. The analyst "should keep in mind that the fewer methods of payment introduced, the simpler and more effective will be the understanding the employees will have, and the easier will be the figuring and making up of the pay-roll. To have only one method of payment — or at most two, since day work cannot be entirely eliminated — is the ideal toward which every concern should strive. Fitting Payment to Operation The ideal of having only two methods of payment, how- ever, is not always practicable or even always desirable. Its 230 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS complete realization might prevent a method more equitable, both to the workman and to the company. Laying gold leaf for titles on book-covers may be cited as an example of an operation in which it proved more economical to adopt a complicated form of payment. The gold letters are imprinted on book covers in the following way : First, that part of the cover on which the letters are to be printed is wiped with a cloth containing a thin oil, so that the gold leaf will ad- here. Secondly, several pieces of gold leaf are cut to the size re- quired to cover the letters, and are then laid accurately by means of a gage. Thirdly, the cover is put into a machine similar to a printing press and is stamped with a hot die which comes down on the gold leaf and firmly sets the gold letters on the cover. The gold leaf not touched by the hot die can then be wiped off with a composition sponge from which the gold is afterwards reclaimed. The standard times of elements involved in laying gold leaf on book covers is represented in Figure 37. The material, namely the gold leaf, is the largest item of expense, and economy is dependent upon the skill of the work- men in using the least possible quantity of it. For this opera- tion, the method should be to pay the employee first for the saving of material, second, for the quality of the work, and third, for the actual quantity produced. In order to induce the employee to attend primarily to the saving of material a further proviso might be added to the effect that : ( 1 ) No reward for quantity will be paid unless the rewards both for saving in material and for quality have been earned; (2) no reward for quality will be paid unless the reward for saving in material has been earned. Although an exception may be made to provide a special method of payment, such as the above, such a method should be treated as a special condition. In general a method of pay- ment which is simple enough to be applicable to all of the DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 231 3 s "5 suoi^onjisuj jo uonosdsuj "? M M M fa fl >fl CN ^t < j 33 q S nxijl o fa U ^uudmj Oh 6 d tf Q4 fa O ^t ff »/) ro CN fa > 3 pT S a[oq_^ MM OOOO PL, O 60 dodo U w OC ro *ct *+■ ro CN CO b fa Q spig e/i en t-/i MM OOOO CO do d d d fa "*Ph fa ° 10 m -rf cn ro a •» ,0 CD • a ; c >^ 'B ' c ^ "a -s ts -s CD • CM ■ a! . cu M ,2 "O „ -m 3 ■ J2 7! ~ B 3 m ■ "d oj B : ? a ° • M a « c E ■m S, ° a ° * fi M <„ g C3v q Jl 0-S„ ci O » S'fl'o o2 3 g CD "n CD J5 bo ft > .S tj fl O , W S ° ■0 c CO +. 1 5- - " « 3 a) 5 bo c -m i- 3 3 £ 0) rt CD £ b3 £ ><5sa H W M H H <1 H ft o o H H < i-l t3 PQ H r" £ •= .S i> v 5 " ^ *" " — O H E T3 "S i-T C-H« t ~" 2 w--S o £ si? -a -.3 « « P>»H S C JJ Jig CN o~ 2 h 6t3-§^^ w o >© ^ ■* ^ 06 en CO o Tf O -« etn^T^oo ^ -* -* an E c ,SoSo -*--.'• O ri) ^ Q 3 H K S "10 5 m a JW s J! -J: ' 1 oj a oj 13 »I3£ U CD 1 u, 5j Q-o'J m o CU *-y O r- O 1- I I I C J3 WUg : w ; S -a t3 ; m : H « tn . " j-g t! : &-g ' Qj "^ 3 to - P* c£ U > SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 249 inches. The average weight, however, is 65 pounds for 500 sheets, 22 inches by 30 inches. The elements, and their explanatory symbols, entering into the operation of squaring are : g. Reach for sheets c. Cut sheets d. Set down sheets j. Jog sheets that remain in hand j'. Jog sheets that have fallen to the right of the knife d'. Set down sheets after having completed operation j' y. Necessary lost time t. Count sheets Figure 39 which gives a detailed time study of the elements just enumerated, gives also other factors entering directly into HAND-CUTTING 45 35 30 25 20 Item g-Reach for Sheets, Time in Curve is net per 1,000 sheets L for s tock 32x2 8-50 1 o75l ound s it- m *L *S rL *s L H L L >ws r esult ; obtj deta il tin e stu dies xL y L sS X-Shc lined jfrom *s "L S- Short side of sheet parallel to knife L-Long side of sheet parallel to knife ^.rea of C )neS Sheet in Square Inches 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1.000 1,050 Figure 41. Graphic Chart Showing Amount of Time Necessary to Reach for a Sheet of Lithographed Paper the operation. These factors which are called variables (see Chapter XIII) are enumerated in the upper left-hand corner of the time-study sheet. They are : The weight of the stock; the size of the sheet; the length of the cut; and the clock number of the employee. This last item is used to determine the effect of the personal equation upon the operation. Further- 250 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS more, the weight of the stock is also at times a variable; but in this particular operation it is a constant up to 75 pounds; any weight in excess of that amount would make it a variable. For the purposes of comparison the results of a number of time studies are tabulated in Figure 40. After tabulating these results it is possible to plot the aver- age time for each of the elements according to the variables HAND-CUTTING 30 20 10 Tim< in Cu rve is Item C net per 1,00 -Cut Ishee Shee ts for ts stock 22x28 -50 to 751b. *F X " S XT XS "vS 09 S X XI xS 3 C X T 9) Xs *X H X - Shows 1 T - Narrow esults strip obtai trimn- led f r ed frc omde m she tail t i et ne stu dies S- S leet s olitinl o 2se ;tions Lens jtho 'Cut in In ihes 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 IS 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 Figure 42. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Lithographed Sheets which are : the size of the sheet and the length of the cut. Figure 41 represents item g, reach for the sheet; the variable in this case is the size of the sheet. Figure 42 represents item c, cut sheets; here the variable is the length of the cut in inches. Figure 43 represents item d, set down sheets; the variable is the size of the sheet. Figure 44 is item y, necessary lost time ; the variable is the size of the sheet. SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 251 It follows then, that all the elements in the operation which are plotted on the basis of the same variable together with the constants for these items can be collated, as in Figure 45. HAND-CUTTING Itemd-S ;tSh eets ] )own| Time in Curve for Stock 22 x 2 s Net per i,000 , 8-50 to 75 Pounc Sheet Is i % Shows ;Results Obtained from Detail Time Studies m 3 X a 9 X JL- ■ X a •* X Are* l of I 3hee 1 ; in Squa re In ches ' 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Figure 43. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Down Sheets After being collated, these elements may be reduced to one curve such as Figure 46. This curve represents a summariza- HAND-CUTTING Item y Necessary Lost Time | Time in Curve is net per 1,000 sheets for s tock six a 8-50 1 o75l ound s j t § a 0) x c X X- Sho\ deta vs re 1 tim ults e stu obtai iies ned f rom i Vrea of £ heel in Squa L.- 1 -e In ches 100 200 300 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 Figure 44. Graphic Chart Showing Necessary Lost Time in Cutting Lithographed Sheets tion of the time taken to cut 1,000 sheets of paper 22 inches by 28 inches, from stock varying from 50 to 75 pounds for a ream of 500 sheets. 252 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS g H H P u Q o 1 o a o in I ■* o N « U) lO M 1 w 1 ° O r^ o m N in O o O in O in o in 00 ■* O ■* O lO Oi o o t m O ro 0\ in t^ ■tf *"" 1 * W o O 01 00 io ■o o o m ^ in '" •*? in o Ifi M t- XT) ! oo co n tj- \n 6 co in O O <} m H o a >o ro tT o o a m m Oi IO "-< Tf IO VO m ■tf O 00 ro m >o o ro m -^j- in in ro ■* O io oo h in M H Tj- IO q. ro *t O IN Oi W3 M o ■* ^ O c*- r- in Ol C\ H ro m o> rO 01 to O N IO Ifl i^ O co h ro in co in N rO o t^ oi m ■* co h ro in CO O N 0\ "5 H o co m oi in CO o O r- o m 00 M N ro O n fo "i m o CO H n m ro CM m rn 0) j "■T3 o 1 d < a 0) a) o hH fin SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 253 Figure 42 is the only chart which has the length of cut in inches as its variable. Hence Figure 42 and Figure 46 con- tain all the information that is necessary to set rates on hand- cutting stock of the size and weight mentioned in the preceding paragraph. From these two charts, accordingly, a table of standard times (Figure 47), was drawn up for the rate-setter. In drawing up this table an allowance of 10 per cent was deter- mined as the time necessary to allow for the necessities of life and for fatigue. HAND-CUTTING 90 Sum nary of It ems g- Reach for Sh|eet: &- Sei Sheets Down ^/-Necessary Lc j- Jog Sheets st Time 80 TO O (- Count S j'd- Jog and heets Set] iown '<0 60 50 40 30 c Time inC urve s net per ,000 sheet 3 for stock 22x ^8-50 to 75 poun ds a __ Ar ja oJ She et in Squ are inch :a 100 200 300 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 Figure 46. Summarization of All the Elements Having Uniform Basis by Area of Sheet The instructions, which made clear to the rate-setter the way in which to use the chart of standard times, were given in the form of an example, Figure 48. The instructions include the method of figuring the time necessary to do a typical job. From the tabulation sheets on which the detail times taken from the time studies were recorded, sample sheet shown in Figure 40, it was also possible to determine the different per- centages of time which had to be allowed in handling weights of stock that weighed more than seventy-five pounds to the ream. These percentages are shown in table Figure 49. 254 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Standard Times Average Net Time Plus Allowances Items g + d + y + j + t + j' + d' Item C Area of Sheet Time per 1000 Sheets Length of Cut Time per 1000 Cuts in Sq. Inches in Minutes Inches in Minutes 50 41.0 3 22.0 100 41-3 3 29.8 150 4i-5 4 37-4 200 41.9 5 45-o 250 42.2 6 53-0 300 42.5 7 58.4 350 43-9 8 64.0 400 45-2 9 69-5 450 47.1 10 73-8 500 49.0 11 77.0 550 5i-5 12 79-4 600 54-o 13 81.5 650 56.0 14 82.5 700 57-7 15 837 750 60.2 16 84.8 800 62.5 17 85.8 850 65.0 18 87.0 900 67.2 19 88.1 950 69-5 20 88.6 1,000 72.0 21 89.2 1,050 74.2 22 90.2 1,100 76.4 23 90.9 1,150 78.6 24 91-5 1,200 80.8 25 92.0 1,250 83.0 26 92.5 1,300 85.2 27 93 .0 i,350 87.4 28 93-5 1,400 89.6 29 94.0 1,450 91.8 30 94-5 1,500 94.0 3i 95-0 1,550 96.2 32 95-5 1,600 98.4 33 96.0 1,650 100.6 34 96.5 1,700 102.8 35 97.0 1,750 105.0 36 97-5 Figure 47. Table of Standard Times Taken from Figures 42 and 46 to Be Used by the Rate-Setter (a) Above time is for 22 x 28 in 50 pounds to 75 pounds stock (b) Base rate is 20^ per hour (c) Bonus time is 35% of task time SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 255 + TO + 3 X O + 13 + -*-< bO + + + + bo a, 3 o 00 CM a w fe T3 TO w .s -3 u 55 a to .s 4 U C/3 a - peS ,£h 1 ^ 00 (M .a TO 10 -a CM 10 1—1 rt CM ■"* ^_, M =3 cn CJ O j3 CJ bC .a en I— 1 en "o O TO -*— 1 to O U-i .SP H <: tl ' ^ Oh e to" W I-l ^ 72 38,700 97-3 74.2 17-25 2" #20 72 31,500 78.6 59-5 a 84 12,150 37-6 23-7 13 2" #2oK 36 1,500 2.9 2.6 it 72 22,950 82.9 660.9 43-4 229,616 494.4 Total 1577-4 1087.2 * ist symbol, space between wires. 2nd symbol, gage in width of wire. 3rd symbol, width of cloth. Ex. J " space between wire; 20$ " gage wire; 24 feet width of cloth. The percentage of increase in production is found by sub- tracting the standard time from the actual time and multiply- EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 273 ing this remainder by one hundred — then dividing that result by the standard time. Expressed in a formula this reads : Actual Time — Standard Time Increase in Production = — - — : X I0 ° Standard Time In the case of the weaving operation the formula is trans- lated into the actual figures as follows : 1577.4 — 1087.2 490.2 Increase in Production = X 100 = — - — = ac.% 1087.2 ^ 1087.2 HD The increase in production then was 45 per cent. Increase in Wages After a careful consideration of all the factors involved, the analyst works out the increase in wages, which in his opinion the employee should receive, and uses this figure in making his calculations. It will be noted that in the calculations the assumption is made throughout that the employee will earn his bonus only 85 per cent of the time, because minor delays often occur which necessitate day work. If this figure is used, there is no danger of causing trouble by overestimating the employees' earnings. There is never any complaint when an employee earns more than the amount stated, but hard feelings and ill will are in- evitable if the earnings are less than anticipated. It is safe to assume, however, that production will be increased to the full amount as shown by the figures, even though the average employee earns the bonus only 85 per cent of the time. This is not only because the skilled employees will often do the work in less than the standard time, but also because even when an employee fails to do the work within the standard time, he will usually fall only slightly below the mark. 274 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS In the case of the operation of weaving wire cloth, to return to the specific illustration, the wages original and proposed were : Original Wages $ -33 an hour Proposed Wages (assuming that standard is earned 85% of the time) $ 426 an hour The percentage of increase in wages is found by dividing the difference between the proposed wages and the original wages multiplied by one hundred by the original wages. Ex- pressed in a formula, this reads : Proposed Wages— Original Wages ' Increase in Wages = ^ . . — — — X I0 o Original Wages In the case of the weaving operation, the formula is translated into actual figures as follows : 0.426 — .33 0.096 Increase in Wages = - X : oo = X 100 = 29% 0-33 0.33 The increase in wages was, then, 29 per cent. Decrease in Cost The decrease in cost is most important in the mind of the executive. This is shown in dollars and cents saved per year. The total cost is the sum of the wages of the operation and the machine overhead. The saving in machine overhead is often a large part of the decrease in cost, so that sometimes, although the labor cost is greater, the total cost is less. The total of the machine overhead plus the wages should be shown for the original and the proposed plans. The cost for the weaving operation were : EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS • 275 Costs per Hour Original Plan Proposed Plan Overhead $0.99 $0.99 Labor $0.33 $0,426 $1.32 $1,416 The saving per hour under the proposed plan is equal to the original cost multiplied by one plus the increase in pro- duction minus the proposed cost. Expressed in a formula this reads : Saving per hour = Original Cost X ( x -f" Increased Production) — Proposed Cost In the case of the weaving operation where the increase in production was 45 per cent, the formula is translated into actual figures as follows : Saving per hour = (1.32 X M5) — I -4 I 6 = 1.914 — 1.416 = $0,498 It may be assumed in round numbers that in a year, with a 48-hour week, there are, exclusive of holidays and Sundays, approximately 2,400 hours. The saving per loom per year Would then be $1,195.00. There were thirty-four looms used on the operation, so that the total saving on this operation from job standardization would amount to $40,630.68. Summary of Estimate of Savings Increase in production 45% Increase in wages 29% Decrease in cost per year $40,630.68 Obtaining Approval of the Management In addition to the estimate of savings furnished to the management, as represented by the president, manager of man- ufacturing, agent, or other final authority on the matter, any 276 • TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS further data, summaries, or explanations desired should also be provided. The approval of the management makes the rates effective at once. The employment department should also approve the rates. Where the employees are highly organized and deal with the management under a collective agreement, the approval of their representative should also be obtained before the rates are effective. Notification to Departments Concerned Official notifications that the rates are effective should be given the departments concerned. Where it is practicable a blue-print copy of all time allowances, drawings, and instruc- tions should be furnished the foreman who will post it in a conspicuous place in the department. The pay-roll department should be given in writing the names and numbers of the employees starting on time work with bonus, a copy of the rate sheet, and a full set of rates as approved by the management. The planning department should be given official notice of the date on which the rates will go into effect and any fur- ther information necessary. The rate-setter, the clerk who writes the time allowed for each job on the employee's time- ticket, must of course be provided with a copy of all time allow- ances, drawings, and instructions. Explaining Rates to Employees The employee is, perhaps, the most concerned of all. A full explanation must be given him also of the application of time work with bonus to his job. This official explanation should be given him even though he may be — and should be — already more or less familiar with its principles, from the explanations of the analyst while he was making the studies. EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 277 It is desirable to hold the conference in the office of the analyst where it can be less hurried than it would necessarily be in the factory. The foreman should be present. The presence of the foreman serves as a sign both to the foreman himself and to the employee that, although the new rates are not set by the foreman they will be maintained through his authority. It will also give the foreman detailed knowledge which he will need on the application of time work with bonus to each one of the operations in his department. While the explanation must be exact, it should also be sim- ple. The charts, curves, and method of calculating time allow- ances furnished the rate-setter might only serve to confuse the average employee, so that it may be necessary to use dis- cretion as to the amount of detail to go into with him. In any case, even though the employee exhibits little or no interest, the analyst should take the time to explain everything to his own satisfaction. The employee should also be told that he will be paid for all the time required to explain matters to him at this time or at any other time he feels he would like to have something made clear. Points to be Stressed The chief points to be stressed are the fundamental princi- ples of job standardization as applied to the employee's particu- lar operation. The purpose of all the analytical study and work which the employee has seen done is to find out the best and most expeditious ways of performing the operation so as to be able to set a standard method and time that is fair to everyone. The standard times are based on the studies with which he is familiar. They are not guesses nor are they in- ventions for speeding up. The increased production resulting from the use of the standard method and from knowing the standard time in which the job can be completed makes it possible for the management to pay the employee more money. 278 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS If anything comes up which interferes with the employees earning the bonus, proper notification should be given. Allow- ance will be made to take care of conditions arising during the period of getting into the stride. The stand- ard times are not sub- ject to change, unless a marked change is made in the method, machinery, or equip- ment, reducing the amount of time neces- sary to complete the operation without in- creasing the effort on the part of the em- ployee ; so that he need not be afraid of rate- cutting when he be- comes expert in the new method. This explanation by the analyst affords an excellent opportun- ity of giving the em- ployee a glimpse into the principles and ap- plication of the new Figure 56. Decimal Time Dial Attached to a Regulation Clock Dial methods of management. At this time the employee may be shown how his output is based on the fact that the management furnishes materials to his machine and eliminates extra and unnecessary work. The fact that the work can be done in less EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 279 time than formerly is the result of the increased attention given to these matters by the management. The way in which these matters are looked after by routing, scheduling, keeping a record of materials on hand, and so forth, may be explained to him by showing sample forms. Since standard times are expressed in hours, tenths, and hundredths, and the tickets accompanying the job are also stamped, when the employee starts and finishes it, in hours, tenths, and hundredths, he will be interested in the working of the decimal time clock. The way to make it clear is to com- pare the decimal clock to an ordinary clock. An auxiliary clock face or dial is sometimes used in the planning department to show the relation of decimal time hours to standard time hours. Such a dial can be made by glueing black gummed fig- ures on to the white disc, giving the entire surface several coats of shellac, and fastening the auxiliary clock face to the clock, outside of the case, as in Figure 56. Explaining the Pay The employee is usually interested primarily in the extra pay which time work with bonus makes it possible for him to earn. The principle may first be explained to him in much the same way as it has been stated in this volume (Chapter XVI). A careful explanation of its application to his individual job must then be given, making sure that he understands each point. The base rate — the amount per hour he will receive — is such and such a sum. The bonus rate is such and such a per cent of the time allowed. By figuring out a number of jobs from actual manufacturing orders the analyst will be able to show him just what is meant by the base and bonus rates, and how they work in practice. Such an explanation will make clear the amount paid per job and the way in which it is figured. The total amount to which his wage will come each week, if the bonus is earned 85 per cent of the time, should OJ „ s = © P° »-s Ir =s z "- n Si 2 < Oi ©1 to o 2 O! S} »H G* *H © h- i -C t^ e^ to ©* e* *1 2 i/i F^ OS CO to ^. oo ^ 5 "- 1 *"' i-i — O s o — ^_ o ■n 1— TO _l "- 1 **• *»i *H s W CO GO CI W ft"! cs tt cq rfS CO so 03 TO fe £ £ fe fe £ d) F o z 0) +-• E o Oi E 5 &i TO O z >- o 1=1 00 GO 280 EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 281 also be figured out for him. He should furthermore be told the weekly sum he may expect and what the increase will be over what he previously received. He will be able to check the amount he received and the way in which it is made up by means of the records from the pay-roll department which will be sent him each day. This record is a carbon copy of the pay-roll sheet that department makes out for each individual employee. The employee's daily record sheet is given in Figure 57. There should be none of the "take it or leave it" attitude about the conference. Its purpose should be to recognize the vital concern of the employee in the conditions of his work. Adapting Explanations to Individuals The matter of explaining the standards in ways adapted to the individual executive and to the employee is something which, of course, depends on the character of the men with whom the analyst is dealing. Some employees, for instance, are intelligent and interested in their work, while others can see only the pay envelope at the end of the week ; still others are suspicious of any change. In this case, as always in job stan- dardization, the analyst must exercise tact. CHAPTER XIX APPLYING THE STANDARDS Methodized Application of Standards The method for determining the standard time scientifi- cally has been given in detail. It remains to describe the fourth and last phase in job standardization — that of applying the standards. The time required for this phase varies with the changes made in the method of performance, and the number of em- ployees working on the operation. It is rarely less than one- third as long as the time for the third phase, analyzing the studies and determining the standards. Success depends largely upon the way in which the stand- ards are applied. Whereas taking the studies and setting the standards is the most technical part of the job standardiza- tion, requiring much skill and patience, so that it is often the only aspect thought of by the uninitiated, the final step — that of applying the standards — is no less important. No matter how accurate and well established are the rates set, if the analyst cannot get the employees to accomplish the tasks and earn proper compensation his work is for nothing. If the co-operation of the superintendent and foreman has been completely gained at the start, and the work of determin- ing the standards has been carried out with the employees, the analyst will not meet with difficulties in applying the standards. This step, however, changes the subject of standards from an abstract possibility into a matter of immedi- ate and vital concern to the employee and, therefore, is the test of his confidence in the analyst. Furthermore, the fact 282 APPLYING THE STANDARDS 283 that the time standards and the wages received are dependent upon the maintenance of all the other standards make it fatal to allow these standards to slip, as the department may have been doing in the past. For these reasons, the work of apply- ing the standards should at the start be done either by the analyst or by an assistant under his close supervision. After the employees are all accomplishing the work according to the standards, the analyst should establish a routine providing for the proper maintenance of all the standards, conditions, method and time. Starting Employees Individually The standards should be applied by starting one employee at a time. In the case of group work this means that one group at a time should be started working under them. This method of starting each employee or group separately pre- vents friction and misunderstanding. It, moreover, helps each employee to reach the standard in the shortest time possible, because it gives him attention, allowances for delays, and instruction adapted to his particular needs. After the first three or four employees have proved by their example that the standards are correct, the rest of the employees may be started in quick succession. This individual attention to the misapprehensions, diffi- culties, and desires of each employee is necessary because the new time-standards represent a change in principle, not only over day work but even over the usual piecework systems. Instead of being left to his own devices to produce the most he can in any way he wants, the employee is suddenly given a very definite measure of performance and expected to live up to it. Some employees, who have been jogging along using methods they worked out for themselves which are not the best, find the sudden change of method difficult, and naturally blame the standards instead of themselves, unless they are 284 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS helped over the period of transition by explanation and instruc- tion. Starting Employees Simultaneously There may be circumstances making it necessary to modify or even to lay aside this principle and start all the employees simultaneously. Such a circumstance would arise where the rates were being introduced in response to long-continued pres- sure for their readjustment, where the patience of the em- ployees had reached a limit, and the management was unable to hold them off any longer. But only extreme cases justify starting all the employees simultaneously. An example of the trouble which was caused when an analyst made the mistake of introducing the rates by starting all the employees at once, occurred on the operation of collating calendar pads. The studies had been made on skilled employees with the resulting curve shown in Figure 58. From the hour they started the first job on time work with bonus, these same skilled employees on whom the studies had been made failed to earn the bonus. They maintained it was not possible to do the work in the time allowed. The standard times were checked, so that the employees could see that they were being treated fairly. The check studies showed that the men were doing the work more slowly than at the time the original studies were made. In fact, the difference between the times taken in the original studies and those taken in the check studies averaged 40 per cent. The curves in Figure 58 show the times marked X taken by the skilled employees previous to setting the new rates. Crosses with the notation B (xB) show the times taken after the new rates had been put into effect, when the employees put on the brakes and began to work slowly. The reason was that the skilled employees who were failing to make the standard times were close friends and in all prob- APPLYING THE STANDARDS 285 ability had agreed among themselves not to earn the bonus in the hope that the standard time would be increased. An inter- esting comment on the situation was that one of the employees. COLLATING CALENDER PADS BY HAND 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.020 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.010 0,009 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 Figure 58. Chart Showing Comparison of Times Taken by Skilled Employ- ees before and after Standards Were Set with the Standard Time Curve an average worker, but not of sufficient experience to be rated as first class, actually did the work in less than the time al- lowed by the analyst. This man had not been long in the em- ploy of the company and was not a member of the clique. His time is marked on the chart as xA. The analyst held a conference with the employees in which he explained the situation thoroughly. They returned to the work and made the standards. The trouble, however, should have been avoided in the first place by starting one employee at a time and explaining the rates to him before asking him to work under them, and then starting others singly until they all were convinced of the accuracy of the time standards. 1 1 Values C 1 1 Collate Pads 1 1 1 Combined 1 1 1 1 Standard Time |for| Items' J P Jog Pads -Place Pads or Filt in One Curve Tim 3 in C -urv iisf jr22 x28- 30 lb Sto ck, p er 1 s heet A\ Net Time m 0) (B [ 1 / <3 3 B s 'Results' of Detail Time Studies X- Skilled Employees Previous to Setting Task and Bonus Rates XB- Skilled Employees after Setting Standard. Employees claimed that H XA- Average Employee but not of sufficient 1 experience to be rated as : skill Jd./ fter Sett rig £ tani ards Arc a oi She et i 1 Sq uar< I IK hes 286 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Instructing Employees The matter of proper instruction is very important in the application of the standards, especially if changes have been made in the handling of the work. Instruction is an essential part of the program of job standardization. The standard times are based on the "best" method and procedure, the de- termination of which is the result of careful study. If the employees fail to follow this "best method" they will probably do one of three things : be unable to complete the work in the standard time; complete the work in the standard time, but fall down on quality ; or complete the work in the standard time and of the standard quality, but fatigue themselves by not go- ing about it in the right way. Economy of Methodized Instruction If the management, then, expects either a large quantity or a first-class quality produced, it must assume responsibility for showing the employees the methods which make for quality and quantity production. Standards of work cannot be main- tained if each new employee is let loose, so to speak, in the department, given a number and a work place or a machine, instructed occasionally by an old worker who looks on him as a nuisance, and supervised by an overworked foreman. Under such rule-of -thumb methods it takes months to break in a work- man even on the simplest operation. Although the old em- ployees who have been "trained up" — if it can be called train- ing — under this antiquated system, may have acquired skill through long years of practice, even they do not often make use of the best methods, because no one has taken the pains to study the operation and bring together the most effective ways of performing each of its elements. Proper instruction helps the employee to become skilled in the shortest possible time. Under ideal conditions every operation or group of operations is under the direction of a special instructor. Em- APPLYING THE STANDARDS 287 ployers are beginning to realize that such practice is economy — not expense. Some few concerns even go so far as to offer training courses for beginners. The training course teaches the beginner his job entirely away from the department in which he will be placed later under special direction. The Instruction Engineer A recent development in industrial work is the profession of "instruction engineer." The instruction engineer is a mem- ber of a concern of consulting engineers in industrial manage- ment and is sent to serve clients who appreciate the economy of instructing their employees in methods of work. The in- struction engineer starts a definite plan of instruction adapted to the needs of the factory and teaches men from the client's own organization how to act as instructors. His work should follow, not precede, job standardization. The instruction en- gineer should not attempt to determine the best methods, be- cause he does not have the same opportunity to do so as the analyst. He takes the methods which are commonly accepted as the best and shows how they can be taught in the best way. If job standardization already has been undertaken, the methods which he teaches are the best methods under present conditions, since their determination is the result of detailed study. Duties of Instructor The duties of the regular instructor should be clearly limited and defined. The instructor should be responsible primarily for the quantity produced, he should also be respon- sible for attaining the speed of rhythm which gets quality as well. His duties are : 1. To teach new employees. 2. To show all employees the best methods. 288 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 3. To make sure that they are capable of following them. 4. To make it easy for the employees to do the work by seeing that they are supplied with material and tools. 5. To maintain quality. Foreman and Instructor The relation of the instructor to the foreman and others in authority should be made absolutely clear. A strong fore- man is prone to curtail the instructor's powers too much. On the other hand the instructor who has a weak foreman will sometimes exceed his authority. The instructor is answerable to the foreman for his own conduct, but not for the conduct of the employees whom he is teaching. He should be able to call on the foreman's authority whenever he feels that it is necessary. Analyst and Instructor The instructor assists the analyst during the period of introduction of time work and bonus. Since he is on the spot all the time, he will be able to see that the employees are pro- vided with equipment, materials, and every facility for doing the work in the standard time. He will be able to show the employees why they fail to earn the bonus and where their methods are faulty, and to teach them the new methods when they are not already familiar with them. On operations where there is no instructor the analyst may be obliged to be responsible for teaching new methods. This does not mean that he will put on overalls and take the machine in hand himself, which is never advisable even were it practi- cable. The analyst has a working knowledge from observation of all the operations studied. If he were to attempt to acquire the expert knowledge necessary to demonstrate to the skilled employees how the work should be done, he would have little time in which to make studies. Besides, it is not necessary APPLYING THE STANDARDS 289 for the analyst to make an actual demonstration as his method consists of taking stop-watch observations of a workman who is to be instructed and from these studies telling the workman wherein his method differs from the standard and in what elements he takes more time than standard. In case it should be necessary to make an actual demonstration to the workman the analyst calls the foreman or some other skilled employee to his aid. Following Up Employees In any case, it is better for the analyst or for one of his assistants to devote a major part of the time to following up the work of the employees who were first to be started under the new standards, because there are innumerable complica- tions which arise during the first few weeks when the standards are being put into effect. Someone must, therefore, be in the department almost constantly, correcting unfavorable condi- tions, answering questions, and generally seeing that the change from the old method to the new is made without friction. Eliminating Unforeseen Complications Complications arise when material fails to come through as scheduled or when it is imperfect in quality, or when any other condition falls below standard, and at first the attempt to hold conditions strictly to standard involves constant effort and attention. That is why the analyst or assistant should be in touch with the employees, so as to be sure their effort is not relaxed. The situation, however, soon should straighten itself out, as the entire department begins to realize the cost of letting the standards fall. Since each case which does occur must be noted in order to give the employees a proper allow- ance of time, it is easy to figure the reports of time lost in dol- lars and cents. This will bring forcibly to everyone's attention the magnitude of small delays. 290 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Answering Employee's Questions Another reason why a member of the job standardization staff should be almost constantly in the department in which the standards are being applied is that during the time the em- ployee is adjusting himself to the new standards, he is sure to ask many questions. Although the explanation to the employee described in Chapter XVIII should already have answered these questions, it is while the employee is actually working on the operation that he can best understand the answers. The employee is especially likely to make comparisons be- tween the standard times allowed for different jobs. If the relation is not what he would have expected he wants to know the reason. In order to make it clear the analyst will have to explain the different requirements of the two jobs, showing how the method of calculating the standard time is applied to them and pointing out just where the differences in the time occur. Making Allowances for Standards While the employee is getting into the stride, additional time is sometimes allowed. The employee in starting to work according to the standards may be anxious to make good and actually take more time than he realizes though he may feel he is working extremely well. It takes a certain amount of time for him to become familiar with any changes which have been made. The extra time allowed should be definitely stated on the employee's time ticket so that he may know exactly the amount allowed. In some cases 20 per cent extra time may be allowed on all jobs worked on during the first week, then 10 per cent for the second week, 5 per cent for the third week, and no allowance from then on. A definite percentage allowance for stated periods over and above the standard time is not always used ; it is not one which the author advises. Instead it is better for the analyst APPLYING THE STANDARDS 291 to give individual allowances where it is justified for special instances of failure to make the standard. During this intro- ductory period an allowance may often be given when the failure is not really due to the fault of the employee, as for in- stance, as the result of unfamiliarity with new methods. Since each employee is being considered separately and treated as an individual, the analyst may grant special allowances because he knows the particular circumstances that make it desirable. During the period of follow-up, all tickets showing whether the standard has been reached or not will be sent to the analyst before being sent to the pay-roll department. This is very im- portant, because it informs the analyst at once of failures to make the standards. He can then investigate the cause before it is buried in oblivion. If the cause warrants it, he can, before the daily earnings are figured, make any adjustment or allow- ance due the employee. Maintaining Standards Even after the employees are all "over the top" and are capable of making the time standards practically all the time, the analyst should not consider that his responsibility has ceased. From one point of view this last phase, "applying the standards," is never finished. The permanent work in- volved in it, however, may be reduced to a routine, requiring little time or attention. The time standards set by job standardization are dependent on all other standards. In other words, if the material is in poor condition or does not come through on time, or the ma- chine is out of repair, or other delays occur, the employees cannot make the time standards. Therefore, the analyst, in- stead of leaving this to be reported by the foreman, should institute routines which will automatically call to his attention or to that of those responsible the reason for the failure when results fall below standard. 292 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS REPORT ON INTERRUPTIONS REPORT ANY DELAY HOLDING UP PROGRESS OF WORK, WAITING TIME AFFECTING BONUS EMPLOYEES. DAMASE TO MATERIALS, MACHINE REPAIRS OR CHANGES SCHEDULE MAN: PROGRESS OF WORK ON ORDER NO. NOW IN OPERATION AT IS HELD UP BECAUSE OF: Recording Delays A record should be made of any unusual delay occurring in connection with the operation, giving the cause and the time lost. A standard form for this use, called a "Re- port on Interruptions," should be instituted. This form is shown in Figure 59. It should be used when necessary, but should not be abused. If materials are not up to standard, if they are de- layed, of if a machine breaks down, a report on interruptions should be issued to cover the situa- tion. The report should be signed both by the fore- man and by the head of the planning department. This will help to prevent any abuse. It also brings the delay forcibly to the attention of those who may be considered re- sponsible for it. Although the report on interruptions may be used in adjusting the pay-roll where the failure to earn the bonus is not the fault of the employee, it should be used primarily for calling the attention of all those executives who are responsible to conditions which ought to be corrected. DAMAGE IF ANY- CAUSE WAITING TICKET REMARKS- EMPLOYEES NAME- OPERATION REPORTED BY- INSPECTOR IN CHARGE- CHIEF INSPECTOR SCHEDULE ROUTE MAN MAN Figure 59. Regulation Report on Inter- ruptions APPLYING THE STANDARDS 293 Bonus Allowances When extra allowances are given to the employee for the first few weeks he starts to work on new standards, confusion sometimes occurs as to how to figure the bonus. The agree- ment with the employee when he starts working on standard production is that he shall receive, aside from his day's work, a bonus based on the standard, provided he accomplishes the work in regulation time. If then, in starting out, the com- pany allows him extra time over and above the standard time, he should not expect to receive besides this a bonus on the extra time. Because of the error of paying a bonus on the extra time allowed, hard feelings may often arise when the employee finds that, after the allowances are no longer being made, he does not get as much money as he did when he started the work under the standards. Daily Production Record Another routine which prevents employees' falling below the standards is the institution of a graphic record of the daily NAME Pay-Roll Sheet SHEET NO. PAY ENDING =IASE HA rE Date E | l="o Machine Symbol Job Number Quantity Time Allow- ed . • ATTENDANCE HOURS IS Earnings Time Out "I s S Dam- age Day Work Overtime A B Figure 60. Typical Pay-Roil Sheet output of each employee as measured by his earnings. This record may be kept by the employment department, which, in 294 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS order to know whether employees are making good, must be familiar with the work they are doing. The pay-roll department is obliged to keep a daily record of the earnings of each employee. These may be made out by hand on a sheet like the one shown in Figure 60 or may d < i-lOO- -a- OS Q — -100- - - ~_^ / / 1 1 "~~ -N s ^ „ c . _^ .-— - »^> ~~^ h O — ~^__ -100- Note: $4.00 3.00 = 100»Bonu = Day Rate s Daily PerC Earnings — rlr — \ 1 1 1 1 1 Jan- 1 lary I . 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 6 7 9 10 11121314.16 171819 20 2123 2425 26 27 2830 31 Figure 61. Chart Showing Daily Earnings of Employees be made on a tabulating machine, if there are a great many employees. After the weekly pay-roll is figured the individual reports should be turned over to the employment department. The figures should there be drawn off" on charts which show the daily earnings in graphic form. A daily record chart of this sort is given in Figure 61. The chart shows the earnings made during the first month the APPLYING THE STANDARDS 295 employees were on time work with bonus. When the operators earned the bonus 100 per cent of the time they made $4 a day, while if they were unable to do the work in the standard time they made only $2. The solid line indicates the daily earnings, while the dash line shows the percentage of day work. By the end of the month most of the employees were earning almost 100 per cent bonus, and the amount of day work (which in the middle of the month had been very large) was greatly reduced. The analyst will look into all cases where any employee fails to earn the bonus 85 per cent of the time, or if the amount of day work shows an appreciable increase. Completing Job Standardization The institution of these routines for maintaining the standards marks the completion of job standardization on the particular operation. The standards determined are now in effect, and both the management and the employees are get- ting the benefits of the resulting increase in production. In- structors are teaching new employees, so that the standard methods and times are becoming a part of the tradition of the factory, handed down from the older generation of workers to the younger. The fact that the time standards are dependent on the standards of condition and that the maintenance of the time standards is being checked by the graphical record of daily earnings acts as a check on all the standards of produc- tion. CHAPTER XX PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS Establishing Routine for Perpetuating Standards The responsibility of the analyst in applying the standards has not ceased until he has devised some means of making them "self-applying." From one point of view, applying the stand- ards is never completed. Even when all the employees are capable of making time standards under standard conditions, there must still be some way devised for holding conditions to standard. The management should continuously know how nearly the actual conditions, as regards the work of the em- ployees, the state of the machines, and the like approach the standard. In order that the management should be so in- formed the analyst must devise routines which require as little time as possible and which may be carried out by clerks, but which will show the executives a summary of the situation. Graphical Charts for Perpetuating Standards The best means to give the executives a comprehensive view of the production situation at a glance are graphic charts which may be made to combine, in the briefest and most effect- ive form, a picture of what the factory should do with what it actually is doing. These graphical representations of facts provide executives from the lowest to the highest with a summary of the situation. The amount of detail to be presented to any executive depends upon his particular duties. The manager of manufacturing needs information which will assure him that the stream of production is flowing smoothly, and which will help him de- 296 PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 297 tect any error that may interfere with the standard output. Each executive below the manager of manufacturing requires information about his particular part of the work and — whether the amount of detail shown is large or small — the charts should summarize the situation. They should give in concentrated form the status of the factory at all times and the results that are being obtained in each department, so that the executive may keep his finger on the pulse of the business. Whenever the results look unsatisfacory or questionable he should take immediate steps to have the conditions remedied. The charts should show : 1. Per cent bonus earned by employees working on stand- dardized work — key to the proficiency of the work- men. 2. Production record — actual production in comparison to maximum. 3. Analysis of machine time — down time; repair time; make-ready time; running time. 4. Weekly analysis of department time — work paid for which is on a task basis ; work paid for which is on a piecework basis; work paid for which is on a day work like — (a) Supervision. (b) Handling materials. (c) Productive work not on -a task or piece- work basis. 5. Delayed time. 6. Proficiency of department. Graphical Reports The following charts and reports are being used in a certain factory to provide a mechanism which shows in concentrated form the status of the factory at all times : 298 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 1. Daily production record (see Figure 62) 2. Daily record of production and machine time (see Figure 63) 3. Daily analysis of machine time (see Figure 64) 4. Daily bonus report (see Figure 65) 5. Daily analysis of time work with bonus (see Figure 66) 6. Weekly analysis of the distribution of the pay-roll (see Figure 67) 7. Weekly analysis of the proficiency of the department time (see Figure 68) Separate reports and charts are made out for each depart- ment. The reports are filed in loose-leaf binders and are placed on the desk of the planning superintendent. They are consulted by him and by the process superintendent daily. Charts are also installed in the office of the manager of manufacturing where he may consult them each day and in this way keep himself informed as to the situation. Daily Production Record The daily production record (Figure 62) is particularly valuable when machines are an important factor in the cost of operation. For instance, in a paper-mill the hourly rate on the machine which makes the paper is about $15. This repre- sents the overhead expense which the machine must absorb for each hour that it runs. It also makes clear the necessity for running the machine as many hours as possible. This rate does not include the wages of the men operating the machine — only such expense as power, depreciation, and repairs. The daily production record is an important medium for keeping track of the actual performance. It shows : 1. Standard Production for Standard Running Time. This shows the amount the machine should turn out after PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 299 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M irch 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ap 1 1 ril 1 1 1 1 \ , N ~» % / s'^ ,.._ JS..- --^ v~ "1 •' r 'l^ 1 '•r fV' '' \ ( \ . h V '/ V ~ sA /// 1 in \\ 11 V '/ V * ' 7 7 till w 7 \j J v/ t X X X X making proper allowances for getting it ready (technically known as "make ready") and for other necessary delays. This is represented on the chart by the dotted lines. BOX-MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 13 4 5 6 7 8 101112131415171819202122242526272829311 2 3 4 7 8 9 10 11 14 15 16 171S 21 No. of Cartons 1,500,000 1,000,000 600,000 100.000 Figure 62. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Production Record: (a) Standard production for standard running time represented by (b) Standard production for the time the machines are actually running represented by ■ — (c) Actual production represented by «^^-^_— (d) x designates Saturday 2. Standard Production for the Time the Machines Are Actually Running. This shows the amount the machines should turn out while actually running. It is represented in the chart by the dash lines. The difference between the dotted line and the dash line indicates the loss in production due to the "make ready." 3. Actual Production. The actual production is repre- sented by the solid line. The difference between the dash line and the solid line represents the loss in production which is due to the fact that the workmen do not get the standardized amount of production from the machines. 3°° TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS The data for the chart on the daily production record is computed from the daily record of production and machine CARTON DEPARTMENT DAILY RECORO OF PRODUCTION AND MACHINE TIME Mach. No. Qrder No. Oper. No. PRODUCTION OF CARTONS OR SHEETS MACHINE TIME No. Work Sched No. Help First Task Product per Hour Standard Production Runn- ing Time WAITING FOR For Time Mach. are Running ForSt'nd'rt Running Time _Make RiMlly Oper. Work Repairs CM-1 CM-2 TdIoI CC-1 CC-4 TotaT SA-1 1 — 1 1 SA-7 Total Total Figure 63. Daily Record of Production and Machine Time time. (See Figure 63.) The data is first posted on the daily record direct from time tickets of the job. Items 1 and 2 are then computed as follows : 1. Standard Production for Standard Running Time. The method of finding the standard production for machines running a predetermined part of the total possible running PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 301 time may be found by a description of the way in which it was computed for a particular class of machine. Ten per cent of the total possible running time was required on machines of this class for "make ready" and 5 per cent for machine adjustments and small repairs. The time remaining was 85 per cent of the total possible running time and was taken as the standard running time of each machine. 2. Standard Production for the Time the Machines Are Actually Running. Standard production is that output which would be obtained by employees earning the first bonus. The standard production for the time which the machines are run- ning is equal to the production per hour of the employee earn- ing the first bonus, multiplied by the number of running hours of the machine. The standard production for time which machines are running, and for all machines in one group, is the summation of the standard production for each machine in that group. 3. Actual Production. The actual production which the machine turns out on each order is shown on the machine feeder's time ticket and therefore requires no such computing as items 1 and 2. The value is taken direct from these tickets. There were six machines of this type in the department of the plant referred to. The plant was run on a 48-hour week, so that its possible running time was equal to 8 hours and 40 minutes for 5 days a week and 4 hours and 40 minutes for one day a week. Since there were 6 machines of this particular class, the standard running time for 1 full day for all these machines was equal to : 8 hours 40 minutes X 6 = 52 hours, total possible running time. 85% of 8 hours 40 minutes = 44 hours 10 minutes, total standard running time. The standard running time for each short day was equal to : 3 o2 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 4 hours 40 minutes X 6 = 28 hours, total possible running time. 85% of 4 hours 40 minutes = 23 hours 48 minutes, total standard running time. In other words, the relation between the standard pro- duction in running time and the standard production in 85 per cent running time is the same as the ratio between the actual running time and 85 per cent running time. As expressed in a formula, the standard production for 85 per cent of the running time is equal to : Total Standard Production in Actual Running Time v ^ % q£ ^ ^ posgible Running Time Total Actual Running Time This method of collating the daily production information and the record of machine time should take the place of the records which are usually kept by the foreman's clerk. Such foremen's records are more or less inaccurate because of the failure to obtain necessary information in sufficient detail to disclose actual conditions in the department. Consequently they do not show the facts as well as graphical charts would. By close attention to these graphical charts the planning super- intendent and the process superintendent are able to discover the points at which it is necessary to bring pressure to bear to increase the output and to keep the production uniformly up to the maximum. Daily Analysis of Machine Time This record, like the daily production record, is most important when the machines are a factor in the cost of an operation. ( See Figure 64. ) It shows : 1. Running time (represented by heavy solid line). 2. No work scheduled (represented by dot and dash line). 3. Waiting for repairs (represented by dot line). PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 303 4. Waiting for "make ready" (represented by dash line). 5. Waiting for work and workmen (represented by light solid line). 6. Total machine hours per day. 7. Standard machine hours per day (15 per cent allowed for "make ready" and machine adjustments). BOX-MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 13 4 5 6 7 8 10111213141517181920 2122 242526 272829 311 2 3 4 7 8 9 1011141516171821 Figure 64. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Analysis of Machine Time (a) Running time (b) No work scheduled • — (c) Waiting for repairs (d) Waiting for make ready (e) Waiting for work and workmen 1. Running time — this running time is copied direct from the machine feeder's time ticket. 2. No work scheduled. 3. Waiting for repairs. 3 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 4. Waiting for "make ready" — the time waiting for "make ready" is taken direct from the time ticket of the workmen doing this work. 5. Waiting for work and workmen — these three items are taken from a special ticket for delayed machine time. 6. Total machine hours per day — the total machine hours per day for a group of machines is equal to the number of possible running hours per machine (without any allowance) multiplied by the number of machines in the group. This is a constant value and is only increased or decreased as a machine or machines are added or eliminated. This is shown by break in curve on March 31st when a new machine was added to the group. 7. Standard machine hours per day — this curve is parallel to curve for item 6, but is 1 5 per cent lower in value, which is an average allowance to take care for the time necessary for "make ready" and machine ad- justments. Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus The data for the chart is taken from the daily bonus report (Figure 65). The daily bonus report shows just what bonus is earned. If no bonus is earned on the ticket, it is posted in flat-time column. Each morning before nine o'clock a clerk should figure on the daily bonus report the percentage of tickets on first, second, and third bonuses, and on flat time, for the previous day. 1 The result of the daily bonus report should be plotted each day by nine thirty o'clock, on the graphical chart (see Figure 1 This illustration is taken from a factory where the work is entirely seasonal, making it necessary to have the employees work on different operations according to the particular season. For this reason it could not be expected that all the employees should be devel- oped in a short season to the highest efficiency. The graded plan of payment is an equitable means for taking care of a condition of this kind. PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 305 PLEASE SENDTHIS REPORT TO CHECK WITH INITIALS HERE DAILY BONUS REPORT RECORDING SECTION DEPARTMENT TIME & JOB ANALYSIS I-IATF 109 FOREMAN NO. 1 BONUS NO. 2 BONUS NO. 3 BONUS FLAT TIME REMARKS PRODUCTION MAN R.C. FEED AND CATCH P.P. FEED R.P. FEED AND CATCH A.G. FEED AND CATCH H.G. FEED AND CATCH A.G. INSPECTION SEPARATE AFTER P.P. SEPARATE AFTER R.P. TOTAL PERCENTAGE TO OBTAIN PERCENTAGE ADD TOTALS OF NO. 1. NO. 2. NO. 3 AND FLAT TIME COLUMNS THEN DIVIDE TOTAL OF EACH BY TOTAL OF ALL COLUMNS. Figure 65. Daily Bonus Report 306 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 66), showing the percentage of first, second, and third bonuses, and flat time, as follows : Percentage of first bonus (represented by dot and dash line) " second " ( " " dash " ) " third " ( " " solid " ) " flat time ( " " dot " ) BOX-MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 7 8 101112131415171819202122242526272829311 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10111415161718 21222324282930 March April /\ \7 v / i Figure 66. Graphic Chart Showing Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus (a) First Bonus (b) Second Bonus (c) Third Bonus — — — -^— (d) Flat Time - Weekly Analysis of Departmental Time The chart (see Figure 67) is of particular interest to the planning superintendent in assisting him to keep the non-pro- ductive labor at a minimum. PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 30/ The data for the analysis of department time should be taken from pay-roll sheets. The data for the curves showing tne analysis of department time should be entered on the pay-roll sheet as soon as pay- roll information is posted in the pay-roll department. 1005* DEPARTMENT-BOX MAKING 4/12 4/l9 4/26 5/3 5/10 5/l7 5/24 5/31 6/7 6/14 6/21 6/24 7/ 5 Figure 67. Weekly Analysis of Distribution of Pay-Roll Immediately on closing the pay-roll sheets for the week the pay-roll department will take the data necessary for com- puting the chart from the pay-roll sheets and report this in- formation to the planning department. This report shows : 308 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS i„ Percentage of total time paid for on a basis of time work with bonus (represented by solid line) 2. Percentage of total time paid for on piecework basis (represented by dash line) 3. Percentage of total time paid for on a day work basis (Day work includes: supervision; handling mate- rials; production on a day work basis) (repre- sented by dot line) 4. Percentage of total time which is charged to delayed operations (represented by dot and dash line) Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency The weekly analysis of departmental proficiency chart shows the executives the true conditions existing in his factory. The data for computing the percentage of standard output obtained by workers paid on a basis of time work with bonus is taken, once each week, from the daily bonus reports and is computed as follows : Example of figuring proficiency of a department : Bonus Earned During Week Department 1st Bonus 2nd Bonus 3rd Bonus Flat Time Mon 60 20 10 10 Tues 40 40 15 17 Wed 80 29 30 5 Thurs 50 30 42 12 Fri 70 16 18 28 Sat 60 2>7 8 2 7 Total .... 360 172 123 99 Percentage .. 47-5% 22.8% 16.3% 13.1% The relation of second bonus, third bonus, and flat time to first bonus is as follows : PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 1st bonus shows that employee is 100% proficient. 2nd " " " " 85% 3rd " " " " 70% Flat Time " " " " 50% 309 DEPARTMENT-BOX MAKING 4/l2 4/19 4/26 5/3 5/10 5/17 5/24 5/31 6/7 6/14 6/21 6/24 7/ 5 Figure 68. Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency The percentage of standard output actually obtained by- employees paid on basis of time work with bonus is equal to : ist bonus 47.5% of 100% equals 47.5% 2nd " 22.8% " 85% " 19.4% 3rd " 16.3% " 70% " 11.4% Flat time 13.1% " 50% " 6.5% 84.8% Proficient After the above computations have been made and checked the clerk will plot the results (Figure 68) and file the com- putations in the planning department file. Completion of Job Standardization The principle of these charts and reports may be applied to any business, although some of the details may be only adapted 310 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS to the needs of the case in question. The data on which these charts are based are found through job standardization. Their greatest value is the mechanism by which the standards set by job standardization is perpetuated. Until he has set up some such routine as is given in these charts the work of the analyst cannot be said to be fully devel- oped or complete. The standard methods and times should be a part of the tradition of the factory, handed down from the old generation of workers to the new. They should also be con- stantly brought to the attention of the management, in the office, and constantly checked, maintained, and improved. In this way they will become perpetual, and the management and the employees will reap the benefits of continually increased production. CHAPTER XXI SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND INCREASED PRODUCTION Simplification of Industry The entire process of job standardization which has been described, complex as it may seem, is based on the fact that increased production with a lower unit cost is impossible unless modern large-scale industry is first simplified. It was stated in the first chapter that what is needed is a resimplification of industry. The simplicity of the original one-room shop where there were comparatively few operations performed by a few men and it was easy for the owner to know the details of the work is out of the question in a large industry. Aside from the complexity introduced by large-scale manufacturing and division of labor, there are still more important factors to deal with in the products of industry. All of which means that operations must be studied with the completeness of analysis described and that job standardization is necessary for the reason that simplification of a modern business involves the rediscovery of the relation existing between the many opera- tions which are scattered over many departments and often over many mills. Simplicity in industry, as in everything else, is the result of an infinite capacity for taking pains. At first it seems as if the elaborate and many-sided developments which simpli- fication necessitates occasions still greater complexity. This is not the case. The study and development are complex, but they result in a definite set of rules for processing materials 311 312 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS and a definite method of putting the rules into practice. The result is simple because it removes doubt and makes for cer- tainty in conducting the business. The apparent complexity due to highly ramified business is justified since it serves in the long run to reduce the inevitable complexity of modern industry. The process of job standardization is necessary in order to understand each operation in its relation to other operations. When the standards have been determined and applied, and not until then, the management is able to lay out each part of the work so that the business as a whole shall profit. Phases of Scientific Management Simplification of industry requires first of all the setting of standards. The method of setting and applying the stand- ards has been outlined in the preceding chapters. The result of this process is that the methods of performance adapted to the characteristics of each operation become incorporated into shop traditions and performance. Secondly, simplification requires that standards which have been determined shall be maintained. The necessity for this has already been discussed in Chapter XX. The charts shown in this chapter, however, would constantly show a marked decline in proficiency unless the standards could be maintained by a systematic managerial control. In other words the management must take the responsibility of planning the work from year to year, from month to month, and even from day to day in accordance with demands and with the standards set, and must see that these plans are followed. The development of simplification in industry by setting and controlling standards has been called "scientific manage- ment." Scientific management includes two major phases. One is standardization, the other is control. Since without function- SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 3 J 3 alization control could not be carried out, functionalization may, in a sense, be said to be a third phase of scientific man- agement. Scientific Management Defined For the sake of clearness it might be well to repeat the definition given in Chapter I which condenses what has just been said in regard to scientific management. The term "scientific management" is used to characterize that form of organization or procedure which is based on principles and laws established by a thorough investigation of manual and machine processes, materials, tools, equipment, and physical and psychological operating conditions; which stand- ardizes operations and provides for instruction in new methods of execution; and which develops and maintains precise and automatic control, including the organization of the personnel, the processes, the materials, and the equipment in such func- tional co-operative relations as will utilize the highest technical skill available and capable of development in planning, super- vising, and executing. The establishment of standards to which this book is devoted, is only one part of the field covered by scientific man- agement. The other part, equally important, is the develop- ment and maintenance of precise and automatic control. Fof the sake of greater clearness and brevity the existence of the second phase of scientific management has been assumed throughout the book. Nevertheless the connection between the two phases, and a few of their outstanding features, should be touched upon in order to give some idea of the way in which scientific management works in its attempt to simplify industry and increase production. A general idea of the sub- ject as applied to manufacturing is all that can be given in a single chapter, but the fact that scientific management deals with all the aspects of business and that its principles can and 314 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS should be applied to every undertaking must on no account be forgotten. In considering standardization in relation to control the subject is considered from a different and more generalized point of view than the one that has been taken in the book. Standardization In so far as management methods can be considered scien- tific in any sense of the word they must include standardization. The term standardization is used to cover the thorough inves- tigation of all problems and conditions with the purpose of determining the laws which govern them. In industry a stand- ard found by analysis is not final, but may be defined as the best devisable set-up which can be established economically at a particular time and under particular conditions. As the con- ditions change, this set-up is subjected to a reanalysis according to the laws found to govern the circumstances at the time, and rejected or adopted as it fails or succeeds in increasing the efficiency of performance. Thus the process of standard- ization is continuous. The method of operating, strange as it may seem, has not been studied and developed to the point that the standardization of the product has been studied and developed. In many cases when the term standardization is mentioned executives show no interest, for they immediately think of the standardization of their finished product which they have spent large sums of money to perfect in every minute detail. On the one hand, when it comes to standardization of methods of production they are content to follow methods which are the result of combinations of chance circumstances. Hence a complex body of practices develops, that bear no relation to the requirements of the work as a whole, and, because they are not based on laws, involve waste effort. The confusion of purpose of which they are the result ends in a general bewilderment which is manifest throughout the whole SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 315 process of production. Until their complexity is standardized there can be no simplicity of operation. A pertinent illustration of a simple and effective way of applying carefully thought out principles is shown by the stand- ards developed for the installation of Ford starters. There are two points brought out by this illustration — (1) the value of developing a standard method, and (2) the necessity of ex- pressing such a standard clearly. Not only should the method to be followed be defined in detail, but the way in which the highly developed standards are to be expressed and put on record, should be continuously kept in mind. They must be clear and readily understandable so that new tentative standards can be measured against those already in force. Installing Ford Starters Until 1920 there was a great need for a starter for Ford cars, because the manufacturers had not included this item in their original equipment. As soon as the demand became great enough several manufacturers attempted to develop a self- starter that should be adapted to the car. One of the require- ments was to make the attachment coincide with the bolts and connections already found in the Ford car, so that the man installing the starter would have to make as few changes as possible. It was also necessary that the purchaser be able to install the starter himself. Otherwise it would hardly be possible to sell one to a man having no access to a well-organized garage. Moreover, wordy instructions such as might be used advan- tageously in a factory would in this connection be meaningless. After some study the chart shown in Figure 69 was devised and found to fulfil the requirements successfully. The chart takes up each part of the installation in detail, and the location of each part mentioned on the instruction card is marked on a corresponding diagram. 316 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS - 1 iWa l._| 111 i 1 (til ^ 1 lit*! W\ $1 '«Cp riiii In 1 ! ' *pfl W fif-fj . 4 ,iljjj^j*ljpjtjjf 1 J 'j ! J I 3 t 15 f ill «ll SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 3*7 Applying Standards to Construction Work The way in which the most complex conditions may be simplified by the application of standardization was demon- strated on construction work. The general opinion at first was that, while it was possible to standardize industrial plants, because conditions in them were relatively stable with respect to machinery, equipment and organization, it would be impos- sible to standardize outside work, such as the construction of buildings, roads, and sewers. In outside work conditions change rapidly, so that they sometimes ceased to exist before standards could be set for them; often there is no space to keep materials on hand, freight delays even in the best of times pre- vent the obtaining of materials on time, labor is uncertain, and weather conditions affect materials as well as the amount of work which can be completed. In spite of these difficulties it has been proved by actual accomplishment on all classes of work that scientific manage- ment applies as readily to construction work as to industrial work. The construction man realizes most forcibly one fact which to his mind seems unsurmountable, and that is that he has no actual operating organization when he starts any piece of work. When a particular piece of work is finished the organization which has been developed for that job dwindles to a comparatively few people who put on the finishing touches. The answer to the construction man's fears is that the analyst whom he retains to develop scientific management should be a practical, experienced man, able to take full responsibility for carrying on the work if the conditions require it. This is not necessary, however, in an industrial plant, for the analyst works with an organization who are actually producing, and his work, therefore, requires only a changing of conditions, so it is not of such great moment if some change is not put into effect by the factories' organization immediately upon the recommendation of the analyst. 3 i8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS The first construction job on which the principles of scien- tific management were applied more or less intensively was in connection with the construction of a large concrete building in 1910. In concrete-construction work the cost of the form work, which is merely a temporary skeleton in which to cast the concrete, is generally the determining factor as to whether the contractor will make a profit or sustain a loss. The first endeavors, therefore, were concentrated on this feature, and the other parts of the work were handled as they previously had been. The results on the first job were most gratifying as shown in the comparison of unit costs given : Cost of Labor under 1 Cost of Labor under Operation Ordinary Methods Scientific Methods Making forms 2% cents per square foot 1% cents per square foot Erect and strip forms .... 6 4 The work of the analyst started when the architect turned over the plans to the contractor. The first step was to have detailed sketches made of each form such as are shown in Figure 70. These sketches were complete, even to the deter- mination of the dimensions of every piece of lumber. From these sketches the exact bill of lumber was taken off so that the most economical widths and lengths could be purchased. This arrangement eliminated the random purchase of lumber. The sketches were then used by the carpenters for sawing all the lumber to the exact length and for putting the forms together. A method of marking the forms was worked out so that any ordinary unskilled laborer, under the direction of a gang boss, could tell the kind of form that was to be used by refer- ring to a key plan of the building. In this way the workman could carry the material from the benches where the forms 1 Figures based on wages existing prior to 191 o. These figures include job expenses but not general overhead. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 319 were made to the building site where it was put in place by the carpenters. This system eliminated the large loss caused by 305 foida, 16, l&lfc tenp [M306folt2.2q,8",2t 1,1/307 forr5- | ,1/308 for£T4~ 3^ =k ± r- North & South Sides •6ff6f>fei 20f 22-4 '—20 •q . ,1-1 a 1 ■ i. 1 ttc •"-—22" 16-: 6j 24^-; 1 sj : 8$)«8|46j 24^ A 5 Wanted Mark 19^10 i" 20" 1 la 18-4" 1 la 12 16 " 144 1 18-0" 4 \c 18-4" 22" 24 2 ■• 2 2a 18 8 18-0" 22" 2 2a 4 26 IS 8 18-0" 1G" 36 5 24" 2 14 1940 J" 24" 2 14 DETAILS OF COLUMN FORMS FOR FIRST TWELVE BAYS NEW BLEACHERY BUILDING Figure 70. Standardized Plan Used in. the Construction of a Larger Concrete Blervchery highly paid carpenters doing useless or avoidable work, such as hunting around for some particular form which the foreman said had been made but which no one seemed able to find. The standardizing of the work in this manner arouses interest in all 320 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS concerned and makes it possible to make the pay of the work- men commensurate with what they do and also eliminates the large loss due to the incompetence of workmen. Standardization of construction work not only for large buildings but also for smaller units, such as frame dwellings, was developed from the procedure just outlined. During a period of two years small dwellings aggregating a total value of several million dollars were erected by these same methods. 2 The result of the standardization of construction work was a simplification which made it possible for production to be increased and the cost of construction to be reduced. Control Control is the second of the major phases of scientific management. The term "control" is used to describe the establishment of a mechanism by which the management takes over the detailed planning of production and regulates the flow of work. Control in industry necessitates exact knowledge as to the dates orders are to be processed and shipped, and the way in which they must be moved through the factory in order to keep the con- tract date. It necessitates information about the work ahead of each machine, the type and capacity of each machine, the raw materials required, and the number of employees needed to do the work, so that the work may be arranged in general and in detail, to meet customers' requirements and keep costs down to the minimum. With the establishment of centralized control the duty of planning the movement of the product is no longer distributed among the foremen of the various departments through which the goods will pass before they are shipped as a finished pro- duct, but is centralized in the planning department. •Appendix D for further details and results accomplished. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 321 The planning department devotes its attention exclusively to correlating the work of departments and even of individuals. The detailed facts are placed at its disposal through standard- ization, so that this department is able to lay out the parts so that they will dovetail into the completed plan. Clerks carry out the routine of the plan formerly attended to by the fore- man. In consequence the factory functions as a unit. The contrary is true if a foreman alone does the planning. Even the capable foreman usually sees only his own needs, and 'kicks" for repairs, for material, and for help until he gets Jthem, although there may really be greater need for all these things in some other department. At its best, the result of lack of control is that one department inevitably perfects itself at the expense of the others. A manufacturing plant is similar to an army, and like an army, it needs its directing staff. Relation of Planning to Process Department The planning department and the process department are distinct, neither of which can exist for long without the; inti- mate co-operation and understanding of the other. The plan- ning department lays out the work in accordance with thei standards which have been developed, it directs the processing: of the product, and it follows up the results obtained by thei process department. The process department directs the con- version of the raw materials into the finished product, and in- so doing follows the established standards made out by the; planning department. This work is modified only as the actual shop conditions and materials necessitate a change. When such a need occurs the process department immediately takes up the matter with the planning department .so as to come to a mutual understanding on the way in which to handle the necessary changes. .In case of disagreement between the two departments the case is submitted to the manager of manu- facturing who settles the difficulty as an impartial judge. 322 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS ROUTE SHEET C .() _()<)- Bays F. O. No. Furnish Order No, Grade Color Machin Hung Dry Pull AM PM Hours AM PM From M M - MR Sk." BAY NO. pT From M M ... , .. MR S 1 ™" BAY NO £ From MM MR *"» BAY NO £ MRD MRU MRD MRU MRD MRU Dq In Do B«i Do Iki Do H« Do «« D« ha Do H.n Do TICKETS. ORDERS WRITTEN ■«ti Do Vis Orati Do t. Figure 71. Regulation Route Sheet Used in Planning Department SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 323 The manufacturing orders are received by the planning department which sees that all the necessary specifications or data are on the order before accepting it. The orders which are O K are analyzed for the required raw materials, for the method of processing, for the way to split the order into jobs which are of a size convenient to manufacture and so on. Route sheets as shown in Figure 71 are then prepared and are used by the planning department, first, for making up the proper work such as time tickets, stores issues, and so forth, and second, for keeping track and directing the sequence of the operations required in the manufacturing of the product. The planning board as shown in Figure 72 is an office mech- anism to facilitate carrying out the plans of the planning department. On this planning board a duplicate of the workman's time ticket is posted under the machine or workman's name, so that the work being done by each machine or employee can be seen at a glance. The job ahead of each machine or workman are also posted, so as to facilitate providing work well in advance or shifting the workman to another operation or department where a scarcity of labor exists. Proper Method of Planning Orders A dearth or an abundance of work is not long apt to be the case in a factory of moderate size provided the executives are aware of the situation. Such a dearth or abundance, however, does exist in many large companies operating a number of factories all of which are directed from some one central office. The reason for their not realizing the seriousness of the actual condition in any particular factory is due to the immense vol- ume of business done. In the case of a certain shoe company, for instance, if for any reason the raw materials did not show up for an order or if the particular lasts over which the shoe was built were not available when required, other orders 3 2 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS PRESENT ROUTE OF STOCK ORDER Case- Number Tags Writes Day Sheets Distributes Tag-Stubs and Day Sheets City. Factories Requisition Leather Speriliec on Tags 27 City Factories Receive Leather 27 Issue Leather Requisition ed by City Factories 27 . u ,. ■„ 28 MISCELLANEOUS ToT Al '.■'■'',' "' ■'.' : ' «„ dIw?"' ■Knit. '.,■..• °i u.SS' c ! Si ^m'.:."-'..!,!"; 1 MANAf MANUFA ER OF ;turing tf - s£§, KS ROUTE OF STOCK ORDER E 1 I 1 1 - H J j 2 5 ."C"- Kollfy Mar. . SS l^r L „ „ _: "bIS? - ReauBiti c T.H 7 20 20 2 4 6 20 + ,, 1 PUNNING DEPARTMENT scMui, J.*.;. Clerk ^ ■■';■;'; '■; || ■ | "8? - p h! T W°i V OoiT'.'wort ,1'g 1 ,",. »x, S". rn,'sh..i. ' 49 1 10 11 20 1 . 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 FACTORIES A - D «. 7 i2Sl '1 " t Cop/ lS" ,'.., ',';"' Sh - '£: •: m 28 27 27 1— ssi -* r'ES-' 'TsiliF'' s D _ milS.™." .. — " 2 6 ' STORES SECTION H 27 "JSStt 1 ..,,] »",'■ F 18 1Q BALANCE OF STORES SECTION "1 1 A -"If A3 " " 1 --S - r *^|fi is 12 - if./, _ T t;r Shlppad Hf Stock 18 10 17 W Figure 73. Route of Stock Orders before Analys REVISED ROUTE OF STOCK ORDER MANAGER OF MANUFACTURING PUNNING DEPARTMENT SHOE FACTORIES STORES SECTION BALANCE STORES SECTION Figure 74. Route of Stock Orders after Analys SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 325 scheduled for a later date were pushed ahead to keep the machines and workmen busy. An investigation of the method used by this shoe company in planning the work brought to light some astounding conditions. The company, of course, realized some of these conditions, but not their seriousness or extent. The big difficulty confronting the analyst in this case was how to present his findings to the company so that they could conceive readily the difference between their present method of planning the orders to be manufactured, against the method he proposed, which would eliminate these serious con- ditions. Since the problem of planning is quite involved, be- cause of the many different grades and kinds of leather and findings that go into the different styles and grades of shoes to present it in the form of a report would mean nothing to most executives. After considerable study he devised the plan of charting the present and proposed routines. The chart of the present routine given in Figure 73 shows the whole story. The proposed routine as given in Figure 74 shows in compari- son the advantages of the new plan. Under the routine laid out in Figure 74, the copies of the manufacturing orders were not distributed broadcast, but only so many as were needed to determine from the stores records what materials were on hand. All copies of the orders made out at A went by way either of B 1 or B 2 and re-combined at C. This assured starting into the shop for manufacturing only those orders for which materials were actually available. This plan prevented congestion in the various departments as well as making possible to reduce greatly the quantity of leather and findings required in stores. Under the routine existing before analysis, shown in Figure 73, there was no tie-in between the paper work in the office — marked A, C and D — and the various stores departments' activities — marked A, B and D — in getting out the materials on the orders and shipping them through the factory. 326 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS Functionalization A necessary corollary to control is functionalization — that is, the systematic distribution of activities among various per- sons. As stated in Chapter I, control involves the assumption of responsibility by the management, and functionalization in- volves the delegation of this responsibility through the proper channels. Through functionalization the organization is de- veloped so that it works as a unit in planning, supervising, and executing. The model organization chart given in Chapter I shows the main functions of a scientifically managed business and the way in which they are distributed. The department which has chief responsibility for standard- ization is the methods department. The department which has chief responsibility for the carrying out of control is the planning and control department. These two departments work in close relation, as already described, in order to get results without duplication of effort. Job standardization is dependent upon the maintenance of routine in the planning department and the process department because the employees cannot be expected to do the work in standard time unless con- ditions are maintained at standard. Co-ordination of the Phases It is by the co-ordination of these phases, standardization, control, and functionalization, that the industry is simplified to the point at which the work can be laid out with relation to the situation as a whole. Each phase is dependent on the others, and until all three are developed scientific management does not exist within the industry. It is by the development of industry through the co-ordination of the three that maxi- mum production is obtained under existing human and me- chanical conditions with the minimum cost and effort. CHAPTER XXII BALANCING MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES Returns Dependent upon Market Outlet The large returns which result from job standardization are partly dependent upon the company's having orders for its merchandise. Increasing production is not of much advan- tage if the product cannot be sold. The lowered cost per unit produced is, however, a gain which may be utilized in either of two ways or, if the situation demands, in a combination of both — that is, it may be taken directly in the shape of a larger margin of profit or in the shape of a lower price, which also makes for larger profits because it stimulates demand. The profits from manufacturing are dependent upon the amount sold and the profits from selling are dependent upon economy of manufacturing. To sell the product is the main function of the sales divi- sion just as to manufacture the product is the main function of the manufacturing division. Both functions are equally important to the business, for neither can exist without the other. Although their mutual dependence is evident, it is not strange that each should think itself the important factor in the company's life and expect the other to realize this fact and to adjust its activities to meet the situation. The policy of the company on this point is due in many cases to the way in which the concern developed. If the financial head is at the head of the sales division he will naturally believe the sales end is the most important first, last, and always. If he is a prac- 327 328 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS tical manufacturer, he will probably believe the manufacturing end to be the most important. In reality, he is the one to recognize the equal importance of both and to encourage them to work together for the interest of the entire company. Why then is there such a universal strife between these two mutually concerned divisions? The answer is that each is working in the dark as to what the other division is really doing, so that each one is ready to saddle the blame for any complaint or trouble that arises on the other division. Necessity for Production Reports The only way to prevent strife is for both the sales and manufacturing divisions to plan action on full and accurate reports of production conditions and the factory situation and the markets. Otherwise it is impossible for them both to get together in the right spirit and discuss their differences and mutual difficulties and to formulate policies incidentally mak- ing the work of both easier but designed first and foremost for the financial advantage of the entire company. Without the aid of reports based on accurate data, contact can end only in recrimination, ill-feeling, with the result that each will go its own way as before. It is, therefore, through scien- tific management that this strife is prevented, because the de- velopment of scientific management has separated the chaff from the wheat and brought out the essentials of the situation. The proper use of the reports depends, of course, upon some systematic contact between representatives of the manufac- turing division and the sales division. Even this first step, however, the provision for regular conference, is far from being a universal practice. One concern, having its divisions in three states — the sales division at the market center in New York; the manufacturing division in a small town where taxes are low, and the financial and secretarial divisions in a large center in still another state — went so far as to take the MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 329 stand that all correspondence and information between sales and manufacturing were to pass through the executive office. This decision served to divorce the two so completely that the sales division, having no idea of the needs of the manufactur- ing, burdened it with many unnecessary and expensive changes and sometimes even made promises which it afterward was obliged to confess to customers could not be filled. Although contact helps to prevent either the sales or the manufacturing division from being at the mercy of the other, it does not, as has been pointed out, of itself co-ordinate their activities. Co-ordination of activities depends on accurate, de- pendable, and accessible information as to the factory situation. In order to understand the service to which such information must be put, the activities of the two divisions must be viewed from new angles. Selling the Plant Capacity The usual conception of the duty of the sales manager is the simple one already stated at the beginning of the chapter — i.e., it is the selling of the company product. From another point of view, however, his duties are not so simple. In sell- ing the company product, he is really selling the plant capacity for making the product. What is meant by "selling plant capacity" may be explained by a reference to busi- ness conditions during the war. In a great many factories during this period the entire product of the factory was spoken for months in advance and the salesmen could not continue to sell, not because they lacked selling ability or because they could not stimulate demand, but because the plant capacity was already used up. In some cases this was due to the limited amount of equipment, but probably in more cases it was due to lack of labor, or of material on which to work — all three.qf which factors limit plant capacity. During the war many salesmen realized for the first time that by selling standard 330 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS lines for which material was already on hand, or on which the amount of labor was less, instead of booming the more easily selling specialties — in other words, by paying attention to manu- facturing needs — they could in a sense actually increase the plant capacity. Furthermore, any unsold capacity or idle equip- ment is a drag on the rest of the plant. The total overhead, which remains the same, cannot be distributed over so many items, and therefore the cost per unit produced rises. In a competitive market, where the prices are practically fixed, loss is therefore sure to follow unsold capacity. Accordingly it may actually be cheaper to sell some line at what superficially appears a loss in order to avoid a greater loss from unsold capacity. It does not necessarily follow that when the largest volume of product is sold, the cost of manufacturing is least and the profits the largest. Rather is it true that when the entire plant capacity is sold, then the profits are greatest. Reports on Plant Capacity Looking at selling and manufacturing from this angle, it is clear that the reports on which plans are based should show the available plant capacity for each line produced. Such a report is given for each operation separately, and includes a statement of the amount and type of work that each type of machine has yet to do. The reports are based on the two essentials of scientific management — job standardization and control. The informa- tion which they furnish has been collected by the methods department and is a result of the standards set by time study and job analysis. The application of this information in the factory, at any given time, is a part of the process of control. The material from which the reports are still further con- densed is constantly used in the detailed planning done by the planning department. Little extra work is involved in drawing it off and presenting it to the sales manager. MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 331 When an order is received, the planning department, as stated, first breaks it into jobs that can be handled conveniently and then analyzes these into the processes or operations through which each job will pass. Each one of the operations is re- corded on a separate card or slip. For instance, in a textile- mill the operation of winding warp, winding filling, making warp, drawing the warp through the reed, and weaving, would each be on a separate card. The standard time required to per- form this operation with each variation in the character of the job would have been determined beforehand by job standard- ization. At this point the charts described in Chapter XX would be of service, because they show the proficiency of the factory and how much time (if any) to allow over and above the standard. From these two sources — the standard time charts and the proficiency charts — the planning department is able to record on each operation card not only the time the job is to be started on the first operation, but also the time it can be expected to come out of that stage ready for the next operation. The variable factors of the order are also recorded on the card. A file is kept in the form of a visible index, which shows all the jobs or orders planned for the operation, and which are usually classed according to the special type of machine or labor neces- sitated by the variables of the job. This file shows the plan- ning department which machines are to be free at a particular date. Because of this information the clerk can schedule the job to the particular machine fitted and at liberty to do the work. If the equipment of any type is overloaded or under- loaded, the visible index, with its cards for each job, shows the condition at once. Method of Making Report Semiweekly or, if this means too much work, at least weekly, the planning superintendent can go over the visible 332 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS index and draw off from it a summary of the condition of work as regards the various operations, the dates on which machines of different types will be at liberty and the total hours of work ahead. He will also note the class of work on which the machines are occupied, since this will often mean that orders of the same class can be put in more easily — as, for example, if the loom has been producing a fine weave of cloth and is scheduled later for the same weave, it would be more economical to keep it going continuously on this weave. The sales manager and the manager of manufacturing in conference will go over this summary of the available plant capacity so that they may utilize and sell the plant capacity to the best advantage. Strengthening Sales Division Service The service of the sales division to its customers is strengthened by the resulting co-ordination of activities. It is enabled to make definite promise to its customers because it has definite production information Moreover it can reason- ably count upon keeping its promises. Good service on de- liveries is extremely important. Although a factory may have the best quality of goods to sell and the best force to sell them, failure to deliver at the specified time causes cancella- tions and loss of future sales. Giving this service depends on receiving accurate information from the manufacturing divi- sion as to shipment dates, and such accurate information can be determined as the result of detailed planning. The value to the customer in having a delivery date on which he can depend is very important. For instance, in an advertising campaign if the customer does not receive his printed matter on time, other contracts which he may have let for distributing it in certain issues of magazines may be upset. A case in point is that of a concern which made calendars. A calendar that reaches a client much after January i is about as inter- MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 333 esting as last week's newspaper. Yet in this particular concern the salesmen were always insisting on other orders being put in ahead, so that the calendars were never out on time. The manufacturing division accordingly sent reports to the sales division that gave a detailed statement as to the manufacturing situation, with the result that, although they made as many calendars as ever in 1920, for the first time in years they succeeded in getting all of them out before the middle of December. When delays are unavoidable the sales manager is notified and is also informed of the cause, as well as given another date for production with which he may appease the customer. By this means he is relieved of the embarrassment of explain- ing to inquiring customers the reason for the non-appearance of their goods on the promised date. The treatment of preference orders, which results from joint conferences on the manufacturing situation, is of great assistance to the sales manager. To put through every order as a "special" or a "rush" or even a "rush-rush" order means internal friction, broken promises, and dissatisfied customers. Nor is it easy, without definite figures, to convince the sales manager that any order to which he wishes to give preference must not displace work already laid ou*\ The reports, how- ever, show how the work is laid out, and whenever a request is made to give new work preference the manager of manufac- turing can point out to the sales manager exactly what would be displaced and the resulting cost. Then the sales manager may decide as to which work is most important. A reputation for uniformly prompt delivery dates is a much better sales card than promises of special favors which often cannot be kept. Increasing Economy of Manufacturing This rational method of rushing orders only after consider- ation of the need is a great relief to the manufacturing division. 334 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS Without such a method it is constantly required to make changes in plans, speed up employees, and sometimes even to take the half -completed product from the machine in order to make way for preference work. The duty of the manu- facturing division is to utilize to the full actual and potential plant capacity, and this it can do only by having the co-opera- tion of the sales division. With an organized method the manufacturing division is able to plan to handle orders more quickly. First of all the orders are reported to it as soon as they are received. Further- more it is furnished with the desired date of delivery. The neglect of the sales division to specify the date often causes misunderstanding. In one case much hard feeling arose be- tween a member of the sales division and the planning super- intendent over the delay of a certain order. Investigation showed that the order had been sent into the factory with no time limit for delivery marked on it. From that time until three weeks later, when it had been put into process, over thirty "rush" orders came in and were given preference over the delayed order. Moreover with standardized methods the plans of the manager of manufacturing are not subject to so many and to such elaborate alterations if there is a conference relative to the suggested changes with the sales manager. At that time a report of the factory situation can be given to him in which the expense involved in any suggested change will be made clear. He is even able, from his knowledge of the date on which equipment will be free, to make requests to the sales manager for orders which can be made on that equipment. By no means the least important of the benefits to both divisions is the establishment of friendly relations. Estimating Cost of Orders Another way in which the data compiled through job standardization should be used to balance the activities of the MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 335 manufacturing and selling divisions is in figuring estimates on the cost of orders. Data used for determining standards which the employees actually accomplish day in and day out may be put into tabular form for estimating purposes. In one case, where this was done at the solicitation of the sales division, it served as the first step in interesting that division in the work done by the manufacturing division. As a result the sales manager saw the value of changing some of the methods of figuring which had been in vogue for years and which were naturally based on general averages and were not so flexible or accurate as the data from the new source. Two great advantages accrue from figuring estimates on the data that is furnished by the manufacturing division and found by job standardization. The figures based on job standardization are absolutely dependable and accurate. The figures on which sales estimates are usually based have been reached by some one who at some time made a good guess. The method fol- lowed is to take all the machines as well as the jobs of a similar type and bring them under a single class, regardless of varia- tions in the character of jobs. Then one estimate is struck which is used for all jobs of this class. As a result a large margin of profit has to be allowed over and above this in- definite figure, whereas with accurate figures based on careful study and showing the actual cost of variations in orders it is possible for the sales manager to give much closer estimates, often thereby underbidding competitors. Another advantage is that if the estimates are figured on a manufacturing basis a close check is furnished between estimated and actual cost of performance. It is accordingly easy to find where orders have been taken on at a loss and to avoid repeating the mistake. Determining Company Policies The reports given the sales division by the manufacturing division are not only valuable in making detailed plans from 336 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS day to day and from week to week, but in determining broad policies of the company. The sales and manufacturing man- agers together can work out measures suited to their mutual needs which they may submit to the general manager for ap- proval. These include decisions as to maximum and minimum quantities of stock to be kept on hand, specialties to push, possi- bilities of development for new lines of product, and the ad- visability of standardizing the product, so as to reduce costly variations in style. Thus there are no longer two opposing points of view — the one, that the manufacturing division shall manufacture what the sales division can sell, and the other, that the sales division shall sell what the manufacturing divi- sion can manufacture. Instead the two are merged into one because of the company policy which is formulated to help the manufacturing division utilize the full plant capacity and to help the sales division sell the full plant capacity, with the single aim of the greatest economy and the largest profit to the business. CHAPTER XXIII JOB STANDARDIZATION AS A BASIS FOR LABOR MEDIATION A "Solution" of Labor Troubles Many manufacturers are afraid of job standardization as the cause of labor troubles. Though such an idea will be new to some people, the fact is that job standardization contributes largely toward the solution of labor troubles. Job standardiza- tion has really proved itself to be the best possible basis for im- provement of industrial relations; for labor troubles, like every other trouble, can be solved only by analysis and study of the elements entering into the situation. It must be remem- bered, however, that there are no final solutions to the labor problem. All that can be done whether one likes it or not, is to meet that. phase of the problem which concerns us most urgently at the moment The Labor Situation At present the situation is somewhat as follows : The em- ployer who is paying for labor time suspects that what he is paying for is being delivered only in part; because he has no means of checking up these doubts he is unwilling to pay a cent more than he is forced into paying. Exactly the same is true of the employee. He suspects that he is being given under- weight and so makes return in kind. It is like an exchange carried on in the dark, in which each one offers the other scamped goods for what he believes will prove on trial to be scamped goods. The exchange is carried on in equal igno- rance, and in the end, as at the beginning, both parties remain as much in doubt as ever as to the justice of their bickerings. 22 337 338 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS The Three Necessities To meet and overcome such a complication three things are necessary : i. To get at the facts. 2. To establish channels of contact, so that both employer and employee are put in possession of such facts as are pertinent. 3. To find a third party whose position allows him to get at the facts and without prejudice present them to both sides. Both the second and third points are dependent upon the first, that is, getting at the facts. As the situation now stands, at best only one side is informed on any one point. On the one hand the employees have more information as to the amount of work they are doing, on the other hand the employer has more information as to the situation from the financial point of view. Neither can be said to have exact data even on one of these two factors. Since both factors, the output and the finan- cial condition, are involved in almost all questions at issue, both sides are able only to* guess at the factor on which they are uninformed. The detail facts on the work are in reality as unknown to both as is the situation as a whole. In any wage dispute between the employer and the employees there are two main issues. The first is the obvious one, the amount of re- muneration to be paid. The second, inextricably mixed up with the first in the mind of the man on the street, is the amount to be produced. While it is inevitable that the two will be confused as long as no one knows the facts about either, it is quite possible to get the facts at least on the second issue, i.e., the amount to be produced. The method of getting these facts has been described as the work of job standardization. The first issue, the amount to be paid, has not been dealt with scientifically in the same way. There is still room for LABOR MEDIATION 339 opinion, judgment and compromise. The only hope, however, of reaching a settlement which has any claim to justice and any elements of permanence is to base opinion, judgment and com- promise upon the information found concerning the amount to be produced. Thus the first great essential in the industrial situation is dependent upon job standardization. Channels of Contact No settlement making for co-operation can be realized unless both sides have the necessary information. This is true not only in the case of an actual dispute, but also in the daily conduct of the industry. Capital must know, not by rule of thumb, but with scientific finality, the facts .that are indispensable to a just administering of its part of the obligation. Labor on its side must be as thoroughly informed of the facts which it needs to know and for the lack of which knowledge it falls back on accusations, recriminations and permanent suspicion. The situation will be met only when both sides have that complete assurance which comes from a knowledge that rock-bottom facts are available to all who are vitally concerned. The employer with little more than his financial idea about the situation cannot overcome the difficulty. Neither can the best energies of the employee be enlisted unless he knows that the facts he has are trustworthy. Any plan, if it is not exe- cuted in such a way as to enlist the energies of everyone con- cerned will surely be a partial failure and perhaps a total one. If the employees are convinced or are suspicious that job stand- ardization is being imposed on them in order to take away their jobs or to make machines of them, or if the foreman and other executives feels that their rights are being encroached upon, the plan becomes a liability instead of being an asset. In order to win their co-operation a full explanation should be given to all the members of the organization, from the superintendent to 340 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS the workmen. One result of making the whole organization a party to the work is that the facts are put in the possession of both sides. Mutual co-operation is brought about and maintained by the establishment of channels of contact. These may be in- formal or formal. Both kinds have been tried by employers, in some cases with considerable success in overcoming sus- picion and hostility on the part of the employees. Neither method can be used as an agency for intelligent co-opera- tion, however, unless there is first some intelligent basis for co-operation in place of mutual ignorance. Informal Contact Most of the informal channels by which information is brought quickly to the employees are, through necessity, pro- vided by the employer, and thus are dependent upon the degree of intelligence and the progressive attitude which the employer assumes toward the situation. Sometimes courses are instituted for the employees in which they are taught some of the principles and fundamentals of business in gen- eral and their business in particular. The usual channel of this sort is a purely personal one. A man in the manage- ment in whom the employees have faith and who works closely with them can talk with them and give any information de- sired. Such a man brings the employees into contact with the ideas of the management and the management into contact with the ideas of the employees. Formal Contact In using the formal channels of contact the employer again usually takes the initiative ; but if properly planned these formal channels function more or less independently of him. They provide a mechanism that gives the employees representation in the councils of the management. This mechanism may LABOR MEDIATION 341 have the form of the shop committee or works councils (which may or may not be unionized) and the plan, modeled on the lines of the United States Government, sometimes termed "industrial democracy." Under the former and less elaborate plan the employees elect representatives who meet in confer- ence with representatives of the employers, to thresh out griev- ances, wages, conditions, bonus, and manufacturing problems. Special committees and sub-committees are often appointed or elected to attend to special problems. Under the United States government plan, the house of representatives is elected by the employees, a certain number from each department according to the size, the senate is made up of executives, while the cabinet is composed of offi- cers of the company and those in supreme control. This plan is open to considerable modification in practice. Employee Representation Plan The United States government plan has been adapted by the Printz-Biederman Company to fit its conditions. In place of the senate, for instance, a planning board composed of rep- resentatives of each of the major divisions of the plant acts for the management. The planning board has proved capable of acting more quickly, decisively, and efficiently than the senate. The members of the house of representatives are elected from the departments, one to every 20 employees. There are from 30 to 40 members, representing about 600 employees. Regular meetings of the house are held on company time, once a week between 10 and 11 o'clock. An important provision, which should always be in effect where there is to be any real "democracy," is that the house of representatives is entitled to hold meetings alone. The cabinet, planning board, and betterment committee may be present in the house of represen- tative only by permission. 342 . TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS "The function of this House of Representatives shall be to study and recommend such action as shall be concerned with the production of good coats and suits at the lowest possible cost; the payment of highest profits, salaries and wages con- sistent with competitive ability and betterment of social and physical conditions among the people of the Printz-Biederman Company." Regular committees elected by the house of representatives are : a betterment committee, a wage committee, and a board of reviews. The betterment committee looks after all complaints cover- ing social and physical conditions of the employees. The wage committee determines, in agreement with the management, what minimum 'base rates shall be paid and, when such changes have not been satisfactorily adjusted by the foreman or superintendents, refers individual applicants for changes in rates to the management. The board of reviews is composed of two members of the management, chosen by it, and two representatives of the em- ployees chosen by the house of representatives. Its function is to consider all cases of discharge referred to it. If the testimony proves that the applicant has violated a rule affecting the standards of discipline or standards of production, or that he has been dishonest, he cannot be reinstated. Otherwise the findings of the board are final. A provision is made that in case the house of representa- tives and the management cannot come to an agreement on some question and have exhausted every means of settlement provided for in the constitution, they shall choose a person satisfactory to both to arbitrate the question. The plan, the management states : ". . . is designed to give our workers an opportunity to legislate together with the management on all matters connected with their work, such as wages, hours, and conditions of employment." LABOR MEDIATION 343 Such means and methods do not of themselves provide either side with the essential facts, but, the facts being known, they do make for co-operation. Mediation The third step in establishing co-operation is the employ- ment of a third person who can consider the facts without personal bias or prejudice in favor of either side. This man must have the confidence of both sides. On various occasions, indeed, capital and labor have been willing to make use of conciliation and arbitration, both of which involved submitting differences to an authorized board or person selected from the outside. The difference between conciliation and arbitration is that in the case of conciliation, no decision reached is binding on the disputants, whereas in the case of arbitration the decision has a binding force. Boards of conciliation and arbitration were organized during the war by the local, state and federal authorities to prevent losses re- sulting from long-drawn-out struggles. Prominent individuals were even asked to pass upon the merits of an issue. Now that the war is over employers and employees are as far apart as they dare be in refusing to arbitrate. In spite of the cost they prefer to fight out the issue, for the reason that they both have suffered from the defects of arbitration as commonly em- ployed. Defects of Customary Arbitration The reason that conciliation and arbitration have proved inadequate is that the position of the third party has been a .false one. In the first place he is usually called in to arbitrate at a date when the bickerings have already reached the point of open conflict and neither side is in a mood to compromise. In the second place he has no way of being informed on the actual situation. To examine the problem thoroughly would 344 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS take months, or perhaps years, and no one is willing to wait so long, as was demonstrated in the outlaw strikes by the rail- road brotherhoods in 1920. The arbitrator is moreover obliged to sift and weigh such evidence as he is given, which means that he must be an exceptional man. He usually has no way of checking the evidence, because he rarely knows the difficulties of the particular industry and plan, but only the difficulties of industry in general. He is, accordingly, obliged to make a superficial decision, which may, or may not, reach the sore spots. If his decision is not final, and he is acting only as a conciliator, the fact that both sides are thoroughly aroused before he is called in makes it unlikely that the side to which his findings appear less favorable will be ruled by it. Even if the agreement provides that his decision is final, any decision not based on the facts of the situation will serve only to postpone open conflict for the time being. While conciliation and arbi- tration cannot be considered as anything more than makeshifts and are in no sense substitutes for co-operation, they do at least make clear this much :• the necessity for a third party, ac- ceptable to both capital and labor, who can mediate their diffi- culties by bringing out the facts. The Analyst as Mediator The logical third party for mediation to call upon is the one who is able to present the facts on which decision must be based. That person is the analyst. In a sense he is the indus- trial mediator, working in conjunction with those immediately concerned. There have been, however, arguments against the use of such a mediator, for capital has been accused, and, in some cases rightly, of abusing technical information submitted to it by experts in its employ. Capital itself, moreover, has felt that the information furnished by the industrial engineer was in many cases, largely a mass of involved detail. LABOR MEDIATION 345 Now, however, that the technique of sciences is being used increasingly, the qualifications of the analyst are becoming more and more clear. He is, first of all possessed of the chief requisite needed by both sides ; a complete and detailed knowledge of the facts. Through job standardization he knows exactly what amount the average skilled employee can be expected to produce ; he is also informed on the market rates and the relative requirements of the various operations. Unlike the ordinary arbitrator, he is not obliged to make a special investigation in order to ascertain the facts, because he already has them in hand. At a time when delay is un- fortunate, such a resource diminishes losses to employees in wages by shortening the period of open conflict. Being in possession of the facts, he is able to furnish them before the clash comes, and, as a result, he is often in a position to act as conciliator. The type of man needed in job standardization is also the type of man fitted to undertake the duties of mediator. He must be respected by employers and employees, because his work is checked up by both. He must be ready at all times to listen to both sides, and he must have shown himself to be open-minded. Neutrality of Analyst Under some conditions an objection may be raised by the employees to the analyst in the role of mediator, in that he is not neutral. This is often true if he is employed directly by the concern and his job is thus dependent on the fact of his standing in well with the employer. Where the analyst is the representative of a firm of consulting engineers in indus- trial management, this objection has not been raised, even though the firm is retained by the management. The firm, however, must be one with a reputation over many years of 346 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS practice of fair dealings with both capital and labor in order to be accepted by them as a neutral third party. In one or two instances the analyst has actually been jointly employed. The analyst who is acting as mediator carries on his usual duties in the factory in the same way as has been described. In the course of his daily routine he acquires the information which is so essential to his duties as mediator. The fact that he is finding a just balance between the various operations, that he is helping to standardize the work in such a way that he is making it possible for the employer to give additional pay for increased production resulting from standardized efforts, reduces the likelihood of trouble over wages and condi- tions of work. Whenever there is any dissatisfaction or dis- pute over the base rates, or over any rates, or over payments for any operation, the employer or employee may call on him for information. In the case of a serious dispute the duties of the analyst include, in addition to furnishing information, a suggestion for settlement based on his knowledge of the facts at issue. If the analyst can reveal to each side the point of view of the other side, and at the same time can place before both all the information concerning the question at issue, he succeeds in casting some light on what has hitherto been a struggle in the dark. Both capital and labor are thus placed in a position in which they are able and willing to consider the settlement he proposes, or any modification of a settlement which they can agree upon, on the basis of mutual understanding in the place of mutual suspicion. Examples of Analyst as Mediator An interesting example of the work of the analyst as mediator occurred in 191 6 in connection with the New York dress and waist industry where job standardization was intro- LABOR MEDIATION 347 duced to replace an economically devastating warfare. The late Robert G. Valentine, serving as director of a board of protocol standards succeeded in having job standardization introduced, so that decisions could be based on exact findings. The important problem before the board concerned wages. An hourly wage of 35 cents for the average employee had been agreed upon, but the work was almost entirely on a piece-rate basis, and the relation between thousands of styles of garments, the different kinds of materials used, the unskilled and the skilled employee, and the various degrees of skill called for by different divisions of the labor of garment making, were all points left to the board. Piece rates had formerly been set by means of an elaborate system of shop tests, which resulted in innumerable disputes and in rates which were disproportion- ate. In one instance, after analysis, the manager admitted the insufficiency of the rate and raised it, the raise being retroactive to the agreement. In another instance the union, convinced that the rate was too high, paid the difference between the sum the manufacturer had paid in wages, at $4.20 a dozen waists, and the sum he should have paid at the revised rate of $3.85 a dozen waists, the sum amounting to several hundred dollars. A union member was one of the "assistants" working under the direction of the analyst. On this spirit of fairness it was possible for the representa- tives of the manufacturers and of the unions to meet with the director of the board of protocol standards, recognize the definite conclusions drawn from job standardization, and agree upon piece rates on the basis of the data furnished. The building up of operations from the elements was like the building up of thousands of words from the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, and created a language in which the workers and manufacturers could talk intelligently. In this case collective bargaining, on the one hand, was not done away with, and on the other, time study and job analysis 348 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS and its results were not forced upon the employees by the management. The basic wage rate was still a matter for collective bargaining. But the original bargain once struck along broad lines, the details of the settlement were left to job standardization, carried out under the supervision and with the co-operation of both sides. Although in this particular case further action was stopped, it was not from the inade- quacy of job standardization but from a series of outside and highly conflicting interests. It seems not unlikely that among the industrial changes in the future will be the use of job standardization in individual manufacturing plants, with labor co-operating with the man- agement and sharing the control, much along the lines devel- oped by Mr. Valentine. Another arrangement somewhat resembling the union agreement made at the instigation of Mr. Valentine is that of a committee for the introduction of job standardization to help avoid labor complications. This committee, organized in a printing concern, consists of the labor manager, who repre- sents the company, one of the union workmen, who represents the shop, and the analyst, who represents the neutral party by being the representative of an outside industrial engineering firm. These three handle the problems that come up, because they have the backing of both sides, and because all who are interested know what is going on and the nature of the object to be attained. Employee representation, although not including the prin- ciple of collective bargaining, provides for arrangements along similar lines. While it would be most unlikely that the employees would have sufficient solidarity to pool their re- sources and combine to employ experts jointly with the man- agement, there is provided, nevertheless, an opportunity for the analyst to act in the role of mediator. Because the em- ployees have every chance to make their voice heard in the LABOR MEDIATION 349 conduct of the industry as well as every chance of knowing that the management is fair, they are ready even in disputed cases to accept the decisions of the analyst. Conclusion Democratic organizations, whatever the type, under which both sides are attempting to deal together with industrial prob- lems, are the ideal bodies to undertake job standardization. They are endeavoring to minimize the industrial struggle, but they are still in the dark. By furnishing the facts on the very problems with which they are wrestling, job standardization makes it possible to avoid the waste and misery of industrial conflict. At the same time, by adding to the joint effectiveness of labor and capital in production, it increases the total fund available for wages and profit. APPENDIX A REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER Description of Operation As shown in Figure 75, the paper to be reeled, trimmed on both edges, and inspected, comes in large rolls which are placed on the bottom of the machine. The loose end is then threaded over guide rolls and circular knives at the top and back of the machine, and brought forward to the winding shaft at the top and front of the machine. In th^. finished roll there are usually 2,000 sheets 20 inches long (3,333 linear feet) with an average width of 26 inches. As the paper is wound on the finished roll, the operator tears out and throws away imperfect paper and glues the two good ends together in what is termed a splice. The finished rolls are taken from the machines, wrapped and delivered to the packing room. The job analysis indicated the following possibilities for improvements : 1. Increase in production from machines due to improved methods saving time and labor with a bonus incen- tive and graphical competitive accomplishment charts. 2. Saving in waste of material on machines due to train- ing employees and making bonus earned partly de- pendent on care in taking out waste. 3. Saving in waste of time on machines caused by absence of operators, break-downs, and daily and weekly cleaning of machines. This saving would be gained by better planning, mechanical inspection, and by doing the cleaning out of hours. 35i 352 APPENDIX A REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 353 4. Improved quality by machine operators due to training and to making bonus earned dependent on care in taking out bad paper, making good splices, and trimming. 5. Saving in waste of material and time on auxiliary oper- ations handling rolls going to and from the machines, and in wrapping and trucking the rolls out of the department. This saving would be gained by devel- oping two special trucks, one for feed rolls and one for finished rolls, changing the planning, and control routine, and by putting the auxiliary men on bonus. 6. Saving of departmental clerk due to changing the plan- ning and control routine and to keeping the lots of paper separate by means of the new trucks. Changes in Methods and Equipment Under the unstandardized conditions the machines were shut down while the operator, if a girl, waited for a man, frequently the operator of another machine, to take the shaft with the finished roll from the machine, pull the shaft out of the roll, put an empty strawboard core on the shaft, and re- place it in the machine. Of the two collars used on the finished roll-shaft to guide the paper (see Figure 75) the left-hand one was never clamped in final position until several feet of paper had been wound on the core to indicate the exact width of the sheet. The adjustment when made necessitated a special shut down. These delays were cut down by providing two extra finished roll shafts for each machine and a man for each three machines to do all the work, except actual lifting from and onto the machine, while the machines were running. The collar adjustment was made before the shaft was put on the machine by providing measuring sticks equal in length to the width of the paper. 354 APPENDIX A Similarly, it was the custom to change the feed roll by- taking out the shaft with the empty core, pulling off the core, putting on a new roll and finally putting the shaft and roll back on the machine. After the roll was in the machine a heavy paper wrapper was taken off. These delays were cut down by providing an extra shaft so that a roll stood ready to go into the machine at all times. The wrapper was removed ahead of time and later, when the special trucks (see Figure 76) were available for keeping the paper off the floor, it was discontinued altogether. A considerable improvement in making splices was effected. Formerly a strip of bad paper was torn or cut out, leaving uneven ends. Before splicing both ends were carefully folded, creased and torn off to leave a smooth square end. Glue was then "painted" on one end, the other end lapped over and rubbed down. The girls were taught to cut out the bad paper by cutting with one stroke of the knife at each end in such a way as to leave the end good enough for a splice. Tests proved also that the right amount of glue could be applied by drawing the brush once across the paper, and that the rubbing could be reduced to one firm stroke of the hand. Formerly a paper band was wrapped around each finished roll, glued, and certain information written on it by the em- ployees before the roll was taken from the machines. Gummed labels, furnished with information partly filled in by the plan- ning department, were substituted. Incidentally this device cut down clerical work formerly done by the departmental clerk. Information concerning the rolls handled was formerly written on three separate tickets by the employee. Two of these were cut out and the information formerly posted on three is put on one. Chairs with a special pigeon-hole and rack for the girls were devised which enabled them to store samples, tags and strawboard cores in the chair instead of walking across an REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 35: 356 APPENDIX A aisk where they were placed formerly. These chairs were also provided with backs which were of some help to the girls. The truck on which the finished rolls are placed, shown in Figure JJ, was designed to save rehandling of rolls through keeping each customer's orders together. In this way each order worked upon can be handled and delivered to the packer separately, thus avoiding sorting and checking of rolls. The truckers had previously gone about the room with a smaller truck selecting rolls here and there according to customer's ' orders and placing them on the floor convenient to the sealers who put a heavy wrapping paper around each roll and sealed this so as to keep the roll of paper from getting damaged. The sealers sealed the rolls and put them back on the floor, j Later a trucker would pick them up and after they had been checked by a clerk they were taken to the packing room. With the new truck the 5 rolls are moved directly from the machine to the wrapper and left on the truck. The wrapper seals them and puts them on a truck holding two 5-roll units, 10 rolls in all, on the opposite side of his bench. This truck- load is then moved to the packer who signs for them — which means that the rolls have been received by the packing room. The work of the sealer and trucker is cut down and clerical checking is entirely eliminated. The feed-roll truck shown in Figure JJ was designed to receive the feed roll as it is dropped out of the machine. It was also designed for carrying the roll to the reeling depart- ment ; and to contain the roll while it was waiting to be reeled. Furthermore it was designed so that it might be pushed directly under the reeling machines in such a way that the roll (with the shaft previously put in place) could be pushed over the edge and dropped into place with the shafts resting in the bearings. Through the use of this truck, time is saved for the tender because he no longer has to rehandle rolls on the ordin- ary baggage truck — in fact, his work with the new truck is REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 357 358 APPENDIX A much easier. Considerable waste is prevented because each roll is left on trucks which are wide and long enough to pre- vent collisions between the roll and other rolls on trucks. Such a precaution lessens the risk of tearing the edges of the paper. A variable speed motor designed under the direction of the company superintendent and master mechanic was an especially ingenious device. The machine was orginally driven by a belt to the shaft carrying the finished roll. This gave the shaft a uniform speed in revolutions per minute, so, of course, the speed of the paper in feet per minute increased as the size of the finished roll increased in diameter from 2 to 12 inches. Under the new plan the handle of the rheostat which controls the speed of the motor is connected with the sheet counter that rides on the finished roll. As the roll gets larger the counter is lifted higher and higher and the rheostat handle is pushed along over the resistance contacts in such a way that the revo- lutions per minute of the finished roll-shaft vary, whereas the linear feet of paper reeled per minute is practically uniform from the start to finish. The speed selected is the maximum reached with the old equipment. The effect of the increased speed on production was inter- esting. Records indicated that the mere installation of the motor showed no increase in output as a result of the 59.1 per cent increase in speed. This condition was entirely logical. In the first place, the actual running time of the machines was only 25 per cent — the balance of 75 per cent being used for changing rolls and other operations. In the second place, the new speed was greater than formerly so that bad paper was wound into the finished roll before the girl, who was not accustomed to this greater speed, could stop the machine. The extra time needed to unwind and wind up by hand, off-set the increase in speed. When, however, the standardized bonus system was introduced for the machine operators, the propor- tion of running time was increased, and the money incentive, REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 359 based on work turned out, kept the girls wide enough awake to stop the machine promptly when bad paper came along. The method of stopping was much improved also. Of the other improvements, the spring clip for the counter enables the operator, when splicing or changing rolls, to push the counter out of the way with one hand instead of using both hands as it formerly was necessary to do when the counter was hung upon a hook that swung from the ceiling. A simple device was also developed for threading the paper into the machine. A curved piece of galvanized iron was placed on the back of the machine in such a way that the girl, in threading the paper through the machine, pushed the paper from her under the revolving knives into the semi-circle- shaped curve of the sheet of iron. The end of the paper then automatically reversed its direction and came forward over the knives to the front of the machine. Formerly it had been necessary to push the paper back under the knives and then walk to the back of the machine and push it forward over the knives. Estimated Increase in Output After several months of time-study work, an estimate of the increase in output on the reeling machines was made and the total itemized and credited to the various causes as follows : Per Cent of Old , Annual Output Tender to change rolls and extra shafts : Feed Roll 8.75 Finished Roll 15.46 Elimination of wrapper on feed roll due to special truck , 6.65 Preparation of glue and oiling machines 8.57 Ends split for splices instead of folded and torn 5.52 3<5° APPENDIX A Cleaning after hours by janitor 11.18 Band on finished roll replaced by gummed label 4.87 Labels prepared in planning department 0.74 Revised job ticket 1.09 Reduction in samples due to standardization 5.95 Samples and tags stored in operators' bench instead of across an aisle 1.02 Variable speed motor giving a uniform speed 59.1% greater than previous average speed 8.67 Decreased down time due to better planning 12.10 Spring clip for counter instead of hook 1.14 Automatic return for threading paper through the machine 0.97 Total annual increase due to improved methods .... 92.68 Increase due to extra effort of the operators and to elimination of miscellaneous delays 7 l -Z 2 Total annual increase in output 164.0% It was necessary to itemize the saving in this way because the proposed changes in methods were radical in some cases and appeared to the foreman and company officials to involve a possible deterioration in quality. Under day-work conditions these changes would undoubtedly have encouraged slackness and a deterioration in quality, but under bonus conditions with each employee paid practically in proportion to her interest in her work the changes could be made with no danger what- ever to quality. The changes listed were actually made. Outline of Plan of Bonus Payments In laying out a method of paying bonuses it was necessary to pay strictly in proportion to the effort of the employee. The effort of the employee, however, was in no sense measured by the amount of paper used or finished. It was necessary to take into account the effort of stopping the machine, taking REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 361 — C«m Ov ■■"> O u 8 fe^nl g.S to . s»H g.S « J 3 M J.O, „, «> » r/> E Bs aJ g.g!tl tn &fc o g-3 > sy 3 & « CJ p 4J - o in o rj S0_ £ 3 o 1- H c n O - O <-> - >" O C ^j n r^ "" "* M c m N H M M " c coo 000 O N O n O O O O n O r> O X O 10 N 10 tn M O O ■* 1- w M M H CM Oi 6% I h o_ 0_ 2 „ M 00 ro in ~ r-~ OO000OO0O p « 10 a -* rt ii o O100OOO0O O «>o o O woe o 10 w \0_-0 0_ 01 rO» »sO r^ m N M m CN ■*w O CN 01 00 00 10 MM M w Vt b ° y ^rS , 00 r^ O. CO 10 a ov ta t^ J w S t^ 10 cS w u "> w* ClJ fl fe^ »» 00 a ■fc O o m K m" O ^ ■* 10 ^ cd O 10 ™ 3 a d H t 0) 'aj ro H f 6 6^ ni a> a) cx5 !i% a> u g s 3 M 3 B cm i-t to E s tS n! M s - A u 3 O ^3 V* e 60 s O ^ ^a pi c ES H W ,5 IS T3 3,-P " 'g O CO so ^ ^P= mJ C 362 APPENDIX A out waste, making splices, and matching samples whenever the paper was not continuously in the feed roll. Figure 78 shows the many savings under various conditions due to this bonus installation. Columns (1), (2), (3), and (4) show the cost for labor plus overhead with the work being done under the conditions before job standardization was undertaken. Columns (5), (6), (7), and (8) show the cost after job analysis has been completed. Columns (1) and (5), (2) and (6), (3) and (7), and (4) and (8) are figured on the same quantity of output. The figured savings per year vary from $4,974, with the output corresponding to the average produced between 1918 and 1919, to $26,419, if the full output of the machines can be disposed of by the sales department. The unit cost per ream of 500 sheets of paper with the machines running full is $.086 against $.12 with a small output. APPENDIX B ECONOMIES OBTAINED IN PAPER-MAKING The operation of a paper machine involves great expense and presupposes considerable skill on the part of the operator. Because of the skill required and the effect of even slight varia- tions on the finished paper that result from mishandling the machine, executives of paper-mills are loath to inaugurate any standardizing processes. In one mill, however, the finishing processes were standardized, and in this way was made possible the studying of the paper-making machinery itself. It was found that the increase in production of a paper machine might be accomplished in three ways : i. By increasing the speed of the machine. 2. By making the sheet of paper on the machine the greatest possible width, or, as it is technically called, increasing the deckle width to the maximum. 3. By reducing the number and length of shut downs through better planning of the orders. In the case under consideration, to establish correct speed standards past records were tabulated, showing the speed of the paper machine for each kind of paper run on the machines. It was found that with the same "furnish" (combination of raw materials from which the paper is made), the speeds of the machine, on orders run at different times, would vary as much as 50 per cent. This variation in speed was caused sometimes by variation in the stock, and particularly by lack of uniform- ity in the raw materials. As a result of this study and through the partial standard- ization of the beating of the stock, definite speeds for certain 363 3 6 4 APPENDIX B grades of paper were established for each furnish. The stan- dard speeds of the paper machines which were established for one grade of paper are shown in Figure 79. The small circles in the figure show the actual speeds at which the machine was run for different weights of paper before the standards were set. The full lines indicate the speeds determined by time study. The speed of the machine varies with the weight of 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Figure 79. Standard Speeds for One Grade of Paper the paper, as is to be expected, because the heavier the paper, the slower the machine will have to run in order to get a uni- form product off the machine. The study also showed that a paper without a water mark could be run at very much faster speed than a paper which had to have a water mark; also that different kinds of water marks required different speeds. Many high-grade writing papers are cut out into sheets at the finishing end of the paper machine when they have to be put through the dry lofts in order to get the best quality of ECONOMIES OBTAINED IN PAPER-MAKING 365 finished paper. The studies showed that the paper which was cut into a 24-inch length could not be run as fast on a ma- chine as a paper cut thirty-eight inches long. This is shown in the figure by the straight lines intercepting the curved lines. An illustration of determining the speed of the machine for this grade of paper, as given in Figure 79, will clarify what may seem to the casual observer quite complicated. Let us assume, for instance, that we wish to determine the speed of the paper machine for stock which weighs 50 pounds per ream (paper not water-marked — in other words "plain") and which is to be cut 34 inches long. The speed of the ma- chine can be determined directly by following the vertical line at the point marked 50 on the lower line of the figure to the straight line marked 34 inches, as this is the length of the sheet. The speed of the machine therefore is seen to be 165 feet per minute. If the sheet had been cut 38 inches long, the speed could have been increased to 182 feet. Again, if the paper had not been cut in sheets but had been taken off on a roll, the speed of the machine could have been increased to 192 feet per minute. The increase in speed of the paper machine varied with the various grades of paper. In some cases at the start it was found that some of the speeds were increased as much as 30 per cent, and in other cases even more, over the average of the old speeds. These increases are considerable when one realizes that the quality factor is a very large part of the mak- ing of paper. APPENDIX C STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS All work which is standardized through job standardiza- tion involves a combination of production and quality stan- dards. Usually the production standards are stressed, with quality taken care of by fixing definite percentage or by definite amounts of money by which, in the event that certain specified quality standards are not obtained, the production bonus is decreased or not allowed at all. Occasionally, however, the analyst is faced with an exceptional case, as is cited here. In this instance the attaining of quality standards are the big fac- tors, instead of the production factor, as in ordinary cases. The production factor is taken care of by reducing the num- ber of employees to a point where reasonably diligent efforts are necessary to get out the day's work. The problem of standardization in this case was unique in that it was not a question of producing in a given time the same product of a certain quantity, that must have a certain finish which determines the quality, it was a case in which it was necessary to take pulp colors that had been purchased from different color manufacturers and received in barrels and obtain from them batches of color, which would contain the same color value. These batches of color are used in the process of coating paper stock and a few minutes reflection will show the necessity of having the color uniform in shade so that when one lot is compared with another there shall be no disparity. There are many variables involved in this prob- lem, such as the varying shades of the paper itself, the amount 366 STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS 367 of foreign matter in the color, as well as other ingredients used in the coating, and so on. These, however, are within certain limits and not as serious as the factor of pulp colors. The pulp colors when they came from the manufacturer showed such varying percentages of moisture that 100 pounds used for one mixture of color might have the same color value as 130 pounds used for the next mixture. Naturally it was difficult to retain any one shade, especially when several differ- ent pulps were mixed to give the shade required. The standards to this process were arrived at by carrying out a series of tests to determine the proper method of measur- ing, mixing, and handling the colors which were used in the orders actually being turned out by the mill and not done as an experimental proposition. In this way it was possible to de- termine the discrepancies and losses of all kinds under each particular condition. This required painstaking work on the part of everybody connected with the investigation. The in- structions, standards, and allowances as determined by the ana- lyst are appended. Schedule A Bonus Standards on Mixing Pulps 1. Mixing Requirements for Pulps in Cans Every can, except Steel Blue Eakins, must be mixed once a day with a paddle. Every can from which pulp is to be sent downstairs on an order must be thoroughly mixed with hand paddle before material is taken out. From 10 to 15 cans will be tested or inspected daily. Cans tested must come within 100 per cent of the amount of water in the can at the start. Thus, 49 to 51 as against 50 per cent standard. A special mixing will be allowed before sampling for this test. Cans inspected must show no pulp deposited on the bottom or sides of the can, no lumps and no water on top. This in- Allow 60 per cent of daily bonus 368 APPENDIX C spection will be made shortly after the can is mixed in the morning, or an order from the Color Room Planning Depart- ment is filled. 2. Bonus for Mixing of Pulps in Cans One can found with pulp deposits on bottom or sides, or in lumps, or found with water on top, or found to have 1 per cent more or less mois- ture than was originally in the can after the laboratory test ~ r ■ -j . , , , jl Allow 30 per cent of lwo cans found not up to standard I , ., , J daily bonus Allow none of the Three cans found not up to standard j. daily bonus for mix- ing pulps Instruction for Mixing Pulps 1. Pulp Mixing Is Easy // you get a smooth mix free from all lumps on the Brighton Mixer. If you get a prompt moisture test, add water accurately, and mix at once. // you keep the pulp in condition by mixing thoroughly once a day. // you scrape all pulp from the sides and bottom of the can before trying to mix. Detail Instructions 2. Mixing Pulp from Barrels on Brighton Mixer Fill can from barrel. Put in only enough pulp to permit careful paddle mixing, without slopping, after water is added. Mix until smooth and free from all lumps, and until bottom corner is free from all deposits. Take sample from laboratory before Brighton Mixer is shut down. Do not skim the sample from the top but dip down into the pulp. Put sample into jar, cover tightly, and take to laboratory with- out delay. STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS 369 Scrape pulp from mixer paddles into can, remove can and cover tightly. Wash paddles in a pail of water. 3. Adding Water after Moisture Test Laboratory will report water to the nearest % pound. Weigh water accurately and add to can without slopping. Mix water into pulp at once, using hand paddles. 4* Daily Mixing of Pulps Mix every pulp with hand paddle once a day as early in the morning as possible. 5. Mixing before Filling Orders Get scales and dish ready and adjust the weights for tare before starting to mix. Get the dipper ready to use. Mix the pulp thoroughly with the paddle. Change from paddle to dipper quickly and weigh out the mate- rial. Put in the last few pounds slowly and get an accurate weight but lose no time on the bulk of the pulp. Fill the dipper each time by dipping well down into the can and sweeping the dipper through the can from one side to the other. Avoid spilling any pulp. If the dish must be filled a second time, as is the case for orders over fifty pounds, tare the dish a second time. Mix the pulp with the dipper before taking out the second lot. This care is necessary because the pulp starts to settle as soon as mixing is stopped. If the mixing is done first and a delay follows while the scales and dish are brought from across the room, etc., the material taken out will not be thoroughly mixed. In all cases if mixing is done and a delay follows, mix again before trying to fill an order. 6. Special Mixing for a Check Moisture Test Check moisture tests will be made from time to time to de- termine if the bonus is earned. These tests will be made on pulp in cans partly used up or on pulp sent downstairs to. fill an order. In all cases the pulp from which the sample is to be taken will be given a special mixing in the Monitor. 370 APPENDIX C y. Method of Handling Paddle while Mixing Hold the paddle nearly perpendicular with right hand on top of the handle, and left hand about two feet below the top. Scrape the side of the can, holding the paddle perpendicular. Scrape the bottom of the can by pushing the paddle straight back and forth until the entire bottom is clean. Scrape the side of the can once more, making a special effort to clean out the lower corner. Stir the pulp. Start the pulp swirling around the can in a clock- wise motion, then change suddenly and stir in the opposite direction. Cover all parts of the can. Test the results of mixing by scraping the bottom and sides of the can to see if thick material collects on the end of the paddle, and by lifting a mass of pulp out on the paddle blade and letting it fall slowly back into the can. The pulp should be smooth and free from lumps and uniform in all parts of the can. 8. Brighton Mixer vs. Hand Paddle The Brighton Mixer may be used in place of the wooden paddle at any time provided it does not slow down the work. The Brighton Mixer must be used on Steel Blue Eakins. Quality Requirements for Handling and Weighing Pulps A daily physical inventory will be taken on a number of cans of pulp, selected at random. The amount in the can must equal the amount started minus the orders filled within the following limits : A loss of 6 ounces for each day the can has been in the Monitor (this allows for the daily mixing). A loss of 6 ounces for each order taken from the can (this allows for the mixing before each order). A loss of 4 ounces for each order taken from the can. Example : A can of 350 pounds is filled on Monday. On Thursday it is inventoried for a bonus test. Orders have been filled as following during the 4 days: 50, 65, 40, 100, 10, and 5 pounds, or a total of 270 pounds. How much should then be left in the can? Answer : The allowable loss on 4 daily mixings is 4 X 6 ounces = 1J/2 pounds. The allowable loss on 6 mixings be- STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS 371 fore filling orders is 6 X 6 ounces = 2% pounds. The allow- able loss on weighing 6 orders is 6 X 4 ounces — 1 14 pounds. The total allowable loss is iy 2 plus 234 plus i>2 = S l A pounds. The amount in the can should range between a maximum of 80 pounds and a minimum of 74^ pounds. Bonus Payments For Handling and Weighing Pulps In case the cans weighed for the daily tests do not come within the limits specified by the quality requirements, the full bonus is not earned for the day. For only 1 can outside the limits specified, allow 75 per cent of the daily bonus. For 2 cans outside the limits specified, allow 40 per cent of the daily bonus. For 3 cans outside the limits specified, allow none of the daily bonus. Instructions for Weighing and Handling Pulps To Avoid Losses and Discrepancies To earn the bonus paid for accurate and careful handling for all pulps it is necessary to : 1. Avoid losses of all kinds. 2. Weigh all material accurately. 1. Method of Avoiding Losses Don't fill pulp cans so full that you cannot stir without slopping after the water is added. Wipe the Brighton Mixer blades clean after grinding and see that all pulp gets back into the can (do not rinse the blades into pulp cans; rinse into pail of water). Put the sample for moisture test into a covered carton and avoid spilling. Scrape all pulp, sticking to the knives or spoon used for sampling, back into the can. Put back into the can the sample sent to the laboratory. Nearly all of it will be returned. Scrape the carton clean and be sure to get this pulp into the can it originally came from. Avoid spilling pulp or water when mixing in water ordered by laboratory, when mixing can daily or before filling orders. 372 APPENDIX C Scrape the wooden paddle clean after mixing, by scraping on edge of can. Avoid spilling pulp when weighing orders. 2. Method of Weighing Accurately So That the Actual Weight in the Can Will Be the Weight Shown on the Planning Department Books Get the weight right to start with. All cans will be weighed for tare and a list posted in the Monitor. Weigh every can of pulp after grinding. See that the carton of pulp for the laboratory moisture test is placed on the scales with the can. Enter the weight on the bin tag and on the mixing ticket. Weigh accurately the water ordered after the moisture test. Enter the weight of water on the bin tag and on the mixing ticket. 3. The Weight of Pulp Plus Water Must Be Completely Accounted for If the Bonus Is to Be Earned Weigh each order accurately. See that the scales are clean. Weigh the small dish for tare. Set the weight accurately. Adjust the pulp in the dish until the scale beam balances ex- actly. If more than one dishful is needed, tare the dish before each weighing. Avoid mistakes due to shifting of weights by vibration; check the readings on the beam after the weighing is done. Report information to planning department clearly and ac- curately. Show can numbers from which pulp is taken. If an order is split between two cans, show the can numbers and the amount taken from each. If pulp is transferred from one can to another, be sure that the bin tags show what actually happened, and that the planning department is fully informed. Do the work as rapidly as possible but take time enough to do it right. If you are in doubt what to do under these instructions, take the matter up with Mr. Jones. APPENDIX D CONSTRUCTING HOMES UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT METHODS In applying scientific management principles to the con- struction of homes a peculiar problem was presented : each unit or home was comparatively small and the work required but a few men from different trades. Another peculiarity was that the homes were scattered over a large area. Some of them were in adjoining lots, others were a mile or more apart. Despite these facts the analyst was able to apply the same principles he had used in the construction of large units, such as concrete buildings in all kinds of industrial plants. In order to show the comparison between work done by day labor and by scientific management, several houses were selected where the work had been done by day labor under a very competent foreman who had in fact formerly subcon- tracted for his work at low costs. An equal number was selected to exemplify the scientific method. A comparison of the relative cost showed that the cost in the two houses built by day labor was as follows : i. Setting of first-floor joists cost 78 per cent more than with time work with bonus. 2. Erecting first-floor curtain walls cost 26 per cent more than with time work with bonus. 3. Erecting second-floor curtain walls cost 16 per cent more than with time work with bonus. 4. Erecting first-floor subfloor cost 54 per cent more than with time work with bonus. 5. Erecting second-floor subfloor cost 59 per cent more than with time work with bonus. 373 374 APPENDIX D In the work of common laborers, such as trenching and backfilling for sewers and water pipe, large reductions in cost were also effected. For example, in a case where the digging was of an exceptionally hard and varied character, because of the stiff, tenacious clay, the following results were obtained : Unit Cost Unit Cost With Partial Bonus Operation No Bonus Work Work Excavation 48.0 cents per cu. yd. 34.8 cents per cu. yd. Pipelaying n.i cents per lin. ft. 4.5 cents per lin. ft. Backfilling 34.6 cents per cu. yd. 10.6 cents per cu. yd. These results were obtained by : 1. Economical design and layout of construction opera- tions. 2. Laying out in advance the method of handling the work to reduce to a minimum the quantity of con- struction material. 3. Selection of the best tools and materials. 4. Arranging the processes to simplify the work, and teaching the men how to do each process in the best way. 5. Designating in advance the amount of work to be done by each man. 6. Giving the men a definite money incentive to encourage them to do a large day's work. 7. Eliminating the time ordinarily lost by workmen, in waiting for orders, waiting for foreman to lay out the work, waiting for materials, looking up tools, using improper tools. The general principles that may be applied to construction operations are similar to those which have proved so satis- factory in shop management. As Mr. Taylor so ably states : CONSTRUCTING HOMES 375 Under scientific management the "initiative" of the work- men (that is, their hard work, their good-will, and their ingenuity) is obtained with absolute uniformity and to a greater extent than is possible under the old system ; and in addition to this improvement on the part of the men, the managers assume new burdens, new duties, and responsibili- ties never dreamed of in the past. The managers assume, for instance, the burden of gathering together all of the tradi- tional knowledge which in the past has been possessed by the workmen and then of classifying, tabulating, and re- ducing this knowledge to rules, laws, and formulae which are immensely helpful to the workmen in doing their daily work. Mr. Taylor groups this and three other types of duties which involve new and responsible burdens for the manage- ment under four heads as follows : First. They develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method. Second. They scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could. Third. They heartily co-operate with the men so as to insure all of the work being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed. Fourth. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsi- bility were thrown upon the men. It is this combination of the initiative of the workmen, coupled with the new types of work done by the management, that makes scientific management so much more efficient than the old plan. 1 F. W. Taylor, The Principles o. Scientific Management, ion, page 36. APPENDIX E SAVINGS MADE THROUGH STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE The pulp mill is a unique illustration showing that the establishment of standards of quality of manufactured pulp results in a large saving in the materials used as well as a large increase i n production. This is shown in a concise way in Figure 80 where the pro- duction and 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 *& ,^r <$Fy Jot^- •±<$>^ M* file ach '^-•4 4w^ ~Wood~ Aug. 1914 Aug. 1915 Aug, 1916 quantity of ma- Figure 80. Ratio Showing Decrease in Material Used terials used and Increase in Output due to Installation of Scientific Methods in a Pulp Mill previous to I 9 I 4 are treated as units, this being the period prior to the starting of the standardization work. Processes of Sulphite-Pulp Manufacture To bring out more clearly the development in the pulp mill we will describe very briefly the process of making the sulphite pulp. Logs ranging in diameter from 4 to 12 inches, or even larger, and averaging about 6 inches, come to the mill in 4- 376 STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE 377 foot lengths, and after being cut in two are barked, the bad knots removed and the pieces run through a chipper which produces chips about V* inch in length. From the chipper they are raised to bins over the digesters. The steel digesters, about 14 feet in diameter and 38 feet high, lined with acid- proof lining, are filled with the chips, which are then covered with bisulphite of lime liquor produced by a combination of sulphur gas and slaked lime. After cooking for a period of from 8 to 14 hours, varying partly with the character of material and partly with the judgment of the cook, the pulp is blown off into large tanks, being then of a consistency some- thing like coarse, wet, short-fibered cotton. This pulp is washed in various ways, screened, bleached, and run either into wet sheets or rolls or in some cases pumped to the paper- mill. As usually made the pulp is extremely variable, conse- quently no two cooks have exactly the same quality. The pur- pose of the standardization was to overcome this lack of uniformity and, as a consequence, to increase the production. Quality of Wood Studies were made of the characteristics of different kinds of wood, such as slabs, green wood, dry wood, peeled versus barked, and so on, to determine the relative economy and the quality of the pulp turned out. It was found through this investigation that sometimes the cheapest wood was the most expensive in terms of per ton of pulp. Bonus Installation The purpose of the analyses was to determine the proper materials and method to produce the desired results, then to put these into effect. The problem resolved itself into a development of standards and establishing a proper reward for meeting these standard requirements. 378 APPENDIX E In a pulpmill the first consideration of a bonus suggests the basing of bonuses on final output and quality of pulp. This is unfair to nearly all the men in the plant, because only a very few men are responsible for the output, the rest having simply a routine work to do to take care of the material which passes through their machines. Instead, therefore, of the uniformity scheme, each operation was considered by itself, and a bonus fixed to satisfy the requirement of individual responsibility. While the bonuses thus are applicable only to these individ- ual pulpmill operations, they illustrate by their diversity the general principles for bonus payment in many manufacturing departments operating under a continuous process. Very briefly the bonuses adopted in a pulpmill will be discussed. Bonuses in Woodroom The preparation and cutting up of the wood is a manu- facturing proposition, but nearly all the outputs are limited by the requirements of the digester. Only where the output is dependent on the men themselves, as in barking, is the remun- eration based on the quantity only. Even here, in fact, the amount of bonus is affected by the quality of the work done. The bonuses of the men who handle the sticks to the wood- room are based on uniformity of supply as recorded by a clock and in getting in the required quantity of wood on time. The bonuses of the men inspecting the logs on the carriers and throwing out the poor ones are reduced by the number of poor logs which they leave in and which the chipper men have to throw out. To balance this and also to prevent any collusion, the chipper men in turn are paid a bonus on every poor stick they throw out. Inspection of the work here as well as at other places further regulates the quality. As a matter of fact, in some of the work, such as that of the floor men and the men at the chip screens, a regular bonus is paid, provided the in- STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE 379 spector, who makes his rounds at intervals, reports the work done as satisfactory. Acid-Making Bonus An acid-maker is paid a bonus for keeping the strength of free acid within certain limits for specified temperatures; another bonus for maintaining the required strength for S0 2 gas, as shown by an automatic recorder; and still another for firing the sulphur furnaces within two minutes of the specified time. The men who slake the lime are paid a bonus for keeping the strength of the slaked lime to the specified Baume tests and maintaining uniformity in the temperature of the lime water. Standardization of Digesters The most important operation in pulp making is the cook- ing of the chips. The output of the digesters governs the production of the plant. Yet even here the bonuses were not based directly on the quantity produced. By the old-fashioned method of cooking and the method followed today by the majority of sulphite-pulp mills the manner of cooking is put up entirely to the cook. He is given certain general directions but is without sufficient apparatus to enable him to know what is going on in the digester. The first step was to provide not simply pressure gages, but record- ing thermometers showing by curves at all times the tempera- ture in the digester. By a careful study of the effect of different materials and conditions a standard temperature curve was decided upon, and also a standard curve of pressure. Reduction in Cooking Time Figure 81 shows the results of the standardization on the time of cooking. It will be seen by reference to the two curves 3 8o APPENDIX E that before introducing standards for the digesters, the length of cooking varied anywhere from 83^2 to 12 hours. When the standard temperature and pressure curves were put into 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 u \ s \ Vie<=- $&- \ \ / / \ / A vf% > / \ / > \ \ \ / N N / P< \ • S H^ <• \ ISf f Ai Comparison of Cooking Time Before and After Establishment of Standards Number, of Cook 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Figure 8i. Cooking Times for Wood Pulp before and after Standardization effect the cooks were asked to follow them. The uniformity in the time of cooking immediately increased and a nearly uniform time of 1 1 hours was obtained. This improved the quality through uniformity but it did not increase the output. As a result of the great uniformity in the product produced, which entirely eliminated the poor cooks, it was found possible to reduce very materially the time of cooking below this later curve. Digester Bonuses It is sometimes considered that satisfactory increase in output and improvement in the morale of the men may be attained through the adoption of standard methods maintained by posting records of accomplishments for inspection by the workmen. In studying the question in the plant referred to here it was felt that, if, through their care, accuracy and attention, the men were able to maintain this uniform quality of pulp and thus reduce by the standard method the time of cooking they should receive not simply notice that one had STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE 381 attained 85 per cent while another attained 80 per cent but they should also have a definite reward for this work well and faithfully performed. Consequently bonuses based on the accurate following of directions were established. The temperature chart for each cooking is examined by an inspector in the office to determine how much it varies from the standard chart. Beginning 2^2 hours after the cook- ing has started, any deviation from the standard is noted by inspection at intervals throughout the remainder of the cook- ing. If the curve is maintained within 3 degrees of the standard limits, the cook is paid a bonus of 3 cents per hour; if maintained within 4 degrees of the standard, he receives 2 cents an hour; within 5 degrees, 1 cent per hour; while if it runs more than this he receives no bonus at all on this division of his work. A second bonus is paid for getting the pressure up to the required point at the designated time. A third bonus is paid for blowing off the cooked pulp at the proper color. The cooking liquor grows darker as the cooking proceeds, and the exact time to blow off is governed by the color of the liquor, which can be drawn off through a cock. If the sample of liquor taken at time of blow-off is of the proper color, the cook receives a certain bonus; if the next color to it, a smaller bonus; if of the third color, a still smaller bonus. The total of the three bonuses constitutes the cook's total bonus for the day. In practice the plan works out very simply and requires very little labor because the number of cookings per day are comparatively few. APPENDIX F MACHINE RATES OR METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE The analyst must always back up his conclusions by pro- ducing figures on the reduction in the unit cost of production. Unit cost refers to the sum total of elements entering into the cost of the product. These elements are materials, labor, and overhead expense. The unit cost is expressed in "cents per pound," "cents per thousand pieces" or some value per unit of measure, the establishment of which depends upon the nature of the industry. The analyst must take two factors into consideration when proving what has been accomplished. A comparison must be made of the cost before and after standards have been established. The accomplishments may be proved by showing a reduction in unit labor, unit material, or unit overhead costs, or a combination of these elements. It is usually comparatively easy to obtain the unit direct labor cost and the unit material cost. Such is not the case when the unit overhead cost is desired. Few concerns dis- tribute the overhead expense over the cost of the product. The analyst, therefore, must have a knowledge of accounting and be able to determine the proper method of distributing the overhead expense for the factory, department, or operation involved. There are many authoritative articles in print covering the distribution of overhead. The commonly known methods are machine rate, percentage of direct labor, man-hour and supple- mentary rate. 382 METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 383 Overhead expense, frequently called burden, includes taxes, insurance, depreciation, superintendent, indirect labor, heating, lighting, salaries of planning department, fuel, and power. Distributing overhead by percentage of direct labor method is conceded by accountants to be generally inaccurate and often leads to absurd conclusions as to the cost of the product. The rate is determined by dividing the overhead charges of a definite period by the total direct labor for the same period. The unit overhead cost is determined by multiplying the unit direct labor cost by the percentage of direct labor rates. The unit cost is then obtained by totaling the unit material cost, the unit direct labor cost, and the unit overhead cost. The man-hour method - of distributing overhead, while better in many respects than the percentage of direct labor method, is not looked upon with favor, and properly so, because it is only reasonable that different rates should apply on differ- ent kinds of work, different machines and classes of men. The man-hour rate is determined by dividing the cost of indirect labor by the total number of direct labor hours. The unit overhead cost is obtained by multiplying the number of hours of direct labor by the man-hour rate. The unit cost is obtained by adding the unit material cost, the unit direct labor cost and the unit overhead cost. The supplementary rate methods of distributing burden is used generally in conjunction with the machine rate method. Its purpose is to have the production absorb the entire over- head for the period in which it is manufactured rather than charge the unabsorbed portion to profit and loss as would ordinarily be done. To obtain the supplementary rate — total the absorbed overhead, deduct the result from the total over- head charges for the period and divide the difference by the total overhead absorbed, the quotient is the supplementary rate. The unit cost is then obtained bv adding unit material 3§4 APPENDIX F cost, unit direct labor cost, unit overhead cost and unit supple- mentary overhead cost (unit overhead cost multiplied by supplementary rate). The machine rate method of distributing overhead is the most generally accepted and is recognized as the best means of obtaining true costs, hence it is correct for all practical purposes. It is anticipated that this illustration, taking the analysis step by step, will enable the novice to see what is required and will suggest a means to an end when a somewhat similar prob- lem confronts him. The first step in the process of setting machine rates for the industry under discussion was to determine the general over- head expense for a normal year. That expense was obtained from the company and while names may differ, according to the classification of accounts in different plants, the charges in any industry would be much the same in principle. The overhead expenses as enumerated herewith as well as the other values given in the example are relatively correct and not the exact values as shown by the books of the particular Company from which the figure were taken. Great care must be exer- cised to include the total expense on such items, for instance, which are partly bought on contract and partly manufactured at the plant such as power and light. Total heating $1,900.00 Total lighting 400.00 Electric lamps 125.00 Insurance, and taxes 4,900.00 Depreciation of buildings 2,500.00 Watchman 1,000. 00 Elevator man and helper 1,200.00 Repairs to buildings 1,200.00 Power chargeable to elevator 200.00 Maintenance and repairs 500.00 $13,925.00 METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 385 The next step was to ascertain the floor space of the factory- over which the general overhead expense was to be distributed. The total floor space, 85,500 square feet, was found to be divided in the following manner : Building No. 1 6 floors at 5,000 square feet = 30,000 square feet Building No. 2 3 floors at 4,000 square feet = 12,000 square feet Building No. 3 7% floors at 6,000 square feet = 43,500 square feet Total 85,500 square feet $13,925.00 (overhead expense) 85,500 (floor space) = $0,163 (rate per square foot) The company should consider carefully at this point each of the factors making up the overhead expense and determine which of these items and by what amount is likely to increase or decrease, if any. In this case the company anticipated an increase in the cost of the overhead expense and raised the figured rate of $.163 to $.20 : $0.20X85,500 (square feet) =$17,100 Estimated Charges By dividing the general overhead expense by the total square feet, a rate of $.163 per square foot was reached. The management, anticipating a higher cost of overhead expense in the next period, decided to increase the rate to $.20 per square foot. Thus they were prepared to absorb $17,100.00 of general overhead charges. The third step, viz., that of determining the factory over- head, gave the following results : Space occupied by general offices, shipping, and receiving rooms = 15,000 square feet at $0.20. . $3,000.00 Space occupied by factory = 70,500 square feet at $0.20 14,100.00 General overhead expense $17,100.00 386 APPENDIX F Factory Overhead Factory expense: Salary of superintendent $5,000.00 Salaries of planning department.... 8,500.00 Janitors, cleaners, etc ' 1,200.00 Sundry manufacturing expense 2,800.00 Power 7,133.00 Telephone service 375- 00 $25,008.00 Proportion of general overhead expenses 14,100.00 Factory overhead $39,108.00 $39,108.00 (factory overhead expense) — : = $o.5SS rate per square foot 70,500 (factory space) v Analysis of the floor space shows that 70,500 square feet was occupied by the factory. By taking $.20 as a basis of expense a square foot the portion of general overhead expense which had to be absorbed by the factory was equivalent to $14,100. Factory expense of $25,008 added, gave factory overhead of $39,108, or at the rate of $.555 per square foot. The next step was to determine how much floor space was to be charged to each department. The factory occupied 70,500 square feet of which 60,200 square feet was used by six productive departments, and the balance, 10,300 square feet, was occupied by the planning and storage departments. The productive departments had to absorb the expense which would be applied to the floor space used by the planning and storage departments if it was occupied by productive units. To each productive department had to be added its proportion of this non-productive area. 10,300 (square feet planning and storage) : =17.1 per cent propor- 00,200 (square feet productive) .- c .. v n r ' tion 01 non-produc- tive area to be charged to productive depart- ments. METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 387 As the planning and storage departments occupied 10,300 square feet and the productive departments 60,200 square feet the proportion to be absorbed by each productive depart- ment was 1 7. 1 per cent. Division of Floor Space Total Proportion Square Square of Floor Total Feet Feet Space Used Footage Occu- for Plan- Charged pied ning and Storage Signal Department : Building No. 3 15,500, Building No. 1 3,400 18,900 3,200 22,100 Preparation Department : Building No. 3 6,000 Building No. 1 5,8oo 11,800 2,000 13,800 Case-Making Department : Building No. 3 5,200 Building No. 1 5, 800 11,000 1,900 12,900 Print Department : Building No. 3 6,000 Building No. 2 1,500 7,500 1,300 8,800 Calender Department : Building No. 1 7,500 Building No. 2 1,000 8,500 1,500 10,000 Gold Stamping Department : Building No. 1 2,500 2,500 400 2,900 Total Square Feet — Absorbed 60,200 10,300 70,500 Thus it is seen that a productive department such as that of the signal department was charged not only with the space occupied by itself, 18,900 square feet, but in addition with 3,200 square feet its proportion of space required for planning and storage departments, or a total of 22,100 square feet. To illustrate the method of establishing the rate per square 3 88 APPENDIX F foot within a department the signal department has been selected. In the distribution of floor space this department was charged with 22,100 square feet. Multiplying this area by the factory overhead rate of $.555, the factory overhead to be absorbed by the signal department was found to be $12,265.50. To this must be added the indirect labor charged in the signal department which amounts to $3,304, giving a total department overhead expense of $15,569.50. Signal Department Factory overhead = 22,100 square feet at $-555 P er square foot $12,265.50 Departmental expense : 2 Inspectors $2,000.00 1 Moveman 704.00 I Machine tender 600.00 3,304.00 Departmental overhead $15,569.50 The next operation was to determine the square feet occupied by machines within the signal department. To the area actually required by each machine was added the space necessary for storage of materials at the machine. The total floor space required by machines was 15,200 square feet. The balance 6,900 square feet was used for aisles and general storage. Therefore, instead of distributing the departmental overhead to the total area of 22,100 square feet charged to the signal department it was distributed over the productive space amounting to 15,200 square feet, resulting in a rate of $1,024 per square foot in this department. The same method was employed in setting rates on the floor space for the preparatory department with 13,800 square feet, the case-making department with 12,900 square feet, the print department with 8,800 square feet, the calender depart- ment with 10,000 square feet, and the gold department with 2,900 square feet. METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 389 ine Symbol Square Feet A 1 810 B 4 300 C 10 60 D 1 270 E 1 300 E 2 200 E 3 200 E 8 1,050 E 9 1,050 E 10 1,050 E 11 1,050 E 14 1,000 F 61 800 F 71 800 F 81 850 F 82 850 G 1 4,500 H 2 60 $15,569.50 (department overhead) 15,200 (square feet) 15,200 Square feet of space occupied $1,024 rate per square foot in signal department After the rate per square foot was established in the signal department the next move was to set a rate for each machine. The rate per square foot multiplied by the number of square feet which the machine occupied plus the estimated deprecia- tion gave the amount of expense to be absorbed annually by each machine. Machines E8, E9, and Eio are taken to illus- trate the method of figuring. E 8 (Overhead rate) $1,024 X 1,050 (square feet) . . $1,075.20 Depreciation (10%) of cost $2,000.00 200.00 Expense to be absorbed $1,275.20 390 APPENDIX F Eg (Overhead rate) $1,024 X 1-050 (square feet) . . $1,075.20 Depreciation (10%) of cost $3,300.00 330.00 Expense to be absorbed $1,405.20 E 10 (Overhead rate) $1,024 X 1-050 (square feet) . . $1,075.20 Depreciation (10%) of cost $2,300.00 230.00 $1,305.20 The last step was to establish the machine rate per hour. This was done by dividing the amount of expense to be absorbed by the per cent of time it was estimated the machine would be in operation and then by the possible working hours for the year; the result gave the estimated rate per hour. 90% $1,275.20 (expense) ——. — - — = $0,506 Estimate rate per hour (times) X 2,800 (hours) Expense Per cent Estimated Established to be of Time Rate Rate Machine Description Make Absorbed in Use per Hour per Hour E8 Punch Press Bliss $i, 275-20 90 $0,506 $0.55 Eo Punch Press Bliss 1,405.20 80 0.628 0.65 Eio Punch Press Bliss 1,305.20 90 0.518 0.55 To expedite clerical work it is advisable to set the hourly machine rate in units of five cents as was done in this illustra- tion. INDEX Abnormal time values, 191 Accumulative method, stop-watch, 168 Allowances (See "Variable factors") Analyst, and instructor, 288 memory, power of, 1 78 personnel requirements, 59-73, 124- 126 position while making test, 164 Application of standards, 44, 133, 281-295 (See also " Operations " ; "Tests") construction work, 317 Average time values, 190 Base rate, 235 Bonus, 53, 233, 237 allowance for, when starting, 293 daily analysis of time work with, 304 Form, 305, 306 figuring proficiency, 308 quality bonus, 366-372 Charts (See "Graphic presentation") Checking methods, 218-227 Company policies, 335 Constants, 197 Continuous method, stop-watch, 165 Control, in scientific management, 320 Co-operation, enlisting, 108-123 Correct standards, 134 Costs, factors, 20 of orders, 334 reduction, 18 standardization decreases, 270, 274 Course of training, 74-107, 286-289 advantages of, 83 drills and exercises for, 92-98 executives, 82 field work, 104 keeping of records, 87-92 reading for, 99 slide rule, 100-104 staff organization, 74 stop-watch, 84 tabulations, 105 use of tools, 84 Curves, exterpolation, 204 good time as check, 201 plotting of, 160, 199 Form, 161-163, 200-201 Cycle method, stop-watch, 170 Daily analysis of machine time, 302 Daily bonus report, 304 Form, 305, 306 Daily production record, 293, 298 Form, 299, 300 Damages, method of handling, 263 Data, filing of, 267 uses of, 267 Day work, 54, 232 391 392 INDEX Decimals, three places, 185 Delays, 191, 205 method of handling, 263 recording, 292 testing causes of, 223 Departmental organization, 74 Disputes, standardization as a basis for mediation, 337-349 Drills in taking time studies, 92 E Economy methods, decided during preliminary study, 136 demonstration of, 56 explanation of standards, 270 illustration of time saving, 50 materials worked upon, 138 obtained in paper making, 363-365 overhead reduction, 13 reduction of fatigue, 213 time saving, 12 waste material, 1 1, 21 Elements, as a factor in determining standard time, 190 defined, 155 tabulation of, 180 time value of , 177-189 variable factors in, 182-188 Employee representation, 341 Employees, allowance for bonus when starting, 293 as a factor, 23, 153 co-operation of, 111, 155 explanation of standardization to, 270, 276 fatigue, 208, 210-217 inattention, 191 instructing, 186, 286 personal equation of, 182 Employees — Continued rates of, 228 skilled, 137, 154 standardization as a basis for mediation, 337 starting on standards, 283 study of , 136 variable factors among, 182 Employment department as a factor in reducing fatigue, 211 Engineer instruction, 287 Equations, use of, 40 Equipment, 139 factor of, 22, 153 Errors, 191 value of, 79 Executives, training in job standard- ization, 82 Explanations, 270-281 Exterpolation, 204 Factors, 18-31 (See also "Variable factors") co-ordination of, 26 in determining standard time, 190- 209 Fatigue, allowance for, 209, 210-217 percentage allowance for, 215 Field work, training in, 104 Filing of data, 267 Foreman, co-operation of, 115 instructions to, 288 Formulae, for standard time, 190, 264 running time on machines, 301 use of equations, 40 Functions, 325 co-ordination of, 6 INDEX 39; Good time values, 195, 201 Graphic presentation, 91 curves, 160, 199 Form, 161-163, 200-201 for perpetuating standards, 296 Group work, 142 ' ' Guess ' ' allowance, 205 H Hours of labor, element of fatigue, 211 Inattention, 191 Industrial engineer, 8, 10 Inspection for quality, 122 Instruction cards, 244, 331 Instructions, 286-289, (See "Course of training") answering questions, 290 engineer, 287 preliminary study, 148 written, 43 Instructor, 287 Investigator, personnel requirements, 59-73 Layout of operation, 142 fatigue element, 213 M Machines, as a factor, 153 daily time analysis, 302 Form, 303 for making time studies, 172 rate method of overhead distribu- tion, 382-390 running time, 181, 299-304 setting standards for, 143 Maintenance of standards, 44, 289, 291, 296-310 Management, co-operation of, needed, 108-123 obtaining approval of, 275 scientific, 5, 311-326 Manufacturing department, 321 relation to sales, 327 Materials, handling of, 138 waste of, 11, 21 Mechanical aids, 165-176 to reduce fatigue, 212 N Necessities of life, time allowance for, 191, 208 Job analysis, relation between phases of, and time study, 129 specialist required for, 59-73 Labor disputes, standardization as a basis for mediation, 337-349 Large-scale production, requirements, 4 Operation, (See also "Tests") analysis of, 156 imperfect, 160 sample, 157 defined, 155 equipment, 139 group work, 142 layout of, 142 reeling and inspecting coated paper, 351-362 394 INDEX Operation — Continued summarizing, 246-263 symbols for, 158 Form, 159 useless, 49 value of analysis of, 113 variable factors, 126 Orders, control of by various departments, 327-336 estimating cost of, 334 routine for, 323, 331 scientific management, 327-336 Organization, Chart, 7 job standardization department, 75 Over-all method, stop-watch, 166 Overhead distribution, machine rate method, 382-390 Pay-roll, analysis data entered on, 307 figuring, 234 Perpetuation of standards, 296-310 Personal equation, among employees, 182 Personnel, requirements, 59-73 training of , 74-107 Phases for making studies, 32, 128 Piecework, 232 Planning board, 323 Form, 324 Planning department, 321 reports, 331 work of, 331 Plant capacity, 329 Policies of company, 335 Preliminary study, 32, 128, 136-152 employee, 136 factor of saving, 136 group work, 142 Preliminary study — Continued instructions for, 148 layout of operation, 142 production data, 145 setting standards, 142 wage data, 145 Procedure, 32-47 analyzing the studies and setting the standards, 131 applying the standards, 44, 133, 281-295 enlisting co-operation, 108-123 preliminary work, 32, 128, 136- 152 relative time for phases, 128 routine after standardization established, 296-310 summarizing, 243-269 taking time studies, 130, 153-176 time required for study, 129 Process department, 321 Production, actual, 299 daily, record of, 293, 298 Form, 299, 300 data for, 145, 328 factors, 20 increase, 18 requirements and quality bonus, 366-372 standard for standard running time, 300 standardization increases, 270 Proficiency, calculation for, 308 weekly analysis, 308 Quality of product, factor of, 25, 137 inspection of, 122 maintaining of by standards, 120 requirements and bonus, 366-372 INDEX 395 Rates, base rate, 235 bonus system, 233, 237 company policy statement, 239 day work, 232 denned, 228 effect of standardization on, 270 explanation of, to employees, 276 figuring pay-roll, 234 notification of, 276 piecework, 232 should fit the operation, 229 wage system, 229 Reading, books for students in train- ing, 99 Records, 89 daily analysis, 302-306 daily production, 293, 296 Form, 299, 300 exercises in reading, 95 graphic presentation, 91 instruction cards, 244 • uses of, 267 weekly analysis, 306 Repetitive method, stop-watch, 168 Reports, graphic, 297 plant capacity, 329 sales and production, 327 Rest periods, 214 Results of standardization, 48-58 Routine, establishment of, 296 orders, 325-326 sheet used in planning department, 322 Running time, 299-304 Sales department, knowledge of plant capacity, 329 Sales department — Continued relation to manufacturing, 327 reports, 327 service of, 332 Saving (See " Economy methods ") Scientific management, 5, 311-326 defined, 313 Simultaneous studies, 128 Slide rule, 100-104 Specialization, 9 Staff, training of, 74-107 Standard time, 38 abnormal values, 191 allowances for delay and fatigue, 206 average values, 190 checking of, 218-227 constants, 197 determining, 190-209 elements of, 190 exceeding, 218 failure to make, 220 fatigue allowance, 208, 210-217 formula for determining, 190, 264 good values, 195, 201 graphic presentation, 199-205 " guess " allowance, 205 time values, 190 variable factors, 197 Standardization, defined, 18-31, 314 history of, 3 records for, 296-310 researches by Dr. Taylor, 10 results, 16, 48-58, 311-326 returns dependent upon sales, 327 Standards, application of, 44, 133, 281-295 checking of, 221 completing, 295 correctness of, 134 explanation of to employees, 270- 276 396 INDEX Standards — Continued formulation of, 38 introducing new, 44 maintaining quality, 120 maintenance of, 44, 289, 291, 296-310 setting of, 131, 143 starting employees, 283 summarizing, 243-269 temporary, 226 variables in, 126 written instructions for, 43 Stop-watch, accumulative method, 168 continuous method, 165 cycle method, 1 70 decimal, 85 exercises in use of, 92 handling of, 165 over-all method, 166 repetitive method, 168 use of, 84 Summarizing, 243-269 actual operation, 246-263 Superintendent, co-operation of, 112 Surveys, preliminary, 34 Symbols, 158 Form, 159 Tabulations, elements, 180 practice work in, 105 sheet, Form, 106 variable factors, 198 Taking time studies, 130, 153-176 Taylor, F. W., 5, 188 "Ten Don't Commandments," 79 Test, (See also "Operations") bleaching, 50 building construction, 373-375 color mixing, 366-372 Test — Continued equipment, 139 Ford starters, 315 laying cloth, 157 paper mill, 56 position of observer while making, 164 preliminary studies, 136-152 procedure, 32-47 production, 147 pulp manufacture, 376-381 shoe- shining, 26-31 time saving methods, 50 truck operation, 140 walking, 198 weaving wire cloth, 272 Time, (See also "Standard time") actual running, 299-304 daily analysis of machine, 302 Form, 303 element of, in analysis, 124 required for phases of study, 128 unit of measurement, 19, 38 Time curves, Form, 161-163 Time stamp, 173 Time studies, analyzing, 37 board for, 87 equipment for, 35 method of taking, 35 records, 89 uses of, 267 relation between phases of and job analysis, 129 sheet for, 87, 178 Form, 88, 179 taking of, 130, 153-176 Time values, abnormal, 191 analyzing, 189 as a factor in standard time, 190 good, 195, 201 of elements, 177 INDEX 397 Time values — Continued of employees, 182-189 of machines, 181 Tools, slide rule, 100-104 time-study board, 87 time-study sheet, 87 Form, 88 training in use of, 84 Training (See "Course of training") Variable factors, 126 among employees, 182 comparison basis, 198 delays, 205 fatigue, 208, 210-217 figuring to three decimal places, 185 in determining standard time, 197 in performance of the element, 191 minor, 220 personal equation, 186 Variable factors — Continued plotting curves for, 199-202 Form, 200-201 W Wages, analysis as a basis for equitable payments, 114 bonus plans, 53, 233, 237 company policy, 239 data, 145 data for pay-roll, 307 day work, 54, 232 defects, 53 explaining extra pay, 279 figuring pay-roll, 234 piecework, 232 standardization increases, 270, 273 Waste (See "Economy methods") Weekly analysis, 306 Form, 307 Workmen (See "Employees") y $ s- ^T C5, ' A N c, « L ' ' * s A °- '' A G A